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= Joseph Tydings =
Joseph Davies Tydings ( born May 4 , 1928 ) is a former Democratic member of the United States Senate , representing the state of Maryland from 1965 to 1971 .
Born in North Carolina , Tydings moved to Maryland as a youth after he was adopted by Millard Tydings , U.S. Senator from Maryland . After serving in the military , he obtained his law degree and entered into practice . He served in the Maryland House of Delegates from 1955 to 1961 , and as United States Attorney from 1961 until his resignation in 1963 to run for Senate .
Tydings won election to the Senate in 1964 . However , his controversial stances on gun control and crime in the District of Columbia cost him re @-@ election in 1970 . He made another attempt at his old seat in 1976 , but was defeated in the Democratic primary election by Paul Sarbanes . He later served as a member of the Board of Regents of the University of Maryland , College Park and the University System of Maryland , and continues to practice law .
= = Early life = =
Tydings was born in Asheville , North Carolina , but attended the public schools of Aberdeen , Maryland . He was adopted as a child by his stepfather , Millard Tydings , who also was a Maryland Senator . His maternal grandfather was Joseph E. Davies , who served as U.S. Ambassador to Belgium , Luxembourg , and the Soviet Union . Tydings went on to graduate from the McDonogh School in 1946 , the University of Maryland , College Park in 1950 where he became a brother of Alpha Phi Omega , and the University of Maryland School of Law in 1953 .
Following the Second World War , Tydings served as a corporal in the Sixth Constabulary Regiment of the United States Army 's European occupation . After his service , he was admitted to the bar in 1952 and was elected to the Maryland House of Delegates in 1955 from Harford County , Maryland .
Tydings served as a delegate until 1961 , when he was appointed United States Attorney for Maryland by President John F. Kennedy , a close friend . As U.S. Attorney , Tydings oversaw the prosecution of several people in the savings and loan business . In 1963 , Tydings served as the United States representative at the Interpol Conference in Helsinki , Finland , and at the International Penal Conference in Bellagio , Italy .
= = 1964 United States Senate election = =
In the 1964 elections , Tydings was frequently mentioned as a potential candidate to compete for the United States Senate seat of Republican J. Glenn Beall , Sr. While initially hesitant , Tydings resigned as U.S. Attorney on November 21 , 1963 to test his political support across the state . On January 14 , 1964 , Tydings officially declared his candidacy , stating he was challenging the " old guard " of the Maryland Democratic Party political machine . He also said he would work to bring a " new era of leadership into Maryland " .
During the primary election in May 1964 , Tydings faced Maryland Comptroller Louis L. Goldstein , who had won the endorsement of both J. Millard Tawes , Governor of Maryland , and Daniel Brewster , the other U.S. Senator from Maryland . Despite the support of the party leaders , Goldstein was trounced by Tydings in the primary , losing by nearly a two @-@ to @-@ one margin .
Having secured his party 's nomination , Tydings moved forward to face Beall in the general election . The final election results gave Tydings nearly 63 % of 1 @,@ 081 @,@ 042 votes cast . His large margin of victory was due at least in part to the landslide win by fellow Democrat Lyndon B. Johnson for President in the same election , which likely increased voter turnout .
Upon his election , Tydings began to lay out his legislative agenda for his upcoming term , which included water conservation , pollution and air purity , and mass transportation . He also expressed interest in serving on the Senate Committee on the District of Columbia . Tydings was permitted to serve on the committee , and was eventually appointed chairman in 1969 .
= = Bid for re @-@ election = =
Leading up to the elections of 1970 , Tydings faced criticism from both parties for his actions as senator . In July 1970 , syndicated columnist Marquis Childs noted that Tydings ' problems on the left stemmed from his support of a crime bill for the District of Columbia , which was perceived as repressive against African Americans . There was also criticism directed at the bill for writing into law the practices of preventive detention and no knock warrants .
Tydings ' difficulties with the right stemmed from his sponsorship of the Firearms Registration and Licensing Act , which would have required the registration of firearms . An avid hunter himself , his efforts agitated the gun lobby and the NRA . One Maryland activist group , Citizens Against Tydings , was formed solely because of Tydings ' gun registration platform . Further complicating his relations with the right were the efforts by the American Security Council Foundation , which graded him as a " zero " on national security issues and spent over $ 150 @,@ 000 to campaign against his bid for re @-@ election .
In the Democratic primary , Tydings was challenged by perennial candidate and Dixiecrat George P. Mahoney and two others . After a divisive campaign , Tydings beat Mahoney by 53 % to 37 % .
For the general election , Tydings ' opponent was freshman Congressman J. Glenn Beall , Jr. from Western Maryland , the son of J. Glenn Beall , Sr. , whom Tydings had defeated in 1964 . Beall 's campaign strategy " leaned heavily on his affable , noncontroversial personality " and avoided turning the campaign negative . As a result of Tydings ' unpopularity and Beall 's campaign strategy , Tydings was defeated 51 % to 48 % .
In a review of the election , The Washington Post noted one of Tydings ' major problems was identifying with his constituents . Despite the 3 @-@ 1 advantage of registered Democrats versus Republicans in the state , Tydings had been labeled as an " ultraliberal " by many Marylanders , and Vice President Spiro Agnew , formerly the Governor of Maryland , had called Tydings " radical " while campaigning for Beall . Tydings was also wealthy , and was seen as having an " aloof " disposition .
= = Return to politics = =
Tydings resumed his legal career after he lost his Senate seat , entering into practice with a Washington law firm that included Giant Food President Joseph Danzansky . After several years out of politics , he began traveling the state in 1975 to gauge his chances for winning a rematch versus Beall , who was coming up for re @-@ election in 1976 . On January 10 , 1976 , Tydings announced his candidacy to retake the seat , which he argued was taken unfairly in 1970 due to an undisclosed $ 180 @,@ 000 gift to the Beall campaign .
In the primary , Tydings faced a strong challenge from Congressman Paul Sarbanes , who had entered the race several months earlier . This head start gave Sarbanes a considerable organizational and monetary advantage , and he had already secured influential endorsements . To fend off Sarbanes , Tydings hoped his name recognition and charisma on television would compensate for Sarbanes ' other advantages . He also worked to relabel himself as more fiscally conservative than Sarbanes , since both candidates were seen as liberal .
For the primary election , Tydings needed a large margin of victory from precincts in the Washington , D.C. suburbs of Prince George 's and Montgomery Counties , where he was most popular . However , despite Tydings winning both counties , Sarbanes performed well in the rest of the state and defeated Tydings by over 100 @,@ 000 votes , 61 % to 39 % . Sarbanes had managed to outspend Tydings two @-@ to @-@ one during the campaign . After defeating Tydings , Sarbanes won the general election and served as senator until 2007 .
= = Post @-@ Senate career = =
After defeat , Tydings returned to his law career at Danzansky 's firm . He also worked as a partner in the law firm of Finley , Kumble , Wagner , Underberg , Manley , Myerson & Casey , which collapsed in 1987 . Later , Tydings worked at Anderson Kill Olick & Oshinsky from 1988 until his departure with Jerold Oshinsky in 1996 to join Dickstein Shapiro in Washington , D.C. As of 2008 , he is a senior counsel at Dickstein Shapiro .
In academics , Tydings was a member of the Board of Regents of the University of Maryland from 1974 to 1984 , serving as chairman from 1982 to 1984 ; it became University of Maryland , College Park in 1988 . In 1977 , Tydings called for the Board of Regents of the University of Maryland to divest its endowment from companies doing business with the apartheid regime in South Africa . He later served as a member of Board of Regents of the University System of Maryland from 2000 to 2005 . In September 2008 , he was appointed by Maryland Governor Martin O 'Malley to the board of the University of Maryland Medical System . As of 2016 , he resides in Harford County , Maryland .
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= Characters of Shakespear 's Plays =
Characters of Shakespear 's Plays is an 1817 book of criticism of Shakespeare 's plays , written by early nineteenth century English essayist and literary critic William Hazlitt . Composed in reaction to the neoclassical approach to Shakespeare 's plays typified by Dr. Johnson , it was among the first English @-@ language studies of Shakespeare 's plays to follow the manner of German critic A. W. Schlegel , and , with the work of Coleridge , paved the way for the increased appreciation of Shakespeare 's genius that was characteristic of later nineteenth century criticism . It was also the first book to cover all of Shakespeare 's plays , intended as a guide for the general reader .
Then becoming known as a theatre critic , Hazlitt had been focusing increasingly on drama as literature , contributing miscellaneous literary criticism to various journals , including the prestigious Edinburgh Review . This was the first of his book @-@ length literary studies . The plays , the thirty @-@ five that Hazlitt considered genuine , are covered in thirty @-@ two chapters , with new material added to passages reworked from periodical articles and reviews . A Preface establishes his main theme of the uniqueness of Shakespeare 's characters and looks back at earlier Shakespearean criticism . Two concluding chapters on " Doubtful Plays of Shakespear " and the " Poems and Sonnets " round out the book .
The centre of attention is in large part on the characters , described often with a personal slant and using memorable expressions ( " It is we who are Hamlet " ) , and incorporating psychological insights that were to become highly influential in later criticism . Though at first less influential , Hazlitt 's comments on the plays ' dramatic structure and poetry , and on the central themes and general mood of each play , laid the groundwork for later critics ' more elaborate interpretations . Frequently expressing the view that stage presentation could not do justice to Shakespeare 's plays , Hazlitt nevertheless also found certain plays eminently actable , and he frequently voices admiration for the performances of certain actors , particularly Edmund Kean .
At first highly acclaimed — it made an immediate and powerful impact on the poet John Keats among others — then brutally criticised , Hazlitt 's book lost much of its influence in the author 's lifetime , only to reenter the mainstream of Shakespearean criticism in the late nineteenth century . The first edition sold out quickly ; sales of the second , in mid @-@ 1818 , were at first brisk , but they ceased entirely in the wake of harshly antagonistic , personally directed , politically motivated reviews in the Tory literary magazines of the day . Although some interest continued to be shown in Hazlitt 's work as an essayist , it was not until the end of the nineteenth century , long after Hazlitt 's death , that significant interest was again shown in his interpretations of Shakespeare . In the twentieth century , the influential critic A.C. Bradley and a few others began to take seriously the book 's interpretations of many of Shakespeare 's characters . But then Hazlitt along with Bradley was censured for displaying faults of the " character " school of Shakespearean criticism , primarily that of discussing dramatic characters as though they were real people , and again Hazlitt 's contributions to Shakespearean criticism were deprecated .
A revival of interest in Hazlitt as a thinker began in the middle of the twentieth century . As it gained momentum , his thoughts on Shakespeare 's plays as a whole , particularly the tragedies ; his discussions of certain characters , such as Shylock , Falstaff , Imogen , Caliban , and Iago ; and his ideas about the nature of drama and poetry in general , as expressed for example in the essay on Coriolanus , gained renewed appreciation and influenced other Shakespearean criticism .
Hazlitt 's ideas about many of the plays have now come to be valued as thought @-@ provoking alternatives to those of his contemporary Coleridge , and Characters of Shakespear 's Plays is now viewed as a major study of Shakespeare 's plays , placing Hazlitt with Schlegel and Coleridge as one of the three most notable Shakespearean critics of the Romantic period .
= = Background = =
On 26 January 1814 , Edmund Kean debuted as Shylock in Shakespeare 's Merchant of Venice at London 's Drury Lane theatre . William Hazlitt , drama critic for the Morning Chronicle since the previous September , was in the audience . He wrote a stunning review , followed by several others applauding ( but sometimes censuring ) Kean 's performances in other Shakespearean tragedies , including King Richard II , King Richard III , Hamlet , Macbeth , Romeo and Juliet , and , what Hazlitt considered the best of Kean 's performances , Othello . ( These were written for the Morning Chronicle , the Champion , and the Examiner ; he was to continue as principal drama critic for the last of these for three years . ) Kean was hitherto unknown in London . Hazlitt , having recently begun a career as a theatrical reviewer , was no better known than the subject of his reviews . These notices quickly brought both Kean and Hazlitt before the public eye .
In the course of his preparing for a drama review , Hazlitt was in the habit of reading or rereading the play he was soon to see , and his reviews came to include extensive commentary on the plays themselves , turning rapidly from dramatic criticism to literary criticism . With Shakespeare in particular , this led to considerations of the ways in which the actors — again , particularly his favourite Kean — communicated the message of the plays . But he also noted ways in which no actor 's interpretation could live up to the dramatist 's conception .
As his musings developed along these lines , Hazlitt continued to contribute miscellaneous articles to various periodicals . In February 1816 , he reviewed August Wilhelm Schlegel 's Lectures on Dramatic Literature for the Edinburgh Review . The German critic Schlegel showed an appreciation for Shakespeare of a kind that no one in Hazlitt 's country had yet demonstrated , and Hazlitt , sympathising with many of Schlegel 's ideas , felt there was a place for a whole book that would provide appreciative criticism of all of Shakespeare 's plays . Such a book would provide liberal quotations from the text , and focus on the characters and various qualities particular to each play ; and he felt that he could write it . His writing career was now moving in this direction ( he had been contributing miscellaneous literary criticism to the Examiner and elsewhere during this period ) , he needed the money to support his family , and his growing reputation as a drama critic enabled him to have his name appear on the title page ( as a reviewer for periodicals , his contributions were anonymous , as was customary at the time ) .
Thus , Characters of Shakespear 's Plays was born . Considerable material that he had already worked up in his drama reviews was incorporated into the book . One essay , on A Midsummer Night 's Dream , was taken entire from a contribution to " The Round Table " series in the Examiner , first published on 26 November 1815 , with a concluding paragraph tacked on from a drama review , also published in the Examiner , on 21 January 1816 . There was material from other essays . Most of " Shakespear 's Exact Discrimination of Nearly Similar Characters " ( the Examiner , 12 May 1816 ) made its way into the chapters on King Henry IV , King Henry VI , and Othello . Portions of " Shakespear 's Female Characters " ( the Examiner , 28 July 1816 ) found a place in the chapters on Cymbeline and Othello . Hazlitt filled out the rest of what he needed to make a complete book in 1816 and possibly early 1817 .
At this time , unhappy with the way his collection The Round Table , issued in the same year , was being promoted by its publisher , he began to promote his new book himself , partly by word of mouth and also by getting a friend to publish the chapter on Hamlet in The Times and requesting Francis Jeffrey , editor of the Edinburgh Review , to notice it in that periodical . He had already had it printed privately ( instead of offering it directly to a publisher ) by his friend the printer Carew Henry Reynell , who purchased the copyright for £ 100 . As a publicity tactic , copies were circulated privately . Finally , Hazlitt got the book published , by Rowland Hunter and the brothers Charles and James Ollier in collaboration , who brought it out on 9 July 1817 . It was extremely successful , this first edition selling out in six weeks . A second edition was issued by Taylor and Hessey in 1818 , and later that year an unlicensed edition was brought out in Boston by Wells and Lilly . No further editions appeared in Hazlitt 's lifetime .
= = Essays = =
Characters of Shakespear 's Plays consists primarily of Hazlitt 's impressions of and thoughts about all of William Shakespeare 's plays he believed to be genuine . It was the first book of the kind that anyone had yet written . His main focus is on the characters that appear in the plays , but he also comments on the plays ' dramatic structure and poetry , referring frequently to commentary by earlier critics , as well as the manner in which the characters were acted on stage . The essays on the plays themselves ( there is a " Preface " as well as an essay on " Doubtful Plays of Shakespear " and one on the " Poems and Sonnets " ) number thirty @-@ two , but with two of the essays encompassing five of the plays , the plays discussed amount to thirty @-@ five in number . Though each essay constitutes a chapter in a book , in style and length they resemble those of Hazlitt 's miscellaneous collection The Round Table ( published also in 1817 , a collaboration with Leigh Hunt ) , which followed the model for periodical essays established a century earlier in The Spectator .
Though Hazlitt could find much to appreciate in the comedies , tragedy was to him inherently more important , and he weights the tragedies much more heavily . In this he differed from Johnson , who thought Shakespeare best at comedy . The greatest of the plays were tragedies — particularly Macbeth , Othello , King Lear , and Hamlet — and Hazlitt 's comments on tragedy are often integrated with his ideas about the significance of poetry and imaginative literature in general . As he expressed it at the end of " Lear " , tragedy describes the strongest passions , and " the greatest strength of genius is shewn here in describing the strongest passions : for the power of the imagination , in works of invention , must be in proportion to the force of the natural impressions , which are the subject of them . "
= = = Preface = = =
In the " Preface " Hazlitt establishes his focus on " characters " by quoting Pope 's comment that " every single character in Shakespear , is as much an individual , as those in life itself " . After reviewing various other critics of Shakespeare , Hazlitt focuses on two of the most important , including the influential Dr. Johnson . Hazlitt found the Shakespearean criticism of Johnson , the premier literary critic of the previous era , troubling in several ways . He insufficiently valued the tragedies ; he missed the essence of much of the poetry ; and he " reduced everything to the common standard of conventional propriety [ ... ] the most exquisite refinement or sublimity produced an effect on his mind , only as they could be translated into the language of measured prose " . Johnson also believed that every character in Shakespeare represents a " type " or " species " , whereas Hazlitt , siding with Pope , emphasised the individuality of Shakespeare 's characters , while discussing them more comprehensively than anyone had yet done .
Rather than an English critic , it was the German August Wilhelm Schlegel , whose lectures on the drama had recently been translated into English , whom Hazlitt believed to be the greatest critic of Shakespeare 's plays . Hazlitt here includes long extracts from Schlegel on Shakespeare , differing with him principally with respect to what he called a " mysticism " that appears in Schlegel 's interpretations . He shared with Schlegel an enthusiasm for Shakespeare that he found lacking in Dr. Johnson . " An overstrained enthusiasm " , he remarks , " is more pardonable with respect to Shakespear than the want of it ; for our admiration cannot easily surpass his genius . "
= = = Cymbeline = = =
As one of his favourites , Hazlitt places Cymbeline first in his discussions of Shakespeare 's plays , according it extensive treatment . This includes his personal impressions of individual characters — as the book 's title would lead us to expect — but also the kind of broader consideration for which he would not be credited for at least a century and a half .
The play 's " greatest charm is the character of Imogen " , writes Hazlitt . He observes how , in justifying her actions , " she relies little on her personal charms " or a prudish " affected antipathy to vice " but rather " on her merit , and her merit is in the depth of her love , her truth and constancy . " Shakespeare 's presentation is full and rounded . We see her beauty as observed by others ( as by the villain Iachimo ) , but more often we see her from the inside , and are touched when , after endless nights of crying herself awake over the loss of Posthumus , she is outraged to learn ( as she is falsely informed ) that " ' Some Jay of Italy [ ... ] hath betrayed him . ' " And we witness a moment in the development of her character , as her resolve to disguise herself to seek out Posthumus grows firmer . " Of all Shakespear 's women she is perhaps the most tender and most artless . "
Hazlitt broadens the scope of these reflections into a consideration of " Shakespear 's heroines " in general , writing , " No one ever hit the true perfection of the female character , the sense of weakness leaning on the strength of its affections for support , so well as Shakespear " . ( Here Hazlitt incorporates material from his essay " Shakespear 's Female Characters " , published in the Examiner on 28 July 1816 . )
Hazlitt comments to a lesser degree on other characters , such as Bellarius , Guiderius , and Arviragus ; more often he shows how the characters relate to each other and to the structure of the play . These three , for example , " are a fine relief to the intrigues and artificial refinements of the court from which they are banished . "
The character of Cloten , " the conceited , booby lord " , is discussed as an occasion for noting how Shakespeare depicted what is most contradictory in human nature . Cloten , " with all the absurdity of his person and manners , is not without shrewdness in his observations . " And again Hazlitt steps back and points out how Shakespeare set one character off against the other and presented characters of similar types but with slight modifications of their otherwise similar traits to convey a certain impression about human nature . Hazlitt observes :
[ A ] s it happens in most of the author 's works , there is not only the utmost keeping in each separate character ; but in the casting of the different parts , and their relation to one another , there is an affinity and harmony , like what we may observe in the gradations of colour in a picture . The striking and powerful contrasts in which Shakespear abounds could not escape observation ; but the use he makes of the principle of analogy to reconcile the greatest diversities of character and to maintain a continuity of feeling throughout , has not been sufficiently attended to .
As he does with character , Hazlitt observes patterns he discovers in the plot . He will have nothing of criticising it in terms of the classical " unities " . The plot must be taken on its own terms . If the action is long @-@ drawn @-@ out , " the interest becomes more aerial and refined from the principle of perspective introduced into the subject by the imaginary changes of scene , as well as by the length of time it occupies . "
Regarding Shakespeare 's weaving together of the story 's threads , Hazlitt marvels at the " ease and conscious unconcern " with which " [ t ] he most straggling and seemingly casual incidents are contrived [ and ] in such a manner as to lead at last to the most complete developement of the catastrophe . " Again , he broadens the discussion and argues against the view of Dr. Johnson " that Shakespear was generally inattentive to the winding @-@ up of his plots . We think the contrary is true ; and we might cite in proof of this remark not only the present play , but the conclusion of Lear , of Romeo and Juliet , of Macbeth , of Othello , even of Hamlet , and of other plays of less moment , in which the last act is crowded with decisive events brought about by natural means . "
Beyond plot , beyond individual characters , Hazlitt rounds out his discussion by noting the prevailing mood , the " tender gloom [ that ] overspreads the whole " play . He sees the parallel yet subtly contrasting lines of the story playing against each other " unconsciously " in the mind of the reader as of the author , working by " the force of natural association , a particular train of thought suggesting different inflections of the same predominant feeling , melting into , and strengthening one another , like chords in music . " Thus , far more than simply commenting on particular characters , Hazlitt elucidates the character of the play as a whole .
= = = Coriolanus = = =
Hazlitt 's focus in the essay on Coriolanus is less on the various characters of Shakespeare 's tragedy than on the fundamental moral and political principles behind their actions . For Hazlitt , this play showed in action the concepts behind political writings of his own day , such as Edmund Burke 's Reflections on the Revolution in France and Thomas Paine 's Rights of Man . The character of Coriolanus is a type of the aristocratic hero , though presented as a well @-@ rounded individual , with a " pride " consisting of " inflexible sternness of will " , a " love of reputation " and " glory " , and a " contempt of popular opinion " . Hazlitt also comments on the characters of Coriolanus 's mother and wife , and he points out the substantial fidelity of this play to its source in Thomas North 's translation of Plutarch 's Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans , extracting long passages from the life of Coriolanus .
His primary focus , however , is on Shakespeare 's dramatisation of " the arguments for and against aristocracy or democracy , on the privileges of the few and the claims of many " . Shakespeare shows the weaknesses of both the nobles and the people , but , thought Hazlitt , he was biased somewhat in favour of the nobility , leading him to gloss over their defects more so than those of the common people .
But Hazlitt goes further , to develop an idea that only much later was seen to have radical implications for literary theory : he claims that it is of the very nature of poetry to glorify the aristocrat , the solitary hero , and the monarch , while being much less suited to represent , in ways that capture the imagination , the social problems of the common people . Poetic " imagination naturally falls in with the language of power . The imagination is an exaggerating and exclusive faculty : it takes from one thing to add to another : it accumulates circumstances together to give the greatest possible effect to a favourite object . " On the other hand , the language that would be used to argue the cause of the people relies more on " the understanding " , which " is a dividing and measuring faculty : it judges of things not according to their immediate impression on the mind , but according to their relations to one another . [ ... ] Poetry [ on the other hand ] is right @-@ royal . It puts the individual for the species , the one above the infinite many , might before right . "
" So we feel some concern for the poor citizens of Rome when they meet together to compare their wants and grievances , till Coriolanus comes in and with blows and big words drives this set of ' poor rats , ' this rascal scum , to their homes and beggary before him . There is nothing heroical in a multitude of miserable rogues not wishing to be starved [ ... ] but when a single man comes forward to brave their cries and to make them submit to the last indignities , from mere pride and self @-@ will , our admiration of his prowess is immediately converted into contempt for their pusillanimity . " The key for Hazlitt is the innate human " love of power " . This love of power is not necessarily expressed by a will to dominate others physically ; but there is at least the tendency to side with power in the imagination , to be swayed and carried away emotionally by the power of poetic language . Hazlitt 's own worship of Napoleon , it was later observed , could be taken as an example of this tendency .
Hazlitt for the most part agreed with his contemporary Romantics that poetry can make us better human beings . The following year , in his Lectures on the English Poets , referring to tragic poetry especially , he would observe how " in proportion as it sharpens the edge of calamity and disappointment , it strengthens the desire of good . " Yet , he remained alert to ways in which poetry can also express and reinforce our less admirable tendencies . Following an observation of Burke he notes that " people flock to see a tragedy ; but if there were a public execution in the next street , the theatre would very soon be empty . [ ... ] We are [ ... ] fond of indulging our violent passions [ .... ] We cannot help it . The sense of power is as strong a principle in the mind as the love of pleasure . "
Alarmingly , this tendency , as shown in Coriolanus , could seem to so glorify tyranny and oppression as to lead people to accept it in practice :
The whole dramatic moral of Coriolanus is that those who have little shall have less , and that those who have much shall take all that others have left . The people are poor ; therefore they ought to be starved . They are slaves ; therefore they ought to be beaten . They work hard ; therefore they ought to be treated like beasts of burden . They are ignorant ; therefore they ought not to be allowed to feel that they want food , or clothing , or rest , that they are enslaved , oppressed , and miserable . This is the logic of the imagination and the passions ; which seek to aggrandise what excites admiration and to heap contempt on misery , to raise power into tyranny , and to make tyranny absolute ; to thrust down that which is low still lower , and to make wretches desperate : to exalt magistrates into kings , kings into gods ; to degrade subjects to the rank of slaves , and slaves to the condition of brutes . The history of mankind is a romance , a mask , a tragedy , constructed upon the principles of poetical justice ; it is a noble or royal hunt , in which what is sport to the few is death to the many , and in which the spectators halloo and encourage the strong to set upon the weak , and cry havoc in the chase though they do not share in the spoil . We may depend upon it that what men delight to read in books , they will put in practice in reality .
In this way Hazlitt demonstrated how poetry might be used to glorify tyranny and oppression , a tendency he saw disturbingly prominent in Coriolanus . A lifelong advocate of individual freedom and the cause of the people as against the oppression of aristocracy , the tyranny of " legitimate " monarchy , Hazlitt was disturbed by this tendency in the human imagination as expressed in poetry , and it was here that these misgivings first entered into his general theory of poetry . These thoughts were not particularly noticed for a century and a half , when critic John Kinnaird pointed out how curiously at odds with the more typical critical theories of poetry Hazlitt 's idea was , setting him apart from contemporaries such as Wordsworth and Coleridge : " Students of Hazlitt 's thought have strangely neglected this passage , yet the idea it introduces is perhaps the most original , and surely the most heretical , idea in the entire range of his criticism . " Kinnaird notes that Lionel Trilling was the first critic to grasp the " originality and importance of this passage " , though even Trilling interpreted Hazlitt 's idea of the human love of power in too narrow a sense .
Having observed the workings of what he thought an alarming tendency of the poetic imagination , as well as Shakespeare 's possible aristocratic bias , Hazlitt then observes that , after all , traits of Coriolanus 's character emerge , even in this dramatic context , that Shakespeare clearly shows to be less than admirable . For example , " Coriolanus complains of the fickleness of the people : yet , the instant he cannot gratify his pride and obstinacy at their expense , he turns his arms against his own country . If his country was not worth defending , why did he build his pride in its defence ? "
Ultimately , Hazlitt tried to form a balanced judgement of the play . Comparing Hazlitt 's account with that of a famous contemporary , David Bromwich thought that nothing like this critical stance can " be found anywhere in the whole range of Coleridge 's criticism . "
= = = Falstaff ( Henry IV and The Merry Wives of Windsor ) = = =
The character of Sir John Falstaff appeared in three of Shakespeare 's plays , Henry IV , Part 1 , Henry IV , Part 2 , and The Merry Wives of Windsor . The bulk of Hazlitt 's commentary on the two history plays is devoted to Falstaff , whom he considers to be " perhaps the most substantial comic character ever invented " .
Falstaff had been of interest to Shakespearean commentators for years . Forty years earlier , a full @-@ length book had appeared , An Essay on the Dramatic Character of Sir John Falstaff ( 1777 ) , by Maurice Morgann , often taken as the beginning of that school of Shakespearean criticism which considers the characters of Shakespeare 's plays as though they were real people . Hazlitt , who seems to have had little acquaintance with Morgann 's work , is careful never to lose sight of Falstaff 's status as a character in a play — three plays , in fact , though the two parts of Henry IV are examined in a single essay .
In conveying his impressions of Falstaff , Hazlitt first emphasises the sheer physical bulk that we remember him by : " We are as well acquainted with his person as his mind , and his jokes come upon us with double force and relish from the quantity of flesh through which they make their way , as he shakes his fat sides with laughter [ ... ] .
Then Hazlitt observes the connection between Falstaff 's body and his " wit " : " Falstaff 's wit is an emanation of a fine constitution ; an exuberance of good @-@ humour and good @-@ nature ; an overflowing of his love of laughter and good fellowship ; a giving vent to his heart 's ease , and over @-@ contentment with himself and others . "
Answering those who consider Falstaff a " mere sensualist " , he points out how little we actually see Falstaff indulging himself . " All this is as much in imagination as in reality . His sensuality does not engross and stupify his other faculties [ ... ] . His imagination keeps up the ball after his senses have done with it . He seems to have even a greater enjoyment of the freedom from restraint , of good cheer , of his ease , of his vanity , in the ideal exaggerated description he gives of them , than in fact . "
This leads Hazlitt to consider why , when Falstaff " is represented as a liar , a braggart , a coward , a glutton , etc . , [ ... ] we are not offended but delighted with him [ ... ] . " The answer is that " he is all these as much to amuse others as to gratify himself . He openly assumes all these characters to shew the humourous part of them . The unrestrained indulgence of his own ease , appetites , and convenience , has neither malice nor hypocrisy in it . In a word , he is an actor in himself almost as much as upon the stage , and we no more object to the character of Falstaff in a moral point of view than we should think of bringing an excellent comedian , who should represent him to the life , before one of the police offices . "
Hazlitt goes on to present extracts of his favourite scenes , including those between Falstaff and Prince Hal , and Falstaff and Mistress Quickly . This is merged into a consideration of the way Falstaff interacts with some other characters , and the way Shakespeare 's characters reflect on one another , each in his or her behaviour shedding light on key traits in the others .
This in turn leads to commentary on the " heroic and serious parts of " Henry IV , parts 1 and 2 , and , finally , to more general reflections on Shakespeare 's genius . But the character of Falstaff has had the lion 's share of the discussion , and Hazlitt ends his essay on the two history plays by balancing his personal feelings about Falstaff with a more distanced , objective comment on the dramas as history plays in a broader context :
" The truth is , that we never could forgive the Prince 's treatment of Falstaff [ ... ] " by banishing him after the Prince has become King Henry V , " though perhaps Shakespear knew what was best , according to the history , the nature of the times , and of the man . "
Hazlitt 's enthusiastic explanation of how Falstaff 's fatness contributes to our amused sympathy with him was later especially admired by the critic John Dover Wilson . And John Kinnaird considered the " sketch of Falstaff " in this essay to be a " masterpiece " , " a brilliant [ ... ] portrait of comic exuberance incarnate " , though perhaps in part a creation of his own imagination rather than being entirely faithful to the character as created by Shakespeare .
Falstaff 's appearance in The Merry Wives of Windsor is far less significant ; although he found things to admire in this play , to Hazlitt , " Falstaff in the Merry Wives of Windsor is not the man he was in the two parts of Henry IV . "
= = = Hamlet = = =
Though at times Hazlitt delighted in actors ' interpretations of Shakespearean characters , and he thought some of Shakespeare 's plays eminently suited for the stage , he opens the chapter on Hamlet by proclaiming , " We do not like to see our author 's plays acted , and least of all , Hamlet " . Here , more than anywhere else , he sides with Charles Lamb in believing Shakespeare 's plays to suffer in stage presentation . Neither John Kemble nor his favourite actor Edmund Kean played the role of Hamlet to his satisfaction . " Mr. Kean 's Hamlet is as much too splenetic and rash as Mr. Kemble 's is too deliberate and formal . " This , he felt , is a play to be read , and he noted that by his time it had already been so often read as to have become part of the common culture . " This is that Hamlet the Dane , whom we read of in our youth " . One might say , he observes , that Hamlet is just a character in a play : " Hamlet is a name ; his speeches and sayings but the idle coinage of the poet 's brain . " Yet Shakespeare gives those sayings a reality in the mind of the reader , making them " as real as our own thoughts . "
Of all Shakespeare 's plays , this one is " the most remarkable for the ingenuity , originality , and unstudied developement of character " , writes Hazlitt . He thought of Hamlet more often than any of Shakespeare 's other plays because " it abounds most in striking reflections on human life , and because the distresses of Hamlet are transferred , by the turn of his mind , to the general account of humanity . "
" The character of Hamlet [ ... ] is not a character marked by strength of will or even of passion , but by refinement of thought and sentiment " , writes Hazlitt , and he sides with Schlegel and Coleridge in thinking that Hamlet " seems incapable of deliberate action " . " His ruling passion is to think , not to act " .
Although the focus in this essay is largely on the character of Prince Hamlet , Hazlitt also comments on the movement of the dramatic action . Shakespeare lends all the characters and settings an air of verisimilitude , so that the reader might consider " the whole play [ to be ] an exact transcription of what might be supposed to have taken place at the court of Denmark , at the remote period of time fixed upon , before the modern refinements in morals and manners were heard of . [ ... ] the characters think and speak and act just as they might do , if left entirely to themselves . There is no set purpose , no straining at a point . "
Hazlitt also reflects on Shakespeare 's thorough understanding of the complexity of human character . Queen Gertrude , " who was so criminal in some respects [ was ] not without sensibility and affection in other relations of life . " Again , he comments on the idea expressed by other critics that some characters are too inconsistent in their behaviour to be plausible , particularly Polonius . If " his advice to [ his son ] Laertes is very excellent , and his advice to the King and Queen on the subject of Hamlet 's madness very ridiculous " , that is " because [ Shakespeare ] kept up the distinction which there is in nature , between the understandings and the moral habits of men . [ ... ] Polonius is not a fool , but he makes himself so . "
Hazlitt 's essay on Hamlet was later used by David Bromwich in an extensive comparison of Coleridge 's and Hazlitt 's critical views in general . Although , to Bromwich , Coleridge 's criticism of Hamlet contained a greater number of original ideas , including the general assessment of Prince Hamlet 's character , Hazlitt 's view is notable in that it does not , like Coleridge , reduce that character to a single dominating flaw , his inability to act . In one of his lectures on Shakespeare , Coleridge claimed that " Shakespeare wished to impress upon us the truth that action is the chief end of existence — that no faculties of intellect , however brilliant , can be considered valuable , or indeed otherwise than as misfortunes , if they withdraw us from or render us repugnant to action , and lead us to think and think of doing , until the time has elapsed when we can do anything effectually . " Hazlitt , on the other hand , instead of applying this moral , pointed to the necessity of each reader 's identifying with Hamlet to understand him ( which , he believed , occurred more readily than with any other of Shakespeare 's characters ) and the reader 's judging of Hamlet in part on the basis of what that reader then saw in himself . This made it unlikely that Hamlet 's entire character would be reduced to a single flaw that would provide the reader with a moral lesson .
Shakespeare did not force Prince Hamlet to conform to any particular rules of morality . " The moral perfection of this character has been called in question " , Hazlitt writes , but " the ethical delineations of [ Shakespeare ] do not exhibit the drab @-@ coloured quakerism of morality . " Hazlitt understood that human character is too complicated for such a portrayal to conform to the truth of human nature . " On the morality of literature " , observes Bromwich , " Coleridge will usually be found a resolute guide , and Hazlitt an unsettling observer . "
John Kinnaird also paid particular attention to Hazlitt 's " celebrated " sketch of Prince Hamlet in this essay . Although Hazlitt does not entirely belong to the school of pure " character " critics , this essay does tend to be more of a " character " criticism than others , asserts Kinnaird , because Hazlitt shared with his Romantic contemporaries an " ambivalence toward tragedy " . Hamlet to him as to his contemporaries was a modern character who was " obsessed with evil in the world [ , ] [ ... ] long [ ed ] to escape from knowledge of it in themselves [ and had a ] pessimistic sense that suffering changes nothing and that the world must go on as it is . " Thus , Hazlitt could declare , " It is we who are Hamlet . "
Hazlitt incorporated into this chapter material from his review of Kean 's performance of Hamlet at Drury Lane on 12 March 1814 ( " Mr. Kean 's Hamlet " , The Morning Chronicle , 14 March 1814 ) . That review already included Hazlitt 's musings on the difficulty of presenting Hamlet on stage , after seeing how even his favourite Kean failed to interpret Hamlet 's character adequately . The celebrated passages that begin with " This is that Hamlet the Dane " and include the assertion " It is we who are Hamlet " appear , however , only in the final form of the essay in Characters of Shakespear 's Plays .
= = = King Lear = = =
In the essay on King Lear , which he entitled simply " Lear " , Hazlitt makes no references to the performances of any actors . In fact , here he fully agrees with Lamb that King Lear , like Hamlet , cannot be adequately presented on stage . No actors , he felt , could do justice to the overwhelming imaginative power of this play .
Hazlitt was so deeply affected by this tragedy that he begins the chapter with a regret that he had to write about it at all . " To attempt to give a description of the play itself or its effect upon the mind , is mere impertinence " . Yet what he did write turned out to be a major piece of literary criticism that contributed to his general concepts about tragedy and poetry , and made a powerful impression on the poet John Keats .
" The greatest strength of genius " , Hazlitt writes , " is shewn in describing the strongest passions " . This play takes as its subject the strongest passions , and Shakespeare 's genius rose to the occasion . Here , Shakespeare was more " in earnest " than in any of his other creations , and " he was fairly caught in the web of his own imagination " . The result was his best tragedy , and therefore his best play .
Of King Lear in general , Hazlitt writes :
The passion which he has taken as his subject is that which strikes its root deepest into the human heart [ ... ] This depth of nature , this force of passion , this tug and war of the elements of our being , this firm faith in filial piety , and the giddy anarchy and whirling tumult of the thoughts at finding this prop failing it , the contrast between the fixed , immovable basis of natural affection , and the rapid , irregular starts of imagination , suddenly wrenched from all its accustomed holds and resting @-@ places in the soul , this is what Shakespear has given , and what nobody else but he could give .
Some space is devoted to the psychological scrutiny of the principal characters , but with consideration , also , of their function in the dramatic construct . " The character of Lear " is perfectly conceived for its place in the play , " the only ground on which such a story could be built with the greatest truth and effect . It is his rash haste , his violent impetuosity , his blindness to every thing but the dictates of his passions or affection , that produces all his misfortunes , that aggravates his impatience of them , that enforces our pity for him . "
Hazlitt then comments on some of the other characters seen not in isolation but as they interact with and affect one another , comparing and contrasting them to highlight subtle differences . For example , the characters of Goneril and Regan , the comparison of which he begins with a note of personal distaste ( " they are so thoroughly hateful that we do not even like to repeat their names " ) , are shown , he points out , partly in their reaction to their sister Cordelia 's desire that they treat their father well — " ' Prescribe not to us our duties ' " — and partly by the contrast of their hypocrisy with the candor of the otherwise evil Edmund .
Hazlitt lingers briefly on the character of Lear 's third daughter , Cordelia , observing , in one of his psychological asides , that " the indiscreet simplicity of her love [ ... ] has a little of her father 's obstinacy in it " .
Going beyond specific characters , or even specific interactions among them , Hazlitt delineates what he calls the " logic of passion " , the rhythm of emotions in the drama , and its effect on the mind of the reader or viewer . " We see the ebb and flow of the feeling , its pauses and feverish starts , its impatience of opposition , its accumulating force when it has had time to recollect itself , the manner in which it avails itself of every passing word or gesture , its haste to repel insinuation , the alternate contraction and dilatation of the soul , and all ' the dazzling fence of controversy ' in this mortal combat with poisoned weapons , aimed at the heart , where each wound is fatal . " He observes , too , in explaining an instance of what later came to be called comic relief , how when the reader 's feelings are strained to the utmost , " just as [ ... ] the fibres of the heart [ ... ] are growing rigid from over @-@ strained excitement [ ... ] [ t ] he imagination is glad to take refuge in the half @-@ comic , half @-@ serious comments of the Fool , just as the mind under the extreme anguish of a surgical operation vents itself in sallies of wit . "
And again , on Shakespeare 's artistry , Hazlitt remarks on the way the second plot , involving Gloucester , Edgar , and Edmund , is interwoven with the main plot : " Indeed , the manner in which the threads of the story are woven together is almost as wonderful in the way of art as the carrying on the tide of passion , still varying and unimpaired , is on the score of nature . "
Hazlitt appreciatively quotes long extracts from what he considered some of the best scenes , and remarks that , as sad as the concluding events are , " The oppression of the feelings is relieved by the very interest we take in the misfortunes of others , and by the reflections to which they give birth . " This leads to his mentioning the then @-@ current practice of substituting , on stage , a happy ending for Shakespeare 's tragic one , which had been approved by no less an authority than Dr. Johnson . Arguing against this practice , Hazlitt brings in a lengthy quote from an article Lamb wrote for Leigh Hunt 's Reflector , which concludes : " A happy ending ! — as if the living martyrdom that Lear had gone through , — the flaying of his feelings alive , did not make a fair dismissal from life the only decorous thing for him . "
Hazlitt , however , in the view of John Kinnaird , goes beyond Lamb in maintaining that it is Lear 's very despair , by which " all the powers of thought and feeling " were elicited and intensified , that gives him tragic " strength and grandeur " .
By early 1818 , a few months after the publication of Characters of Shakespear 's Plays , John Keats had acquired a copy . Fascinated by what he read , particularly by the essay on King Lear , he underlined passages and added comments in the margins . Keats especially liked what Hazlitt wrote on the play 's " ebb and flow of the feeling " and noted , using a term he had heard Hazlitt himself apply to Shakespeare in his 27 January lecture " On Shakspeare and Milton " , " This passage has to a great degree hieroglyphic visioning . " Together with what he had already read of Hazlitt 's work , especially the essay " On Gusto " from The Round Table , which had helped him develop his celebrated idea about " Negative Capability " , this essay on King Lear inspired much of his own poetry and thoughts about poetry .
Hazlitt ends the chapter by making four points about genius , poetry , and especially tragedy . To David Bromwich the most important of these is the third , " That the greatest strength of genius is shewn in describing the strongest passions : for the power of the imagination , in works of invention , must be in proportion to the force of the natural impressions , which are the subject of them . "
Bromwich noted that Hazlitt 's thoughts , particularly as applied to Lear , are here in line with those of Shelley in his Defence of Poetry . Bromwich also noted that for Hazlitt the power of this play is achieved by Shakespeare 's unwillingness to soften the harshness of " nature " , as expressed in Lear 's halting , broken outcries , such as " I will have such revenges on you both , [ Goneril and Regan ] / That all the world shall — — " . This approach is never quite followed by even so great a contemporary poet as Wordsworth . To Hazlitt , this is a demonstration of why the greatest poetry of his own age failed to achieve the level of greatness that Shakespeare reached here . That King Lear is strongest in subordinating the artistry of dramatic poetry to the power of nature is also why its kind of poetry is superior to the more artificial kind produced by Pope .
= = = Macbeth = = =
Among Shakespeare 's four principal tragedies , Macbeth , according to Hazlitt in this chapter , is notable for its wild extremes of action , its preponderance of violence , and its representation of " imagination " strained to the verge of the forbidden and the darker mysteries of existence . " This tragedy is alike distinguished for the lofty imagination it displays , and for the tumultuous vehemence of the action ; and the one is made the moving principle of the other " , Hazlitt writes . Macbeth " moves upon the verge of an abyss , and is a constant struggle between life and death . The action is desperate and the reaction is dreadful . [ ... ] The whole play is an unruly chaos of strange and forbidden things , where the ground rocks under our feet . "
Here again , Hazlitt is interested not merely in individual characters but in the character of the play as a whole , focusing especially on the supernatural underpinnings , with the prophecies of the three witches on the " blasted heath " , with which Macbeth struggles , wrestling with his destiny , through to the play 's tragic climax . Hazlitt is especially interested in the " design " of Macbeth , in its general mood , its " full poetic ' impression ' " , and in this , according to John Kinnaird , he anticipates the method of the twentieth @-@ century Shakespearean critic G. Wilson Knight . " Shakespear " , writes Hazlitt , " lost sight of nothing that could in any way give relief or heightening to his subject [ ... ] . "
Further noting Shakespeare 's crafting of the play , Hazlitt points to fine touches at the beginning that contribute to a unified effect : " The wildness of the scenery , the sudden shifting of the situations and characters , the bustle , the expectations excited , [ all ] are equally extraordinary . " " Shakespear " , he writes , " excelled in the openings of his plays : that of Macbeth is the most striking of any . "
He also , as in his essay on Hamlet , notes the realistic effect of Macbeth : " His plays have the force of things upon the mind . What he represents is brought home to the bosom as a part of our experience , implanted in the memory as if we had known the places , persons , and things of which he treats . "
In considering the characters , Hazlitt emphasises the importance of their interaction , the way in which a major character 's behaviour helps define that of another . This is especially true of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth , locked together in a struggle against all Scotland and their fate . Macbeth , as he is about to commit his bloodiest deeds , is " assailed by the stings of remorse , and full of ' preternatural solicitings . ' [ ... ] In thought he is absent and perplexed , sudden and desperate in act , from his own irresolution . " This is in contrast with , and " set off by " the character of " Lady Macbeth , whose obdurate strength of will and masculine firmness give her the ascendancy over her husband 's faultering virtue . [ ... ] The magnitude of her resolution almost covers the magnitude of her guilt . " But in effect Macbeth and Lady Macbeth exchange places as the action develops . He " becomes more callous as he plunges deeper in guilt [ ... ] and [ ... ] in the end anticipates his wife in the boldness and bloodiness of his enterprises , while she for want of the same stimulus of action , [ ... ] goes mad and dies . "
Here as elsewhere , Hazlitt illuminates the characters not only by contrast with others in the same play but with characters in other plays . A lengthy passage , adapted from an 1814 drama review by Hazlitt , compares Macbeth and King Richard III from Shakespeare 's play of that name . Both characters " are tyrants , usurpers , murderers , both aspiring and ambitious , both courageous , cruel , treacherous . " But Richard is " naturally incapable of good " and " wades through a series of crimes [ ... ] from the ungovernable violence of his temper and a reckless love of mischief " , while Macbeth , " full of ' the milk of human kindness ' " , " is with difficulty prevailed upon to commit [ ... ] the murder of Duncan " and is filled " with remorse after its perpetration . "
Similarly , though Lady Macbeth is evil , " [ s ] he is only wicked to gain a great end " and it is only her " inexorable self @-@ will " that prevents her being diverted from her " bad purpose " which masks her " natural affections " ; whereas Goneril and Regan , in King Lear , " excite our loathing and abhorrence " as Lady Macbeth does not . Further , Hazlitt notes that Lady Macbeth displays human emotions , " swelling exultation and keen spirit of triumph , [ ... ] uncontroulable eagerness of anticipation [ ... ] solid , substantial flesh and blood display of passion " ; while the witches from the same play are only " hags of mischief " , " unreal , abortive , half @-@ existences " .
Because of their human qualities , we never entirely lose sympathy with Macbeth and Lady Macbeth , and our imagination participates with theirs in the tragedy . Their imagination makes the two more human and yet also destroys them . As Kinnaird points out ( elaborating on an idea of Joseph W. Donohue , Jr . ) , Hazlitt in part sees Macbeth as a tragedy of imagination itself .
One concern addressed by Hazlitt is the assertion by previous critics that Macbeth is little more than a crude and violent amalgam of extremes filled with " Gothic " barbarisms . Hazlitt notes , however , that should anyone think Macbeth 's character is so composed of contradictory extremes as to be implausible , it is , rather , the circumstances and the passions in conflict that provide the extremes , while Macbeth 's character retains a strong underlying unity throughout . " Macbeth in Shakespear no more loses his identity of character in the fluctuations of fortune or the storm of passions than Macbeth in himself would have lost the identity of his person . " Kinnaird notes that here , as if anticipating it by a century , Hazlitt argues against the view advanced by Elmer Edgar Stoll in 1933 , that Macbeth 's character is too full of contradictions to be plausible .
Although he lingers nostalgically on his memory of the great actress Sarah Siddons 's performance as Lady Macbeth , and a few years earlier had acknowledged that Kean and John Kemble had been at least partly successful in the role of Macbeth ( though each in different portions of it ) , on the whole he expressed doubts about the success of the staging of this play , again agreeing with Lamb . By the time he composed this chapter of Characters , he could write , " We can conceive [ ... ] no one to play Macbeth properly , or to look like a man that had encountered the Weïrd Sisters . " Further observations follow about the witches themselves . Part of the problem was that by his day , there remained few who really believed in the supernatural , and " by the force of the police and of philosophy [ ... ] the ghosts in Shakespear will become obsolete . " He concludes by quoting at length a passage from an essay by Lamb on the originality of Shakespeare 's portrayal of the witches .
= = = The Merchant of Venice = = =
Hazlitt 's treatment of The Merchant of Venice centres on the character of Shylock . A few years earlier , Edmund Kean had appeared as the Jewish moneylender in his debut performance at Drury Lane . Hazlitt , the drama critic for the Morning Chronicle in January 1814 , sat close to the stage and watched every facial expression , every movement . He was astounded at Kean 's , for the time , radically unconventional portrayal of Shylock as a full , rounded , complex human being , full of vigour , rather than a doddering , malevolent stereotype . His positive review of Kean 's performance became critical in boosting the actor 's career . But Kean 's performance also helped alter Hazlitt 's own view of Shylock , which made its way into this essay a few years later . Hazlitt admitted that he had tended to accept the older interpretation of Shylock 's character as it had been depicted on stage , which followed centuries @-@ old prejudices against the Jews , and made him a one @-@ dimensional character . Kean 's performance led him to study the play closely and think deeply about Shylock . Though Shylock 's " mind is warped with prejudices and passion [ ... ] that he has but one idea , is not true ; he has more ideas than any other person in the piece ; and if he is intense and inveterate in the pursuit of his purpose , he shews the utmost elasticity , vigour , and presence of mind , in the means of attaining it " .
Although old prejudices against the Jews were starting to disappear , as Hazlitt notes ( he refers to the portrayal of " the benevolent Jew " in Richard Cumberland 's play The Jew of 1794 ) , and some reviewers had begun to discover something respectable in Shylock 's figure , a century and a half later critic David Bromwich would suggest that , in retrospect , it was Hazlitt himself , even more than Kean , who paved the way for what became the prevalent reading of Shylock 's character . Though Shylock is serious about revenge , he is true to himself in other ways that cast a less than favourable light on other characters in the play . After Hazlitt 's account , according to Bromwich , it became less easy to find a simple resolution to the problems in the play or to withhold entirely our sympathy for Shylock , particularly in view of a passage like the following :
Shylock is a good hater ; " a man no less sinned against than sinning . " If he carries his revenge too far , yet he has strong grounds for " the lodged hate he bears Anthonio " , which he explains with equal force of eloquence and reason . He seems the depositary of the vengeance of his race ; and though the long habit of brooding over daily insults and injuries has crusted over his temper with inveterate misanthropy , and hardened him against the contempt of mankind , this adds but little to the triumphant pretensions of his enemies . There is a strong , quick , and deep sense of justice mixed up with the gall and bitterness of his resentment . [ ... ] The desire of revenge is almost inseparable from the sense of wrong ; and we can hardly help sympathising with the proud spirit , hid beneath his " Jewish gaberdine " , stung to madness by repeated undeserved provocations , and labouring to throw off the load of obloquy and oppression heaped upon him and all his tribe by one desperate act of " lawful " revenge , till the ferociousness of the means by which he is to execute his purpose , and the pertinacity with which he adheres to it , turn us against him ; but even at last , when disappointed of the sanguinary revenge with which he had glutted his hopes , and exposed to beggary and contempt by the letter of the law on which he had insisted with so little remorse , we pity him , and think him hardly dealt with by his judges .
Other critics even in later years insisted that the character of Shylock is that of an outsider separated from society , that the Jewish Shylock represented an older form of justice , meant to be supplanted by the Christian view , represented by Portia , who argued for the prevalence of mercy . Shylock , these critics maintained , must be removed in order to allow society to attain a Christian form of peace . Hazlitt 's view , however , has remained as a valid countervailing concept of the play , one that does not arrive at easy conclusions or take sides readily .
Hazlitt also reflects on several other characters . Portia , for example , was no favourite of his , and " has a certain degree of affectation and pedantry about her " . Gratiano he finds " a very admirable subordinate character " .
Once again , as John Kinnaird observed , Hazlitt is here far more than a " character critic " , showing serious interest in the structure of the play as a whole . " The whole of the trial @-@ scene " , he remarks in this essay , " is a master @-@ piece of dramatic skill . The legal acuteness , the passionate declamations , the sound maxims of jurisprudence , the wit and irony interspersed in it , the fluctuations of hope and fear in the different persons , and the completeness and suddenness of the catastrophe , cannot be surpassed " . He points to some beautiful poetic passages , and concludes that " the graceful winding up of this play [ ... ] is one of the happiest instances of Shakespear 's knowledge of the principles of the drama " .
= = = Othello = = =
While Hazlitt 's discussion of Othello includes observations about the characters , his consideration of this play , as with all of the four major tragedies , is combined with ideas about the purpose and value of tragedy and even of poetry in general . Expanding upon Aristotle 's idea in the Poetics that " tragedy purifies the affections by terror and pity , " he asserts that tragedy " makes us thoughtful spectators in the lists of life . It is the refiner of the species ; a discipline of humanity . "
Furthermore , Othello , more than the other tragedies , has for the average viewer or reader a " close [ ... ] application " to the experiences of everyday life . Hazlitt brings out this point by comparing Othello to Macbeth , where " there is a violent struggle between opposite feelings , between ambition and the stings of conscience , almost from first to last : in Othello , the doubtful conflict between contrary passions , though dreadful , continues only for a short time , and the chief interest is excited by the alternate ascendancy of different passions , by the entire and unforeseen change from the fondest love and most unbounded confidence to the tortures of jealousy and the madness of hatred . "
Hazlitt 's discussion of the particular characters incorporates observations about the way Shakespeare creates them , showing that , rather than being broad types , characters even superficially similar differ in finely discriminated ways . Desdemona and Emilia , for example , are " to outward appearance , characters of common life , not more distinguished than women generally are , by difference of rank and situation . " As the dialogue unfolds , " the difference of their thoughts and sentiments is however laid open , their minds are separated from each other by signs as plain and as little to be mistaken as the complexions of their husbands . "
With all his frequently noted attention to character and characters — Hazlitt 's partly psychological approach to character necessarily referred to observed real @-@ life behavior — he also frequently emphasises the art by which Shakespeare created dramatic " character " . Particularly in tragedy , a " sense of power " , he believed , is the essential medium by which a poet of genius operates on the minds of his audience . When the author instills in the reader or viewer 's imagination the sense of power that he must have had in grasping and conveying intertwined passions , he makes us identify with a character such as Othello , and feel in ourselves the way Iago plays upon his mind so that , ironically , his weakness is made to undermine his strength .
Hazlitt often focuses , as well , on specific traits by comparing the characters not to those of real life but to characters in Shakespeare 's other plays , comparing , for example , Iago with Edmund in King Lear . His interest in the art of drama emerges even more obviously when he compares Iago with the villainous character Zanga in Edward Young 's The Revenge ( 1721 ) , still a popular play in Hazlitt 's day .
For Hazlitt , Othello is especially notable for the interplay between the characters , and the way Shakespeare communicates the slow and gradual " movement of passion [ ... ] the alternate ascendancy of different passions , [ ... ] the entire and unforeseen change from the fondest love and most unbounded confidence to the tortures of jealousy and the madness of hatred . " He finds especially remarkable the gradual alteration of Othello 's feelings about Desdemona as his mind is played upon by Iago . Othello is not naturally a violent person in everyday life : " The nature of the Moor is noble , confiding , tender and generous ; but his blood is of the most inflammable kind ; and being once roused by a sense of his wrongs , he is stopped by no considerations of remorse or pity till he has given a loose to all the dictates of his rage and despair . [ ... ] The third act of Othello is [ Shakespeare 's ] finest display , not of knowledge and passion separately , but of the two combined . " Hazlitt continues :
It is in working [ Othello 's ] noble nature up to this extremity through rapid but gradual transitions , in raising passion to its height from the smallest beginnings and in spite of all obstacles , in painting the expiring conflict between love and hatred , tenderness and resentment , jealousy and remorse , in unfolding the strength and the weakness of our nature , in uniting sublimity of thought with the anguish of the keenest woe , in putting in motion the various impulses that agitate this our mortal being , and at last blending them in that noble tide of deep and sustained passion , impetuous but majestic [ ... ] that Shakespear has shewn the mastery of his genius and of his power over the human heart .
Desdemona 's character is shown in her attachment to her husband . " Her beauty and external graces are only indirectly glanced at . " Her attachment to Othello begins in a manner " a little fantastical and headstrong . " But after that her " whole character consists in having no will of her own , no prompter but her obedience . " Even " the extravagance of her resolutions , the pertinacity of her affections , may be said to arise out of the gentleness of her nature . "
Three years earlier , in the review " Mr. Kean 's Iago " in The Examiner ( 7 August 1814 ) , Hazlitt had ventured to speculate that Iago 's suggestions of lasciviousness in Desdemona may have had some basis in truth , as " purity and grossness sometimes ' nearly are allied , / And thin partitions do their bounds divide . ' " Although he omitted this thought from Characters of Shakespear 's Plays , that did not stop an anonymous reviewer in Blackwood 's Magazine from accusing him of calling Desdemona a " lewd " character . In " A Reply to ' Z ' " , written in 1818 but never published , Hazlitt answers his accuser : " It is not true that I have insinuated that Desdemona was a lewd woman , any more than Shakespear has insinuated it , but I have dared to say that he alone could have given additional elegance and even delicacy to a female character from the very disadvantageous circumstances in which Desdemona is placed . "
Hazlitt 's treatment of the character of Iago is written in part as a response to those who " thought this whole character unnatural , because his villainy is without a sufficient motive . " Hazlitt responds with a psychological analysis that exerted great influence and sparked considerable discussion : Shakespeare " knew that the love of power , which is another name for the love of mischief , is natural to man . [ ... ] He would know this [ ... ] merely from seeing children paddle in the dirt or kill flies for sport . Iago in fact belongs to a class of character , common to Shakespear and at the same time peculiar to him ; whose heads are as acute and active as their hearts are hard and callous . Iago is [ ... ] an extreme instance of the kind : that is to say , of diseased intellectual activity , with the most perfect indifference to moral good or evil , or rather with a decided preference of the latter , because it falls more readily in with this favourite propensity , gives greater zest to his thoughts and scope to his actions . " This interpretation was later admired and built upon by Shakespearean critic A.C. Bradley .
John Kinnaird later commented on Hazlitt 's words terming Iago " an amateur of tragedy in real life " , pointing out that Bradley and others after him developed the idea that Hazlitt saw Iago as an artist in his own right , " a dramatic artist manqué " . " But the form Iago 's will to ' mischief ' takes is not primarily aesthetic or creative but practical and critical . Soldier that he is , he has a ' craving after action of the most difficult and dangerous kind , ' and he has none of the artist 's sympathy with pleasure ; his ' licentious ' bent is always ' saturnine , ' and stems from ' a desire of finding out the worst side of every thing , and of proving himself an over @-@ match for appearances ' [ ... ] " . David Bromwich later warned against carrying too far the idea that Iago is an artist figure within the play , a representation of Shakespeare himself , as Iago 's " genius is [ ... ] the opposite of Shakespeare 's . It presents all things in a distorting medium [ ... ] . Iago 's peculiar genius is " as Hazlitt represented it , " the exuberance of one part of Shakespeare 's mind — not an allegorical representation of the whole of it . "
= = = The Tempest = = =
The Tempest , Hazlitt claims , is one of Shakespeare 's " most original and perfect " plays , similar in some ways to A Midsummer Night 's Dream but finer as a play , if not as rich in poetic passages . The Tempest demonstrates the author to be a master of both comedy and tragedy , with a full command over " all the resources of passion , of wit , of thought , of observation " . Yet again , Hazlitt here devotes considerable space to not just the characters in the play , but the character of the play as a whole . The world of the play seems to be created out of nothing ; yet , though dream @-@ like , in large part a product of the imagination , its setting resembles that of a painting we may have seen — " Prospero 's enchanted island [ with its ] airy music , the tempest @-@ tost vessel , the turbulent waves , all have the effect of the landscape background of some fine picture " — its poetry having a music that conjures up meaning in the listener 's mind — " the songs [ ... ] without conveying any distinct images , seem to recall all the feelings connected with them , like snatches of half @-@ forgotten music heard indistinctly and at intervals " — and its characters , many of whom , like Ariel , we know could not really exist , are drawn so as to seem " as true and natural as [ Shakespeare 's ] real characters " . All is so artfully unified that " that part which is only the fantastic creation of his mind , has the same palpable texture , and coheres ' semblably ' with the rest . "
Hazlitt provides brief appreciative sketches of many of the characters and their relationships . For example :
The courtship between Ferdinand and Miranda is one of the chief beauties of this play . It is the very purity of love . The pretended interference of Prospero with it heightens its interest , and is in character with the magician , whose sense of preternatural power makes him arbitrary , tetchy , and impatient of opposition .
In quoting the speech of the old counselor Gonzalo on the ideal commonwealth he would rule , Hazlitt observes that here " Shakespear has anticipated nearly all the arguments on the Utopian schemes of modern philosophy " .
He scrutinises with special interest the characters of Caliban and Ariel , pointing out that , as they arise within the structure of the play , neither could exist without the other , and neither alone illuminates the sum of our nature better than both together . Caliban is gross , of the earth , whereas " Ariel is imaginary power , the swiftness of thought personified . "
Shakespear has , as it were by design , drawn off from Caliban the elements of whatever is ethereal and refined , to compound them in the unearthly mould of Ariel . Nothing was ever more finely conceived than this contrast between the material and the spiritual , the gross and delicate .
Hazlitt was particularly interested in Caliban , in part because others thought the character vulgar or evil . Though he is a " savage " , " half brute , half demon " , and " the essence of grossness " , Caliban is not in the least " vulgar " . " The character grows out of the soil where it is rooted , uncontrouled , uncouth and wild , uncramped by any of the meannesses of custom [ .... ] Vulgarity is not natural coarseness , but conventional coarseness , learnt from others , contrary to , or without an entire conformity of natural power and disposition ; as fashion is the common @-@ place affectation of what is elegant and refined without any feeling of the essence of it . " Stephano and Trinculo are vulgar by comparison , and " in conducting [ them ] to Prospero 's cell " , by understanding the " nature " by which it is surrounded , " Caliban shews the superiority of natural capacity over greater knowledge and greater folly . "
Casting a retrospective light on his interest in Caliban in Characters of Shakespear 's Plays , the following year Hazlitt , in a review of " Mr. Coleridge 's Lectures " , responded indignantly to Coleridge 's calling Caliban a " villain " , as well as a " Jacobin " , who wanted only to spread anarchy . Though speaking somewhat tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek , Hazlitt rises to Caliban 's defence : " Caliban is so far from being a prototype of modern Jacobinism , that he is strictly the legitimate sovereign of the isle " . Hazlitt did not necessarily believe that Caliban deserved to supplant Prospero as ruler , but he shows that Caliban 's very existence raises questions about the fundamental nature of sovereignty , justice , and society itself . As noted by David Bromwich , Coleridge found reasons to apologise for society as it was . Hazlitt , on the other hand , refused to take sides , leaving as open questions the issues that emerged in the play . " It was left to Hazlitt to interpret Caliban 's coarseness and the justice of his protests as both alike irreducible . "
= = = Twelfth Night ; Or , What You Will = = =
Hazlitt 's commentary on Twelfth Night uses Shakespeare 's play to illustrate some of his general ideas about comedy , thoughts that he explored at greater length in later works , such as his Lectures on the English Comic Writers ( 1819 ) .
Nobody , according to Hazlitt ( voicing his disagreement with Dr. Johnson ) , excelled Shakespeare in tragedy ; although his comedies could be first rate , other writers , such as Molière , Cervantes , and Rabelais , excelled him in some types of comedy . It was in the comedy of " Nature " that Shakespeare was supreme . This is not comedy that satirises the " ridiculous " but is rather the comedy of " convivial laughter " , which gently mocks human foibles and invites us to share in innocent pleasures . Of this kind of comedy , Twelfth Night is " one of the most delightful " . Unlike the " comedy of artificial life , of wit , of satire , " Shakespeare 's more gentle comedy " makes us laugh at the follies of mankind , not despise them [ ... ] . Shakespear 's comic genius resembles the bee rather in its power of extracting sweets from weeds or poisons , than in leaving a sting behind it . "
Besides his further general remarks , Hazlitt lingers appreciatively over a number of amusing scenes and poetic passages , including the songs , all showing how " Shakespear 's comedy is of a pastoral and poetical cast . Folly is indigenous to the soil [ .... ] Absurdity has every encouragement afforded it ; and nonsense has room to flourish in . " Characters of vastly different types are all welcome and fit into his scheme : " the same house is big enough to hold Malvolio , the Countess , Maria , Sir Toby , and Sir Andrew Ague @-@ cheek . " He particularly admires the character of Viola , whom Shakespeare gives many speeches of " impassioned sweetness " . Characterising the play as a whole by quoting the author 's own words in it — " Shakespear alone could describe the effect of his own poetry . " — he reflects that the play 's poetry comes " ' o 'er the ear like the sweet south / That breathes upon a bank of violets , / Stealing and giving odour . ' "
Here Hazlitt steps back to observe his own character , musing that if he himself were less " saturnine " , he might well like the comedies as much as the tragedies , or at least that is how he feels , " after reading [ ... ] parts of this play " .
= = = As You Like It = = =
Although Hazlitt had seen As You Like It on stage , he remembered it most fondly from having read it so frequently that he practically had it memorised . In Characters of Shakespear 's Plays , he makes no mention at all of any stage performances , treating the play as one primarily meant to be read . What strikes him as most notable about it is its character of a " pastoral drama " , one that presents an " ideal " world — that is , a world of thought and imagination , not action . And though it is a comedy , its interest derives not so much from in our being made to laugh at any particular human follies , but rather , " more out of the sentiments and characters than out of the actions or situations . It is not what is done , but what is said , that claims our attention . "
" The very air of the place " , wrote Hazlitt about the Forest of Arden , " seems to breathe a spirit of philosophical poetry ; to stir the thoughts , to touch the heart with pity , as the drowsy forest rustles to the sighing gale " , and the character who most embodies the philosophical spirit of the place is Jacques , who " is the only purely contemplative character in Shakespear . " Among the lovers , Hazlitt particularly likes the character of Rosalind , " made up of sportive gaiety and natural tenderness " . And the couples , Touchstone and Audrey , and Silvius and Phebe , have their different places in the picture . The other characters , including Orlando and the Duke , also come in for their share of commentary . All in all , Hazlitt finds this to be one of the most quotable and quoted of Shakespear 's plays : " There is hardly any of Shakespear 's plays that contains a greater number of passages that have been quoted in books of extracts , or a greater number of phrases that have become in a manner proverbial . "
Hazlitt 's concept of the play as one in which the interest is intended to arise not out of the action or situation but rather its contemplative nature has remained a vital one , reaching into the twentieth century , and now the twenty @-@ first .
= = = Measure for Measure = = =
Measure for Measure has frequently been considered a " problem play " . It was a problem for Hazlitt in that it contains almost no character with whom one can feel complete sympathy . " [ T ] here is in general a want of passion ; the affections are at a stand ; our sympathies are reflected and defeated in all directions . " Angelo , the Deputy ruler of Vienna , is forgiven by the Duke but draws only Hazlitt 's hatred , as " he seems to have a much greater passion for hypocrisy than for his mistress . " " Neither are we enamoured of Isabella 's rigid chastity , though she could not act otherwise than she did . " Isabella 's brother Claudio " is the only person who feels naturally " , yet even he does not show well in his pleading for life at the sacrifice of his sister 's virginity . There is no easy solution for his plight , and " he is placed in circumstances of distress which almost preclude the wish for his deliverance . " Over a century later , commentator R.W. Chambers placed Hazlitt as the first of a long line of notable Shakespearean critics who felt the same way , and he quoted Characters of Shakespear 's Plays in establishing his contention ( as a basis for arguing his own different view of the play ) that Hazlitt was among the first of dozens of distinguished critics who could not comprehend how Mariana could love and plead for someone like Angelo , and in general showed a distaste for much in Measure for Measure .
Yet , unlike Coleridge , and despite his own reservations , Hazlitt found much to admire in Measure for Measure , a " play as full of genius as it is of wisdom . " He quotes at length passages of " dramatic beauty " , and also finds occasion to use this play as an example supporting his characterisation of the general nature of Shakespeare 's genius , and the relation between morality and poetry . " Shakespear was in one sense the least moral of all writers ; for morality ( commonly so called ) is made up of antipathies [ ... ] " . Yet " in another [ sense ] he was the greatest of all moralists . He was a moralist in the same sense in which nature is one . He taught what he had learnt from her . He shewed the greatest knowledge of humanity with the greatest fellow @-@ feeling for it . "
Although Hazlitt had reviewed a performance of Measure for Measure for The Examiner on 11 February 1816 , and incorporated a few passages , with modifications , into this chapter , including some of his general philosophical reflections and a mention of some of Schlegel 's opinions , yet he says nothing in Characters of Shakespear 's Plays about any stage performances of this play .
= = = Others = = =
= = = = Tragedies = = = =
Hazlitt believed that because tragedy engages our emotions most profoundly , it is the greatest kind of drama . Of the tragedies based on Greek and Roman history , he ranked Julius Caesar beneath the other Roman tragedies , Coriolanus and Antony and Cleopatra . But , as elsewhere , he expresses admiration for the fine discrimination of character , the depiction of " the manners of the common people , and the jealousies and heart @-@ burnings of the different factions " in Julius Caesar .
In Antony and Cleopatra , " Shakespear 's genius has spread over the whole play a richness like the overflowing of the Nile " . Overall , this play " presents a fine picture of Roman pride and Eastern magnificence : and in the struggle between the two , the empire of the world seems suspended , ' like the swan 's down feather , / That stands upon the swell at full of tide , / And neither way inclines . ' "
Timon of Athens , to Hazlitt " as much a satire as a play " , seemed to him " to be written with as intense a feeling of his subject as any one play of Shakespear " and " is the only play of our author in which spleen is the predominant feeling of the mind . "
A focal point of Hazlitt 's account of Troilus and Cressida is a comparison of the characterisation in this play and that in Chaucer 's poem Troilus and Criseyde ( one of Shakespeare 's sources ) . Chaucer 's characters are full and well developed ; but Chaucer unfolded each character in itself , one at a time . Shakespeare displayed characters as they see themselves as well as how others see them , and showed the effects each has on the others . Shakespeare 's characters were so distinctive that it is as if each were expressed by a distinct " faculty " of his mind ; and , in effect , these faculties could be considered as showing " excessive sociability " , notable for " how they gossiped and compared notes together . " Twentieth @-@ century critic Arthur Eastman thought that , although these remarks did insufficient justice to Chaucer , they were particularly original in revealing " the sophisticated genius of Shakespeare . "
For Hazlitt , the essence of Romeo and Juliet is Shakespeare 's portrayal of the love that comes with " the ripening of the youthful blood " ; and with that love the imagination of the youthful lovers is stirred to dwell not so much on present pleasure but " on all the pleasures they had not experienced . All that was to come of life was theirs . [ ... ] Their hopes were of air , their desires of fire . " In many beautiful poetic passages , " the feelings of youth and of the spring are [ ... ] blended together like the breath of opening flowers . " Assessing the character of the play as a whole , he states : " This play presents a beautiful coup @-@ d 'oeil of the progress of human life . In thought it occupies years , and embraces the circle of the affections from childhood to old age . "
= = = = Histories = = = =
In Hazlitt 's commentary on King John , his last on any of the history plays , he offers his view of history plays in general : " If we are to indulge our imaginations , we had rather do it upon an imaginary theme ; if we are to find subjects for the exercise of our pity and terror , we prefer seeking them in fictitious danger and fictitious distress . "
Still , he finds much to appreciate in the history plays : here , it is the weak , vacillating , sometimes contemptible character of King John ; the " comic " but forthright , noble character of Philip the Bastard ; the desperation and excess of maternal tenderness in Constance ; and many beautiful and affecting passages . Hazlitt also offers some reflections on Shakespeare 's versification . There was some controversy over whether this play was genuinely Shakespeare 's . He concludes that the verse shows that it certainly was , a judgement borne out by later critics .
Hazlitt remarks that Richard II , less well known than Richard III , is the finer play . Worth noting is the exchange of places between the King and Bolingbroke , the usurping king — " The steps by which Bolingbroke mounts the throne are those by which Richard sinks into the grave " — and he compares the manner and politics of the age with those of his own . Among various poetical passages , he finds the speech of John of Gaunt in praise of England , " one of the most eloquent that ever was penned . "
Henry V Hazlitt thought only second @-@ rate among Shakespeare 's plays , yet filled with much fine poetry . Regarding the King himself , he considered the character of this " pageant " play entertaining enough , until one compares King Henry with the historical Henry V , who was as barbarous as any of the historical absolute monarchs .
Henry VI , the three parts considered together in one chapter , is not , for Hazlitt , on a level with the other history plays , but , in a long comparison of King Henry VI with King Richard II , he finds occasion to reinforce his major theme of the fine discrimination of superficially similar characters .
Richard III for Hazlitt is preeminently made for acting , " properly a stage play ; it belongs to the theatre , rather than to the closet . " It is dominated by the character of King Richard , whom Shakespeare portrays as
towering and lofty ; equally impetuous and commanding ; haughty , violent , and subtle ; bold and treacherous ; confident in his strength as well as in his cunning ; raised high by his birth , and higher by his talents and his crimes ; a royal usurper , a princely hypocrite , a tyrant , and a murderer of the house of Plantagenet .
Hazlitt comments on the efforts of several actors in playing the role , particularly Kean . Portions of his review of Kean 's first performance as Richard , written for The Morning Chronicle of 15 February 1814 , were incorporated into this chapter .
Differing with Dr. Johnson , who found nothing of genius in Henry VIII but the depiction of the " ' meek sorrows and virtuous distress ' " of Queen Katherine , Hazlitt finds in this play , though not one of Shakespeare 's greatest , " considerable interest of a more mild and thoughtful cast , and some of the most striking passages in the author 's works . " In addition to the portrayal of Katherine , Hazlitt likes that of Cardinal Wolsey and of King Henry himself , which , though " drawn with great truth and spirit [ is ] like a very disagreeable portrait , sketched by the hand of a master . " And " the scene of [ the Duke of ] Buckingham led to execution is one of the most affecting and natural in Shakespear , and one to which there is hardly an approach in any other author . "
= = = = Comedies = = = =
Reflecting on Twelfth Night , Hazlitt considered that his own preference for tragedy could be in part due to his own " saturnine " temperament , and asserted that , regardless of individual preferences , Shakespeare was as skilled in comedy as in tragedy . With this acknowledgement , he had quite a few appreciative comments to make about the comedies .
Hazlitt found sheer delight in A Midsummer Night 's Dream , especially relishing its playfully inventive poetry and quoting at length several of his favourite passages . He also considers how it exhibits the fine discrimination of character to be found everywhere in Shakespeare . As elsewhere , he crosses the boundaries of plays and enumerates subtle differences between even the fairy characters , in this case in an extensive comparison of Puck in this play and Ariel in The Tempest .
This is one play that Hazlitt felt cannot be properly represented on stage . Its beauties are primarily those of poetry : " Poetry and the stage do not agree well together . The ideal can have no place upon the stage , which is a picture without perspective . [ ... ] Where all is left to the imagination ( as is the case in reading ) every circumstance [ ... ] has an equal chance of being kept in mind , and tells according to the mixed impression of all that has been suggested . "
Although the early play The Two Gentlemen of Verona seemed to Hazlitt like " little more than the first outlines of a comedy loosely sketched in " , he also found in it " passages of high poetical spirit , and of inimitable quaintness of humour " .
Hazlitt proclaims The Winter 's Tale as " one of the best @-@ acting of our author 's plays " , and recalls with delight some of his favourite actors who played the parts , including Sarah Siddons and John Kemble . He notes the incisive psychology of the unfolding of King Leontes 's madness , the appealing roguery of Autolycus , and the charm of Perdita 's and Florizel 's speeches , after wondering how it could be that Pope doubted the authenticity of the play as Shakespeare 's .
Hazlitt thought All 's Well that Ends Well to be a particularly " pleasing " play , though less as a comedy than as a serious dramatisation of an original tale by Boccaccio . Helena is a noble example of womanhood , and , in the comic part of the play , Hazlitt is especially amused by the character of Parolles , the " parasite and hanger on of [ Count ] Bertram 's whose " folly , boasting , and cowardice [ ... and ] false pretensions to bravery and honour " are unmasked in " a very amusing episode . " The source of Shakespeare 's play leads Hazlitt to digress at length on the writing of Boccaccio , who had never had " justice [ ... ] done him by the world . "
Love 's Labour 's Lost , thought Hazlitt , " transports us quite as much to the manners of the court , and the quirks of the courts of law , as to the scenes of nature or the fairy @-@ land of [ Shakespeare 's ] own imagination . Shakespear has set himself to imitate the tone of polite conversation then prevailing among the fair , the witty , and the learned " . " If we were to part with any of the author 's comedies " , he writes , " it should be this . " Yet he also mentions many amusing characters , dramatic scenes , and noble lines of poetry he would not willingly part with , quoting at length long passages spoken by both Biron and by Rosaline .
Much Ado About Nothing Hazlitt found to be an " admirable comedy " , neatly balancing the comic against more serious matter . He reflects , " Perhaps that middle point of comedy was never more nicely hit in which the ludicrous blends with the tender , and our follies , turning round against themselves in support of our affections , retain nothing but their humanity . "
The Taming of the Shrew Hazlitt sums up very simply as " almost the only one of Shakespear 's comedies that has a regular plot , and downright moral [ .... ] It shows admirably how self @-@ will is only to be got the better of by stronger will , and how one degree of ridiculous perversity is only to be driven out by another still greater . "
While The Comedy of Errors has a few passages " which bear the decided stamp of [ Shakespeare 's ] genius " , Hazlitt for the most part characterises it as " taken very much from the Menaechmi of Plautus , and is not an improvement on it . "
Hazlitt ends his detailed account of the plays with a chapter on " Doubtful Plays of Shakespear " , the greater part of which consists of direct quotations from Schlegel , whose remarks Hazlitt finds worth considering , if he does not always agree with them . Most of the plays now accepted as Shakespeare 's , or at least partly by Shakespeare , were also accepted as his by Hazlitt . The two notable exceptions were Titus Andronicus and Pericles , Prince of Tyre . Of the former , Hazlitt nevertheless respected Schlegel 's defence of it enough to quote the latter at length . And he allows that some parts of Pericles could have been by Shakespeare but more likely were " imitations " of Shakespeare " by some contemporary poet . "
Hazlitt felt compelled to add to his commentary on the plays some words on Shakespeare 's nondramatic poetry , in the chapter " Poems and Sonnets " . While he liked a few of the sonnets , for the most part Hazlitt found Shakespeare 's nondramatic poetry to be artificial , mechanical , and , overall , " laboured , uphill work . " On the whole , wrote Hazlitt , " Our idolatry of Shakespear [ ... ] ceases with his plays . "
= = Themes = =
Characters of Shakespear 's Plays argues against a century and a half of criticism that saw Shakespeare as a " child of nature " , deficient in art and full of faults . To anchor his position , Hazlitt makes an observation by the poet Alexander Pope — despite Pope 's being one of those very critics — his unifying theme : " every single character in Shakespear , is as much an individual , as those in life itself " , and he explores the Shakespearean art that , as much as observation of nature , brought those characters to life .
Much of the book synthesises Hazlitt 's own views with those of his predecessors in Shakespearean criticism . The greatest of these critics was August Wilhelm Schlegel , the contemporary German literary scholar and critic who also heavily influenced Coleridge and who Hazlitt believed appreciated Shakespeare better than any English critic . " Certainly no writer among ourselves " , wrote Hazlitt , " has shown either the same admiration of his genius , or the same philosophical acuteness in pointing out his characteristic excellences . "
Hazlitt also merges with his presentation , in a general way , the approach of his immediate British predecessors , the " character critics " , like Maurice Morgann , who had begun to take a psychological approach , focusing on how the characters in the plays behave and think like people we know in real life .
In this vein , each of Hazlitt 's essays incorporates numerous often very personal commentaries on the characters . For example , in the account of Cymbeline , he announces , " We have almost as great an affection for Imogen as she had for Posthumus ; and she deserves it better . " And comparing Falstaff with Prince Hal , he proclaims , " Falstaff is the better man of the two . " Commenting on " the character of Hamlet " , he in effect joins a discussion among his contemporaries , adding to the mix of similar assessments by Goethe , Schlegel , and Coleridge his observation that Hamlet " is not a character marked by strength of will or even of passion , but by refinement of thought and sentiment . "
Although Hazlitt 's attention to " characters " in this manner was not original , and was later criticised , he built upon the approach , adding his own conceptions of how Shakespeare presented human nature and experience .
One idea , elaborating on his originally stated theme , to which Hazlitt returns several times — in Macbeth , A Midsummer Night 's Dream , Henry IV , and elsewhere — is that Shakespeare does not only create highly individual characters . More than any other dramatist , he creates characters that are of similar general types , and yet , as in real life , differ in subtle ways :
Shakespear was scarcely more remarkable for the force and marked contrasts of his characters than for the truth and subtlety with which he has distinguished those which approached the nearest to each other . For instance , the soul of Othello is hardly more distinct from that of Iago than that of Desdemona is shewn to be from AEmilia 's ; the ambition of Macbeth is as distinct from the ambition of Richard III. as it is from the meekness of Duncan ; the real madness of Lear is as different from the feigned madness of Edgar as from the babbling of the fool [ ... ] .
In the classical view , through at least Dr. Johnson , poetry " holds a mirror up to nature " . The Romantics began to shift the focus to the role of the imagination . In common with his Romantic contemporaries , Hazlitt focuses on how , to communicate the meaning of the play , Shakespeare 's imagination , by the medium of poetry , stimulates the reader 's or audience 's imagination . Several times , Hazlitt observes how Shakespeare by this imaginative construction seemed to become each character in turn . For example , in " Antony and Cleopatra " he stops to observe , " The characters breathe , move , and live . Shakespear [ ... ] becomes them , and speaks and acts for them . " And in " Henry IV " : " He appears to have been all the characters , and in all the situations he describes . "
We as readers or audience appreciate the characters by the force of our imagination 's seeming to participate in the scene , as if we were present during such an event in real life . Commenting on the scene in Julius Caesar where Caesar confides to Marc Antony his apprehensions about Cassius , Hazlitt writes : " We know hardly any passage more expressive of the genius of Shakespeare than this . It is as if he had been actually present , had known the different characters and what they thought of one another , and had taken down what he heard and saw , their looks , words , and gestures , just as they happened . " In " Hamlet " , he observes that " the characters think and speak and act just as they might do , if left entirely to themselves . [ ... ] The whole play is an exact transcript of what might be supposed to have taken place at the court of Denmark [ ... ] . "
In " Troilus and Cressida " , by a comparison with Chaucer 's method of depicting character , he explains in detail how Shakespeare 's idea of " character " is not fixed , and Shakespeare shows the characters not only by their own behaviour but as they view and react to one another . Likewise , Shakespeare 's attention was not merely to habitual outward behaviour , but to the most transitory , fleeting inward impressions . " Shakespear exhibited [ ... ] not only what things are in themselves , but whatever they might seem to be , their different reflections , their endless combinations . "
At times , Shakespeare 's illumination of his characters ' inner life was so strong that Hazlitt believed no stage presentation could do justice to Shakespeare 's conception . In " Lear " he approvingly quotes his friend Charles Lamb 's argument that , in general , Shakespeare 's plays are unsuited for the stage . The thought crops up repeatedly that " [ t ] he stage is not in general the best place to study our author 's characters in . " And elsewhere , " Poetry and the stage do not agree well together . " In such statements , he approached the position of Lamb ( to whom he dedicated Characters of Shakespear 's Plays ) , who felt that no stage presentation could do justice to Shakespearean drama , that the artifice of the stage interposes a barrier between the author 's conception and the audience 's imagination . As critic John Mahoney put it , to both Lamb and Hazlitt , " the performance of Shakespeare in a theatre must always be disappointing to an extent because the slightest departure from the vision conjured by the imagination is so immediately detected and so quickly a source of aesthetic displeasure . "
Certain plays in particular fall into the category of those unfitted for the stage , for example , A Midsummer Night 's Dream and Hamlet . Particularly in the greatest tragedies , this inner focus is so strong that Hazlitt again advances beyond the idea of individual character to that of the " logic of passion " — powerful emotions experienced interactively , illuminating our common human nature . This idea is developed in Hazlitt 's accounts of King Lear , Othello , and Macbeth .
At least partly explaining why both Lamb and Hazlitt felt the inadequacy of Shakespearean stage performances was that the theatres themselves were huge and gaudy , audiences were noisy and unmannerly , and dramatic presentations in the early nineteenth century were sensationalistic , laden with artificial and showy props . In addition , unless one sat down in the pit , one could easily miss the subtleties of the actors ' facial and vocal expressions .
For all his insistence that justice could not be done to Shakespeare 's plays on stage , Hazlitt frequently made exceptions . A devoted playgoer from an early age , and now a drama critic , he relished many of the stage performances he had witnessed . In some cases , as with Edmund Kean ( to whom he refers frequently in this book , usually with admiration ) and Sarah Siddons ( he could " conceive of nothing grander " than her performance as Lady Macbeth ) , their interpretations of roles in Shakespearean drama left indelible impressions , extending his ideas of the potential of the characters represented . For example , in " Romeo and Juliet " he proclaims , " Perhaps one of the finest pieces of acting that ever was witnessed on the stage , is Mr. Kean 's manner of doing this scene [ when Romeo is banished ] [ ... ] He treads close indeed upon the genius of his author . "
Hazlitt throughout his book seems to waver between these two opinions — that frequently the actors offer the best interpretations of Shakespeare , and that no view of Shakespeare on stage can match the rich experience of reading the plays — without acknowledging the apparent contradiction .
Some plays he considered to be especially suitable for the stage , such as The Winter 's Tale , which he declares to be " one of the best @-@ acting of our author 's plays " . Here he recalls some acting triumphs he had witnessed long ago : " Mrs. Siddons played Hermione , and in the last scene acted the painted statue to the life — with true monumental dignity and noble passion ; Mr. Kemble , in Leontes , worked himself up into a very fine classical phrensy ; and Bannister , as Autolycus , roared as loud for pity as a sturdy beggar could do who felt none of the pain he counterfeited , and was sound of wind and limb . "
Richard III for Hazlitt was another that was " properly a stage @-@ play " , and in that chapter " criticise [ s ] it chiefly with a reference to the manner in which we have seen it performed " , and then compares various actors ' interpretations of the character of King Richard : " If Mr. Kean does not entirely succeed in concentrating all the lines of the character , as drawn by Shakespear [ ... ] [ h ] e is more refined than Cooke ; more bold , varied , and original than Kemble in the same character . "
Hazlitt also objects to the way Richard III was frequently edited for the stage at that time . " To make room for [ ... ] worse than needless additions " from other plays , often not by Shakespeare , " many of the most striking passages in the real play have been omitted by the foppery and ignorance of the prompt @-@ book critics . " Viewing it as the stage presentation of a story , he finds this play is damaged by these manipulations , as , in Shakespeare 's original , the " arrangement and developement of the story , and the mutual contrast and combination of the dramatis personae , are in general as finely managed as the developement of the characters or the expression of the passions . " He remarks on another kind of editing — what would soon become known as " Bowdlerisation " — in the treatment of a passage in Romeo and Juliet in which the frank speech of Juliet alarmed the prudes of his day . He quotes the passage , commenting that " we have no doubt that it has been expunged from the Family Shakespear . "
Story development and " the business of the plot " are scrutinised in several chapters . " Shakespear excelled in the openings of his plays : that of Macbeth is the most striking of any . " Commenting on the " developement of the catastrophe " in Cymbeline , he takes occasion to note that the contention of Dr. Johnson that " Shakespear was generally inattentive to the winding @-@ up of his plots " , is so far from being true that in King Lear , Romeo and Juliet , Macbeth , Othello , and Hamlet , among " other plays of less moment [ ... ] the last act is crowded with decisive events brought about by natural and striking means . " Hazlitt will frequently offer a brief sketch of the story and stop to note particular excellences of Shakespeare 's technique . He thus finds the " whole of the trial scene " in The Merchant of Venice to be " a master @-@ piece of dramatic skill . "
Occasionally Hazlitt also discusses the plays from yet other perspectives . Shakespeare 's reliance on earlier source material comes into consideration in " Coriolanus " and " All 's Well that Ends Well " in particular . Repeatedly , Hazlitt focuses on scenes as they were staged . In the words of Arthur Eastman , he " reads the plays like a director , quick to detect cues as to motion , gesture , costume . " Remarking on Hazlitt 's " theatrical sense " , Eastman says that " it 's not simply the physical that Hazlitt has in mind — it 's the whole interrelationship of one person with another , one mind with other minds — presences both physical and psychological upon a stage . "
In line with Schlegel , more than with any previous English @-@ language critic ( except Coleridge , who also followed Schlegel ) , Hazlitt found " unity " in Shakespeare 's plays not in their observing the traditional classical unities of time , place , and action , but in their unity of theme . His most complete elaboration of this idea is in his chapter on Antony and Cleopatra :
The jealous attention which has been paid to the unities both of time and place has taken away the principle of perspective in the drama , and all the interest which objects derive from distance , from contrast , from privation , from change of fortune , from long @-@ cherished passion ; and contrasts our view of life from a strange and romantic dream , long , obscure , and infinite , into a smartly contested , three hours ' inaugural disputation on its merits by the different candidates for theatrical applause .
In the discussion of Macbeth , it is Macbeth 's unity of character that is significant . In many chapters , he emphasises the dominant mood , a unifying theme , the " character " of the play as a whole . In , again , Macbeth , the entire play " is done upon a stronger and more systematic principle of contrast than any other of Shakespear 's plays . " He notes that " a certain tender gloom overspreads the whole " of Cymbeline . Romeo and Juliet shows " the whole progress of human life " in which " one generation pushes another off the stage . " Reading A Midsummer Night 's Dream " is like wandering in a grove by moonlight : the descriptions breathe a sweetness like odours thrown from beds of flowers . "
Another earlier criticism of Shakespeare , that his writing was not " moral " , was still alive in Hazlitt 's day . Coleridge frequently emphasised the immorality of characters like Falstaff . To Hazlitt , this was entirely the wrong approach to take to morality in the medium of dramatic poetry , and he stops from time to time to comment on Shakespeare 's morality . In considering Hamlet , for example , he declares that the character of Hamlet should not be judged by ordinary moral rules . " The ethical delineations of " Shakespeare " do not exhibit the drab @-@ coloured quakerism of morality . " In " Measure for Measure " he remarks that Shakespeare 's morality is to be judged as that of nature itself : " He taught what he had learnt from her . He shewed the greatest knowledge of humanity with the greatest fellow @-@ feeling for it . " Shakespeare 's " talent consisted in sympathy with human nature , in all its shapes , degrees , depressions , and elevations " , and this attitude could be considered immoral only if one considers morality to be " made up of antipathies " .
Scattered throughout the chapters are more general critical discussions , such as that on tragedy in the essay " Othello " , comedy in " Twelfth Night " , and the value for human life of poetry in general , in " Lear " , among many others . Along the way , Hazlitt intersperses lengthy quotations from the plays , sharing with the reader poetic passages he thought particularly excellent . This practice resembled the by then common practice of collecting long extracts from the plays as the " beauties " of Shakespeare . Hazlitt , however , also adds critical commentary ( though often far less extensive than would become the practice in later years ) , with the quotations illustrating particular points about the plays as well as sharing with his readers what he thought worthy of attention . All this , done as no one had before , made Characters of Shakespear 's Plays the first handbook for the study and appreciation of all of Shakespeare 's plays .
= = Critical response = =
= = = 1817 – 1830 : Contemporary reception = = =
Characters of Shakespear 's Plays was Hazlitt 's most successful book . As he had circulated advance copies before publication , it was noticed favourably before it formally appeared on 9 July 1817 . Leigh Hunt proclaimed enthusiastically that " it is the least of all its praises to say that it must inevitably supersede the dogmatical and half @-@ informed criticisms of Johnson . "
After publication , not all of the reaction was this positive . The Tory British Critic sniped that the book was " stuffed with dull , common @-@ place , Jacobin declamation " , and the Quarterly Review , with the same political bias , rebuked Hazlitt for his uncomplimentary portrayal of King Henry VIII . But for the most part , the praise continued . Hunt , in a fuller review in The Examiner , applauded not only the author 's enthusiasm " but the very striking susceptibility with which he changes his own humour and manner according to the nature of the play he comes upon ; like a spectator in a theatre , who accompanies the turns of the actor 's face with his own . " John Hamilton Reynolds , reviewing it in The Champion , went so far as to claim that " This is the only work ever written on Shakespeare that can be deemed worthy of Shakespeare " .
The first edition sold out in six weeks . It was only some months afterward that the voice of Francis Jeffrey , the highly respected editor of The Edinburgh Review , was heard . Jeffrey began by expressing reservations : this is not a book of great learning and less a book of criticism than of appreciation . And yet , Jeffrey concedes , the " appreciation " is of the highest kind , and he is " not [ ... ] much inclined to disagree with " Hazlitt " after reading his eloquent exposition " of the points he makes about Shakespeare . " The book [ ... ] is written less to tell the reader what Mr. H. knows about Shakespeare or his writings , than to explain to them what he feels about them — and why he feels so — and thinks that all who profess to love poetry should feel so likewise . " While Characters does not " show extraordinary knowledge of [ Shakespeare 's ] production " it nevertheless shows " very considerable originality and genius . "
On 30 May 1818 , a second edition appeared , this time published by Taylor and Hessey . At first this sold well . At that time , however , literary criticism was subject to exceptionally strong political influences . In particular , the most unscrupulous of the Tory periodicals did not hesitate to indulge in barefaced lies to discredit adherents of what they considered unacceptable political views . Hazlitt , never reticent about criticising kings or government ministers , soon became a target . Only a little more than a week had passed when the Quarterly Review " delivered a diabolical notice of Characters of Shakespeare 's Plays — possibly by its editor , William Gifford . " ( It could have actually been by a certain John Russell , writing anonymously ; but Hazlitt laid the blame on Gifford , who was responsible for the journal 's contents and may have encouraged Russell . ) Gifford , or Russell , sliding from literary criticism into character assassination , wrote :
We should not have condescended to notice the senseless and wicked sophistry of this writer [ ... ] had we not considered him as one of the representatives of a class of men by whom literature is more than at any former period disgraced [ ... ] it might not be unprofitable to show how small a portion of talent and literature was necessary for carrying on the trade of sedition . [ Hazlitt had dared to criticise the character of King Henry VIII . ] The few specimens which we have selected of his ethics and his criticism are more than sufficient to prove that Mr. Hazlitt 's knowledge of Shakespeare and the English language is exactly on a par with the purity of his morals and the depth of his understanding .
Sales completely dried up . Hazlitt got the chronology a bit wrong but was otherwise not exaggerating when he wrote in 1821 :
Taylor and Hessey told me that they had sold nearly two editions of the Characters of Shakespear 's Plays in about three months , but that after the Quarterly Review of them came out , they never sold another copy .
The attacks in the Tory periodicals , soon extended to other works by Hazlitt , killed not merely the sales of Characters of Shakespear 's Plays but , as far as much of the general public was concerned , his reputation as a literary critic .
= = = 1830 – 1900 : Under a cloud = = =
Though the influence of Hazlitt 's only full @-@ length treatment of Shakespeare somewhat receded , it did not completely die out . Hazlitt 's son and grandson brought out editions of Hazlitt 's works later in the century . His miscellaneous and familiar essays were read , and Hazlitt was commended as a stylist by a discerning few . As a critic , though he had passed out of the public eye , an even more select few understood how high a place he deserved in the ranking of literary critics . William Makepeace Thackeray , for example , praised Hazlitt in 1844 as " one of the keenest and brightest critics that ever lived . " Another rare exception was the Scottish journalist Alexander Ireland , who in a brief memoir of Hazlitt in 1889 wrote that Hazlitt 's book on Shakespeare , " although it professes to be dramatic criticism , is in reality a discourse on the philosophy of life and human nature , more suggestive than many approved treatises expressly devoted to that subject . "
For the most part , although Hazlitt continued to be read and his influence was to a degree felt , he was throughout most of the remainder of the nineteenth century infrequently cited as a critic .
= = = 1900 – 1950 : Reemergence = = =
Around the turn of the twentieth century , the influence of Characters began to be exerted more explicitly , notably in the studies of critic A.C. Bradley , who approvingly adopted Hazlitt 's explanation of the character of Iago . At about this time , George Saintsbury , who wrote a comprehensive history of English criticism ( finished in 1904 ) , recorded his extreme distaste for Hazlitt 's character , and , as noted by critic Elisabeth Schneider , found his writings " filled with vast ignorance , errors , prejudice , and an unpleasantness of temper amounting almost to insanity " . Yet he also ranked Hazlitt high as a critic , among the greatest in the language . Characters he placed lower than some of Hazlitt 's other critical works ; yet he allowed that , aside from such " outbursts " as his railing against the historical King Henry V , and his over @-@ reliance on quotation from Schlegel , Characters of Shakespear 's Plays is filled with much that is admirable , notably Hazlitt 's comparison of Chaucer 's and Shakespeare 's characterisation and his observation that Shakespeare " has no prejudices for or against his characters " . Saintsbury found Hazlitt 's critical judgements sound as a rule , and he thought that the characterisations of Falstaff and Shylock were " masterpieces " .
Even as the " character " critics began to fall out of favour , and Hazlitt , who was lumped together with them , was also pushed aside , some influence remained . Hazlitt 's general approach to Shakespeare 's plays , in conveying the prevailing mood , the character of the play itself , had its influence on later twentieth @-@ century critics , like G. Wilson Knight . Other major Shakespeareans , like John Dover Wilson , would occasionally refer approvingly to one of Hazlitt 's insights or notable passages , such as the characterisation of Falstaff .
= = = 1950 – 1970 : Revaluation = = =
Hazlitt 's Shakespearean criticism continued to find some acceptance from then on , yet a stigma still hung about his character , and his criticism was often judged to be overly emotional and " impressionistic " . This attitude changed only gradually . In 1955 , René Wellek , in his history of literary criticism in all Western culture for the previous two centuries , largely supported these earlier views . Characters , to him , centres excessively on Shakespeare 's characters and , worse , Hazlitt " confuses fiction and reality " and discusses fictional characters as though they were real people . Yet he also notes , a half @-@ century after Saintsbury , and following Schneider 's lead , that for all of Hazlitt 's impressionism , " there is more theory in Hazlitt than is generally realised . " He also thought that Hazlitt shows considerable " psychological acumen " in explaining certain types of characters , such as Iago , and that Hazlitt 's " character sketch of Iago is superior to Coleridge 's " . He also praises Hazlitt 's freedom , in Characters and elsewhere , from " the defects which infected his nearest critical rivals , Johnson and Coleridge : chauvinism , prudery , and unctuous sermonising . [ ... ] He is free of the prudery which in his day pervaded English culture . "
Contemporaneously , Walter Jackson Bate , a critic specialising in the English Romantic period , voiced his approval of Hazlitt 's Shakespearean criticism , seen in the context of that of other Romantics . " Like Coleridge [ ... ] or [ ... ] Keats " , wrote Bate , " Hazlitt had the characteristic romantic delight in Shakespeare 's ability to unveil character in a single passage or even a single line — in ' flashes of passion ' that offer a ' revelation as it were of the whole context of our being . ' "
More attention soon came to Hazlitt 's book . Lionel Trilling was the first critic to recognise the importance of Hazlitt 's radically new idea about poetry as expressed in his essay on Coriolanus . Herschel Baker in 1962 noted that the best parts of Hazlitt 's book , such as the " stirring essays on Othello and Macbeth " , place " Hazlitt near the top of those who have written greatly on the greatest of all writers . "
In 1968 , Arthur M. Eastman published a retrospective study of 350 years of Shakespearean criticism . At that time , it still seemed necessary to apologise for including Hazlitt among the major Shakespearean critics of his age . But in A Short History of Shakespearean Criticism , Eastman finally concludes that , although much of what Hazlitt says about Shakespeare is not original , it " is well enough said to find a place in the story . "
Before Eastman finishes , however , he enumerates several things that Hazlitt did formulate in an original manner . Besides such memorable expressions as " It is we who are Hamlet " , Hazlitt , like no critic before him , was supremely attentive to " the whole interrelationship of one person with another , one mind with other minds — presences both physical and psychological upon a stage . " With this focus on what Hazlitt had to say about Shakespeare 's stagecraft and the way his plays were acted , Eastman thus rescued him from the opprobrium of being associated , in the most superficial way , with the " character " critics . Differing from his contemporaries Lamb and Coleridge , " Hazlitt [ ... ] brings to Shakespeare both a drama critic 's sense of the plays as theatre and a closet critic 's sense that the theatre of the mind so far surpasses that of the stage that certain of the plays can only be acted there . "
Eastman also points to Hazlitt 's focus on the underlying unity of the plays . Hazlitt may not have done this as well as Coleridge ( who , Eastman thought , was better at suggesting avenues of approach for others to find unity in Shakespeare 's plays ) , " Yet the demonstrations of unity in Cymbeline and Othello and King Lear make us see what otherwise we might not . " Eastman also rescues Hazlitt 's political commentary , which , however abrasive it might be , " opens such questions " for general discussion , " so that the politics of the plays enters into the arena of interpretation in a new and dignified way . "
Overall , Eastman concludes , despite the book 's many shortcomings , Characters of Shakespear 's Plays was the " best handbook " of its century for the study of Shakespeare 's plays .
= = = 1970 – 2000 : Revival = = =
It remained for John Kinnaird in his 1978 full @-@ length study of Hazlitt as thinker and critic to reconcile Hazlitt as " character " critic with Hazlitt as drama critic . Hazlitt was a character critic to an extent ; but he was also a dramatic critic who paid attention to staging and dramatic form . And even his character criticism transcended the focus on individual characters to create " a larger study of the ways of dramatic imagination " . In the course of his study of Shakespeare , Hazlitt , as Kinnaird points out , also shows how it is Shakespeare 's " art " that enables him to represent " nature " , dismissing the older critical view that Shakespeare was a " child of nature " but deficient in " art " .
Kinnaird further delves into the ideas in Characters of Shakespear 's Plays , especially that of " power " as involved in Shakespeare 's plays and as investigated by Hazlitt , not only the power in physical force but the power of imagination in sympathising with physical force , which at times can overcome our will to the good . He explores Hazlitt 's accounts of Shakespeare 's tragedies — Macbeth , Hamlet , Othello , King Lear , and especially Coriolanus — where he shows that Hazlitt reveals that our love of power in sympathising with what can involve evil can overcome the human desire for the good . This , Kinnaird points out , has serious implications in considering the meaning and purpose of tragic literature in general .
Along the way , Kinnaird notes the influence of Characters on later Shakespearean criticism , including that of A.C. Bradley , G. Wilson Knight , and C.L. Barber .
Hazlitt , concludes , Kinnaird , was too often misunderstood and dismissed as no more than a " character " critic . But his contribution to Shakespeare studies was much broader and deeper than that , and , despite problems with some of Hazlitt 's own theories , Characters of Shakespear 's Plays was a " seminal " work .
By this time , a revival of interest in Hazlitt was well under way . Only a few years later , in 1983 , in his study of Hazlitt as critic , David Bromwich considers at length some issues involving Characters of Shakespear 's Plays . Against some allegations to the contrary in earlier studies of Hazlitt , Bromwich concludes that Hazlitt borrowed little from Coleridge , and he presents several contrasts in their critical views , particularly about Shakespeare , as evidence . In extended discussions of Hazlitt 's critical treatment of the character of Iago in Othello , of Shylock in The Merchant of Venice , of Caliban in The Tempest , of Hamlet , and , at great length , of Coriolanus , he uses the contrast between Coleridge 's criticism and Hazlitt 's to highlight the essential originality of Hazlitt 's critical stance , and he observes that Hazlitt 's views frequently provide a bracing alternative to Coleridge 's . He also delves into the issue of Hazlitt 's influence on Keats partly by means of Characters , particularly the chapter on King Lear , and he finds in Hazlitt 's comments on Lear interesting contrasts and similarities with the critical views of Wordsworth and Shelley . Building upon the arguments advanced by Kinnaird , Bromwich further challenges the " reductive " notion that Characters was simply a work of " character " criticism .
= = = 2000 and afterward = = =
Sustained by the accelerated revival of interest in Hazlitt toward the close of the twentieth century , the legacy of Characters of Shakespear 's Plays has been valued increasingly as well . In 1994 Harold Bloom , in voicing his appreciation of Hazlitt 's accounts of Coriolanus and of Edmund in King Lear , ranked Hazlitt second only to Dr. Johnson as an English @-@ language literary critic . He echoed and reinforced that assessment in his 2008 edition of Othello . Other new editions of Shakespeare also look back to Hazlitt 's interpretations of his plays . In 2000 , Jonathan Arac in The Cambridge History of Literary Criticism placed Hazlitt with Schlegel and Coleridge as distinguished Shakespearean critics of their age and noted his study of Shakespeare as one of the " landmarks that still serve as points of departure for fresh thinking nearly two centuries later . " In 2006 , with Hazlitt 's full reinstatement as a major Shakespearean critic , philosopher Colin McGinn based an entire book about Shakespeare 's plays on Hazlitt 's idea that Shakespeare was a " philosophical " poet .
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= The Museum of Curiosity =
The Museum of Curiosity , formerly titled The Professor of Curiosity , is a comedy panel game on BBC Radio 4 that was first broadcast on 20 February 2008 . It is hosted by John Lloyd ( Professor of Ignorance at the University of Buckingham , and later at Southampton Solent University ) . He acts as the head of the ( fictional ) titular museum , while a panel of three guests – typically a comedian , an author and an academic – each donate to the museum an ‘ object ’ that fascinates them . The radio medium ensures that the suggested exhibits can be absolutely anything , limited only by the guests ’ imaginations .
Bill Bailey acted as co @-@ host of the programme in the first series , under the title of curator of the museum . Bailey left the show after he initially decided to " retire " from panel games , and was replaced by Sean Lock in the second series . Each subsequent series has seen a different comedian take over as the sidekick / curator , with Jon Richardson , Dave Gorman , Jimmy Carr , Humphrey Ker , Phill Jupitus , Sarah Millican and Noel Fielding assuming the role in the third , fourth , fifth , sixth , seventh , eighth and ninth series respectively . Gorman also stood in for Richardson for one episode of the third series , after Richardson was stranded due to the eruption of Eyjafjallajökull . Ker also functioned as a stand @-@ in , this time for Jimmy Carr , when Carr was unable to attend one episode in series 5 .
The programme has often been compared to the television panel game QI . Both were co @-@ created by Lloyd , several of the Museum 's ' curators ' and comic guests have appeared regularly on QI , and the QI Elves ( QI 's research team , who provide host Stephen Fry with live information as required during the programme ) provide the research . As a result , some critics consider the radio show to be a spin @-@ off of the TV programme , and some have further ventured that The Museum of Curiosity is not as good as its forerunner . Most reviews of The Museum of Curiosity , however , are positive .
= = Format = =
In series one , the programme began with Bailey introducing the show and playing its theme tune , which he performed in a slightly different way in each episode . In subsequent series , the theme tune was , instead , performed by House Of Strange Studios of East London . The host / professor and the curator / sidekick introduce themselves . They then give a short guide to the museum , followed by the introduction of the " advisory committee " , a guest panel made up of celebrities and academic experts , during which Lloyd reads their CVs aloud .
Afterward , each member of the " committee " donates something to the museum . The donation can be anything , regardless of its size , cost , tangibility , or even existence . Examples of donations include a yeti , the Battle of Waterloo , and absolutely nothing . Lloyd and the curator then decide what form the exhibit could take and where in the museum it could be displayed . In series one , the programme ended either with Lloyd and Bailey reading audience suggestions for additional exhibits or asking the audience curious questions . Bailey ended the show by giving a humorous comment on a Bertrand Russell quote . Both of these ideas were dropped in series two .
From series two onward , the show has maintained a standard format . It is presented in two halves ; in the first half , Lloyd and the curator introduce the three guests , provide an explanation of who they are , and the five engage in a general discussion . In the second half , the curator declares the Museum open for donations , and each guest explains what they wish to " donate " to the museum ( again , as the museum is fictional , nothing is actually exchanged ) . Questioning of all three guests ensures that everyone says something about each donation .
= = Production = =
The programme 's pilot episode was recorded on 16 April 2007 and was the entitled The Professor of Curiosity . The guests for this episode were Alastair Fothergill , Victoria Finlay and Simon Munnery . This pilot , recorded at the Rutherford Room at the institute of Physics , has not been broadcast . The first series was recorded at the Pleasance Theatre in Islington and , since then , the show has been recorded at the BBC Radio Theatre , with occasional recordings at other venues , such as the Shaw Theatre and RADA Studios ( formerly The Drill Hall ) , all in London . The series was created by Lloyd , Richard Turner and Dan Schreiber . Turner and Schreiber also produce the show . The show 's researchers are James Harkin , Xander Cansell ( for series one ) , Molly Oldfield ( from series two onward ) and Stevyn Colgan ( Series 5 onward ) .
A live version of the show was staged at the Natural History Museum , London on 9 November 2012 for charity . The guests for this edition were Terry Pratchett , Dave Gorman , Alan West , Baron West of Spithead , Helen Keen , Richard Fortey and Erica McAlister . The show was hosted by John Lloyd , with Producer Dan Schreiber taking the role of curator .
Further live shows were staged at the 2014 Edinburgh Fringe featuring a number of top comedians and other guests .
= = Episodes = =
= = = Series 1 = = =
= = = Series 2 = = =
= = = Series 3 = = =
= = = Series 4 = = =
= = = Series 5 = = =
= = = Series 6 = = =
= = = Series 7 = = =
= = = Coding Special = = =
= = = Series 8 = = =
= = Reception = =
Reaction to the series was mixed . Phil Daoust in The Guardian described the show as being " unusual " and " eclectic " . Chris Campling , who wrote a preview of the first episode , highlighted it in his " Radio Choice " column for The Times . Gillian Reynolds highlighted the programme as one of her radio choices in the Daily Telegraph . Rosanna Chianta in Scotland on Sunday compared the show positively to QI , also created by Lloyd , while Frances Lass from the Radio Times said it was better , claiming it was , " QI with even more jokes . Made me bark with laughter " , that , " Lord Reith would be so proud " and the programme was , " Pornography for the brain ! "
Miranda Sawyer of The Observer criticised the show , saying that , " it 's no QI , because the joy of that programme rests almost entirely in the host , Stephen Fry , and his subversion of the prissy , clever character we 're familiar with ( in QI , Fry is clever , but relaxed ) . The Museum of Curiosity is presented partly by Bill Bailey and mostly by John Lloyd , producer of QI ( are you getting a theme ? ) . Lloyd may well be a nice chap , but we haven 't a clue who he is , and , on the evidence of this , he isn 't a big or witty enough character for us to feel desperate to get to know him . "
Nicholas Lezard in The Independent on Sunday was lukewarm about the show , saying that the combination of comedian and scientist guests " more or less worked " , but he felt the show may not have been greenlit without Lloyd and Bailey 's involvement .
Kate Chisholm in The Spectator found the show a welcome change from the " smutty jokes and banal innuendo " usually associated with the timeslot , and compared the series to Paul Merton 's Room 101 , " but without the ego " .
Elisabeth Mahoney in The Guardian was critical of the second series . While praising the discussion between the guests as , " funny and flowing , and quite endearingly quirky " , she found that the programme " fizzled away when it reached what ought to have been its crux : the donation of kooky items to the imaginary museum . Instead , we had a reminder of what they were , and then a sudden ending that was both limp and abrupt . "
After appearing on the show in series 6 , Richard Herring wrote on his blog : " What a delightful and fascinating programme this is ( and one that I think might benefit from an extended podcast release - two hours of material is recorded for the 27 minute show and it 's pretty much all gold ! ) . At times I was so enjoying listening to the others talking that I almost forgot that I was meant to be taking part . It was a wide @-@ ranging discussion taking in ants on stilts , pianists with crippling , mechanical little fingers , the changing meridian and okapi sex ( can you guess what I contributed ? ) . The show has a dedicated team of nerds behind it who have dug out amazing facts and I love the way it has a panel comprising comedians , scientists and experts and attempts to link each contribution to similar areas of the different disciplines . While most TV panel shows ( including to some extent even QI ) gravitate to putting in the same well @-@ known comedy faces , you get a lot more interesting stuff by mixing it up a bit . The zoologist , Dr Christofer Clemente , came up with the funniest lines of the show . But would they book him on Mock The Week ? It 's intelligent and stimulating programming that is increasingly being edged out of TV and even radio , leaving a gaping open goal for independent internet productions to score in . I discussed this with one of the razor @-@ minded team after the show . The TV companies insist on getting big names into all shows , which takes up all the budget and seems to ignore the fact that the pool of possible contributors gets smaller and more boring . But glad that a few shows designed to expand the mind rather than crush the spirit still exist . "
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= Cheshire , Connecticut , home invasion murders =
The Cheshire , Connecticut , home invasion murders occurred on July 23 , 2007 . Jennifer Hawke @-@ Petit and her two daughters were raped and murdered , while her husband , Dr. William Petit , was injured during a home invasion in Cheshire , Connecticut . The Hartford Courant referred to the case as " possibly the most widely publicized crime in the state 's history " . In 2010 Steven Hayes was convicted of the murders and sentenced to death . His accomplice , Joshua Komisarjevsky , was found guilty on October 13 , 2011 , and sentenced to death on January 27 , 2012 . In August 2015 , the state of Connecticut abolished the death penalty , and both Hayes and Komisarjevsky had their death sentences commuted to life sentences .
= = Background = =
Late in the afternoon of Sunday , July 22 , 2007 , 48 @-@ year @-@ old Jennifer Hawke @-@ Petit and her 11 @-@ year @-@ old daughter Michaela Petit went to a local grocery store in Cheshire , Connecticut . They picked up food for Jennifer 's pre @-@ birthday meal that Michaela planned to prepare for her . During their trip to the grocery store , they attracted the attention of Joshua Komisarjevsky , who followed them home .
Steven Hayes messaged Komisarjevsky : " I 'm chomping at the bit to get started . Need a margarita soon . " Hayes then texted , " We still on ? " Komisarjevsky replied , " Yes . " Hayes ' next text asked , " Soon ? " , to which Komisarjevsky replied : " I 'm putting the kid to bed hold your horses " . Hayes then wrote : " Dude , the horses want to get loose . LOL . "
= = Home invasion = =
According to Hayes ' confession , the two men had planned to rob the Petit house under cover of darkness leaving the family bound , but unharmed . Hayes attributed the outcome to a change of plan . Upon their arrival in the early hours of July 23 , they found William Petit sleeping on a couch on the porch . Komisarjevsky struck William on the head with a baseball bat found in the yard and then tied him up at gunpoint in the basement . The children and their mother were then bound and locked in their respective rooms . Hayes said that he and Komisarjevsky were not satisfied with their haul , and that a bankbook was found which showed an available balance .
A gas station 's video surveillance shows Hayes purchasing $ 10 worth of gasoline in two cans he had taken from the Petit home . After returning to the house , and unloading the gas , he took Jennifer to the bank . The prosecution later claimed that this was evidence of premeditated murder . Hayes convinced Jennifer to withdraw $ 15 @,@ 000 from her line of credit when the bank opened . Bank surveillance cameras captured the transaction which shows Jennifer Hawke @-@ Petit , on the morning of July 23 , as she informed the teller of her situation . The bank manager then called 911 and reported the details to police while Jennifer was still with the teller . The manager reported to the 911 dispatcher , in real time , as Jennifer left the bank and was picked up by Hayes , describing his clothing as he drove away with her . The manager stated that Jennifer had indicated the assailants were " being nice " , and she believed they only wanted money .
The Cheshire police response to the bank 's " urgent bid " began with assessing the situation and setting up a vehicle perimeter . The police used up more than half an hour taking these preliminary measures while the assailants were raping and murdering the women inside the house . The police made no effort to make the assailants aware of their presence .
During this time , Hayes and Komisarjevsky escalated the aggravated nature of their crimes : Komisarjevsky raped the 11 @-@ year @-@ old Michaela . Komisarjevsky , who had photographed the sexual assault of the girl on his cell phone , then provoked Hayes into raping Jennifer . While Hayes was raping her on the floor of the living room , Komisarjevsky entered the room and announced that William Petit had escaped . Hayes then strangled Jennifer , doused her lifeless body and parts of the house , including the daughters ' rooms , with gasoline . While tied to their beds , both daughters had been doused with gasoline ; each had her head covered with a pillowcase . A fire was started , and Hayes and Komisarjevsky fled the scene . Hayley and Michaela both died of smoke inhalation .
William Petit had been able to free himself , escape his confines , and call to a neighbor for help . The neighbor indicated that he did not recognize him due to the severity of Petit 's injuries . In court testimony , William Petit stated that he felt a " jolt of adrenaline " coupled with a need to escape upon hearing one of the perpetrators state : " Don 't worry , it 's going to be all over in a couple of minutes . " Petit then told the jury , " I thought , it 's now or never because in my mind at that moment , I thought they were going to shoot all of us . "
Hayes and Komisarjevsky fled the scene using the Petit family car . They were immediately spotted by police surveillance , pursued , and arrested one block away . The whole invasion lasted seven hours .
The scenario was revealed in a confession by Hayes just hours after the killings . Detectives testified that Hayes smelled strongly of gasoline throughout the interrogation . Each perpetrator blamed or implicated the other as the mastermind and driving force behind the spree . There were even attempts to blame William Petit as an accomplice . Komisarjevsky later kept a diary , entered into evidence , in which he chose to call Petit a " coward " and claimed that he could have stopped the murders had he wanted to .
= = Victims = =
Jennifer Hawke @-@ Petit ( born September 26 , 1958 ) was a nurse and co @-@ director of the health center at Cheshire Academy , a private boarding school . She met her husband , William Petit , in 1985 on a pediatric rotation at Children 's Hospital when he was a third @-@ year medical student at the University of Pittsburgh and she was a new nurse . Their eldest daughter Hayley ( born October 15 , 1989 ) had just graduated from Miss Porter 's School and was scheduled to attend Dartmouth College . Hayley had been an active fundraiser for multiple sclerosis research , following Jennifer 's diagnosis with that disease . Daughter Michaela ( born November 17 , 1995 ) attended the Chase Collegiate School before her death .
William Petit , the sole survivor of the home invasion , is an endocrinologist in Cheshire . He survived when he escaped via a direct external exit from the basement despite his injuries . He has not returned to his medical practice since the murders , stating his desire to be active in the foundations set up to honor the memory of his deceased family . He contemplated running for Congress as a Republican , but later decided against it .
= = Perpetrators = =
Steven J. Hayes ( born May 30 , 1963 , in Homestead , Florida ) was found guilty on 16 of 17 counts related to the home invasion murders on October 5 , 2010 . On November 8 , 2010 , the jury returned with a recommendation for him to be executed . He was formally sentenced to death by Superior Court Judge Jon C. Blue on December 2 , 2010 .
Hayes is an inmate of the Connecticut Department of Correction . His criminal history shows him sentenced for his first offense at the age of 16 . He is incarcerated in the Northern Correctional Institution , which houses the state 's death row for men , in Somers , Connecticut . The method of execution employed by Connecticut was lethal injection , and the state execution chamber was located in the Osborn Correctional Institution in Somers . This sentence became an automatic life sentence when Connecticut abolished the death penalty in 2015 .
Joshua A. Komisarjevsky ( born August 10 , 1980 ) was Hayes ' co @-@ conspirator in the home invasion and murders . He was born in 1980 to a 16 @-@ year @-@ old girl impregnated by a 20 @-@ year @-@ old mechanic and was adopted by Benedict Komisarjevsky , the son of theatrical director Theodore Komisarjevsky and dancer Ernestine Stodelle , and his wife Jude ( née Motkya ) . Komisarjevsky remained incarcerated at the Walker Reception Center in lieu of a $ 15 million bond until his conviction . His trial began on September 19 , 2011 , and on October 13 , 2011 , he was convicted on all 17 counts . On December 9 , 2011 , the jury recommended the death penalty . On January 27 , 2012 Judge Jon Blue sentenced Komisarjevsky to death by lethal injection . His sentence also became an automatic life sentence when Connecticut abolished the death penalty in 2015 .
= = Trials = =
= = = Hayes ' trial = = =
The jury in Hayes ' case was composed of seven women and five men . Following the completion of the trial , the jury deliberated for about four hours to reach its guilty verdicts .
The second phase of the trial began on October 18 , 2010 , during which the jurors had to decide if Hayes should be executed or imprisoned for life . The second day of these deliberations began on November 6 , 2010 . Attorney Thomas Ullman told the jury that a sentence of life in prison would be the harshest possible punishment for his client Hayes , because he was so tormented by his crimes and would be isolated in prison . " Life in prison without the possibility of release is the harshest penalty , " Ullman said . " It is a fate worse than death . If you want to end his misery , put him to death , " he added . " If you want him to suffer and carry that burden forever , the guilt , shame , and humiliation , sentence him to life without the possibility of release . "
On November 8 , 2010 , the jury returned with a recommendation that Hayes be executed . The jury recommended a death sentence on each of the six capital felony counts for which Hayes was convicted . In the sentencing phase , the jury had deliberated for about 17 hours , over the course of three and a half days , before reaching a decision .
Hayes had attempted to negotiate a life sentence in a plea bargain . After the verdict , his defense attorney stated : " Hayes smiled upon hearing the jury 's recommendation of a death sentence . " He then added : " He is thrilled . He 's very happy with the verdict . That 's what he 's wanted all along . "
For the first time in state history , the Connecticut state judicial branch offered post @-@ traumatic stress assistance to jurors , who served for two months on the triple @-@ murder trial , because they had been required to look at disturbing images and hear grisly testimony .
On December 2 , 2010 , Hayes apologized for the pain and suffering he had caused the Petit family and added that : " Death for me will be a welcome relief and I hope it will bring some peace and comfort to those who I have hurt so much . " Judge Jon Blue formally imposed six death sentences , one for each of the capital charges ; Blue then added a sentence of 106 years for other crimes Hayes committed during the home invasion , including kidnapping , burglary , and assault , before finishing with , " This is a terrible sentence , but is , in truth , a sentence you wrote for yourself in flames . May God have mercy on your soul . " The judge also gave Hayes an official execution date of May 27 , 2011 ; Blue said that this date was a formality , because if Hayes appealed his case , his execution could be delayed for decades . His death sentence became a life sentence in August 2015 when the state abolished the death penalty .
= = = Komisarjevsky 's trial = = =
Komisarjevsky was found guilty on October 13 , 2011 . On December 9 , 2011 , the jury recommended the death penalty . On January 27 , 2012 , Komisarjevsky was sentenced to death by lethal injection . During the hearing , Komisarjevsky insisted that he did not intend to kill anyone and spoke about the shame , hurt and disappointment he had caused : " I will never find peace within . My life will be a continuation of the hurt I caused . The clock is now ticking and I owe a debt I cannot repay . " He said that forgiveness was not his to have , " and he needs to forgive his worst enemy – himself . " Blue set July 20 , 2012 as Komisarjevsky 's execution date . Like Hayes , Komisarjevsky 's death sentence was turned into a life sentence in August 2015 .
= = Subsequent developments in Connecticut capital punishment law = =
In 2009 , the Connecticut General Assembly sent legislation to abolish the state 's death penalty to Governor M. Jodi Rell ostensibly to be signed into law . However , on June 5 , 2009 , Rell vetoed the bill instead and cited the Cheshire murders as an exemplary reason for doing so . On November 8 , 2010 , Rell issued the following statement regarding the jury 's recommendation of a sentence of death for Hayes :
The crimes that were committed on that brutal July night were so far out of the range of normal understanding that now , more than three years later , we still find it difficult to accept that they happened in one of our communities . I have long believed that there are certain crimes so heinous , so depraved , that society is best served by imposing the ultimate sanction on the criminal . Steven Hayes stands convicted of such crimes – and today the jury has recommended that he should be subjected to the death penalty . I agree .
On April 11 , 2012 , the Connecticut House of Representatives voted to repeal capital punishment for future cases ( leaving past death sentences in place ) . The Connecticut Senate had already voted for the bill , and on April 25 Governor Dan Malloy signed the bill into law .
In August 2015 , the Connecticut Supreme Court declared all capital punishment inconsistent with the state constitution , effectively commuting the killers ' sentences to life imprisonment .
= = Aftermath = =
In 2007 , John Carpenter , an employee of the Chase Collegiate School , ran the New York City Marathon , raising $ 8 @,@ 554 for the " Miles for Michaela " campaign - a scholarship benefit . The same year , William Petit established the Michaela Rose Petit ' 14 Scholarship Fund of the Chase Collegiate School . He also established the Hayley 's Hope & Michaela 's Miracle MS Memorial Fund .
On January 6 , 2008 , over 130 @,@ 000 luminaria candles were lit in front of thousands of homes across Cheshire in " Cheshire Lights of Hope " , a fundraiser for multiple sclerosis and a tribute to the Petit family . Founded by a local couple , Don and Jenifer Walsh , the event raised over $ 100 @,@ 000 for Hayley 's Hope and Michaela 's Miracle Memorial funds .
The murder , and its aftermath , were featured on the news magazine show Dateline NBC , in a segment entitled " The Family on Sorghum Mill Drive " , and on December 9 , 2010 , William Petit appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show in a full @-@ hour episode about the murders of his family and the work of the Petit Family Foundation .
On August 5 , 2012 , Petit married Christine Paluf , and moved to Farmington , Connecticut . He met her when she was volunteering with the Petit Family Foundation .
HBO broadcast a documentary by filmmaker David Heilbroner called The Cheshire Murders about the murders on July 22 , 2013 . On August 1 , 2013 , Petit told station WFSB that he and Paluf were expecting a child together . The baby who was revealed to be a boy and named William Petit III was born on November 23 , 2013 . In October 2013 , Petit announced that he was considering running for Congress for the Republican Party after being approached by the National Republican Congressional Committee , who had asked him if he would be interested in running . Petit ultimately decided not to be a candidate .
Petit condemned the state 's decision to abolish the death penalty in August 2015 , saying he believed the court had overstepped its powers and urging it to give greater consideration to the " emotional impact , particularly on victims and their loved ones " that death penalty cases generate .
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= The Landlady ( Fyodor Dostoyevsky ) =
The Landlady ( Russian : Хозяйка , Khozayka ) is a novella by Russian author Fyodor Dostoyevsky , written in 1847 . Set in Saint Petersburg , it tells of an abstracted young man , Vasily Mikhailovich Ordynov , and his obsessive love for Katerina , the wife of a dismal husband whom Ordynkov perceives as a malignant fortune @-@ teller or mystic . The story has echoes of Russian folklore and may contain autobiographical references . In its time The Landlady had a mixed reception , more recently being seen as perhaps unique in Dostoyevsky 's oeuvre . The first part of the novella was published in October 1847 in Notes of the Fatherland , the second part in November that year .
= = Plot = =
After the reclusive and bookish scholar Vasily Ordynov is compelled to leave his apartment he wanders aimlessly through Saint Petersburg , contemplating his despair over a loveless life , his childhood and his future . Through this distraction he finds himself within a church , where he notices an old man , Ilia Murin , with his young wife , Katerina . His fascination for the couple , particularly Katerina , causes him to contrive further encounters , with the intention of securing a lodging at their home . He becomes their house guest . The gloomy Murin is a perceived Old Believer , with powers of clairvoyance that have perturbed his neighbours and the local police , and which appear to control his wife . Katerina implies that Murin was her mother 's lover , that she might be Murin 's biological daughter , and that the pair ran @-@ off together after he killed her father . There is an unresolved suggestion that Murin caused the death of Katerina 's fiancé during their escape .
Ordynov develops a passion for Katerina , which she reciprocates after nursing him through delirium . While in delirium Ordynov , in dream or reality , spies on Murin who has taken to his bed through illness and is recounting tales to Katerina – he rushes into Murin 's room ; Murin 's attempt to shoot Ordynov with a gun , misses . Ordynov tries to convince Katerina of her need to detach herself from Murin physically and psychologically , and believes he has overcome her reluctance to do so when he hears her sing a song of love and freedom . Katerina offers wine to Ordynov and Murin as she considers her choice . Murin uses the language of prediction and psychology to show any choice as futile , as Katerina is predestined by her sex to be a captive of a master and her own grief . Ordynov now fully believes that Murin is a sorcerer and that Katerina is his slave , as she herself believes . Using Murin 's argument , he offers to buy Katerina , to effect her liberation . Murin indicates a veiled threat that the price would be bloodshed for both buyer and goods . Fearing a lost cause , Ordynov intends to kill Murin , but fails as a knife falls from his hand and as Katerina falls at her husband 's feet .
Murin afterwards explains to the police that both Katerina and Ordynov are weak and would hand back freedom if it were given ; that she needs the control of a master , and he couldn 't kill a stronger man even with the means to do so .
= = Background = =
In October 1846 Dostoyevsky wrote to his brother Mikhail that his short story Mr. Prokharchin was well @-@ received , and that he was continuing to work on Saved Sidewhiskers for Vissarion Belinsky . The idea for The Landlady already existed at that point , and three days later he again wrote to Mikhail saying that the proposed Saved Sidewhiskers would be shelved as he wanted to introduce a new style , and that " more original , lively and bright thoughts were asking to be put on paper " . He later pointed out the favourable similarities between the progress of the The Landlady and that of his first novel , Poor Folk .
On 26 November 1846 Dostoyevsky announced that he had ended his affiliation with Nekrasov and Panaev 's journal The Contemporary , to join Andrey Krayevsky 's Notes of the Fatherland . He also ended his association with Belinsky 's literary circle after a dispute in early 1846 – subsequently Belinsky left Notes of the Fatherland to write for The Contemporary . Krayevsky published most of Dostoyevsky 's pre @-@ prison stories in 1846 , except A Novel in Nine Letters , issued in The Contemporary , and Polzunkov , printed in The Illustrated Almanach . In early 1847 Dostoyevsky noted in a letter to his brother that work on The Landlady had begun – on 9 September 1847 it was finalized . According to Dostoyevsky 's wishes the first part was published in October – second part was issued the following month .
= = Themes and style = =
The Landlady in its length lies between a long short story and a short novel . According to Neuhäuser , the story incorporates themes found in artistic fairy tales , which , unlike typical folk tales , are written by a particular person , and not collected from hearsay . According to Professor S. Gibian , The Landlady is a " recreation of folktale diction and imagery " and " its plot is based on the three folklore motifs , man – woman dominance , the incestuous father – daughter relationship , and Volga outlaw tales . "
The abstracted chief protagonist , Ordynov , is a prototype of future characters that would appear in " White Nights " and Netochka Nezvanova . C. E. Passage felt that the work was influenced by Gogol 's Taras Bulba and A Terrible Vengeance , Odoevsky 's Improvizator , Hoffmann 's Die Elixiere des Teufels , Der Magnetiseur , Der unheimliche Gast , Der Sandmann and Der Artushof . In Dostoevsky : The Adapter , Passage argues that the " truth of the matter is that Dostoevsky was again compounding story elements as in the case of The Double . "
Alfred Bem postulates in Dramatizatsiia breda that The Landlady incorporates autobiographical elements . Influenced by Freud 's psychoanalysis , he argued that Ordynov 's familial relationship with Katerina and Murin was similar to Dostoyevsky 's own , and found reflections of the writer 's affair with Avdotya Panayeva , whom he met within her husband 's political circle . Bem states that tiring quarrels between circle members Nikolay Nekrasov and Ivan Turgenev worsened Dostoyevsky 's health , although he had stress problems prior to working on The Landlady . Elements of Gothic literature were also detected in the story 's dark atmosphere , and the strange character of the relationship between Katerina and Ordynov . Valery Kirpotin believes that the novella discusses good and evil . The critic Stanisław Mackiewicz stated that he found " the key to understand its symbolic content and Belinsky 's fierce rejection . I am of the belief that the young person represents the Russian intelligence , and the woman with the expressive name ' The Landlady ' the Russian folk , while the haunted fortuneteller echoes the religious beliefs of that folk and especially the schismatic Old Believers . "
Sophie Ollivier says that the novella tries to " penetrate into the essence of the historical consciousness of the Russian people , of the Russian faith " . Robert Mann believes that Murin is based on the Prophet Elijah , and that Ordynov has a similar religiosity to several literary characters in the 1860s and 1870s . Murin could also be a precursor of The Grand Inquisitor from The Brothers Karamazov .
= = Reception = =
The Landlady received mixed reception . Dostoyevsky was criticized for plagiarizing other works , specifically E.T.A. Hoffmann 's Erscheinungen . Vissarion Belinksy called the novella " terrible rubbish " and further commented that he " had tried to reconcile Marlinsky to Hoffmann , adding a bit of humour after the latest fashion , and covering the whole with a thick veneer of " narodnost " [ Russian cultural tradition ] . " Belinksy saw the work as resembling the stories of Tit Kosmokratov ( Vladimir Titov ) and that the book has " not a single simple and lively word or phrase " and that " everything is affected , strained , on stilts , artificial and false . " Recent reception has been more positive than the contemporary . Kenneth A. Lantz stated that it is " unique among Dostoyevsky 's works in its extreme melodrama , eeriness and general obscurity . "
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= Christ Illusion =
Christ Illusion is the tenth studio album by the American thrash metal band Slayer . Released on August 8 , 2006 , the album received generally favorable critical reviews , and it entered the Billboard 200 at number 5 — the band 's second highest U.S. chart position as of 2015 . Christ Illusion includes the Grammy Award @-@ winning songs " Eyes of the Insane " and " Final Six " , and is the band 's first studio album to feature original drummer Dave Lombardo since 1990 's Seasons in the Abyss . It is also the first time since Divine Intervention that they recorded songs in D # tuning . The songs " Jihad " , " Flesh Storm " , " Catalyst " and " Consfearacy " were recorded in D # tuning , while the songs " Catatonic " , " Eyes of the Insane " , " Skeleton Christ " and " Supremist " were recorded in Drop B tuning . The remaining songs were recorded in C # tuning .
Depicting a mutilated Christ painted by longtime collaborator Larry Carroll , the album 's graphic artwork courted controversy . An alternative cover was issued to conservative retailers who felt uncomfortable with the original . The band also put out a censored cover which censored out the offensive artwork . Lyrics , particularly in the song " Jihad " , describe the September 11 attacks from the perspective of a terrorist . Following protests , all Indian stocks of the album were recalled and destroyed by EMI India .
= = Recording = =
Christ Illusion was recorded via computer between two studios : NRG Studios , North Hollywood , with assistant engineer Dave Colvin ; and Westlake Studios , Los Angeles , where Brian Warwick assisted . Guitarist Kerry King recalls nine of the eleven songs originally slated for Christ Illusion were demoed in 2004 , with Dave Lombardo at the drum kit . However , Lombardo recalls recording with King as far back as early 2003 , when two demos were completed at Lombardo 's home . In a July 2004 interview , guitarist Jeff Hanneman reported " Me and Kerry have a bunch of songs , " and expressed the band 's intent to finish the record that year . Slayer 's label American Recordings was at the time negotiating a switch of record distributors from Columbia Records to Warner Bros. Records , meaning the recording would have been temporarily shelved until the issue became resolved . For this reason the group did not finish a record at that time , as the distribution deal with Warner Records was not finalized until late July 2005 .
Slayer wished for Reign in Blood producer Rick Rubin to produce the album , and expected him to do so after Rubin expressed an initial interest . Rubin was busy , however , which caused a further delay to recording . While Christ Illusion 's recording was finally underway Rubin lent production to Metallica 's Death Magnetic , an action later described by King as a " slap in the fucking face . " Josh Abraham produced the album instead , and was praised by Blabbermouth 's Don Kaye " for capturing much more of the spark than has been apparent on the last few records . " Despite missing an opportunity to produce Christ Illusion , Rubin contributed in an " executive production " capacity . King was critical of his involvement , and said he cannot recall Rubin 's presence in the studio during the recording , and that Rubin 's main contribution was in providing suggestions during the final mix . Jamie Thomson of UK 's The Guardian newspaper was scornful of Rubin 's contribution , and observed Slayer " seem unwilling to ditch the nu @-@ metal tendencies that have made much of their recent output so resistible , which suggests Rubin 's involvement was considerably less hands @-@ on than in his remarkable redemptions of Johnny Cash and Neil Diamond . "
As with Slayer 's previous two albums , all rhythm guitar tracks on Christ Illusion were laid down by King . Using a Marshall JCM 800 as the main guitar sound throughout the album , King wrote roughly 80 % of his guitar solo parts prior to the sessions . The song " Catalyst , " meanwhile , almost saw inclusion on Slayer 's 2001 album God Hates Us All , existing in an alternative version which features former drummer Paul Bostaph on drums . Lombardo 's involvement marked the first time he , King , Araya and Hanneman had appeared together on record since the release of Seasons in the Abyss in 1990 , a reason cited by guitarist Jeff Hanneman for an alleged clearer punk vibe throughout the songs on the album . Lombardo personally described the album as " a matured Reign in Blood " , while King described it as " a mix between God Hates [ Us All ] and Seasons [ in the Abyss ] . "
Although eleven songs were originally slated for the album , only ten made the final track listing . A song penned by Hanneman , entitled " Final Six , " was meant for inclusion , with the song name originally declared as the album 's title by vocalist Tom Araya to George Stroumboulopoulos of CBC 's The Hour . Questioned about the album 's title by Kevin and Bean of Los Angeles KROQ @-@ FM , King replied " I 'm not positive it 's been nailed yet . I think last week was the deadline and I 'm not sure where it ended up , so I 'm gonna have to take the fifth on that one . The way it was going , my vote was overlooked , so … That 's why I 'm not real thrilled about it . " However , Araya took one weekend off for vacation during the recording of the album and required a two @-@ hour gall bladder operation the following Monday on May 5 , 2006 . Thus , he was unable to finish the vocals for the song in time for the album 's release . King hinted " Final Six " might appear on a special digipack release of Christ Illusion , a release which eventually surfaced in July 2007 .
= = Marketing and promotion = =
Being Slayer 's ninth studio album , Christ Illusion was originally scheduled for release on June 6 , 2006 , the sixth day of the sixth month of the sixth year of the 2000s decade . This connotation with the Book of Revelation 's Number of the Beast was being used as a marketing ploy to hype a number of media releases at the time , most notably the remake of the horror film The Omen . King said the idea was scrapped because of the number of other bands that had the same idea , but USA Today reported that the release date was thwarted because the band had failed to secure sufficient studio recording time . Having missed the " Satanic " date , the release was pushed back to July 25 ; however , this date was not met either . Despite this , an exclusive T @-@ shirt , limited to 666 units and only available via the band 's store , was released in commemoration of " the sixth day of the sixth month of the sixth year " . Five thousand copies of the limited edition EP " Eternal Pyre " were also released on this date , and made available via Hot Topic stores in the US . The EP previewed the song " Cult " , and the track was made available for streaming on the band 's official website the same day . Issued in Europe on June 23 , the EP landed at number 48 on the Swedish charts and number 2 on the Finnish charts , while on June 30 , Nuclear Blast Records released a 7 " vinyl picture disc version limited to a thousand copies .
Not all media attention surrounding the group on June 6 was favorable . National Day of Slayer , LLC , which describes itself as " a non @-@ profit corporation in the State of Wyoming " , requested on their website that Slayer fanatics participate in " The National Day of Slayer " by coming together and listening to the group 's tracks . However , vandals attacked St. Joseph 's Seminary in Yonkers , New York , by spray @-@ painting a large pentagram in front of the doors , black inverted crosses in two columns in front of the main entrance , and the number six on three steps leading into the Seminary . The words " Reign in Blood " were scrawled on the seminary landing , while the phrase " Better to reign in Hell than to serve in Heaven " , taken from Book 1 of John Milton 's poem Paradise Lost , was found inscribed on two inside columns . The National Day of Slayer website took credit for inspiring the perpetrator ( s ) , and a media investigation discovered that the site had left instructions that fans " spray paint Slayer logos on churches , synagogues , or cemeteries " .
Fans were given an exclusive preview of further tracks culled from the upcoming album before its release . In addition to " Cult " , the tracks " Jihad " and " Eyes of the Insane " were made available for streaming on the Spanish website Rafabasa.com in late June . A listening party event for the album took place on July 22 at Duff 's Brooklyn in New York City 's Williamsburg neighborhood . Filmed on the set of The Henry Rollins Show , a live rendition of " Disciple " ( taken from Slayer 's 2001 album God Hates Us All ) was posted online , followed by " Cult " ' s live performance which aired on the Independent Film Channel a few days later . BBC Radio 1 's " Mike Davis Rock Show " gave " Skeleton Christ " a premier airing on August 1 , and by August 4 the full album was available for streaming via Slayer 's official MySpace profile . AOL Radio complimented this by launching an " All Slayer " station in anticipation of Christ Illusion 's release , playing all of Slayer 's previously released songs and tracks from the upcoming record .
In late July 2006 , bus benches in several Californian cities were decorated with promotional artwork for Christ Illusion . City officials in Fullerton , California , demanded the artwork be immediately removed from seventeen bus benches located throughout the city , and contacted the hired company which had originally put the adverts in place to assume the task . The officials disliked the band 's name , which they felt referred to a murderer . They also took offense to the antichrist and skull logo adorning the bench artwork . Eventually , the artwork was removed . However , various Orange County , California areas surrounding the city of Fullerton still had benches sporting the cover artwork .
= = Commercial performance = =
Christ Illusion was released on August 8 , 2006 by American Recordings / Warner Bros. Records . In its first week of release , the album sold 62 @,@ 000 copies in the United States and debuted at number 5 on the Billboard 200 Chart . Though this ranked as the band 's highest chart position as of 2015 , and was their first top 10 charting since 1994 's Divine Intervention , the album dropped to number 44 the following week . Christ Illusion reached number 9 in Australia , number 3 in Canada , number 6 in Austria , number 8 in the Netherlands , number 10 in Norway , number 9 in Poland and debuted at number 2 in Finland and Germany . The single " Eyes of the Insane " won the " Best Metal Performance " category at the 49th Grammy Awards . The song " Final Six " also won in the same category at the 50th Grammy Awards .
= = Critical reception = =
The album was met with mostly favorable reviews . On Metacritic , it was given a score of 72 out of 100 based on 21 reviews . Thom Jurek of AllMusic hailed the album as " raging , forward @-@ thinking heavy metal melding with hardcore thrash " , and wrote that Christ Illusion marked a return to " what made them such a breath of fresh air in the first place . " Ben Ratliff of The New York Times described the album as possessing " a kind of demented gravity , and the music bears it out : it is the most concentrated , focused Slayer record in 20 years . " PopMatters critic Adrien Begrand called it " Slayer 's best album in sixteen years and their most thought @-@ provoking work to date " , and the album was placed at number 15 on PopMatters ' list of The Best Metal Albums of 2006 . Drummer Lombardo came in for particular praise ; though Rolling Stone panned the album , the reviewer acknowledged that " at least their awesome drummer Dave Lombardo shows off some chops . " Blabbermouth 's Don Kaye thought that " while flawed " , Christ Illusion " proves that the band still has a few tricks up its sleeve and one very potent weapon behind the kit . " Peter Atkinson of KNAC.com felt similarly , and reported Lombardo 's " performance is top notch throughout and does give the album a looser feel than Paul Bostaph 's technical precision offered . " In 2011 , Complex Media Network 's music website , Consequence of Sound , honored Christ Illusion on a List ' Em Carefully installment dedicated to writer David Buchanan 's top thirteen metal records released between 2000 and 2010 , citing foreign controversy and overall sonic brutality during drummer Dave Lombardo 's powerful return . Decibel Magazine gave it a favorable review , stating , " Their hatred for religion in general , Christianity in particular , unwitting Americans , and anyone on the other side of a soldier 's gun has inspired Slayer to record their most vital album in years . " Chris Campion of The Observer stated that the album is " their most rigorously conceived and focused for years . "
Not all critics were positive . Chris Steffen of Rolling Stone magazine dismissed the album , noting that it " mines much of the same territory as its predecessor , God Hates Us All , just without the memorable riffs . " Jamie Thomson of The Guardian described the album as " wholly disappointing , " and thought the band sounded " unwilling to ditch the nu @-@ metal tendencies that have made much of their recent output so resistible . " KNAC.com contributor Peter Atkinson felt that the album " demands OUTRAGE — more calculatingly so than any other album the band has done , " and that " that , in a nutshell , is Christ Illusion 's glaring weakness . "
= = Album artwork = =
Several aspects of Christ Illusion 's content and promotion generated adverse attention and publicity . In particular the cover art , painted by Larry Carroll and depicting a mutilated , stoned Jesus . Carroll , who had painted the cover artwork to previous Slayer albums such as Reign in Blood , South of Heaven and Seasons in the Abyss , resumed duties on Christ Illusion . Working solely from track names and formative lyrics , Carroll produced the original on a 4 @-@ by @-@ 4 @-@ foot slab of wood using a combination of media . Having requested an image of Christ in " a sea of despair " , King commented that an early version seemed as though Christ was " chilling out in the water " . The final image portrays Christ with a missing eye and amputated hands , and standing amidst a sea of blood and severed heads . Araya deemed this version " much better because he looked like a drug addict ! " , while King admired the artwork enough to purchase the original . Certain album pre @-@ orders gave fans the chance to win one of ten autographed lithographs of the artwork , while an alternative , non @-@ graphic cover was made to appease retailers who had refused to stock the original version .
World Entertainment News Network reported Slayer were attracting controversy through issuing the artwork . Joseph Dias , general secretary of the Mumbai Christian group Catholic Secular Forum , ( CSF ) took " strong exception " to the original album artwork , and issued a memorandum to Mumbai 's police commissioner in protest . Chris Steffen of Rolling Stone magazine commented that " The album art takes it all over the top with an image axeman Kerry King dubs ' Christ in a Sea of Despair ' " , while KNAC.com 's Peter Atkinson deemed the artwork " defiantly sacrilegious " .
= = Lyrical themes = =
Lyrical themes explored on Christ Illusion deal with terrorism , warfare and religion , drew criticism from conservative groups . It includes a depiction of the September 11 attacks from the viewpoint of one of the terrorists ( " Jihad " ) , and a portrayal of a soldier 's experience of post @-@ traumatic stress ( " Eyes of the Insane " ) . The song " Cult " revolves around King 's perception of flaws in American religion , while " Consfearacy " has been described as a " government hating song " .
Critical reaction to the album 's lyrical content was mixed . Thom Jurek of Allmusic felt the " dark , unrelentingly twisted @-@ as @-@ fuck lyrics reflect a singular intensity , " and praised the band for connecting their anti @-@ religion stance with a belief that religion has underscored many wars throughout history . However , Rolling Stone 's Chris Steffen mourned that it had become " downright painful to hear Tom Araya — at 45 years old ! — continue to belt out the band 's increasingly self @-@ parodying , anti @-@ religious lyrics , " and singled out lyrics such as " Religion 's a whore " and " I 've made my choice : six six six ! " as over the top . Jamie Thomson of The Guardian wrote that the album left " no blasphemy ... unuttered " , while Peter Atkinson of KNAC.com observed that " when not fixating on religion , the band revisit their other favorite subject — war — in surprisingly familiar terms , " and remarked that Slayer had sunk " to the level of God @-@ repelling dunderheads Deicide . " He concluded the review with the opinion that " It 's déjà vu all over again from God Hates Us All — and once you 've titled something God Hates Us All , haven 't you made your point enough already ? "
The Catholic Secular Forum condemned the album 's lyrical content . Joseph Dias issued a statement in which he deemed the lyrics to " Skeleton Christ " to be an " insult to Christianity . " The memorandum was sent to Mumbai 's police commissioner , and further expressed concern that the track " Jihad " would offend " the sensibilities of the Muslims ... and secular Indians who have respect for all faiths . " EMI India met with the CSF , apologizing for Christ Illusion 's release and recalling the album with no plans of a reissue . On October 11 , 2006 it was announced all stocks had been destroyed . Though Araya had expected " Jihad " ' s treatment of the events of 9 / 11 to create an American backlash , it failed to materialise , in part , he believes , due to peoples ' view that the song is merely " just Slayer being Slayer " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits = =
Writing , performance and production credits are adapted from the album liner notes .
= = = Personnel = = =
Slayer
Tom Araya – bass , vocals
Jeff Hanneman – guitar
Kerry King – guitar
Dave Lombardo – drums
Production
Rick Rubin – executive production
Josh Abraham – production , mixing
John Ewing Jr . – engineering
Ryan Williams – mixing engineer
Dave Colvin – assistant engineer ( at NRG )
Brian Warwick – assistant engineer ( at Westlake Studios )
Armand B. Crump – guitar tech , bass tech
Norm Costa – drum tech
Vlado Meller – mastering
Artwork and design
t42design – art direction , design
Josh Victor Rothstein – photography
Larry Carroll – cover art
Krucified Kittens – art direction , cover design ( special edition only )
= = = Studios = = =
NRG , Los Angeles , CA , USA – recording
Westlake Studios , Los Angeles , CA , USA – recording
Pulse Recording , Los Angeles , CA , USA – mixing
Sony Music Studios , New York City , NY , USA – mastering
= = = DVD credits = = =
Slayer on Tour ' 07
Matt Weston – direction
Dave Wither – direction
Brett Jordan – direction
Andrew Deerin – production
Kevin Flynn – editing
" Eyes of the Insane "
Tony Petrossian – direction , production , editing
Amanda Fox – production
" South of Heaven "
Adam Rothlein – direction , editing
Jen Rothlein – production
= = Charts = =
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= Statute of Uses =
The Statute of Uses ( 27 Hen 8 c 10 ) was an Act of the Parliament of England that restricted the application of uses in English property law . The Statute was originally conceived by Henry VIII of England as a way to rectify his financial problems by simplifying the law of uses , which moved land outside the royal tax revenue , traditionally gathered through seisin . His initial efforts , which would remove uses almost completely , were stymied at the 1529 Parliament by members of the House of Commons , many of whom were landowners ( who would lose money ) and lawyers ( who benefited in fees from the confusing law on uses ) . Academics disagree on how the Commons were brought around , but an eventual set of bills introduced in 1535 was passed by both the Lords and Commons in 1536 .
The eventual bills invalidated all uses that did not impose an active duty on trustees , with the beneficiaries of the use being held as the legal owners of the land , meaning they had to pay tax . The Statute partially led to the Pilgrimage of Grace , and more importantly the development of trusts , but academics disagree as to its effectiveness . While most agree that it was important , with Eric Ives writing that " the effect which its provisions had upon the development of English land law was revolutionary " , some say that by allowing uses and devises in certain areas it not only failed to remove the fraudulent element from land law but actively encouraged it .
= = Background = =
The common law of England did not provide for a way to dispose of land held by feudal tenure through wills , only urban land , and instead uses were applied , which allowed a landowner to give his land to one or more feoffees , to dispose of it or treat it as the original landowner provided . It was viewed with distrust due to the possibility of abuse ; Edward Coke wrote that " there were two Inventors of Uses , Fear and Fraud ; Fear in Times of Troubles and civil Wars to save their Inheritances from being forfeited ; and Fraud to defeat due Debts , lawful Actions , Wards , Escheats , Mortmains etc " . With as many as 13 of such feoffees , there was much confusion over the title to land following a lord 's death , as evidenced by the case of Sir John Fastolf , which lasted from 1459 to 1476 . While this was a problem that needed correcting , the actual motivation of the Statute was not to do so , but instead to bolster the finances of Henry VIII . For several years prior to the Statute , Henry had been struggling with the need to raise revenue ; his royal lands did not provide enough , loans and benevolences would have destroyed his personal popularity ; as a result , simply increasing the size of his royal lands was the best option . He turned his attention to land law , arguably the most well developed and complex parts of the common law , and sought to reform it to further his aims . This was well @-@ aimed , since it was uses that were destroying his income ; the royal revenue was traditionally gathered through seisin , which uses completely ignored .
Two bills were drawn up to be submitted to Parliament in 1529 . The first , which took note of " grate trobull , vexacion , and unquietness amonges the kynges suggettes for tytyll of londes , tenements , and other heriditamentes as well by intayle as by uses and forgyng of false evidence " , was a radical and " drastic " act bill that would have removed uses completely ( unless registered at the Court of King 's Bench or Court of Common Pleas ) and abolished entails " so that all manner of possessions be in state of fee simple from this day forward for ever " , although barons and above were allowed entails ; in addition , nobody was allowed to buy such land without the king 's license . These measures were to obtain the support of the nobility for the second bill , which gave the King wardship over all the land held by noble orphans . When the orphan came of age and asked for the return of the lands , the king was to have a year 's revenue from a third of those lands . While this plan was acceptable to barons and other senior nobles , it required passing by the House of Commons . The large landowners in the Commons felt that it prohibited them from making secure wills , while the lawyers saw it as stripping valuable business away from them by simplifying such cases ; with these groups making up the majority of Parliament , these plans came to nothing .
The Parliament of 1532 saw another attempt by Henry to push the bill through , but it again met resistance ; while the support of the nobility was valuable , it was useless in the Commons . Henry instead sought to appeal to one of the two opposition groups , and picked the lawyers . Many lawyers admitted that the uses made fraud easy and open , and in addition the lawyers of the common law were jealous of the Court of Chancery 's equitable jurisdiction , and sought to strip it away . As a result , Henry decided to bring them over to his side by frightening them , listening to a petition against court procedure and lawyers ' fees , and openly musing about putting a clause in the draft bills that would fix the amount they could charge ; Holdsworth argues that this was the reason the lawyers chose to ally with Henry , and the reason for the Statute 's passage . John Bean disagrees , arguing first that many lawyers were landowners , and would have lost more personally than any reduction in fees could have produced , and second that even if they had been convinced , it is unlikely that lawyers made up a majority of the Commons and could have pushed a bill through alone .
= = Passage and text of the Statute = =
In 1535 , three draft bills were presented to Parliament concerning uses and wills , along with one concerning Enrolments . It is from these bills that the Statute of Uses and the succeeding Statute of Enrolments came . The three bills on uses suggested two different ways to deal with the problem . The first proposed severely limiting the situation in which uses could arise , with uses having no legal effect apart from that expressed when they were created . No contract or bargain over land could change the use of that land ; anyone who suffered from the breach of such a contract had limited remedies in the courts . While this scheme would have prevented most of the evils of uses , it would also have submitted property law to the common law and limited other , beneficial developments ; it would also not stop the practice of getting rid of land through a devise , doing nothing to alleviate the King 's financial concerns . The second , and more complex suggestion , was contained in the other two bills on uses . This simply removed the idea of an equitable interest in land , leaving only the idea of a legal interest , and left uses , maintaining the elastic and variable nature of property law rather than submitting it to the more @-@ rigid standards of the common law . Parliament eventually accepted the second idea , and the bill was passed in April 1536 as the Statute of Uses ( 27 Hen.8 c.10 ) . As such , all uses were invalid except for those that imposed an active duty on a trustee , and the beneficiaries of the use were held to be the legal owners , paying tax as a result .
The Statute of Uses also provided that that a widow was not have both jointure and dower as was made possible by the Statute .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
Most immediately , the Statute partially led to the Pilgrimage of Grace , where rebels demanded not only an end to Henry 's religious changes but an abandonment of the Statute . More importantly , the Statute led to the development of the trust as a replacement . While the Statute is believed to have led to the abolition of devises ( and this was certainly the King 's intent ) , Robert Megarry argues that it failed in doing so . A feoffment " to the use of such person and persons , and of such estate and estates as I shall appoint by my will " produced a use without formally creating a legal estate ; the land was held on a lease , rather than freehold . As a result , it was unaffected by the Statute of Uses , which banned all other methods . Because of this , Megarry argues that not only did it keep devises intact , it gave it power in the common law as well as under equity . The precise aims of the Statute ( that the law of property be made more open ) was reversed by its impact , which made it far easier to convey property secretly .
Academic assessment of the Statute was initially disparaging , with some saying that it added at most " three words to a conveyance " , but it was understood to be important by lawyers of the time and in the modern era . Decades later , both Francis Bacon and Edward Coke gave readings on it , while William Holdsworth called it " perhaps the most important addition that the legislature has ever made to our private law " , with Eric Ives writing that " the importance of the Statute of Uses is beyond doubt . The effect its provisions had on English land law development was revolutionary , and from it have grown the crucial doctrines of the trust " .
= = Repeal = =
The whole Act was declared , by section 1 of , and Schedule 1 to , the Law of Property ( Amendment ) Act 1924 , to have been repealed by the Law of Property Act 1922 .
The whole Act was repealed by section 207 of , and Schedule 7 to , the Law of Property Act 1925 . The repeal of the Statutes of Uses did not affect the operation thereof in regard to dealings taking effect before the commencment of the Law of Property Act 1925 .
= = External Links = =
Statute of Uses as enacted in Ontario
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= Fort Tanjong Katong =
Fort Tanjong Katong , which stood from 1879 to 1901 , was one of the oldest military forts built by the former British colonial government of Singapore . The fort gave its name to today 's Fort Road , and it used to stand on the grounds of the present Katong Park . Fort Tanjong Katong , the only one of its kind on the eastern side of the island , was part of a series of defensive batteries and fortifications along the southern coast of Singapore , that defended the eastern approaches to the Singapore Harbour and Singapore Town against seaborne attacks . Due to its poor structural design and remoteness , the fort was subsequently abandoned and buried until its rediscovery in 2001 . Found with traces of a moat and near intact perimeter wall , the fort was considered by local archaeological experts as one of Singapore 's most important archaeological finds of a " true 19 @-@ century fort " to date . As a result , an archaeology group has been lobbying for the site to be gazetted as a National Monument . As of May 2010 , the National Heritage Board has stated that it has no plans to gazette the fort for the time being .
= = History = =
Fort Tanjong Katong was designed and built in 1879 by Henry Edward McCallum , who was the Colonial Engineer and Architect of the Singapore History Museum on Stamford Road . The fort reflected the British concerns that other European powers such as the Netherlands and Russia , might attack the strategically located colony founded by Sir Stamford Raffles of the British East India Company in 1819 . On the island of Sentosa , Fort Siloso , Fort Connaught and Fort Serapong were built around the same time as Fort Tanjong Katong , to guard the western and eastern entrances to the New Harbour ( now Keppel Harbour ) .
The fort was sitting atop a wet , low @-@ lying coconut plantation and occupied an area of approximately two hectares , and had a small elevated battery of three 7 @-@ inch ( 180 mm ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns facing the sea , along with bombproof shelters . The battery was surrounded by a ditch measuring 100 feet wide on the flanks . A local team of contractors constructed the fort in less than 12 months . The fort 's garrison included members of the Singapore Volunteer Artillery ( SVA ) that held regular gun drills and their annual training camps at the fort . In 1885 , works began on upgrading the existing gun batteries in Singapore , and the three @-@ gun battery at Tanjong Katong was replaced with a pair of more powerful and longer range Mark VII 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) breech @-@ loading guns .
= = = " Wash @-@ out Fort " = = =
Beset by problems from the start , the Fort Tanjong Katong was nicknamed the " Wash @-@ out Fort " . Due to the soft ground , each time the guns were fired , the range finding equipment would shake , and would need to be recalibrated . To make matters worse , it was difficult to find the ammunition for the new 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) guns as it was not common in Singapore . The remoteness of the site , which hindered supply and reinforcement , reduced the effectiveness of Fort Tanjong Katong as a defensive position .
Barely five years after upgrades were completed in 1888 , it was suggested the fort be demolished . Debates over the fort lingered on between the Colonial Defence Committee in London , and the Local Defence Committee in Singapore for nearly a decade . The fort was finally rendered obsolete and abandoned in 1901 when the guns were removed . Instead of destroying the fort , the British thought it simpler to bury it , which was done sometime after World War I. A portion of a bastion was still visible above ground well into the 1960s , when a public park was built atop the fort for the fast @-@ growing Katong suburbs . In the late 1960s , the bastion was finally buried when land reclamation in the East Coast took place , and its memory was soon forgotten in the ensuing decades .
= = = Rediscovery = = =
In 2001 , the outline of the top of the bastion wall became visible during a dry spell ; this prompted a Katong resident , Jack Sim , to seek out the relevant authorities to investigate its origins . Despite much public discussion and interest generated by the discovery , it was not until in 2004 that the Singapore government finally approached a team of archaeologists to excavate the forgotten fort . The excavation was made possible by a community @-@ based project named " Raising History , Planting Roots " , that was initiated by the Mountbatten Citizens ' Consultative Committee with local residents and schools as a community involvement program to encourage ownership of local heritage . In just four weeks , an amount of S $ 200 @,@ 000 ( US $ 120 @,@ 000 ) was raised from corporate sponsors and a fund @-@ raising dinner , held at Suntec City Mall on 27 September 2004 . Senior Minister Goh Chok Tong , a Member of Parliament for Marine Parade Group Representation Constituency , was the guest of honour at the event .
The long @-@ awaited excavation began on 29 September 2004 , led by a handful of archaeologists and dedicated archaeology volunteers called Southeast Asian Archaeology . Nearly 2 metres down , the volunteers uncovered significant remains of the fort still in situ — a pair of infantry bastions that did not appear in the original plans , the perimeter of the moat 's inner escarpment and what appears to be the drawbridge superstructure . Experts call it Singapore 's only ' true fort ' — one with protection all around — and it was considered one of Singapore 's most important archaeological finds .
The archaeological dig at the former Fort Tanjong Katong site , provided a unique opportunity for many like @-@ minded Singaporeans to participate actively in uncovering the remains of the old fort . For nearly 10 months , more than 1 @,@ 000 volunteers ranging from school students to housewives , retirees , working professionals on their off @-@ days assisted the archaeologists on site and discovering first hand on the 125 @-@ year @-@ old military fort .
The Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research , a natural history research unit of the National University of Singapore , assisted with the analysis of marine artefacts and corals that were uncovered at the site , and some 36 bags of samples have been deposited with the museum for further analysis . A Preliminary Site Report ( dated 7 May 2006 ) was later compiled and submitted to the relevant authorities which outlined the research process , preliminary findings , variety of volunteers , and a list of the archaeology research team involved .
= = = Reburied again = = =
To date , the excavation project at Fort Tanjong Katong has ended and only the south @-@ eastern bastion , which was nearly fully excavated , has been cordoned off indefinitely ( the south @-@ western bastion was left untouched ) . Except for the cordoned off bastion , other exposed fort remains were reburied again in December 2005 by the National Parks Board , which runs the park , to protect them against the elements for future archaeologists to discover . It was also done because the dug @-@ out pits could well breed mosquitoes ; there were also fears that someone might fall into one of the 2 m @-@ deep holes . The remaining funds , about S $ 150 @,@ 000 , were ploughed back into bursaries and scholarships for the constituency 's students .
The archaeology group is lobbying for the site to be gazetted as a National Monument , and to incorporate the fort remains to be featured as part of the park in future . To date , its status is still pending while waiting for the final decision by the Preservation of Monuments Board and the Urban Redevelopment Authority .
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= Halfway Gone =
" Halfway Gone " is a song by American band Lifehouse . It is the first single released from their fifth studio album , Smoke & Mirrors ( 2010 ) . It was first released via digital download in the United States and Canada on October 26 , 2009 . It was then solicited to mainstream radio on January 12 , 2010 . Several remixes of the song were later released on iTunes on April 6 , 2010 in an album called Halfway Gone Remixes . The song was a commercial success , charting in Canada , the United States , Australia , Austria , Belgium , Germany , the Netherlands , and New Zealand . The accompanying music video portrays Lifehouse lead singer Jason Wade singing most of the lyrics in a local park , and also features several anonymous people singing the lyrics as well . The band has performed the song live on several occasions .
= = Background and release = =
The song was written by Lifehouse 's lead singer , Jason Wade , and American singer @-@ songwriter Kevin Rudolf . In an interview with Billboard , Rudolf said , " I chose [ to work on ] ' Halfway Gone ' because Jason Wade is such a great writer , great singer , and great artist . " The song was produced by Lifehouse and record producer , Jude Cole , at MixStar Studios in Virginia Beach , VA . " Halfway Gone " was released via digital download in the United States and Canada on October 26 , 2009 . A few months later , it was solicited to mainstream radio on January 12 , 2010 .
= = Composition and critical reception = =
" Halfway Gone " was described as a " fun rock @-@ pop [ song ] that would brighten most people 's day " by Alex Lai of Contactmusic.com. Nathaniel Schexnayder of Jesus Freak Hideout called the song an " effective rock song " , noting that the song is " an easy album highlight as well as a hit single " . Billboard 's Michael Menachem gave a positive review of the song saying that " the song opens up with blurred ' wooh @-@ ooh @-@ oohs ' that establish an uptempo pace , and its lively , danceable rhythm works well with frontman Jason Wade 's vocals , which waver between intimate and explosive . " He also said that working with Kevin Rudolf and Jacob Kasher resulted in " a fresh sound for Lifehouse as the band aims to extend its run on the hot AC and Billboard Hot 100 charts . " Ultimate Guitar described the song as " laid @-@ back in its approach " , but commended its " hooks and infectious backing ' whoas ' in the chorus . "
= = Chart performance = =
" Halfway Gone " debuted at number 99 on the Billboard Hot 100 . It moved up and down the chart for several months and eventually peaked at number 50 . It debuted on the Canadian Hot 100 at number 78 . It stayed on the chart for 13 weeks , until peaking at number 67 on the chart . The song debuted and peaked on the Billboard Pop Songs chart at number 25 . On the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart , the song debuted at 43 . It has since peaked at number 16 , after being on the chart for 11 consecutive weeks . It debuted on Billboard 's Radio Songs chart at number 67 , and eventually peaked at number 47 . On the Adult Contemporary chart , the song peaked at number 12 after being on the chart for 17 non @-@ consecutive weeks . The song also charted on the Billboard Digital Songs chart and peaked at number 56 .
The song also achieved international success . It debuted on Belgium 's Ultratip chart at number 27 for the week of March 20 , 2010 and stayed on the chart for seven consecutive weeks before peaking at number two on the chart . The song debuted on the Media Control Charts in Germany at number 35 , which became its peak position on the chart . In Australia , the song debuted at number 47 on the ARIA Charts . It has since peaked at number 30 , after being on the chart for eight weeks . The song debuted at number 63 in Austria , and later peaked at number 40 on the Ö3 Austria Top 40 . It also charted in New Zealand , and debuted at number 34 on the New Zealand Singles Chart , which became its peak .
= = Live performances = =
Lifehouse debuted their first live performance of " Halfway Gone " on The Tonight Show with Conan O 'Brien on January 19 , 2010 . They also performed the song on Live with Regis and Kelly on March 2 , 2010 , and two days later on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno on March 4 , 2010 .
= = Music video = =
The music video , directed by Frank Borin , was first released on Lifehouse 's official website on November 24 , 2009 . Later that day , it was also released on iTunes . It features all Lifehouse members singing lead vocals , and also features miscellaneous people , including actresses Lola Blanc and Aurelia Scheppers , singing lead vocals throughout the music video .
In the music video , it begins with an out @-@ of @-@ focus view of Wade , seemingly alone , coming up a hill towards the camera . When he stops and starts singing , the camera comes into focus and the other band members come out from behind him and start lip @-@ synching his vocals . A group of people ( In which one of them is YouTube star , Wendy McColm ) pull up in cars and they also lip @-@ synch the song , in addition to performing other activities throughout the video . The video 's effects allow people to seemingly appear out of nowhere throughout the video .
The video was shot in the Anthony C. Beilenson Park ( formerly Balboa Park ) in the Lake Balboa district of Los Angeles ' San Fernando Valley .
= = Remixes = =
Three remixes of " Halfway Gone " were released on April 6 , 2010 into an extended play on iTunes , entitled Halfway Gone Remixes . The names of the remixes are the " Morgan Page Remix " , the " Jody Den Broeder Club Remix " , and the " Fred Falke Remix " . The remixes were mixed by the progressive house producers Morgan Page and Jody Den Broeder , and house music producer Fred Falke .
Hayley Beck of CWG Magazine gave a positive review of the EP , saying " Honestly I could hear these songs being played in a nightclub , and I definitely never would 've imagined myself dancing around to a Lifehouse track ! " She continues to describe the album , and describes the vocals as " coarse vocals laid over a dancingly , mellow beat . "
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting - Jason Wade , Kevin Rudolf , Jacob Kasher , Jude Cole
Production - Jude Cole , Lifehouse
Mixing - Serban Ghenea
Engineering - John Hanes
Source : Smoke & Mirrors ( Deluxe Version ) - iTunes LP
= = Charts = =
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= M @-@ 64 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 64 is a north – south state trunkline highway in the Upper Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . It runs for 63 @.@ 765 miles ( 102 @.@ 620 km ) through the western part of the state in land that is part of the Ottawa National Forest . The highway connects with County Trunk Highway B ( CTH B ) at the state line near Presque Isle , Wisconsin . As it passes through dense forests , M @-@ 64 runs along lakes Gogebic and Superior . The northern end is at a junction with US Highway 45 ( US 45 ) in Ontonagon .
The M @-@ 64 designation was used on two other separate highways before it was used for the current highway . The first was at the other end of the state near the Ohio state line , and the second was on the Keweenaw Peninsula near Eagle Harbor . The current highway has carried the M @-@ 64 moniker since 1930 , when it was assigned along two disconnected highways . These two parts were joined into a single corridor soon after . M @-@ 64 was one of the last highways in the state of Michigan to be paved in 1961 . In the early part of the 21st century , the state replaced the bridge over the Ontonagon River and shifted the highway 's northern terminus .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 64 starts at the Wisconsin state line north of Presque Isle , Wisconsin , where it runs north as the continuation of CTH B into the state of Michigan . The trunkline runs through dense forests along the Presque Isle River in a rural area of Gogebic County ; this region is a part of the Ottawa National Forest . As the highway enters the community of Marenisco , it follows Pine and Fair avenues through town . On the north side of Marenisco , M @-@ 64 turns easterly and runs concurrently with US 2 for about two miles ( 3 km ) including a crossing of the Presque Isle River . East of town , M @-@ 64 separates from US 2 and turns northeasterly toward the southern end of Lake Gogebic . The road turns north along the western shore of the lake and provides access to Lake Gogebic State Park . About halfway along the lakeshore , the highway crosses into Ontonagon County and from the Central to the Eastern time zone .
At Merriweather , M @-@ 64 turns easterly again , this time merging with M @-@ 28 and becoming a part of the Lake Superior Circle Tour . The two highways run together along the northern end of Lake Gogebic to Bergland . Turning north once again , M @-@ 64 crosses a branch line of the Canadian National Railway . The highway runs through more dense forests parallel to the Big Iron River on this north – south leg . The trunkline leaves the national forest as it passes into the community of White Pine , and the road runs near a former copper mine in the area . M @-@ 64 approaches the shores of Lake Superior at Silver City . There , it meets the eastern terminus of the former M @-@ 107 , a highway designation that ran west into the Porcupine Mountains along the current 107th Engineers Memorial Highway . M @-@ 64 turns east along Lake Superior following the shoreline to the outskirts of Ontonagon . The highway crosses the Ontonagon River and terminates on the eastern shore . The current intersection with US 45 that marks the end of M @-@ 64 on the south side of downtown is also the western terminus of M @-@ 38 .
M @-@ 64 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like all other state trunkline highways . As a part of these responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the highway . These traffic counts are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) . This number is an expression of the traffic that uses a segment of roadway for any average day of the year . In 2009 , MDOT 's surveys showed that the highest AADT along M @-@ 64 was 3 @,@ 333 vehicles daily on the Ontonagon River Bridge ; the lowest traffic was between US 2 and the Gogebic – Ontonagon county line at 418 vehicles per day . The only segments of the trunkline that have been included on the National Highway System ( NHS ) are the US 2 and M @-@ 28 concurrencies . The NHS is a network of roads important to the country 's defense , economy and mobility .
= = History = =
= = = Previous designations = = =
By July 1 , 1919 , the first roads to carry the M @-@ 64 designation were signed in the southern Lower Peninsula . This highway ran from the Ohio state line north to Hillsdale , ending in rural southeastern Calhoun County . This trunkline was extended northerly in 1926 through Homer to end at the contemporary US 12 in Albion . In the latter half of 1929 , this highway was redesignated M @-@ 9 ( now M @-@ 99 ) . At the same time , the original M @-@ 9 in Keweenaw County between US 41 and Eagle Harbor was renumbered M @-@ 64 . The net effect was to swap the numbers between roads on opposing ends of the state . The next year , the M @-@ 64 number was swapped with another highway , the original M @-@ 129 that ran along the west side of Lake Gogebic and south to the Wisconsin state line .
= = = Current highway = = =
By 1927 , a few roadways that are now part of M @-@ 64 were built and open to traffic . The road south of Marenisco was a county road at the time , and the highway between Silver City and Ontonagon was a part of the western segment of M @-@ 35 . By the beginning of 1930 , a highway called M @-@ 129 was designated south of US 2 to the Wisconsin state line and north along Lake Gogebic . By the end of the year , this road was renumbered as the southern section of M @-@ 64 ; the northern section of M @-@ 64 was the highway previously designated as the westernmost segment of M @-@ 35 . The gap between the two sections was filled in by 1932 . Some curves in the roadway south of Marenisco were realigned , smoothing out the routing of the highway in late 1961 . As this project was completed , the last segments of M @-@ 64 were fully paved , making the highway one of the last in the state to be fully hard @-@ surfaced .
= = = Ontonagon River Bridge = = =
The first bridge across the Ontonagon River was built in 1891 . It was heavily damaged after a fire in the village a few years later . This bridge was deemed inadequate for the needs of traffic in Ontonagon in the 1930s . The Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) contracted for a replacement span in 1939 . A temporary crossing was used while the original span was demolished and replaced with a swing bridge . This style of bridge was popular with the department in the first half of the 20th century , but fell out of favor as the MSHD transitioned to bascule bridges . Because of this change , the Ontonagon River Bridge was the last of its type built in the state when it was completed in 1940 .
MDOT determined in the early part of the 21st century that the swing bridge had " operational problems " . Construction in 2006 replaced the span with a new structure and realigned both M @-@ 64 and M @-@ 38 in the village . That October , the new bridge was opened upstream of the former crossing . As a result , the northern terminus of M @-@ 64 is now at a junction with US 45 and M @-@ 38 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Redrum ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Redrum " is the sixth episode of the eighth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on December 10 , 2000 . The story for the episode was developed by Steven Maeda and Daniel Arkin , the teleplay was written by Maeda , and the episode was directed by Peter Markle . " Redrum " is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . The episode received a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 1 and was viewed by 13 @.@ 2 million households . Overall , the episode received moderately positive reviews from critics .
The series centers on FBI special agents Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and her new partner John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) — following the alien abduction of her former partner , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) — who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , a lawyer friend of Doggett 's named Martin Wells tries to clear his name of the crime after his wife is murdered . Unfortunately for him , his perception of time regresses backwards , day by day . This leads to confusion , but ultimately an answer as to who killed Wells ' wife .
" Redrum " , described as a " Twilight Zone @-@ type thriller " by critics , heavily featured the actor Joe Morton , who had previously played a role in the 1991 sci @-@ fi film Terminator 2 : Judgment Day alongside series co @-@ star Robert Patrick . The title of the episode was purposely picked by episode writer Steven Maeda to be " murder " spelled backwards . The episode 's main character , Martin Wells , was named after famed 19th century author H.G. Wells .
= = Plot = =
Martin Wells , a renowned Baltimore prosecutor , wakes up in a prison cell and notices a stitched up wound on his right cheek . A guard enters and takes him for his transfer . Wells ' long @-@ time friend , John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , and his partner , Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , await him and warn of reporters outside . As he exits the building , a man Wells recognizes draws a pistol and shoots him . Wells stares at Scully ’ s watch as he dies . The hands stop and then begin to turn backwards .
Upon waking up again , Wells is surprised to find no bullet wounds on his body . Scully and Doggett arrive to interrogate Wells , but he is confused about what is going on . A furious Doggett claims that he has been accused of murdering his wife , Vicky , and initially believes that Wells is faking his confusion in order to build an insanity defense . However , Doggett shows signs of doubt when he notices Wells ' genuine anguish over Vicky 's death . Wells is brought into court and he recognizes his father @-@ in @-@ law , Al Cawdry , as the man who shot him . When Wells ' next court date is announced to be Thursday , he realizes that he has somehow travelled back to the day before his shooting . When the judge decides to transfer Wells to a different cell , he makes a scene in the court and accuses Cawdry of planning to kill him during the transfer .
In his second meeting of the day with Scully and Doggett , Wells explains that he cannot remember the last few days . Scully suggests that maybe he did do it . Wells begins having flashes of the murder but they are unclear . Waiting in his cell , he kills a spider . Later , a nanny cam from his house reveals that the only person to arrive between the police ’ s arrival and the last time his wife is on camera is Martin Wells . Eventually , Wells meets his lawyers and tells them about the nanny cam . However , it turns out that it is Wednesday : Wells is somehow “ living the week backwards ” .
While going to meet Doggett and Scully , Wells gets shoved into a dominos game and while picking them up gets slashed on his right cheek from a man with the spider web tattoo on his hand . Wells tells Doggett and Scully that he is moving backwards in time and cannot recall the past few days . Doggett is skeptical , but Scully hears him out . Wells says there must be a reason for it and Scully suggests that the answer may already be within him . Studying the evidence of the case , Wells has a flash of the murder that reveals the knife in a hand with a spider web tattoo .
Martin next awakes in Doggett 's home . Wells tells Doggett the description of the killer but the man isn ’ t in lock @-@ up yet because that won ’ t happen until Wednesday . Doggett and Wells arrive at the apartment and retrieve the nanny cam , but discover that someone disabled the cam and used its remote control , a device no one knew about except Mr. and Mrs. Wells and their nanny , Trina Galvez . At Trina Galvez ’ s home , Wells and Doggett discover the killer , a man named Cesar Ocampo , who threatened to kill Galvez 's family if she refused him entrance . At the station house , Doggett informs Wells that Ocumpo only wants to talk to him . Ocampo reveals that his brother , Hector , was sentenced to time in prison for a false conviction . Wells bargains with Cesar Ocampo , saying that if Cesar confesses to Vicky ’ s murder , he will take a look at his brother ’ s case . Cesar tells him that Hector hung himself in a jail cell a few weeks ago . Doggett calls Martin Wells out into the hall and the police arrest Martin because they have a case against him . Evidence against Ocampo isn ’ t strong enough yet .
Martin wakes up , having moved back to the day before . He rushes home to try and save his wife . Martin admits to evidence suppression and that Hector Ocumpo ’ s brother is out for revenge . Wells and his wife hide . Suddenly , they hear someone else at the door . Ocampo appears and accosts Wells . Vicky Wells comes out of hiding but is thrown through the coffee table . As Ocampo prepares to slit her throat , he is shot dead by timely arriving Doggett . Wells eventually goes to prison for his evidence suppression , a punishment he feels he deserves .
= = Production = =
" Redrum " , described as a " Twilight Zone @-@ type thriller " in The Complete X @-@ Files , was developed by Steven Maeda and Daniel Arkin , while the teleplay was written solely by Maeda . Maeda purposely picked the title to be the backwards spelling of " murder " ; notably , the same plot device was used by novelist — and one @-@ time X @-@ Files writer — Stephen King in his book The Shining . Furthermore , Maeda used the spider and its web to symbolize Martin Wells ' confusion at being trapped in his situation . Wells was played by noted actor Joe Morton who had previously played a role in the 1991 sci @-@ fi film Terminator 2 : Judgment Day . Robert Patrick later noted that " Joe Morton is a fantastic actor . We never worked together in [ Terminator 2 ] , but we 're in that movie together . And Joe was The Brother from Another Planet . "
The scene of Martin Wells ' assassination was filmed at the " legendary " Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles . This location , which has been the shooting location for over 200 productions , including Forrest Gump and Pretty Woman , is perhaps more infamous as the site of Presidential candidate Robert F. Kennedy 's assassination by Sirhan Sirhan in 1968 . Several of the names in the episode were allusions to historical figures or acquaintances of the writer . Most notably , Martin Wells is named after famed 19th century author H.G. Wells , noted for his contributions to science fiction with The Time Machine in 1896 and The War of the Worlds in 1898 . Furthermore , the character of Janet Wilson , the lawyer of Wells , was named after Maeda 's wife .
= = Reception = =
" Redrum " first aired on Fox on December 10 , 2000 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 1 , meaning that it was seen by 8 @.@ 1 % of the nation 's estimated households . The episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 16 million households , and 13 @.@ 2 million viewers . The episode ranked as the 40th most @-@ watched episode for the week ending December 10 . The episode subsequently aired in the United Kingdom on the BBC Two on April 14 , 2002 . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " How do you stop a murder that 's already happened ? "
Critical reception to the episode was moderately positive , although several reviewers criticized the episode 's monologues . Television Without Pity writer Jessica Morgan rated the episode a " B + " . Morgan criticized the episode 's narrative , sardonically noting that Martin Wells was a " man who may get a second chance . At life . At truth . At pretentious , overlong monologues . " Juliette Harrisson of Den of Geek wrote positively of the episode , calling it " an excellent backwards episode , in which the audience is left satisfied that the horrific event that sparked it off has been prevented , but the guest protagonist has to pay a high price for the happy outcome . " However , she was slightly critical that the episode " barely features the regular characters at all " . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a moderately positive review and awarded it three stars out of four . She called the episode " a double mystery : on one hand Martin 's investigation of his wife 's murder ; and on the other , an investigation into the workings of his own soul . " Vitaris , too , was critical of the ending monologue , noting that " the voiceover ruins the mood of the final shot . "
Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B + " , writing that it was an " example of an episode that starts off strong , only to fumble when it comes to the follow through " . He was particularly praiseworthy towards Morton 's performance , noting that his presence " more than makes up for " the lack of Doggett and Scully . He concluded that the episode is " a smart that the script makes Wells in some way culpable for what happened , and tries to establish him as a merciless hard @-@ ass " but that the " reveal is never really satisfying . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , gave the episode a moderately positive review and rated it three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . The two noted that the episode was " constructed with great skill by Steven Maeda and Daniel Arkin . " Despite this , Shearman and Pearson noted that " with the series in flux , this is an especially unhelpful time to attempt an episode which so abandons the house style ; The X @-@ Files urgently needs to assert what it is , not what it isn 't . "
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= On the Brink ( Spooks ) =
" On the Brink " is the fifth episode of series seven of the British espionage television series Spooks , and the 60th episode overall . It was originally broadcast on digital channel BBC Three on 10 November 2008 , and repeated on frontline channel BBC One on 17 November . The episode was written by Christian Spurrier , his first writing credit for the series , and directed by Edward Hall . Set during the credit crunch , in this episode , Section D chief Ros Myers ( Hermione Norris ) works undercover to stop Alexis Meynell ( Paul Rhys ) , a banker who is attempting to bankrupt the country . Later , Ros discovers Meynell 's motive .
The idea behind the episode came from the financial crisis of Northern Rock in late 2007 ; the producers wanted to set up a story about a bank collapse so severe it could result in an economic collapse . The episode was filmed in May 2008 , with a lot taking place in London 's Blue Fin building . About six million viewers saw the episode from both BBC One and Three broadcasts ; the BBC One ratings were steady despite heavy competition from I 'm a Celebrity , Get Me Out of Here ! on ITV1 . Critical reactions towards the episode were positive for including a change in plot .
= = Plot = =
Section D believes banker Alexis Meynell is trying to bankrupt the country . Sir Harry Pearce ( Peter Firth ) asks the Chancellor of the Exchequer Gillian Calderwood ( Selina Cadell ) to freeze Meynell 's assets , but is turned down due to lack of evidence . To get the evidence they need , Ros is sent undercover to the London Stock Exchange , where Meynell is targeting the bank Highland Life . After starting a rumour about the bank , he starts betting against it . When the chairman of Highland Life , Francis Debham ( Simon Williams ) , attempts to keep the bank afloat , Meynell doubles his position , bankrupting Highland Life . Ros uses the opportunity to swipe a memory card from Meynell 's mobile phone , containing his secure email account that could prove his guilt . However , they find nothing relevant . Lucas North ( Richard Armitage ) relays this to Ros and tells her to get closer to Meynell .
Ben Kaplan ( Alex Lanipekun ) breaks into Meynell 's office to learn of deals between Highland Life and Salma , a Russian bank that according to Elizabeta Starkova ( Paloma Baeza ) , has connections with the Russian mafia . It is also revealed Highland Life owes Salma £ 65 billion . It was this reason that earlier in the episode , Denham committed suicide . In order to get Meynell to trust her to become part of his plan , Ros sleeps with him . Later , Calderwood receives a call from Asa Darlek ( Stephen Noonan ) , Meynell 's associate from Salma , and threatens to either have the £ 65 billion paid back , or he will go public to inform the country the true extent of its debts . Ros presents a third option ; have Calderwood announce she will back Highland Life , while at the same time she will convince Meynell to bet against it . Such a plan would financially ruin Meynell . The next morning however , Darlek realises she is MI5 and threatens to kill her if Calderwood does not back down . Ros fights the gun off and Calderwood goes ahead with her statement . Later , Lucas releases Elizabeta as an asset . Meanwhile , Jo Portman ( Miranda Raison ) believes Boscard ( Gus Gallagher ) , her captor from the end of series six , is still alive after seeing several hallucinations of him . Later , Ros puts her mind at rest when she shows Jo photographic evidence Boscard is indeed dead , and it was Jo who killed him .
Running on a tip that Connie James ( Gemma Jones ) may have leaked the top secret Sugarhorse to the Russians due to her affair with Hugo Prince , one of only five people to know about the operation , Harry has officers search her home . Harry later finds a tape left by Prince in a Big Ben souvenir . Prince left a message that there is a leak in Sugarhorse , but Connie is not responsible . Later , Harry admits to Lucas that in " The Tip @-@ Off " he was lying about not knowing what Sugarhorse and asks him to recall anything during his interrogations . Lucas eventually recalls the word " Pilgrim " uttered several times . He did a background check and informs Harry that " Pilgrim " is the codename for Bernard Qualtrough , the same man apparently helping Harry find the mole .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Christian Spurrier , his first writing credit for the series . He joined the Spooks writing staff in January 2008 . Producer Katie Swinden wanted to base an episode on the economy , which at the time was facing a recession following the financial crisis of the British bank Northern Rock just months before . After trying a few different stories , the producers settled on a story about a bank collapse that is so severe it could result in an economic collapse . Spurrier did research on banking climate in the City of London in March 2008 , and realised the economy was going down , but also wanted to exaggerate the numbers for the episode . Ros was chosen to lead because the character had a background in business . In some of the original drafts of the episode , John Castle would return as Jocelyn Myers , Ros ' father , but later on the producers realised they did not need him . The producers also wanted to include some jeopardy in the climax , namely adding a gun to a head or a bomb , which created the scenes where Darlek threatened to kill Ros . Spurrier felt he had a " lot of juggling " in writing three separate storylines ; the main plot , the Sugarhorse subplot and Jo ; but did a lot of learning how to write a Spooks script as he wrote it .
The character of Alexis Meynell was inspired by Howard Brenton 's writing for " The Russian " in the fourth series . Spurrier wanted him to always suspect Ros , but at the same time be intrigued by her . The producers enjoyed casting Paul Rhys for the role as his performance was " fantastically scary . " In playing Asa Darlek , Stephen Noonan had to abandon his Liverpudlian accent and sport a Russian one , which Noonan worked hard on . Director Edward Hall provided the voice for Hugo Prince .
The episode was filmed throughout May 2008 . The helicopter shots of the city were filmed before principal photography of the seventh series started . Almost all scenes where shot during the day , including the scenes set during the night . The second day of the shoot for the episode took place at a house not belonging to the crew , used as the home of Connie James . The Blue Fin building in London provided several locations for the episode , mostly the stock exchange room . Real life traders were used to film scenes set in the floor . Swinden noted that the traders were " interesting guys " to work with , and told the producers the story was " very close to home . " The producers borrowed two expensive cars , more prominently an Aston Martin DB9 convertible , which were driven by Armitage and Norris . Armitage was asked to drive the car for only 10 yards , but the actor ended up getting carried away by wheel @-@ spinning and driving the car around a city block . Another car was a Bentley used for Denham 's suicide . Because it was on loan , Firth 's options on acting as if he was trying to save Denham was very limited without having to damage the car .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
The episode was originally broadcast on the digital channel BBC Three from 10 : 30 pm on Monday , 10 November 2008 , after the broadcast of the fourth episode on BBC One . The episode would later be repeated on BBC One the next week on 17 November 2008 during the 9 pm to 10 pm time slot , except in Northern Ireland , where it was withheld until 10 : 35 pm . According to overnight figures , the first look on BBC Three was seen by 691 @,@ 500 , a 6 @.@ 1 per cent share on its timeslot . The BBC One repeat was viewed by 4 @.@ 95 million , with a 20 @.@ 3 % audience share . Though it went against I 'm a Celebrity , Get Me Out of Here ! on ITV1 , which attracted over eight million viewers , Spooks ratings remained steady from the previous week . According to the final numbers from the Broadcasters ' Audience Research Board , the episode was viewed by 0 @.@ 79 million from BBC Three , and later 5 @.@ 21 million from BBC One , together adding up to 6 million .
The episode received positive reactions from television critics . Gerard O 'Donovan of The Daily Telegraph called it " another pertinent , brilliantly written episode " and reacted positively towards the episode 's " new kind of threat : the economic terrorist . " O 'Donovan also praised Paul Rhys ' acting for " giving his villainous all . " Mof Gimmers of TV Scoop praised the episode for having " a refreshing change from the usual theme of this series " , with Rhys ' performance and the sub plot of the Sugarhorse story arc adding " definitely one of the best stories so far in what has been an impressive series , if a little heavy on the Islamic terrorist side at times . With three episodes to go the Sugarhorse story is building nicely to a crescendo . "
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= Titanium ( song ) =
" Titanium " is a song by French DJ and music producer David Guetta , featuring vocals by Australian recording artist Sia . Taken from Guetta 's fifth studio album , Nothing but the Beat , the song was written by Sia , Guetta , Giorgio Tuinfort and Afrojack . Production was also handled by Guetta , Tuinfort and Afrojack . " Titanium " was initially released for digital download on August 8 , 2011 , as the first of four promotional singles from the album . It was later released as the album 's fourth single in December 2011 . The song originally featured the vocals of American recording artist Mary J. Blige , whose version of the song leaked online in July 2011 .
" Titanium " is a ballad which draws from the genres of house , pop and urban @-@ dance . The song 's lyrics are about inner strength . Sia 's vocals on " Titanium " received comparisons to those by Fergie and the song was also musically compared to Coldplay 's work . Critics were positive towards the song and noted it as one of the standout tracks from Nothing but the Beat . " Titanium " attained top 10 positions in several major music markets , including Australia , Austria , Denmark , Finland , France , Germany , Hungary , Ireland , Italy , The Netherlands , New Zealand , Norway , Spain , Sweden , Switzerland and the United States . In the United Kingdom , it peaked at number one , becoming Guetta 's fifth number @-@ one single on the chart and Sia 's first .
The song 's accompanying music video premiered on December 21 , 2011 but does not feature appearances by Guetta or Sia . Instead , the video focuses on a young boy , played by actor Ryan Lee , with supernatural powers . Along with other songs , " Titanium " was pulled from radio stations in the US after the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting .
= = Background = =
" Titanium " was written by Sia , David Guetta , Giorgio Tuinfort and Afrojack . Production was also handled by Guetta , Tuinfort and Afrojack . After discovering Sia 's music online , Guetta picked her to appear on his fifth studio album , Nothing but the Beat . Guetta told an insider from Los Angeles , " I was totally amazed by Sia ... This has made me more curious to study her music more because I was really impressed . I have the biggest people on the album and she has a different profile , more like an indie kind of artist and it makes her song even more special , it makes it stand out I think . "
The song originally featured vocals from American recording artist Mary J. Blige , whose version of the song leaked online in July 2011 . In an interview with News.com.au , Guetta spoke about its leak , saying , " You shouldn 't even know about that ... I 'd rather not speak about it . That was annoying . It wasn 't supposed to be out there . " Sia recorded a demo of the song , which was then sent to Blige and other artists . Eventually , Guetta decided to stay with her version . He explained , " The first time I heard what Sia did , because she was not in the studio with me , I fell in love with it ... I didn 't even want to give it to anyone else ; it was perfect the way it was . It 's not only about how big you are in America , it 's about the song and the voice . " American pop singer Katy Perry was the first person to be offered the track but turned it down because she felt its message was too similar to that of her song " Firework " . An insider told Take 40 Australia , " So that ' Titanium ' song , Sia wrote it for Katy , but [ Katy ] didn 't want to do a song with Guetta ... " According to Sia 's manager , Jonathan Daniel of Crush Management , Sia wrote the song for American R & B singer Alicia Keys . Guetta considered approaching other female singers to record on the song , however Perry advised him to keep Sia on the track . Guetta ultimately followed this suggestion . Sia revealed that Guetta put her vocals on the song without asking for permission :
" And then Mary J. Blige sang it . And then he took her vocal off it , and put my vocal back on , my demo vocal , without asking and released it . And I never even knew it was gonna happen , and I was really upset . Because I had just retired , I was trying to be a pop songwriter , not an artist . "
" Titanium " was released for digital download on August 8 , 2011 , as the first of four promotional singles from the album , as part of the iTunes Store 's countdown to the album 's release .
= = Composition = =
" Titanium " has been described as " an emotional near @-@ ballad " that draws from the genres of house , pop and urban @-@ dance . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , the song is set in common time with a tempo of 126 beats per minute . The verses are in the key of E @-@ flat major , with a chord progression of Eb – Bb – Cm . The chorus and breakdown are set in the key of C minor , with a chord progression of Ab – Bb – Gm – Cm . Sia 's vocal range span from the note of G3 to the note of Eb5
According to Andrew Gregory of The Daily Telegraph , the song 's intro features " a hint of 80 's flavour " . Trent Fitzgerald of PopCrush noted that the song " has the headache @-@ inducing club beat , whining synths [ and ] atmospheric sound effects . " Ben Norman of About.com noted that it " incorporate [ s ] a strumming guitar ... before a staggering beat filters in , Sia 's trademark pipes positively ooze with emotional inflection . " The strumming guitar sounds were compared to those of " Every Breath You Take " .
" Titanium " has lyrics about inner strength , such as : " I 'm bulletproof , nothin ' to lose / Fire away , fire away / Ricochet , you take your aim / Fire away , fire away / You shoot me down , but I won 't fall / I am titanium . " Al Fox of BBC Music wrote that on the song , Sia has " ghostly mandolin @-@ esque vocals " . Cameron Adams of Herald Sun called them " square @-@ peg " , while Melinda Newman of HitFix compared her vocals to those by Fergie . Genevieve Koski of The A.V. Club wrote that on the song , Sia " manage [ s ] to keep [ her ] head above the waves of synths ... by amping up [ her ] vocals to match the outsized beats . " David Jeffries of Allmusic compared the song to the music of Coldplay .
= = Critical reception = =
" Titanium " garnered critical acclaim from music critics . David Byrne and Tony Peregrin of Windy City Times described " Titanium " as " epic and " energizing " , writing , " it is Sia who steals the show " on Nothing but the Beat . Robert Copsey of Digital Spy agreed , calling the song one of " the record 's standouts " . A writer for Samesame.com.au called it the " best cut " on the album , and wrote that it is " a track you will quickly be running on repeat . " Tom Ewing of The Guardian wrote , " Sia , on ' Titanium ' , handles the album 's best hook well . " Rich Lopez of Dallas Voice wrote that the " collaborative lyrics elevate this song to a higher level than any previous track " from the album , and called it " clever writing " from Sia . Ben Norman of About.com wrote that the song " basically blows the rest of his album out of the water . Teaming up with Sia was probably the smartest move he [ Guetta ] has done in recent memory when it comes to actual musical quality . " David Griffiths off 4Music called it " The most intriguing hook @-@ up " on the album , writing that " ' Titanium ' sees Guetta giving the Australian songstress some long overdue commercial appeal , while Sia 's vocals bring a quirky twist . " Kerri Mason of Billboard magazine described the song as " Guetta 's quirkiest and most epic track to date ( in itself an unusual combination ) . " Jamie Horne of The Border Mail called it a " strong " track . Joe Copplestone of PopMatters noted that songs on the album such as " Titanium " and " Night of Your Life " , " recall the power " of Guetta 's previous collaborations with Kelly Rowland on " When Love Takes Over " ( 2009 ) and " Commander " ( 2010 ) . " Titanium " was nominated for Dance Work of the Year at the 2012 APRA Music Awards , but lost to " From the Music " by The Potbelleez .
After the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting in December 2012 , " Titanium " was pulled from radio stations in the United States due to the use of gun @-@ related lyrics in the song . " Titanium " is part of a group of songs that have been taken off the air , including Kesha 's " Die Young " , and " Pumped Up Kicks " by Foster the People .
= = Chart performance = =
On the French Singles Chart , " Titanium " debuted at number nine on August 13 , 2011 . After weeks of ascending and descending the chart , the song peaked at number three on January 7 , 2012 , giving Guetta his thirteenth top 10 hit in France . In Australia , the song debuted at number 31 on the ARIA Singles Chart on August 15 , 2011 , and peaked at number five on September 5 , 2011 . It was certified five times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting sales of 350 @,@ 000 copies . " Titanium " became Sia 's second highest charting single as a solo artist in the country as well as Guetta 's ninth top 10 hit there . On the New Zealand Singles Chart , it debuted at number 18 on August 15 , 2011 . The following week , the song fell to number 39 and eventually fell out of the top 40 . Upon its release as a single in December 2011 , " Titanium " re @-@ entered the chart at number 12 on December 5 , 2011 , and peaked at number three on January 30 , 2012 . It was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) , denoting sales of 45 @,@ 000 copies . In Austria , " Titanium " debuted and peaked at number three on August 19 , 2011 , and remained in the top 10 for ten consecutive weeks . The song was certified platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) , denoting sales of 30 @,@ 000 copies .
" Titanium " also reached the top 10 in the charts of Belgium , Canada , Denmark , Finland , Germany , Ireland , Italy , The Netherlands , Norway , Spain , Sweden and Switzerland . On the UK Singles Chart , " Titanium " debuted at number 16 on August 20 , 2011 , and fell to number 31 the following week . The song descended the UK Singles Chart for three consecutive weeks and eventually fell out of the top 100 . Upon its release as a single in December 2011 , " Titanium " re @-@ entered the UK Singles Chart at number 61 on January 14 , 2012 , and climbed to number eight the following week . On February 11 , 2012 , it peaked at number one , and became Guetta 's fifth number @-@ one single on the chart and Sia 's first . The song also reached number one on the UK Dance Chart . " Titanium " was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , denoting shipments of 600 @,@ 000 copies . " Titanium " was the fourth best @-@ selling single of 2012 in the UK , and it has sold over one million copies there as of February 2013 .
In the United States , the song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 66 on the issue dated August 27 , 2011 . After it was released to US radio in April 2012 , " Titanium " reached a new peak of number seven on the issue dated July 21 , 2012 , and became Guetta 's fourth top @-@ ten single on the Hot 100 . It also peaked at number three on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart , and number three on the Mainstream Top 40 chart . " Titanium " was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . As of March 2014 , the song has sold 3 @,@ 852 @,@ 000 copies in the U.S.
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and reception = = =
The music video for " Titanium " was directed by David Wilson . It was filmed in December 2011 in Sainte @-@ Marthe @-@ sur @-@ le @-@ Lac and at Dorval High School , in the province of Quebec , Canada . A 14 @-@ second preview of the video was uploaded to Guetta 's official YouTube account on December 16 , 2011 . The preview showed a young boy ( played by actor Ryan Lee ) in the smoky woods running away from a SWAT team of men . The video then closes with the caption , " The Music Video Coming Soon " . The full video premiered online on December 21 , 2011 . Neither Guetta nor Sia appear in the video . Jason Lipshutz of Billboard magazine noted that " the supernatural scene and suburban setting " in the video recall the science fiction film Super 8 ( 2011 ) , in which Lee stars . Becky Bain of Idolator wrote that , " The video is beautifully shot , and is courageous enough not to answer all its mysteries . " A writer for Capital FM called it a " very cinematic video " .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video opens in a deserted , destroyed school hallway with Lee 's character shown sitting on the ground . As the first verse begins , he slowly begins to stand up and makes his way through the hallway . The boy then sees a female teacher in a classroom who 's stricken with fear and closes the door , realizing that the boy is the cause of the damage . As the boy makes his way outside the school building , a police car arrives and the teacher rushes outside to tell the policeman about the boy , who then quickly rides a bicycle home to pack his things . While at home , he sees a news report about the incident , causing him to quickly gather his things to flee . Several policemen then appear outside the front door of the boy 's house , while he tries to escape through the back door . The boy realizes that the door is locked so he uses his telekinetic powers to grab the keys from the kitchen bench . The policemen then enter the house to find that the boy has escaped , but find a teddy bear and a plush frog floating in the air . The final scene shows the boy running away from a SWAT team in the woods . The boy is caught by one of the men who pushes him to the ground . The video ends with the boy using his supernatural powers once again to push the men away in a burst of power ; this references how the boy destroyed the school in the first place , as he 's in the same position he was in at the beginning of the video . The aftermath of the outburst in the end , however , remains unknown .
= = Usage in media and live performances = =
" Titanium " was used in the fifth season of the American television show Gossip Girl episode " I Am Number Nine " , which aired on November 7 , 2011 . It also appears on the soundtrack of the 2014 film Wild Tales . Scottish recording artist Emeli Sandé performed " Titanium " with Guetta at the NRJ Music Awards , held in France on January 29 , 2012 . On April 21 , 2012 , Sia made a surprise appearance during Guetta 's set for the second weekend of Coachella in Indio , California , where they performed " Titanium " . The song also appears in the 2016 dance video game Just Dance 2017 .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes for Nothing but the Beat .
Afrojack – songwriting , production , mixing
Sia Furler – songwriting , lead vocals
David Guetta – songwriting , production , mixing
Giorgio Tuinfort – songwriting , production
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= = Cover versions = =
In May 2012 , " Titanium " was covered by British recording artist Tulisa Contostavlos on BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge . An a cappella version of the song was sung by Anna Kendrick and Brittany Snow during a shower scene in the film Pitch Perfect ( 2012 ) . On October 22 , 2012 , former Lady Gaga backup singer Chevonne and 16 @-@ year @-@ old Avery Wilson performed " Titanium " as a duet during the October battle rounds of the third season of The Voice US . Dutch symphonic rock band Within Temptation covered the song during their special program Within Temptation Friday on the Belgian radio station Q Music , where the band choose songs to cover not related to their style of music . Their version was then included on their cover album The Q @-@ Music Sessions , released in April 2013 . On April 23 , 2013 , Michelle Chamuel and Chelea M. performed " Titanium " as a duet during the battle rounds of the fourth season of The Voice US . On May 10 , 2013 , Demi Lovato covered the song during a concert in San Diego , California . On May 16 , 2013 , Adam Lambert and Angie Miller performed a duet of the song on the finale of the twelfth season of American Idol , where Miller was a finalist . Madilyn Bailey 's version of " Titanium " reached number 13 on the French singles chart in 2015 and spent 34 weeks there . It also appeared on the Belgian French Wallonia Ultratop chart , peaking at number 23 .
= = = The X Factor performances = = =
On October 31 , 2011 , Andrew Wishart covered " Titanium " in the third series of The X Factor Australia . " Titanium " was also covered by Martin Madeja on the second season of X Factor Germany on November 8 , 2011 . On February 10 , 2012 , Morten Benjamin performed the song on the fifth season of X Factor Denmark . On October 11 , 2012 , 13 @-@ year @-@ old Beatrice Miller performed " Titanium " during the judges ' houses round of the second season of The X Factor USA . The song was also performed by Jahméne Douglas during the judges ' houses round and Lucy Spraggan during the third live show of the ninth series of The X Factor UK on October 20 , 2012 . On November 7 , 2013 , Ellona Santiago performed " Titanium " during Week 2 on Night 2 of the third season of The X Factor USA , where all the contestants had to sing their Save Me song due to graphic issues .
= = = Jahméne Douglas version = = =
British pop and soul singer Jahméne Douglas released a cover version of " Titanium " on July 22 , 2013 as the lead single from his debut studio album , Love Never Fails ( 2013 ) . Douglas ' version peaked at number 94 on the UK Singles Chart . Talking to Digital Spy , Douglas said : " It 's very hard to sing . I was scared to do it because it 's a big chart song and I 'm quite old school . For me , the song is about strength and the music video is based around domestic violence and how a woman gets out of it . The lyrics are so powerful for that interpretation . Hopefully if someone is in that situation and watches it , they 'll think , I can get out . " A music video to accompany the release of " Titanium " was first released onto YouTube on June 12 , 2013 at a total length of three minutes and fifty @-@ four seconds . The music video shows Douglas next to a piano , while a story of domestic abuse plays out .
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= No. 2 Operational Conversion Unit RAAF =
No. 2 Operational Conversion Unit ( No. 2 OCU ) is a fighter training unit of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . Located at RAAF Base Williamtown , New South Wales , the unit trains pilots to operate the McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornet , conducts refresher courses for pilots returning to the type , and trains future Hornet instructors . Pilots new to the Hornet enter No. 2 OCU after first qualifying to fly fast jets at No. 79 Squadron and undertaking initial fighter combat instruction at No. 76 Squadron . Once qualified on the F / A @-@ 18 , they are posted to one of No. 81 Wing 's operational Hornet units , No. 3 Squadron , No. 75 Squadron or No. 77 Squadron .
The unit was established as No. 2 ( Fighter ) Operational Training Unit ( No. 2 OTU ) in April 1942 at Port Pirie , South Australia , and relocated to RAAF Station Mildura , Victoria , the following month . During World War II , it provided training on a wide range of aircraft , including P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks , Vultee Vengeances , Avro Ansons , CAC Boomerangs , Supermarine Spitfires and Airspeed Oxfords . Disbanded in March 1947 , No. 2 OTU was re @-@ formed at Williamtown in March 1952 in response to the demand for more highly trained pilots to serve in the Korean War . It was renamed No. 2 ( Fighter ) Operational Conversion Unit in September 1958 , and since then has conducted training with the CAC Sabre , Dassault Mirage III , and Macchi MB @-@ 326 , prior to taking delivery of the Hornet .
= = Role and equipment = =
The role of No. 2 Operational Conversion Unit ( No. 2 OCU ) is to " support the preparation for and the conduct of effective airspace control , counter air strike and combat air support operations through the provision of trained personnel " . Located at RAAF Base Williamtown , New South Wales , it comes under the control of No. 81 Wing , part of Air Combat Group .
No. 2 OCU is primarily responsible for conducting operational conversion courses on the RAAF 's McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornet multi @-@ role fighter , which entered service in 1985 . The unit takes students who have converted to fast jets with No. 79 Squadron , located at RAAF Base Pearce , Western Australia , and undergone lead @-@ in fighter training at No. 76 Squadron , based at Williamtown . Most are new to operational flying , but some are " retreads " ( experienced pilots converting from another aircraft type ) . As No. 2 OCU 's instructors are among the RAAF 's most experienced Hornet pilots , they often play a significant role developing new tactics , in cooperation with fighter combat instructors at other No. 81 Wing units .
No. 2 OCU operates both single @-@ seat F / A @-@ 18A Hornets and two @-@ seat F / A @-@ 18Bs . The F / A @-@ 18B is largely identical to the A model aside from its dual cockpit , which reduces internal fuel capacity by about six per cent . Aircraft livery includes a yellow @-@ and @-@ black tail fin flash , the base featuring a yellow tiger 's head outlined in black , with a red mouth , white fangs and white eyes . The unit crest shows a winged kangaroo carrying a joey in its pouch , symbolising " ' Mother Australia ' flying with her young " . The motto is Juventus Non Sine Pinnis ( " The Young Shall Have Wings " ) .
Hornet conversion courses run for six months , after which graduates are posted to one of the RAAF 's front @-@ line fighter units , No. 3 Squadron or No. 77 Squadron at Williamtown , or No. 75 Squadron at RAAF Base Tindal , Northern Territory . Students must first gain their instrument rating on the Hornet , and are then taught basic fighter manoeuvres , air combat techniques , air @-@ to @-@ air gunnery , and air @-@ to @-@ ground tactics . The course culminates with Exercise High Sierra , a biannual event that was first run at Townsville , Queensland , in 1986 . The exercise lasts for two weeks and involves day and night flights , including precision strike sorties with practice and live bombs .
As well as operational conversion , No. 2 OCU conducts refresher courses and fighter combat instructor courses on the Hornet . Pilots who have not flown Hornets for more than nine months undertake the two @-@ week refresher course . Fighter combat instructor courses run for five months and are given every two years . Students are chosen from among the most experienced Hornet squadron pilots and undergo instruction in how to train others , as well as how to deal with complex operational scenarios . This is tested in simulated combat with other types of US or RAAF aircraft , as available , including F @-@ 15 Eagles , F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcons , and F / A @-@ 18 Super Hornets . Graduates become qualified F / A @-@ 18 instructors and initially remain with No. 2 OCU for the next two @-@ year cycle . After this time , they are posted to one of the front @-@ line squadrons or No. 81 Wing 's headquarters as Hornet weapons @-@ and @-@ tactics specialists . Along with training pilots , No. 2 OCU may be called upon to conduct operational tasks in " particular circumstances " .
= = History = =
= = = Operational training : 1942 – 47 = = =
During World War II , the RAAF established several operational training units ( OTUs ) to convert recently graduated pilots from advanced trainers to combat aircraft , and to add fighting techniques to the flying skills they had already learned . No. 2 ( Fighter ) Operational Training Unit ( No. 2 OTU ) was formed on 2 April 1942 at Port Pirie , South Australia . Its inaugural commanding officer was Wing Commander Peter Jeffrey , a fighter ace who had led No. 3 Squadron in North Africa . Jeffrey had recently brought on line Nos. 75 and 76 Squadrons , two of the first three fighter units raised to help defend northern Australia as the Japanese advanced toward New Guinea . His team of instructors at No. 2 OTU included fellow aces from the North African campaign , Clive Caldwell and Wilf Arthur . Originally equipped with CAC Wirraways and Fairey Battles , the unit 's complement was augmented by P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks , Vultee Vengeances , Avro Ansons , CAC Boomerangs , Supermarine Spitfires and Airspeed Oxfords after it relocated to RAAF Station Mildura , Victoria , in May . By September 1942 , its fleet of aircraft included nine of the 106 Kittyhawks the RAAF had on hand at the time . During November , No. 2 OTU conducted comparative trials that pitted a Spitfire Mk V against a P @-@ 40E ; the final report of these trials judged that although the Spitfire had superior performance according to most criteria , the P @-@ 40E was also a useful design .
No. 2 OTU 's Spitfire section was transferred to RAAF Station Williamtown , New South Wales , in March 1943 , under the command of ace John Waddy . Jeffrey handed over command of No. 2 OTU at Mildura in August 1943 ; the same month , the unit logged over 5 @,@ 000 flying hours , its highest level during the war . For the remainder of the conflict it maintained an average strength of more than 100 aircraft . North African campaign aces and former No. 3 Squadron commanders Bobby Gibbes and Nicky Barr served successively as chief flying instructor from March 1944 until the end of the Pacific War . Group Captain Arthur led the unit from July to November 1944 , when Group Captain Jeffrey resumed command . During 1945 , the Spitfires and Kittyhawks were replaced by 32 North American P @-@ 51 Mustangs . Training concluded that October , following the cessation of hostilities , and No. 2 OTU was reduced to a care @-@ and @-@ maintenance unit . During the war , it had graduated 1 @,@ 247 pilots , losing 45 students in fatal accidents . Jeffrey completed his appointment in June 1946 , and the unit was disbanded on 25 March 1947 .
= = = Operational training : 1952 – 58 = = =
Post @-@ war demobilisation saw the disbandment of all the RAAF 's OTUs . Operational conversion of new pilots then became the responsibility of front @-@ line squadrons . This practice disrupted the squadrons ' normal duties , and the advent of the Korean War and the introduction of jet aircraft further necessitated a more formal system of operational training . According to Dick Cresswell , commanding officer of No. 77 Squadron in Korea from September 1950 to August 1951 :
It is hard to believe that I actually sent 11 pilots home to Australia as they were not capable of doing the job properly . I don 't blame the pilots , but I do blame the Air Force system . We had no operational training units , no operational training system and , as a result , the pilots came to Korea poorly trained and without instrument ratings . They just couldn 't operate in the area .
The RAAF moved to rectify the situation by re @-@ forming No. 2 OTU on 1 March 1952 to convert RAAF pilots to jet aircraft and train them for fighter operations . Headquartered at RAAF Base Williamtown , it was equipped with Wirraways , Mustangs , and de Havilland Vampire jets . Cresswell took command of No. 2 OTU on 21 May 1953 . The unit ceased flying Mustangs that October , retaining its Wirraways and Vampires . In April 1954 , it began conducting fighter combat instructor courses , as well as refresher courses on jets . Cresswell delivered the first Australian @-@ built CAC Sabre jet fighter to No. 2 OTU in November , and the same month established the unit 's Sabre Trials Flight . The flight was responsible for performance testing and developing combat flying techniques , in concert with the Aircraft Research and Development Unit ( ARDU ) . On 3 December 1954 , Creswell led a formation of twelve No. 2 OTU Vampires in the shape of two sevens over Sydney to greet No. 77 Squadron upon its arrival from service in Korea aboard the aircraft carrier HMAS Vengeance . Training courses on the Sabre began on 1 January 1955 . Once the Sabre entered operational service in March 1956 , the Sabre Trials Flight was dissolved and its responsibilities passed to No. 3 Squadron . Pilots underwent their introduction to jets and fighter combat at No. 2 OTU , but finished their conversion to Sabres at a front @-@ line squadron .
= = = Operational conversion : 1958 – current = = =
In May 1958 , No. 1 Applied Flying Training School began equipping with Vampire jet trainers at RAAF Base Pearce , Western Australia . As RAAF pilots were now gaining their first exposure to jets elsewhere , No. 2 OTU took over from the fighter squadrons the responsibility of converting trained jet pilots to Sabres . Reflecting its new primary role , it was renamed No. 2 ( Fighter ) Operational Conversion Unit ( No. 2 OCU ) in September 1958 , and ceased Vampire courses the same month . Wing Commander Neville McNamara , later Chief of the Air Staff ( CAS ) and Chief of the Defence Force Staff , served as commanding officer from August 1959 until January 1961 . During his tenure , the unit undertook exercises with No. 75 Squadron at RAAF Bases Amberley , Townsville and Darwin . Two Sabre pilots from No. 2 OCU and one from No. 75 Squadron died in separate incidents early in 1960 ; each had attempted to eject at low level and suffered fatal head injuries from colliding with the aircraft 's canopy during the ejection sequence . All RAAF Sabres were grounded until ARDU developed a modification to shatter the canopy immediately before the pilot ejected .
Along with Nos. 75 and 76 Squadrons , also based at Williamtown , No. 2 OCU was under the control of No. 81 Wing from 1961 until the wing was disbanded in 1966 . By late 1963 , personnel were busy developing training material for the pending Sabre replacement , the Dassault Mirage III , a task that required them to translate the manufacturer 's technical documentation from the original French . No. 2 OCU received its first Mirages in February and March 1964 . It commenced conversion courses on the type that October , and fighter combat instructor courses in August 1968 . The RAAF eventually took delivery of 100 Mirage IIIO single @-@ seat fighters and 16 Mirage IIID two @-@ seat trainers ; No. 2 OCU operated both models . Squadron Leader John Newham , later to serve as CAS , held temporary command of the unit from July 1965 to April 1966 . A Sabre @-@ equipped aerobatic display team named the " Marksmen " was formed within No. 2 OCU during 1966 and 1967 . Between 1967 and 1984 , six of the unit 's Mirages suffered major accidents , resulting in three fatalities . Experience in the Vietnam War led the RAAF to begin training forward air controllers in 1968 . The task initially fell to No. 2 OCU before a specialised unit , No. 4 Forward Air Control Flight , was formed in 1970 . In October 1969 , the OCU began operating the Macchi MB @-@ 326 jet for lead @-@ in fighter training , as well as the Mirage . No. 5 Operational Training Unit , based at Williamtown , took over responsibility for Macchi courses from April 1970 until its disbandment in July the following year ; the Macchis were then transferred back to No. 2 OCU .
In preparation for the introduction of the F / A @-@ 18 Hornet , No. 2 OCU temporarily ceased flying operations on 1 January 1985 and transferred Macchi and Mirage training to No. 77 Squadron , which assumed responsibility for fighter combat instructor , introductory fighter , and Mirage conversion courses . Beginning on 17 May , the first fourteen Australian Hornets — seven single @-@ seat F / A @-@ 18As and seven two @-@ seat F / A @-@ 18Bs — and a Hornet simulator were delivered to No. 2 OCU . Conversion courses on the type commenced on 19 August with four F / A @-@ 18Bs and three students . No. 2 OCU has remained the prime user of the two @-@ seat Hornet , though some are operated by the fighter squadrons , Nos. 3 , 75 and 77 . The first year of Hornet service saw No. 2 OCU , as the then @-@ only RAAF operator , undertake demonstration flights around the country to unveil the new fighter to the Australian public . All of the Hornet units came under the control of a newly re @-@ formed No. 81 Wing on 2 February 1987 . An intense training program that year resulted in 21 pilots converting to the type . In June 1987 , Macchi training courses again became the responsibility of No. 2 OCU ; this role was taken over by No. 76 Squadron in January 1989 . No. 2 OCU suffered its only Hornet loss to date when an F / A @-@ 18B crashed at Great Palm Island , Queensland , during a night @-@ time training flight on 18 November 1987 , killing the pilot . Two Hornets collided during an air @-@ to @-@ air combat training exercise the previous year , but both managed to return to base . The unit temporarily relocated to RAAF Base Richmond , New South Wales , in July 1990 , while Williamtown 's runway was resurfaced .
The RAAF began modifying four of its Boeing 707 jet transports to enable air @-@ to @-@ air refuelling of the Hornets in December 1988 ; No. 2 OCU staff commenced training for airborne tanker operations in July 1991 , subsequently adding this capability to the Hornet conversion course . By the mid @-@ 1990s , the unit had 12 instructors and a complement of 18 Hornets , including 13 two @-@ seaters . It was running two conversion courses per year , with eight students per course , and had an average failure rate of 10 per cent . Several of its instructors were US and Canadian pilots on exchange with the RAAF . In 2000 , No. 2 OCU joined Nos. 76 and 79 Squadrons as part of No. 78 Wing , which had been re @-@ established as an operational training formation . As of 2005 , the unit had a strength of between 12 and 14 instructors and ran three Hornet conversion courses and one fighter combat instructor course over two @-@ year cycles . About six new Hornet pilots took part in each of the conversion courses , and the unit generally graduated 15 new Hornet pilots over each cycle . By 2007 , No. 2 OCU had returned to the aegis of No. 81 Wing , under Air Combat Group . Although the duration of the conversion courses has remained unchanged since the Hornets were introduced into service , the content covered has been altered over time to reflect upgrades to the Hornets , the replacement of the Macchis with BAE Hawk 127 trainers in the early 2000s , and experience gained from using Hornets in combat during the Iraq War . No. 2 OCU conducted its 32nd fighter combat instructor course in 2013 . The graduation exercise , Aces North , was the first to involve RAAF F / A @-@ 18 Super Hornets , Airbus KC @-@ 30 tankers , and Boeing E @-@ 7 Wedgetail early warning aircraft , as well as the ' Classic ' Hornets .
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= One Breath ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" One Breath " is the eighth episode of the second season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on November 11 , 1994 . It was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong , directed by R. W. Goodwin , and featured guest appearances by Melinda McGraw , Sheila Larken and Don S. Davis . The episode helped to explore the series ' overarching mythology . " One Breath " earned a Nielsen household rating of 9 @.@ 5 , being watched by 9 @.@ 1 million households in its initial broadcast . The episode received mostly positive reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In the episode , Scully is found comatose in hospital after her abduction in the earlier episode " Ascension " . Mulder attempts to investigate what has happened to her , but finds himself hindered by a man he had believed to be an ally .
Anderson returned to the series only days after having given birth , missing the previous episode due to her pregnancy . Morgan and Wong attempted to create a version of the earlier episode " Beyond the Sea " , this time centered on Duchovny 's character Mulder . The episode also introduced the character of Melissa Scully , an attempt to provide a romantic lead for Mulder which was later dropped .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
FBI special agent Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) is currently missing , having disappeared after being kidnapped by a deranged multiple @-@ abductee in the two @-@ part episodes " Duane Barry " and " Ascension " . Her partner Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) has continued his work without her , but is still investigating her disappearance , believing her to have been abducted by aliens . His investigations into similar abductions in the past have been aided by The Lone Gunmen , a trio of conspiracy theorists made up of John Byers ( Bruce Harwood ) , Melvin Frohike ( Tom Braidwood ) and Richard Langly ( Dean Haglund ) .
= = = Events = = =
Scully 's mother , Margaret , ( Sheila Larken ) tells Mulder a story about Dana shooting a snake with her brothers as a child and regretting what she did afterwards . She indicates she is ready to let go of Dana , and shows Mulder Scully 's gravestone . Mulder , however , refuses to give up .
Scully then turns up mysteriously at a hospital in a coma . An out of control Mulder demands to know how she got there , and is escorted out by security but later calms down and meets with Dr. Daly ( Jay Brazeau ) , who reveals that no one can figure out how she got there or what 's wrong with her . He tells Mulder and Mrs. Scully that she has a living will that dictates she be taken off of life support when her condition falls to specific criteria . At Scully 's bedside , Mulder meets her older sister Melissa ( Melinda McGraw ) . Scully has a vision of sitting in a boat , attached by rope to a dock where Mulder and Melissa stand , and nurse Owens behind them . Frohike visits Scully and sneaks out her medical chart , which the Lone Gunmen later investigate . Byers finds that Scully 's blood contains branched DNA that may have been used for identification but now is inactive and nothing more than a poisonous waste product in her system .
The mysterious Nurse Owens visits Scully at her bedside , trying to reach her in her coma . Later Mulder visits Scully while another nurse takes her blood . When distracted , a mysterious man steals Scully 's blood sample and runs . Mulder chases him down to the parking lot where he is confronted by X , who demands that he stop pursuing what happened to Scully and let her die . He then executes the man who stole her blood . When Assistant Director Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) calls Mulder to his office regarding the incident , Mulder denies any involvement and claims that the Cigarette Smoking Man is responsible for what happened to Scully . Mulder demands to know where he is but Skinner refuses to tell him .
In another vision Scully lies on a table and is visited by her deceased father . Mulder , sitting with Melissa in the hospital cafeteria , is asked by a woman for change for the cigarette machine . When she says that a pack of Morleys is already there and leaves , Mulder opens it and finds the Cigarette Smoking Man 's address inside . Mulder bursts into the Cigarette Smoking Man 's home and holds him at gunpoint , demanding to know why Scully was taken instead of him . The Cigarette Smoking Man claims he likes the both of them , which is why she was returned ; he reveals that he told Skinner it was Mulder who shot the man in the parking lot , although he didn 't believe this to be true , incidentally revealing himself as unaware of who did shoot the man , namely X. He tells Mulder that he 'll never know the truth if he kills him , and Mulder decides not to .
Mulder returns to FBI headquarters and types out a resignation letter that he hands into Skinner . Skinner visits his office as Mulder is packing his things , and relates an out @-@ of @-@ body experience he had in Vietnam . Skinner refuses to accept Mulder 's resignation and Mulder realizes that he was the one who provided him with the Cigarette Smoking Man 's location . Heading to the parking garage , Mulder is met by X , telling him that he 'll have a chance for revenge that night when men , believing him to have information on Scully , will search his apartment at a specific time . Mulder is waiting with his gun at his apartment when Melissa arrives . Although he initially refuses to leave , Melissa is able to convince Mulder to see Scully , where he holds Scully 's hand and talks to her . Returning home to find his apartment trashed , Mulder sits on the floor and cries .
The next day , Scully awakens . Mulder is called to the hospital and sees her , returning her cross necklace , where she indicates she heard his voice while in her coma . Scully tells him she doesn 't remember anything after being kidnapped by Duane Barry . Later Scully asks one of the nurses if she can see Nurse Owens , as she wants to thank her , but the nurse tells Scully that no nurse named Owens works at the hospital .
= = Production = =
Gillian Anderson , who had just given birth to her daughter Piper days before this episode spent the majority of the episode in a hospital bed .
The episode title , " One Breath " comes from a line from Scully 's father when he talks to her during the episode . The character ' The Thinker ' , who later appears in person in the episode " Anasazi " was named after online X @-@ Files fan ' DuhThinker ' . The episode introduces Melinda McGraw as Scully 's sister Melissa . McGraw had previously worked with writers Glen Morgan and James Wong , who specifically wrote the part with her in mind . Thoughts were given to having a romantic interest between Mulder and Melissa , but the concept never came to pass .
Writer Glen Morgan said of the episode , " Duchovny challenged us to do a " Beyond the Sea " for him . The show had been so dark and bleak , and Jim and I feel that there is a side to the paranormal that 's very hopeful . We wanted to do that side of it . I thought it would be a great opportunity for Duchovny , but then the situation came up with Gillian 's pregnancy . We needed to get her off her feet anyway . There 's a line in there where Scully 's sister says ' Just because the belief is positive and good doesn 't make it silly or trite ' . It was the whole theme of the show . "
Chris Carter described the opening scene — in which Scully discovers the truth about death , sadness , and sorrow — as " a way he would never imagined an X @-@ Files episode to begin with " , and that the related scene with Scully 's tombstone was " a soft but beautiful opening " that " sets up the episode in a frightening way " . The image of Scully in the boat was meant to symbolize " being tethered to something very tenuously , and that there was a chance for you to be cut adrift and slip into the unknown " . Skinner facing the Smoking Man placed the character as " both an antagonistic and institutional figure " that tries to be both an FBI agent and an ally of Mulder and Scully — his refusal to allow the Smoking Man to smoke in his office " speaks of [ Skinner 's ] alliances and allegiances to Agent Scully and his hatred of this man he cannot vanquish , he cannot get rid of , but he has to tolerate " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" One Breath " premiered on the Fox network on November 11 , 1994 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on October 16 , 1995 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 9 @.@ 5 with a 16 share , meaning that roughly 9 @.@ 5 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 16 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . A total of 9 @.@ 1 million households watched this episode during its original airing .
= = = Reviews = = =
" One Breath " received mostly positive reviews from critics . The Munchkyn Zone reviewer Sarah Stegall gave the episode a glowing review and rated it 6 sunflower seeds out of 5 . Stegall stated the episode " works on several levels " and called it the " best yet " . John Keegan , writing for Critical Myth , gave the episode a favorable review and rated it a 10 out of 10 . Keegan stated " this is easily one of the best episodes of the series , if not the best " and concluded it is " truly a masterpiece " . Nina Sordi , writing for Den of Geek , ranked the episode as the eighth best in the series ' run , calling it " just too unforgettable " . Sordi added that " verbal sparring matches between Mulder and Scully 's equally feisty sister , Melissa , created an interesting dynamic in the absence of Scully 's perspective " . Nick De Semlyen and James White of Empire named it the fifteenth " greatest " episode of the series , considering it a " testament to the X @-@ Files writing staff 's ability to turn the temporary loss of one of the stars into a compelling , suspenseful and worthwhile piece of the overall mythology " . In a retrospective of the second season in Entertainment Weekly , the episode was rated a B. Its " absurd symbolism and the introduction of Scully 's dopey New Age sister " were criticized , but it was felt that these elements did not prevent " One Breath " from being a " richly layered installment " . It was also felt that the episode featured " arguably Duchovny 's best performance " . Reviewer Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club hailed " One Breath " as an essential episode of the show . He felt that there was a " sloppiness to the mythology " and that " the resolution of the whole coma situation is weak " . However , the " incredibly moving moments " and highlights such as Mulder attacking the Smoking Man and Skinner 's speech about Vietnam turned it into an episode " more about the moments than the big picture " .
In 1996 , Chris Carter declared " One Breath " to be one of the series ' most popular episodes . Co @-@ writer James Wong also enjoyed the episode , saying " I really love that show " . Director R. W. Goodwin said of the episode , " What 's so unusual about " One Breath " is that it had very little to do with our usual X @-@ File stuff . It was more about human emotions , drama , relationships " .
= = = Awards = = =
" One Breath " earned a nomination for an Emmy Award by the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences for Outstanding Cinematography - Series .
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= Universal City Studios , Inc. v. Nintendo Co . , Ltd . =
Universal City Studios , Inc. v. Nintendo Co . , Ltd. was a case heard by the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York by Judge Robert W. Sweet . In their complaint , Universal Studios alleged that Nintendo 's video game Donkey Kong was a trademark infringement of King Kong , the plot and characters of which Universal claimed as their own . Nintendo argued that Universal had themselves proved that King Kong 's plot and characters were in the public domain in Universal City Studios , Inc. v. RKO General , Inc .
Sweet ruled that Universal had acted in bad faith by threatening Nintendo 's licensees and that it had no right over the name King Kong or the characters and story . He further held that there was no possibility for consumers to confuse Nintendo 's game and characters with the King Kong films and their characters . Universal appealed the case , but the verdict was upheld .
The case was a victory for Nintendo , which was still a newcomer to the U.S. market . The case established Nintendo as a major player in the industry and arguably gave the company the confidence that it could compete with the giants of American media . The case was selected as number 20 on GameSpy 's list of the " 25 Dumbest Moments in Gaming " .
= = Background = =
In 1982 , Sid Sheinberg , the president of MCA and Universal City Studios and a seasoned attorney , was trying to find a way to get his company into the booming video game market . In April , he learned of the success of Nintendo 's Donkey Kong video game and sent Robert Hadl , vice president of legislative matters , to investigate . Hadl 's analysis was that Donkey Kong 's storyline was based on that of King Kong and was thus an infringement of Universal 's rights to that film 's characters and scenario .
Sheinberg also learned of a licensing agreement between Nintendo and Coleco , a producer of home video game consoles . Sheinberg scheduled a meeting with Coleco president Arnold Greenberg on April 27 , 1982 , ostensibly to discuss possible investment in Coleco . Instead , Universal admonished Greenberg for copyright infringement and threatened to sue if the ColecoVision shipped with Donkey Kong as planned . The next day , Universal telexed Coleco and Nintendo giving them 48 hours to cease marketing Donkey Kong , to dispose of all Donkey Kong inventory , and to hand over all records of profits made from the game . On May 5 , Greenberg agreed to pay Universal royalties of 3 % of Donkey Kong 's net sale price , amounting to six million units and worth about $ 4 @.@ 6 million . A week later , he signed an agreement that stated that Universal would not sue Coleco as long as Coleco paid royalties .
Meanwhile , Hadl learned that Tiger Electronics had licensed King Kong for a handheld game . He decided that Universal 's earnings from it were too low and that the license 's granting of exclusive rights to Tiger would impede the agreement with Coleco . On May 4 , Sheinberg sent Tiger a mailgram demanding that they send their game in for further approval . Universal reviewed it and decided that King Kong was too similar to Donkey Kong . On May 8 , Steinberg revoked Tiger 's license , but Tiger president O. R. Rissman refused to give in and challenged Universal 's claim that it owned the King Kong name .
Nintendo 's attorney ( and future board member ) Howard Lincoln was at first inclined to settle for $ 5 – 7 million . Eventually , however , he decided to fight , reassuring the head of the company 's U.S. division , Minoru Arakawa , that this was a sign that Nintendo had made it big . On May 6 , Arakawa and Lincoln met with Coleco and Universal in Los Angeles . Hadl reiterated his stance that Donkey Kong infringed Universal 's rights to King Kong . Lincoln countered that Nintendo had discovered many unlicensed uses of King Kong 's name and characters and that Universal 's trademark on these was less than 10 years old . In private , Greenberg tried to persuade Nintendo to sign a licensing agreement ; he had not told them that he had already done so . By the end of the meeting , Hadl agreed to send a chain of title to Nintendo regarding Universal 's ownership of the King Kong name . When this failed to materialize in the next few weeks , Lincoln prodded Universal again . They responded with more demands for royalties .
Lincoln researched the merits of Universal 's claims to King Kong and deemed them untenable . Nintendo called for another meeting , which was set up for May 21 . Believing that Nintendo was finally caving , Sheinberg intimated that Nintendo might expect future business from Universal if they agreed to settle the matter . Lincoln only repeated Nintendo 's position that Universal had no legal basis to make any threats . He recalled later ,
Mr. Arakawa and I decided that we would go down and simply tell him [ Sheinberg ] that we 've come to tell you to your face that we would pay you if we thought we were liable , but we had done our homework and we were not prepared to pay anything because we hadn 't done anything wrong . We just wanted to essentially look him in the face and tell him that . It seemed the honorable thing to do . As it turned out , maybe Hadl had led him to believe that we had come down to reach some sort of monetary settlement with him . And it was really funny because it was not what he was expecting and his reaction was shock .
Knowing that a court battle lay ahead , Hadl contacted Rissman , the errant Tiger licensee , to compromise on the handheld King Kong game . Hadl wanted to remove the exclusivity provision of the license and to distinguish the handheld game from Donkey Kong so as to weaken any potential counterclaims that one of Universal 's licensees had violated Nintendo 's intellectual property rights . Rissman complied , giving the hero a fireman hat , replacing barrel graphics with bombs , and making the game platforms straight instead of crooked . This design was approved in early June .
= = District court = =
On June 29 , 1982 , Universal officially sued Nintendo . The company also announced that it had agreed to license the rights to King Kong to Coleco . On January 3 , 1983 , Universal then sent cease @-@ and @-@ desist letters to Nintendo 's licensees offering three options : stop using Donkey Kong characters , obtain a license from Universal , or be sued . Six licensees caved , but Milton Bradley refused to do so . When Ralston Purina 's offer of $ 5 @,@ 000 for the use of Donkey Kong characters on breakfast cereal was turned down , they also refused to settle .
Lincoln hired John Kirby to represent Nintendo in court . Kirby had won other big cases for the likes of PepsiCo . , General Foods , and Warner @-@ Lambert . Kirby researched the game 's development , taking depositions from designer Shigeru Miyamoto and Nintendo president Hiroshi Yamauchi in Japan . Miyamoto claimed that he had in fact called his ape character King Kong at first , as that was a generic term in Japan for any large ape .
Universal City Studios , Inc. v. Nintendo , Co . , Ltd. was heard at the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York by Judge Robert W. Sweet . The trial lasted seven days , during which Universal , represented by the New York firm Townley & Updike , argued that the name Donkey Kong could be confused with King Kong and that the plot of the game was an infringement on that of the film . Kirby showed key differences between Donkey Kong and King Kong . He also alleged that Universal had no rights to the King Kong characters and that they had in fact successfully sued RKO Pictures in 1975 in Universal City Studios , Inc. v. RKO General , Inc . , wherein they proved that the plot of King Kong was in the public domain and thus opened the way for Dino De Laurentiis 's remake .
Judge Sweet ruled against Universal and chastised the company :
Throughout this litigation , Universal knew , as a result of the RKO litigation , that it had no rights to any visual image of King Kong from the classic movie or its remake . Nonetheless , Universal , when it seemed beneficial , made sweeping assertions of rights , attempting to extract license agreements from companies incapable of or unwilling to confront Universal 's " profit center . "
He ruled that Universal did not own King Kong , but even if King Kong was Universal 's property , the possibility that anyone would confuse Donkey Kong and King Kong was unlikely . In his opinion , Donkey Kong was " comical " and the ape character " farcical , childlike and nonsexual . " The King Kong character , on the other hand , was " a ferocious gorilla in quest of a beautiful woman . " Sweet declared that " At best , Donkey Kong is a parody of King Kong . " Furthermore , Sweet said , the cease @-@ and @-@ desist letters that Universal had sent to Nintendo 's licensees gave the game company the right to seek damages . Finally , Sweet ruled that Tiger 's King Kong was an infringement of Donkey Kong :
Donkey Kong 's particular expression of a gorilla villain and a carpenter hero ( with or without a fire hat ) who must dodge various obstacles ( whether bombs or fireballs ) while climbing up ladders ( whether complete or broken ) and picking up prizes ( umbrellas or purses ) to rescue a fair @-@ haired ( whether knotted or pigtailed ) hostage from the gorilla is protractible against Universal and its licensees .
Nintendo was given the option to either take Universal 's licensing profits for their game or accept statutory damages . Nintendo opted for the former , receiving $ 56 @,@ 689 @.@ 41 . Nintendo also received damages and attorney 's fees .
= = Appeal = =
Universal appealed the verdict to the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit . Nintendo and Universal argued the appeals case on May 23 , 1984 . As evidence of consumer confusion , Universal presented the results of a telephone survey of 150 managers and owners of arcades , bowling alleys , and pizza restaurants who owned or leased Donkey Kong machines . To the question " To the best of your knowledge , was the Donkey Kong game made with the approval or under the authority of the people who produce the King Kong movies ? " , 18 % of those surveyed answered in the affirmative . However , to the question " As far as you know , who makes Donkey Kong ? " , no one named Universal . Universal argued that this was enough evidence to show that consumers were confused about the distinction between the two names .
They also provided six examples from print media of more cases of confusion between Donkey Kong and King Kong . The October 1982 issue of Videogaming Illustrated , for example , was shown to read " our Donkey Kong presentation continues as we look at other gorillas who have had a fondness for women . Prominent among them is King Kong , who has much in common with the video villain . " Another example was Craig Kubey 's 1982 The Winner 's Book of Video Games , which states that " Donkey Kong [ is ] a video version of the film classic King Kong . "
In its decision on October 4 , 1984 , the court upheld the previous verdict . They declared that " The two properties have nothing in common but a gorilla , a captive woman , a male rescuer , and a building scenario . " Further , the court ruled that " The ' Kong ' and ' King Kong ' names are widely used by the general public and are associated with apes and other objects of enormous proportions . " As for Universal 's survey , the court found it unconvincing , as Universal did not own the " image . . . of King Kong climbing the Empire State Building / World Trade Center with Fay Wray / Jessica Lange in his paw " and that by only soliciting opinions from people who already had Donkey Kong games , the survey failed to establish confusion from potential customers . Finally , the survey asked " an obvious leading question in that it suggested its own answer . "
Regarding Universal 's printed examples , the court found that
The statements cited by Universal recognize that the Donkey Kong theme loosely evokes the King Kong films . However , none of the statements remotely suggests that the authors were under the impression that Donkey Kong was connected with the company holding the King Kong trademark .
The court agreed that some consumers were confused about the two marks . " However , the fact that there may be a few confused consumers does not create a sufficiently disputed issue of fact regarding the likelihood of confusion so as to make summary judgment improper . "
= = Counterclaims and second appeal = =
When Nintendo filed its counterclaims on May 20 , 1985 , Sweet ruled that Universal would pay Nintendo $ 1 @.@ 8 million for " legal fees , photocopying expenses , costs incurred creating graphs and charts , and lost revenues . " He ruled against Nintendo 's claims to damages from Universal establishing licenses with Nintendo 's licensees in those cases where the licensees continued to pay Nintendo . Nintendo 's licensees , Coleco among them , filed their own counterclaims . Universal paid Coleco by buying stock in the company .
Universal and Nintendo both appealed the counterclaims suit . The case was argued on June 16 , 1986 .
In the decision , rendered on July 15 , the court upheld the previous verdicts . They ruled that ,
First , Universal knew that it did not have trademark rights to King Kong , yet it proceeded to broadly assert such rights anyway . This amounted to a wanton and reckless disregard of Nintendo 's rights .
Second , Universal did not stop after it asserted its rights to Nintendo . It embarked on a deliberate , systematic campaign to coerce all of Nintendo 's third party licensees to either stop marketing Donkey Kong products or pay Universal royalties .
Finally , Universal 's conduct amounted to an abuse of judicial process , and in that sense caused a longer harm to the public as a whole . Depending on the commercial results , Universal alternatively argued to the courts , first , that King Kong was a part of the public domain , and then second , that King Kong was not part of the public domain , and that Universal possessed exclusive trademark rights in it . Universal 's assertions in court were based not on any good faith belief in their truth , but on the mistaken belief that it could use the courts to turn a profit .
Nintendo thanked John Kirby with a $ 30 @,@ 000 sailboat christened the Donkey Kong along with " exclusive worldwide rights to use the name for sailboats . " The character in Nintendo 's Kirby series of video games may have been named after John Kirby , in honor of his services in the Donkey Kong case . It is rumored that a copy of the game was eventually sent to John Kirby who was humored and flattered .
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= Great Comet of 1882 =
The Great Comet of 1882 formally designated C / 1882 R1 , 1882 II , and 1882b , was a comet which became very bright in September 1882 . It was a member of the Kreutz Sungrazers , a family of comets which pass within 1 R ☉ of the Sun 's photosphere at perihelion . The comet was bright enough to be visible next to the Sun in the daytime sky at its perihelion .
= = Discovery = =
The comet appeared suddenly in the morning skies of September 1882 . As it was already visible to the naked eye , it was discovered independently by many people . Reports suggest that it was first seen as early as 1 September 1882 , from the Cape of Good Hope as well as the Gulf of Guinea , and over the next few days many observers in the southern hemisphere reported the new comet .
The first astronomer to record observations of the comet was W. H. Finlay , the Chief Assistant at the Royal Observatory in Cape Town , South Africa . Finlay 's observation on 7 September at 16h GMT was also an independent discovery , and he reported that the comet had an apparent magnitude of about 3 , and a tail about a degree in length .
The comet brightened rapidly , and within days had become an exceptionally bright object . Her Majesty 's Astronomer at the Cape , David Gill , reported watching the comet rise a few minutes before the Sun on 18 September , and described it as " The nucleus was then undoubtedly single , and certainly rather under than over 4 ″ in diameter ; in fact , as I have described it , it resembled very much a star of the 1st magnitude seen by daylight . " .
= = Perihelion = =
The comet was rapidly approaching perihelion when it was discovered . At perihelion , the comet is estimated to have been only 300 @,@ 000 miles or 480 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 0032 AU ) from the Sun 's surface . Subsequent orbital studies have determined that it was a Sungrazing comet , one which passes extremely close to the surface of the Sun . For many hours on either side of its perihelion passage , the comet was easily visible in the daytime sky next to the Sun . It reached an estimated magnitude of − 17 .
Shortly after perihelion was reached on 17 September , the comet transited the Sun . At the Cape , Finlay observed the comet with the aid of a neutral density filter right up until the moment of transit , when the Sun 's limb was " boiling all about it " . Finlay noted that the comet disappeared from view very suddenly , and no trace of it could be seen against the Sun 's surface .
= = Post @-@ perihelion evolution = =
After its perihelion passage , the comet moved into dark skies , and although it faded as it receded from the Sun it remained one of the most prominent objects in the sky . On 30 September , observers , including Finlay and E. E. Barnard , began to notice that the comet 's nucleus was elongated and broken into two pronounced bright balls of light , and by 17 October it was clear that it had broken into at least five fragments . Observers reported that the relative brightness of the fragments varied from day to day .
In mid @-@ October , the comet developed a notable antitail , pointing towards the Sun . Anti @-@ tails are a fairly common cometary phenomenon , and result from orbital geometry giving the appearance of a tail pointing towards the Sun although material can only be driven away from the Sun .
The nucleus reached its maximum apparent size in December 1882 . The comet faded gradually , but despite its fragmentation it remained visible to the naked eye until February 1883 . The last definite sighting of the comet was made by B. A. Gould at Córdoba on 1 June 1883 .
= = Orbital studies = =
Studies of the orbit of the comet showed that the Great Comet of 1882 was moving on an almost identical path to previous great comets seen in C / 1843 D1 and C / 1880 C1 . These comets had also suddenly appeared in the morning sky and had passed extremely close to the Sun at perihelion . One suggestion was that all three were in fact the same comet , with an orbital period that was being drastically shortened at each perihelion passage . However , studies showed this to be untenable , as the orbital period of this comet is 772 ± 3 years and the others are 600 – 800 years .
Heinrich Kreutz studied the orbits of the three great comets , and developed the idea that the three comets were fragments of a much larger progenitor comet which had broken up at an earlier perihelion passage . The fragmentation of the Great Comet of 1882 itself demonstrated that this was plausible . It is now thought that the Great Comet of 1882 is a fragment of X / 1106 C1 , and that Comet du Toit ( C / 1945 X1 ) and Comet Ikeya – Seki ( C / 1965 S1 ) are two of its sister fragments .
It is now well established that the comets C / 1843 D1 , C / 1880 C1 , C / 1882 R1 , C / 1887 B1 , C / 1963 R1 , C / 1965 S1 , and C / 1970 K1 are all members of a family known as the Kreutz Sungrazers , which are all descended from one comet . Current models do not support the frequent supposition in the prior literature that the famous comet of 372 BC is in fact the ultimate parent of the Sungrazers . The comet of 372 BC is often associated with Aristotle who , along with others from his time , described that comet in his writings . However , Aristotle was only twelve at the time of the comet 's appearance and the historian , Callisthenes of Olynthus , who also wrote about it was born ten years after its appearance . Consequently , their reports should not be taken as eye @-@ witness accounts . Further , there is no mention of the comet in Chinese literature of the time . Instead either the comet of February 423 or of February 467 with orbital periods of around 700 years is now considered the likely progenitor of the Sungrazers . The fragments of the Great Comet of 1882 will return in several hundred years ' time , spread out over perhaps two or three centuries .
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= Loving You ( 1957 film ) =
Loving You is a 1957 American Technicolor musical drama structured as Elvis Presley 's first starring film vehicle , following his debut the previous year in a supporting role in the black @-@ and @-@ white film , Love Me Tender . Directed by Hal Kanter , the cast is completed by Lizabeth Scott , Wendell Corey , and Dolores Hart in her movie debut .
The storyline , about a delivery man who is discovered by a music publicist and a country – western musician who want to promote the talented newcomer , was scripted by Herbert Baker and Hal Kanter , based on the short story " A Call from Mitch Miller . " Kanter expanded the script after being inspired by Presley 's last appearance on the Louisiana Hayride , and his manager Colonel Tom Parker 's antics .
A box office success , Loving You opened nationwide on July 9 , 1957 . Paramount Pictures chose to ignore the first @-@ run theater system , opting instead to release the film in sub @-@ run neighborhood theaters , a system later dubbed the " Presley Pattern . " Composed by Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller , Presley 's single " ( Let Me Be Your ) Teddy Bear " backed with " Loving You " was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America .
= = Plot = =
Walter " Tex " Warner ( Wendell Corey ) , a seasoned country and western bandleader past his prime , and his manager and love interest , Glenda Markle ( Lizabeth Scott ) , work for the campaign of Texas gubernatorial candidate Jim Tallman . During a campaign stop in the town of Delville , Deke Rivers ( Elvis Presley ) and a workmate deliver an order of beer . While they are unloading , the workmate talks to Glenda about Deke 's singing ability , which Glenda jumps on to revive the sagging interest in the event by using local talent . She convinces Deke to sing a song with the backing of Tex 's Rough Ridin ' Ramblers .
Seeing the positive reception by the female audience , Glenda tries to convince Deke to join the Tex Warner Show . Driving in Deke 's hotrod , she tells him about his potential . Not willing to leave his first steady job in a year , he rejects the offer , but Glenda asks him to think about it . Upon returning to town , Glenda calls the Highway Beverage Company , after which she and Tex quit the Tallman campaign to return to their own roadshow . Later that night , Deke is provoked at a restaurant by the boyfriend of one of his fans , who wants to hear him sing a song . After singing to a tune from the jukebox , he starts a fight with him . He is later exonerated by the police .
The following morning , as the group is leaving town , Deke accepts Glenda 's offer , after being fired because of a complaint by a customer regarding a late delivery . Glenda just happens to have prepared a contract , which grants her half of his income . With Tex headlining , they start touring throughout Texas , along two other acts : Susan " Susie " Jessup ( Dolores Hart ) and a singing trio . As Deke 's popularity grows , Glenda devises publicity stunts to leverage it . At one show , she pays two aged woman to criticize him . When they start to argue with young fans , Glenda has a press photographer document the incident . As the tour progresses , Deke and Susan become interested in one another . After playing small venues , the group is hired to play in a large Amarillo theater on a four @-@ day run . Convinced that it is his ticket to regain fame , Tex accepts Glenda 's suggestion to share the bill with Deke , after which she calls reporters of The Dallas Chronicle to write a story on Deke .
After the end of the four day engagement , Deke 's management is offered a one @-@ man show in Freegate , Texas , outside of Dallas . Due to the terms of the contract , Tex fires Susan and the singing trio , leaving only Deke in the show . Before he has to begin his new tour , Deke drives Susan to her family 's farm . Meanwhile , in another publicity move , Glenda convinces Tex to buy a Cadillac against his life insurance for Deke , inventing a story to tell Deke that it was a gift from the widow of an oil magnate . Back on the farm , Deke and Susan talk , where she tells him about being fired , after which they are about to kiss , when they are interrupted by her parents , who ask him to sing the song he promised . After Deke sings " Loving You " , a surprised Susan remarks that she never heard him sing that way ; Deke admits that he never felt that way before .
Glenda arrives at the farm with the Cadillac , and urges him to leave with her for Freegate to do the show . On their way back , Deke confesses to Glenda that his real surname is Tompkins . Deciding to disclose his past , they drive to Allen City , to the Woodbine cemetery , where he shows her the Tomb of Deke Rivers . He explains that when the orphanage he lived in burned down eleven years earlier , he decided to bury his past , and took Rivers ' name .
Meanwhile , in Freegate , the concert is cancelled by the Mayor 's office , after they received complaints from parents about Deke 's music . Glenda arranges a studio telecast of a concert from Freegate in order to gain publicity ; this enables her to convince the town board to allow him to perform . Deke , unhappy , is considering leaving the entertainment business . When Glenda finds out , she talks him into performing , after which they kiss .
On the day of the telecast , Deke is shocked after learning that Tex was married and later divorced to Glenda . Disillusioned , he drives off before the show . When Glenda finds out about it from Tex , she goes after Deke , finding him after he was run off the road by crossing cattle . Glenda confesses everything to him : getting him fired and lying about the Cadillac , after which she tears up their contract , before convincing him to return for the broadcast .
While the concert is delayed , fans are filmed by local newscasters defending Deke 's music . Eventually , an upset Susan arrives to reveal that Deke will not appear on the show . However , Deke does appear shortly after , declaring that he had " something very important to say to somebody " , and starts the show by singing " Loving You " . As the song ends , Susan goes onstage with him , after which they meet Tex and Glenda backstage . Deke offers to let them both manage him , as he is offered a recording contract . Tex and Glenda reconcile ; meanwhile , Deke and Susan kiss .
= = Cast = =
= = Cast notes = =
Elvis Presley ( 1935 – 1977 ) plays Deke Rivers ( whose real name is Jimmy Tompkins ) , a deliveryman who is discovered by the manager of a band . The film is Presley 's second motion picture following his debut in the 1956 film Love Me Tender and his first starring role . It also marked the beginning of his seven @-@ film streak for Paramount produced by Hal Wallis . For the role , Presley dyed his hair black following his favorite actors : Tony Curtis and Rudolph Valentino . As the second of his 1956 three @-@ movie deal with Paramount Pictures , Presley was paid US $ 150 @,@ 000 .
Lizabeth Scott ( 1922 – 2015 ) plays Glenda Markle , manager and love interest of bandleader " Tex " Warner . Known for her roles in the 1940s and early 1950s , Scott returned from retirement to star in the movie .
Wendell Corey ( 1914 – 1968 ) plays Walter " Tex " Warner , bandleader of the Rough Ridin ' Cowboys and the roadshow that Deke joins and revitalizes . Corey was known for his appearances in Alfred Hitchcock 's Rear Window and Joseph Anthony 's The Rainmaker . A decade earlier , he co @-@ starred with Lizabeth Scott in 1947 's Desert Fury and I Walk Alone .
Dolores Hart ( born 1938 ) plays Susan Jessup , a young singer who tours with Tex Warner 's band and Deke 's love interest . Cast in her first movie role , Hart was discovered by Wallis after he saw her in a production of Joan of Lorraine at Loyola University . He screen @-@ tested Hart on January 16 , 1957 , and later signed her for US $ 250 a week . Then named Dolores Hicks , Wallis requested her to change her name to favor her acting career . She adopted Hart , after the maiden surname of a friend . The actress changed it legally to " Dolores Hart " . A year after Loving You , Hart was cast as Presley 's love interest in his 1958 black @-@ and @-@ white musical drama , King Creole .
Ken Becker ( 1931 – 2000 ) , also occasionally billed as Kenny Becker or Kenneth Becker , plays Deke 's rival , Wayne , who loses a fistfight with Deke . Becker played similar roles in three later Presley films , G.I. Blues ( 1960 ) , Girls ! Girls ! Girls ! ( 1962 ) and Roustabout ( 1964 ) .
Jana Lund ( 1933 – 1991 ) plays Daisy Bricker , the object of Wayne 's jealousy , who kisses Deke ( Presley 's first on @-@ screen kiss ) . A year earlier , she appeared in another rock and roll film , 1956 's Don 't Knock the Rock . Following Loving You , she had roles in three other titles in the psychotronic film genre , 1958 's High School Hellcats , Hot Car Girl and Frankenstein 1970 .
= = Production = =
The film was based on the short story " A Call from Mitch Miller " , written by Mary Agnes Thompson and published in the June 1956 issue of Good Housekeeping . In that year , producer Hal Wallis bought the rights for the story to turn it into a vehicle for Presley 's first starring role for Paramount Pictures . Six months before the start of the production , Wallis loaned Presley to 20th Century Fox , where he appeared in his movie debut , the 1956 film Love Me Tender .
The producer then selected Hal Kanter to direct the film and to co @-@ write the script with Herbert Baker . To write a script adjusted to Presley , Kanter traveled to Memphis , Tennessee , to meet him in person . Along with Presley 's entourage , he went to Shreveport to see the last performance of the singer on the country television show , Louisiana Hayride . Kanter witnessed the reaction from fans , as well as Presley 's manager Colonel Tom Parker 's handling of the spectacle , both of which he used as an inspiration for the script . The working titles of the movie were " Lonesome Cowboy " , " Running Wild " , " Stranger in Town " , and " Something for the Girls " . Due to the appeal of Presley 's previous film being titled after a song sung by Presley , Wallis selected the final name for the film , using the Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller ballad penned for the movie , " Loving You " .
Shot in Technicolor and VistaVision , the production started on January 21 , 1957 , ending on March 8 . The film was shot at the Paramount studios , except the Jessup farm scenes , which were shot in the Hollywood Hills . The film features appearances by Presley 's guitarist Scotty Moore , bassist Bill Black , drummer D.J. Fontana , and The Jordanaires . Presley 's parents , Gladys and Vernon , who visited the set of the film , were included in the final scene of the film as part of the audience of the telecast .
Loving You premiered in Memphis on July 10 , 1957 at the Strand Theater . Presley did not go to that showing , instead opting to take girlfriend Anita Wood , as well as his parents to a private midnight screening . The film opened nationally on July 30 , 1957 and peaked at # 7 on the Variety National Box Office Survey , staying on the chart for four weeks .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The soundtrack of the film was recorded from January 15 – 18 , 1957 , at the Paramount Pictures Scoring Stage , and in two additional sessions at Radio Recorders in Hollywood on January 12 , 13 , and 19 , and February 23 – 24 , 1957 . It contains seven songs , composed expressly for the movie by writers contracted to Elvis Presley Music and Gladys Music , the publishing companies owned by Presley and his manager , Colonel Tom Parker . The title tune , " Loving You " , was composed by Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller . The single " ( Let Me Be Your ) Teddy Bear " backed with " Loving you " sold over a million copies , and was later certified platinum on March 27 , 1992 by the Recording Industry Association of America .
Performed by Presley :
" Mean Woman Blues "
" ( Let Me Be Your ) Teddy Bear "
" Loving You "
" Got a Lot o ' Livin ' to Do "
" Lonesome Cowboy "
" Hot Dog "
" Party "
= = Release and reception = =
The film premiered on July 9 , 1957 , at the Strand Theater in Memphis , opening nationally on July 30 . Due to Presley 's massive appeal , for the first time , the studio decided to bypass the established first @-@ run theater system . Paramount opted instead for a wide release , sending it to neighborhood theaters in New York , Chicago , and Detroit . This new system was dubbed the " Presley Pattern " , which consisted of delivering the product to its direct market by cutting the expenses of premieres in downtown theaters , choosing instead local venues for a wider and more profitable release .
Upon its release , it appeared on Variety 's National Box Office Survey for four weeks , peaking at number seven . The film grossed a total of US $ 3 @.@ 7 million in 1957 . While Presley was in the army , the movie was re @-@ released in the summer of 1959 . The box office results were not impressive , the film grossing US $ 74 @,@ 000 .
= = = Reviews = = =
Variety wrote a favorable review , noting that Presley " shows improvement as an actor ... being surrounded by a capable crew of performers " . The New York Times criticized his acting : the review opened " For Paramount 's ' Loving You ' , starring America 's favorite hound @-@ dog hollerer ... does just about everything , and little else , to prove that it ain 't — isn 't " . The Los Angeles Times declared it " A furtive step on Presley 's part in a screen career " . The Michigan Christian Advocate delivered a negative review and called the film " an apologia for Elvis Presley " and considered it " part of the passing American scene " that would " undoubtedly bore many and interest an equal number " .
On its review , Monthly Film Bulletin qualified Presley 's career as " one of the most puzzling and less agreeable aspects of modern popular music " . the review declared : " Presley adopts a slurred and husky style of delivery and a series of grotesque body gestures to impose on his otherwise innocuous material a suggestive meaning . ... in ' Loving You ' he is allowed more scope and is at times both the cause and sum total of the film 's somewhat doubtful entertainment value . " Down Beat opened its review mentioning the negative reception of Presley by the press , indicating that while other publications " hotly despised " him , Down Beat was " prepared to dismiss him with a decimating round of punfire " . The reviewer , however noted that after watching Loving You , it was " amiss to speak unkindly of [ Presley ] " , and that the film was " a rather entertaining pic " . It remarked the " resourcefulness " of Lizabeth Scott , the " positive acting ability augmented by a fresh prettiness " of Dolores Hart , and the " witty lines and range of expressions " delivered by Wendell Corey . The review favored Presley , describing his performance as " an overpowering , if touchingly naive , celluloid sexuality . " It concluded : " For all his high @-@ voltage on @-@ stage erotica ... he plays the sullen country boy convincingly ... evincing all the emotion of a well bred head of livestock . "
= = = Later reviews and evaluation in film guides = = =
While it rated the film with two stars out of five , Allmovie defined it as " one of Elvis Presley 's liveliest and most interesting early films ... one of the best in ( his ) output " . MSN Movies called it " a streamlined and sanitized retake on the story of Elvis " .
Leonard Maltin 's Movie Guide rated Loving You with 2 ½ stars out of 4 , the review declared : " Elvis ' second movie is highlighted by his performance of ' Teddy Bear ' and the title tune " . Meanwhile , Steven H. Scheuer 's Movies on TV lowered the rating to 2 stars out of 4 . Scheuer opined that the film was " tailor @-@ made for Presley and his tunes , the story matters little — too little , if one doesn 't dig Elvis " . Videohound 's Golden Movie Retriever rated it with 2 bones out of 4 . Michael Weldon , in Psychotronic Encyclopedia of Film , gave a positive review : " Elvis at his best , top @-@ billed for the first time " . Leslie Halliwell , in his Film and Video Guide , felt the opposite , giving zero stars out of 4 , and dismissed it as an " empty @-@ headed , glossy star vehicle " .
Mick Martin 's & Marsha Porter 's DVD & Video Guide rated it with 3 stars out of 5 . It described it as a " better @-@ than @-@ average Elvis Presley vehicle " and concluded that " the main attraction is Elvis singing his rock ' n ' roll songs , including the title tune . " Also assigning 3 stars ( out of 5 ) , The Motion Picture Guide opined " Loving You is one of Presley 's better films . He gives a fine performance , both in the great concert scenes and in the dramatic ones ; Hal Kanter directs with vigor " .
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= White @-@ winged fairywren =
The white @-@ winged fairywren ( Malurus leucopterus ) is a species of passerine bird in the fairywren family Maluridae . It lives in the drier parts of central Australia ; from central Queensland and South Australia across to Western Australia . Like other fairywrens , this species displays marked sexual dimorphism and one or more males of a social group grow brightly coloured plumage during the breeding season . The female is sandy @-@ brown with light @-@ blue tail feathers ; it is smaller than the male , which , in breeding plumage , has a bright @-@ blue body , black bill , and white wings . Younger sexually mature males are almost indistinguishable from females and are often the breeding males . A troop of white @-@ winged fairywrens in spring and summer has a brightly coloured older male accompanied by small , inconspicuous brown birds , many of which are also male . Three subspecies are recognised . Apart from the mainland subspecies , one is found on Dirk Hartog Island , and another on Barrow Island off the coast of Western Australia . Males from these islands have black rather than blue breeding plumage .
The white @-@ winged fairywren mainly eats insects , supplementing this with small fruits and leaf buds . It occurs in heathland and arid scrubland , where low shrubs provide cover . Like other fairywrens , it is a cooperative breeding species , and small groups of birds maintain and defend territories year @-@ round . Groups consist of a socially monogamous pair with several helper birds who assist in raising the young . These helpers are progeny that have attained sexual maturity but remain with the family group for one or more years after fledging . Although not yet confirmed genetically , the white @-@ winged fairywren may be promiscuous and assist in raising the young from other pairings . As part of a courtship display , the male wren plucks petals from flowers and displays them to female birds .
= = Taxonomy = =
A specimen of the white @-@ winged fairywren was first collected by French naturalists Jean René Constant Quoy and Joseph Paul Gaimard in September 1818 , on Louis de Freycinet 's voyage around the Southern Hemisphere . The specimen was lost in a shipwreck , but a painting entitled Mérion leucoptère by Jacques Arago survived and led to the bird 's description in 1824 by French ornithologist Charles Dumont de Sainte @-@ Croix . The name for the species was derived from the Ancient Greek leuko- ' white ' and pteron ' wing ' .
Ironically , the original specimen was of the black @-@ plumaged subspecies from Dirk Hartog Island , which was not recorded again for 80 years . Meanwhile , the widespread blue @-@ plumaged subspecies was discovered and described as two separate species by John Gould in 1865 . He called one specimen collected from inland New South Wales the white @-@ winged superb warbler , M. cyanotus , while another , which appeared to have a white back and wings , was described as M. leuconotus , the white @-@ backed superb warbler . It was not until the early 20th century that both of these blue @-@ plumaged mainland forms were found to be of a single species . George Mack , ornithologist of the National Museum of Victoria , considered the specific name leuconotus to take precedence in his 1934 revision of the genus , and more recent studies have followed suit . The back region between the shoulders is in fact bare , with feathers that arise from the shoulder ( scapular ) region and sweep inwards in different patterns . This variation confused the early naturalists who described the white @-@ backed and blue @-@ backed species .
The white @-@ winged fairywren was often referred to as the blue @-@ and @-@ white wren , and early observers , such as Norman Favaloro of Victoria , refer to them by this name . However , like other fairywrens , the white @-@ winged fairywren is unrelated to the true wren ( family Troglodytidae ) . It was previously classified as a member of the Old World flycatcher family Muscicapidae , and later as a member of the warbler family Sylviidae , before they were placed in the newly recognised Maluridae in 1975 . More recently , DNA analysis has shown the Maluridae family to be related to the Meliphagidae ( honeyeaters ) , and the Pardalotidae ( pardalotes , scrubwrens , thornbills , gerygones and allies ) in the large superfamily Meliphagoidea .
Within the Maluridae , it is one of 12 species in the genus , Malurus . It is most closely related to the Australian red @-@ backed fairywren , with which it makes up a phylogenetic clade with the white @-@ shouldered fairywren of New Guinea as the next closest relative . Termed the bicoloured wrens by ornithologist Richard Schodde , these three species are notable for their lack of head patterns and ear tufts and their uniform black or blue plumage with contrasting shoulder or wing colour ; they replace each other geographically across northern Australia and New Guinea .
= = = Subspecies = = =
There are three recognised subspecies of Malurus leucopterus . Both black @-@ plumaged forms have been called black @-@ and @-@ white fairywren .
M. l. leuconotus is endemic to mainland Australia and distinct in that it is the only subspecies to have nuptial males that show prominent blue @-@ and @-@ white plumage . The name of this species is derived from the Ancient Greek leukos ' white ' and notos ' back ' . Birds in the southern parts of its range tend to be smaller than those in the north .
M. l. leucopterus is restricted to Dirk Hartog Island , off the western coast of Australia , and nuptial males display black @-@ and @-@ white plumage . This subspecies is the smallest of the three and bears a proportionally longer tail . It was collected again in 1916 by Tom Carter , 98 years after de Freycinet 's expedition collected the type specimen .
M. l. edouardi , like M. l. leucopterus , have black @-@ and @-@ white coloured males , and are found only on Barrow Island , also off the western coast of Australia . Birds of this subspecies are larger than those of M. l. leucopterus but have a shorter tail . The female has a more cinnamon tinge to her plumage than the grey @-@ brown of the other two subspecies . It was described by A.J. Campbell in 1901 .
M. l. leucopterus and M. l. edouardi are both generally smaller than their mainland relatives , and both subspecies tend to have smaller family groups that consist of only one male and one female , with an occasional helper bird . While the island subspecies and mainland species have been found to have similar social structure , breeding pairs on both islands have , on average , smaller clutches , longer incubation times , and fewer live fledglings . Additionally , while M. l. leuconotus is considered of least concern by the IUCN due to its widespread occurrence , both island subspecies are considered vulnerable by the Australian government due to their delicate nesting sites that are easily disturbed by human construction and habitation .
= = = Evolutionary history = = =
Both island subspecies are nearer in genetic distance to mainland populations of leuconotus than to each other ; Dirk Hartog Island is 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) from the mainland while Barrow Island is 56 kilometres ( 35 mi ) from the mainland . Gene flow between the populations existed at the beginning of the present interglacial period , some 8 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 years ago , at a time when sea levels were lower and both islands connected with the mainland .
There are three theories as to how the three races of white @-@ winged fairywren could have evolved . The first suggests that black @-@ and @-@ white plumage is an ancestral condition and , following separation of the three populations , blue @-@ and @-@ white plumage evolved in the mainland species . The second hypothesis suggests that black @-@ and @-@ white plumage evolved convergently on the two separate islands . The third suggests that black @-@ and @-@ white plumage evolved once from the blue @-@ and @-@ white ancestral condition , and later the mainland species re @-@ evolved blue plumage .
The distribution of the three bi @-@ coloured fairywren species indicates their ancestors lived across New Guinea and northern Australia in a period when sea levels were lower and the two regions were joined by a land bridge . Populations became separated as sea levels rose , and New Guinea birds evolved into the white @-@ shouldered fairywren , and Australian forms into the red @-@ backed fairywren and the arid @-@ adapted white @-@ winged fairywren .
= = Description = =
Measuring 11 to 13 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 3 to 5 @.@ 3 in ) in length , white @-@ winged fairywrens are one of the two smallest species of Malurus . Males typically weigh between 7 @.@ 2 and 10 @.@ 9 grams ( 0 @.@ 25 and 0 @.@ 38 oz ) while females weigh between 6 @.@ 8 and 11 grams ( 0 @.@ 24 and 0 @.@ 39 oz ) . Averaging 8 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) in males and 8 @.@ 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) in females , the bill is relatively long , narrow and pointed and wider at the base . Wider than it is deep , the bill is similar in shape to those of other birds that feed by probing for or picking insects off their environs . It is finer and more pointed in this species than in other fairywrens .
Fully mature adults are sexually dimorphic , with the male being larger and differing in colour from the female . The adult female is sandy @-@ brown with a very light blue tail , and a pinkish buff bill . The male in breeding plumage has a black bill , white wings and shoulders , and a wholly cobalt blue or black body ( depending on subspecies ) . These contrasting white feathers are especially highlighted in flight and ground displays in breeding season . The male in eclipse plumage resembles the female , though it may be distinguished by its darker bill . Both sexes have long , slender , distinct tails held at an upward angle from their bodies . Measuring around 6 @.@ 25 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 46 in ) , the tail feathers have a white fringe , which disappears with wear .
Nestlings , fledglings , and juveniles have brown plumage and pink @-@ brown bills with shorter tails than adults . Young males develop blue tail feathers and darker bills by late summer or autumn ( following a spring or summer breeding season ) , while young females develop light blue tails . By the subsequent spring , all males are fertile and have developed cloacal protuberances , which store sperm . In contrast , during the breeding season , fertile females develop oedematous brood patches , which are bare areas on their bellies . Males entering their second or third year may develop spotty blue and white plumage during the breeding season . By their fourth year , males have assumed their nuptial plumage , where the scapulars , secondary wing coverts , and secondary flight feathers are white while the rest of their bodies are a vibrant cobalt blue . All sexually mature males moult twice a year , once before the breeding season in winter or spring , and again afterwards in autumn ; rarely , a male may moult directly from nuptial to nuptial plumage . The breeding males ' blue plumage , particularly the ear @-@ coverts , is highly iridescent due to the flattened and twisted surface of the barbules . The blue plumage also reflects ultraviolet light strongly , and so may be even more prominent to other fairywrens , whose colour vision extends into this part of the spectrum .
= = = Vocalisations = = =
In 1980 , Tideman characterised five different patterns of calls among Malurus leucopterus leuconotus ; these were recognised by Pruett and Jones among the island subspecies M. l. edouardi . The main call is a reel made by both sexes in order to establish territory and unify the group . It is a long song of " rising and falling notes " that is first signaled by 3 – 5 chip notes . Although seemingly weak in sound , the reel carries a long way above the stunted shrubland . A harsh trit call is often used to establish contact ( especially between mothers and their young ) and to raise alarm ; it is characterised by a series of " loud and abrupt " calls that vary in frequency and intensity . Adults will use a high @-@ pitched peep that may be made intermittently with reels as a contact call to birds that are more distant . Nestlings , fledglings , and females around the nest will use high pips — quiet , high @-@ pitched , and short calls . When used by a mature female , they are mixed with harsh calls . Nestlings may also make " gurgling " noises when they are being fed . The subordinate helpers and feeders may also make this sound .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The white @-@ winged fairywren is well adapted to dry environments , and M.l. leuconotus is found throughout arid and semi @-@ arid environments between latitudes 19 and 32oS in mainland Australia . It occupies coastal Western Australia from around Port Hedland south to Perth , and stretches eastwards over to Mount Isa in Queensland , and along the western parts of the Great Dividing Range through central Queensland and central western New South Wales , into the northwestern corner of Victoria and the Eyre Peninsula and across the Nullarbor . It commonly cohabits with other species of fairywren , including the purple @-@ backed fairy @-@ wren ( M. lamberti assimilis ) . White @-@ winged fairywrens often inhabit heathlands or treeless shrublands dominated by saltbush ( Atriplex ) and small shrubs of the genus Maireana , or grasses such as tussock grass ( Triodia ) and cane @-@ grass ( Zygochloa ) , as well as floodplain areas vegetated with lignum ( Muehlenbeckia florulenta ) . M. l. leucopterus inhabits similar habitats on Dirk Hartog Island and M. l. edouardi does the same on Barrow Island . The white @-@ winged fairywren is replaced to the north of its range on mainland Australia by the red @-@ backed fairywren .
= = Behaviour = =
The usual form of locomotion is hopping , with both feet leaving the ground and landing simultaneously . However , birds may run when performing the rodent @-@ run display . Its balance is assisted by a proportionally large tail , which is usually held upright and rarely still . The short , rounded wings provide good initial lift and are useful for short flights , though not for extended jaunts .
White @-@ winged fairywrens live in complex social groups . Clans consist of 2 – 4 birds , typically one brown or partially blue male and a breeding female . Nest helpers are birds raised in previous years which remain with the family group after fledging and assist in raising young ; they may be male that have retained their brown plumage , or female . Birds in a group roost side @-@ by @-@ side in dense cover and engage in mutual preening . Several subgroups live within one territory and make up a clan , which is presided over by one blue ( or black ) male who assumes breeding plumage . While the blue male is dominant to the rest of the brown and partially blue males within his clan , he nests with only one female and contributes to the raising of only her young . It is unclear whether or not he fathers young in any of the other nests within his territory .
Each clan has a specified area of land that all members contribute to foraging from and defending . Frequently , territory sizes , normally 4 to 6 hectares ( 10 to 15 acres ) , are correlated with the abundance of rain and resources in a region ; smaller territories occur where insects and resources are plentiful . Additionally , the feeding territories are larger during the winter months when these birds spend much of their time foraging with the entire clan . White @-@ winged fairywrens occupy much larger territories than other fairywren species .
Observed in this species , the wing @-@ fluttering display is seen in several situations : females responding , and presumably acquiescing , to male courtship displays , juveniles begging for food , by helpers to older birds , and immature males to senior ones . The fairywren lowers its head and tail , outstretches and quivers its wings and holds its beak open silently .
Both the male and female adult white @-@ winged fairywren may utilise a rodent @-@ run display to distract predators from nests with young birds . The head , neck and tail are lowered , the wings are held out and the feathers are fluffed as the bird runs rapidly and voices a continuous alarm call .
= = = Feeding = = =
The white @-@ winged fairywren is primarily insectivorous ; its diet includes small beetles , bugs , moths , praying mantises , caterpillars , and smaller insects , including spiders . The larger insects are typically fed to nestlings by the breeding female and her helpers , including the breeding male . Adults and juveniles forage by hopping along the shrubland floor , and may supplement their diets with seeds and fruits of saltbush ( Rhagodia ) , goosefoot ( Chenopodium ) and new shoots of samphire . During spring and summer , birds are active in bursts through the day and accompany their foraging with song . Insects are numerous and easy to catch , which allows the birds to rest between forays . The group often shelters and rests together during the heat of the day . Food is harder to find during winter and they are required to spend the day foraging continuously .
= = = Courtship and breeding = = =
Fairywrens exhibit one of the highest incidences of extra @-@ pair mating , and many broods are brought up a by male who is not the natural father . However , courtship methods among white @-@ winged fairywrens remain unclear . Blue @-@ plumaged males have been seen outside of their territory and in some cases , carrying pink or purple petals , which among other species advertise the male to neighboring females . In contrast , black @-@ plumaged males on Barrow and Dirk Hartog islands often carry blue petals . While petal @-@ carrying outside of clan territories strongly suggests mating with other females is occurring , further genetic analysis is necessary .
During another courtship display the male bows deeply forward facing the female , reaching the ground with his bill and spreading and flattening his plumage in a near @-@ horizontal plane for up to 20 seconds . In this pose , the white plumage forms a striking white band across his darker plumage .
Breeding females begin to build their nests in the spring and construct domed structures composed of spiderwebs , fine grasses , thistle @-@ down , and vegetable @-@ down , typically 6 to 14 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 4 to 5 @.@ 5 in ) tall and 3 to 9 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 12 to 0 @.@ 35 in ) thick . Each nest has a small entrance on one side and they are normally placed in thick shrubs close to the ground . A clutch of 3 – 4 eggs is generally laid anywhere from September to January , with incubation lasting around 14 days . The white @-@ winged fairywren generally breeds in the spring in the southwest of Western Australia , but is more opportunistic in arid regions of central and northern Australia , with breeding recorded almost any month after a period of rainfall . Incubation is by the breeding female alone , while the breeding male ( a brown or blue male ) and nest helpers aid in feeding the nestlings and removing their fecal sacs . The newly hatched nestlings are altricial , gaping immediately for food , and developing downy feather tracts and opening their eyes by the third or fourth day . Nestlings remain in the nest for 10 – 11 days , and fledglings continue to be fed for 3 – 4 weeks following their departure from the nest . Fledglings then either stay on to help raise the next brood or move to a nearby territory . It is not unusual for a pair bond to hatch and raise two broods in one breeding season , and helpers tend to lessen the stress on the breeding female rather than increase the overall number of feedings . Like other fairywrens , the white @-@ winged fairywren is particularly prone to parasitic nesting by the Horsfield 's bronze cuckoo ( Chalcites basalis ) . Parasitism by the shining bronze cuckoo ( C. lucidus ) and black @-@ eared cuckoo ( C. osculans ) is rarely recorded .
= = Predators and threats = =
Adults and their young may be preyed upon by mammalian predators , such as the red fox ( Vulpes vulpes ) or the feral cat ( Felis catus ) , and native predatory birds , such as the Australian magpie ( Gymnorhina tibicen ) , butcherbird species ( Cracticus spp . ) , laughing kookaburra ( Dacelo novaeguineae ) , currawongs ( Strepera spp . ) , crows and ravens ( Corvus spp . ) , shrike @-@ thrushes ( Colluricincla spp . ) and reptiles such as goannas . Another threat to the birds is from humans ; many nests are trampled on ( even by the occasional bird watcher ) during breeding season because the nests are hidden close to the ground and therefore difficult for passers @-@ by to spot .
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= Battle of Samakh =
The Battle of Samakh was fought on 25 September 1918 , during the Battle of Sharon which together with the Battle of Nablus formed the set piece Battle of Megiddo fought from 19 to 25 September 1918 , in the last months of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of the First World War . During the cavalry phase of the Battle of Sharon the Desert Mounted Corps commanded by the Australian Lieutenant General Harry Chauvel , captured the Esdraelon Plain ( also known as the Jezreel Valley and the Plain of Armageddon ) 40 – 50 miles ( 64 – 80 km ) behind the front line in the Judean Hills on 20 September , when the 3rd Light Horse Brigade captured Jenin . The 4th Light Horse Brigade , Australian Mounted Division was deployed guarding supply columns , and prisoners , before being ordered to attack and capture Samakh on the shore of the Sea of Gallilee . Here the Ottoman and German garrison had been ordered by the commander of the Yildirim Army Group to fight to the last man .
Samakh , in the centre of a rearguard line stretching from Tiberias through Samakh and on to Deraa was intended to cover the retreat of three Ottoman armies . The rearguard was set up to delay the advance of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) cavalry in the Desert Mounted Corps after the British Empire infantry victories in the Judean Hills at the Battle of Tulkarm , and the Battle of Tabsor during the Battle of Sharon . These and other battles fought during the Battle of Nablus including the Third Transjordan attack , also part of the Battle of Megiddo , forced the retreat of the Ottoman Fourth , the Seventh and the Eighth Armies north towards Damascus .
On 20 September , German General Otto Liman von Sanders , the commander of the Yildirim Army Group , ordered Samakh 's German and Ottoman garrison to prepare a strong rearguard defence of the town . By dawn on 25 September , when a regiment and two squadrons of the Australian 4th Light Horse Brigade attacked Samakh , the rearguard was strongly entrenched . The assault , which began with a mounted cavalry charge , ended two hours later after close quarter fighting in the village and the railway station . After fierce fighting with bayonets and swords , from room to room in the railway buildings , the town was captured . This victory , which captured the centre of the rearguard line , concluded the Battle of Sharon section of the Battle of Megiddo and opened the way for the cavalry pursuit to Damascus , which was captured on 1 October . By the time the Armistice of Mudros between the Allies and the Ottoman Empire was signed at the end of October , Aleppo had been captured and fighting was in progress further north .
= = Background = =
Following the First Transjordan and the Second Transjordan attacks in March – April and April – May 1918 , by the Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) , which had been responsible for the Sinai and Palestine Campaign since March 1916 , its commander General Edmund Allenby ordered the occupation of the Jordan Valley . He also ordered the front line be extended across the Judean Hills to the Mediterranean Sea . Most of the British infantry and Yeomanry cavalry regiments were redeployed to the Western Front to counter Ludendorff 's Spring Offensive and were replaced by British India Army infantry and cavalry . As part of re @-@ organisation and training , these newly arrived soldiers carried out a series of attacks on sections of the Ottoman front line during the summer months . These attacks were aimed at pushing the front line to more advantageous positions in preparation for a major attack , and to acclimatise the newly arrived infantry . It was not until the middle of September that the consolidated force was ready for large @-@ scale operations .
On 19 September , the XXI Corps commanded by Lieutenant General Edward Bulfin had , with the support of a creeping barrage , broken through the Ottoman front line during the Battle of Sharon . In the afternoon the XX Corps commanded by Lieutenant General Philip Chetwode was then ordered to begin its own attack , supported by an artillery barrage . These attacks by both the XX and XXI Corps continued until midday on 21 September , when a successful flanking attack by the XXI Corps , combined with the XX Corps assault , forced the Seventh and Eighth Armies to disengage . The Seventh Army commanded by the Ottoman Army Ferik or Birinci Ferik , Mustafa Kemal retreated from the Nablus area towards the Jordan River , crossing at the Jisr ed Damieh bridge before the rearguard at Nablus was captured . The Desert Mounted Corps commanded by Lieutenant General Harry Chauvel advanced through the gap created by the XXI Corps infantry during the morning of 19 September to almost encircle the Ottoman forces fighting in the Judean Hills , capturing Nazareth , Haifa , Afulah and Beisan , Jenin and Samakh before advancing to Tiberias . During this time , Chaytor 's Force commanded by Major General Edward Chaytor captured part of the retreating Ottoman and German column at the Jisr ed Damieh bridge to cut off this line of retreat across the Jordan River . To the east of the river , as the Fourth Army began its retreat , Chaytor 's Force advanced to capture Es Salt on 23 September . Amman was captured on 25 September during the Second Battle of Amman where a strong Fourth Army rearguard was defeated on 25 September .
Samakh was regarded by both Allenby , the British commander of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force , and the German General Otto Liman von Sanders , commander of the Yildirim Army Group , as a key strategic point . The town controlled the most direct road to Damascus on the Ottoman lines of communication and the Palestine Railways which ran across a series of bridges across the Jordan River from Deraa .
It was clear , that only one course remained open to me . The Tiberias sector from Lake Hule to Samakh must be held with all the means at our disposal to prevent the pursuit overtaking us , whilst the formations retiring along the River Jordan and east of Jordan to the Yarmuk Valley sector , from Samakh to Der 'a , must form [ a ] front for at least the time being .
During the unsuccessful attack of the 5th Cavalry Division on Nazareth in the early morning of 20 September , Liman von Sanders accompanied by General Kiazim , Major Prigge and Rittmeister Hecker , had escaped on their way to Damascus . They arrived at Tiberias during the afternoon of 20 September , before continuing on to Samakh and Deraa . He alerted the garrisons he passed to the advance of the EEF and ordered the establishment of a rearguard line . The line was to run from Deraa down the Yarmuk River Valley , across the Jordan River and west to Samakh , around the shore of the Sea of Galilee to Tiberias and northwards to Lake Huleh . Two main roads and the railway lines to Damascus , would be protected and time gained for the development of the defence of Damascus , if the garrisons were not defeated . Liman von Sanders described Samakh " as the essential link between the two main sectors of the line " but also " the weak link between the two @-@ halves . " He reinforced the garrison at Samakh with German machine gunners and ordered the commander , a German officer to hold the town to the last man .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Asia Corps retreat = = =
By the morning of 21 September , German Colonel Gustav von Oppen 's Asia Korps remained intact . It consisted of the 16th and 19th Divisions , the 701st Battalion was still complete with a troop and a squadron of cavalry , six machine guns and 18 light Bergmann machine guns , an additional machine gun company of six guns an infantry @-@ artillery platoon with two mountain guns / howitzers , a trench mortar section with four mortars . The 701st Artillery Detachment consisted of two four @-@ gun 77 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) , one four @-@ gun 105 @-@ millimetre ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) howitzer batteries and the " Hentig " Machine Gun Detachment . The remnants of the 702nd and the 703rd Battalions were formed into a battalion to which a rifle company , a machine gun company and a trench mortar detachment were attached .
With about 700 German and 1 @,@ 300 Ottoman soldiers of the 16th and 19th Divisions , von Oppen succeeded in retreating towards Beisan via Mount Ebal during 21 September but was forced to leave behind all guns or baggage . They suffered some casualties when fired on by artillery , before bivouacking that night at Tammun with the 16th and 19th Divisions at Tubas , unaware that Desert Mounted Corps had already occupied Beisan . They were moving northwards from Tubas towards Beisan when von Oppen learned it had already been captured . He decided to advance during the night of 22 September to Samakh where he correctly guessed Liman von Sanders would order a strong rearguard action . However , Jevad , the commander of the Eighth Army ordered him to cross the Jordan instead ; he successfully got all the Germans and some of the Ottoman soldiers across before the 11th Cavalry Brigade attacked and captured the remainder , to finalise the capture of Afulah and Beisan . Liman von Sanders was very critical of Jevad 's intervention which considerably weakened the Samakh position , but von Oppen would have had to break through a whole cavalry division to get there .
= = = Reconnaissance by 4th Cavalry Division unit = = =
While the Central India Horse ( 10th Cavalry Brigade ) or the 19th Lancers ( 12th Cavalry Brigade ) , 4th Cavalry Division , continued to hold the bridge at Jisr el Mejamie , captured at 05 : 00 on 21 September , during the Capture of Afulah and Beisan , one of their squadrons made a reconnaissance to Samakh to blow up the railway east of the town . The 10th Brigade relieved the 19th Lancers at Jisr el Mejamie on 23 September , so it was probably the 10th Brigade which carried out the reconnaissance . However , the patrol was forced to retire when heavily fired on by two 10 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 1 inches ) guns ( also described as " two 4 @.@ 2 guns , " ) from north east of the town , but they reported a train had arrived at Samakh which was still there at 11 : 00 on 24 September .
= = = Australian Mounted Division advance to Jisr el Mejamie = = =
Chauvel , commander of the Desert Mounted Corps , ordered the capture of the towns of Samakh and Tiberias to complete the strategic and tactical line held by his cavalry across the Esdraelon Plain from Acre north of Haifa on the Mediterranean Sea to Nazareth . On 24 September the Australian Mounted Division commanded by Major General Henry West Hodgson , was ordered to capture Samakh and the railway bridges over the Yarmuk gorge , four days after Liman von Sanders had alerted the rearguard garrison , which " led to the most fiercely – fought action of the whole pursuit " in preparation for a further advance towards Damascus .
However Hodgson 's reserve , the 11th Light Horse Regiment and one squadron of the 12th Light Horse Regiment , with the 4th Light Horse Brigade 's headquarters and Machine Gun Squadron , were the only troops available . The 5th Light Horse Brigade was ordered at 15 : 10 on 24 September , while they were at Jenin , to send a regiment to reinforce the attacking force during its approach to Samakh . They sent the 15th Light Horse Regiment which reported at Samakh at 07 : 00 half an hour after the town was captured . Meanwhile , the remainder of the 5th Light Horse Brigade stayed at Jenin until the evening of 25 September when they rode to the railway near Zerin , with Mount Gilboa " on their right , " to water for a couple of days .
The 4th Light Horse Brigade ( less the 4th Light Horse Regiment and two squadrons or five troops of 12th Light Horse Regiment ) arrived at Beisan at 13 : 45 on 24 September . Here they received Order No. 31 from the Australian Mounted Division to attack Samakh . After leaving Beisan for Jisr el Mejamie , at 16 : 35 they received a message dropped from an aircraft , which reported that Samakh was defended by 50 rifles and machine guns . They arrived at Jisr el Mejamie at 21 : 00 and made contact with the regiment of the 4th Cavalry Division , holding the bridge . A further order to capture Samakh was received at 22 : 10 , which included the additional objective of reconnoitring towards Tiberias , where they were to cooperate with the 3rd Light Horse Brigade in capturing the town . The orders gave the brigade commander , Brigadier General William Grant , the choice of attacking immediately , or waiting for the 4th Light Horse Regiment and the squadrons of the 12th Light Horse Regiment . He decided not to delay attacking the apparently weak rearguard , as he expected to be reinforced by the 15th Light Horse Regiment , 5th Light Horse Brigade , on the way to Samakh . If Grant had waited for reinforcements , the attack would have been during in daylight , in full view of the defenders in the railway station building , which may have resulted in at least as many casualties , and perhaps many more , during a potentially more protracted fight .
= = Battle = =
= = = Cavalry charge = = =
The 4th Light Horse Brigade crossed the Jordan and Yarmuk Rivers at Jisr el Mejamie at 02 : 30 on 25 September in order to arrive at Samakh before dawn , advancing along the railway line . Grant ordered the 11th Light Horse Regiment to attack mounted from the southeast at dawn , supported by machine guns which were to be deployed due south , on the railway .
The attack began before dawn , when the two leading light horse squadrons were heavily fired on by rifles and machine guns from several outposts at 04 : 25 , causing nearly 100 horse casualties . No reconnaissance by the light horse had been possible , but the 19th Lancers reported that the village and station buildings lay at the end of a flat plain 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) wide , without any cover and no apparent obstacles to a cavalry charge . This unexpected fire revealed the garrison was deployed covering the open plain for some 700 yards ( 640 m ) south of Samakh , extending on either side to the mountains . The 11th Light Horse Regiment , commanded by Lieutenant Colonel J. W. Parsons , had planned to attack the garrison 's flank , but as no flank attack was possible , he swung the regiment around to attack straight on . A and B squadrons galloped on either side of the railway line , with all 12 machine guns of the 4th Machine Gun Squadron providing covering fire for the charging squadrons . They fired at the flashes created by the Ottoman rifles and machine guns .
Both squadrons succeeded in entering the village , while one squadron of 12th Light Horse Regiment moved forward towards the town from the west , in support . The 11th Light Horse Regiment 's reserve ' C ' squadron moved forward to occupy Hill 377 on the eastern flank , watching the railway from Deraa and the road on the eastern side of the Sea of Galilee . Meanwhile , the 4th Light Horse Brigade Headquarters and the 12th Light Horse Regimental Headquarters , forming the attacking units ' reserve , were deployed on the plain south of the town and east of the railway . Here they were heavily fired on by artillery , on the right flank near the Sea of Galilee , and forced to move to cover . Preston claims it was the 4th Light Horse Regiment which " was sent in mounted on the west . "
This cavalry charge was unique during the whole of the First World War , being the only one carried out in the dark and across country , which had not been previously reconnoitred . The ground was found to be scattered with clumps of long spiked thistles , and a number of pitfalls causing nine men to be injured from falls during the charge .
= = = Dismounted attack = = =
As soon as A and B Squadrons of the 11th Light Horse Regiment reached the town and dismounted , the 4th Machine Gun Squadron stopped their covering fire , to target the German or Ottoman machine guns on the right , which they silenced . Then the 4th Machine Gun Squadron galloped forward to take up a position at the western end of the town , while the two attacking squadrons dismounted , to approach the railway station buildings on foot .
The substantial two storied station building , solidly build of stone , made an effective strong redoubt for the garrison , with the windows used by the defenders to fire their automatic rifles and throw their grenades from . At this time several white flags were reported at the station , but when the light horsemen approached they were fired on , and it was in this way that most of the light horsemen who died during the battle were killed . Once they succeeded in entering the station buildings , hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting from room @-@ to @-@ room with rifles , bayonets , and swords , followed . Other groups of defenders deployed in the locomotives , tenders and carriages standing in the railway sidings , were also attacked .
The savage hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting in the railway buildings and sidings lasted for more than an hour before the light horsemen captured the area . Over 20 Ottoman and German soldiers were killed in the station buildings alone during the fighting . At the same time , ' C ' Squadron , of the 11th Light Horse Regiment , and / or one squadron of the 12th Light Horse Regiment , moved up into the village of Samakh and captured the town during less severe fighting .
There were 28 German and Ottoman soldiers killed and 33 wounded while 331 unwounded prisoners were captured . Other captures included one 77mm field gun , seven heavy machine guns , three automatic rifles , a large dump of rifles , bayonets , automatic pistols and ammunition , which was subsequently burnt . A motor boat escaped but another was destroyed by fire and its occupants were captured . Two locomotives , eight carriages , 12 goods wagons along with an aircraft and a wireless were also captured . The light horsemen suffered 17 killed and 60 wounded with one man missing and 77 horses killed , the 11th Light Horse Regiment lost two captains , one lieutenant and 11 other ranks killed , while four officers and 25 other ranks were wounded .
= = Aftermath = =
While the 4th Light Horse Brigade buried their dead and the field ambulance treated the wounded , a squadron of the 12th Light Horse Regiment advanced along the western shore of the Sea of Galilee , to meet with the 3rd Light Horse Brigade which had captured Jenin , which had advanced direct over the hills from Nazareth at 15 : 00 on 25 September , to capture Tiberias . Strong patrols also advanced up the Yarmuk River valley east of Samakh , but every bridge across the Jordan River was found to be strongly guarded , 30 at one and 60 Germans in a redoubt with an engine and tender , at another . The rugged Jebel Ain en Nimr mountain , 1 @,@ 800 feet ( 550 m ) above the Sea of Galilee and less than two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) from its southern shore was occupied by 500 Ottoman infantry and one gun .
The capture of Samakh and operations around the Sea of Galilee concluded the Battles of Megiddo . Chauvel 's Desert Mounted Corps had captured Haifa , Nazareth and Tiberias , two Ottoman armies had been eliminated from the Judean Hills and the Fourth Army east of the Jordan was in full retreat to Deraa and Damascus . Allenby acknowledged in a cable to the Australian Government that " the completeness of our victory is due to the action of the Desert Mounted Corps under General Chauvel . " " The battle had been as brilliant in execution as it had been in conception ; it had no parallel in France or on any other front , but rather looked forward in principle and even in detail to the Blitzkrieg of 1939 . "
I have your HW wire and that from Troopers proposing a Cavalry raid to Aleppo . I don 't think Aleppo possible ; but am sending 3 Divisions of Cavalry , as soon as I can , to Damascus . Chaytor 's Division of Anzac Light Horse is about Amman now , and will deal with enemy coming from the South . Prisoners number well over 40 @,@ 000 and are still coming in . I have Australian mounted troops at the S. end of Lake Tiberias , and they are pushing to Tiberias . If I get Damascus , Beirut falls to us certainly ; and I hope to push troops , Northwards , thither , by the coast – road from Haifa , feeding from the sea , stage by stage .
On 27 September , the 4th Light Horse Brigade left Samakh at 06 : 00 and arrived at Tiberias at 08 : 00 , where they received two days supplies and one day 's iron ration , to last until after breakfast on 29 September . They rode out towards Damascus at 10 : 00 , leaving the 15th Light Horse Regiment ( 5th Light Horse Brigade ) to guard Samakh until they were relieved by the 7th ( Meerut ) Division , XXI Corps .
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= Gene Robinson =
Vicky Gene Robinson ( born May 29 , 1947 in Fayette County , Kentucky ) is an American retired bishop of the Diocese of New Hampshire in the Episcopal Church in the United States of America . Robinson was elected bishop coadjutor in 2003 and succeeded as diocesan bishop in March 2004 . Before becoming bishop , he served as Canon to the Ordinary to the VIII Bishop of New Hampshire .
Robinson is widely known for being the first priest in an openly gay relationship to be consecrated a bishop in a major Christian denomination believing in the historic episcopate . His sexual orientation was privately acknowledged in the 1970s , when he studied in seminary , was ordained , married , and started a family . He went public with his sexual identity and divorced in 1986 . He entered a formal relationship with his second spouse , Mark Andrew , in 1988 . When delegates to the Episcopal convention were voting on the ratification of his election , it became an issue of controversy . His election was ratified 62 to 45 . After his election , many theologically conservative Episcopalians in the United States abandoned the Episcopal Church , formed the Anglican Church in North America ( ACNA ) and aligned themselves with bishops outside the Episcopal Church in the United States , a process called the Anglican realignment . His story has appeared in print and film .
In 2009 he was given the Stephen F. Kolzak Media Award . In 2010 he announced his intention to retire in 2013 , at 65 . His successor is A. Robert Hirschfeld , who was elected bishop coadjutor on May 19 , 2012 , and consecrated bishop in Concord , New Hampshire , on August 4 , 2012 . Hirschfeld served with Robinson until Robinson 's formal retirement on January 5 , 2013 . In 2014 , Robinson announced his plans to divorce Mark Andrew .
= = Early life = =
Robinson 's parents were poor tenant farmers who worked in the tobacco fields as sharecroppers . The family used an outhouse , drew water from a cistern , and did laundry in a cast @-@ iron tub over an open flame . Their house did not have running water until Robinson was ten years old . When Robinson was born , he was so seriously ill that the doctor was certain he would not survive . He was temporarily paralyzed from birth and his head was misshapen . So likely was Robinson 's death that the physician asked Robinson 's father Charles for a name for the baby 's birth and death certificates . Robinson 's parents were young ( his mother Imogene was twenty ) and they were hoping for a girl . They named the baby " Vicky Gene Robinson " for Charles ' father Victor and the baby 's mother Imogene . For a long time , Robinson 's parents believed the boy would die soon . Much later in life , Robinson 's father would tell him he couldn 't take any joy in the boy 's development because he always thought each step was going to be the last thing . Robinson 's parents were and still are members of a small Disciples of Christ congregation . Robinson describes his childhood as very religious . Robinson had perfect Sunday School attendance for thirteen years .
= = Education and marriage = =
Robinson chose The University of the South in Sewanee , Tennessee , in 1965 because they offered him a full scholarship . Robinson intended to study towards a medical degree but decided to major in American Studies . During his college days , Robinson began to seriously consider the ordained ministry and said it almost immediately felt right . During high school and then college , Robinson had been exploring philosophical and theological questions and has said , " The Episcopal Church got a hold on me . " He graduated from Sewanee cum laude with a Bachelor of Arts degree in American studies in 1969 and attended seminary that fall . Robinson studied for a Master of Divinity degree from the Episcopal General Theological Seminary in New York City . While doing an intern year as a chaplain at the University of Vermont , he began dating his future wife , Isabella " Boo " McDaniel . Robinson says that about " a month into their relationship , [ he ] explained his background and his fears about his sexuality . " They continued dating and , as Robinson puts it , " about a month before the marriage , [ he ] became frightened that ... this thing would raise its ugly head some day , and cause her and me great pain . " Robinson and McDaniel discussed it and decided to go ahead with the marriage in 1972 .
= = Early career and children = =
Robinson received his degree in 1973 and was ordained a deacon in June 1973 at the cathedral of the diocese of Newark , New Jersey . He served as curate at Christ Church in Ridgewood , New Jersey , and was ordained a priest six months later . He and his wife remained at the Ridgewood parish for two years until June 1975 . They then moved to New Hampshire , where Boo had grown up . Their goal was to start a business and ministry : in the winter it was called " The Sign of the Dove Retreat Center " and in the summer it became " Pony Farm " . Boo still runs " Pony Farm " as a horse camp for children . In 1977 , Robinson began working with a committee in the Diocese of New Hampshire to study human sexuality and co @-@ authored a small manual on the subject . Robinson and Boo 's first daughter , Jamee , was born in 1977 , followed by a second daughter , Ella , in 1981 . Robinson treasures his marriage stating , " [ T ] hat is inextricably tied up with having children . And since I cannot imagine my life without Jamee and Ella , it 's just a completely irrelevant question for me . And I don 't regret having been married to Boo , either , even if there had not been children . It 's just a part of my journey , and why would I possibly regret that ? "
= = Coming out and career = =
Robinson came out to his and Boo 's friends in 1985 / 1986 and he sold out his part of the business to Boo . They remain friends . In November 1987 , Robinson met his partner , Mark Andrew , while on vacation in St. Croix . Andrew was on vacation and worked in Washington , D.C. , at the national office of the Peace Corps . On July 2 , 1988 , Robinson and Andrew moved into a new house and had it blessed by Bishop Douglas Theuner , an event which they considered to be the formal recognition of their life together . Andrew currently works in the New Hampshire state government . He was legally joined to Robinson in June 2008 in a private civil union ceremony , followed by a religious ceremony , both in St Paul 's Church , Concord . Earlier , Robinson had said , " I always wanted to be a June bride . " Robinson and Andrew ended their union in 2014 .
Robinson became Canon to the Ordinary in 1988 , the executive assistant to the then bishop of New Hampshire , Douglas Theuner . Robinson remained in this job for the next seventeen years until he was elected bishop . Robinson and his daughters are very close . Ella actively helped her father with public relations at the General Convention in 2003 . Just a week before the General Convention , Robinson had been with his daughter Jamee and held his four @-@ hour @-@ old first granddaughter . He now has two granddaughters .
= = Election as bishop = =
Robinson was elected bishop by the New Hampshire diocese on June 7 , 2003 , at St. Paul 's Church in Concord . Thirty @-@ nine clergy votes and 83 lay votes were the threshold necessary to elect a bishop in the Diocese of New Hampshire at that time . The clergy voted 58 votes for Robinson and the laity voted 96 for Robinson on the second ballot . The Episcopal Church requires in its Canon 16 that the election procedure and the candidate who is elected be subjected to review and must be consented to by the national church . No objections were raised to the procedure of the election . If diocesan election occurred within 120 days ( 3 months ) of a General Convention , canon law requires consent by the House of Deputies and then the House of Bishops at the General Convention itself . Consent to the election of Robinson was given in August at the 2003 General Convention . The General Convention of 2003 became the center for debate over Robinson 's election , as conservatives and liberals within the Church argued over whether Robinson should be allowed to become bishop . Some conservative factions threatened a schism within both the Episcopal Church and the Anglican Communion should Robinson be elected . Before the House of Deputies can vote on a resolution , a legislative committee must examine the piece of legislation first . The Committee on the Consecration of Bishops held a two @-@ hour hearing on Robinson 's election and supporters and opponents were allowed to speak . One of the speakers was Robinson 's daughter , Ella , who read a letter from his ex @-@ wife Boo in strong support of Robinson . The House of Deputies , which consists of laypersons and priests , voted in the affirmative : the laity voted 63 in favor , 32 opposed , and 13 divided ; the clergy voted 65 in favor , 31 opposed , and 12 divided .
Robinson won the first two of three votes required for his election to be ratified , but allegations suddenly arose in August 2003 that Robinson had inappropriately touched a male parishioner and had connections with OutRight.org , which at the time carried a link to AllThingsBi.com , a resource site for bisexual people that included links to pornography sites . The final vote was postponed to address these last @-@ minute charges . David W. Virtue , a critic of gay ordination , brought up the pornography allegation , claiming that : " Gene Robinson 's website is linked by one click to 5 @,@ 000 pornographic websites . " When no such link was found on the Diocese of New Hampshire web page profiling the bishop @-@ elect , Virtue stated that the link was on the website of an organization Robinson supported . Robinson was already known to be associated with Outright , a secular organization for the support of young LGBT people . Fred Barnes , a Fox News commentator , repeated the allegations on the website of The Weekly Standard . On the day the allegations arose , the website issued a press release stating that it had removed the offending link , that it had been unaware of the pornographic links on allthingsbi.com , and that Robinson had no involvement with that particular chapter of Outright .
The male parishioner of Manchester , Vermont ( in a diocese neighboring Robinson 's ) who had alleged the " touching " , was then reported to have said , during the investigating committee 's telephone call with him , that the acts in question were two separate occasions of what felt to him like intentionally seductive arm @-@ squeezing and back @-@ stroking , although in a public setting . The man acknowledged that others might have regarded the two incidents as " natural , " yet the incidents were disturbing to him nonetheless . The investigating committee 's report also stated that man regretted having used the word " harassment " in his e @-@ mail , and that man declined an invitation to bring formal charges . After a two @-@ day investigation , neither allegation proved of merit . The House of Bishops voted for Robinson in the affirmative , with 62 in favor , 43 opposed , and 2 abstaining .
= = Consecration as bishop = =
The election in New Hampshire , like all elections of bishops in the Episcopal Church , was done by a synodical election process , unlike many other parts of the Anglican Communion where bishops are appointed . This detail would be misunderstood when the international commentary following Robinson 's election suggested he should voluntarily step down or be asked to do so . The Jeffrey John case in the Church of England is the best example to contrast the election of bishops with the appointment of bishops . Jeffrey John is an openly gay priest living in a long @-@ standing celibate relationship ( he self @-@ identifies as celibate ) and was appointed as a bishop . One person alone , Richard Harries , Bishop of Oxford , had the authority to appoint the Bishop of Reading ( an area bishop in Oxford diocese ) ; though new bishops are customarily consecrated by the archbishop . Rowan Williams , Archbishop of Canterbury , however , allegedly persuaded him to not proceed with the appointment . This precedent would be used by the wider Anglican Communion to pressure Robinson . Robinson said that " there was not a single bishop involved in the choosing of me to be Bishop of New Hampshire . "
The Elections and Transitions Committee arranged for the Whittemore Center to be used for the consecration , a large hockey rink on the campus of the University of New Hampshire in Durham . The numbers expected were about 3 @,@ 000 people , 300 press , a 200 strong choir , and 48 bishops . The security was strong : just as Barbara Harris had to wear a bullet @-@ proof vest at her consecration , Robinson was showing his bullet @-@ proof vest to Harris herself . Robinson 's parents , sister , daughter and their families and his ex @-@ wife Boo were all at the consecration . Robinson was consecrated on November 2 , 2003 , in the presence of Frank Griswold , Presiding Bishop , and six co @-@ consecrating bishops : 48 bishops in all .
Robinson 's election and consecration prompted a group of 19 bishops , led by Robert Duncan , Bishop of the Diocese of Pittsburgh , to make a statement warning the church of a possible schism between the Episcopal Church and the Anglican Communion . Rowan Williams , Archbishop of Canterbury , stated that " [ it ] will inevitably have a significant impact on the Anglican Communion throughout the world and it is too early to say what the result of that will be . " He added : " [ I ] t is my hope that the church in America and the rest of the Anglican Communion will have the opportunity to consider this development before significant and irrevocable decisions are made in response . " Desmond Tutu , Archbishop emeritus of Cape Town , stated that he did not see what " all the fuss " was about , saying the election would not roil the Church of the Province of Southern Africa . Other senior bishops of the church , like Peter Akinola , Archbishop of the Church of Nigeria and head of the Global South , have made Robinson a figurehead in their dispute with the Episcopal Church . Some disaffected Episcopalians have disaffiliated from the Episcopal Church and formed the Convocation of Anglicans in North America with the support of the Nigerian church .
= = After consecration = =
Reports from Britain describe how Robinson has received death threats , had to wear bulletproof vests , and needed protection since his election and consecration .
In February 2006 , Robinson was treated at an inpatient rehabilitation facility to deal with his " increasing dependence on alcohol " . Diocesan officials were surprised by the news and asserted that they did not notice his alcoholism affect his ministry in any way . The Episcopal Church , through its General Convention , has long recognized alcoholism as a treatable human disease , not a failure of character or will . The members of the Standing Committee issued a statement fully supporting Robinson . He returned to work in March 2006 .
Robinson was featured prominently in a documentary film entitled For the Bible Tells Me So , which screened at the 2007 Sundance Film Festival .
He has opposed the Roman Catholic ban on homosexual seminarians , stating : " I find it so vile that they think they are going to end the child abuse scandal by throwing out homosexuals from seminaries . "
Due to the controversy surrounding his consecration , Bishop Robinson was not invited to the 2008 Lambeth Conferences by the Archbishop of Canterbury , Rowan Williams . A group of conservative bishops ( including Akinola and Duncan ) who opposed Robinson 's consecration gathered in Jerusalem one month prior to Lambeth 2008 , at the Global Anglican Future Conference , an event which is perceived by some as schismatic .
Robinson did however visit the United Kingdom privately in July 2008 , during which he participated in a film screening and question and answer session with Sir Ian McKellan at the Royal Festival Hall , and was invited to preach at St Mary 's Putney , events which attracted much media attention . The sermon was interrupted by a heckler who was then escorted out of the service . Robinson asked the rest of the congregation , most of whom greeted the interruption with slow @-@ clapping , to " pray for that man " , before completing his sermon . The Primate of the Episcopal Church of the Sudan , Archbishop Daniel Deng Bul , on July 22 at a public press conference during the 2008 Lambeth Conference called for Robinson to resign , and for all those who had participated in his consecration to confess their sin to the conference .
In 2009 Robinson was selected to deliver the invocation at the kickoff event of President Barack Obama 's inaugural weekend . Despite his extended involvement with Obama during the campaign , his selection was widely discussed as an effort to counterbalance the role of the choice of evangelical pastor Rick Warren . Media outlets noted Warren compared the legitimization of same @-@ sex marriage to the legalization of " incest , polygamy or ' an older guy marrying a child ' " . Warren also supported California Proposition 8 , which banned same @-@ sex marriage in the state . However , Warren took a conciliatory tone towards Obama : " I applaud his desire to be the president of every citizen . " The kickoff event was held at the Lincoln Memorial two days before Obama 's swearing @-@ in . It asked " the God of our many understandings " for seven blessings , and to help Obama , as President , in seven ways . Neither HBO 's exclusive live broadcast , nor the Presidential Inauguration Committee 's blog of the event included the invocation , but the prepared text was posted in full on the website of the Episcopal Diocese of New Hampshire , and video shot informally by attendees was posted on YouTube . National Public Radio , which relied on the HBO feed that omitted it , broadcast a recording the following day with an interview of Robinson about its limited exposure ; in that venue , Robinson described it as conforming to the four @-@ fold Franciscan prayer model . According to the Washington Blade , it was the Presidential Inaugural Committee that made the decision for the prayer to be a part of the pre @-@ show and not the show , itself , with a spokesman from that committee maintaining the prayer was dropped through an unspecified " error . " Some gay activists maintain that this was a slight on the part of the Obama administration .
In April 2009 , Robinson made the Out magazine Third Annual Power 50 list of the most influential gay men and women in the USA , landing at number 7 . In August 2009 , Gene Robinson was a key speaker at the 2009 Greenbelt Festival , held at Cheltenham Racecourse , Gloucestershire , England . Here he delivered three talks , each garnering an attendance in the thousands , based not only on his views of Christianity and homosexuality , but also on human sexuality in general and the rights of LGBT members of society . The three talks were entitled " Homosexuality : What the Bible says & why it matters " , " Keeping your cool in the eye of the storm " and " Sexuality and spirituality : keeping them together " . As well as these three talks , Gene Robinson made a big impact on some gay and lesbian festival @-@ goers by leading them collectively in prayer on the second night of the festival as part of a small group .
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= Mysida =
Mysida is an order of small , shrimp @-@ like crustaceans in the malacostracan superorder Peracarida . Their common name opossum shrimps stems from the presence of a brood pouch or " marsupium " in females . The fact that the larvae are reared in this pouch and are not free @-@ swimming characterises the order . The mysid 's head bears a pair of stalked eyes and two pairs of antennae . The thorax consists of eight segments each bearing branching limbs , the whole concealed beneath a protective carapace and the abdomen has six segments and usually further small limbs .
Mysids are found throughout the world in both shallow and deep marine waters where they can be benthic or pelagic , but they are also important in some fresh water and brackish ecosystems . Many benthic species make daily vertical migrations into higher parts of the water column . Mysids are filter feeders , omnivores that feed on algae , detritus and zooplankton . Some mysids are cultured in the laboratory for experimental purposes and are used as a food source for other cultured marine organisms . They are sensitive to water pollution , so are sometimes used as bioindicators to monitor water quality .
= = Description = =
The head of a mysid bears two pairs of antennae and a pair of large , stalked eyes . The head and first segment ( or sometimes the first three segments ) of the thorax are fused to form the cephalothorax . The eight thoracic segments are covered by the carapace which is attached only to the first three . The first two thoracic segments bear maxillipeds which are used to filter plankton and organic particulate from the water . The other six pairs of thoracic appendages are biramous ( branching ) limbs known as pereopods , and are used for swimming , as well as for wafting water towards the maxillipeds for feeding . Unlike true shrimps ( Caridea ) , females have a marsupium beneath the thorax . This brood pouch is enclosed by the large , flexible oostegites , bristly flaps which extend from the basal segments of the pereopods and which form the floor of a chamber roofed by the animal 's sternum . This chamber is where the eggs are brooded , development being direct in most cases .
The abdomen has six segments , the first five of which bear pleopods , although these may be absent or vestigial in females . The fourth pleopod is longer than the others in males and has a specialized reproductory function .
The majority of species are 5 – 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 0 in ) long , and vary in colour from pale and transparent , through to bright orange or brown . They differ from other species within the superorder Peracarida by featuring statocysts on their uropods ( located on the last abdominal segment ) . These help the animal orient itself in the water and are clearly seen as circular vesicles : together with the pouch the statocysts are often used as features that distinguish mysids from other shrimp @-@ like organisms .
= = Distribution = =
Mysids have a cosmopolitan distribution and are found in both marine and freshwater environments , the deep sea , estuaries , shallow coastal waters , lakes , rivers and underground waters . They are primarily marine and fewer than ten percent are found in freshwater . There are about 72 freshwater species in total , being predominantly found in the palearctic and neoptropical zones . These non @-@ marine mysids occur in four distinct types of habitats ; some are estuarine species ; some were isolated in the Ponto @-@ Caspian Basin where Paramysis has since radiated enormously ( 23 species ) ; some are glacial relicts and some are subterranean Tethyan relicts .
= = Behaviour = =
Some species are benthic ( living on the seabed ) and others pelagic ( living in mid @-@ water ) , but most are found close to , crawling on or burrowing into the mud or sand . Most marine species are benthic by day but leave the seabed at night to become planktonic . Locomotion is mostly by swimming , the pleopods being used for this purpose . Some mysids live among algae and seagrasses , some are solitary while many form dense swarms . Mysids form an important part of the diet of such fish as shad and flounder . In general , they are free @-@ living , but a few species , mostly in the subfamily Heteromysinae , are commensal and are associated with sea anemones and hermit crabs . Several taxa have also been described from different freshwater habitats and caves . Mysis relicta and its close relatives inhabit cold , deep lakes and have a diurnal cycle of vertical migrations .
The majority of Mysida are omnivores , feeding on algae , detritus , and zooplankton . Scavenging and cannibalism are also common , with the adults sometimes preying on their young once they emerge from the marsupium . The pelagic and most other species are filter feeders , creating a feeding current with the exopods of their pereopods . This wafts food particles into a ventral food groove along which they are passed before being filtered by setae ( bristles ) on the second maxillae . Larger planktonic prey can be caught in a trap composed of the endopods of the thoracic appendages . Some benthic species , especially members of the subfamily Erythropinae , have been observed feeding on small particles which they collected by grooming the surfaces of their bodies and legs .
Individual mysids are either male or female , and fertilisation is external . The gonads are in the thorax and are tubular in shape . Males have two gonopores in the eighth thoracic segment and a pair of long penises . The female gonopores are in the sixth thoracic segment and the oostegites are attached to the first to seventh pereopods to form a brood pouch . Mating usually takes place at night and lasts only a few minutes . During the process , the male inserts his penises into the marsupium and releases sperm . This stimulates the female and the eggs are usually released into the marsupium within an hour . Here they are fertilised and retained , development of the embryos in the brood pouch being direct with the young hatching from the eggs as miniature adults . The size of a mysid brood generally correlates with body length and environmental factors such as density and food availability . The age at which mysids reach sexual maturity depends on water temperature and food availability . For the species Mysidopsis bahia , this is normally at 12 to 20 days . The young are released soon afterwards , and although their numbers are usually low , the short reproductive cycle of mysid adults means a new brood can be produced every four to seven days .
= = Culturing mysids = =
Some species of mysids are easy to culture on a large scale in the laboratory as they are highly adaptive , and can tolerate a wide range of conditions . Despite low fecundity , these species have a short reproductive cycle which means they can quickly reproduce in vast numbers . They can be cultured in static or flow @-@ through systems , the latter having been shown to be able to maintain a higher stocking density than a static system . In flow @-@ through systems , juvenile mysids are continuously separated from the adult brood stock in order to reduce mortality due to cannibalism . Artemia ( brine shrimp ) juveniles ( incubated for 24 hours ) are the most common food in mysid cultures , sometimes enriched with highly unsaturated fatty acids to increase their nutritional value .
Cultured mysids are thought to provide an ideal food source for many marine organisms . They are often fed to cephalopods , fish larvae , and commercial farmed shrimp due to their small size and low cost . Their high protein and fat content also makes them a good alternative to live enriched Artemia when feeding juveniles ( especially those that are difficult to maintain such as young seahorses ) and other small fauna .
Their sensitivity to water quality also makes them suitable for bioassays . Americamysis bahia and Americamysis almyra are frequently used to test for pesticides and other toxic substances , with A. bahia found to be more sensitive during the periods when it is moulting .
= = Systematics = =
The Mysida belong to the superorder Peracarida , which means “ near to shrimps ” . Although in many respects mysids appear similar to some shrimps , the main characteristic separating them from the superorder Eucarida is their lack of free @-@ swimming larvae . The order Mysida is extensive and currently includes approximately 160 genera , containing more than 1000 species .
Traditionally , Mysida were united with another , externally similar group of pelagic crustaceans , the Lophogastrida , into a broader order Mysidacea , but that classification is generally abandoned at present . While the previous grouping had good morphological support , molecular studies do not corroborate the monophyly of this group . Previously Mysida included two other families , Lepidomysidae and Stygiomysidae , but these have now been placed in a separate order , Stygiomysida .
= = Classification = =
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= Seung @-@ Hui Cho =
Seung @-@ Hui Cho ( in Korean , properly " Cho Seung @-@ Hui " ) ( / sʌŋ hiː tʃoʊ / ; January 18 , 1984 – April 16 , 2007 ) was a South Korean @-@ born mass murderer who killed 32 people and wounded 17 others on April 16 , 2007 , at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in Blacksburg , Virginia . An additional six people were injured jumping from windows to escape . He was a senior @-@ level undergraduate student at the university . The shooting rampage came to be known as the Virginia Tech shooting . Cho committed suicide after police breached the doors of the building where the majority of the shooting had taken place . His body is buried in Fairfax , Virginia .
Born in South Korea , Cho arrived in the United States at the age of eight with his family . He became a U.S. permanent resident as a South Korean national . In middle school , he was diagnosed with a severe anxiety disorder with selective mutism , as well as major depressive disorder . After his diagnosis , he began receiving treatment and continued to receive therapy and special education support until his junior year of high school . During Cho 's last two years at Virginia Tech , several instances of his abnormal behavior , as well as plays and other writings he submitted containing references to violence , caused concern among teachers and classmates .
In the aftermath of the shootings , Virginian governor Tim Kaine convened a panel consisting of various officials and experts to investigate and examine the response and handling of issues related to the shootings . The panel released its final report in August 2007 , devoting more than 30 pages to detailing Cho 's troubled history . In the report , the panel criticized the failure of the educators and mental health professionals who came into contact with Cho during his college years to notice his deteriorating condition and help him . The panel also criticized misinterpretations of privacy laws and gaps in Virginia 's mental health system and gun laws . In addition , the panel faulted Virginia Tech administrators in particular for failing to take immediate action after the first shootings . Nevertheless , the report did acknowledge that Cho was still primarily responsible for not seeking assistance and for his murderous rampage .
= = Early life and education = =
Cho was born on 18 January 1984 in the city of Asan , in South Korea 's South Chungcheong Province . Cho and his family lived in a basement apartment in the South Korean capital of Seoul for a couple of years before immigrating to the United States . Cho 's father was self @-@ employed as a bookstore owner , but made minimum wages from the venture . Seeking better education and opportunities for his children , Cho 's father immigrated to the United States in September 1992 with his wife and three children . Cho was eight years old at the time . The family first lived in Detroit , then moved to the Washington metropolitan area after learning that it had one of the largest South Korean expatriate communities in the U.S. , particularly in Northern Virginia . Cho 's family settled in Centreville , an unincorporated community in western Fairfax County , Virginia about 25 miles ( 40 km ) west of Washington , D.C. Cho 's father and mother opened a dry @-@ cleaning business in Centreville . After the family moved to Centreville , Cho and his family became permanent residents of the United States as South Korean nationals . His parents became members of a local Christian church , and Cho himself was raised as a member of the religion , although he " hated his parents ' strong Christian faith . " According to one report , Cho had left a note in his dormitory which contained a rant referencing Christianity and denigrating " rich kids " . In a video that Cho mailed to the NBC headquarters in New York he stated , " Thanks to you I die like Jesus Christ , to inspire generations of the weak and defenseless people . "
= = = Family concerns about Cho 's behavior during childhood = = =
A few members of Cho 's family , those who remained in South Korea , had concerns about his behavior during his early childhood . Cho 's relatives thought that he was selectively mute or mentally ill . According to Cho 's uncle , Cho " didn 't say much and did not mix with other children . " Cho 's maternal great @-@ aunt described Cho as " cold " and a cause of family concern from as young as eight years old . According to his great @-@ aunt , who met him twice , Cho was extremely shy and " just would not talk at all . " He was otherwise considered " well @-@ behaved , " readily obeying verbal commands and cues . The great @-@ aunt said she knew something was wrong after the family 's departure for the United States because she heard frequent updates about Cho 's older sister but little news about Cho . During an ABC News Nightline interview on August 30 , 2007 , Cho 's grandfather reported his concerns about Cho 's behavior during childhood . According to Cho 's grandfather , Cho never looked up to him to make eye contact , never called him grandfather , and never moved to embrace him .
= = = Behavior in school = = =
Cho attended the Poplar Tree Elementary School in Chantilly , an unincorporated , small community in Virginia 's Fairfax County . According to Kim Gyeong @-@ won , who met Cho in the fifth grade and took classes with him , Cho finished the three @-@ year program at Poplar Tree Elementary School in one and a half years . Cho was noted for being good at mathematics and English , and teachers pointed to him as an example for other students . At that time , according to Kim , nobody disliked Cho and he " was recognized by friends as a boy of knowledge ; ... a good dresser who was popular with the girls . " Kim added that " I only have good memories about him . " An acquaintance noted that " Every time he came home from school he would cry and throw tantrums saying he never wanted to return to school " when Cho first came to the U.S. in about the second grade .
In 1999 , during the spring of Cho 's eighth grade year , the Columbine High School massacre made international news . Cho was transfixed by it . " I remember sitting in Spanish class with him , right next to him , and there being something written on his binder to the effect of , you know , ' ' F ' you all , I hope you all burn in hell , ' which I would assume meant us , the students , " said Ben Baldwin , a classmate of Cho . Also , Cho wrote in a school assignment about wanting to " repeat Columbine " . The school contacted Cho 's sister , who reported the incident to their parents . Cho was sent to a psychiatrist .
Cho attended secondary schools in Fairfax County , including Ormond Stone Middle School in Centreville and Westfield High School in Chantilly , and by eighth grade had been diagnosed with selective mutism , a social anxiety disorder which inhibited him from speaking . Through high school , he was bullied for his shyness and unusual speech patterns . According to Chris Davids , a high school classmate in Cho 's English class at Westfield High School , Cho looked down and refused to speak when called upon . Davids added that , after one teacher threatened to give Cho a failing grade for not participating in class , he began reading in a strange , deep voice that sounded " like he had something in his mouth . [ ... ] " While several students recalled instances of Cho being bullied and mocked at Westfield , most left him alone and later said they were not aware of his anger . Cho graduated from Westfield High School in 2003 .
= = = Selective @-@ mutism diagnosis = = =
Immediately after the incident , reports carried speculation by Cho 's family members in South Korea that he was autistic . However , no known record exists of Cho ever being diagnosed with autism , nor could an autism diagnosis be verified with Cho 's parents . The Virginia Tech Review Panel report dismissed an autism diagnosis and experts later doubted the autism claim .
More than four months after the attack , The Wall Street Journal reported on August 20 , 2007 that Cho had been diagnosed with selective mutism . The Virginia Tech Review Panel report , also released in August 2007 , placed this diagnosis in the spring of Cho 's eighth @-@ grade year , and his parents sought treatment for him through medication and therapy . In high school , Cho was placed in special education under the ' emotional disturbance ' classification . He was excused from oral presentations and participation in class conversation and received 50 minutes a month of speech therapy . He continued receiving mental health therapy as well until his junior year , when Cho rejected further therapy .
To address his problems , Cho 's parents also took him to church . According to a pastor at the Centreville Korean Presbyterian Church , Cho was a smart student who understood the Bible , but he was concerned about Cho 's difficulty in speaking to people . The pastor added that , until he saw the video that Cho sent to NBC News , he never heard him say a complete sentence . The pastor also recalled that he told Cho 's mother that he speculated Cho was autistic and he asked her to take him to a hospital , but she declined .
Forbidden by federal law to disclose ( without Cho 's permission ) any record of disability or treatment , Westfield officials disclosed none of Cho 's speech and anxiety @-@ related problems to Virginia Tech .
= = Demeanor at Virginia Tech = =
In his freshman year at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University ( Virginia Tech ) , Cho enrolled as an undergraduate major in business information technology , a program that included " a combination of computer science and management coursework offered by the Pamplin College of Business . " By his senior year , Cho was majoring in English . Virginia Tech declined to divulge details about Cho 's academic record and why he changed his major , citing privacy laws .
At the time of the attacks , Cho lived with five roommates in Suite 2121 , a three @-@ room suite in Harper Hall , a dormitory that houses 249 co @-@ ed students , located just west of Cochrane Hall on the Virginia Tech campus .
= = = Relationship with faculty = = =
Professor Nikki Giovanni , who taught Cho in a poetry class in the fall of 2005 , had him removed from her class because she found his behavior " menacing . " She recalled that Cho had a " mean streak " and described his writing as " intimidating . " Cho had intimidated female students by photographing their legs under their desks and by writing obscene , violent poetry . Giovanni offered that " [ she ] was willing to resign before [ she ] would continue with him . " About six weeks after the semester began , Giovanni wrote a letter to then @-@ department head Lucinda Roy , who removed Cho from the class . Roy alerted the student affairs office , the dean 's office , and the campus police , but each office responded that there was nothing they could do if Cho made no overt threats against himself or others . After Giovanni was informed of the massacre , she remarked that " [ I ] knew when it happened that that 's probably who it was , " and " would have been shocked if it wasn 't . "
Roy , who had taught Cho in Introduction to Poetry the previous year , described him as " an intelligent man , " and that he seemed to be an awkward , lonely and insecure student who never took off his sunglasses , even indoors . She described Cho 's behavior as " arrogant " and " obnoxious " at times , and that she tried several different ways to help him . Roy declined to comment on Cho 's writings , saying only in general that they " seemed very angry . " She added that Cho , when called on in class , would take 20 seconds to answer questions , and whispered his response . He also took cell phone pictures of her in class . After Roy became concerned with Cho 's behavior and the themes in his writings , she started meeting with Cho to work with him one @-@ on @-@ one . However , she soon became concerned for her safety , and told her assistant that she would use the name of a dead professor as a duress code , in order to alert the assistant to call security . After Roy notified authorities of Cho 's behavior , she urged Cho to seek counseling , but to her knowledge , Cho never followed through with the request , in spite of his insistence to the contrary
When creative writing professor Lisa Norris , who taught Cho in both Advanced Fiction Writing and Contemporary Fiction , was asked about him by Mary Ann Lewis , associate dean for Liberal Arts and Human Sciences , she was not told that he was suffering from mental health problems or about prior police reports concerning his harassment of female students . According to Norris , " my guess is that either the information was not accessible to her [ Lewis ] or it was privileged and could not be released to me . " Lewis told Norris to recommend that Cho seek counseling at the on @-@ campus Cook Counseling Center , as Lewis had already done .
= = = Relationship with students = = =
Fellow students described Cho as a " quiet " person who " would not respond if someone greeted him . " Student Julie Poole recalled the first day of a literature class the previous year when the students introduced themselves one by one . When it was Cho 's turn to introduce himself , he did not speak . According to Poole , the professor looked at the sign @-@ in sheet and found that , whereas all the others had written out their names , Cho had written only a question mark . Poole added that " we just really knew him as the question mark kid " .
Karan Grewal , who shared a suite with Cho at Harper Hall , reported that Cho " would sit in a wood rocker by the window [ in his room at the dormitory ] ; and stare at the lawn below " . According to Grewal , " Cho appeared to never go to class or read a book during his senior year , " adding that Cho just typed on his laptop , went to the dining hall and clipped his hair in the bathroom , cleaning up the hair afterwards . Grewal also reported that he witnessed Cho riding his bicycle in circles in the parking lot of the dormitory .
Andy Koch and John Eide , who once shared a room with Cho at Cochrane Hall during 2005 and 2006 , stated that Cho demonstrated other repetitive behaviors , such as listening repeatedly to " Shine " by the alternative rock band Collective Soul . Cho wrote the song 's lyrics " Teach me how to speak ; Teach me how to share ; Teach me where to go " on the wall of his dormitory room . Koch described two further unusual incidents , including one where Cho stood in the doorway of his room late at night taking photographs of him ( Koch ) and a second incident where Cho repeatedly placed harassing cell phone calls to Koch as " Cho 's brother , ' Question Mark ' , " a name Cho also used when introducing himself to girls . Koch and Eide searched Cho 's belongings and found a pocket knife , but they did not find any items that they deemed seriously threatening to them . Koch also described a telephone call that he received from Cho during the Thanksgiving holiday break from school . During that call , Koch said that Cho claimed to be " vacationing with Vladimir Putin , " with Cho adding " Yeah , we 're in North Carolina . " In response , Koch told him " I 'm pretty sure that 's not possible , Seung . " Because of Cho 's behavior , Koch and Eide , who had earlier tried to befriend him , gradually stopped talking to him and told their friends , especially female classmates , not to visit their room .
Koch and Eide claimed Cho was involved in at least three stalking incidents , two of which resulted in verbal warnings by the Virginia Tech campus police . The first alleged stalking incident occurred on November 27 , 2005 . After the incident , according to Koch , Cho claimed to have sent an instant message online to the female student by AOL Instant Messenger and found out where she lived on the campus . Eide stated that Cho then visited her room to see if she was " cool " , adding that Cho remarked that he only found " promiscuity in her eyes " . Eide added that , when Cho visited the female student , Cho said , " Hi , I 'm Question Mark " to her , " which really freaked her out . " The female student called the campus police , complaining that Cho had sent her annoying messages and made an unannounced visit to her room . Two uniformed members of the campus police visited Cho 's room at the dormitory later that evening and warned him not to contact the female student again . Cho made no further contact with the student .
The final alleged stalking incident came to light on December 13 , 2005 . In the preceding days , Cho had contacted a female friend of Koch via AIM and wrote on her door board a line from Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet , Act 2 , scene II , in which Romeo laments to Juliet : " By a name , I know not how to tell who I am . My name , dear saint , is hateful to myself , because it is an enemy to thee . Had I it written , I would tear the word . "
The young woman was initially unconcerned by Cho 's AIM messages and the Shakespearean message he left on her door board , until she was contacted by Andy Koch via AIM . Koch told her that Cho was involved in an earlier stalking incident and that , " i think he is schizophrenic " [ sic ] . After Koch 's encouragement , the young woman contacted the campus police , who again warned Cho against further unwanted contact . After that warning , Cho made no further contact with the second female student .
Later the same day , Cho sent a text message to Koch with the words , " I might as well kill myself now . " Worried that Cho was suicidal , Koch contacted his father for advice , and both of them contacted campus authorities . The campus police returned to the dormitory and escorted Cho to New River Valley Community Services Board , the Virginia mental health agency serving Blacksburg .
= = Psychiatric evaluation = =
= = = Court @-@ ordered psychiatric assessment = = =
On December 13 , 2005 , Cho was found " mentally ill and in need of hospitalization " by New River Valley Community Services Board . The physician who examined Cho noted that he had a flat affect and depressed mood , even though Cho " denied suicidal thoughts and did not acknowledge symptoms of a thought disorder . " Cho , suspected of being " an imminent danger to himself or others , " was detained temporarily at Carilion St. Albans Behavioral Health Center in Radford , Virginia , pending a commitment hearing before the Montgomery County , Virginia district court .
Virginia Special Justice Paul Barnett certified in an order that Cho " presented an imminent danger to himself as a result of mental illness , " but instead recommended treatment for Cho as an outpatient . On December 14 , 2005 , Cho was released from the mental health facility after Judge Barnett ordered Cho to undergo mental health treatment on an outpatient basis , with a directive for the " court @-@ ordered [ outpatient ] to follow all recommended treatments . " Since Cho underwent only a minimal psychiatric assessment , the true diagnosis for Cho 's mental health status remains unknown .
Because Cho was not involuntarily committed to a mental health facility as an inpatient , he was still legally eligible to buy guns under Virginia law . However , according to Virginia law , " [ a ] magistrate has the authority to issue a detention order upon a finding that a person is mentally ill and in need of hospitalization or treatment . " The magistrate also must find that the person is an imminent danger to himself or others . Virginia officials and other law experts have argued that , under United States federal law , Barnett 's order meant that Cho had been " adjudicated as a mental defective " and was thus ineligible to purchase firearms under federal law ; and that the state of Virginia erred in not enforcing the requirements of the federal law .
= = = Family efforts = = =
The Virginia Tech Review Panel report shed light on numerous efforts by Cho 's family to secure help for him as early as adolescence . However , when Cho reached 18 and left for college , the family lost its legal authority over him , and their influence on him waned . Cho 's mother , increasingly concerned about his inattention to classwork , his classroom absences and his asocial behavior , sought help for him during summer 2006 from various churches in Northern Virginia . According to Dong Cheol Lee , minister of One Mind Presbyterian Church of Washington ( located in Woodbridge ) Cho 's mother sought help from the church for Cho 's problems . Lee added that " [ Cho 's ] problem needed to be solved by spiritual power ... that 's why she came to our church – because we were helping several people like him . " Members of Lee 's church even told Cho 's mother that he was afflicted by " demonic power " and needed " deliverance . " Before the church could meet with the family , however , Cho returned to school to start his senior year at Virginia Tech .
= = Virginia Tech shooting = =
Around 7 : 15 a.m. EDT ( 11 : 15 UTC ) on April 16 , 2007 , Cho killed two students , Emily J. Hilscher and Ryan C. " Stack " Clark , on the fourth floor of West Ambler Johnston Hall , a high @-@ rise co @-@ educational dormitory . Investigators later determined that Cho 's shoes matched a blood @-@ stained print found in the hallway outside Hilscher 's room . The shoes and bloody jeans were found in Cho 's dormitory room where he had stashed them after the attack .
Within the next two and a half hours , Cho returned to his room to rearm himself ; he mailed a package to NBC News that contained pictures , digital video files and documents . At approximately 9 : 45 a.m. EDT ( 13 : 45 UTC ) , he then crossed the campus to Norris Hall , a classroom building on the campus where , in a span of nine minutes , Cho shot dozens of people , killing 30 of them . As police breached the area of the building where Cho attacked the faculty and students , Cho committed suicide in Norris 211 with a gunshot to his temple . Cho 's gunshot wound destroyed his face , obscuring identification of his body for several hours . The police identified Cho by matching the fingerprints on the guns used in the shootings with immigration records . Before the shootings , Cho 's only known connection to Norris Hall was as a student in the sociology class , which met in a classroom on the second floor of the building . Although police had not stated positively at the time of the initial investigation that Cho was the perpetrator of the Norris Hall shootings and the earlier one at West Ambler Johnston Hall , forensic evidence confirmed that the same gun was used in both shooting incidents .
= = = Preparation = = =
= = = = Weapons = = = =
During February and March 2007 , Cho began purchasing the weapons that he later used during the killings . On February 9 , 2007 , Cho purchased his first handgun , a .22 caliber Walther P22 semi @-@ automatic pistol , from TGSCOM Inc . , a federally licensed firearms dealer based in Green Bay , Wisconsin and the operator of the website through which Cho ordered the gun . TGSCOM Inc. shipped the Walther P22 to JND Pawnbrokers in Blacksburg , Virginia , where Cho completed the legally required background check for the purchase transaction and took possession of the handgun . Cho bought a second handgun , a 9mm Glock 19 semi @-@ automatic pistol , on March 13 , 2007 from Roanoke Firearms , a licensed gun dealer located in Roanoke , Virginia .
Cho was able to pass both background checks and successfully complete both handgun purchases after he presented to the gun dealers his U.S. permanent residency card , his Virginia driver 's permit to prove legal age and length of Virginia residence and a checkbook showing his Virginia address , in addition to waiting the required 30 @-@ day period between each gun purchase . He was successful at completing both handgun purchases because he did not disclose on the background questionnaire that a Virginia court had ordered him to undergo outpatient treatment at a mental health facility .
On March 22 , 2007 , Cho purchased two 10 @-@ round magazines for the Walther P22 pistol through eBay from Elk Ridge Shooting Supplies in Idaho . Based on a preliminary computer forensics examination of Cho 's eBay purchase records , investigators suspected that Cho may have purchased an additional 10 @-@ round magazine on March 23 , 2007 from another eBay seller who sold gun accessories .
Cho also bought jacketed hollow @-@ point bullets , which result in more tissue damage than full metal jacket bullets against unarmored targets by expanding upon entering soft tissue . Along with a manifesto , Cho later sent a photograph of the hollow point bullets to NBC News with the caption " All the [ shit ] you 've given me , right back at you with hollow points . "
= = = = Motive = = = =
During the investigation , the police found a note in Cho 's room in which he criticized " rich kids " , " debauchery " and " deceitful charlatans " . In the note , Cho continued by saying that " you caused me to do this . " Early media reports also speculated that he was obsessed with fellow student Emily Hilscher and became enraged after she rejected his romantic overtures . Law enforcement investigators could not find evidence that Hilscher knew Cho . Cho and one of his victims , Ross Alameddine , attended the same English class during Autumn 2006 . Also in one video , he mentions " martyrs like Eric and Dylan " , almost certainly referring to Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold , the perpetrators of Columbine High School massacre .
= = = Aftermath = = =
= = = = Crime investigation = = = =
Through ballistics examination , law enforcement investigators determined that Cho used the Glock 19 pistol during the attacks at the West Ambler Johnston dormitory and at Norris Hall on the Virginia Tech campus . Police investigators found that Cho fired more than 170 shots during the killing spree , evidence technicians finding at least 17 empty magazines at the scene . During the investigation , federal law enforcement investigators found that the serial numbers were illegally filed off on both the Walther P22 and the Glock 19 handguns used by Cho during the rampage . " Investigators also say Cho practiced shooting at a firing range in Roanoke , about 40 miles from the campus , in mid @-@ March . " According to a former FBI agent and ABC consultant , " This was no spur @-@ of @-@ the @-@ moment crime . He 's been thinking about this for several months prior to the shooting . "
= = = = Review of Cho 's medical records = = = =
During the investigation , the matter of Cho 's court @-@ ordered mental health treatment was also examined to determine its outcome . Virginia investigators learned after a review of Cho 's medical records that he never complied with the order for the mandated mental health treatment as an outpatient . The investigators also found that neither the court nor New River Valley Community Services exercised oversight of his case to determine his compliance with the order . In response to questions about Cho 's case , New River Valley Community Services maintained that its facility was never named in the court order as the provider for his mental health treatment , and its responsibility ended once he was discharged from its care after the court order . In addition , Christopher Flynn , director of the Cook Counseling Center at Virginia Tech , mentioned that the court did not notify his office that Cho was required to seek outpatient mental health treatment . Flynn added that , " When a court gives a mandatory order that someone get outpatient treatment , that order is to the individual , not an agency ... The one responsible for ensuring that the mentally ill person receives help in these sort of cases ... is the mentally ill person . "
As a result , Cho escaped compliance with the court order for mandatory mental health treatment as an outpatient , even though Virginia law required community services boards to " recommend a specific course of treatment and programs " for mental health patients and " monitor the person 's compliance . " As for the court , Virginia law also mandated that , if a person fails to comply with a court order to seek mental health treatment as an outpatient , that person can be brought back before the court " and if found still in crisis , can be committed to a psychiatric institution for up to 180 days . " Cho was never summoned to court to explain why he had not complied with the December 14 , 2005 order for mandatory mental health treatment as an outpatient .
The investigation panel had sought Cho 's medical records for several weeks , but due to privacy laws , Virginia Tech was prohibited from releasing them without permission from Cho 's family , even after his death . The panel had considered using subpoenas to obtain his records . On June 12 , 2007 , Cho 's family released his medical records to the panel , although the panel said that the records were not enough . The panel obtained additional information by court order . Like the perpetrators of both the Columbine and Jokela school massacres , Cho was prescribed the antidepressant drug Prozac prior to his rampage , a substance suspected by Peter Breggin and David Healy of leading to suicidal behaviors . It is not known if Cho ever complied in filling or taking this prescription ; or if he had taken and then discontinued the prescribed medication . The toxicology test from the official autopsy later showed that neither psychiatric nor any kind of illegal drugs were in his system during the time of the shooting .
In August 2009 , Cho 's family allowed Virginia Tech to release the records , along with those found in July 2009 , to the public . Previously , they were only given to the panel .
= = = = Investigative panel report = = = =
In the aftermath of the killing spree , Virginia Governor Timothy Kaine ( D ) appointed a panel to investigate the campus shootings , with plans for the panel to submit a report of its findings in approximately two to three months . Kaine also invited former Homeland Security Secretary Tom Ridge to join the panel to " review Cho 's mental health history and how police responded to the tragedy . " To help investigate and analyze the emergency response surrounding the Virginia Tech shootings , Kaine hired the same company that investigated the Columbine High School massacre .
The panel 's final report devoted more than 30 pages to detailing Cho 's mental health history . The report criticized Virginia Tech educators , administrators and mental health staff in failing to " connect the dots " from numerous incidents that were warning signs of Cho 's mental instability beginning in his junior year . The report concluded that the school 's mental health systems " failed for lack of resources , incorrect interpretation of privacy laws , and passivity . " The report called Virginia 's mental health laws " flawed " and its mental health services " inadequate " . The report also confirmed that Cho was able to purchase two guns in violation of federal law because of Virginia 's inadequate background check requirements .
= = = = Reaction of Cho 's family = = = =
Cho 's older sister prepared a statement on her family 's behalf to apologize publicly for her brother 's actions , in addition to lending prayers to the victims and the families of the wounded and killed victims . " This is someone that I grew up with and loved . Now I feel like I didn 't know this person , " she said in the statement issued through a North Carolinian attorney . " We never could have envisioned that he was capable of so much violence . " Cho 's grandfather stated , " My grandson Seung @-@ Hui was very shy . I can 't believe he did such a thing . "
In a 2008 article acknowledging the anniversary of the massacre , the Washington Post did a follow @-@ up on the family , reporting that they had gone into hiding for months following the massacre and , after eventually returning home , had " virtually cut themselves off from the world . " Several windows in their home have been papered over and drawn blinds cover the rest . The only real outside contact they have maintained is with an FBI agent assigned to their care and their lawyer , refusing even to contact their own relatives in South Korea .
= = Media package sent to NBC News = =
During the time period between the two shooting events on April 16 , Cho visited a local post office near the Virginia Tech campus where he mailed a parcel with a DVD inside to the New York headquarters of NBC News , which contained video clips , photographs and a manifesto explaining the reasons for his actions . The package , addressed from " A. Ishmael " as seen on an image of the USPS Express Mail envelope ( incorrectly printed as " Ismail " by The New York Times ) and apparently intended to be received on April 17 , was delayed because of an incorrect ZIP code and street address . The words " Ismail Ax " were scrawled in red ink on Cho 's arm .
= = = Release of material = = =
Upon receiving the package on April 18 , 2007 , NBC contacted authorities and made the controversial decision to publicize Cho 's communications by releasing a small fraction of what it received . After pictures and images from the videos were broadcast in numerous news reports , students and faculty from Virginia Tech , along with relatives of victims of the campus shooting , expressed concerns that glorifying Cho 's rampage could lead to copycat killings . The airing of the manifesto and its video images and pictures was upsetting to many who were more closely affected by the shootings : Peter Read , the father of Mary Read , one of the students who was killed by Cho during the rampage , asked the media to stop airing Cho 's manifesto .
Police officials , who reviewed the video , pictures and manifesto , concluded that the contents of the media package had marginal value in helping them learn and understand why Cho committed the killings . Dr. Michael Welner , who also reviewed the materials , believed that Cho 's rantings offer little insight into the mental illness that may have triggered his rampage . Dr. Welner stated that " These videos do not help us understand Cho . They distort him . He was meek . He was quiet . This is a PR tape of him trying to turn himself into a Quentin Tarantino character . "
During the April 24 , 2007 edition of The Oprah Winfrey Show , NBC News President Steve Capus stated NBC decided to show 2 minutes of 25 minutes of video , 7 of 43 photographs , and 37 sentences of 23 pages of written material or 5 of the 23 PDF files that were last modified at 7 : 24 a.m. , after the first shooting . He also stated that the content not shown included " over the top profanity " and " incredibly violent images " . He expressed hope that the unreleased material would never be made public .
= = = Contents = = =
In his manifesto , Cho mentioned the Columbine killers Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold and made frequent references to hedonism and Christianity while expressing anger about unspecified wrongs that were done to him . In one of the videos , Cho said :
I didn 't have to do this . I could have left . I could have fled . But no , I will no longer run . If not for me , for my children , for my brothers and sisters that you fucked ; I did it for them ... When the time came , I did it . I had to ... You had a hundred billion chances and ways to have avoided today , but you decided to spill my blood . You forced me into a corner and gave me only one option . The decision was yours . Now you have blood on your hands that will never wash off .
You sadistic snobs . I may be nothing but a piece of dogshit . You have vandalized my heart , raped my soul , and torched my conscience . You thought it was one pathetic boy 's life you were extinguishing . Thanks to you , I die like Jesus Christ , to inspire generations of the weak and defenseless people .
Do you know what it feels to be spit on your face and have trash shoved down your throat ? Do you know what it feels like to dig your own grave ? Do you know what it feels like to have your throat slashed from ear to ear ? Do you know what it feels like to be torched alive ? Do you know what it feels like to be humiliated and be impaled upon on a cross ? And left to bleed to death for your amusement ? You have never felt a single ounce of pain your whole life . Did you want to inject as much misery in our lives as you can just because you can ? You had everything you wanted . Your Mercedes wasn 't enough , you brats . Your golden necklaces weren 't enough , you snobs . Your trust fund wasn 't enough . Your Vodka and Cognac weren 't enough . All your debaucheries weren 't enough . Those weren 't enough to fulfill your hedonistic needs . You had everything .
( unclear ) crucified me . You loved inducing cancer in my head , terrorizing my heart , and raping my soul all this time .
When the time came , I did it ... I had to .
Pete Williams , a MSNBC justice correspondent , said that Cho lacked logical governance , suggesting that Cho was under severe emotional distress . In the video , Cho also railed against deceitful charlatans on campus , rich kids , materialism , and hedonism while , in another video , he compared himself to Jesus Christ , explaining that his death will influence generations of " defenseless people " .
= = Writings = =
= = = Plays = = =
= = = = Richard McBeef = = = =
In 2006 , pursuant to a class assignment , Cho wrote a short one @-@ act play entitled Richard McBeef . The play focused on John , a 13 @-@ year @-@ old boy whose father had died in a boating accident , and John 's stepfather , ex @-@ football player Richard McBeef ( whom John constantly refers to as " Dick " ) . When Richard touches John 's lap during an attempt at a ' father @-@ to @-@ son ' talk , the boy abruptly claims that his stepfather is molesting him . John then accuses his stepfather of having murdered his biological father and repeatedly says that he will kill Richard . John , Richard and Sue ( John 's mother ) are suddenly embroiled in a major argument . Richard then retreats to his car to escape the conflict , but John , despite claiming repeatedly that Richard was abusing him , joins his stepfather in the car and harasses him . The play ends with John trying to shove a banana @-@ flavored cereal bar into his stepfather 's throat ; Richard , hitherto a passive character , reacts " out of sheer desecrated hurt and anger " by " swinging a deadly blow " at the boy .
= = = = Mr. Brownstone = = = =
In a second play , Mr. Brownstone , written for another class assignment , Cho depicted three 17 @-@ year @-@ olds ( John , Jane , and Joe ) , who sit in a casino while discussing their deep hatred for Mr. Brownstone , their 45 @-@ year @-@ old mathematics teacher . The three characters claim — using the phrase " ass @-@ rape " — that Mr. Brownstone mistreats them . John wins a multimillion @-@ dollar jackpot from one of the slot machines , and Mr. Brownstone , amid volleys of profanity from the students , reports to casino officials that the three characters were underage and had illegally picked up the winning ticket . Mr. Brownstone tells the casino officials that it was he who had really won the jackpot , and that the minors had taken the ticket from him . " Mr. Brownstone " was also the name of a Guns N ' Roses song about heroin , and one page from Cho 's play consisted of lyrics from the song .
= = = Short fiction paper = = =
Approximately one year before the incident at Virginia Tech , Cho also wrote a paper for an assignment in the " Intro to Short Fiction " class that he took during the spring 2006 semester . In that paper , Cho wrote about a mass school murder that was planned by the protagonist of the story but , according to the story , the protagonist did not follow through with the killings . During the proceedings of the Virginia Tech panel , the panel was unaware of the existence of the paper written by Cho for his fiction writing class .
When information surfaced about the paper , the Virginia Tech panel learned at that time that only the Virginia State Police and Virginia Tech had copies of the unreleased paper in their possession . The Virginia State Police reported that , although it had a copy of the paper , Virginia law prevented them from releasing the paper to the panel because it was part of the investigative file in an ongoing investigation .
Virginia Tech , on the other hand , had known about the paper , and officials at the school discussed the contents of the paper among themselves in the aftermath of the shootings . According to Governor Kaine , " [ Virginia Tech ] was expected to turn over all of Cho 's writings to the panel " during the proceedings of the Virginia Tech panel .
After some members of the Virginia Tech panel complained about the missing paper , Virginia Tech decided to release a copy of the paper to the panel during the latter part of the week of August 25 , 2007 . Although the Virginia Tech panel has since received the paper written by Cho for the fiction writing class , the precise contents of that paper have not been released to the public .
= = = Reactions to writings = = =
Edward Falco , a playwriting professor at Virginia Tech , has acknowledged that Cho wrote both plays in his class . The plays are fewer than 12 pages long and have several grammatical and typographical errors . Falco believed that Cho was drawn to writing because of his speech difficulties . Falco said of the plays , " They 're not good writing , but at least they are a form of communication . " Another professor who taught Cho characterized his work as " very adolescent " and " silly " , with attempts at " slapstick comedy " and " elements of violence " .
Classmates believed " the plays were really morbid and grotesque . " Ian MacFarlane , Cho 's former classmate , stated that , " when we read Cho 's plays , it was like something out of a nightmare . The plays had really twisted , macabre violence that used weapons I wouldn 't have even thought of . " When Stephen Davis , a senior who was also in Cho 's class , read " Richard McBeef , " he turned to his roommate and said , " This is the kind of guy who is going to walk into a classroom and start shooting people . " Anna Brown , another student in the class , sometimes joked with her friends that Cho was " the kind of guy who might go on a rampage killing . "
According to CBS News , " Cho Seung @-@ Hui 's violent writing [ and ] loner status fit the Secret Service shooter profile , " referring to a 2002 U.S. Secret Service study that was conducted after the Columbine massacre , with violent writing cited as one of the most typical behavioral attributes of school shooters . The U.S. Secret Service concluded the study by saying that " [ t ] he largest group of [ school shooters ] exhibited an interest in violence in their own writings , such as poems , essays or journal entries , " while school shooters ' interest in other violent media was generally low .
Users of YouTube created filmed adaptations of " Richard McBeef " . Something Awful created a parody " CliffsNotes " entry describing Richard McBeef .
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= James Gwyn =
James Gwyn ( November 24 , 1828 - July 17 , 1906 ) was an officer in the Union Army during the American Civil War . He immigrated at a young age from Ireland in 1846 , initially working as a storekeeper in Philadelphia and later as a clerk in New York City . At the onset of the war , in 1861 , he enlisted and was commissioned as a captain with the 23rd Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry . He assumed command of the 118th Pennsylvania Regiment in the course of the war . Gwyn led that regiment through many of its 39 recorded battles , including engagements at Seven Pines , Fredericksburg , Shepherdstown , Five Forks , and Gettysburg .
Gwyn was wounded at the Battle of the Wilderness in 1864 , but returned to service after recuperating to take command of the Third , and eventually the First and Second Brigades of the First Division of the Union Army 's V Corps . Gwyn was brevetted as a brigadier general President Abraham Lincoln and then as a major general by President Andrew Johnson for his service . His men described him as " a handsome and accomplished officer , and a bold and aggressive leader " . After the war , Gwyn returned to Philadelphia , although later moving to New York , and resumed his business dealings . He died on July 17 , 1906 , and was honored with a military funeral and buried in Woodlands Cemetery , Philadelphia .
= = Early life = =
Gwyn was born in Derry , Ireland on November 24 , 1828 . He was one of ten children raised in the Protestant household of Alexander Gwyn and Catherine Garvin . His brother , Hugh Garvin Gwyn , would later serve in the Confederate States Army as a major with the 23rd Tennessee Infantry Regiment , as well as an adjutant to General John Hunt Morgan .
He lived in the rural Irish city until he enrolled in Foyle College . Like many Irish in the 1840s , Gwyn left Ireland for the United States during the Great Famine . He boarded the John R. Skiddy , a packet ship from Liverpool , bound for New York City . On November 4 , 1846 , Gwyn arrived in America via the Port of New York , 22 days before his 18th birthday , although his immigration papers list him as 20 .
Upon arriving in the United States , Gwyn and many other Derry immigrants made their way to Philadelphia as was noted by an Emigration Officer Edward Smith at Derry that , " Nevertheless , the money that recent arrivals in America remitted for the passage of others was central to the whole link between Derry and Philadelphia " .
In August 30 , 1850 , Gwyn took up residence in the North Mulberry Ward where he owned a house . He married Pennsylvania native Margaretta E. Young in February . Although he worked as a clerk throughout the 1850s , he later formed a dried goods business with George H. Stewart , called " Gwyn & Stewart Dry Goods " .
Gwyn purchased a 141 square feet ( 13 m2 ) plot in the Woodlands Cemetery on October 12 , 1853 . Records show that on April 28 , 1857 ' James Gwyn & Lady ' from Philadelphia visited the Imperial Hotel Belfast until at least July 2 . Gwyn 's wife gave birth to his first child , Elizabeth Gailey Gwyn , on December 7 , 1858 , and their second daughter , Matilda Geddes , on January 2 , 1861 .
= = Military service = =
= = = Enlistment with the 23rd Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry = = =
Gwyn enlisted in Company G of the 23rd Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry on April 21 , 1861 , one week after the American Civil War began . He served in that company without interruption until July 31 , 1861 , when he transferred to Company F. He resumed duty with the new company on August 2 , 1861 . Gwyn served with the 23rd Volunteers for over one year ; in that time , he took part in the Battle of Seven Pines , where , on May 31 , 1862 , Gwyn led the 23rd in aiding other Union companies in collecting escaped fugitives . Gwyn resigned from the 23rd Volunteers on July 22 , 1862 where he accepted a promotion to lieutenant colonel in a new regiment .
= = = Lieutenant colonel , 118th Pennsylvania Infantry = = =
Gywn joined the 118th Pennsylvania Infantry , on July 25 , 1862 . The 118th , which was commissioned by the United States Department of War for three years of service , gathered recruits from the Philadelphia area during August 15 to 30th , 1862 . Gwyn was officially mustered into service on August 16 , 1862 . During this time , the 118th became known as the " Corn Regiment " , because the funds for raising the regiment were furnished by the Corn Exchange Association of Philadelphia . Having gathered 1 @,@ 296 volunteers during the two @-@ week period , the " Corn Regiment " left for Washington , D.C. , to be assigned a position in the Union Army on September 1 , 1862 . The regiment was embedded with the First Brigade , First Division , Fifth Army Corps under the regiment command of Colonel Charles Prevost , and brigade commander Colonel James Barnes .
The 118th Regiment moved out with the rest of the Fifth Army Corps marching towards Maryland . Upon reaching Maryland , the 118th along with the rest of the Fifth Army Corps , became involved in the Battle of Antietam . While that battle would become to be known as " the bloodiest day in American history " with over 22 @,@ 000 casualties , the 118th was not involved on the front lines . They instead assisted in artillery stocking .
The 118th Regiment returned to battle three days afterwards , taking part in the Battle of Shepherdstown . The regiment took heavy casualties during the battle , suffering 71 deaths , 75 wounded , and 67 captured . The Confederates also suffered heavy losses with approximately 262 casualties in the battle . Among the Union wounded was Prevost , colonel of the 118th Regiment , who was shot through the shoulder on the last day of the battle . Prevost resigned from active duty , and Gwyn , as second @-@ in @-@ command , took over the regiment as acting commander . Gwyn 's " courage and coolness " during that battle were praised by Colonel Barnes , the brigade commander , in a letter written five days after the battle ended .
On September 28 , 1862 , Gwyn sent a letter to Colonel Barnes stating that the 118th Regiment did not provide the Philadelphia Inquirer with information that the paper used to publish a map and a report of the incident . Two days later , Gwyn issued a report on the Battle of Shepherdstown , noting the efforts he made to rally troops to fight back against the Confederate troops , though his efforts were in vain , as Colonel Barnes ordered to regiment to fall back .
The 118th Regiment returned to the front lines on December 11 , 1862 , in the Battle of Fredericksburg . Barnes formed the First Brigade , First Division from the 118th Pennsylvania ( Gwyn ) , 22nd Massachusetts , 25th New York , 13th New York , 1st Michigan , and 2nd Maine Regiments . In a recorded incident during the battle , a house was discovered with hidden tobacco crates which the soldiers raided . Gwyn sharply criticized the men for breaking rank but " inwardly smiled at their enthusiasm " .
Following the unsuccessful Mud March of January 1863 , the regiment went into ' winter quarters ' until June . The Fifth Army Corps resumed activity on June 10 , 1863 , as it began to travel northward through enemy territory , with skirmishes frequently occurring . These travels ultimately led the Fifth Army Corps to Pennsylvania , where , on July 2 , 1863 , they arrived to aid the Union Army during the Battle of Gettysburg . Gwyn , still as acting commander of the regiment , was given the orders to position the 118th Regiment on Cemetery Hill and to hold the position . In the afternoon , the regiment was ordered to assist Major General Daniel Sickles on the left flank that same day . On July 3 , the second day of the battle , Gwyn led the 118th to Little Round Top where they held their position for two days until Union forces had achieved albeit a costly victory . Following Gettysburg , the 118th Regiment moved around the state to various positions . On August 6 , the regiment stationed at Warrenton , Virginia , received 109 new recruits , and on September 5 , another 185 . On September 30 , 1863 , Prevost officially retired , and Gwyn was promoted to colonel and the commanding officer of the 118th . During this time , Prevost had been stationed as commandant of a military prison in Elmira , New York .
= = = Colonel , 118th Pennsylvania Regiment = = =
During the autumn of 1863 and through the winter , the regiment engaged in " desultory fighting " . Gwyn served perfunctorily while in command of the 118th Regiment for the ensuing five months with no notable confrontations until the Battle of the Wilderness in May 1864 . On the first day of battle , May 5 , Gwyn was shot in the thigh , and put out of commission for at least one month . Gwyn would receive his promotion to colonel at Beverly Ford for his actions at Wilderness . Due to his injury , he was unable to lead the 118th Regiment into the multiple conflicts , including the Battle of Spotsylvania Court House , the Battle of North Anna , the Battle of Totopotomoy Creek , the Battle of Bethesda Church , and the Battle of Cold Harbor .
Gwyn , having returned to active duty by this time , led the 118th in the Siege of Petersburg and Richmond campaign that lasted from June 9 , 1864 , to March 25 , 1865 . The exact date and orders where Gwyn received his commission as commander of the Third Brigade is unknown , although subsequent documents show Gwyn reporting to headquarters as the brigade commander .
On August 18 , 1864 , Gwyn led the Third Brigade to the Weldon Railroad , where he met with the First and Second Brigade . The First Brigade was ordered to New York City , and by Special Order No. 32 , he was ordered to also take command of Second Brigade and in the absence of Col. A. H. Grimshaw . The next day , the combined Union troops moved forward along the railroad until they joined the Second Division , led by General Romeyn Ayres . The Third Brigade remained at that station for the next eight days without incidence , with Gwyn submitting a report to the Headquarters of First Division concerning what transpired during those three days .
It was recorded in this time the regiment suffered heavy losses and according to Frank H. Taylor , " Grant was remoselessly wearing out the besieged enemy . Regiments were used unsparingly , and the " 118th " was accorded its full share of the work . " In particular , on the morning September 30 , 1864 in the Battle of Pegram 's Farm , and later the Battle of Peebles 's Farm , to capture Fort McRae , 118th along with 16th Michigan were in direct line of four artillery guns from a church and fired upon with " special severity " . At a two road junction in the afternoon , near Fort McRae , Gwyn 's leg was severely wounded when his horse fell upon him , though , did not permanently cripple him or lead to amputation . Captain Wilson , the 118th second @-@ in @-@ command assumed command and pressed on with Ayres offensive that eventually led to a Union victory late in that evening .
= = = Brevet Brigadier general , Third Brigade and 118th Pennsylvania Regiment = = =
Gwyn 's service during the Siege of Petersburg was noted by the commanding officer of the First Division , V Corps , General Charles Griffin as examples of Gwyn 's " gallantry " , " bravery " and " valor " . Charles Griffin informed the Department of War that Gwyn should receive the rank of brigadier general , and if that was not possible then he should be brevetted the rank . The Federal Government approved of the idea and issued Special Order 347 on October 14 , 1864 in which James Gwyn was awarded the grade of brevet brigadier general of volunteers , to rank from September 30 , 1864 , by President Abraham Lincoln . Gwyn was formally nominated by President Lincoln on December 12 , 1864 and his appointment was confirmed by the U.S. Senate on February 14 , 1865 . The First Division received word of Gwyn 's promotion on October 14 , and passed down to Gywn on the 17th . In a letter , Griffin wrote that Gwyn 's promotion was " evidence that the gallantry of our little command has been appreciated " .
Gwyn continued his military duties with service around the James River near City Point , Virginia . Feeling ill , he returned to Philadelphia on October 31 , 1864 . He was diagnosed with malaria fever and prescribed a seven @-@ day break to rest and recover . His leave was approved on November 4 , and he was permitted to recover for a week , resuming duty of November 7 , 1864 . At his return , Gwyn , by Special Orders No. 301 was assigned to the First Division , First Brigade under Brigadier General Griffin by Major General Fred T. Locke . On November 19 , 1864 , he was transferred from the First Division to the Second Division , which was under the command of General Romeyn Ayres .
Ayres ordered Gwyn to take command of the Third Brigade on November 21 . Two days later , Gwyn was notified that General Ayres would be absent for three days and would be fulfilling his role as acting commander of the Second Division . On December 14 , General Ayres sent a report praising Gwyn 's ' prompt ' and ' efficient ' service during the Battle of Globe Tavern , August 18 – 21 , 1864 , to the Fifth Army Corps . Gwyn led the Third Brigade without problems until December 21 , when he was informed that General Ayres would be on a leave of absence for the twenty days , and that he would lead the Second Division until Ayres ' return .
Gwyn took control of the Second Division , but soon went on a leave of absence from January 8 , 18 days into his 20 @-@ day service assignment , to January 21 , 1865 . On February 5 , he led the Third Brigade into the Battle of Hatcher 's Run . On February 6 , the Confederates engaged the Union army at 1 : 30PM . The Third Brigade engaged the Rebels and were eventually overwhelmed and were forced to retreat . The Assistant Adjutant , Major General Locke , ordered Gwyn to reform the Third Brigade and to take on stragglers from assorted Maryland regiments . The fighting continued into the next day ; by February 8 , the Union forces near Hatcher 's Run had retreated . On February 14 , Major General Ayres highlighted Gwyn 's leadership during the Battle of Hatcher 's Run by stating that Gwyn had " seconded me with zeal and energy " . Three days later , Gwyn wrote his own letter with names of soldiers whom he thought were deserving of merit for their exceptional service during the Battle of Hatcher 's Run .
= = = End of the Civil War = = =
The Third Brigade fell back for over a month engaging in skirmishes around Hatcher 's Run , Halifax road , and Rowanty Creek as part of the Richmond Campaign . Major operations resumed on March 31 , 1865 , when Gwyn led the Third Brigade in the Battle of White Oak Road , and eventually on to Five Forks , Dinwiddie County , Virginia . The Third Brigade took part in the Battle of Five Forks on April 1 , 1865 .
A charge led by Gwyn resulted in the capture of two strategic positions and a large number prisoners . Gwyn was later appointed brevet major general for his efforts during the battle . On January 13 , 1869 , President Andrew Johnson nominated Gwyn for appointment to the grade of brevet major general of volunteers , to rank from April 1 , 1865 , and the U.S. Senate confirmed the appointment on February 16 , 1869 .
Gwyn and the 118th pushed onwards , pressing the retreating Confederate troops during the Battle of Appomattox Court House , one of the last major battles of the Civil War . At the Appomattox Court House , on April 9 , 1865 , Robert E. Lee surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant , thus ending the Civil War . The 118th was present to witness the surrender , and escorted the Confederate soldier that carried the flag of truce . With the hostilities subsided , Gwyn filed a report concerning the skirmish at White Oak Road on April 14 , 1865 . A few weeks later on April 27 , 1865 , Brevet Major General Ayres advocated that Gwyn receive a promotion on account of his " zeal and good conduct " from March 29 to April 9 of that year .
Gwyn led the Third Brigade to Washington , D.C. for the Grand Review , which took place on May 23 , 1865 . They arrived in Washington early by May 21 to attend roll @-@ call with the rest of the Fifth Army Corps . According to the New York Times , Gwyn was listed at the Headquarters Army of the Potomac as " Third Brigade , Brevet Brig.-Gen. James Gwyn , commanding — 190th Pennsylvania , Col. W.R. Hartshorne ; 210th Pennsylvania , Major J.H. Graves ; 4th Delaware , Brevet Lieut @-@ Col. M.B. Gist ; 3d Delaware , Capt. D.D. Joseph ; 8th Delaware , Capt. John Richards ; 191st Pennsylvania , Col. James Carle . "
On June 5 , 1865 , the 118th Regiment was officially mustered out of service by the U.S. Department of War . On June 9 , a large banquet was prepared in their honor by the Corn Exchange , the same bank that had offered the initial payments for recruits to join years before , at Sansom Street Hall for the members of the former 118th Regiment who had returned to Philadelphia . According to his obituary , Gwyn was offered a position as a lieutenant in the regular army by President Andrew Johnson , but instead chose to return to civilian life .
= = Post Civil War = =
Following the conclusion of the Civil War , Gwyn resumed the life he had left behind in 1861 . He returned home to his wife Margaret and daughters Elizabeth and Matilda , now five years older than the last time he saw them . He applied for his military pension on October 6 , 1866 . Though Gwyn served in positions with a difficulty as high as major general , because he was only brevet , the payment he received would be reduced to the level of his highest non @-@ brevet rank ; which would be colonel , the position he effectively gave up on October 14 , 1864 .
His wife gave birth to a third daughter , Margaret , on December 7 , 1869 . Gwyn and his family later moved from Philadelphia to a home in New York City . Gwyn had become connected with the mercantile house , Stuart Bros and returned to that business . Later on he would take a new job as a clerk in New York . His daughter Margaret married Frank L. Rehn where they moved out of the Brooklyn area to No. 9 Grove Street Yonkers , New York . Gwyn 's middle daughter Matilda married in 1891 to a stockbroker , Andrew S. Brownell . They also moved away from the Brooklyn area to Matilda 's house in Yonkers .
= = Death = =
Gwyn died in the late evening of July 17 , 1906 while visited his daughter , Mrs. Frank L. Rehn ( Margaret ) , at her home in Yonkers , New York . News of his death was reported in The New York Times and The Washington Post as far away as Salt Lake City in the Deseret News . His body was taken back to Philadelphia , where he was interred in the Woodlands Cemetery following a military funeral on July 19 , 1906 . He was buried in the cemetery plot section E , Lot 33 that he bought over fifty years earlier .
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= Hamilton Fish =
Hamilton Fish ( August 3 , 1808 – September 7 , 1893 ) , was an American statesman and politician who served as the 16th Governor of New York , a United States Senator and United States Secretary of State . Fish is recognized as the " pillar " of the Grant Administration and considered one of the best U.S. Secretaries of State by scholars , known for his judiciousness and efforts towards reform and diplomatic moderation . Fish settled the controversial Alabama Claims with Great Britain through his development of the concept of international arbitration . Fish kept the United States out of war with Spain over Cuban independence by coolly handling the volatile Virginius Incident . In 1875 , Fish initiated the process that would ultimately lead to Hawaiian statehood , by having negotiated a reciprocal trade treaty for the island nation 's sugar production . He also organized a peace conference and treaty in Washington D.C. between South American countries and Spain . Fish worked with James Milton Turner , America 's first African American consul , to settle the Liberian @-@ Grebo war . President Grant said he trusted Fish the most for political advice .
Fish came from a prominent wealthy New York family and attended Columbia College of Columbia University . Upon graduation , Fish passed the bar , worked as New York 's commissioner of deeds , and ran unsuccessfully for New York State Assembly as a Whig candidate in 1834 . After his marriage , Fish returned to New York politics in 1843 and was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives . Fish ran for New York 's Lieutenant Governor in 1846 , however , he was defeated by a Democratic Anti @-@ Rent Party contender . When the office was vacated in 1847 , Fish ran and was elected Lieutenant Governor . In 1848 Fish ran and was elected Governor of New York having served only one term . In 1851 , Fish was elected U.S. Senator for the state of New York and served only one term . Fish gained valuable experience serving on the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations . During the 1850s Fish became a Republican after the Whig party dissolved . In terms of the slavery issue , Fish was a moderate , having disapproved of the Kansas – Nebraska Act and the expansion of slavery .
After traveling to Europe , Fish returned to America and supported Abraham Lincoln as the Republican candidate for President in 1860 . During the American Civil War , Fish raised money for the Union war effort and served on Lincoln 's presidential commission that made successful arrangements for Union and Confederate troop prisoner exchanges . Fish returned to his law practice after the Civil War , and was thought to have retired from political life . When Ulysses S. Grant was elected President in 1868 , he appointed Fish as U.S. Secretary of State in 1869 . Fish took on the State Department with vigor , reorganized the office , and established civil service reform . During his 8 @-@ year tenure , Fish had to contend with Cuban belligerency , the settlement of the Alabama claims , Canadian border disputes , and the Virginius incident . Fish implemented the new concept of international arbitration , where disputes between countries were settled by negotiations , rather than military conflicts . Fish was involved in a political feud between Senator Charles Sumner and President Grant in the latter 's unsuccessful efforts to annex the Dominican Republic . Fish organized a naval expedition in an unsuccessful attempt to open trade with Korea in 1871 . Leaving office and politics in 1877 , Fish returned to private life and continued to serve on various historical associations . Fish 's male descendants would later serve in the U.S. House of Representatives for three generations . Fish died of old age in his luxurious New York State home in 1893 .
= = Early life , education , and career = =
Hamilton Fish was born on August 3 , 1808 at what is now known as the Stuyvesant – Fish House in Greenwich Village , New York City , to Nicholas Fish and Elizabeth Stuyvesant ( a great @-@ great @-@ granddaughter of New Amsterdam 's Peter Stuyvesant ) , and his parents named him after their friend Alexander Hamilton . Nicholas Fish ( 1758 – 1833 ) was a leading Federalist politician and notable figure of the American Revolutionary War . Col. Fish was active in the Yorktown Campaign that resulted in the surrender of Lord Cornwallis . Peter Stuyvesant was a prominent founder of New York , then a Dutch Colony , and his family owned much property in Manhattan .
Fish received his primary education at the private school of M. Bancel . In 1827 , Fish graduated from Columbia College of Columbia University , having obtained high honors . At Columbia , Fish became fluent in French , a language that would later help him as U.S. Secretary of State . After his graduation , Fish studied law for three years in the law office of Peter A. Jay , served as president of the Philolexian Society , and was admitted to the New York bar in 1830 , practicing briefly with William Beach Lawrence . Influenced politically by his father , Fish aligned himself to the Whig Party . He served as commissioner of deeds for the city and county of New York from 1832 through 1833 , and was an unsuccessful Whig candidate for New York State Assembly in 1834 .
= = Marriage and family = =
On December 15 , 1836 Hamilton Fish married Julia Kean ( a descendant of a New Yorker who was a New Jersey governor , William Livingston ) . The couple 's lengthy married life was described as happy and Mrs. Fish was known for her " sagacity and judgement " . The couple had three sons and five daughters . Hamilton Fish had multiple notable descendants and relatives .
= = New York political career = =
= = = U.S. Representative = = =
For eight years after his defeat as a Representative in the New York State Assembly , Fish was reluctant to run for office . However , Whig party leaders in 1842 convinced him to run for the House of Representatives . In November , Fish was elected to the House of Representatives ; having defeated Democrat John McKeon and serving in the 28th Congress from New York 's 6th District between 1843 and 1845 . The Whigs at this time were in the minority in the House ; however , Fish gained valued national experience serving on the Committee of Military Affairs . Fish failed to win a re @-@ election bid for a second term in the House .
= = = Lieutenant Governor = = =
Fish was the Whig candidate for Lieutenant Governor of New York in 1846 , but was defeated by Democrat Addison Gardiner who had been endorsed by the Anti @-@ Rent Party . Leasing farmers in New York refused to pay rent to large land tract owners and sometimes resorted to violence and intimidation . Fish had opposed the Anti @-@ Rent Party for the use of illegal tactics not to pay rent . Gardiner was elected in May 1847 a judge of the New York Court of Appeals and vacated the office of lieutenant governor . Fish was then in November 1847 elected to fill the vacancy , and was Lieutenant Governor in 1848 . Lieut . Gov. Fish had a favorable reputation for being " conciliatory " and for his " firmness " over the New York Senate .
= = = Governor = = =
In November 1848 , he was elected Governor of New York , defeating John A. Dix and Reuben H. Walworth , and served from January 1 , 1849 , to December 31 , 1850 . At 40 years of age , Fish was one of the youngest governors to be elected in New York history . Fish advocated and signed into law free public education facilities throughout New York state . He also advocated and signed into law the building of an asylum and school for the intellectually disabled . During his tenor the canal system in the state of New York was increased . In 1850 , Fish recommended that the state legislature form a committee to collect and publish the Colonial Laws of New York . None of the bills that Governor Fish vetoed were overturned by the New York legislature . In his annual messages Fish spoke out against the extension of slavery from land acquired from the Mexican American War , including California and New Mexico . His anti @-@ slavery messages gave Fish national attention and President Zachary Taylor , also a Whig , was going to nominate Fish to the Treasury Department in a cabinet shakeup . However Taylor died in office before he could nominate Fish . Despite his national popularity Fish was not renominated for Governor .
= = = U.S. Senator = = =
After Gov. Fish had retired from office he did not openly seek the nomination to be elected U.S. Senator . However , Fish 's supporters , the William H. Seward @-@ Thurlow Weed Whigs , in January 1851 nominated him as a candidate for U.S. Senator . A deadlock ensued over his nomination because one New York legislature Whig Senator was upset about Fish not publicly supporting the Compromise of 1850 . Before the election Fish had only stated government should enforce the laws . Although Fish did not favor the spread of slavery he was hesitant to support the free soil movement . Finally , when two Democratic Senators who were against Fish 's nomination were conspicuously absent , the Senate took action and voted . On March 19 , 1851 , Fish was elected a U.S. Senator from New York and he took his seat on December 1 , serving alongside future Secretary of State William H. Seward .
In the United States Senate , he was a member of the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations until the end of his term on March 4 , 1857 . Fish became friends with President Franklin Pierce 's Secretary of State William L. Marcy and Attorney General Caleb Cushing . He was a Republican for the latter part of his term and was part of a moderately anti @-@ slavery faction . During the 1850s the Republican Party replaced the Whig Party as the central party against the Democratic Party . By 1856 , Fish privately considered himself a Whig although he knew that the Whig Party was no longer viable politically . Fish was a quiet Senator , rather than an orator , who liked to keep to himself . Fish often was in disagreement with Senator Sumner , who was firmly opposed to slavery and advocated equality for blacks . His policy was to vote for legislation on the side of " justice , economy , and public virtue . " He strongly opposed the repeal of the Missouri Compromise . Fish often voted with the Free Soil faction and was strongly against the Kansas @-@ Nebraska Bill . In February 1855 , merchants represented by Moses H. Grinnell , criticized Fish 's bill on immigration and maritime commerce . Fish 's bill was designed to protect Irish and German immigrants who were dying on merchant ships during oceanic passage to America . The merchants believed that Fish 's bill was oppressive to commercial interests over human interests .
During his tenure , the nation and Congress were in tremendous political upheaval over slavery , that included violence , disorder , and disturbances of the peace . In 1856 , pro slavery advocates invaded Kansas and used violent tactics against those who were anti @-@ slavery . In May 1856 , Senator Charles Sumner was viciously attacked by Preston Brooks in the Senate Chamber . At the expiration of his term , he traveled with his family to Europe and remained there until shortly before the opening of the American Civil War , when he returned to begin actively campaigning for the election of Abraham Lincoln . While in France , Fish studied foreign policy with diplomats and distinguished Americans ; having gained valuable experience that would eventually benefit his tenure as Secretary of State .
= = American Civil War = =
After Abraham Lincoln had been elected President in 1860 , Fish spent time with Brevet Lieutenant General Winfield Scott , commander of the Federal Army . Fish 's private secretary had aided the efforts of the Star of the West , an American merchant ship sent by President James Buchanan to bring relief supplies to Major Robert Anderson at Fort Sumter . While Fish was dining with General Scott in New York a telegram was received that announced the Confederates had attacked the Star of the West in Charleston Bay . When Fish stated that this meant war , Scott replied " Don 't utter that word , my friend . You don 't know what a horrid thing war is . "
In 1861 and 1862 Fish joined and participated on the Union Defense Committee of the State of New York , that from April 22 , 1861 , to April 30 , 1862 co @-@ operated with the New York City government in the raising and equipping troops , and disbursed more than $ 1 million for the relief of New York volunteers and their families . The committee included chairman John A. Dix , William M. Evarts , William E. Dodge , A.T. Stewart , John Jacob Astor and other New York men . Fish was appointed chairman of the committee after Dix joined the Union Army .
In 1862 Fish was appointed by President Lincoln on a commission to serve with Bishop Edward R. Ames to visit the Union Army prisoners being held in the Confederate States of America capital in Richmond , Virginia . The Confederate government , however , refused to allow the commission to enter the city . Instead , Fish and Rev. Ames were able to start a system of prisoner exchange that remained virtually unchanged throughout the American Civil War . After the war ended Fish went back to private practice as a lawyer in New York .
= = U.S. Secretary of State = =
Hamilton Fish was appointed Secretary of State by President Ulysses S. Grant and served between March 17 , 1869 and March 12 , 1877 . He was President Grant 's longest @-@ serving Cabinet officer . Upon assuming office in 1869 , Fish was initially underrated by some statesmen including former Secretaries of State William H. Seward and John Bigelow . Fish , however , immediately took on the responsibilities of his office with diligence , zeal , and intelligence . Fish 's tenure as Secretary of State was lengthy , almost eight years , and he had to contend with many foreign policy issues including the Cuban insurrection , the Alabama Claims , and the Franco @-@ Prussian War .
= = = Reformed U.S. State Department 1869 = = =
When Fish assumed office he immediately began a series of reforms in the Department of State . After appropriations were given to his office by Congress , Fish cataloged and organized 700 volumes of miscellaneous State Department documents and created the Bureau of Indexes and Archives . Fish introduced indexing of State Department files so subordinates could easily find documents . Fish implemented civil service reform by having State Department applicants be required to pass an entry examination before being appointed consultant . This policy was sometimes hampered , since President Grant could appoint any person to office without the person having to take an examination . However , the policy of testing overall improved the staff at the State Department . Fish 's methods of organization included disciplined staff and prompt copying of dispatches .
The method of record keeping , however , was cumbersome , having remained the same since John Quincy Adams . Rather than world regions , countries were listed in alphabetical order ; the correspondence was embedded in bound diplomatic and consular category archives , rather than by subject matter . Added to countries ' information was a miscellaneous category filed chronologically . This resulted in a tedious and time @-@ consuming process to make briefings for Congress . Diplomatic ministers , only 23 in 1877 , were not kept informed of current world events that took place in other parts of the world .
= = = Cuban belligerency and insurrection 1869 – 1870 = = =
By 1869 , Cuban nationals were in open rebellion against their mother country Spain , due to the unpopularity of Spanish rule . American sentiment favored the Cuban rebels and President Grant appeared to be on the verge of acknowledging Cuban belligerency . Fish , who desired settlement over the Alabama Claims , did not approve of recognizing the Cuban rebels , since Queen Victoria and her government had recognized Confederate belligerency in 1861 . Recognizing Cuban belligerency would have jeopardized settlement and arbitration with Great Britain . In February 1870 , Senator John Sherman authored a Senate resolution that would have recognized Cuban belligerency . Working behind the scenes Fish counseled Sherman that Cuban recognition would ultimately lead to war with Spain . The resolution went to the House of Representatives and was ready to pass , however , Fish , worked out an agreement with President Grant to send a special message to Congress that urged not to acknowledge the Cuban rebels . On June 13 , 1870 the message written by Fish was sent to Congress by the President and Congress , after much debate , decided not to recognize Cuban belligerency . President Grant continued the policy of Cuban belligerent non recognition for the rest of his two administrations . This policy , however , was tested in 1873 with the Virginius Affair .
= = = Dominican Republic annexation treaty 1869 – 1870 = = =
After President Grant assumed office on March 4 , 1869 one of his immediate foreign policy interests was the annexation of the Caribbean island nation of the Dominican Republic , at that time referred to as Santo Domingo , to the United States . President Grant believed the annexation of Santo Domingo would increase the United States ' mineral resources and alleviate the effects of racism against African Americans in the South . Hamilton Fish , though loyal to President Grant , did not desire annexation ; the divided island nation , run by mulatto leader President Buenaventura Báez , had been troubled with civil strife . Báez had imprisoned an American citizen , Davis Hatch , for speaking out against the Báez government . Fish told Grant that the Senate would not be ready to pass a Santo Domingo annexation treaty . In April 1869 Fish gave Grant 's private secretary Orville Babcock " special agent " status to search the island . In September 1869 , Babcock made a preliminary treaty that would annex Santo Domingo to the United States and give it the opportunity to apply for statehood . In October 1869 , Fish drew up a formal treaty that included : a $ 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 payment of the Dominican national debt ; Samaná Bay would be leased to the United States for $ 150 @,@ 000 yearly payment ; Santo Domingo would eventually be given statehood .
In a private conference with President Grant , Fish agreed to support the Santo Domingo annexation if President Grant sent Congress a non @-@ belligerency statement not to get involved with the Cuban rebellion against Spain . Charles Sumner , chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee , was against the treaty , believing that Santo Domingo needed to remain independent , and that racism against U.S. black citizens in the South needed to be dealt with in the continental United States . Sumner believed that blacks on Santo Domingo did not share Anglo @-@ American values . On January 10 , 1870 Grant submitted the Santo Domingo treaty to the United States Senate . Fish believed Senators would vote for annexation only if statehood was withdrawn ; however , President Grant refused this option . The Senate took its time deliberating , and finally rejected the treaty on June 30 , 1870 . Eighteen Senators led by Charles Sumner defeated the treaty . Pres . Grant , angered at Sumner 's refusal to support the treaty , fired Sumner 's friend J. Lothrop Motley , Grant 's ambassador to England , for disregarding Fish 's instructions regarding the Alabama Claims . Grant believed that Sumner had in January 1870 stated his support for the Santo Domingo treaty . Sumner was then deprived of his chairmanship of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee in 1871 by Grant 's allies in the Senate .
= = = Colombian inter @-@ oceanic canal treaty 1870 = = =
President Grant and Secretary Fish were interested in establishing an inter @-@ oceanic canal through Panama . Secretary Fish organized a treaty signing on January 26 , 1870 in Bogota between the United States and Colombia that established a Panama route for the inter @-@ oceanic canal . The Colombian Senate , however , amended the treaty so much that the strategic value of the inter @-@ oceanic canal construction became ineffective . As a result , the United States Senate refused to ratify the treaty .
= = = Treaty of Washington 1871 = = =
During the previous administration of President Andrew Johnson , Secretary of State Seward attempted to resolve the Alabama Claims with the Johnson @-@ Clarendon convention and treaty . The Alabama Claims had arisen out of the American Civil War , when Confederate raiding ships built in British ports ( most notably the C.S.S. Alabama ) had sunk a significant number of Union merchant ships .
The Johnson @-@ Clarendon treaty , presented to Congress by President Ulysses S. Grant , was overwhelmingly defeated by the Senate and the claims remained unresolved . Anglophobia led by Charles Sumner was at an all @-@ time high when Fish became Secretary of State . Sumner had demanded Britain cede Canada to the United States as payment for the Alabama Claims . In late 1870 , an opportunity arrived to settle the Alabama Claims under Prime Minister William E. Gladstone . Fish , who was determined to improve relations with Britain , along with President Grant and Senate supporters , had Charles Sumner removed by vote from the Senate Foreign Relations Committee , and the door was open for renewed negotiations with Britain .
On January 9 , 1871 , Fish met with British representative Sir John Rose in Washington and an agreement was made , under much negotiations , to establish a Joint Commission to settle the Alabama Claims to be held in Washington under the direction of Hamilton Fish . At stake was the financing of America 's debt with British bankers during the Civil War , and peace with Britain was required . On February 14 , 1871 both distinguished High Commissioners representing Britain , led by the Earl of Ripon , George Robinson , and the United States , led by Fish , met in Washington D.C. and negotiations over settlement went remarkably well . Also representing Britain was Canadian Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald . After 37 meetings , on May 8 , 1871 the Treaty of Washington was signed at the State Department and became a " landmark of international conciliation " . The Senate ratified the treaty on May 24 , 1871 . On August 25 , 1872 , the settlement for the Alabama claims was made by an international arbitration committee meeting in Geneva and the United States was awarded $ 15 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 in gold for damaged done by the Confederate warships . Under the treaty settlement over disputed Atlantic fisheries and the San Juan Boundary ( concerning the Oregon boundary line ) was made . The treaty was considered an " unprecedented accomplishment " , having solved border disputes , reciprocal trade , and navigation issues . A friendly perpetual relationship between Great Britain and America was established , with Britain having expressed regret over the Alabama damages .
= = = South American détente and armistice 1871 = = =
On April 11 , 1871 a peace conference , presided over by Hamilton Fish , was held in Washington D.C. between Spain and the South American republics of Peru , Chile , Ecuador , and Bolivia , which resulted in an armistice between the countries . These countries had been in a " technical " state of war since 1866 , and the United States in 1871 served as mediator under the direction of Hamilton Fish . Representing Spain was Mauricio Lopez Roberts ; Manuel Freyer represented both Peru and Bolivia ; Joaquín Godoy represented Chile ; and Antonio Flores represented Ecuador . President Grant gave Fish full powers to control negotiations at the détente meeting between the five countries . The signed armistice treaty consisted of seven articles ; hostilities were to cease for a minimum of three years and the countries would allow commercial trade with neutral countries .
= = = Korean expedition and conflict 1871 = = =
In 1871 , Korea was known as the " Hermit Kingdom " , a country determined to remain isolated from other nations , specifically from commerce and trade from Western nations , including the United States . In 1866 , U.S. relations with Korea were troubled when Christian missionaries were beheaded by the Korean tacwongun , regent to King Kojong , and the crew of the General Sherman , a U.S. trading ship , were massacred . Secretary William H. Seward , under President Andrew Johnson , demanded redress for what was perceived as the outrageous actions of the Korean government . U.S. Naval warships were ordered to the Orient , however , when Seward 's term ended in 1869 , he was unable to organize a naval expedition . When Fish took office he organized the Korean naval expedition and broadened the purposes . In April 1871 , Fish ordered Frederick F. Low , minister to China , to take the Asiatic Fleet and voyage to Seoul . The purpose of the expedition was to seek retribution for the assaulted sailors and to open up a commercial treaty with the King of Korea . Fish had told the fleet not to use force unless the honor of the U.S. Flag was infringed by the Koreans .
On May 8 , 1871 , Low and Rear Admiral John Rodgers , commander of the Asiatic Squadron , voyaged to Korea with five warships , eighty @-@ five guns , and 1 @,@ 230 sailors and marines . On May 16 , the naval squadron reached Nagasaki Bay and a week later lowered anchor near the mouth of the Han . The Koreans sent unofficial representatives to stall for time and hope the American squadron would leave . In June , the American fleet while doing nautical survey was fired upon by the Korean forts on the Han River leading to Seoul . The American fleet fired back , damaging the forts . The Americans demanded an apology on the grounds that the honor of the American flag had been violated . On June 10 , a U.S. military expedition was launched after the Koreans failed to apologize for the attack ; the objective was to destroy the Korean forts on Kanghoa Island . The U.S.S. Monocacy pounded the forts with 9 inch guns while 546 sailors and 105 marines landed on the island and captured and destroyed the Korean forts . The " Citadel " fortress , on a steep 115 @-@ foot hillside , put up the stiffest resistance to the American troops , who fought in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat with the Korean Tiger Hunters . All of the Korean forts taken , were destroyed and leveled on June 11 . Three hundred fifty Korean Tiger Hunters were killed , compared with only one American officer and two American sailors . Lieut . Hugh W. McKee was the first U. S. Navy officer to die in battle in Korea .
The Asiatic Squadron remained on the Han River for three weeks , but the Koreans would not open negotiations for a commercial treaty . As the American squadron left , the Koreans believed that they had won a great victory over the Americans . The attempt to open Korea up to trade was similar to how Commodore Matthew Perry in 1854 had approached the opening of Japan . Korea , however , proved to be more isolated than Japan . In 1881 , Commodore Robert W. Shufeldt , without using a naval fleet , went to a more conciliatory Korean government and made a commercial treaty . The U.S. was the first Western nation to establish formal trade with Korea .
= = = Virginius affair 1873 = = =
During the 1870s Cuba was in a state of rebellion against Spain . In the United States , Americans were divided on whether to militarily aid the rebel Cubans . Many jingoists believed the United States needed to fight for the Cuban rebels and pressured the Grant Administration to take action . A privately owned ship , the Virginius , was used to run guns , ammunition , and vital supplies to the Cuban rebels . The captain of the Virginius was Joseph Fry , former officer of the Confederate and Federal Navies . On October 31 , 1873 , the Virginius was run down in neutral waters by the Spanish warship , the Tornado , off of Morant Bay , Jamaica . After being hit , the Virginius took on water and was forced to surrender to the Spanish authorities . The 103 crew members consisted of Cuban rebel recruits and 52 American and British citizens . The Spanish hauled down and trampled the American flag , and brought the prisoners to Santiago . A total of 53 Virginius crew members were executed by the Spanish authorities . The Spanish finally stopped the carnage as a British warship appeared with guns ready to fire on Santiago . The American Navy , at this time , although formidable worldwide , was in decline after the American Civil War .
When news reached the United States of the executions , President Grant and Secretary Fish were forced to make an immediate response . Many Americans demanded a full @-@ scale war with Spain . Fish found out that the registration was falsified under American ownership , however , the executions of Americans demanded action . Fish , coolly handled the situation , called upon Spanish minister , Admiral José Polo de Bernabé in Washington D.C. and held a conference . A settlement was made where Spain relinquished the severely damaged Virginius to the U.S. Navy , while survivors were released that included 13 Americans . The Spanish Captain who ordered the executions was censured , and Spain paid $ 80 @,@ 000 reparations to American families whose family members were executed in Santiago . The national honor of both Spain and the United States was preserved and it was chiefly due to the restraint and moderation of Fish and Bernabé that a satisfactory settlement of the Virginius ' Affair was reached by the United States and Spain .
= = = Hawaiian reciprocal trade treaty 1875 = = =
Fish also negotiated the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 with the Kingdom of Hawaii under the reign of King Kalākaua . Hawaiian sugar was made duty @-@ free , while the importation of manufactured goods and clothing was allowed into the island kingdom . By opening Hawaii to free trade the process for annexation and eventual statehood into the United States had begun .
= = = Liberian @-@ Grebo war 1876 = = =
The U.S. settled the Liberian @-@ Grebo war in 1876 when Hamilton Fish dispatched the USS Alaska , under President Grant 's authority , to Liberia . Liberia was in practice an American colony . U.S. envoy James Milton Turner , the first African American ambassador , requested a warship to protect American property in Liberia . Turner , bolstered by U.S. naval presence in harbor and support of the USS Alaska captain , negotiated the incorporation of Grebo people into Liberian society and the ousting of foreign traders from Liberia .
= = = Republican convention 1876 = = =
As the 1876 Republican convention approached during the U.S. Presidential Election , President Grant , unknown to Fish , had written a letter to Republican leaders to nominate Fish for the Presidential ticket . The letter was never read at the convention and Fish was never nominated . President Grant believed that Fish was a good compromise choice between the rival factions of James G. Blaine and Roscoe Conkling . Cartoonist Thomas Nast drew a caricature of Fish and Rutherford B. Hayes as the Republican Party ticket . Fish , who was ready to retire to private life , did not desire to run for President and was content at returning to private life . Fish found out later President Grant had written the letter to the convention .
= = = Nicaragua inter @-@ oceanic canal negotiations 1877 = = =
President Grant at the close of his second term , and Secretary Fish , remained interested in establishing an inter @-@ oceanic canal treaty . Fish and the State Department negotiated with a special envoy from Nicaragua in February , 1877 for an inter @-@ oceanic treaty . Negotiations , however , failed as the status of the neutral zone could not be established .
= = Later life and health = =
After leaving the Grant Cabinet in 1877 and briefly serving under President Hayes , Fish retired from public office and returned to private life practicing law and managing his real estate in New York City . Fish was revered in the New York community and enjoyed spending time with his family .
Fish resided in Glen Clyffe , his estate near Garrison , New York , in Putnam County , New York , in the Hudson River Valley . His health remained good until around 1884 , having suffered from neuralgia .
= = Death , funeral , and burial = =
On September 6 , 1893 Fish had retired from the evening having played cards with his daughter . The following morning on September 7 , Fish , at the age of 85 , suddenly died . His death was attributed to advanced age .
On September 11 , 1893 Fish was buried in Garrison at St. Philip 's Church @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Highlands Cemetery under waving trees along on the hills by the Hudson River shoreline . He was buried next to his wife and oldest daughter . Fish was buried near the grave of Edwards Pierrepont , President Grant 's U.S. Attorney General . Many notable persons attended Fish 's funeral , while Bishop Potter conducted services . Julia Grant , widowed wife of Ulysses S. Grant , attended Fish 's funeral .
= = Historical reputation = =
Charles Francis Adams described Fish as " a quiet and easy @-@ going man ; but , when aroused , by being , as he thought , ' put upon ' , he became very formidable . Neither was it possible to placate him . " Fish 's 20th Century biographer , A. Elwood Corning , stated that Fish was free from " petty jealousies and prejudices which so often drag the reputation of statesmen down to the level of politicians " and that Fish " used the language and practiced the manners of a gentleman . " As an invaluable member of the Grant Administration , Fish commanded " men 's confidence , and respect by his firmness , candor , and justice . "
A survey of scholars in the December 1981 American Heritage Magazine ranked Fish number 3 on a list of top ten Secretary of States noting his settling of the Alabama Claims in 1871 , for his peaceful settlement of the Virginius Incident obtaining Spanish reparations , and for his Hawaiian treaty , ratified by the U.S. Senate in 1875 , starting the annexation process leading to the eventual statehood of Hawaii .
There is a memorial to Fish at the Cathedral of All Saints ( Albany , New York ) . The Hamilton Fish Newburgh @-@ Beacon Bridge , which spans the Hudson River 50 miles north of New York City between Dutchess and Orange Counties , is named after Fish .
= = Society of Cincinnati = =
Fish was a long time member of the New York Society of the Cincinnati by right of his father 's service as an officer in the Continental Army . Fish succeeded to his father 's " seat " in the Society upon his father 's death in 1833 . In 1848 , Fish became the Vice President General of the national Society and , in 1854 , he became its President General . In 1855 Fish was elected President of the New York Society . Fish served as both President General of the national Society and President of the New York Society until his death in 1893 . His 39 @-@ year tenure in office as President General is by far the longest in the Society 's history .
= = Notable descendants = =
Three of Fish 's direct descendants , all named Hamilton , served in the U.S. House of Representatives for the state of New York . Hamilton Fish II , Fish 's son , served one term as U.S. Representative from 1909 to 1911 . Fish II also served as assistant to Secretary of State Hamilton Fish . Hamilton Fish III , Fish 's grandson , served as U.S. Representative from 1920 to 1945 . Hamilton Fish IV , Fish 's great @-@ grandson , served as U.S. Representative from 1969 to 1995 . Another son Stuyvesant Fish was an important railroad executive . Another son , Nicholas Fish II , was a U.S. diplomat , who was appointed second secretary of legation at Berlin in 1871 , became secretary in 1874 , and was chargé d 'affaires at Berne in 1877 – 1881 , and minister to Belgium in 1882 – 1886 , after which he engaged in banking in New York City . Hamilton Fish , Fish 's grandson by Nicholas , was an 1895 graduate of Columbia College of Columbia University , saw service in the Spanish – American War as one of the storied Rough Riders . He was the first member of that regiment to be killed in action , at the Battle of Las Guasimas , Cuba .
= = = Books = = =
Corning , A. Elwood ( October 1918 ) . Hamilton Fish . New York , New York : The Lanmere Publishing Company .
Doenecke , Justus D. ( 1981 ) . The Presidencies of James A. Garfield & Chester A. Arthur . Lawrence , Kansas : The Regents Press of Kansas . ISBN 0 @-@ 7006 @-@ 0208 @-@ 9 .
Fuller , Joseph V. ( 1931 ) . Dictionary of American Biography Fish , Hamilton . New York : Charles Scribner 's Sons. pp. 397 – 400 .
Hoogenboom , Ari ( 1988 ) . The Presidency of Rutherford B. Hayes . University Press of Kansas . ISBN 0 @-@ 7006 @-@ 0338 @-@ 7 .
Kremer , Gary R. ( 1991 ) . James Milton Turner and the Promise of America : the Public Life of a Post- Civil War Black Leader . Columbia , Missouri : University of Missouri Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 8262 @-@ 0780 @-@ 4 .
McFeely , William S. ( 1981 ) . Grant A Biography . New York , New York : W.W. Norton & Company , Inc . ISBN 0 @-@ 393 @-@ 32394 @-@ 3 .
Nevins , Allan ( 1957 ) . Hamilton Fish : The Inner History of the Grant Administration . Volume : 1 . New York , New York : F. Ungar Pub . Co .
Smith , Jean Edward ( 2001 ) . Grant . Rockefeller Center New York , New York : Simon & Schuster Paperbacks . ISBN 0 @-@ 684 @-@ 84927 @-@ 5 .
United States Department of State ( December 4 , 1871 ) . Foreign Relations of the United States . Washington D.C. : Washington : Government Printing Office .
= = = Journals and newspapers = = =
= = = = American Heritage = = = =
American Heritage Editors ( December 1981 ) . " The Ten Best Secretaries Of State … " . American Heritage 33 ( 1 ) . Retrieved 2011 @-@ 08 @-@ 22 .
Nahne , Andrew C. ( April 1968 ) . " our Little War With The Heathen " . American Heritage 19 ( 3 ) . Retrieved 2011 @-@ 08 @-@ 30 .
Schartz , Frederick D. ( October 1998 ) . " 1873 One Hundred And Twenty @-@ five Years Ago " . American Heritage 49 ( 6 ) . Retrieved 2011 @-@ 08 @-@ 22 .
= = = = New York Times = = = =
" Hamilton Fish 3d Joins Race for House " . New York , New York : New York Times . April 3 , 1988 . Retrieved 2011 @-@ 09 @-@ 13 .
" The Merchants Denouncing Hamilton Fish " ( PDF ) . New York Times ( New York , New York ) . February 19 , 1855 . Retrieved 2011 @-@ 08 @-@ 24 .
= = = Internet = = =
Bardsley , Marilyn ( 2011 ) . " Albert Fish " . Tru TV . Retrieved 2011 @-@ 09 @-@ 18 .
Benz , Stephen ( June 26 , 1998 ) . " The Bull Pulpit " . Retrieved 2011 @-@ 09 @-@ 17 .
Reitwiesner , William Addams . " Ancestry of Albert Fish " . WARGS . Retrieved 2011 @-@ 09 @-@ 19 .
" Fischetti to Fishelson " . Political Graveyard . July 19 , 2011 . Retrieved 2011 @-@ 09 @-@ 17 .
" Fish , Hamilton , ( 1849 – 1936 ) " . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . Retrieved 2011 @-@ 09 @-@ 17 .
" Fish , Hamilton , ( 1888 – 1991 ) " . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . Retrieved 2011 @-@ 09 @-@ 17 .
" Fish , Hamilton , Jr . , ( 1926 – 1996 ) " . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . Retrieved 2011 @-@ 09 @-@ 17 .
" Governor Thomas H. Kean Biography " . Rutgers . Retrieved 2011 @-@ 09 @-@ 15 .
" Kean , Hamilton Fish , ( 1862 – 1941 ) " . Biographical Directory of the United States Congress . Retrieved 2011 @-@ 09 @-@ 18 .
= = = Purdue University = = =
Stover , John F. , The management of the Illinois Central Railroad in the 20th century . ( PDF ) , Purdue University
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= I Am Tour ( Leona Lewis ) =
The I Am Tour was the third headlining concert tour by the British singer and songwriter Leona Lewis . It was launched in support of her fifth studio album , I Am ( 2015 ) . The tour was announced on 11 September 2015 with a run of fourteen dates across Great Britain . It began on 21 February 2016 at the Liverpool Empire Theatre and concluded on 11 March 2016 at the Plymouth Pavilions . The leg also included two nights at the London Palladium . The English singer @-@ songwriter Philippa Hanna served as the support act , and the English singer @-@ songwriter Joss Stone joined Lewis on stage as a special guest for the final show of the tour to perform a cover of " Sisters Are Doin ' It for Themselves " by Eurythmics and Aretha Franklin .
Lewis performed a nineteen @-@ song set list with a four @-@ piece band and two backup vocalists . Her vocals , stage presence and interaction with the crowds was lauded by the critics in attendance . Many singled out her performance of " Ave Maria " as the set 's highlight , while others also praised renditions of " The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face " , " A Moment Like This " and " Run " . Several noted that nearly a third of the set list consisted of both official covers recorded by Lewis previously included on her albums , as well as cover songs intended just for the tour . Some were complimentary of the unofficial covers , most notably Lewis ' version of " Time After Time " by Cyndi Lauper , whereas others felt that there were too many and that they were too forgettable .
= = Background = =
To promote her fifth studio album , I Am ( 2015 ) , on 11 September 2015 Leona Lewis announced her third headlining concert tour , titled the I Am Tour , was to take place in February and March 2016 . It was her first concert tour since the Glassheart Tour in 2013 . Spanning fourteen shows visiting various concert halls and theatres in England , Scotland and Wales , the tour began at the Liverpool Empire Theatre on 21 February and concluded at the Plymouth Pavilions on 11 March ; it also included two dates at the London Palladium . Lewis announced the tour on 11 September 2015 and tickets went on sale a week later on 18 September . Speaking about touring again , Lewis said that she was " So so excited to announce a 2016 UK Tour ! I cannot wait to get out and perform all the new songs for you and some old favourites too ! " In an interview for What 's On magazine in December 2015 , Lewis revealed that she had originally planned for the tour to be longer , but decided to shorten it in order to spend time with family and friends and start writing songs for her sixth studio album sooner .
= = Critical reception = =
Katie Fitzpatrick of the Manchester Evening News reported that fans in attendance at the Manchester Bridgewater Hall show were impressed with Lewis ' performance , writing that many took to social media following the concert to describe her as " the best singer in the world " . Reporting on the show at The Sage Gateshead , the Chronicle Live critic Gordon Barr praised Lewis ' confidence and her band . He noted that the production was relatively simple compared to the big @-@ budget production values of her first concert tour in 2010 , The Labyrinth . With the tour featuring just two background vocalists and a four @-@ piece band , Barr wrote that it was " so refreshing to see an artist on stage just loving the music " . He singled out performances of " Ave Maria " , " Run " , and a cover of " Time After Time " by Cyndi Lauper as the show 's highlights . Barr described the performance of " Time After Time " as " stripped back to the core " which enabled the crowd to " really [ hear ] that incredible voice at its best " . Allan Jones of the Bournemouth Echo was also complimentary of Lewis ' performance during the show at the Bournemouth International Centre . Although he disapproved of the performance of " Ave Maria " ( but noted that it garnered a standing ovation from the crowd ) , he thought that standout performances included " Run " , " Bleeding Love " , and Lewis ' cover of " The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face " by Roberta Flack . He concluded his review by writing that Lewis has " that really big soul / pop voice that should see her continuing to pack venues for the next ten years " .
Adrian Caffery of the Birmingham Mail gave a mixed review of the show at the city 's Symphony Hall . While he was complimentary of Lewis ' vocals performances on most of the original tracks , most notably on " Ave Maria " , which he described as demonstrating " an amazing transformation to opera diva " , he was critical of Lewis ' decision to include seven cover songs on the set list . Although Caffery wrote that " Run " , " The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face " , " Ave Maria " , and " A Moment Like This " – the last of which he described as " cheesy " – were to be expected , as Lewis had recorded them for previous albums . However , he disapproved of " Time After Time " , labelling it " ok " , and called the Sam Smith covers " instantly forgettable " . He concluded by writing : " There was enough evidence to suggest Leona is capable of staging an utterly mesmerising show from start to finish – just not this time " . A critic from The Bristol Post wrote that Lewis " dazzled " the audience who " [ enjoyed ] Leona 's impressive vocals and stunning songs " , placing emphasis on her rendition of " Time After Time " .
In a review of Lewis ' performance at the London Palladium on 5 March , William J Connolly of Gay Times praised the singer 's openness regarding her personal and private life throughout the show , which gave the audience an insight as to " why she 's remained quiet in previous months and why , as we all love , each album is full of emotion and honesty " . He singled out " The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face " , " Bleeding Love " , and " Thunder " as the show 's highlights , and described " Run " as " perfect " . Emma Noye of the Ipswich Star wrote that despite there being some Americanisms in the show , such as " horse @-@ riding , beach @-@ walking backing visuals with a voiceover talking about the ' journey ' she 's been on " , Lewis ' voice was " indisputably fantastic " . Noye went on to write that the singer " made everyone feel included and engaged " and praised her performance of " Ave Maria " as " stunning " .
In her review of the concert at the Plymouth Pavilions , Caroline Abbott of the Torquay Herald Express praised Lewis for her interaction with the crowd and her " down @-@ to @-@ earth " persona , as well as her performances of " Ave Maria " , " Thank You " , and " Sisters Are Doin ' It for Themselves " , a duet with the special guest Joss Stone . Noting that a third of the set @-@ list was made up of covers , she expressed dislike for Lewis ' interpretation of " Time After Time " . Abbott wrote that her " only real criticism " of the performance was for the stage production , which she described as " five strips of giant toilet paper hanging at the back , occasionally changing colour , and spaced a little too far apart to make for easy viewing of the video footage of Leona explaining why her music is so important to her " . Abbott did , however , note that the backdrop did not detract from the " high quality music " or her " incredible , effortless voice " .
= = Set list = =
The following set list is representative of the show in Liverpool at the Liverpool Empire Theatre on 21 February 2016 . It may not represent the setlist from all of the shows .
For the final show at the Plymouth Pavilions on 11 March , Lewis bought out the English singer @-@ songwriter Joss Stone as a special guest to perform a cover of " Sisters Are Doin ' It for Themselves " by Eurythmics and Aretha Franklin .
= = Shows = =
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= Erez Lieberman Aiden =
Erez Lieberman Aiden ( born 1980 ) , formerly known as Erez Lieberman , is an American research scientist active in multiple fields related to applied mathematics . He is an assistant professor at the Baylor College of Medicine , and formerly a fellow at the Harvard Society of Fellows and visiting faculty member at Google . Using mathematical and computational approaches , he has studied evolution in a range of contexts , including that of networks through evolutionary graph theory and languages in the field of culturomics . He has published scientific articles in a variety of disciplines .
Lieberman Aiden has won awards including the Lemelson – MIT Student Prize and the American Physical Society 's Award for Outstanding Doctoral Thesis Research in Biological Physics . In 2009 , Lieberman Aiden was named as one of 35 top innovators under 35 by Technology Review and in 2011 he was one of the recipients of the Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers .
= = Early life and education = =
Erez Lieberman Aiden grew up in Brooklyn with three siblings . He began computer programming at the age of seven . His father , Aharon Lieberman , was a technology entrepreneur and owned a factory in New Jersey . As a child Lieberman Aiden spoke Hebrew and Hungarian , making English his third language .
Lieberman Aiden studied mathematics , physics , and philosophy at Princeton , and earned a master 's degree in History at Yeshiva University . He proceeded to complete a joint PhD in mathematics and bioengineering at the Harvard – MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology , where he was advised by Eric Lander and Martin Nowak .
= = Research = =
Lieberman Aiden contributed to the founding of evolutionary graph theory along with his PhD supervisor Martin Nowak . He has since been involved in researching the three dimensional structure of the human genome and the field of culturomics .
= = = Three @-@ dimensional genome structure = = =
Lieberman Aiden was part of a team of scientists from the University of Massachusetts Medical School and MIT that first suggested human DNA folds into a fractal globule rather than an equilibrium globule . This finding explains how each cell 's genome is able to be heavily compacted without forming a knot . Lieberman Aiden and coworkers invented a variant of chromosome conformation capture called " Hi @-@ C " which produces a genome @-@ wide measure of contact probabilities that point to a 3 @-@ dimensional genome structure . This technique combines existing chromosome capture methodology with next @-@ generation sequencing , enabling an all @-@ versus @-@ all measure of chromatin contacts .
In 2009 this work was published in the journal Science and was featured as a cover illustration . Following the publication , Lieberman Aiden was quoted as saying :
We ’ ve long known that on a small scale , DNA is a double helix … But if the double helix didn ’ t fold further , the genome in each cell would be two meters long . Scientists have not really understood how the double helix folds to fit into the nucleus of a human cell , which is only about a hundredth of a millimeter in diameter . This new approach enabled us to probe exactly that question .
In 2014 , he served as a senior author on an article in Cell which described a refined method of Hi @-@ C which his team used to describe the fundamental organization of DNA .
= = = Culturomics = = =
Lieberman Aiden was involved in the analysis of a corpus of around 5 million digitised books , applying data mining techniques to advance the new field of culturomics . Leiberman Aiden was involved in a project to digitise Anglo @-@ Saxon texts in 2004 , the analysis of which led to the discovery of verb regularisation , a process whereby irregular verbs become increasingly regular over time .
After the announcement of Google Books , Lieberman Aiden approached Google 's Director of Research Peter Norvig and was permitted to statistically analyse their data . His work contributed to the Google Ngram Viewer , released in December 2010 , which makes use of culturomics ideas to produce normalized historical trends for any sequence of letters . This project published a number of findings in the journal Science , including the changing dynamic of fame and instances of literary censorship during the Second World War .
= = Awards = =
In 2008 Lieberman Aiden was awarded the Lemelson @-@ MIT Student Prize for his work on the iShoe , meant to assist elderly people with balance problems and prevent falls that could cause injury . The following year , the iShoe was listed as one of " 20 New Biotech Breakthroughs that Will Change Medicine " by Popular Mechanics . A year later Lieberman Aiden was named as one of 35 top innovators under 35 ( TR35 ) by MIT 's Technology Review magazine .
In 2010 , the American Physical Society presented Lieberman Aiden with the Award for Outstanding Doctoral Thesis Research in Biological Physics for his thesis titled " Evolution and the emergence of structure " . His doctoral dissertation was also awarded the Hertz Thesis Prize . Lieberman Aiden is also the recipient of an NIH Director 's New Innovator Award and was named , along with 95 other American researchers , as a recipient of the Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers in 2011 .
= = Personal life = =
Erez Lieberman married Aviva Presser in 2005 ; following the marriage both husband and wife appended to their surnames " Aiden " , which means Eden in Hebrew and , in Gaelic , little fire . They have a son named Gabriel Galileo and a daughter . Outside of scientific interests , Lieberman Aiden participated in a modern art collaboration with Nicholas Kahn and Richard Selesnick which was exhibited in galleries in the United States and Europe .
Lieberman Aiden and his wife founded Bears Without Borders , a nonprofit organisation which distributes stuffed toys to the developing world .
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= Avitomyrmex =
Avitomyrmex is an extinct genus of bulldog ants in the subfamily Myrmeciinae which contains three described species . The genus was described in 2006 from Ypresian stage ( Early Eocene ) deposits of British Columbia , Canada . Almost all the specimens collected are queens , with an exception of a single fossilised worker . These ants are large , and the eyes are also large and well developed ; a sting is present in one species . The behaviour of these ants may have been similar to extant Myrmeciinae ants , such as foraging solitarily for arthropod prey and never leaving pheromone trails to food sources . Avitomyrmex has not been assigned to any tribe , instead generally being regarded as incertae sedis within Myrmeciinae . However , its identity as an ant has been challenged , although it is undoubtedly a hymenopteran insect .
= = History and classification = =
Avitomyrmex is an extinct genus of ants with three described species . Fossils of Avitomyrmex , along with other extinct Myrmeciinae ants were first studied and described by Bruce Archibald , Stefan Cover and Corrie Moreau of the Museum of Comparative Zoology in Cambridge , Massachusetts . They published their 2006 description of the genus and species in an Annals of the Entomological Society of America journal article . The genus name is a combination of the Latin " avitus " meaning " ancient " or " grandfatherly " and the Greek myrmex , meaning " ant " .
Included with the genus description , the paper contained the description of Avitomyrmex mastax , Avitomyrmex systenus , and the type species Avitomyrmex elongatus . These fossil species date back to the Middle Ypresian .
Archibald and colleagues originally classified Avitomyrmex as incertae sedis ( Latin for " of uncertain placement " ) within the ant subfamily Myrmeciinae , as the specimens are unable to be properly identified . In 2008 , however , Cesare Baroni Urbani of the University of Basel , Switzerland , noted that no specimen in this genus allows a proper examination of the apomorphy ( key diagnostic traits ) of the subfamilial or familial characters . While Baroni Urbani excludes Avitomyrmex from Myrmeciinae and classifies it as incertae sedis in Hymenoptera , the morphological characters and wings show the specimens are undoubtedly a hymenopteran insect . A 2012 report by Russian palaeoentomologist Gennady M. Dlussky of the Moscow State University describing new myrmecines accepted the classification of Archibald and colleagues without mentioning the comments of Baroni Urbani .
The following cladograms generated by Archibald and colleagues show two possible phylogenetic positions of Avitomyrmex among some ants of the subfamily Myrmeciinae ; the cladogram on the right included three additional extinct genera compared to that on the left . It is suggested that Avitomyrmex may be closely related to other extinct Myrmeciinae ants such as Macabeemyrma and Ypresiomyrma , as well as the extant Nothomyrmecia macrops .
= = Description = =
There are several characters which separate Avitomyrmex from other ant genera . The most notable feature is the distinctly slender nature of the queens and workers morphology . This is shown clearly in the shape of the petiole connecting the thorax and the abdomen . While similar to the modern myrmeciine genus Nothomyrmecia of Southern Australia , the two genera are distinguishable by the structure of the petiole , with Avitomyrmex lacking the peduncle seen in Nothomyrmecia . The eyes are large and well developed , the mandibles are subtriangular but poorly preserved , and a sting is present on examined A. systenus fossils . As for A. elongatus and A. mastax , it is unknown if the two ants have a sting , due to either poor preservation or the sting has not been preserved at all .
= = = A. elongatus = = =
A. elongatus was described from a single side of a compression fossil found from the Middle Ypresian McAbee Fossil Beds , Kamloops Group , near Cache Creek , British Columbia . The incomplete specimen of a queen , numbered 2003.2.8CDM032 , is currently preserved in the paleontology collections housed at the Courtenay and District Museum , Courtenay , British Columbia . Archibald , Cover , and Moreau coined the specific epithet from the Latin " elongatus " meaning " prolonged " in reference to the elongated morphology of the type specimen . The species is discernible from the other two species of Avitomyrmex by its notably larger size , the preserved portion of the ant being over 20 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 8 inches ) . The forewings are almost as large as the specimen , measuring around 18 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 7 inches ) while the hindwings are too poorly preserved to be studied . The holotype is preserved with a partly disarticulated gaster and is missing her head .
= = = A. mastax = = =
The second species described from the McAbee Fossil Beds is A. mastax which , unlike A. elongatus , is known from two specimens . The holotype and paratype are both included in the Thompson Rivers University , Kamloops collections as UCCIPRL @-@ 18 F @-@ 850 and UCCIPRL @-@ 18 F @-@ 929 respectively . The holotype specimen is a partial queen which is incomplete , with one forewing and the head fairly preserved , and the other isolated body portions indistinct . The paratype is a mostly complete queen missing parts of her gaster , legs and hind wings . Overall the species is estimated to have been 15 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 6 inches ) long and has a forewing length of 13 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 5 inches ) . A. mastax is distinguishable from the other species in Avitomyrmex by its smaller mandible size , being less than half the length of the head with eight teeth , and additionally the shape of the head capsule . The specimen also has large compound eyes . The specific epithet mastax is from the Greek " mastax " meaning " jaw " or " mandible " , a reference to the small size of the mandibles compared to the other species of Avitomyrmex .
= = = A. systenus = = =
Of the three described species of Avitomyrmex found at the McAbee Fossil Beds , only A. systenus is known from worker caste specimens . The holotype is currently deposited in the Courtenay and District Museum paleontology collections as 2003 @.@ 2 @.@ 11 CDM 035 while the paratype , UCCIPR L @-@ 18 F @-@ 989 , and an additional hypotype worker , UCCIPR L @-@ 18 F @-@ 825 , which is tentatively assigned to the species are both deposited in Thompson Rivers University collections . Based on the mostly complete workers , mature specimens are estimated to have been 15 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 6 inches ) . Due to the size of adult workers they cannot be attributed to A. elongatus while the overall petiole , head capsule and mandible structure distinguish it from A. mastax . The eyes are large and one @-@ third the length of the head , and the legs are indistinctly preserved but long . The pronotum is almost flat , and the gaster is narrow . The shape of the head was the basis for Archibald , Cover and Moreau choosing the specific epithet systenus , which is from the Greek word systenos meaning " tapering to a point " .
= = Ecology = =
Archibald and colleagues suggested that the life habits of Avitomyrmex species may have been similar to that of extant Myrmeciinae ants . These ants may have nested in the soil or in trees , possibly being an arboreal nesting genus . This may be the case as one Myrmecia species is known to inhabit trees exclusively . Workers most likely preyed on arthropods , killing them with their sting and fed on nectar ; workers would have been found foraging onto trees or low vegetation without leaving any pheromone trails to food sources or recruit nestmates , as they were solitary foragers . Avitomyrmex ants most likely used their large eyes to locate prey and for navigational purposes .
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= Hurricane Nora ( 2003 ) =
Hurricane Nora was the final of five tropical cyclones to make landfall in the 2003 Pacific hurricane season . The fourteenth named storm and fifth hurricane of the season , Nora developed on October 1 from a tropical wave . It slowly intensified as it moved northwestward , intensifying into a hurricane on October 4 . That day , Nora rapidly intensified to its peak of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , but the larger Hurricane Olaf to its east prevented further strengthening . An approaching trough turned the rapidly weakening system to the east toward Mexico . By October 7 , it was downgraded to a tropical depression . Although it no longer met the criteria for being a tropical cyclone , the National Hurricane Center continued issuing advisories due to the cyclone 's proximity with land . Nora unexpectedly redeveloped an area of thunderstorms and moved ashore near Mazatlán , Sinaloa on October 9 before dissipating . The depression dropped locally heavy rainfall in western Mexico , but there were no reports of damage . Later , the remnants combined with Olaf and an upper @-@ level low to produce flooding and a tornado in central Texas .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Nora were from a tropical wave that exited the west coast of Africa on September 13 . It moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea without developing . The wave axis crossed Central America on September 25 , with its convection tracking westward along the southern Mexican coastline . On September 29 , the system became better organized when it reached a position about 100 mi ( 160 km ) south of Acapulco . Although upper @-@ level wind shear was only marginally favorable , the National Hurricane Center first noted the potential for tropical cyclogenesis on September 30 over the subsequent few days . This verified on October 1 after the thunderstorms organized enough for the system to be classified as Tropical Depression Fourteen @-@ E. At the time , it was located about 600 mi ( 975 km ) south of the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula .
Upon developing , the depression had a well @-@ defined low @-@ level circulation , and with a ridge to the north , it moved south of due west . Conditions favored further development , including low wind shear and warm water temperatures . The convection gradually organized , and the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Nora early on October 2 . Its motion briefly became nearly stationary as Nora rounded the furthest extent of the ridge , although a steady motion to the northwest began on October 3 . That day , an eye feature developed in the center of the deep convection , and Nora attained hurricane status early on October 4 . Steady intensification continued to winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) by later that day , and favorable conditions were expected to allow the hurricane to reach major hurricane status , or winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . However , Nora did not intensify further , due to unfavorable increased wind shear from the developing Tropical Storm Olaf to its east .
By October 5 , the eye of Nora was no longer evident on satellite imagery , which indicated the beginning of a weakening trend . However , a Special Sensor Microwave / Imager observed a small eye that was open to the northwest . The convection became ragged , and on October 6 the winds decreased below hurricane @-@ force . Around the same time , a strong approaching mid @-@ level trough caused Nora to slow and turn to the east . Continued wind shear and the presence of dry air stripped the thunderstorms away from the center , and by October 7 all of the deep convection had dissipated . As a result , it was downgraded to a tropical depression , and Nora weakened to the extent that it barely met the criteria for being a tropical cyclone . The NHC maintained advisories due to the circulation 's proximity to western Mexico , as well as the unlikely potential for redeveloping thunderstorms due to its movement over warmer waters . Nora accelerated to the east @-@ northeast and later to the northeast due to the advancing trough . As it approached western Mexico , an area of curved convection unexpectedly developed over the center . Without additional redevelopment , the poorly defined circulation of Nora made landfall near Mazatlán , Sinaloa early on October 9 . It dissipated shortly thereafter over the high terrain of western Mexico .
= = Preparations and impact = =
As Nora was expected to move ashore as a tropical depression , the National Hurricane Center did not issue any tropical storm warnings or watches . However , the Servicio Meteorológico Nacional , or Mexico 's National Weather Service , issued 46 advisories and 16 caution bulletins on the storm . As the storm moved parallel to the Mexican coastline , it produced high waves . Later , when Nora moved ashore in Sinaloa , it dropped locally heavy rainfall . The peak 24 ‑ hour total was 3 @.@ 75 in ( 95 @.@ 3 mm ) in Mazatlán , Sinaloa , recorded on October 8 . The rainfall maximum for the previous day was 3 @.@ 43 in ( 87 @.@ 0 mm ) in Gaviotas , Nayarit . Rainfall from Nora extended was also reported along the Baja California peninsula , and also extended from the coastline northward to near Texas . Its impact was minimal in western Mexico , and there were no reports of damage , deaths , or injuries .
Moisture from the remnants of Nora and Olaf interacted with an upper @-@ level low to produce heavy rainfall across Texas , producing flooding near Waco that forced a family to evacuate in McGregor . The floodwaters closed portions of Interstate 35 , U.S. Route 84 , and Texas State Highway 36 . The system also spawned a tornado in Sugar Land that damaged four buildings , including a school .
Nora was the final Pacific storm of the season to strike Mexico . The others were hurricanes Ignacio and Marty , and tropical storms Carlos and Olaf .
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= Clan MacAulay =
Clan MacAulay , also spelt Macaulay or Macauley is a Scottish clan . The clan was historically centred on the lands of Ardincaple , which are today consumed by the little village of Rhu and burgh of Helensburgh in Argyll and Bute . The MacAulays of Ardincaple were located mainly in the traditional county of Dunbartonshire , which straddles the " Highland Line " between the Scottish Highlands and Lowlands . Clan MacAulay has been considered a " Highland clan " by writers and has been linked by various historians to the original Earls of Lennox and in later times to Clan Gregor . The MacAulays of Ardincaple , like Clan Gregor and several other clans , have traditionally been considered one of the seven clans which make up Siol Alpin . This group of clans were said to have claimed descent from Cináed mac Ailpín , King of the Picts , from whom later kings of Scotland traced their descent . The chiefs of Clan MacAulay were styled Laird of Ardincaple .
Clan MacAulay dates , with certainty , to the 16th century . The clan was engaged in several feuds with neighbouring clans . However , the clan 's fortunes declined in the 17th and 18th centuries . After the decline and fall of Clan MacAulay , which ended with the death of Aulay MacAulay in the mid @-@ 18th century , the clan became dormant . With the revival of interest in Scottish clans in the 20th century a movement was organised to revive Clan MacAulay . The modern organisation strove to unite the three unrelated groups of MacAulays , and all who bore the surname MacAulay , under one clan and chief . In 2002 , the clan appointed a potential chief of Clan MacAulay , but his petition for formal recognition was denied by the Lord Lyon King of Arms . The Lord Lyon ruled that the petitioner did not meet two criteria : anyone without a blood link to a past chief must be Clan Commander for ten years before being considered for recognition , and that the chiefship in question was of the MacAulays of Ardincaple and not of all MacAulays . To date , Clan MacAulay does not have a chief recognised by the Lord Lyon King of Arms , and therefore can be considered an Armigerous clan .
There are many different families of MacAulays from both Ireland and Scotland which are not related and are considered to have no historical connection with Clan MacAulay . These include the Scottish Macaulays from the Western Isles ( the Macaulays of Lewis and possibly the MacAulays of Uist ) . Irish families of MacAulays with no connection with Clan MacAulay are the McAuleys of Co Offaly and Co Westmeath , the McAuleys in Ulster ( Co Fermanagh ) , and the ' MacAuleys of the Glens ' ( Co Antrim ) . The ' MacAuleys of the Glens ' , however , have been thought to have been originally Scottish .
= = Origins = =
Clan MacAulay , or the family of the MacAulays of Ardincaple , is first recorded within the lands of Dunbartonshire , which was controlled in the Middle Ages by the mormaers ( earls ) of Lennox . Within the kindred of the mormaers , forms of the Gaelic given name Amhlaíbh were used by family members ; and today the patronymic form of this name can be Anglicised as MacAulay . One such Amhlaíbh was a younger son of Ailín II , Earl of Lennox . This Amhlaíbh was the subject of a lay attributed to the poet Muireadhach Albanach Ó Dálaigh in which Muireadhach 's Lennox property was named Ard nan Each . The Gaelic àrd means " high " ; and each means " horse " . Amhlaíbh and his descendants were the lords of Faslane and an extensive tract of land along the Gare Loch . The seat of Clan MacAulay was located at Ardincaple , which is situated on the shores of the Gare Loch in what is now the village of Rhu and town of Helensburgh . The place @-@ name Ardincaple has been stated to be derived the Gaelic form of " cape of the horses " and " height of the horses " . According to William Charles Maughan writing at the end of the 19th century , the Ardincaple estate had two main residences , one at Ardincaple , the other to the north at Faslane . Maughan stated that the site of the castle of Faslane could be distinguished , at the time of his writing , " by a small mound near the murmuring burn which flows into the bay " . Geoffrey Stell 's census of mottes in Scotland lists only four in Dunbartonshire ; one of which is Faslane ( grid reference NS249901 ) , another listed as a " possible " is at Shandon ( grid reference NS257878 ) ; Shandon being located between site of Faslane and the town of Helensburgh . Maughan wrote that at Faslane there stood an oak tree at place called in Scottish Gaelic Cnoch @-@ na @-@ Cullah ( English : " knoll of the cock " ) . According to legend , when a cock crowed beneath the branches of the old oak upon the knoll , a member of Clan MacAulay was about to die .
The actual ancestry of Clan MacAulay is uncertain . The recorded chiefs of the clan were the lairds of Ardincaple and styled with the territorial designation : of Ardincaple . The early 18th century Scottish heraldist Alexander Nisbet claimed the clan descended from Morice de Arncappel who was listed in the Ragman Rolls as swearing homage to Edward I in 1296 . According to Nisbet , " Maurice de Arncaple is the ancestor of the Lairds of Ardincaple in Dumbartonshire , who were designed Ardincaples of that Ilk , till King James V. ' s time , that Alexander , then the head of the family , took a fancy and called himself Alexander Macaulay of Ardincaple , from a predecessor of his own of the name of Aulay , to humour a patronymical designation , as being more agreeable to the head of a clan than the designation of Ardincaple of that Ilk " . Later the 18th century antiquary ( and chief of Clan MacFarlane ) Walter MacFarlane stated that the MacAulays of Ardincaple derived their name from an Aulay MacAulay of that Ilk , who lived during the reign of James III ( reigned 1440 – 1488 ) .
According to George Fraser Black , the territorial designation Ardincaple did not become an ordinary surname until the 15th century . Several men with the surname Ardincaple or styled of Ardincaple are recorded in the Mediaeval Scottish records . Johannes de Ardenagappill was a charter witness in Lennox in about 1364 . Arthur de Ardincapel witnessed a charter by Donnchadh , Earl of Lennox in about 1390 . In 1489 , a remission was granted to Robert Arnegapill for his part in the holding of Dumbarton Castle against the king of Scots . Later in 1513 , Aulay Arngapill of that Ilk is mentioned in records . Later in 1529 , an escheat of goods of Awlane Ardincapill of that Ilk is recorded . According to the 19th @-@ century historian Joseph Irving , an early laird of Ardincaple was Alexander de Ardincaple , who in 1473 , served on the inquest of the Earl of Menteith . Another laird , Aulay de Ardincaple , was invested on a precept from John Stewart , 3rd Earl of Lennox , in the lands of Faslane adjoining Ardincaple in 1518 . Aulay and his wife , Katherine Cunningham , had sasine of the lands of Ardincaple in 1525 . Several historians have stated that the first Laird of Ardincaple to take the surname MacAulay was Alexander de Ardincaple , son of this Aulay de Ardincaple . Alexander lived during the reign of James V ( reigned 1513 – 1542 ) . There is record in 1536 of an Awla McAwla of Ardencapill ; another Awla McAwla was clerk of the watch of Queen Mary 's guard in 1566 .
= = History = =
During the 15th and 15th centuries in west Dumbartonshire , the clans MacFarlane , MacAulay , and Colquhoun raided and plundered each other 's lands and combined to sweep the lowlands of its flocks and herds . Other clans — among them the MacGregors , Campbells , Camerons and Buchanans — invaded the district later . In July 1567 , after Mary , Queen of Scots , was forced to abdicate the Scottish throne in favour of her infant son , James , Walter MacAulay of Ardincaple was one of the signators of the bond to protect the young prince . " The Laird of M 'Cawla of Ardincaple " appears in the General Band of 1587 as a principal vassal of the Duke of Lennox . In 1594 , the " M 'Cawlis " appear in the Roll of Broken Clans .
= = = Feud with clans Buchanan and Galbraith = = =
During the 16th century members of Clan MacAulay were in conflict with members of clans Buchanan and Galbraith . On 1 August 1590 , Walter MacAulay , son of Allan MacAulay of Durling , was killed on the " Highway and street of Dunbarton " in a clash against a contingent of Buchanans , who were led by Thomas Buchanan , Sheriff Depute of Dunbarton . Also wounded in the encounter was Walter 's brother , Duncan MacAulay , who was wounded through the " harn pan " ( brain ) ; John dhu MacGregor , who was wounded behind his shoulder blade so that " his lights and entrails might be seen " ( lungs ) ; James Colquhoun , who was wounded in the " wamb " ( stomach ) ; and others including a MacAulay , Miller , and MacGibbon . When a complaint was registered on 29 September , the defenders failed to appear and were " put to the horn " ( denounced as rebels ) . On 6 October 1590 , Thomas Buchanan of Blairlusk , John Buchanan , his son John Buchanan Burgess of Dunbarton , and others were formally charged in Edinburgh with the murder of Walter MacAulay . The accused were ordered to appear before the Justice at Edinburgh on 21 December 1590 . The case was then deferred to March and again the accused failed to appear . The following May saw the Bond of Manrent between MacAulay of Ardincaple and MacGregor of Glenstrae , in which both chiefs swore to assist each other , their " kin and friends in all their honest actions against whatsoever person or persons the Kings Majesty being only excepted " .
In spring of 1593 , Robert Galbraith , Laird of Culcreuch , purchased a Commission of Justiciary ( or a " Letter of Fire and Sword " used to legally attack and destroy another clan ) to pursue Clan Gregor and " their ressetters and assisters " . The MacAulays and Colquhouns were suspicious of Galbraith 's real intentions and on 3 May 1593 , the chiefs of the two clans complained to the Privy Council that Galbraith of Culcreuch had only purchased the commission under counsel from George Buchanan , and that Galbraith had no intentions of actually harassing the MacGregors . It seemed more likely that the Galbraiths , allied with the Buchanans , would direct their vengeance against the MacAulays and Colquhouns under the guise of hunting and clearing Clan Gregor from the Lennox . To complicate matters , the Laird of Ardincaple had married the Laird of Culcreuch 's widowed mother against his consent and Galbraith had " gevin vp kindnes , and denunceit his euill @-@ will to him with solempne vowis of revenge " ( given up kindness , and denounced his evil will to MacAulay with solemn vows of revenge ) . Due to the influence of the Duke of Lennox , the Letter of Fire and Sword were taken from the Galbraiths and Buchanans . Ardincaple had however been sparing of the entire truth . No mention was made of the bond of manrent between him and the MacGregor chief . According to Ronald Williams , it is unlikely the Privy Council was aware of this bond between . Even so , the Privy Council required securities of Ardincaple not to assist Clan Gregor .
= = = Siol Alpin : MacGregors and MacAulays = = =
Around the end of the 16th century Clan Gregor were in constant disputes and were at times outlawed . In order to strengthen its position the clan proceeded to enter in alliances with clans who were reputed to share a common ancestry . One such alliance was concluded on 6 July 1571 between James Macgregor of that Ilk and Luchlin Mackinnon of Strathardill . Another such alliance was formalised twenty years later while the MacGregors were outlawed , on 27 May 1591 with Clan MacAulay . This formal agreement , known as a Bond of Manrent , was between Aulay MacAulay of Ardincaple and Alasdair MacGregor of Glenstrae . In the bond , Ardincaple acknowledged Glenstrae as his chief , and of being a cadet of the House of MacGregor , and therefore promised to pay the MacGregor chief his calp . The giving of calp , a tribute of cattle or the best eighth of a part of goods to a superior lord or chief , was a significant custom in Gaelic society . The contract between Ardincaple and Glenstrae gave the MacGregors some temporary relief from the Buchanans and Galbraiths . Prior to this contract , Ardincaple does not appear to have been involved with Clan Gregor in any way . According to Irving , even though the Ardincaple was at feud with the Buchanans it is unclear how such an alliance would benefit his own clan . Irving wrote that Ardincaple must have known that any connection with Clan Gregor " would end ( as it actually did ) in a manner most disastrous to all connected with the turbulent Macgregors " .
According to the 19th @-@ century historian William Forbes Skene , the contract is evidence of an ancestral connection between clans Gregor and MacAulay . Within the bond , both Ardincaple and Glenstrae stated that they were offshoots of the same family : " Alexander M 'Gregor of Glenstray on the ane part and Awly M 'Cawley of Ardingapill on the other part understanding ourselfs and our name to be M 'Calppins of auld and to be our just and trew surname " . Skene was of the opinion that the MacAulays did not descend from the Mediaeval earls of Lennox , and further concluded that Clan MacAulay was a member of Siol Alpin – a group of clans which could claim descent from Kenneth MacAlpin ( Cináed mac Ailpín ) whom Scots considered to be their first king . Later historians have shown that such bonds were used by the MacGregors to secure allegiances with weaker clans , and that such a bond was may have been forced upon the MacAulays by the more powerful MacGregors .
Following the Battle of Glen Fruin , between Clan Gregor and Clan Colquhoun in February 1603 , there was much public outcry against the rebellious MacGregors . By an Act of the Privy Council , on 3 April 1603 , it was made an offence to bear the name MacGregor , or to give and shelter to a MacGregor . The Earl of Argyll , who was responsible to the Privy Council for the actions of the MacGregors , was entrusted to bring the force of the law against this lawless clan . Being deeply suspicious of Ardincaple 's dealings with Glenstrae , one of Argyll 's first moves was to bring acts against Ardincaple . On 17 March 1603 , Aulay MacAulay of Ardincaple and his sureties were ordered to appear and answer for aiding , supplying , and intercommuning with Alasdair MacGregor of Glenstrae and other MacGregors . He was also to answer for not " rising ye fray " and pursuing the outlawed clan Gregor in the Lennox . Ardincaple was accused of bringing the MacGregor " thevis and rebells " to the Colquhoun lands of Luss and for their part in stealing from the Colquhouns of Luss . Again the influence of the Duke of Lennox saved Ardincaple and his clan from the same fate as Glenstrae and his . On 7 April 1603 , James VI wrote from Berwick to the Justice General and his deputies , declaring Ardincaple to be innocent of the alleged crimes and that he was to accompany the king to England with the Duke of Lennox . By the time the King 's letter was received , Ardincaple had already left the Lennox district as part of the Duke of Lennox 's train , which accompanied James VI on his way to England to be declared King James I of England . The outlawed Glenstrae was finally apprehended by Argyll on 18 January 1604 after almost a year in hiding. and brought to Edinburgh to stand trial . The illiterate Glenstrae consented to give a preliminary statement which was titled a ' confession ' and convicted him out of his own mouth . Within his ' confession ' , Glenstrae accused Argyll of trying to persuade him to kill the chief of the MacAulays : " I Confess , before God , that he did all his craftie diligence to intyse me to slay and destroy the Laird Ardinkaippill , Mckallay , for ony ganes kyndness or freindschip that he mycht do or gif me . The quhilk I did refuis , in respect of my faithfull promeis maid to Mckallay of befor " .
= = = Argyll 's feud with Ardincaple = = =
Archibald Campbell , 7th Earl of Argyll pursued a violent feud with Aulay MacAulay of Ardincaple during the late 16th and early 17th century . Argyll 's lieutenants in the area were Duncan Campbell , Captain of Carrick and Neil Campbell of Lochgoilhead , who led raids into Ardincaple 's lands attempting to slay the MacAulay chief . The Campbells of Carrick were seated at Carrick Castle on the shores of Loch Goil ( about 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) northwest of Ardincaple ) . In 1598 , Duncan Campbell the Captain of Carrick , registered a bond of 300 merks for each of his men in Rosneath to keep from harming Ardincaple . At the same time , Robert Sempill of Foulwood registered a bond of 2 @,@ 000 merks for Campbell of Carrick to not harm Ardincaple and his followers . The following year , Lennox legally evicted Donald Campbell of Drongie and several of his followers from the lands of Mamoir , Mambeg , and Forlancarry along the banks of the Gare Loch . The Campbells of Drongie were close supporters of the Campbells of Carrick , and in retaliation a combined force of Campbells of Carrick and Drongie assembled at Rosneath ( on opposite shore of the Gare Loch from Ardincaple ) and laid waste to the duke 's new acquisitions . When the case was presented to the Privy Council on 17 May 1600 , both Campbell of Carrick and Campbell of Drongie were denounced as rebels .
On 25 November 1600 , evidence was brought forth to the Privy Council of an attempt on Ardincaple 's life on 24 September 1600 . The evidence pointed to the Captain of Carrick 's men coming at night to Ardincaple and attacking followers of the laird and killing one , Malcolm Galbraith . A second attempt Ardincaple 's life was carried out at night as he was staying at Nether Greenock . Ardincaple , Patrick Dennestoun ( one of Ardincaple 's servants ) , and Archibald Connel were all shot in the encounter . Again the Privy Council denounced the Captain of Carrick and his men as rebels . At the end of November 1600 , the Captain of Carrick and 100 followers invaded the lands of Ardincaple armed with " hagbuts , pistolets , bows , darlochs and habershons " . The force hid in the woods of Ardincaple for one night , taking several prisoners before fleeing . In the morning , a rider making towards the house of Ardincaple was presumed to be Ardincaple himself and nearly killed , before he was identified as a Campbell and servitor to the Earl of Argyll . Carrick 's force , for fear of being pursed from men of the district , left the area after destroying houses , hamstringing animals , and making off with livestock belonging to other tenants of the duke . In the process the Carrick men " spuilyeit the houssis of John Dow McAula in Garelocheid and Patrik McCaula in Aldonit " . For their actions , the participating Campbells were again denounced as rebels .
As stated before , Alasdair MacGregor of Glenstrae claimed in his confession that Argyll had attempted to convince him to slay Ardincaple . A record in The Treasurer 's Books , dated November 1602 , record one such instance : " Item , to Patrik M 'Omeis , messinger , passand of Edinburghe , with Lettres to charge Ard Earle of Argyle to compeir personallie befoir the Counsall , the xvj day of December nixt , to ansuer to sic things as salbe inquirit at him , tuiching his lying at await for the Laird of Ardincapill , vpone set purpois to have slain him , xvj li " .
= = = After 1600 = = =
After the episode at Glen Fruin between clans Gregor and Colquhoun in 1603 , western Dumbartonshire slowly became more " settled " or peaceful . The MacGregors ceased to exist as a clan and the resident clans of MacAulay , MacFarlane , and Buchanan became less powerful as their lands slowly passed into the hands of strangers . In 1614 , Angus Og MacDonald of Dunyvaig seized Dunyvaig Castle , which had been held by the Bishop of the Isles . Sir Aulay MacAulay of Ardincaple , with twenty of his men , accompanied the Bishop to Islay to demand the surrender of the castle .
On 26 March 1639 , Covenanters captured Dumbarton Castle to prevent it from being used as a Royalist base in the event of an invasion from Ireland . Once secured , the Earl of Argyll placed Walter MacAulay , Laird of Ardincaple , as keeper of the castle with a garrison of forty men . In 1648 , the parish of Row ( modern Rhu ) was created at the instigation of Aulay MacAulay , Laird of Ardincaple , who wanted to separate from the parish of Rosneath on the opposite side of the Gare Loch . He built the first parish kirk a year later and provided land for the kirk , minster 's manse , and garden .
The Glorious Revolution of 1688 saw the overthrow of the Roman Catholic , James II of England , in favour of the Protestant , William III of Orange . Though most of the English accepted William , Jacobites within Ireland and Scotland opposed him in favour of the deposed James . In 1689 , the Earl of Argyll 's offer to raise a regiment of 600 men in aid of William was accepted . Argyll 's regiment was to consist of 10 companies of about 60 men each . That same year , Archibald MacAulay of Ardincaple raised a company of fencibles in aid of William . William and his wife Mary were crowned King and Queen of Scotland as William II and Mary II on 5 November 1689 . In 1690 , " Ardencaple 's Company " within the Earl of Argyll 's Regiment was commanded by Captain Archibald MacAulay of Ardencaple , Lieutenant John Lindsay , and Ensign Robert MacAulay " Anshent " ( ancient ) . Later in 1694 , Archibald 's younger brother , Robert , is listed as Captain Robert MacAulay in the Earl of Argyll 's Regiment of Foot . Even after the revolution had succeeded there was still a fear of invasion in Dumbartonshire by adherents to the expelled Jacobite king . Local parishes were required to muster their men . An example of the size of one particular muster around 1693 is as follows : in Kilmaronock , fifty men and ten guns ; in Gleneagles , seventy @-@ four men and three @-@ score swords ; in Luss , seventy men " with arms conforme " ; in Cardross , one hundred men and thirty stand of arms ; and in Rhu , there were eighty @-@ men and fifty @-@ six firelocks . At first the individual parishes selected their own officers , but at general musters they were divided into two companies — one containing those above Leven , and those living below in the other . At a shire mustering at Kilpatrick in 1696 , MacAulay of Ardincaple was selected as Captain of the company above Leven , with Noble of Ferme , Lieutenant , and Dugald MacFarlane of Tullibintall , Ensign .
At the beginning of the 18th century , a group of MacAulays migrated to the former counties of Caithness and Sutherland . William Buchanan of Auchmar 's 18th @-@ century account of the surname MacAulay stated that a group of MacAulays in Caithness claimed to descend from the MacAulays of Ardincaple .
= = = = In Ireland = = = =
During the early 17th century , Clan MacAulay was involved in the Plantation of Ulster , as James VI began colonising regions of Ireland with English and Scottish settlers . Several MacAulays were transplanted from Scotland to Ulster during this era . One such region was the precinct of Portlough ( within the barony of Raphoe , in Co Donegal ) which comprised 12 @,@ 000 acres ( 49 km2 ; 19 sq mi ) . In 1610 , Ludovic Stewart , 2nd Duke of Lennox was allotted 3 @,@ 000 acres ( 12 km2 ; 4 @.@ 7 sq mi ) of land within the precinct . There were eight other allotments ; one of which was of 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 km2 ; 1 @.@ 6 sq mi ) to Alexander MacAulay of Durling , gentleman . The king appointed various commissioners to visit the landlords to whom the allotments were made in order to take account of their progress . In July 1611 , on such inspection was made in the precinct of Portlough . The report stated of the duke 's allotment : " Duke of Lennox , chief undertaker of 2000 acres . Sir Aulant Aula , Knight , his agent , resident , with some British families ; no preparation for building , save some timber trees felled and squared " . For the allotment to Alexander MacAulay of Durling , the report stated : " Alexander McAula of Durlinge ; 1000 acres ; appeared not , nothing done " . In 1619 , Nicholas Pynnar surveyed the undertakers and recorded of the Duke of Lennox 's portion : " 3000 acres , Duke of Lennox : a very strong castle , built of lime and stone , but no freeholders . The well inhabited and full of people " . For the MacAulay portion the report stated : " 1000 acres , Alexander McAula : stone house and bawn ; 2 freeholders , 9 lessees ; able to produce 30 men with arms " . Later , Alexander MacAulay of Durling , also known as ' Alexander MacAulay , alias Stewart ' , sold his allotment to Alexander Stewart . According to Hill , Alexander Stewart was the ancestor of the Stewart Marquesses of Londonderry . Alexander MacAulay of Durling also succeeded Sir Aulay Macaulay as Laird of Ardincaple and chief of Clan MacAulay .
A branch of the MacAulays of Ardincaple settled in Co Antrim , with the leading member of the family owning the Glenarm estate for some time until it passed to the MacDougalls in 1758 .
= = = Fall of the clan and loss of Ardincaple = = =
The power of Clan MacAulay and the fortune of the Lairds of Ardincaple diminished from the 17th century into the 18th century . Successive lairds were forced to divide and sell , piece by piece , the lands once governed by the clan . As the laird 's resources dried up , their lands fell into decay , and the once expansive lands of Ardincaple shrank to only a few farms .
The last Macaulays seem to have been a perfect type of the true old Celtic school of men who thought much of their Chiefery , of their old connection with Clan Gregor , and of the retainers whom they could send out to fight or reive in alliance with them , but who thought nothing of the acres under their own power which could be made to bear the fruits of industry and of peace .
By the early 1750s , even the roof of Ardincaple Castle , seat of the clan chief , had fallen in . The overall condition of the castle had deteriorated to such an extent that the next laird was forced to abandon it and live in nearby Laggarie . The bulk of the Ardincaple estate ultimately passed into the hands of John Campbell , 4th Duke of Argyll . The last chief of the MacAulays , Aulay MacAulay , died at High Laggarie ( now encompassed by the tiny village of Rhu ) landless and without an heir to succeed as chief in about 1767 . In 1794 , Lord Frederick Campbell ( brother of John , 5th Duke of Argyll ) supervised the draining of the marsh and bog @-@ ridden former lands of the Lairds of Ardincaple . The poor state of the lands of Ardincaple before that year is illustrated in the statement by George Campbell , 8th Duke of Argyll : that much of the land could not bear the weight of a cow , and local men of the time remembered when horses would be lost in the bogholes prevalent in the area .
= = = Modern era : clan associations = = =
Since the death of the last chief , in the 18th century , the MacAulays of Ardincaple have ceased to exist as a clan . There is currently no clan chief , and no member of the clan has been granted the undifferenced arms of the MacAulays of Ardincaple . However , with a revival of Scottish interest in the 20th century several MacAulays unsuccessfully attempted to prove a genealogical link to the last chief , and a movement was organised to revive the clan . In 1997 Iain McMillian MacAulay was made interim leader , or clan commander . Later in 1998 , during its first assembly , the organisation 's objectives were determined : to unite three unrelated groups of MacAulays under one chief – Clan MacAulay ( the MacAulays of Ardincaple ) , the Macaulays of Lewis , and the Macaulays of Wester Ross ; this new chief would then , in effect , be chief of all MacAulays . In 1999 MacAulay intended to petition the Lord Lyon King of Arms to be recognised as chief but was challenged by Iain Davidson MacAulay , originally a native of Helensburgh who claimed a direct bloodline to the chiefs of the clan .
In 2001 , an ad hoc derbhfine took place at Tulloch Castle , Dingwall in Easter Ross with the intention of nominating a person to petition Lyon Court to become a recognised clan chief . Prior to the derbhfine Ross Herald wrote to six armigers and ten landowners supplied by the Clan MacAulay Association , who would be involved in the voting . The derbhfine , which was supervised by Ross Herald , took place in front of 50 clan members , and the voting was carried out by only 11 members . The derbhfine ruled that Iain McMillan MacAulay , then an 80 @-@ year @-@ old armiger , should lead the clan . After being nominated as leader , MacAulay then petitioned the Lord Lyon King of Arms for the right to receive the undifferenced arms of the last chief of Clan MacAulay , legally making him clan chief . Later in 2002 , the Robin Blair , the Lord Lyon King of Arms rejected MacAulay 's petition . He ruled that a petitioner without a genealogical link to a past chief would have to rule as Commander of the Clan for ten years before being considered for recognition as a chief . Following this , The Scotsman reported that the reasoning behind his ruling was that recognising MacAulay as chief would discourage any further research into finding a blood link to the chiefs of the clan . And that such research was unnecessary . The Lord Lyon also stated , that with no historical evidence linking the Macaulays of Lewis and Clan MacAulay ( the MacAulays of Ardincaple ) , " there does not seem to be any firm basis for considering the present Petition other than in the context of the Ardincaple MacAulays alone . " Later in 2002 , clan members then decided on a democratic process to select a clan chief . It was decided that a potential chief would have to be elected by all clan members for a duration of five years at a time , before being re @-@ elected again . At the time it was also debated over whether a potential chief should have to be a resident in Scotland , however a decision on this could not be agreed upon . Following Iain McMillan MacAulay 's death in 2003 his son , Diarmid Iain MacAulay , was elected by members as chief .
According to the website of the " Clan MacAulay Association in Scotland " , there was a " clan gathering " held in Edinburgh during the Homecoming Scotland 2009 festivities , which took place from 25 – 26 July 2009 . On 7 August 2011 , the Clan MacAulay Association elected Hector MacAulay as " Chief of the Clan MacAulay Association " , at the association 's AGM . A " Clan MacAulay International Gathering " took place in August 2011 , in Carnlough , County Antrim , Northern Ireland . The event was the first such gathering outwith Scotland .
The Clan Gathering in Crieff was held in 2013 . The next International Clan Gathering of the Clan MacAulay will be in Oban in August 2015 . It expected that there will be around a hundred MacAulays descending in Oban for the weekend of 14 and 15 August .
= = Unrelated Irish MacAuleys = =
Today some of the McAuleys ( and other various spellings of the name ) living in Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland descend from Clan MacAulay ( of Ardincaple ) . However , there are several different clans or septs of native Irish which bear exactly the same and similar names that are unrelated and have no connection at all with Clan MacAulay ( of Ardincaple ) .
The Mac Amhalghaidh sept originating from lands in Co Offaly and Co Westmeath derive its name from the Old Irish name Amhalgaidh ( just as Clan MacAulay ) . The sept is considered to be of native Irish origin , descending from Niall of the Nine Hostages . The chiefs of the sept are recorded in the Irish annals as ' chiefs of Calry ' ; their lands were known in Elizabethan times as " MacGawleys Country " .
The Mac Amhlaoibh sept from Co Fermanagh in Ulster derive its name from Amhlaoibh , a Gaelic personal name derived from the Old Norse names Áleifr and Óláfr. he sept traces its descent from Amlaíb ( d.1306 ) , younger son of the first Maguire king of Fermanagh — Donn Óc ( c.1286 – 1302 ) . The family was one of the junior septs that dispossessed other non Maguire families in the area of the Maguire lordship . In consequence of their military actions the family left its mark on the area in the name of the barony of Clanawley in Co Fermanagh .
The Mac Amhlaoibh sept of Co Cork are a branch of the MacCarthys . Today many members of the sept bear names like MacAuliffe which is usually found within Co Cork and hardly ever found outside of Munster . The chiefs of the sept resided at Castle MacAuliffe which was located near Newmarket , Co Cork . The territory of the sept was described in 1612 as " Clan Auliffe " .
The ' MacAuleys of the Glens ' are thought to be of Scottish descent . Located in the Glens of Antrim , the MacAuleys were allies of the MacDonnells in the 16th century . The MacDonnells held parts of Clannaboy while the MacAuleys , MacGills , and MacAllisters occupied the northeast coast of Antrim . On the plain of Bun @-@ na @-@ mairgie , near Ballycastle , the MacDonnells ( led by Sorley Boy MacDonnell ) fought the MacQuillans . Before the battle , the MacQuillans appealed to the O 'Neills of Lower Claneboy and to the MacAuleys and MacPhoils of the middle Glens of Antrim for assistance against the MacDonnells . The two small clans ( the MacAuleys and MacPhoils ) were two days late to the battle ; when they arrived , they were only spectators to a battle which was near its climax . Sorley Boy MacDonnell then rode out to the chief of the MacAuleys and persuaded him to join his ranks , as did the MacPhoils . Their combined force then drove the MacQuillans to the banks of the river Aura , where they were finally defeated and the chief of the MacQuillans slain in what is known as the Battle of Aura . Festivities lasted for several days after the battle and a cairn , called " Coslin Sorley Boy " , was raised on the mountain Trostan .
= = Clan profile = =
Etymology of the name : The clan has been thought by some people to descend from the family of the earls of Lennox . Within the family , the personal name Amhlaibh was given to several individuals . In the mid 20th century , George Fraser Black stated that the clan 's surname MacAulay ( and its numerous variations ) originated from the Gaelic patronymic name Mac Amhalghaidh ( meaning " son of Amalghaidh / Amhalghadh " ) . The Old Gaelic personal name Amalghaidh / Amhalghadh , pronounced almost like " Aulay " or " Owley " , is of uncertain meaning .
Clan member 's crest badge : In most cases , crest badges are made up of a clan chief 's heraldic crest and heraldic motto . However , in the case of Clan MacAulay , no coat of arms of a chief of the clan has ever been matriculated by the Lord Lyon King of Arms , the head of the heraldic authority in Scotland . The crest badge appropriate for a clan member contains the crest : a boot couped at the ankle and theron a spur proper ; and the motto : dulce periculum ( translation from Latin : " danger is sweet " ) . In 1608 , Sir Aulay MacAulay of Ardincaple was a Shire Commissioner for Dumbartonshire ( prior to the Acts of Union 1707 , a Shire Commissioner was the equivalent of the English office of Member of Parliament ) . Sir Aulay was one of two commissioners who were tasked with regulating the price of boots and shoes .
Clan badge : There have been two clan badges ( or plant badges ) attributed to Clan MacAulay : cranberry and scots pine . Both clans MacAulay and MacFarlane have been attributed with a badge of cranberry . Clan MacFarlane , also a west @-@ Dumbartonshire clan , claims a descent from Alwyn II , Earl of Lennox . The badge of scots pine has been attributed to all seven clans of Siol Alpin : Clan Grant , Clan Gregor , Clan MacAulay , Clan Macfie , Clan Mackinnon , Clan Macnab , and Clan MacQuarrie .
= = = Heraldry = = =
No coat of arms of a chief of the clan has ever been matriculated by the Lord Lyon King of Arms . Even so , in the 19th century , several heraldists listed different arms for the MacAulays of Ardincaple . The 19th century Ulster King of Arms , Sir John Bernard Burke listed the ( undated ) arms of " Macaulay ( Ardincaple , co . Argyll ) " , blazoned : gules two arrows in saltire argent surmounted of a fess chequy of the second and first between three buckles Or . The 19th century heraldist Robert Riddle Stodart published an undated facsimile of a different coat of arms of " Mc : aula of Arncapelle " ( which is also pictured above within the article ) . The seal of Aulay Macaulay of Ardincaple , in 1593 bore : a fess chequy and in chief a buckle . An early grant of arms , to a member of the clan and descendant of the MacAulays of Ardincaple , was that of George M 'Alla , merchant of Edinburgh . His coat of arms was registered by Lyon Court in 1672 and is blazoned : gules , two arrows in saltire argent surmounted of a fess checquy of the second and first between three buckles or , a bordure indented of the last ; crest : a boot couped at the ankle thereon a spur all proper ; motto : dulce periculum . The celebrated 19th @-@ century historian Thomas Babington Macaulay , 1st Baron Macaulay was granted ( English ) arms that alluded to those of the MacAulays of Ardincaple . This was despite his having no connection at all with Clan MacAulay ; he was descended from the unrelated Macaulays of Lewis .
MacAulay heraldry
According to Stodart , the fess checquy and buckles , prominent in ' MacAulay heraldry ' , are derived from the arms of the Stewarts . The basic Stewart coat of arms is blazoned : Or , a fess chequy azure and argent . The buckles utilised in ' Stewart heraldry ' are ultimately derived from the canting arms of Alexander Boncle ( d. by 1300 ) , blazoned : gules , three buckles Or . Boncle 's daughter ( who in time became his heiress ) married Sir John Stewart ( d . 1298 ) , younger son of Alexander Stewart , 4th High Steward of Scotland . Together the couple founded the ' Bonkyl ' Stewart branch of the clan , and their descendants tended to utilise the ' Bonkyl ' buckles as their heraldic differencing . One of the couple 's sons , Sir Allan Stewart of Dreghorn ( d . 1333 ) , founded the Stewart of Darnley branch of the clan , which in time became the earls and dukes of Lennox .
Non @-@ MacAulay heraldry
= = = Tartan = = =
There have been several published tartans associated with the surname MacAulay .
= = = Associated families = = =
One of the ' official ' Clan Campbell septs is MacPhedran — a name derived from MacPheaderain , meaning " son of little Peader " . The Gaelic Peadar is a cognate of the English Peter ; and both are forms of the Greek Petros , meaning " stone " , " rock " . William Buchanan of Auchmar 's 18th @-@ century account of the surname MacAulay states that the original member of this sept was a MacAulay . This sept dwelt in the lands of Sonachan , on Loch Awe , in what is largely Clan Campbell territory . The earliest account of the sept is in 1439 , when Domenicus M 'Federan was granted confirmation for the lands of Sonachan by Sir Duncan Campbell of Lochawe . According to David Sellar , the MacArthurs of Darleith descend from the MacAulays of Ardincaple . Darleith is located quite close to the old MacAulay seat at Ardincaple , about 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) .
= = = In popular culture = = =
A fictional " M 'Aulay " clan appeared in Walter Scott 's 1819 novel , A Legend of Montrose , which was set during the James Graham , 5th Earl of Montrose 's Highland campaign against the Covenanters in 1644 . One of the main characters within the novel is Allan M 'Aulay , a member of Montrose 's army , and the younger brother to Angus , the clan 's chief . Within the novel , Allan M 'Aulay feuds with the MacEaghs , who are also known as the " children of the mist " . Historically , the term " children of the mist " referred to the line of MacGregors who were disinherited in the 16th century . The character of Allan M 'Aulay was based upon the historical James Stewart of Ardvorlich , sometimes called the " Mad Major " .
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= The Diamond Smugglers =
The Diamond Smugglers is a non @-@ fiction work by Ian Fleming that was first published in 1957 in the United Kingdom and in 1958 in the United States . The book is based on two weeks of interviews Fleming undertook with John Collard , a member of the International Diamond Security Organisation ( IDSO ) , which was headed by Sir Percy Sillitoe , the ex @-@ chief of MI5 who worked exclusively for the diamond company De Beers .
The IDSO was formed by Sillitoe to combat the smuggling of diamonds from Africa , where , it was estimated , £ 10 million ( £ 217 @,@ 431 @,@ 365 in 2016 pounds ) worth of gems were being smuggled out of South Africa alone every year . The book expands upon articles Fleming wrote for The Sunday Times in 1957 .
Fleming was better known as the author of a series of books about his super @-@ spy creation , James Bond ; The Diamond Smugglers is one of two non @-@ fiction books he wrote . It was broadly well @-@ received , although some reviewers commented on the stories not being new .
= = Synopsis = =
The Diamond Smugglers is the account of Ian Fleming 's meeting with John Collard , a member of the International Diamond Security Organisation ( IDSO ) . The book takes the form of background narrative by Fleming of where the two men met , interspersed with the interview between Fleming and Collard , who is introduced under the pseudonym of " John Blaize " .
Collard relates how he was recruited into the IDSO by Sir Percy Sillitoe , the ex @-@ head of MI5 , under whom Collard had worked . The book goes on to look at the activities of the IDSO from the end of 1954 until the operation was closed down in April 1957 , when its job was complete . Collard explained that the IDSO was set up at the instigation of the Chairman of De Beers , Sir Philip Oppenheimer , after an Interpol report stated that £ 10 million of diamonds were being smuggled out of South Africa each year , as well as additional amounts from Sierra Leone , Portuguese West Africa , the Gold Coast and Tanganyika .
As well as providing a history of the IDSO 's operations , Collard relates a number of illustrative vignettes concerning the diamond smuggling cases he and the organisation dealt with .
= = Background = =
Fleming became interested in diamond smuggling after reading an article in The Sunday Times in 1954 concerning the Sierra Leone diamond industry . Philip Brownrigg , an old friend from Eton and a senior exec of De Beers , arranged for Fleming to visit the London Diamond Club to see diamonds being sorted and polished . In 1955 Brownrigg also introduced Fleming to Sir Percy Sillitoe , former head of MI5 , who was working for De Beers and investigating the illicit diamond trade through the International Diamond Security Organisation . Fleming met Sillitoe and used much of the research as background material for his fictional Bond novel , Diamonds Are Forever .
Fleming retained an interest in the subject and when Sillitoe suggested to the editor of The Sunday Times , Denis Hamilton , that the paper may want to write a story on the International Diamond Security Organisation , Hamilton offered the story to Fleming . Sillitoe also offered his deputy , retired MI5 officer John Collard , as liaison for Fleming to interview . During World War II , Collard had assisted in the planning of Operation Overlord as part of MI11 and had joined MI5 under Sillitoe at the war 's end . Whilst in MI5 he played a major role in the capture and conviction of the atomic spy Klaus Fuchs , before Sillitoe had approached him in 1954 to work for the International Diamond Security Organisation .
Fleming and Collard met in Tangiers on 13 April 1957 ; Fleming considered Collard to be a " reluctant hero , like all Britain 's best secret agents " . The pair spent two weeks discussing the issue of diamond smuggling , with Collard explaining what happened in South Africa and Sierra Leone . Fleming would then dictate an average of 5 @,@ 000 words a day to a secretary .
When the drafts of the books were shown to De Beers they objected to a number of areas and threatened an injunction against Fleming and The Sunday Times , which resulted in much material being removed . The Sunday Times serialised the book over six weeks , starting on 15 September 1957 and finishing on 20 October 1957 .
= = Release and reception = =
The Diamond Smugglers was published in the UK in November 1957 , by Jonathan Cape , was 160 pages long and cost 12 shillings 6d . The book was published in the US on 13 May 1958 , by Macmillan and cost $ 3 @.@ 50 .
= = = Reviews = = =
The book received largely positive reviews . Michael Crampton , writing for The Sunday Times considered it an " exciting and richly fascinating account " and thought Fleming authored a book that " ringing true as fact , is at the same time as highly entertaining as any fiction . " The Times Literary Supplement obtained the services of the Earl of Cardigan to review the book . He noted that " the book is put together with a skill one would expect from Mr. Fleming " , which leads to something that is " very entertaining reading " .
Reviewing for The Observer , Anthony Sampson thought the book had " sparkle " , adding that " it is often difficult to remember that we are not listening to his old hero Mr. James Bond . " Sampson noted that the book included " several yarns which are worthy of the best spy @-@ stories " . The reviewer for The Economist enjoyed the book , but considered that while many of the stories " make good reading ... they are not new " . For The New York Times , John Barkham thought that Fleming 's foray into non @-@ fiction produced " mixed results " . Although he found the subject interesting , the basis in interview resulted in a " choppy book " that was " no more than an interim report " .
= = Attempted film adaptation = =
Shortly after publication , The Rank Group offered £ 13 @,@ 500 ( £ 293 @,@ 532 in 2016 pounds ) for the film rights to the book , which Fleming accepted , telling them he would write a full story outline for an extra £ 1 @,@ 000 . Several contemporary newspaper reports referred to the project as " The Diamond Spy " . British producer George Willoughby subsequently obtained the rights for the book from Rank and tried to make a film with the actor Richard Todd , eventually commissioning a screenplay from Australian writer Jon Cleary , who finished a script in October 1964 that remained faithful in spirit to Fleming 's book while also featuring elements familiar from the James Bond films . Kingsley Amis was also hired as a story consultant ; in a letter to author Theo Richmond on 20 December 1965 Amis wrote he was having ' a horrible time ' of writing an outline for Willoughby . W.H. " Bill " Canaway , co @-@ author of the screenplay for The Ipcress File , was also hired to work on the script . At one point , film director John Boorman was involved . Despite interest from Anglo @-@ Amalgamated Film Distributors and Anglo Embassy Productions in early 1966 , the project was shelved later that year .
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= The Boat Race 1951 =
The 97th Boat Race took place on 24 and 26 March 1951 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . After Oxford sank in the first race held on 24 March , a re @-@ row was ordered by the umpire and took place two days later . It was the first time one of the crews had sunk during the race since the 1925 race . In a race umpired by former Oxford rower Gerald Ellison , Cambridge won the re @-@ row by twelve lengths in a time of 20 minutes 50 seconds , taking the overall record in the event to 53 – 43 in their favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1950 race by a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , with Cambridge leading overall with 52 victories to Oxford 's 43 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Cambridge were coached by W. T. Arthur ( who rowed for the Light Blues in the 1950 race ) , Roy Meldrum ( a coach for Lady Margaret Boat Club ) , James Owen and H. R. N. Rickett ( who rowed three times between 1930 and 1932 ) . Oxford 's coaches were T. A. Brocklebank ( who had rowed for Cambridge three times between 1929 and 1931 and who had also coached the Light Blues in the 1934 race ) , J. L. Garton ( who had rowed for the Dark Blues in the 1938 and 1939 races ) and J. A. MacNabb ( who rowed for Cambridge in the 1924 race ) . The race was umpired for the first time by former Oxford rower and Bishop of Willesden Gerald Ellison who had competed in the 1932 and 1933 races .
The Light Blues were considered to be firm favourites , yet the rowing correspondent for The Times suggested that " the outcome is anything but certain " . The rowing correspondent writing in The Manchester Guardian stated that " if Oxford to @-@ day can make the most of their superiority in weight and good fighting spirit the race is by no means lost to them " .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 13 st 0 @.@ 5 lb ( 82 @.@ 6 kg ) , 9 pounds ( 4 @.@ 1 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Cambridge saw four rowers return with Boat Race experience , including their number six Charles Lloyd and stroke David Jennens . Oxford 's crew contained three rowers who had taken part in the previous year 's race . Five of Cambridge rowers were studying at St John 's College , thus rowed for Lady Margaret Boat Club under the supervision of Meldrum . Three participants in the race were registered as non @-@ British . Oxford 's number two A. J. Smith was Australian while their cox G. Carver was American ; Cambridge 's Lloyd was also Australian .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge . Umpire Ellison started the race at 1 : 45 p.m , with a strong wind blowing against the tide , creating " sizeable waves " . Oxford had already taken onboard a considerable amount of water from their row to the stakeboats and had opted for less physical protection against the inclement conditions than their opponents . Both crews started at a relatively low stroke rate to cater for the conditions , with Cambridge moderately out @-@ rating their opponents . The Light Blues took an early lead and appeared to be coping with the conditions better than Oxford , and were over a length ahead by the time they passed the London Rowing Club boathouse . The Dark Blues shipped more water until they became entirely submerged , and were rescued by spectators on the Oxford launch Niceia . Cambridge continued , and headed for the relative protection of the Surrey shore but were caught by the umpire 's boat and informed that the race was void .
It was the first sinking in the Boat Race since the 1925 race in which Oxford went down . Since the umpire declared a " no row " and because the reason for the sinking was deemed to be " equipment failure before the end of the Fulham Wall " , it was agreed between the umpire , the boat club presidents and the Port of London Authority that a re @-@ row be arranged which would take place on Easter Monday , 26 March 1951 .
After the two @-@ day delay , Oxford once again won the toss and once again elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge . Ellison started the re @-@ row at 2 : 30 p.m , in light rain and a " dead smooth " river . Cambridge made the better start and although Oxford quickly drew level , the Light Blues were clear by the end of Fulham Wall . Poor steering from cox Carver allowed Cambridge to pull further ahead , passing the Mile Post more than two lengths clear , and Harrods Furniture Depository three lengths up . Jennens pushed on and by the time Cambridge passed below Hammersmith Bridge , they were four and a half lengths clear and seven ahead by Chiswick Steps . By Barnes Bridge , the lead was 11 lengths .
Cambridge won by a margin of 12 lengths in a time of 20 minutes 50 seconds , securing their fifth consecutive victory . It was the largest winning margin since the 1900 race and the slowest winning time since the 1947 race . Crowden later noted that while he believed the initially sinking to be more down to " inferior oarsmanship rather than an accident " , he was certain that his crew would have failed to finish the course had they been allowed to continue . The rowing correspondent of The Manchester Guardian suggested that " the 1951 race , with anti @-@ climax following disaster , is best forgotten as quickly as may be . " The victory took the overall record in the event to 53 – 43 in Cambridge 's favour .
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= Bill O 'Reilly ( cricketer ) =
William Joseph " Bill " O 'Reilly ( 20 December 1905 – 6 October 1992 ) , often known as Tiger O 'Reilly , was an Australian cricketer , rated as one of the greatest bowlers in the history of the game . Following his retirement from playing , he became a well @-@ respected cricket writer and broadcaster .
O 'Reilly was one of the best spin bowlers to ever play cricket . He delivered the ball from a two @-@ fingered grip at close to medium pace with great accuracy , and could produce leg breaks , googlies , and top spinners , with no discernible change in his action . A tall man for a spinner ( around 188 cm , 6 ft 2 in ) , he whirled his arms to an unusual extent and had a low point of delivery that meant it was very difficult for the batsman to read the flight of the ball out of his hand . When O 'Reilly died , Sir Donald Bradman said that he was the greatest bowler he had ever faced or watched . In 1935 , Wisden wrote of him : " O 'Reilly was one of the best examples in modern cricket of what could be described as a ' hostile ' bowler . " In 1939 , Wisden reflected on Bill O 'Reilly 's successful 1938 Ashes tour of England : " He is emphatically one of the greatest bowlers of all time . "
As a batsman , O 'Reilly was a competent left @-@ hander , usually batting well down the order . O 'Reilly 's citation as a Wisden Cricketer of the Year in 1935 said : " He had no pretensions to grace of style or any particular merit , but he could hit tremendously hard and was always a menace to tired bowlers . "
As well as his skill , O 'Reilly was also known for his competitiveness , and bowled with the aggression of a paceman . In a short biographical essay on O 'Reilly for the Barclays World of Cricket book , his contemporary , the England cricketer Ian Peebles , wrote that " any scoring @-@ stroke was greeted by a testy demand for the immediate return of the ball rather than a congratulatory word . Full well did he deserve his sobriquet of ' Tiger ' . "
= = Youth and early career = =
Of Irish descent , O 'Reilly 's paternal grandfather Peter emigrated from Co Cavan , Ulster in 1865 . Arriving in Sydney , he had been a policeman for four years in Ireland and continued in this line of work in New South Wales . After a period , he was sent to Deniliquin in the Riverina , where he settled and married another Irish immigrant Bridget O 'Donoghue from Ballinasloe , Co . Galway . O 'Reilly 's father , Ernest , was a schoolteacher and moved around the areas surrounding the Murray River to study and teach . O 'Reilly 's mother Mina was of mixed Irish and Welsh descent , of a third generation family from Adelaide . O 'Reilly was born in the opal mining town of White Cliffs , New South Wales . Ernest had been appointed to open the first school in the town , and had helped to build the school and its furniture himself . Bill was the fourth child in the family , with two elder brothers and a sister .
O 'Reilly 's cricket skills were largely self @-@ taught ; his family moved from town to town whenever his father was posted to a different school , he had little opportunity to attend coaching . He learned to play with his brothers , playing with a " gum @-@ wood bat and a piece of banksia root chiselled down to make a ball . " He learned to bowl because his older brothers dominated the batting rights . His bowling action was far from the classic leg spin bowler 's run @-@ up and delivery , indeed , according to Wisden , " he was asked to make up the numbers in a Sydney junior match and , with a method that at first made everyone giggle , whipped out the opposition " . From a young age , O 'Reilly was a tall and gangly player .
In January 1908 , a month after Bill had turned two , the family moved to Murringo , after Ernest was appointed the headmaster . O 'Reilly said in his autobiography Tiger that the move played no vital part in his cricket education . The area had much more vegetation than the desolate White Cliffs , and an Irish Australian majority . O 'Reilly later described the period as the happiest of his life . There the children played tennis on a court on their property and took up cricket . During this time , O 'Reilly 's mother gave birth to another son and two more daughters . In 1917 , at the age of twelve , the family moved to the town of Wingello . Ernest made the decision because there were no high schools near Murringo and his older children were about to finish primary school . Nevertheless , there was no high school in Wingello where Ernest had been appointed headmaster , so O 'Reilly had to catch a train to Goulburn — 50 km away — to study at the local public secondary school , where his elder brother Tom had been awarded a scholarship . Wingello was a cricket town and " everyone was a cricket crank " according to O 'Reilly . It was here that he developed a passion for the game . O 'Reilly played in the town 's team and also won the regional tennis championships . O 'Reilly bowled with an action reminiscent of the windmill that his family erected in the town . However , school life was difficult , especially in the winter , as the Southern Tablelands were harsh and cold . The O 'Reilly children had to leave Wingello at 7 @.@ 45 am by rail and caught a slow goods train that delivered them home at 7 pm ; these vehicles did not provide protection against the weather , and the boys did not participate in any school sport as the only train home left after the end of classes .
In the early 1920s , O 'Reilly 's eldest brother Jack moved to Sydney . One afternoon , Jack watched spin bowler Arthur Mailey in the North Sydney practice nets and managed to describe the famous bowler 's ' Bosie ' action in a letter to Bill . O 'Reilly claims to have perfected the action of changing the spin from anticlockwise to clockwise without any discernible hand movement within a couple of days . O 'Reilly said that " The bosie became my most prized possession . I practised day in , day out " . Ernest decided that the train journeys and frozen limbs were too much for his son , so he sent Bill to St Patrick 's College , Goulburn as a boarder in 1921 , where he quickly showed his athletic flair by becoming a member of the school 's rugby league , tennis , athletics and cricket teams . He held a state record for the triple jump . At the same time , he also represented the town team . During his time at St Patrick 's , O 'Reilly developed his ruthless and parsimonious attitude towards bowling . After three years at the Irish Catholic school , funded by a scholarship , O 'Reilly completed his Leaving Certificate .
= = Sydney Teachers College = =
O 'Reilly won a scholarship to the Sydney Teachers College at Sydney University , to train as a schoolmaster . However , the financial assistance was only for two years and merely sufficient for O 'Reilly 's rent at Glebe Point . When he was in Sydney , O 'Reilly received an invitation to join an athletics club based on his performances in Goulburn , but was only able to join after the secretary Dick Corish waived his membership fee . Jumping 47 feet , he came second in a triple jump competition behind Nick Winter , who went on to win gold in the event at the 1924 Summer Olympics with a world record of 50 ft . O 'Reilly also placed second in a high jumping competition , clearing six feet . Corish was also a cricket administrator and invited O 'Reilly to play in a David Jones Second XI . Not knowing anything of his new recruit 's abilities , Corish did not allow O 'Reilly to bowl until he explicitly complained of only being allowed to field . O 'Reilly promptly finished off the opposition 's innings by removing the middle and lower order . After an encounter with journalist Johnny Moyes , who wrote glowingly about O 'Reilly 's skills .
While training as a teacher , O 'Reilly joined the Sydney University Regiment , a unit of the Militia Forces ( Army Reserve ) . He did not enjoy his time in the military , and along with most of his peers , regarded the commanding officer as inept . O 'Reilly was a non @-@ conformist who did not enjoy taking orders , and was unimpressed with the firearm drills , because the recruits were armed only with wooden sticks . However , he signed up for a second year to raise money for his education . Fed up with military routines he considered to be pointless , O 'Reilly volunteered to be a kitchen hand .
During a vacation , O 'Reilly caught the train from Sydney back to Wingello , which stopped at Bowral mid @-@ journey . There , Wingello were playing the host town in a cricket match , and O 'Reilly was persuaded to interrupt his journey to help his teammates . This match marked his first meeting with Bowral 's 17 @-@ year @-@ old Don Bradman , later to become his Test captain . O 'Reilly himself later described thus :
How was I to know that I was about to cross swords with the greatest cricketer that ever set foot on a cricket field ? ... by the close of play , 17 @-@ year @-@ old Don Bradman was 234 not out . The match resumed a week later , according to the local custom ... I bowled him first ball with a leg @-@ break which came from the leg stump to hit the off bail . Suddenly cricket was the best game in the whole wide world .
The wicket ended a period of suffering for O 'Reilly at the hands of Bradman , who had hit many fours and sixes from him . Bradman 's counter @-@ attack came after he had been dropped twice from O 'Reilly 's bowling before reaching 30 by Wingello 's captain Selby Jeffery . On the first occasion , the ball hit Jeffery in the chest while he was lighting his pipe ; soon after the skipper failed to see the ball " in a dense cloud of bluish smoke " as he puffed on his tobacco . The match was the start of a long on @-@ field relationship between the pair , who were to regard one another as the best in the world in their fields . O 'Reilly recalled that Bradman " knew what the game was all about " .
O 'Reilly did not enjoy his time at the overcrowded Sydney Teachers College ( STC ) , decrying the lack of practical training and the predominance of pedagogical theory . Regarding it as a waste of time , he happily accepted an offer of work experience from Major Cook @-@ Russell , the head of physical education at STC , to help at Naremburn College instead of attending lectures . This angered Professor Alexander Mackie , the head of STC , whom both Cook @-@ Russell and O 'Reilly regarded as incompetent .
O 'Reilly 's initial posting after abandoning his training was to a government school in Erskineville , a inner @-@ city suburb in Sydney . At the time , the suburb was slum @-@ like and impoverished , with many unruly students . Many of the pupils were barely clothed and tested O 'Reilly 's ability to discipline . He said that he learned more in three months there under Principal Jeremiah Walsh than he would have in ten years at STC . Major Cook @-@ Russell then started a military cadet program in New South Wales schools ; O 'Reilly started such a program at Erskineville and his students won the statewide competition " in a canter " . O 'Reilly 's time at Erskineville also marked the start of work @-@ sport conflicts that hampered his cricket career . He joined North Sydney Cricket Club in 1926 – 27 and was selected at short notice to play in an invitational match under retired Australian captain Monty Noble at the Sydney Cricket Ground . As the education department required a week 's notice for leave requests , O 'Reilly declined , but was then ordered by the Chief Inspector of Schools to play after turning up at school on the morning of the match . Having taken six wickets , the match was then washed out , and O 'Reilly then had his pay deducted , much to his chagrin .
= = First @-@ class career = =
= = = Debut = = =
O 'Reilly was selected for the New South Wales practice squad based on his performance in a single match for North Sydney against Gordon in 1927 – 28 . In this game , he bowled Moyes — a state selector — with a medium paced leg break . At state training , O 'Reilly 's new teammate and Test leg spinner Arthur Mailey advised him to adopt a more conventional grip , but the 19th century Test bowler Charles Turner , known as " Terror Turner " and famous for his unorthodox ways , told O 'Reilly to back his self @-@ styled technique . O 'Reilly decided to listen to Turner .
After taking a total of 3 / 88 in a Second XI match against Victoria , O 'Reilly made his first @-@ class debut in the 1927 – 28 season , playing in three matches and taking seven wickets . In his first match , against New Zealand , O 'Reilly took 2 / 37 and 1 / 53 . He then played in what would be his only Sheffield Shield match for several years , going wicketless against Queensland , before returning figures of 4 / 35 against Tasmania .
= = = Rural teaching post and absence from cricket = = =
In 1928 , O 'Reilly was transferred by the New South Wales Education Department to Griffith , New South Wales , an outback town in the south @-@ west of the state , and he was unable to play first @-@ class cricket . Over the next three years he moved around the country , including postings to Rylstone and Kandos . Teaching duties may have cost O 'Reilly an early entry into Test cricket , as many young players were introduced in the 1928 – 29 home series against England following a large number of retirements of older players . In the meantime , O 'Reilly taught English to primary school children in Griffith , as well as singing — most of the pieces were Irish . At Rylstone he taught book @-@ keeping and business , and he was promoted to the high school at Kandos . During this time he supplemented his income by travelling from town to town , playing in one @-@ off cricket matches at the expense of the host 's club . He worked on his bosie during the period and regularly dismissed outclassed opposition batsmen . O 'Reilly regarded his cricketing isolation as highly beneficial as he regarded coaches to be ill @-@ advised and detrimental to development .
= = = Return to Sydney = = =
In late @-@ 1930 , O 'Reilly was posted to Kogarah Intermediate High School in the southern Sydney suburb of Kogarah , where he taught English , history , geography and business . O 'Reilly resumed playing for North Sydney , confident that with an improved bosie , he was much more potent than before his rural teaching stint . As he only arrived back in Sydney in the second half of the 1930 – 31 season , O 'Reilly was not considered for first @-@ class selection , but he took 29 wickets at 14 @.@ 72 for North Sydney .
In the 1931 – 32 season he emerged as the successor to Mailey in the New South Wales side . Within half a dozen games , he was one of several young players introduced to the Australian cricket team for the Fourth Test in a badly one @-@ sided series against South Africa . However , matters could have been rather different . O 'Reilly had broken into the team for New South Wales ' away matches against South Australia and Victoria while the Test players were on international duty . He totaled only 2 / 81 in the first match and was then informed that he would be dropped after the second fixture . O 'Reilly responded by bowling with a more attacking strategy , taking 5 / 22 and 2 / 112 . At the end of the match , New South Wales ' stand @-@ in captain , the leg spinning all rounder Reginald Bettington , declared O 'Reilly " the greatest bowler in the world " , and although few agreed with this claim , Bettington made himself unavailable for selection so that O 'Reilly would not be dropped . The reprieved leg spinner took a total of 8 / 204 in his next two matches , and while the figures were not overwhelming , they were enough to ensure a Test berth ; with an unassailable 3 – 0 lead , the selectors wanted to blood new players .
O 'Reilly took four wickets on his debut at the Adelaide Oval , two in each innings , supporting the senior leg @-@ spinner , Clarrie Grimmett , who took 14 wickets in the match and with Bradman scoring 299 not out , Australia won the match . O 'Reilly retained his place when the selectors kept the winning side for the final match of the Test series at the MCG . On a pitch made treacherous by rain , he did not bowl at all when South Africa were bowled out for just 36 in the first innings , and came on only towards the end of the second innings , when he took three wickets as the touring side subsided to 45 all out . He ended his first Test series with seven wickets at 24 @.@ 85 . In Sheffield Shield cricket in the 1931 – 32 season , O 'Reilly took 25 wickets at an average of 21 runs per wicket , highlighted by his maiden ten @-@ wicket haul , 5 / 68 and 5 / 59 in a home match against South Australia after the Tests were over as New South Wales took out the title . The following year he was more successful , taking 31 wickets at just 14 runs each . New South Wales won the competition in both seasons .
= = = Test regular = = =
O 'Reilly became a regular member of the Australian Test side in the 1932 – 33 season and he played in all five Tests against England in the infamous Bodyline series . The Australian selectors perceived that O 'Reilly would be their key bowler , and as he had never played against the English , omitted him from the early tour matches so that the tourists would not be able to decode his variations . As a result , he missed the Australian XI match against the Englishmen in Melbourne . In two Shield matches ahead of the Tests , he took 14 wickets , including a total of 9 / 66 in an innings win over Queensland . Although the national selectors had hidden him from the Englishmen , New South Wales declined to do so , and he played for his state a week ahead of the Tests . The hosts were bombarded with short @-@ pitched bowling and heavily beaten by an innings ; O 'Reilly took 4 / 86 as the visitors amassed 530 , dismissing leading English batsman Wally Hammond in the first of many battles between the pair .
The Tests started at the SCG and O 'Reilly was the team 's leading wicket @-@ taker for the series with 27 wickets . O 'Reilly not only took most wickets but he also bowled by some distance the most overs on either side , and he achieved a bowling economy of less than two runs from each of his 383 eight @-@ ball overs . In the first match , he took 3 / 117 from 67 overs as England amassed 530 and took a ten @-@ wicket victory . While his figures suggested that he bowled poorly — none of his wickets were those of batsmen — he beat the batsmen repeatedly . Between Tests , O 'Reilly took 11 wickets in two Shield matches .
In the Second Test in Melbourne , O 'Reilly opened the bowling as Australia opted to use only one pace bowler on a turning pitch . After Australia had made only 228 , O 'Reilly trapped Bob Wyatt leg before wicket ( lbw ) before bowling both the Nawab of Pataudi and Maurice Leyland to leave England at 4 / 98 . He later took two tail @-@ end wickets to end with 5 / 63 and secure Australia a first innings lead . Defending a target of 251 , O 'Reilly bowled the leading English opener Herbert Sutcliffe for 33 with a textbook perfect leg break that pitched on leg stump and clipped the top of the off stump . According to English team manager Plum Warner , Sutcliffe had never been defeated so comprehensively . O 'Reilly also removed Hammond on the way to ending with 5 / 66 and securing a 111 @-@ run win . The ten @-@ wicket haul was O 'Reilly 's first at Test level and the start of his strong career record over the English . However , Australia were not to taste further success . The controversial " fast leg theory " bowling used by England under newly appointed captain Douglas Jardine brought the touring team victories in the last three matches : Australia were handicapped not only by the tactics , but also by a lack of quality fast bowlers ; O 'Reilly also opened the bowling in both the Third and Fourth Tests in Adelaide and Brisbane respectively due to the selection of only one paceman . He was hindered by a decline in the form of Grimmett , who was dropped after the Third Test . O 'Reilly took 2 / 83 and 4 / 79 in Adelaide , collecting the wicket of Sutcliffe for single figures in the first innings of a match overshadowed by near @-@ riots after captain Bill Woodfull was struck in the heart . Australia were crushed by 338 runs , and lost the series in Brisbane . After O 'Reilly had taken 4 / 101 — including Sutcliffe and Jardine — in the first innings to keep Australia 's first innings deficit to 16 , the hosts collapsed to be 175 all out . O 'Reilly took one wicket in the second innings of a six @-@ wicket loss . The final Test in Sydney took a similar course ; O 'Reilly took 4 / 111 in the first innings including Sutcliffe and Jardine again , as the tourists took a 14 @-@ run lead before completing an eight @-@ wicket win after another Australian collapse . O 'Reilly was wicketless in the second innings and bowled 72 overs in total in the match . Reflecting on the performance of O 'Reilly in the series , R Mason said " here we saw the first flexing of that most menacing genius " .
In the 1933 – 34 season , with no Test series in Australia , O 'Reilly finished top of the Sheffield Shield bowling averages , taking 33 wickets at an average of 18 @.@ 30 , but he had an inconsistent run . He started the season with 6 / 58 and 7 / 53 in an innings win over Queensland . After managing only three wickets across two consecutive testimonial matches , O 'Reilly went wicketless against South Australia . He was angered by the subsequent comments in newspapers that he had already passed his zenith , and returned to form against Victoria at the MCG . After claiming 3 / 92 in the first innings , he took 9 / 50 in the second innings . The nine wickets included six Test players , including leading batsmen Woodfull and Bill Ponsford . Given his heavy workload in the previous season , it was decided to keep O 'Reilly fresh for the subsequent tour of England , so he played in only two of the last three matches , with a reduced bowling load , taking eight wickets . During the season , Bradman moved to North Sydney from St George Cricket Club to captain the team , and it was the only summer in which O 'Reilly played alongside Bradman at grade level . The following year , O 'Reilly moved to St George , which was near Kogarah , as they were obliged to play for a team in their area of residence .
O 'Reilly was selected for the tour of England in 1934 , where he and Grimmett were the bowling stars as Australia regained the Ashes . They began by taking 19 of the 20 England wickets to fall in a comfortable victory in the First Test at Trent Bridge . O 'Reilly 's match figures were 11 wickets for 129 runs , and taking seven for 54 in his second innings was to produce his best Test figures .
England then won the Second Test at Lord 's , aided by the weather and Australia 's inability to force the issue by avoiding the follow on . The hosts batted first and made 440 , O 'Reilly removing Walters . In reply , Australia were 2 / 192 when rain struck on the second evening and the sun turned the pitch into a sticky wicket the next day . When O 'Reilly came in at 8 / 273 , only 17 runs were needed to avoid the follow on , but he misjudged the flight of a Hedley Verity delivery and was bowled , thinking the ball to be fuller than it was and missing a lofted drive . Australia fell six runs short and were forced to bat again when the pitch was at its worst . They were bowled out again on the same afternoon as Verity took 14 wickets in a day . O 'Reilly always regretted his dismissal , as he believed that if he had helped to avoid the follow on , he would have taken " six wickets without removing his waistcoat " and that Australia could have then chased the target in better conditions on the fourth day .
O 'Reilly shook English confidence in the Third Test , played on a placid surface at Old Trafford , by taking three wickets in four balls . Cyril Walters , who up to that point had been untroubled , failed to pick the bosie and thus inside edged the ball to short leg . Bob Wyatt came in and was clean bowled for a golden duck , bringing Hammond in to face the hat @-@ trick ball . The new batsman inside edged the ball past the stumps and through the legs of wicket @-@ keeper Bert Oldfield , but the next delivery clean bowled him . This left England at 3 / 72 , and O 'Reilly removed Sutcliffe soon after , but the batsmen settled down and the next wicket did not come until Hendren fell just before the end of the first day 's play . England were 5 / 355 and O 'Reilly had taken each wicket . The next day , the hosts ended on 9 / 627 , despite a relentless 59 overs from O 'Reilly , who ended with 7 / 189 and was the only bowler to challenge the batsmen . The high @-@ scoring match never looked likely to produce a result , except when Australia were in danger of being forced to follow on . They were 55 runs away from the follow on mark of 478 at the end of the third day with two wickets in hand , and O 'Reilly was on one . The next day Arthur Chipperfield fell with 24 runs still needed and O 'Reilly and Wall saw them to 491 before the latter fell . O 'Reilly ended with 30 not out after an innings in which he was lucky not to be caught off an edge multiple times .
A further draw at Headingley , with England saved by rain after a Bradman triple century , set up a match to decide the series at The Oval . As the series was still alive , the match was timeless , rather than the customary five @-@ day contest . After Australia made 701 , O 'Reilly took 2 / 93 to help dismiss the hosts for 321 . The visitors then made 327 to set a target of 708 for victory . O 'Reilly claimed 2 / 58 , including Hammond , while Grimmett , with a total of eight wickets , proved the decisive bowler as Australia regained The Ashes with victory by 562 runs , which , more than 70 years on , is still the second largest margin of victory in terms of runs in any Test match .
O 'Reilly was the leading Australian bowler of the tour , taking 28 Test wickets at an average of less than 25 , while Grimmett took 25 wickets at just under 27 runs apiece . Australia 's other Test bowlers took only 18 wickets between them . On the tour as a whole , O 'Reilly headed the tourists ' averages , with 109 wickets at 17 @.@ 04 , which meant that he also topped the averages for the whole English cricket season . In the matches against the English counties , he took 11 wickets in each of the games against Leicestershire and Glamorgan , and in the match against Somerset , after Hans Ebeling took the first wicket , he took the remaining nine for 38 runs , and that proved to be the best innings figures of his career . He was named as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 1935 for his deeds on tour .
The tour ended with two non @-@ first @-@ class matches in Scotland against the hosts , and O 'Reilly top @-@ scored in a match for Australia for the only time , in the first of the two games . Having been allowed to open the innings after complaining about his lack of opportunities , he top @-@ scored with 47 ahead of McCabe 's 16 . He found the tour to be a happy and healing experience after the acrimony of the Bodyline series .
O 'Reilly played little state cricket for New South Wales in 1934 – 35 ; at the time , his first child was born and he took time off to ponder his future employment . He played in only one Shield match , against arch @-@ rivals Victoria , and in the testimonial match for the retiring Woodfull and Ponsford . He took a total of eight wickets at 31 @.@ 37 in these matches .
O 'Reilly played no Shield cricket the following season , when he was selected for the Australian tour to South Africa . Although Bradman had been vice @-@ captain under Woodfull in 1934 , he did not travel to South Africa on grounds of ill health , but played a full domestic season despite this . The team was captained by Victor Richardson , and O 'Reilly publicly described it as the happiest tour he had been on — he was one of several players who did not get along with Bradman .
The tour was another triumph for the leg @-@ spin attack of O 'Reilly and Grimmett , but O 'Reilly was slightly overshadowed by his team @-@ mate in the Tests . With 44 wickets , Grimmett set a new record for the number of wickets by an Australian in a Test series , and he raised his Test career total to 216 wickets , beating the then world record of 189 by Englishman Sydney Barnes . O 'Reilly took 27 Test wickets at an average of just over 17 runs each : the other bowlers in the Australian team took 27 wickets between them . On the tour as a whole , O 'Reilly came out ahead of Grimmett , with 95 wickets against Grimmett 's 92 , and an average of 13 @.@ 56 against 14 @.@ 80 . O 'Reilly also revealed hitherto undiscovered batting talents , making an undefeated 56 in the Fourth Test in Johannesburg , and putting on 69 for the last wicket with Ernie McCormick . It was the only time in his first @-@ class cricket career that he passed 50 . During the tour , O 'Reilly developed his leg trap ; the opening batsmen Jack Fingleton and Bill Brown were used in these positions .
= = = Senior bowler = = =
With Bradman 's appointment as captain of the Australian team after the South African tour , Clarrie Grimmett was dropped , leaving O 'Reilly as the hub of the Australian bowling attack for the MCC Ashes tour in 1936 – 37 .
O 'Reilly was strongly aggrieved by the removal of his long @-@ time bowling partner , and maintained that it was an " unpardonable " error that heavily weakened Australia 's bowling attack . However , he remained vague about why he thought Grimmett had been removed , even though suspicion dogged Bradman . Grimmett continued to dominate the wicket @-@ taking on domestic cricket , while his replacements struggled in the international arena .
O 'Reilly responded by becoming the leading Australian wicket @-@ taker in the series taking 25 , with Bill Voce taking 26 for England . However , he almost failed to take to the field ; O 'Reilly and several players had threatened to withdraw after vice @-@ captain Stan McCabe 's wife was forbidden from sitting in the Members ' Stand in the First Test . The Australian Board of Control backed down , but it was the start of a tumultuous season .
O 'Reilly 's wickets were at increased cost — his average increased to 22 runs per wicket — and he took five wickets in an innings only once , in the First Test at the ' Gabba in Brisbane , which England won convincingly . The circumstances of the series determined O 'Reilly 's role : after England won the first two Tests , O 'Reilly appeared to have been given the job not just of bowling the opposition out , but also of containing them , and he was criticised in Wisden for defensive bowling . Wisden even went as far as to describe it as " leg theory " . If the intention was to stifle England batsman Wally Hammond in particular , then it appears to have worked , but O 'Reilly 's figures for the series suggest he was consistent but not always penetrative . Morris Sievers , from fewer matches , outperformed his average ; Leslie Fleetwood @-@ Smith , a slow left @-@ arm spinner , got more eye @-@ catching individual figures , including 10 wickets in the victory at Adelaide . Whatever the methods , they were successful : having lost the first two Tests , Australia proceeded to win the final three to retain The Ashes they had regained in England in 1934 , and O 'Reilly 's five for 51 and three for 58 were the best figures in the decisive Fifth Test in Melbourne .
In the 1937 – 38 season , O 'Reilly returned to more regular state cricket , and New South Wales duly won the Sheffield Shield for the first time in five seasons . He took 33 wickets at an average of just over 14 runs each , and against South Australia at Adelaide he repeated his feat against Somerset in 1934 , taking the last nine wickets of the first innings at a cost of 41 runs . This time , he followed up with five for 57 in the second innings .
= = = 1938 : Final tour of England = = =
O 'Reilly 's second and final Ashes tour to England as a player in 1938 again saw him as the most effective bowler in the team . His final record of 22 wickets at an average of 27 @.@ 72 in the four Tests — the Third Test was rained off without a ball being bowled — was marginally less than 1934 , and in all matches he took 104 wickets at 16 @.@ 59 . In its report of the tour , however , Wisden 's 1939 edition noted that " it was nothing short of remarkable that despite the moderate support accorded to him he bowled so consistently well and so effectively . " Again , O 'Reilly was often used defensively where there was no help from the wicket , but , Wisden added , " when ... the wicket gave him the least encouragement he robbed the greatest batsmen of initiative , and was most destructive " .
O 'Reilly took 3 / 164 on a batting paradise in the First Test at Trent Bridge as England scored 8 / 658 and forced Australia to follow on and hold on for a draw . In the Second Test at Lord 's O 'Reilly took 4 / 93 in the first innings and trapped Eddie Paynter for 99 to end a 222 @-@ run partnership with Hammond . In reply to England 's 494 , Australia were in danger of being forced to follow on ; O 'Reilly came in and made 42 , featuring in a partnership of 85 in only 46 minutes with Bill Brown that enabled Australia to save the match : having been dropped by Paynter , he hit Hedley Verity for consecutive sixes to take Australia past the follow @-@ on mark . Brown recalled " It was a nice day , and a nice wicket . O 'Reilly came in , and I told him I 'd take the quicks — Wellard and Farnes — and Tiger [ O 'Reilly ] took Verity . " Australia reached 422 and O 'Reilly took 2 / 53 in the second innings as the match petered into a draw .
In an otherwise high @-@ scoring series , O 'Reilly 's greatest triumph was in the low @-@ scoring Fourth Test at Headingley , where he exploited a difficult pitch to take five wickets in each innings as Australia secured the victory that enabled them to retain the Ashes . With the series level at 0 – 0 , England captain Hammond elected to bat first ; O 'Reilly 's 5 / 66 was largely responsible for ending England 's innings at 223 . He removed Hammond , who had top @-@ scored with 76 , Bill Edrich and Denis Compton , all bowled in quick succession . England were 1 / 73 on the third day , an overall lead of 54 , when O 'Reilly began a new spell after Bradman had switched his ends . Joe Hardstaff junior hooked him for four and the next ball was no @-@ balled by the umpire . O 'Reilly was reported to have become visibly enraged ; he bowled Hardstaff next ball and then removed Hammond for a golden duck . This precipitated an English collapse to 123 all out , and O 'Reilly ended with 5 / 56 and a total of 10 / 122 . O 'Reilly effort proved to be crucial as Australia scraped home by five wickets just 30 minutes before black clouds brought heavy rain , which would have made batting treacherous . The victory ensured the retention of the Ashes , and O 'Reilly ranked it as his finest performance , alongside his ten wickets in the Second Bodyline Test of 1932 – 33 .
Australia had retained the Ashes , but England struck back at The Oval , where they posted the then @-@ record Test score of 7 / 903 . Early on , O 'Reilly trapped Edrich lbw for 12 , to secure his 100th Test wicket against England . In a timeless match , Len Hutton made a world record Test score of 364 in a fastidious and watchful innings of 13 hours , surpassing Bradman 's 334 . When he was on 333 , O 'Reilly deliberately bowled two no @-@ balls in an attempt to break Hutton 's concentration by tempting him to hit out , but the Englishman blocked them with a straight bat .
O 'Reilly eventually removed Hutton and ended with 3 / 178 off 85 overs . Nevertheless , these compared favourably with Fleetwood @-@ Smith 's 1 / 298 off 87 overs . O 'Reilly was the only Australia to take more than a solitary wicket , and rated Hutton 's knock as the finest innings played against him . Australia collapsed to lose by an innings and 579 runs , the heaviest defeat in Test history . O 'Reilly 's lack of success went with The Oval Test in 1934 , when he took a total of 4 / 151 .
O 'Reilly scaled back his participation in Sheffield Shield cricket in the 1938 – 39 season , making himself unavailable for most of the campaign to spend time with his newborn son after half a year in England ; he played in only two matches , against South Australia and arch @-@ rivals Victoria . He took a ten @-@ wicket haul in the latter match , but his figures of 6 / 152 and 4 / 60 were not enough to prevent defeat . Both teams were at full strength and eight of O 'Reilly 's victims were Test players , including batsman Lindsay Hassett twice . O 'Reilly 's only other match was for Bradman 's XI against Rigg 's XI in a match to commemorate the centenary of the Melbourne Cricket Club , in which he took a total of 7 / 129 , to end the season with 19 wickets at 23 @.@ 16 .
He resumed regular service for New South Wales in the next season , taking 55 wickets at 15 @.@ 12 in seven matches . He took 8 / 23 and 6 / 22 to set up an innings win over Queensland and 6 / 77 and 4 / 62 in another victory over South Australia . The two matches against Victoria were shared as O 'Reilly took 17 wickets . In the second of the matches , in Sydney , Hassett became the only person to score centuries in both innings of match involving O 'Reilly . Despite Hassett 's feat , New South Wales won the match ; O 'Reilly took a total of 8 / 157 .
O 'Reilly continued his strong run in 1940 – 41 , taking 55 wickets at 12 @.@ 43 in eight matches . He took nine wickets in three consecutive matches , once for McCabe 's XI in a match against Bradman 's XI , which his team won by an innings , and in both matches against Victoria , which were split between the two states . First @-@ class cricket was ended after one match in 1941 – 42 ; O 'Reilly took a total of 9 / 124 in a loss to Queensland before the attack on Pearl Harbor signalled the start of the Second World War in the Pacific . In the meantime , O 'Reilly continued to play for St George and topped the grade competition 's bowling averages for years from 1941 – 42 onwards . He averaged between 8 and 9 in all these seasons , and took more than 100 wickets in three consecutive summers , peaking with 147 in 1943 – 44 . O 'Reilly had tried to enlist in the military in 1941 , but after presenting himself for the medical , was informed that his employer was deemed a " protected undertaking " , so their workers were not allowed to enlist .
First @-@ class cricket resumed in Australia in 1945 – 46 after the end of the war , although the Shield competition was not held that season . O 'Reilly captained New South Wales at the age of 40 , and although the emergence of Ray Lindwall and Ernie Toshack in the state side indicated a shift in emphasis away from spin and towards faster bowling , O 'Reilly maintained his pre @-@ war standards . He took 33 wickets at 14 @.@ 36 in six matches and New South Wales were undefeated ; they won four matches and drew both fixtures against Victoria . He took at least two wickets in every innings and claimed his innings best of 6 / 43 against Queensland . O 'Reilly also took a match total of 7 / 94 in an innings win over the Australian Services team , which had drawn a series against a full @-@ strength England team .
O 'Reilly 's final first @-@ class cricket came on a four @-@ match tour by an Australian team to New Zealand in early 1946 . O 'Reilly was the vice @-@ captain of the team , which was led by Bill Brown . The main fixture during the tour was a four @-@ day match against a representative New Zealand side in Wellington , retrospectively designated as the first Test between the two countries in 1948 . The uncertain nature of the tour saw the Australians wear blazers labelled ABC for Australian Board of Control , rather than the usual coat of arms . New Zealand were outclassed ; after winning the toss and electing to bat on a rain @-@ affected pitch , they made 42 in their first innings and 54 in their second to lose by an innings and 103 runs . O 'Reilly took 5 / 14 in the first innings , and 3 / 19 in the second , dominating with Toshack . It was his last Test and his last first @-@ class game . O 'Reilly dominated in the other tour games as well ; he took match totals of 9 / 103 and 8 / 128 against Auckland and Otago respectively , and ended with 28 wickets at 10 @.@ 60 for the tour . Having only decided to tour New Zealand after much consideration , O 'Reilly retired at the end of the Test , throwing his boots out of the dressing room window .
= = Conflict with Bradman = =
Despite the mutual admiration between Bradman and O 'Reilly for their cricket skills , personal relations between the pair were strained . In Australian society at the time , sectarian tension existed between Catholics , mostly of Irish descent , of whom O 'Reilly was one , and Protestants , like Bradman . Bradman was a non @-@ drinker and a reserved character , often preferring to read quietly , rather than socialise or drink with his team @-@ mates . Coupled with his on @-@ field dominance , this led to perceptions that Bradman was cocky and distant from his team @-@ mates . In the late 1930s , the Australian Board of Control summoned O 'Reilly , Stan McCabe , Leo O 'Brien and Chuck Fleetwood @-@ Smith , all Catholics of Irish descent to a meeting to discuss the apparent schism in the team . Jack Fingleton , a trained journalist , was not invited to the meeting , but after the deaths of both Fingleton and O 'Reilly , Bradman penned a letter in which he accused the former of being the ringleader . O 'Reilly 's eventual departure also raised speculation that a purge had occurred . In 1995 , after both Fingleton and O 'Reilly had died , Bradman wrote : " With these fellows out of the way , the loyalty of my 1948 side was a big joy and made a big contribution to the outstanding success of that tour " ; the Australians went through the 1948 English summer undefeated .
O 'Reilly became a journalist , and together with Fingleton , he often criticised Bradman . They were in the press box when Bradman was bowled for a duck in his final Test innings , when they were reported to have become hysterical with laughter . Nevertheless , O 'Reilly kept most of his strongest feelings about Bradman to himself and suppressed them from his autobiography ; he would say of Bradman that " You don 't piss on statues " . Before his death , O 'Reilly gave a series of interviews to the National Library of Australia , in which he accused Bradman of purging Grimmett from the team because Grimmett had joked that Bradman had ensured his own dismissal in a match against Victoria , to avoid facing the express pace of Ernie McCormick .
According to cricket historian Gideon Haigh , " O 'Reilly was a man of embedded prejudices " . In retirement , O 'Reilly complained to a board member that " You have to play under a Protestant to know what it 's like " . The Test umpire Col Egar recalled that O 'Reilly never talked to him in their decades in cricket until a third party informed the bowler that Egar was a Catholic .
Despite their conflicts , a few years before his death O 'Reilly wrote that , compared with Bradman , batsmen like Greg Chappell and Allan Border were mere " child 's play " .
= = Off @-@ field career , mentoring and legacy = =
In 1933 , O 'Reilly married Mary Agnes " Molly " Herbert , after less than six months of courtship . Of Irish stock , Molly had been introduced to O 'Reilly through one of his teaching colleagues at Kogarah , who married Molly 's elder sister the following year . The couple then moved to the southern Sydney suburb of Hurstville . The couple had two children , a girl followed by a boy .
O 'Reilly continued to work as a schoolteacher after he broke into international cricket , but at the end of 1934 , after missing more than six months of the year in England , he resigned from his government post , reasoning that his career could not progress if he was going to be overseas so often . However , he had not made any plans for his future employment . Soon after , O 'Reilly received an offer to work as a sportsgoods salesman for the department store David Jones with sporting leave entitlements . The Premier of New South Wales , Bertram Stevens , tried to coax O 'Reilly into staying in the government education system , offering him a post at Sydney Boys High School if he returned to STC to complete the Bachelor of Arts that he had abandoned a decade before .
In 1935 , O 'Reilly took up an appointment at Sydney Grammar School , one of the leading private schools in the state , having been offered 50 % paid leave for his cricket commitments . There he taught English , history and business . In 1939 he took a job in the sports store of close friend , teammate and fellow Irish Catholic Stan McCabe , which was located on George Street , the city centre 's main thoroughfare . O 'Reilly was a financial partner in the business , but following the outbreak of World War II , the sales revenue began to suffer and O 'Reilly left as the store would not be able to support two stakeholders .
O 'Reilly then accepted a position as a manager of the Lion Tile Company at Auburn , in Sydney 's western suburbs . He remained in the position until 1976 . O 'Reilly was responsible for the financial and accounting affairs of the firm , which expanded to employ more than 200 workers . He was held in high regard and granted full paid leave when he thrice went overseas for six months to cover tours of England as a journalist . Doc Evatt , a leading Australian Labor Party politician attempted to recruit O 'Reilly into politics , but was unsuccessful .
During the late @-@ 1930s , O 'Reilly mentored the then @-@ teenaged Arthur Morris and Ray Lindwall at St. George . He converted Morris from a left arm unorthodox spinner into an opening batsman , and exhorted Lindwall to become a specialist express paceman . Both had long Test careers and captained their country and are regarded as all @-@ time Australian greats in the fields that O 'Reilly chose for them — both were chosen with O 'Reilly in the ACB Team of the Century . The pair credited O 'Reilly as being the main influence in their careers , and Lindwall made his Test debut in O 'Reilly 's last Test in 1946 .
In 1956 – 57 , McCabe and O 'Reilly were given a testimonial match by the New South Wales Cricket Association . The match was between Harvey 's XI and Lindwall 's XI and acted as a trial for the non @-@ Test tour of New Zealand . It raised 7 @,@ 500 pounds , which was split between McCabe and O 'Reilly and would have bought two average @-@ sized homes in Sydney at the time .
On retirement as a player , O 'Reilly became a cricket columnist for The Sydney Morning Herald , remaining in that position until his health declined in 1988 . His first engagement was England 's tour of Australia in 1946 – 47 , and during this season he began a partnership with the Daily Express of London , going on to cover several Ashes series for them . O 'Reilly 's articles for The Sydney Morning Herald were reproduced in its sister publication , The Age of Melbourne . Later , his writing was syndicated to newspapers in India , South Africa and New Zealand . His style was described by Wisden as " muscular , very Australian ... flavoured with wit and imagery ( ' You can smell the gum @-@ leaves off him ' , he wrote of one country boy just starting with Queensland ) . " Jack McHarg said that " The clarity , wit and pungency of his writing , together with almost infallible judgment , never deserted him " , even as his health began to restrict him . He was a highly respected and forthright pundit , who hated one @-@ day cricket , describing it as " hit and giggle " . He condemned the omission of Keith Miller in 1949 – 50 and said that to call it " a complete surprise would be a cowardly way of describing a botch " . Reacting to the selection of the dour batting all rounder Ken Mackay , he wrote " words fail ... to express adequately my contempt for this howler " . In 1952 he had a falling @-@ out with Lindwall after condemning his protégé for bowling five consecutive bouncers at Everton Weekes in a Test . In comparison with his illustrious contemporary on @-@ field and on paper , " while Sir Donald walked the corridors of cricketing power O 'Reilly was the rumbustious backbencher . " In 1956 , O 'Reilly strongly criticised Australian captain Ian Johnson , a Melburnian , for his leadership during the 1956 Ashes tour . The Age took exception to this and asked their sister publication to rein in their pundit . O 'Reilly refused to shy away from his opinions and was dropped by the Melbourne publication . In the 1980s , when Bob Simpson became the first coach of Australia , O 'Reilly , himself self @-@ taught , spoke out against the creation of such posts . He was a strong critic of the breakaway World Series Cricket , the commercialisation of the sport and the erosion of the social norms that were followed during his playing career .
Aside from his autobiography , O 'Reilly wrote two books ; Cricket Conquest : The Story of the 1948 Test Tour , published in 1949 , and Cricket Task Force , published in 1951 . They were accounts of the Invincibles tour of England in 1948 and England 's Ashes tour to Australia in 1950 – 51 .
Upon retiring from The Sydney Morning Herald , O 'Reilly wrote in a column
As a writer on the game it has always been my one consuming resolve to tell my readers … exactly what my personal reactions were to the events of the day . Not once did I ever spend time racking my brain on what was the nice thing to say or the thoughts I should not let come through on paper . In my opinion that would have been cheating .
O 'Reilly was honoured with several accolades late in his life . In 1980 , he was awarded an Order of the British Empire for his services to cricket as a player and writer . In 1985 , the oval in Wingello was renamed in his honour , and in 1988 , a grandstand at the SCG was named the Bill O 'Reilly Stand . In the same year , the oval in White Cliffs was renamed , and The Sydney Morning Herald renamed the medal they awarded to the best player in grade cricket in O 'Reilly 's honour . During the celebrations for the Australian Bicentenary , O 'Reilly was named among the 200 people , and only 21 living , who had contributed the most to the country since European settlement .
O 'Reilly 's later years were troubled with poor health , including the loss of a leg . In late 1988 , he suffered a major heart attack and was hospitalised for two months . He died in hospital in Sutherland in 1992 , aged 86 . O 'Reilly lamented the decline of spin during his twilight years , and in the 1980s he was often derided by younger people who felt that his advocacy of spin bowling — which they deemed to be obsolete — was misplaced . He died just months before Shane Warne revived the art of leg spin on the international stage .
In 1996 , O 'Reilly was posthumously inducted into the Australian Cricket Hall of Fame as one of the ten inaugural members . In 2000 , O 'Reilly was named in the Australian Cricket Board Team of the Century , and in 2009 he was named among the 55 inaugural inductees of the International Cricket Council 's Hall of Fame , being formally inducted in January 2010 .
= = Statistical summary = =
In his 18 @-@ season first @-@ class career , O 'Reilly took 774 wickets at an average of 16 @.@ 60 . In his 27 Test matches , O 'Reilly took 144 wickets at 22 @.@ 59 , 102 of them in his 19 Ashes Tests against England .
= = = Test match performance = = =
= = = Career rankings and ratings = = =
It has been retrospectively calculated by the International Cricket Council 's LG Ratings that he was the best bowler in the world for much of his career .
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= Arnos Grove tube station =
Arnos Grove is a London Underground station located in Arnos Grove in the London Borough of Enfield , London . It is on the Piccadilly line between Bounds Green and Southgate stations and is in Travelcard Zone 4 . The station opened on 19 September 1932 as the most northerly station on the first section of the Piccadilly line extension from Finsbury Park to Cockfosters . It was the terminus of the line until services were further extended to Oakwood on 13 March 1933 . When travelling from east of Barons Court and through Central London , Arnos Grove is the first surface station after the long tunnel section of the Piccadilly line . The station has four platforms which face three tracks .
The station was designed by architect Charles Holden , and has been described as a significant work of modern architecture . On 19 February 1971 , the station was Grade II listed . In 2005 , the station was refurbished with the heritage features also maintained . In July 2011 Arnos Grove 's listed status was upgraded to Grade II * . The station was awarded with the Best Newcomer and the Best Overall Garden in the Underground in Bloom 2011 competition and also in the London in Bloom competition .
= = Location = =
The station is located in Arnos Grove , near Arnos Park on Bowes Road . It is the first surface station after the long tunnel section which starts east of Barons Court and passes through Central London . The station and surrounding neighbourhood of Arnos Grove take their names from the Arnos Grove estate , which was to the north of the station . The station is part of the Arnos Grove group of stations , comprising all seven stations from Cockfosters to Turnpike Lane , and the management office for the group is in Arnos Grove station . Linked to the station by a lineside passageway is Ash House , which is a drivers ' depot .
= = History = =
The Great Northern railway ( GNR ) and its successor , the London and North Eastern Railway ( LNER ) , for many years refused consent for any extension into the suburbs of Haringey and Enfield . Eventually , public opinion became strong enough to force the matter and in the 1930s the line was rapidly extended from Finsbury Park to Cockfosters via Arnos Grove . The station was opened on 19 September 1932 as the most northerly station on the first section of the Piccadilly line extension . It was the terminus of the line until services were further extended to Oakwood on 13 March 1933 . Its name was chosen after public deliberation : alternatives were " Arnos Park " , " Bowes Road " and " Southgate " .
On the night of 13 October 1940 , during the Blitz , a lone German aircraft dropped a single bomb on houses to the north of Bounds Green station . The destruction of the houses caused the north end of the westbound platform tunnel to collapse . As a result , train services between Wood Green and Cockfosters were disrupted for two months . On 11 August 1948 , a passenger train was derailed when the front and rear bogies of a carriage took different routes at a set of points at the station . On 7 July 2005 , a bomb was exploded on a train travelling between King 's Cross St. Pancras and Russell Square . As a result , train services between Hyde Park Corner and Arnos Grove were disrupted until 4 August of the same year .
= = Station building = =
Like the other stations Charles Holden designed for the extension , Arnos Grove was built in a modern European style using brick , glass and reinforced concrete and basic geometric shapes . A circular drum @-@ like ticket hall of brick and glass panels rises from a low single @-@ storey structure and is capped by a flat concrete slab roof . The design was inspired by the Stockholm City Library and Swedish architect Gunnar Asplund . The centre of the ticket hall is occupied by a disused ticket office ( a passimeter in London Underground parlance ) which houses an exhibition on the station and the line .
= = The station today = =
Three parallel train tracks pass through the station , with two double @-@ sided platforms between the central track and the outer tracks . The edges of the platforms are labelled platform 1 and 2 , and platform 3 and 4 , in such a way that the two outer tracks are accessible from platforms 1 and 4 , and the central track , usually used by trains that terminate and reverse at Arnos Grove station , is accessible from platforms 2 and 3 . Platforms 1 and 2 are designated for trains to Cockfosters while platforms 3 and 4 are for trains to Central London .
In July 2011 Arnos Grove became a Grade II * listed building . The building is one of the 12 " Great Modern Buildings " profiled in The Guardian during October 2007 . Arnos Grove Drivers ' Depot won Best Newcomer and Best Overall Garden in the Underground in Bloom 2011 competition for their new project which also got them an award in the London in Bloom competition . Their website tells the whole story with photographs of the garden and the awards ceremonies .
= = = Station improvements = = =
In 2005 the station underwent a refurbishment programme including improvements to signage , security and train information systems . General repairs and redecoration were carried out , flooring was renewed , and better lighting , an improved CCTV security system and Help Points were installed , with the latter being suitable for people with limited hearing . Some of the original signs are in a ' petit @-@ serif ' adaptation of the London Underground typeface , Johnston Delf Smith Sans . This typeface was designed by Charles Holden and Percy Delf Smith , a former pupil of Edward Johnston .
During the refurbishment programme , all these heritage features were maintained as well :
The circular ' Sudbury box ' red brick building with overhanging crenellated concrete roof and vestibule to front and left @-@ hand elevations
Dark red brick walls extending to either side of building and also on bridge parapet wall and also on the other side of Bowes Road
Bronze @-@ framed silhouette roundels with reinstated 1930s graphics on concrete backing panels on brick walls at either end of bus slip road
Flag pole mounted silhouette roundel with reinstated 1930s graphics on vestibule roof
Full height windows
= = Services and connections = =
= = = Services = = =
A journey between Arnos Grove and Southgate typically takes slightly more than four minutes . Train frequencies vary throughout the day , but generally operate every 3 @-@ 9 minutes between 07 : 07 and 01 : 07 eastbound , and every 2 @-@ 6 minutes between 05 : 19 and 00 : 06 westbound . When operational problems occur on the line , Arnos Grove station may act as a temporary terminus of a reduced service – either a shuttle service between Arnos Grove and Cockfosters or a truncated service from Central London . The station has a set of seven sidings to its south for stabling trains .
= = = Connections = = =
London Bus routes 34 , 184 , 232 , 251 , 298 and 382 and night route N91 serve the station .
New Southgate railway station is a ten @-@ minute walk from Arnos Grove .
= = Nearby places = =
Bounds Green
Muswell Hill
New Southgate
Palmers Green
Southgate
= = In popular culture = =
The station building appears as " Marble Hill " tube station in the episode " Wasps ' Nest " of the Agatha Christie 's Poirot TV series with David Suchet as Hercule Poirot .
Arnos Grove is often noted for its station cat ( a rarity on the London Underground network ) , called Spooky , who now ( as of 2014 ) occupies the station car park after being evicted due to the introduction of UTS gates .
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= James Hargest =
Brigadier James Hargest , CBE , DSO & Two Bars , MC , ED ( 4 September 1891 – 12 August 1944 ) was an officer of the New Zealand Military Forces , serving in both the First and Second World Wars . He was a Member of New Zealand 's Parliament from 1931 to 1944 , representing firstly the Invercargill and then the Awarua electorates .
Born in Gore in 1891 , Hargest was a farmer when he volunteered for the New Zealand Expeditionary Force following the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 . Commissioned as an officer , he served in the Gallipoli Campaign in 1915 and was seriously wounded . Following his recovery from his wounds , he returned to active duty on the Western Front . He commanded an infantry battalion during the later stages of the war and received several awards for his leadership . After the war , he returned to New Zealand to resume farming . In 1931 Hargest entered the Parliament of New Zealand as the member for Invercargill . Initially an independent , he was one of the strongest supporters of the National Party that was formed in 1936 , and held an executive role in the party hierarchy . From 1938 , he represented the Awarua electorate and had been considered for the party leadership , but he was no longer available once he volunteered for active service .
Upon the commencement of the Second World War in September 1939 , Hargest attempted to join the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force being raised for service . His application was initially declined for health reasons , but after intervention by Peter Fraser , the acting Prime Minister of New Zealand , he was accepted and appointed commander of the 5th Infantry Brigade , part of the 2nd New Zealand Division . He led his brigade during the Battle of Greece in April 1941 after an initial period performing garrison duty in England . During the Battle of Crete he displayed poor judgement in the positioning his forces around the vital Maleme airfield and in controlling their movements once the battle commenced . The loss of the airfield allowed the Germans to gain a foothold on the island and the Allied forces eventually were evacuated from Crete . Despite his own performance during the battle , he received a bar to the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) that he had been awarded in the First World War . The fighting now shifting to North Africa , Hargest led his brigade during Operation Crusader in November 1941 but was captured by German forces . Held in a prisoner of war camp in Italy , he eventually escaped and was able to make his return to England in late 1943 . He earned a second bar to his DSO for his efforts . He served as an observer with the British 50th Infantry Division for the Normandy landings in June 1944 and was killed by artillery just over two months later .
= = Early life = =
James Hargest was born on 4 September 1891 in Gore , a small town in Southland , New Zealand . His parents , James and Mary Hargest , were from Wales . His father was a labourer who later took up farming in Mandeville . Hargest was the fourth of nine children , and attended schools in Gore and Mandeville and after completing his education worked alongside his father . He joined the Territorial Force in 1911 and by 1914 had reached the rank of sergeant .
= = First World War = =
Following the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 Hargest volunteered to serve in the New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( NZEF ) and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Otago Mounted Rifles . He served in the Gallipoli Campaign and was severely wounded during the August Offensive . After several months of convalescence , he returned to active service in July 1916 with the New Zealand Division . Assigned to the 1st Battalion of the Otago Infantry Regiment , he commanded a company during the Battle of the Somme in September 1916 . His actions in restoring order in his battalion , when he assumed command of four companies that had suffered heavy casualties following a failed attack on 27 September , saw him rewarded with the Military Cross . By the end of the year he had been promoted to major .
Appointed to second @-@ in @-@ command of the battalion , Hargest was involved in the preliminary planning for the Battle of Messines in June 1917 . He carried out vital reconnaissance of the German front lines , penetrating the enemy communication trenches in the lead up to the battle . During the German Spring Offensive , launched in March 1918 , he was made acting battalion commander . In September 1918 , he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and given command of the 2nd Battalion , Otago Infantry Regiment . He participated in the last offensive action of the war involving the New Zealand Division when on 4 November 1918 , his battalion attacked Germans positioned in a fortified house in the Mormal Forest . Having captured the house , it was made his temporary headquarters . It later received a direct hit from artillery fire and Hargest was fortunate to escape unhurt . His leadership of his battalion during the last few months of the war was recognised with an appointment to the Distinguished Service Order , a mention in despatches and the French Legion of Honour . In the immediate postwar period , he remained in command of his battalion while it performed occupation duties in Cologne until his departure to England on 4 February 1919 .
= = Interwar period = =
Hargest returned to New Zealand in May 1919 with his wife , Marie Henrietta Wilkie . The couple had been married since 1917 , the ceremony taking place in England where Marie was serving as a nurse in the New Zealand military hospital at Brockenhurst . Hargest returned to farming , buying land near Invercargill . He retained an interest in the military and resumed his career with the Territorials in which he commanded firstly a regiment and then an infantry brigade .
An interest in local affairs soon developed and Hargest became involved with several local authorities including the Southland Education Board . In the 1925 election , he contested the Invercargill electorate standing for the Reform Party and came very close to beating Sir Joseph Ward . The former Prime Minister had a majority of 159 votes , which represented a 1 @.@ 5 % margin . The death of Sir Joseph triggered the August 1930 by @-@ election , which was contested by Hargest and Ward 's second son , Vincent Ward . Hargest was beaten in by Ward Jr . , who had a majority of 571 votes ( 5 @.@ 82 % ) , and Hargest had thus been beaten by both father and son .
Ward Jr. retired at the end of the term , and this allowed Hargest to enter the New Zealand Parliament in the 1931 general election on his third attempt , becoming the MP for the Invercargill electorate . In parliament , Hargest was an advocate for the interests of Southland but was also interested in defence and educational matters . He held this electorate until 1935 before successfully switching to the Awarua electorate for the 1935 election . Initially an Independent Reform MP , he was a supporter of the coalition between the United Party and the Reform Party . When the coalition combined to become the National Party , Hargest formally joined the new party and was " possibly the Reform MP most committed from the first to the formation of the National Party " . In its early period of the National Party , there was a lengthy discussion about its leadership , as the previous leaders of the constituent parties were not acceptable to the other . At the time , many South Island MPs would meet at the home of Christchurch property developer Henry G. Livingstone after arriving on Saturday mornings on the overnight ferry from Wellington ; Hargest , Adam Hamilton , and Sidney Holland belonged to that group . At the first official meeting of the party 's Dominion Council in October 1936 in Wellington , Hargest joined the executive committee . Following that meeting , the leadership question resulted in a contest between Hamilton and Charles Wilkinson . Former Reform Party leader Gordon Coates and other MPs sided with Hamilton and issued a press statement that bordered on blackmail , and Hargest wrote to Coates , rebuking him for his stance and pleading for unity , as the new party was still fragile . In the event , Hamilton won the election by one vote and became National 's first leader .
For much of the period that he was in charge of the National Party , Hamilton was regarded a conscientious but lack @-@ lustre leader . Although National 's performance had improved in the 1938 election election by winning an additional six electorates , Labour was still in government and there were discussions about replacing Hamilton . Hargest , who had retained his Awarua seat for National in the election , was one of two contenders for the party leadership ( the other was Keith Holyoake , but he had lost his Motueka electorate ) . With the outbreak of the Second World War , Hargest immediately volunteered for active service . The National Party leadership eventually went to Sidney Holland in November 1940 ; there was a view that this was a temporary situation that could be reassessed once Holyoake or Hargest returned to Parliament . Hargest remained a member of parliament during his time on active service and in the 1943 election , he was the sole candidate in the Awarua electorate whilst an internee in Switzerland ; he was thus returned unopposed .
= = Second World War = =
On volunteering for service in the war , Hargest sought to serve abroad in command of one of the infantry brigades of the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( 2NZEF ) . However , the newly appointed commander of the 2NZEF , Major General Bernard Freyberg was concerned about the age and command experience of some potential senior officers of the 2NZEF such as Hargest . A subsequent medical assessment deemed Hargest fit only for service on the Home Front as he was still prone to bouts of shell shock from his service during the First World War . Disappointed with this decision , he approached Peter Fraser , the acting Prime Minister of New Zealand , with a request for a brigade command in 2NZEF . Fraser disregarded official advice and arranged for Hargest to be appointed commander of the 5th Infantry Brigade . At the time , the Chief of the General Staff of the New Zealand Military Forces , Major @-@ General John Duigan , wrote to Freyberg , disassociating himself from the decision .
Hargest , with the rank of brigadier , left New Zealand with the Second Echelon , in which his brigade ( which comprised the 21st , 22nd and 23rd Battalions ) was the largest formation , in May 1940 . Originally intended to join the First Echelon of 2NZEF then in Egypt , it was diverted en route to England following the threat of a German invasion . The brigade carried out training and guard duties in the area around Dover before being shipped to Egypt in early 1941 .
= = = Greece and Crete = = =
Within a matter of weeks , the brigade , as part of the 2nd New Zealand Division , was in Greece and manning defences on the Aliakmon Line in preparation for the anticipated invasion of the country by the Germans . Following the invasion , Hargest 's brigade mounted a spirited defence of its positions at Olympus Pass from 14 to 16 April before it had to withdraw to provide cover neighbouring New Zealand brigades conducting their own retreat . The brigade was eventually evacuated on the night of 24 April to Crete .
Hargest and his brigade took part in the subsequent Battle of Crete in May . The 2nd New Zealand Division was under the command of Brigadier Edward Puttick due to Freyberg taking command of Creforce , which consisted of all the Allied troops on Crete . Puttick gave Hargest 's brigade the task of defending the airfield at Maleme and its easterly approaches . The 21st Battalion , commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Leslie Andrew , guarded the airfield itself and a neighbouring hill , Point 107 , with the other two battalions of the brigade positioned further east while Hargest situated his headquarters at some distance from the airfield . Within days of arriving on Crete , the Allied positions began to be the subject of strafing and bombing attacks by German planes as a precursor to an airborne invasion mounted by German paratroopers of the 1st Parachute Division . The bombing triggered in Hargest an occurrence of his shell shock , rendering him lethargic and confused .
When gliders containing paratroopers began landing around and to the west of the airfield on 20 May , Andrew became cut off from several of his platoons and companies with some being overrun by the German forces . Unable to gauge how the situation was unfolding , his communications with Hargest back at brigade headquarters also became disjointed . Andrew stressed the seriousness of the situation to Hargest and requested reinforcements from the other battalions , which were more than holding their own . Hargest incorrectly advised that there were no available troops . This left Andrew with his own small platoon @-@ size reserve , which was used in a failed counter @-@ attack . Eventually , Andrew sought permission to withdraw from Point 107 ; Hargest replied " Well , if you must , you must . " Although well aware of the importance of Maleme Airfield to the defence of Crete , Hargest made no effort to dissuade Andrew or see the situation for himself . Despite the belated arrival of a reinforcing company of infantry sent by Hargest that evening , Andrew decided his position was not defensible in daylight and withdrew his units to join the other battalions of the brigade . The Germans took both the airfield and Point 107 early on the morning of 21 May . The capture of the airfield allowed German reinforcements to be landed directly on Crete and establish a strong foothold on their otherwise tenuous positions .
A counterattack to take back the airfield and Point 107 was organised for the following day at Hargest 's headquarters . He was exhausted and had to take a quick nap before a conference to work out detailed plans for the counter @-@ attack , much to the disgust of some of the other participants . Afterwards , he became pessimistic of the chances of success and unsuccessfully sought to have the attack called off . The attack did fail but Hargest , still well behind the frontlines , mistakenly believed it to be going well until he found that his brigade had returned to their starting positions . His pessimism began to affect Puttick , who asked Freyberg to allow the 5th Infantry Brigade to withdraw , which it duly did . This began an eventual retreat and evacuation from Crete on 31 May , with Hargest flying out for Egypt by seaplane , his brigade following by sea .
Once he was back in Egypt , Hargest was critical of Freyberg 's conduct of the fighting on Crete in a meeting with General Archibald Wavell , commander of the Allied forces in the Middle East . He expressed similar views in a meeting with the New Zealand Prime Minister , Peter Fraser , who was in Egypt at the time on a visit to the New Zealand forces . He also voiced concern over what he considered to be a lack of consultation by Freyberg with his senior commanders . He was able to resolve his differences with Freyberg and in later correspondence with Fraser expressed his satisfaction with the way Freyberg dealt with his subordinates . Hargest 's own performance on Crete escaped official scrutiny and he was awarded a bar to his DSO . He was also awarded the Greek War Cross for his services in the military campaigns in Greece and Crete .
= = = North Africa = = =
After the loss of Crete , the 2nd New Zealand Division underwent a period of refit and training before it was assigned to the British Eighth Army , which was then engaged in the North African Campaign . It took part in Operation Crusader in November 1941 where the Eighth Army attempted to break through to Tobruk . Hargest 's brigade was used to cover the movements of the other two brigades of the division , which were attempting to advance through to Tobruk . In the meantime , Generalleutnant ( lieutenant general ) Erwin Rommel 's Afrika Korps had outflanked the Allies and were approaching Hargest 's position , which was clustered with transport that made defending an attack difficult . He and 700 men of his brigade were captured on 27 November 1941 when his headquarters , situated on the edge of an airfield near Sidi Aziz , was overrun by German tanks . He had resisted moving his headquarters to a nearby escarpment and incorrectly insisted his orders did not allow him this latitude . After his capture he was taken to Rommel who , despite being irritated at Hargest 's refusal to salute him , was complimentary of the fighting performance of the New Zealanders .
= = = Prisoner of war = = =
Hargest was transported to Italy where he was initially held in a villa near Sulmona but was transferred , along with a fellow New Zealander , Brigadier Reginald Miles , who had been captured in December 1941 , to Castle Vincigliata , known as Campo 12 , near Florence . Campo 12 was a prison camp for officers of general and brigadier rank and the prisoners were held under more comfortable conditions than soldiers of lesser rank . In late March 1943 , a group of officers , including Hargest and Miles , managed to escape using a tunnel dug from a disused chapel within the castle walls . Of the six escapees , Hargest and Miles were the only two to reach safety in neutral Switzerland , where they split up to independently try to make their way to England . As Hargest later related " I was over in Lucerne when Miles rang up to say he was off , and to suggest I should follow him later " . Miles made it to Figueras , close to the Spanish frontier , but , overcome with depression , killed himself on 20 October . With the help of the French Resistance , Hargest travelled through France to Spain , where he reached the British Consulate in Barcelona . He flew to England in December 1943 .
Hargest was one of only three men ( Miles was one of the others ) known to British Military Intelligence to have escaped from an Italian prisoner of war camp and make their way to another country prior to the armistice with Italy . For his escape to Switzerland , Hargest was awarded a second bar to his DSO . He was later appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire . He also wrote an account of his escape which was published as the book Farewell Campo 12 .
= = Death and legacy = =
By early 1944 , the 2nd New Zealand Division was fighting in the Italian Campaign and with his former brigade commanded by Brigadier Howard Kippenberger , Hargest sought a new role . He was appointed New Zealand 's observer of the D @-@ Day landings in Normandy . He was attached to the British 50th Infantry Division , an infantry unit of the 21st Army Group , with which he landed in Normandy on 6 June . He was wounded later that month .
After D @-@ Day , a new role was found for Hargest . Now that the Allies were on mainland Europe , thought was turning to the issue of dealing with the expected arrival of newly released New Zealanders from liberated prisoner of war camps . The 2NZEF Reception Group was set up to help repatriate them . Hargest was appointed the commander of the group but on 12 August 1944 , was killed by shell fire during the Battle of Normandy , when he was making a farewell visit to the British 50th Division . Hargest is buried at the Hottot @-@ les @-@ Bagues War Cemetery in France .
Hargest was survived by his wife and three children . A fourth child , Geoffrey Robert Hargest , had been killed on 30 March 1944 , aged 22 years , during the fighting in Italy and is buried in the Cassino War Cemetery . Another son was killed in an accident in Malaya several years later while on active service during the Malayan Emergency . James Hargest High School , an educational facility in Invercargill , is named after him .
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= 1987 ( What the Fuck Is Going On ? ) =
1987 ( What the Fuck Is Going On ? ) is the debut album of British band the Justified Ancients of Mu Mu ( The JAMs : Bill Drummond and Jimmy Cauty ) , later to be known as the KLF . 1987 was produced using extensive unauthorised samples which plagiarised a wide range of musical works , continuing a theme begun in the JAMs ' debut single " All You Need Is Love " ( included on the album ) . These samples provided a deliberately provocative backdrop for beatbox rhythms and cryptic , political raps . The album was released to mixed reviews , but was a commercial success .
Shortly after independent release in June 1987 , the JAMs were ordered by the Mechanical @-@ Copyright Protection Society to destroy all unsold copies of the album , following a complaint from ABBA . In response , The JAMs disposed of many copies of 1987 in unorthodox , publicised ways . They also released a version of the album titled " 1987 ( The JAMs 45 Edits ) " , stripped of all unauthorised samples to leave periods of protracted silence and so little audible content that it was formally classed as a 12 @-@ inch single .
A limited edition release subjected to recall and a destruction order , 1987 became something of a rarity and by 2000 , mint condition copies were trading for £ 60 .
= = Background and recording = =
On New Year 's Day 1987 , Bill Drummond decided to make a hip hop record under the pseudonym " The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu " . Despite his small knowledge about modern music technology , he invited Jimmy Cauty , a former member of the band Brilliant , to join him . Cauty reportedly agreed , and The JAMs ' debut single " All You Need Is Love " was independently released on 9 March 1987 as a limited edition one @-@ sided white label 12 @-@ inch . Cauty conceived the pseudonym " Rockman Rock " , and Drummond used the nickname " King Boy D " .
The reaction to " All You Need Is Love " was positive , with the record being made single of the week in the British music weekly Sounds Magazine , and The JAMs lauded as " the hottest , most exhilarating band this year " . " All You Need Is Love " ' s reliance on uncleared , often illegal samples made commercial release impossible . In response , The JAMs re @-@ edited the single , removing or doctoring the most antagonistic samples , and re @-@ released it as " All You Need Is Love ( 106 bpm ) " in May 1987 . According to Drummond , profits from this re @-@ release funded the recording of their first album . The JAMs had completed and pressed copies of the album by early May 1987 , but did not have a distributor .
Like " All You Need Is Love " , the album was made using an Apple II computer , a Greengate DS3 digital sampler peripheral card , and a Roland TR @-@ 808 drum machine . Using portions from existing works and pasting them into new contexts , with the duo stealing " everything " and " taking ... plagiarism to its absurd conclusion , " several songs were liberally plagiarised . This mashup of samples was underpinned by rudimentary beatbox rhythms and overlaid with Drummond 's raps of social commentary , esoteric metaphors and mockery . Drummond would later say in an interview that :
We 'd just got ourselves a sampler , and we went sample @-@ crazy . We just ... went through my whole collection of records , sampling tons of stuff and putting it all together , and it ... was a real rush of excitement , when we were doing it .... When we put that record out , we knew what we were doing was illegal , but we thought it was gonna be such an underground record , nobody would ever hear about it . So the first thing that shocked us is that British rock papers gave a big review .
= = Composition = =
1987 is built around samples of other artists ' work , " to the point where the presence of original material becomes questionable " . The album is raw and unpolished , the sound contrasting sharply with the meticulous production and tight house rhythms of the duo 's later work as The KLF . The beatbox rhythms are basic ( " weedy " , according to Q Magazine ) , samples often cut abruptly , and distinctive plagiarised melodies are often played with a high @-@ pitched rasping accompaniment . The plagiarised works are arranged so as to juxtapose with each other as a backdrop for The JAMs ' rebellious messages and social comments . Lyrics include self @-@ referential statements of The JAMs ' agenda that clash with the fictional backstory adopted from The Illuminatus ! Trilogy . Several songs ( such as " The Queen and I " and " All You Need Is Love " ) have specific societal targets for Drummond 's satirical raps .
= = = Side one = = =
The album 's opening song , " Hey Hey We Are Not The Monkees " , begins with simulated human sexual intercourse noises arranged as a rhythm . The album 's first sample is " Here we come ... " from The Monkees ' theme . It progresses into a cryptic and bleak spoken verse from Drummond : " Here we come , crawling out of the mud , from chaos primeval to the burned out sun , dragging our bad selves from one end of time , with nothing to declare but some half @-@ written rhymes " . A cacophone of further samples from The Monkees ' theme and Drummond 's voice follow – " We 're not The Monkees , I don 't even like The Monkees ! " – before it gets interrupted by an original a cappella vocal line that later became The KLF 's " Justified and Ancient " – " We 're justified / And we 're ancient ... We don 't want to upset the apple cart / And we don 't wanna cause any harm " .
The track is followed by a long sample of a London Underground train arriving at and leaving a tube station , with its recorded warning to passengers , " Mind the gap ... " . " Don 't Take Five ( Take What You Want ) " follows , featuring The JAMs ' associates Chike ( rapper ) and DJ Cesare ( scratches ) . Built around The Dave Brubeck Quartet 's " Take Five " and Fred Wesley 's " Same Beat " , the lyrics are mostly unconventional , with the majority of the song containing references to food : " I was pushing my trolley from detergent to cheese when I first saw the man with antler ears . I tried to ignore but his gaze held my eyes when he told me the truth about the basket of lies " . Sounds considered the message of the song ( if any ) to be a modern version of Robin Hood : " This is piracy in action , with the venerable music industry figure , King Boy D , setting himself up as the Robin Hood of rap as he steals from the rich vaults of recording history " .
The first side of the LP closes with " Rockman Rock ( Parts 2 and 3 ) " , a homage to Jimmy Cauty that plagiarises from an array of sources , including the " Bo Diddley Beat " and " Sunrise Sunset " from the Fiddler on the Roof soundtrack . Led Zeppelin 's " Whole Lotta Love " , " Since I 've Been Loving You " and " Houses of the Holy " can be also heard in this track . Side one would not close until " Why Did You Throw Away Your Giro ? " , a track consisting of a question in reference to a line from " Rockman Rock " from a female adult jokingly answered by a male person , ended in 20 seconds .
= = = Side two = = =
The second side begins with " Mẹ Ru Con " , an emotive Vietnamese song originally titled " Ca Dao Mẹ " , written by Trịnh Công Sơn performed a cappella by The JAMs ' friend Duy Khiem . According to Drummond , it was a spontaneous recital by Khiem , who was in the studio contributing clarinet and tenor sax to the album . Khiem 's vocal performance was later sampled by The KLF on the ambient house soundtrack to their movie , The Rites of Mu .
" The Queen and I " features extensive samples from ABBA 's " Dancing Queen " , often overlain with a rasping detuned accompaniment . These lead into Drummond 's satirical and discontent rapping , a fictional account of his march into the British House of Commons and Buckingham Palace to demand answers . The song also protests the involvement of cigarette companies in sport ( " When cancer is the killer / John Player run the league " ) and lambasts the " tabloid mentality " ( " They all keep talking about Princess Di 's dress " ) . The Sex Pistols ' " God Save the Queen " is briefly sampled . After nearly three minutes of samples from the television show Top of the Pops , as well as sound clips from programmes and advertisements on other TV channels , Drummond cries " Fuck that , let 's have The JAMs ! " . The acerbic " All You Need Is Love ( 106 bpm ) " follows . A " stunning audio collage " featuring an AIDS public information film , a rerecording of glamour model Samantha Fox 's " Touch Me ( I Want Your Body ) " , and the nursery rhyme " Ring a Ring o ' Roses " , " All You Need Is Love " comments on sex and the British media 's reaction to the AIDS crisis .
The final track on the album is " Next " , which Drummond describes as " the only angst @-@ er on the album " , with " imagery of war and sordid sex " . The track samples Stevie Wonder 's " Superstition " , Scott Walker 's " Next " from Scott 2 , the Fall 's " Totally Wired , " and Julie Andrews ' " The Lonely Goatherd " from The Sound of Music , alongside Khiem 's original melancholy clarinet and tenor saxophone contributions ( " a saxophone of stupefying tediosity " , according to Danny Kelly ) .
Bill Drummond summed up The JAMs ' approach to composition in the first " KLF Information Sheet " , sent out in October 1987 : " We made [ the album ] not giving a shit for soul boy snob values or any other values , we just went in and made the noise we wanted to hear and the stuff that came out of our mouths .... Not a pleasant sound but it 's the noise we had . We pressed it up and stuck it out . A celebration of sorts . " Jimmy Cauty defended sampling as an artistic practice : " It 's not as if we 're taking anything away , just borrowing and making things bigger . If you 're creative you aren 't going to stop working just because there is a law against what you are doing . "
In 1991 , Drummond admitted : " We didn 't listen to 1987 What The Fuck 's Going On for a long time , and when we did we were embarrassed by it because it was so badly recorded . But I still felt we were able to get a lot out of ourselves through it . "
= = Release , reception and controversy = =
1987 ( What the Fuck Is Going On ? ) was released in June 1987 on The JAMs ' own record label , " The Sound of Mu ( sic ) " .
1987 was met with mixed reviews in most of the major British music publications , including Melody Maker , NME , Sounds , and Q , and the album came to the attention of the management of Swedish pop group ABBA : The JAMs had sampled large portions of the ABBA single " Dancing Queen " on the track " The Queen And I " . A legal showdown with ABBA and the Mechanical @-@ Copyright Protection Society ( MCPS ) followed , 1987 was forcibly withdrawn from sale , and The JAMs were ordered to " deliver up the master tape , mothers , stampers and any other parts commensurate with manufacture of the record " .
King Boy D and Rockman Rock travelled to ABBA 's home country of Sweden , in the hope of meeting with ABBA personally , taking an NME journalist and photographer with them , along with most of the remaining copies of the LP and a gold disc of the album . Failing to find ABBA in residence at Polar Studios in Stockholm , they instead presented the gold disc to a blonde prostitute they pretended was Agnetha " fallen on hard times . " Of the original LP 's stock , some copies were disposed overboard on the North Sea ferry trip across , and the remainder were burned in a field in Gothenburg before dawn ( as shown on the cover of their next album , Who Killed The JAMs ? ) . The JAMs also played a recording of " The Queen and I " loudly outside the offices of ABBA 's record label , Polar Music . The trip was unexpectedly eventful , the JAMs accidentally hitting and killing a moose , and later being shot at by a farmer , a bullet cracking the engine of their Ford Galaxie police car . They were , by their own account , towed back to England by the AA .
The JAMs were not entirely sure what they would have said to ABBA if they had been able to meet them . Rockman told NME : " We were hoping to explain [ our artistic justification ] to them and that maybe we 'd come out of it friends , you know , them producing our album and us producing theirs — the kind of thing that often happens at these meetings . " King Boy : " Yeah , we 'd have said , ' Look , you haven 't had many hits lately , you don 't really wanna bother with all this West End musical shit do you ? Come and do the new JAMMS [ sic ] album . ' " In 1994 , The Guardian looked back on the Swedish sojourn as " a grand , futile , attention @-@ grabbing gesture , the kind that would come to characterise [ the duo 's ] collaborative career ... " We were being totally stupid about it " Drummond later acknowledged . "
The JAMs offered what they claimed were " the last five " copies of 1987 for sale at £ 1000 each in a full @-@ page advertisement in the April 1988 edition of The Face . Drummond argued that the offer exploited a loophole in The JAMs ' agreement with the MCPS : " We were browsing around this record shop and came across these five copies of 1987 .... We made it perfectly clear to the MCPS that we couldn 't actually force the shops to send our LPs back .... [ B ] ecause we bought them in a shop , these LPs don 't come into the agreement and we can do what we like with them and not break any laws . "
= = Critical response = =
Q magazine had mixed reactions to 1987 , saying that there are " too few ideas being spread too thin " . The magazine criticised some songs as " overlong " and questioned the overuse of sampling as " the impression of a random hotchpotch " . Q also unfavourably commented that The JAMs ' " use of the beatbox is altogether weedy " . It liked some of its tracks : " there are some wickedly amusing ideas and moments of pure poetry in the lyrics while some of the musical juxtapositions are both killingly funny and strong enough to stand repeated listenings " .
A reviewer for Melody Maker found 1987 " inspirational " , and " the most exciting , most original record [ he 'd ] heard in years " . He also argued that : " Some snatches [ of plagiarised music ] rather outstay their welcome , tugging tell @-@ tale glitz away from the clifftop and dangerously close to smug obviousness , but when the blows are kept short , sharp and very bloody , they make anything else you 're very likely to hear on the radio dull and desperately humourless . " " It 's easy to dismiss The JAMs frolics as little more than a brightly coloured sideshow to the shabbiest circus in town " , a later article said , but " believe me , it 's far more than a gimmick " .
In awarding 1987 the highest rating , a maximum five stars , Sounds — a publication that offered the duo 's work consistent approval — mused , " Taking the sound of the moment ( hip hop ) as a backbone , 1987 steals sound artefacts from anywhere ... and meshes them together with King Boy 's hysterical ' Clydeside ' rap method with bewildering effect . ... [ Y ] ou could call this sampling technology 's answer to T. S. Eliot 's arch cut up work , The Wasteland . " " What 's so good about The JAMs " , the magazine said , " is the way they are capturing on disc the whole social and musical confusion and instability of 1987 Britain " .
NME 's Danny Kelly was not so impressed . He also felt that the record was underdeveloped and The JAMs were not the most skilled of practitioners . " Audacity , completely unfounded self @-@ confidence , utter ruthlessness and a fast car will , of course , be useful attributes to the go @-@ ahead noise @-@ pirate of the 90s , but skill , feel , instinct , vision — y 'know , boring old talent — will still be bottom line compulsories ... it 's in these latter commodities that the JAMs seem conspicuously undertooled . " Compared to the output of DJ Code Money or Cut Creator ( " all humour , vibrancy and colour ... – aerosoled version [ s ] of The Book of Kells " ) Kelly felt Drummond 's efforts to be a " glitter @-@ crusted charity Christmas card " . A later NME item called 1987 " the best comment on sampling culture ever made " .
A retrospective review by Allmusic commented that 1987 is " a hilarious record " filled with " comments on music terrorism and [ The JAMs ' ] own unique take on the Run @-@ D.M.C. type of old @-@ school rapping " ; and The Penguin Price Guide for Record & CD Collectors called 1987 an " entirely brilliant example of the art of disc @-@ jockey @-@ as @-@ producer " . Giving another retrospective review from across the Atlantic , Trouser Press described 1987 as " energetic " and " a loopy dance album that isn 't unlike a lot of sampled records , but proceeds from an entirely different cultural understanding . "
= = Personnel = =
Bill Drummond and Jimmy Cauty were responsible for the concept and production of 1987 , its lyrics and the TR @-@ 808 beatbox rhythms . Drummond provided rap , and an additional rapper introduced as ' Chike ' appears on " Don 't Take Five ( Take What You Want ) " and " Rockman Rock ( Parts 2 and 3 ) " . Duy Khiem contributed lead vocals to " Mẹ Ru Con " , as well as clarinet and tenor sax to " Rockman Rock ( Parts 2 and 3 ) " and " Next " . Uncredited female vocalists on " Hey Hey We Are Not The Monkees " , " Rockman Rock ( Parts 2 & 3 ) " and " All You Need Is Love ( 106 bpm ) " are identified by one source as Cressida Cauty ( Jimmy 's wife ) and June Montana , the lead vocalists of the KLF Communications side project Disco 2000 .
= = Track listing = =
Side one
Side two
= = " 1987 : The JAMs 45 Edits " = =
Following the enforced deletion of the 1987 album , the Justified Ancients of Mu Mu released an edited version as a 12 " single , with all of the unauthorised samples removed , leaving sparse instrumentation , Drummond 's social commentary and , in several cases , long periods of silence ; the " Top of the Pops " section of the original LP yielded three minutes of silence on 45 Edits , and the only sample remaining from the original was The Fall 's " Totally Wired . "
The edited single was sold through normal retail channels and also offered as a " reward " to anyone who returned a copy of the LP to The JAMs ' post office box . The single was released on 16 October 1987 , and on 31 October 1987 The JAMs announced that the case with ABBA " is now closed " . The sleevenotes to " 1987 : The JAMs 45 Edits " explain to the purchaser in a rather tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek fashion how to recreate the original 1987 album for themselves :
This record is a version of our now deleted and illegal LP ' 1987 , What The Fuck Is Going On ? ' with all of the copyright infringing ' samples ' edited out . As this leaves less than 25 minutes of music we are able to sell it as a 12 @-@ inch 45 . If you follow the instructions below you will , after some practice , be able to simulate the sound of our original record . To do this you will need 3 wired @-@ up record decks , a pile of selected discs , one t.v. set and a video machine loaded with a cassette of edited highlights of last weeks ' Top of the Pops ' . Deck one is to play this record on , the other two are to scratch in the missing parts using the selected records . For added authentic effect you could use a Roland 808 drum machine ( well cheap and what we used in the original recordings ) to play along behind your scratching .
By 2000 , a copy of the original version of 1987 in mint condition was worth £ 60 , whereas a mint copy of " 1987 : The JAMs 45 Edits " was worth a mere £ 10 .
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= 2011 Coca @-@ Cola 600 =
The 2011 Coca @-@ Cola 600 , the 52nd running of the event , was a NASCAR Sprint Cup Series motor race held on May 29 , 2011 , at Charlotte Motor Speedway in Concord , North Carolina . Contested over 400 laps on the 1 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) asphalt quad @-@ oval , it was the twelfth race of the 2011 Sprint Cup Series season . The race was won by Kevin Harvick for the Richard Childress Racing team . David Ragan finished second , and Joey Logano clinched third .
There were 14 cautions and 38 lead changes among 19 different drivers throughout the course of the race . The result moved Harvick to the second position in the Drivers ' Championship . He remained 36 points behind first place driver Carl Edwards and one ahead of Jimmie Johnson in third . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet was first with 83 points , six ahead of Ford . Toyota was third with 64 points , 24 points ahead of Dodge . The race was extended to 402 laps and 603 miles ( 970 km ) , making it the longest race in NASCAR history . 145 @,@ 000 people attended the race , while 10 @.@ 1 million watched it on television .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Charlotte Motor Speedway is one of ten intermediate to hold NASCAR races . The standard track at Charlotte Motor Speedway is a four @-@ turn quad @-@ oval track that is 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) long . The track 's turns are banked at twenty @-@ four degrees , while the front stretch , the location of the finish line , is five degrees . The back stretch , opposite of the front , also had a five degree banking . The racetrack has seats for 140 @,@ 000 spectators .
Before the race , Ford driver Carl Edwards led the Drivers ' Championship with 416 points ; Chevrolet driver Jimmie Johnson was second with 392 points , 24 points behind Edwards . Kyle Busch followed in third with 379 points , 15 ahead of Dale Earnhardt , Jr. and 17 ahead of Kevin Harvick in fourth and fifth . Matt Kenseth with 342 was two points ahead of Ryan Newman in seventh . Clint Bowyer , Kurt Busch and Tony Stewart rounded out the top ten positions . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet was leading with 74 points , three points ahead of Ford . Toyota , with 60 points , was 37 points ahead of Dodge in the battle for third . Kurt Busch was the race 's defending champion .
The Coca @-@ Cola 600 was conceived by race car driver Curtis Turner , who built the Charlotte Motor Speedway . It was first held in 1960 in an attempt by NASCAR to stage a Memorial Day weekend race to compete with the open @-@ wheel Indianapolis 500 ; the two races were held together on the same day starting from 1974 . The race is the longest in terms of distance on the NASCAR calendar and is considered by several drivers to be one of the sport 's most important races alongside the Daytona 500 , the Brickyard 400 and the Southern 500 . The long distance makes it the most physically demanding event in NASCAR , and teams adapt to changing track conditions because the race occurs between late afternoon and evening . It was known as the World 600 until 1984 when The Coca @-@ Cola Company purchased the naming rights to the race and renamed it the Coca @-@ Cola World 600 in 1985 . It has been called the Coca @-@ Cola 600 every year since 1986 except for 2002 when the name changed to Coca @-@ Cola Racing Family 600 .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Three practice sessions were held before the race ; the first on Thursday , which lasted 90 minutes . The second and third were both on Saturday . The first Saturday practice lasted 45 minutes , while the second lasted 60 . Jeff Burton was quickest with a time of 28 @.@ 635 seconds in the first session , 0 @.@ 084 seconds faster than Edwards . Johnson was just off Edwards ' pace , followed by Denny Hamlin , Ryan Newman , and Brad Keselowski . Kasey Kahne was seventh , still within a second of Burton 's time .
Forty @-@ eight cars were entered for qualifying , but only forty @-@ three could qualify for the race because of NASCAR 's qualifying procedure . Keselowski clinched the second pole position of his career , with a time of 28 @.@ 112 seconds . He was joined on the front row of the grid by A. J. Allmendinger . Edwards qualified third , Hamlin took fourth , and Burton started fifth . Johnson , David Reutimann , David Ragan , Ricky Stenhouse , Jr. and Clint Bowyer rounded out the top ten . The five drivers that failed to qualify for the race were Andy Lally , T. J. Bell , Scott Wimmer , Tony Raines , and Scott Riggs . Once the qualifying session completed , Keselowski commented , " It ’ s an important weekend for Penske Racing and an important weekend for the country . The 600 is a big race for NASCAR , it has a lot of tradition and to add my name to the list of pole winners is pretty special but I ’ d like to add it to those who have won it . This is the first step to doing that . "
In the second practice session , Paul Menard was fastest with a time of 28 @.@ 610 seconds , less than six @-@ hundredths of a second quicker than second @-@ placed Kurt Busch . Earnhardt , Jr. took third place , ahead of Hamlin , Kahne and Mark Martin . In the third and final practice , Reutimann was quickest with a time of 29 @.@ 271 seconds . Marcos Ambrose followed in second , ahead of Menard and Kyle Busch . Burton was fifth quickest , with a time of 29 @.@ 385 seconds . Hamlin , Greg Biffle , Martin Truex , Jr . , Kurt Busch , and Ragan rounded out the top ten positions .
= = = Race = = =
The race , the twelfth in the season , began at 6 : 00 p.m. EDT and was televised live in the United States on Fox . The conditions on the grid were dry before the race with the air temperature at 85 ° F ( 29 ° C ) . Jim Daly , president of Focus on the Family , began pre @-@ race ceremonies , by giving the invocation . Capitol Nashville recording artist Darius Rucker performed the national anthem . Then , John Falkenbury , President of the USO , Master Sergeant Spanky Gibson , Gene Gibson and Mary Gibson gave the command for drivers to start their engines .
Keselowski retained his pole position lead through the first lap . By the end of the following lap , Edwards moved to up to second , as Clint Bowyer moved up to the eighth position . On the same lap , Stenhouse , Jr. collided into the wall , but sustained minor damage . Two laps later , Mike Skinner also collided into the wall . On the eighth lap , Edwards passed Keselowski to become the leader of the race . One lap later , Burton moved up to fourth , as Stenhouse , Jr. reported no damage to his car resulting from the collision . At lap 12 , Jeff Gordon moved up three positions to eighth , while Skinner retired from the race . Three laps later , Reutimann moved up to sixth after passing Johnson . On the 19th lap , Truex , Jr. moved to twelfth . On the 24th lap , Allmendinger passed Keselowski to move to the second position . Six laps later , Biffle reported that the cool box ( air conditioning box ) would have to be replaced during their first pit stop . By the 37th lap , Edwards had a 2 @.@ 6 second lead over Allmendinger .
On the 42nd lap , Jamie McMurray pitted , as Burton moved up to the third position . On the following lap , Reutimann and Truex , Jr. pitted , one lap before Allmendinger . Two laps later , Johnson , Gordon , and Earnhardt , Jr. pitted , as Edwards took the lead . Once the pit stop session completed , Edwards was the leader , ahead of Allmendinger and Kenseth . On the following lap , Hamlin passed Kenseth to take the third position . Johnson passed Keselowski to take over the fifth position at the 57th lap . On lap 60 , Earnhardt , Jr. passed Gordon to move up into tenth . By the 63rd lap , Edwards had expanded his lead over Allmendinger to 2 @.@ 7 seconds . Six laps later , Earnhardt , Jr. moved up to the eighth position , as Edwards continued to expand his over Allmendinger to 4 @.@ 4 seconds . On the 74th lap , the first caution was given because of debris on the track . During the caution , most of the race leaders pitted . At the lap 79 restart , Burton was the leader , ahead of Edwards , Hamlin , Kenseth and Johnson .
On the following lap , Hamlin passed Edwards to take over the second position , one lap before he would pass Burton to become the leader . On the 82nd lap , Johnson moved up to third after passing Edwards . Two laps later , Johnson passed Burton to take over the second position , as Robby Gordon drove to the garage . On lap 85 , Kenseth moved up to the third position . Burton , who restarted in the first position , had fell to the ninth position by the 89th lap . Three laps later , Earnhardt , Jr. moved up to the sixth position . Afterwards , McMurray passed Jeff Gordon to take over tenth . Five laps later , the second caution period began after Bobby Labonte spun sideways . Most of the race leaders decided to pit during the caution . At the lap 103 restart , Ragan became the leader , ahead of Reutimann and Juan Pablo Montoya in second and third . One lap later , Montoya passed Reutimann to move to the second position , a lap before Kenseth , who restarted fifth , overtook Montoya to take the position .
On the 108th lap , Kenseth passed Ragan to move into the first position . Four laps later , Edwards passed Montoya to claim the fourth position , as Kyle Busch passed Reutimann for ninth . By lap 125 , Kenseth had a 3 @.@ 7 second lead over Hamlin . Thirteen laps later , Edwards passed Hamlin to take over the second position , as Kyle Busch moved up to ninth . On lap 145 , Reutimann pitted , marking the beginning of the pit stop session . The session lasted four laps , and Kenseth remained the leader ahead of Edwards . On lap 151 , Ambrose moved up to the fourth position after passing Ragan . On the 160th , Kurt Busch reported a loose wheel , and immediately pitted . Eight laps later , McMurray moved up to the eighth position . On lap 171 , the third caution period began because of debris on the track . During the caution , most of the race leaders pitted . At the lap 175 restart , Ambrose became the leader , ahead of McMurray and Montoya . In the next two laps , McMurray moved to first , while Kenseth took over the second position . On lap 181 , Kenseth reclaimed the first position from McMurray , one lap before McMurray 's engine failed to cause the fourth caution . After the restart , the fifth caution was given after Casey Mears and Landon Cassill collided .
At the lap 193 restart , Kenseth remained the leader ahead of Ambrose . On the following lap , Ambrose took the lead from Kenseth , but would fall to second after he retook the position on lap 199 . By lap 213 , Kenseth had a 2 @.@ 5 second lead over Ambrose , as Johnson moved up to 11th . Eight laps later , Harvick pitted , two laps before Ambrose and three before Edwards . On lap 133 , the sixth caution was given after Mike Bliss stalled his car . Most of the race leaders pitted during the caution . At the lap 240 restart , Ambrose was the leader , as Menard collided into the wall to cause the seventh caution . Five laps later , the Ambrose restarted in the first position . On the 250th lap , Earnhardt , Jr. passed Johnson to take over the fifth position . Seven laps later , Kenseth moved up to the seventh position . Kenseth continued to move up , passing Hamlin for third by lap 275 .
Three laps later , another pit stop session began , as Ragan pitted . Pit stops continued until the caution was given for debris on lap 282 . At the lap 287 restart , Kyle Busch was the leader ahead of Ambrose and Ragan . Two laps later , the ninth caution was given because David Starr collided into the wall . Two laps after the restart , the tenth caution was given after Cassill ran through the grass on the front straightaway . During the caution , Hamlin pitted to replace a carburetor . At the lap 301 restart , Kyle Busch continued to lead as Martin , Newman , and Gilliland collided into each other , causing the 11th caution . Most of the race leaders pitted during the caution , as Jeff Gordon became the leader .
On the 314th lap , Biffle moved up to the seventh position , as Logano and Stenhouse , Jr. collided into the wall , but sustained minor damage . Four laps later , the 12th caution was given after Kyle Busch spun sideways . Some of the race leaders decided to pit during the caution . However , Kahne , Harvick , and Earnhardt , Jr. didn 't pit and became the race leaders on the restart . On lap 328 , Earnhardt , Jr. reclaimed the third position from Biffle . Two laps later , Biffle passed Earnhardt , Jr. for third , but lost the position to Harvick on the same lap . On the 333rd lap , Johnson moved up to the ninth position , as Keselowski moved up to fifth . Seven laps later , Ambrose made an unscheduled pit stop . Three laps later , the 13th caution was given after Kyle Busch spun for the second time . After pit stops , Gordon was the leader on the restart , as Kyle Busch drove to the garage . On lap 351 , Biffle became the leader after passing Gordon .
Four laps later , Gordon lost another position after being passed by Kahne . Afterwards , Gordon continued to lose positions as Ragan passed him on lap 360 . Three laps later , Hamlin claimed the fifth position after passing Kenseth . Thirteen laps later , Earnhardt , Jr. moved up to the third position , as Kenseth moved to fourth after passing Ragan . With seven laps remaining , Kenseth and Gordon pitted for fuel . On lap 396 , Johnson 's engine failed , causing the 14th caution . Biffle also pitted during the caution , while Kahne tried to race without refueling . At the lap 400 restart , Kahne was the leader , but was passed by Earnhardt , Jr. one lap later . On the final lap , Earnhardt , Jr. was able to drive to the fourth turn before running out of fuel . Harvick passed Earnhardt , Jr . ( who would drop to seventh ) to win his third race of the season , ahead of Ragan and Logano .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
Harvick appeared in victory lane after his victory lap to start celebrating his third win of the season , in front of a crowd of 145 @,@ 000 people . The race also became the longest in NASCAR history after being extended by two laps . " Today we were lucky . We didn ’ t have a spectacular night , but to be in victory lane says a lot about this Budweiser team . I griped and griped and griped all day about how terrible it [ the car ] was , " said Harvick of his triumph .
Although Earnhardt , Jr. was leading the race on the final lap , Harvick passed him after he ran out of fuel in the final corner . Earnhardt , Jr . , who finished seventh , said , " We weren 't supposed to make it . We run out of gas and kind of knew it . We played our hand . I tried to save a ton of gas . I know I didn 't save enough but as much as I could . " He continued , " I 'm disappointed we didn 't win . I know all our fans are disappointed to come so close . But if we 'd have won that race , it 'd have been a gift .
At Harvick 's press conference after the race , Harvick gave a speech about how bad he felt for Earnhardt Jr. and Harvick 's car owner , Richard Childress commented , " We all want to see Dale Junior win , but not at our expense . When I saw him come down the backstretch [ on the last lap ] , I said , ' Dale is going to win this race . ' Then I heard our spotter start screaming [ about Junior running out of fuel ] . I said , ' We ’ re going to win it – great . ' " The race result Harvick Stewart into the second position in the Driver 's Championship with 409 points , 36 points behind Edwards and one ahead of Johnson in the third position . Earnhardt , Jr. and Kyle Busch followed in fourth and fifth with 402 and 392 points . Kyle Busch was 15 points ahead of his brother Kurt in sixth . Chevrolet maintained their lead in the Manufacturers ' Championship with 83 points . Ford and Toyota placed second and third with 77 and 64 points , while Dodge was fourth with 40 . 10 @.@ 1 million people watched the race on television . The race took four hours , thirty @-@ three minutes and fourteen seconds to complete , and the margin of victory was 0 @.@ 703 seconds .
= = Results = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race results = = =
= = Standings after the race = =
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= Francis Folger Franklin =
Francis Folger Franklin ( October 20 , 1732 – November 21 , 1736 ) was the eldest son of Founding Father of the United States Benjamin Franklin by Deborah Read .
In 1736 , four @-@ year @-@ old Francis contracted the smallpox virus and died shortly thereafter .
Benjamin Franklin , who had been inoculated earlier in his own life , had intended for his son to be inoculated as well . However , due to an illness affecting Francis at the time planned for his inoculation , the procedure was postponed .
His death devastated both his parents , who doted upon Francis , and after this incident , Franklin became " the most eloquent advocate of smallpox inoculation . "
= = Life = =
Francis Folger Franklin was born on October 20 , 1732 , in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania ( then a colony in British America ) . He was the eldest legitimate son of Benjamin Franklin , then the publisher of the Pennsylvania Gazette , and Deborah Read . Franklin also had an illegitimate son , William ( born c . 1730 – 31 ) , whose mother may have been a maid in the household , perhaps a woman named Barbara , or even Deborah Read herself . It has been suggested that William was Franklin 's son by Deborah , but was acknowledged as illegitimate because he had been conceived before the marriage of his parents . Some accounts argue that William 's birth was legitimized sometime after Francis ' death , possibly due to the lack of an heir .
The baby 's middle name , Folger , was the maiden name of Franklin 's mother , Abiah . Franklin was proud of his maternal family ( one of the first settlers of New England ) and thus , in an era when a middle name was unusual for ordinary people to receive , Francis was baptized as Francis Folger . Francis ' baptism took place on September 16 , 1733 , while Franklin was away , at the Anglican Christ Church in Philadelphia , which Deborah attended .
Francis , affectionately called " Franky " by his parents , was described as a " precocious , curious and special " child by Franklin , " a golden child , his smiles brighter , his babblings more telling and his tricks more magical than all the other infants in the colonies combined " by historian of medicine Howard Markel and as " a most engaging child , of singular beauty and wonderful knowingness " by biographer James Parton . Given that Franklin considered Francis to be a " healthy child who thrived from the start , " and " very clever , " he advertised for a tutor for his two sons in December 1734 . By all accounts , Francis was doted on by his parents ; his portrait was painted while he was still a baby . By 1734 , Franklin 's business as a writer , publisher and founder of the Library Company of Philadelphia was going well enough that he was able to build a house for his family of four , at 318 Market Street .
= = Death and aftermath = =
Franklin and his brother , James , criticized smallpox inoculation , which was performed by drawing a string , previously in contact with the pustules of a smallpox victim , through a small incision on the person being inoculated . At the time , inoculation offered a mortality chance of 2 % , while smallpox contracted naturally was fatal to 15 % of the infected . Later , while James still opposed inoculation , Franklin came to support it , believing it was a " safe and beneficial practice . " In 1736 , however , Francis contracted smallpox and died on November 21 of that year , without having been inoculated . Both Franklin and Deborah were devastated , and their devastation was compounded because they were unsure they could have another child . Ironically , Franklin had written his paper , " On the Death of Infants " , while Francis was still alive , and was inspired by his youngest son when writing about the beauty of babies . Francis was buried on the same day he died , his tombstone reading " The delight of all who knew him . "
Rumors quickly surfaced that Francis had died after being inoculated , and so , Franklin wrote in the Pennsylvania Gazette , on December 30 , that " [ he ] intended to get [ Francis ] inoculated as soon as he should have recovered sufficient strength from a flux with which he had been long afflicted , " and that the boy " received the distemper in the common way of infection . " However , the choice of having his son inoculated was a difficult one for Franklin , as Francis could die either way . Inoculation would become a real choice only if there was a high chance of smallpox being contracted naturally . In this case , the choice of having Francis inoculated was justified , even with its 2 % mortality rate .
After Francis ' death , Franklin became involved in promoting inoculation in Philadelphia : he published many studies on its value , working with several physicians , including the famed William Heberden at the Pennsylvania Hospital , which he helped found . In 1774 , he founded the " Society for Inoculating the Poor Gratis " , in order to help the poor people of Philadelphia afford inoculation . In his autobiography , Franklin writes :
" In 1736 I lost one of my sons , a fine boy of four years old , by the smallpox taken in the common way . I long regretted bitterly and still regret that I had not given it to him by inoculation . This I mention for the sake of the parents who omit that operation , on the supposition that they should never forgive themselves if a child died under it ; my example showing that the regret may be the same either way , and that , therefore , the safer should be chosen . "
Seven years after Francis ' death , Deborah gave birth to Sarah , who was Franklin 's only surviving , legitimate child . In 1772 , Franklin 's sister Jane Franklin Mecom , wrote him with news of his grandsons . Franklin replied that it " brings often afresh to my mind the idea of my son Franky , though now dead thirty @-@ six years , whom I have seldom since seemed equaled in everything , and whom to this day I cannot think of without a sigh . "
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= Geoff Horsfield =
Geoffrey Malcolm " Geoff " Horsfield ( born 1 November 1973 ) is an English former professional footballer and football coach . He made more than 300 appearances in the Football League playing as a striker .
He was a " strong and forceful " player , able to hold the ball up in order to bring other players into the game . Horsfield made his Football League debut with Scarborough as a teenager . Released by the club , he returned to part @-@ time football with Halifax Town , Guiseley and Witton Albion , before a second spell at Halifax saw him help the club regain their Football League status . He moved on to Fulham , with whom he achieved promotion to the First Division , before joining Birmingham City for a club record fee . He played in the final of the 2001 League Cup with Birmingham , and the following season helped them reach the Premier League .
After a short period at Wigan Athletic in 2003 , he joined West Bromwich Albion , with whom he again won promotion to the Premier League . In 2006 , he moved to Sheffield United , but much of his time there was spent on loan to other clubs , namely Leeds United , Leicester City and Scunthorpe United . Horsfield announced his retirement from football in 2008 after being diagnosed with testicular cancer , but after successful treatment he resumed his career , signing a six @-@ month contract for Lincoln City in January 2009 . In July of that year he was appointed player @-@ assistant manager at Port Vale under Micky Adams , and the following summer he took up coaching full @-@ time , before leaving the game completely in May 2012 . In March 2013 he returned to playing football for Alvechurch .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Horsfield was born in Barnsley , South Yorkshire , the son and grandson of coal miners . While still a schoolboy he started playing football for a men 's team , Athersley Recreation , in the Barnsley Sunday League , and had an unsuccessful trial with home @-@ town club Barnsley F.C. On leaving school , Horsfield took a college course in bricklaying . He continued playing football part @-@ time , with Athersley , with Worsbrough Bridge in the Northern Counties East League , and with Football League club Scarborough , where he turned professional in July 1992 . Given his league debut in March 1993 by manager Ray McHale , he was released after playing 12 league matches and returned to bricklaying and part @-@ time football . After a nine @-@ game spell with Halifax Town in 1994 , he rejoined manager McHale at Guiseley , where his 36 goals helped the club to reach third place in the Northern Premier League Premier Division in the 1994 – 95 season . He moved on to Witton Albion , where he sustained a potentially career @-@ threatening knee injury ; after making a full recovery he returned to Halifax for a fee reported as £ 4 @,@ 000 .
Horsfield made his second debut for Halifax in October 1996 . On the last day of the 1996 – 97 season , needing to beat Stevenage Borough to avoid relegation from the Conference , Horsfield scored the goal that clinched a 4 – 2 victory . The following season , Halifax won the Conference title by a nine @-@ point margin , thus regaining their Football League status . Horsfield 's 30 goals in 40 league games , including hat @-@ tricks against Yeovil Town , Telford United and Hereford United , made him that season 's Conference top scorer . Together with team @-@ mate Mark Bradshaw , Horsfield was selected for England 's semi @-@ professional representative team for a match against their Dutch counterparts , but injury prevented him from playing . In the Conference , Horsfield had still been working in the building trade while playing football part @-@ time , but promotion to the Football League meant he had to give up his job to become a full @-@ time footballer . Seven goals in his first ten games in the Third Division attracted a bid from Fulham , then in the Second Division and managed by Kevin Keegan .
= = = Fulham = = =
An initial fee of £ 300 @,@ 000 was agreed , plus an additional £ 50 @,@ 000 depending on appearances , and in October 1998 Horsfield joined Fulham . A clause was also included in the contract which would allow Halifax a share of the profits from any future sale . The remainder of his 1998 – 99 season produced 15 goals from 28 games as Fulham won the Second Division title by 14 clear points . He was also named in the PFA 's Second Division Team of the Year . According to Keegan , " Geoff 's your old @-@ fashioned centre forward and we love him . He will score goals in this division , he will score goals in the next divisions . He chases a lot of lost causes and is very important for us . " Though less prolific in the First Division , seven league goals and another seven in the cups still made him the club 's top scorer for the 1999 – 2000 season . After new manager Jean Tigana made it clear that Horsfield 's aggressive style and perceived lack of pace and mobility would not fit the way he wanted his new team to play , and brought in Louis Saha as his main striker , the player agreed to join Fulham 's First Division rivals Birmingham City .
= = = Birmingham City = = =
In July 2000 , Horsfield signed a five @-@ year contract with Birmingham , who paid a club record fee of £ 2 @.@ 25 million , £ 350 @,@ 000 of which went to Halifax Town under the sell @-@ on clause . He was their top scorer in his first season , finding the net on twelve occasions , and his two goals in the second leg of the League Cup semi @-@ final helped the club reach their first major final for nearly 40 years . In the starting eleven for the final against his boyhood heroes Liverpool , Horsfield had been substituted by the time Birmingham lost in a penalty shootout .
In the 2001 – 02 season , Horsfield was chosen Player of the Year both by Birmingham 's fans and by his team @-@ mates . His strike partnership with Stern John proved crucial in the unbeaten run which helped Birmingham reach the First Division play @-@ offs , and he scored the equaliser against Norwich City in the play @-@ off final , which the club went on to win on penalties to earn promotion to the Premier League . Horsfield had promised a donation to his first club , Athersley Rec , if he ever reached the Premiership ; a few days after the play @-@ off victory he gave them £ 25 @,@ 000 towards improving their facilities .
Horsfield 's first Premier League goal came in the September 2002 local derby defeat of Aston Villa . He also scored in the return fixture at Villa Park , an eventful game in which he ended up keeping goal when Nico Vaesen was injured after Birmingham had used all their substitutes . Horsfield missed games through suspension and surgery , and was frustrated by manager Steve Bruce preferring to use him as a specialist substitute ; after he came on to score a late winner against local rivals West Bromwich Albion , Bruce described him as " a manager 's dream " , saying that " when you 're tiring , the last thing you need is Big Horse rampaging at you " . Starting alongside World Cup @-@ winner Christophe Dugarry late in the season , the pair formed " an unlikely combination , brilliance from Bordeaux alongside a brickie from Barnsley , but Horsfield 's robust approach has complemented Dugarry 's more delicate touches " ; their partnership produced four wins and a draw from the last six games .
= = = Wigan Athletic = = =
Horsfield played in three Premier League matches for Birmingham City at the start of the 2003 – 04 season . When Bruce was unable to guarantee him a regular place in the team , Horsfield moved on to Wigan Athletic , signing a three @-@ year contract in September 2003 . A transfer fee of £ 500 @,@ 000 was agreed , though this could have risen to £ 1 million if the player had gone on to make enough appearances for Wigan . Horsfield said of the move , " I could easily have sat out the last two years of my contract at Birmingham , but that 's not my style – I just want to play football . " He scored on his debut for Wigan , in a 4 – 2 win against Wimbledon on 13 September 2003 . He continued to live in the West Midlands even after his transfer from Birmingham City , and after just three months at Wigan moved to West Bromwich Albion for £ 1 million .
= = = West Bromwich Albion = = =
Horsfield made his Albion debut in a 1 – 0 defeat away to Coventry City on 20 December 2003 . The following month he scored his first goal for the club , in a 2 – 0 win against Albion 's local rivals Walsall . It was the first of three goals he scored during January 2004 , earning him the PFA First Division Player @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Month award . In all he scored seven goals for Albion during 2003 – 04 , helping the club to achieve promotion to the Premier League .
The team struggled in their first season back in the top division , while Horsfield scored just three goals in 29 league appearances . His contribution on the final day of the season against Portsmouth however , proved vital to the club 's survival . Coming on as a second @-@ half substitute , he scored with his first touch , before setting up a goal for team mate Kieran Richardson . Combined with results from other matches , the 2 – 0 win ensured Albion 's escape from relegation as the first club to survive in the Premier League after being bottom at Christmas . Horsfield said of the achievement , " Even though I have been promoted with every club I have been at this is the best moment of my career . "
Horsfield enjoyed a good start to 2005 – 06 , signing a new two @-@ year contract and scoring twice in each of Albion 's first two home games , but these proved to be the last goals he would score for the club . He made a total of 20 appearances in league and cup during his final season at West Bromwich Albion .
= = = Sheffield United and loans = = =
Horsfield signed for Sheffield United on loan in February 2006 , but appeared in just three games under manager Neil Warnock in the four @-@ month spell . Both Horsfield and Warnock wanted to terminate the loan prematurely , but West Bromwich Albion had already agreed to sell the player to United at the end of the season and refused to go back on the deal . The permanent transfer went through in May 2006 for a fee of £ 1 @.@ 2 million , with Horsfield commenting that he and Warnock had resolved their differences .
On 3 August 2006 , Horsfield signed for Championship club Leeds United on loan until Christmas with a view to a permanent move . He made his debut on the opening day of the season , against Norwich at Elland Road , and scored his first goal in a 2 – 2 draw away at Queens Park Rangers three days later . When Dennis Wise took over as Leeds manager , Horsfield was in and out of the side and his loan was terminated in January 2007 . At the end of the January 2007 transfer window , Leicester City took Horsfield on loan for the rest of the season . He made his debut for the club in their 1 – 1 draw with Luton Town on 3 February , and scored his first goals for them in their 3 – 0 victory over local rivals Coventry City two weeks later .
Horsfield 's former West Bromwich Albion manager Bryan Robson became manager at Sheffield United at the start of the 2007 – 08 season , but Horsfield remained out of the side . His only appearances came in the League Cup , playing against Chesterfield in the first round and scoring against Milton Keynes Dons in the second . On 31 January 2008 he moved to Championship club Scunthorpe United on loan for the remainder of the season . He went straight into the Scunthorpe squad and made his debut against Charlton Athletic at Glanford Park ; the team won 1 – 0 and Horsfield won the sponsors ' " Man of the match " award . He played twelve games while on loan and was released by Sheffield United at the end of the season .
Horsfield had a trial at Chesterfield during the summer of 2008 , but rejected a move to Saltergate because he wanted to join a club closer to his home in Leicester . He then had a trial with Kettering Town and in September began training with Walsall .
= = = Lincoln City = = =
On 10 October 2008 , Horsfield revealed that he had been diagnosed with testicular cancer , and was advised that his playing career was finished . By December , after receiving successful treatment , he was reported to be considering a return to football , either as a player or in a coaching role . He linked up with Lincoln City , managed by former Halifax Town team @-@ mate Peter Jackson , for a week 's training to assess his fitness levels , and after an extended trial period , signed a short @-@ term playing contract to run from 2 January 2009 until the end of the season . He would also be involved with coaching the reserve team . Horsfield made his debut on 12 January against Brentford , setting up the equaliser for fellow debutant Anthony Elding in a 2 – 2 draw . After the game he declared he was " glad to be back playing " . He scored his first goal for the club on 27 January 2009 , in a 2 – 1 win against Gillingham , describing the long range shot " one of my sweetest strikes " . Horsfield played regularly during his time with Lincoln , but scored only that one goal , and at the end of the season the club decided not to renew his contract .
= = = Port Vale = = =
In July 2009 , Port Vale 's Micky Adams appointed Horsfield as player @-@ assistant manager . He aimed to play a majority of Vale 's games in the 2009 – 10 season while learning the ropes of management . He played in the opening four games of the season despite needing painkillers for a cracked rib and a cracked bone in his hand , the first broken bones he had ever suffered . The club reached the third round of the League Cup , but after three consecutive defeats , Adams placed the entire squad on the transfer list . He suffered from niggling injuries , in addition to a torn hamstring , which limited his appearances . This caused him to consider his retirement in the summer of 2010 . Port Vale did not offer him a new playing contract , but retained him on the coaching staff .
= = = Alvechurch = = =
In March 2013 , he joined Midland Football Alliance side Alvechurch , after agreeing to an offer from the Alvechurch chairman to play until the end of the season .
= = Coaching career = =
Twelve months after he joined Port Vale as player @-@ assistant manager in July 2009 , Horsfield was offered a contract at the club as full @-@ time assistant manager . Adams said that Horsfield would have a heavier workload over the 2010 – 11 season , which would include many hours of scouting in order to " formulate a catalogue of players [ and ] get to know all the leagues at all levels " , and he would retain his playing registration for emergencies .
In December 2010 , he was made joint caretaker manager at Vale , along with Mark Grew , following the departure of Adams . Vale were beaten 5 – 0 by Rotherham United in his first game in charge , but rallied to beat Burton Albion 2 – 1 , before Jim Gannon was appointed manager . Gannon retained Horsfield as his assistant . On the way to a match at Aldershot on 25 February , Gannon left the team bus after an apparent bust @-@ up with Horsfield . The national media reported that Gannon granted Horsfield 's request for a day off for family reasons but then wrote to the board complaining about his conduct . Having been shown the letter by a director , Horsfield confronted Gannon over the issue . After an internal inquiry , during which Horsfield stayed away from the club , no disciplinary action was taken against either party . Gannon was sacked on 21 March , and Grew was appointed as caretaker @-@ manager with Horsfield as his assistant .
In July 2011 , Horsfield stepped down as assistant manager to concentrate on his coaching qualifications , remaining at Port Vale as a coach . Later in the month he scored in a friendly against Stone Dominoes , but dismissed speculation that he would make a return to the playing side of the game . In December 2011 , loan striker Guy Madjo celebrated his first goal for the club by running over to Horsfield on the touchline , " to say thank you for all the finishing ( practice ) that we have been doing . He has shown me a lot of things that I haven 't done in the past . In seven years , I have been so many places , to so many clubs and I haven 't done that with anyone else , so I just feel it was a good dedication for him . " Horsfield retired completely from football in May 2012 to pursue business interests .
= = Personal life = =
He is married to Tina and has four children : Chris , Chloe , Leah and Lexie @-@ Brooke .
In October 2008 , Horsfield was diagnosed with testicular cancer , and advised that his playing career was over . As the disease was discovered in its early stages , no chemotherapy or radiotherapy was needed , surgery proved successful and less than two months later he was given the all @-@ clear . Horsfield decided to make his illness public to help spread awareness of the disease , and lent his support to a Premier League @-@ backed project launched in 2009 to promote men 's health issues . He said : " Getting cancer was something I had to get over . I got it , wanted to beat it and I did . Now I am just glad that I 've got another chance in football . "
Shortly before he joined Port Vale , Horsfield fell victim to the swine flu pandemic . In January 2013 , he received emergency treatment for blood clots on both lungs .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = As a player = = =
= = = As a manager = = =
= = Honours = =
Halifax Town
Football Conference champions : 1997 – 98
Football Conference top scorer : 1997 – 98
Fulham
Football League Second Division champions : 1998 – 99
Birmingham City
Football League Cup runners @-@ up : 2001
Football League First Division play @-@ off winners : 2002
West Bromwich Albion
Football League First Division runners @-@ up : 2003 – 04
Individual
PFA Second Division Team of the Year : 1998 – 99
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= Battle of Fort Anne =
The Battle of Fort Anne , fought on July 8 , 1777 , was an engagement between Continental Army forces in retreat from Fort Ticonderoga and forward elements of John Burgoyne 's much larger British army that had driven them from Ticonderoga , early in the Saratoga campaign of the American Revolutionary War .
Burgoyne , surprised by the American withdrawal from Fort Ticonderoga , hurried as many of his troops as possible forward in pursuit of the retreating Americans . The main body of the American forces had departed Fort Independence down the road to Hubbardton , and a smaller body of troops , accompanying the sick , wounded , and camp followers that had also evacuated the fort , had sailed up Lake Champlain to Skenesboro , moving from there overland to Fort Edward . This group , which included about 600 men under arms , paused at Fort Anne , where a smaller advance company from Burgoyne 's army caught up to them . The British , clearly outnumbered , sent for reinforcements . The Americans decided to attack while they had the numerical advantage , and succeeded in nearly surrounding the British position about three quarters of a mile ( 1 km ) north of the fort . The Americans retreated back to the fort when war whoops indicated the arrival of British reinforcements . While this was a ruse ( the reinforcements were a single officer ) , it saved the British force from probable capture . More of Burgoyne 's army soon came down the road , forcing the Americans to retreat from Fort Anne to Fort Edward .
It has been claimed that a flag was flown at Fort Anne that may have been the first instance of a flag consisting of stars and stripes ; this claim is supposedly false .
= = Background = =
On the night of July 5 – 6 , the Continental Army forces occupying Fort Ticonderoga were ordered to evacuate the fort by General Arthur St. Clair , following the approach of General John Burgoyne 's 8 @,@ 000 @-@ man army . Burgoyne 's men had placed a gun battery on top of Mount Defiance , overlooking the fort , and the American avenues of retreat were at risk of being cut off .
Most of the American forces left Ticonderoga and the surrounding defense works via Fort Independence and the road to Hubbardton . About 600 men under Colonel Pierse Long , most of them from New Hampshire , sailed up the lake in a flotilla consisting of 5 armed galleys and over 200 smaller transport vessels . These vessels were loaded with as many of the sick from the fort as they could take , stores and supplies , and armaments . Believing the log boom and pontoon bridge placed between Ticonderoga and Mount Independence to be sufficient to delay the British pursuit , Long began to sail up the lake toward Skenesboro , the southernmost navigable point on the lake , at a leisurely pace .
= = Pursuit = =
The British , however , were hardly slowed down by the water defenses . Burgoyne , once he learned of the American withdrawal on the morning of July 6 , ordered the defenses to be taken down . With well @-@ placed gunfire , the bridge and boom were eliminated as obstacles in the space of 30 minutes . At this point Burgoyne , breaking with rigid military discipline , ordered troops to follow southward as rapidly as possible , instead of remaining in formation , while he sailed southward in pursuit . Assisted by favorable winds , he was within three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) of Skenesboro by the end of July 6 , where the Americans , who arrived only two hours earlier , had a small stockade fort . In an attempt to surround the position , Burgoyne landed about 200 men from the 9th , 20th , and 21st regiments , commanded by Lieutenant Colonel John Hill , at a point south of Skenesboro with the objective of cutting off the road to Fort Anne .
The Americans were in the process of portaging around the falls at Skenesboro to Wood Creek when Burgoyne 's boats arrived and opened fire . Enterprise , Liberty , and Gates were destroyed by the Americans , and two ships , Trumbull and Revenge , were forced to surrender . In the process many of the American supplies were either destroyed or abandoned to the British . The Americans retreated toward Fort Anne in disarray , but not before starting a fire that eventually engulfed most of the structures at Skenesboro . When they reached Fort Anne they were met by 400 New York militia under Henry van Rensselaer , that had been sent by General Philip Schuyler from Fort Edward after he received news of the retreat from Ticonderoga .
The British pursuers under Hill , when they finally reached the road , captured more American supplies , sick and wounded , and camp followers that trailed behind the main body , and moved south until they were about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from Fort Anne . Here they encountered an American reconnaissance party numbering about 170 under Captain James Gray ; in the ensuing skirmish one American was killed and three more wounded before the Americans retreated to the fort .
= = Battle = =
On the morning of July 8 , a supposed American deserter , who was really a spy , informed Hill that the fort was occupied by nearly 1 @,@ 000 demoralized troops . Opting not to attack the numerically superior force , Hill sent a message back to Burgoyne outlining the situation . Burgoyne ordered the 20th and 21st regiments to quick @-@ march toward Fort Anne in support , but poor weather hampered their movement , and they did not arrive until after the battle . The " deserter " returned to Fort Anne and reported on the British position and troop strength .
Long , seeing how few British soldiers were following him , decided to attack their position . Moving as stealthily as possible , his force tried to surround the British while they were still on the road . However , Hill 's men heard the rebel movements on their flanks and retreated to a higher position , abandoning some wounded men , who were eventually captured by the Americans . When the Americans opened fire , it was " a heavy and well @-@ directed fire " , according to one British officer . The battle lasted for more than 2 hours , until both sides were nearly out of ammunition , and the British were virtually surrounded by Americans . The sound of Indian war whoops from the north prompted the Americans to retreat , and they retired to the fort with their wounded , including Van Rensselaer , who had taken a shot in the hip .
As it turned out , there were no Indians , but only a single British officer , John Money of the 9th regiment , Burgoyne 's deputy quartermaster . He had been leading a group of Indians , but when they seemed reluctant to fight the Americans , Money became impatient and ran ahead of them ; it was his war cries that brought an end to the battle .
= = Aftermath = =
Back at the fort the Americans held a brief council . From a woman that the British had freed , they heard that 2 @,@ 000 or more British troops under the command of General Phillips were rapidly advancing . Long 's men , as they were nearly out of ammunition , withdrew toward Fort Edward , burning the stockaded fort . Both sides claimed victory in the battle , since the British had successfully stood their ground , and the Americans had very nearly forced them to surrender . Any American claim for victory was tempered by the fact that the force they had defeated was clearly the vanguard of a much larger British force .
A British officer recovered some regimental banners either during this engagement , or following the American retreat from Fort Anne . It is widely claimed that one of the flags captured was a new design of American flag with thirteen red and white stripes and a constellation of stars , representing the earliest known use of the stars and stripes motif . However , this story is likely untrue , as the time needed for news of the flag design approved by Congress to travel , followed by construction of such a flag and then its delivery to such a remote location render the story implausible , and the flags known to have been recovered bear no resemblance whatsoever to the United States flag .
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= Puhoy =
" Puhoy " is the sixteenth episode of the fifth season of the American animated television series Adventure Time . The episode was written and storyboarded by Tom Herpich and Steve Wolfhard , from a story by Patrick McHale , Kent Osborne , and Pendleton Ward . It originally aired on Cartoon Network on April 8 , 2013 . The episode guest stars Mandy Siegfried as Roselinen , Jonathan Frakes as Adult Finn , and Wallace Shawn as Rasheeta .
The series follows the adventures of Finn ( voiced by Jeremy Shada ) , a human boy , and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake ( voiced by John DiMaggio ) , a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will . In this episode , Finn begins second @-@ guessing his relationship with Flame Princess , so he builds a giant pillow fort . While navigating it , Finn seemingly falls asleep and dreams that he ends up in a pillow world where he marries a pillow woman named Roselinen ( Siegfriend ) and has two children with her . In the pillow world , Finn grows old and dies , only to wake up in the real world . He soon receives a call from Flame Princess , reaffirming their relationship .
The appearance of Finn as an adult was based on Howard Keel 's character from the 1954 musical Seven Brides for Seven Brothers , which is a favorite of episode co @-@ storyboarder Wolfhard . The episode was viewed by 2 @.@ 75 million viewers and received a 0 @.@ 6 rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club wrote positively of the way the episode focused on character development , noting that the episode bore similarities to both The Wizard of Oz and Captain America . Similarly , Colin O 'Boyle of Geek Smash compared the episode to the Chronicles of Narnia by C.S. Lewis . For his work on the episode 's character designs , Andy Ristaino won an Emmy Award for " Outstanding Individual Achievement In Animation " at the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards , making it the series ' first Emmy win .
= = Plot = =
During a knife storm , Finn and Jake stay in and construct a massive pillow fort . Finn , however , is feeling down because Flame Princess did not laugh at his joke , which he takes as a sign that their relationship is over . Jake says Finn is imagining things , but Finn ventures into the pillow fort to let his mind " fester " . Inside , he passes through a portal into a magical pillow land . He saves a village from a " blanket dragon " , and the leader Quilton throws a celebration in his honor . Finn dances with Quilton 's daughter , Roselinen . However , no one knows how to get him home .
Years later , Finn and Roselinen have married and had two children , Bonnie and Jay . Quilton tells them that an ancient book has been discovered revealing that the door to Finn 's world appears periodically . Seeking more information , the family travels to the oracle Rasheeta , who says only that Finn will not remain in the land long . Finn thinks of Jake and decides he does not want to leave the pillow world . Eventually , he grows into an old man and dies surrounded by family . His spirit flies through a darkened realm and he emerges in the pillow fort , a child again . He starts to tell Jake about his other life , but gets a call from Flame Princess , who says she finally got his joke . After he hangs up , he cannot recall the life he just lived .
= = Production = =
" Puhoy " was written and storyboarded by Tom Herpich and Steve Wolfhard , from a story developed by series creator Pendleton Ward , Patrick McHale , and Kent Osborne . According to Osborne , this is one of the few episodes that the writers successfully developed by playing the game exquisite corpse . The episode was co @-@ directed by Nate Cash and Nick Jennings ; the former was credited as " supervising director " , whereas the latter handled the art direction . The episode guest stars Mandy Siegfried as Roselinen , Jonathan Frakes as Adult Finn , and Wallace Shawn as the oracle Rasheeta . Herpich noted that he was very pleased to cast Shawn , noting , " Big thanks to [ Wallace Shawn ] … who I finally got to cast in the show , thus shortening my bucket list . " Wolfhard designed adult Finn to be reminiscent of Howard Keel 's character from the 1954 musical Seven Brides for Seven Brothers . Wolfhard explained that the allusion was due to the fact that the musical is one of his personal favorites . In addition , Roselinen 's design was based on Wolfhard 's wife , Leslie , according to both Wolfhard and former character designer Andy Ristaino .
= = Reception = =
" Puhoy " aired on April 8 , 2013 on Cartoon Network . The episode was watched by 2 @.@ 75 million viewers , and received a 0 @.@ 6 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic Nielsen household rating . Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States , which means that the episode was seen by 0 @.@ 6 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds at the time of the broadcast . The episode was the 35th most @-@ watched cable program in the 18 – 49 demographic on the night it aired . The episode first saw physical release as part of the 2013 Jake the Dad DVD , which included 16 episodes from the series ' fourth and fifth seasons .
Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B + " , and praised the way the entry " focuses on building character " . He compared the episode stylistically to both The Wizard of Oz and Captain America , noting that all three deal with themes of traveling to distant lands and " teleport [ ing ] to … alternate dimension [ s ] " . In the end , Sava complimented the episode for dealing with the moral that , when in a relationship , people need to " slow down , don 't freak out , and communicate . " Colin O 'Boyle of Geek Smash compared the episode to the Chronicles of Narnia , a series of books by English author C.S. Lewis . He felt that the installment was " hilarious " and " pretty awesome " . He cited both " Adult Finn " and the " pillowy world " as highlights , noting that the former was a " badass " .
For his work on the episode , former lead character designer Ristaino won an Emmy Award for " Outstanding Individual Achievement In Animation " for his character designs , making it the series ' first Emmy win .
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= USS Manhattan ( 1863 ) =
USS Manhattan was a single @-@ turreted Canonicus @-@ class monitor built for the Union Navy during the American Civil War . After commissioning in 1864 the ship was assigned to the West Gulf Blockading Squadron and participated in the Battle of Mobile Bay . At the end of the battle , Manhattan took the surrender of the Confederate casemate ironclad ram Tennessee . She bombarded Fort Morgan during the Siege of Fort Morgan and later blockaded the mouth of the Red River until the end of the war .
The ship was placed in reserve after the end of the war and Manhattan was only occasionally recommissioned before being sold for scrap in 1902 .
= = Description and construction = =
The ship was 223 feet ( 68 @.@ 0 m ) long overall , had a beam of 43 feet 4 inches ( 13 @.@ 2 m ) and had a maximum draft of 13 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 1 m ) . Manhattan had a tonnage of 1 @,@ 034 tons burthen and displaced 2 @,@ 100 long tons ( 2 @,@ 100 t ) . Her crew consisted of 100 officers and enlisted men .
Manhattan was powered by a two @-@ cylinder horizontal vibrating @-@ lever steam engine that drove one propeller using steam generated by two Stimers horizontal fire @-@ tube boilers . The 320 @-@ indicated @-@ horsepower ( 240 kW ) engine gave the ship a top speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) . She carried 140 – 150 long tons ( 140 – 150 t ) of coal . Manhattan 's main armament consisted of two smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading , 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) Dahlgren guns mounted in a single gun turret . Each gun weighed approximately 43 @,@ 000 pounds ( 20 @,@ 000 kg ) . They could fire a 350 @-@ pound ( 158 @.@ 8 kg ) shell up to a range of 2 @,@ 100 yards ( 1 @,@ 900 m ) at an elevation of + 7 ° .
The exposed sides of the hull were protected by five layers of 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) wrought iron plates , backed by wood . The armor of the gun turret and the pilot house consisted of ten layers of one @-@ inch plates . The ship 's deck was protected by armor 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) thick . A 5 @-@ by @-@ 15 @-@ inch ( 130 by 380 mm ) soft iron band was fitted around the base of the turret to prevent shells and fragments from jamming the turret as had happened during the First Battle of Charleston Harbor in April 1863 . The base of the funnel was protected to a height of 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) by 8 inches ( 200 mm ) of armor . A " rifle screen " of 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ inch ( 13 mm ) armor 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) high was installed on the top of the turret to protected the crew against Confederate snipers based on a suggestion by Commander Tunis A. M. Craven , captain of her sister ship Tecumseh .
The contract for Manhattan , named after the Manhattan tribe of Indians that inhabited the island of the same name , was awarded to Perine , Secor & Co . ; the ship was laid down in 1862 by the primary subcontractor Joseph Colwell at his Jersey City , New Jersey shipyard . She was launched on 14 October 1863 and commissioned on 6 June 1864 with Commander J. W. A. Nicholson in command . The ship 's construction was delayed by multiple changes ordered while she was being built that reflected battle experience with earlier monitors . This included the rebuilding of the turrets and pilot houses to increase their armor thickness from 8 inches ( 203 mm ) to 10 inches and to replace the bolts that secured their armor plates together with rivets to prevent them from being knocked loose by the shock of impact from shells striking the turret . Other changes included deepening the hull by 18 inches ( 457 mm ) to increase the ship 's buoyancy , moving the position of the turret to balance the ship 's trim and replacing all of the ship 's deck armor .
The only known modification after the ship 's completion was the addition of a hurricane deck between the turret and the funnel sometime after the end of the Civil War .
= = Civil War service = =
After commissioning , Manhattan steamed for the Gulf of Mexico and arrived at the Pensacola Navy Yard on 7 July , towed by the side @-@ wheel gunboat Bienville . She required nearly two weeks to resupply and to repair damage from two small fires that started after her arrival . The ship reached Mobile Bay on 20 July , again towed by Bienville , where it joined the West Gulf Blockading Squadron .
Shortly after Tecumseh 's arrival on 4 August , Rear Admiral David G. Farragut , the squadron commander , briefed his captains on his plan for the next day 's battle . Manhattan and Tecumseh were to keep the ironclad ram Tennessee away from the vulnerable wooden ships while they were passing the fort and then sink her . The river monitors Winnebago and Chickasaw were to engage Fort Morgan until all of the wooden ships had passed . The four monitors would form the starboard column of ships , closest to Fort Morgan , with Tecumseh in the lead , while the wooden ships formed a separate column to port . The eastern side of the channel closest to Fort Morgan was free of obstacles , but " torpedoes " , as mines were then known , were known to be present west of a prominent black buoy in the channel .
About 07 : 40 , Tecumseh attempted to close with the Tennessee by passing through the minefield , but struck a " torpedo " and capsized within 90 seconds . Manhattan continued to engage the fort until all but the last pair of wooden ships had cleared the obstacles . She closed to a range of about 200 yards ( 180 m ) from the Confederate ironclad and began firing with her one operable gun ; a flake of iron had fallen into the vent hole of one of her guns and was jammed in place . One of her shots hit the Tennessee and broke the armor and its wooden backing so that daylight was visible through the side of the casemate . The shot failed to penetrate , and netting laid on the inside of the backing caught all of the splinters so that no one was injured . During the battle Manhattan fired a total of 11 shots , six at Tennessee and five at Fort Morgan . Nicholson claimed four hits , including the shot that broke the Tennessee 's steering chains and another that jammed her stern gun port shutter in the closed position . The monitor was hit nine times during the battle , but sustained no significant damage or casualties .
Manhattan had closed to about 50 yards ( 46 m ) distance when Nicholson spotted a white flag of surrender hanging from a boat hook on top of the Tennessee 's casemate and ordered his gunners to cease fire . Nicholson confirmed the Confederate ship 's surrender verbally and ran the monitor alongside so that one of his officers could seize the ironclad 's colors , which was lying in her scuppers . Unbeknownst to Nicholson , Commander James D. Johnston , captain of the Tennessee , intended to surrender to the wooden gunboat Ossipee and ignored Manhattan and her captain .
The ship subsequently participated in the bombardment of Fort Morgan , which surrendered 23 August . In November , Manhattan sailed to New Orleans , Louisiana and later to the mouth of the Red River , where she remained until the end of the war . Manhattan then steamed to New Orleans where she was laid up in ordinary in August 1865 . On 15 June 1869 , the ship was renamed Neptune , although she resumed her original name on 10 August .
= = Post @-@ war service = =
In 1870 Manhattan was transferred to Key West , Florida and then sailed to Philadelphia , Pennsylvania where she was refitted in 1872 – 73 . Recommissioned on 19 November 1873 , the ship returned to Key West for fleet maneuvers and then proceeded to Pensacola , Florida . Manhattan departed the west coast of Florida and sailed to Port Royal , South Carolina on 25 April 1876 . The ship patrolled off the Carolinas until June 1877 , when she sailed to Norfolk , Virginia . The following year she was towed up the James River and moored at Brandon , Virginia . Manhattan was transferred to City Point , Virginia in 1881 and then to Richmond , Virginia . The ship was taken to Philadelphia and laid up at League Island in 1888 , where she remained for the rest of her career . Manhattan was struck from the Navy List on 14 December 1901 and sold on 24 March 1902 for breaking up .
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= Italian ironclad Re Umberto =
Re Umberto ( " King Humbert " ) was a Re Umberto @-@ class ironclad battleship built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the 1880s , the lead ship of her class . She was laid down in July 1884 and launched in October 1888 ; work proceeded so slowly that she was not finished until February 1893 . She was armed with a main battery of four 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 340 mm ) guns and had a top speed of 20 @.@ 3 knots ( 37 @.@ 6 km / h ; 23 @.@ 4 mph ) , though this high speed came at the cost of armor protection .
Re Umberto carried out various duties during her service career , including large @-@ scale fleet maneuvers and diplomatic missions in Europe . She saw limited action during the Italo @-@ Turkish War in 1911 – 12 , escorting convoys and bombarding Ottoman troops in North Africa . By the end of the year she was withdrawn from front @-@ line service . Decommissioned before World War I , she was used during the war as a depot ship and then as a floating battery . In 1918 her armament was exchanged for a number of 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) guns and trench mortars as part of her role as the lead ship in the planned Italian assault on the main Austro @-@ Hungarian naval base at Pola . The war ended before the Italians could carry out the attack and she was stricken again in 1920 .
= = Design = =
Re Umberto was 127 @.@ 6 meters ( 419 ft ) long overall ; she had a beam of 23 @.@ 44 m ( 76 @.@ 9 ft ) and an average draft of 9 @.@ 29 m ( 30 @.@ 5 ft ) . She displaced 13 @,@ 673 metric tons ( 13 @,@ 457 long tons ; 15 @,@ 072 short tons ) normally and up to 15 @,@ 454 t ( 15 @,@ 210 long tons ; 17 @,@ 035 short tons ) at full load . Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of vertical compound steam engines , each driving a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by eighteen coal @-@ fired , cylindrical fire @-@ tube boilers . Her engines produced a top speed of 18 @.@ 5 knots ( 34 @.@ 3 km / h ; 21 @.@ 3 mph ) at 19 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 14 @,@ 500 kW ) . Specific figures for her cruising radius have not survived , but the ships of her class could steam for 4 @,@ 000 to 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 400 to 11 @,@ 100 km ; 4 @,@ 600 to 6 @,@ 900 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of 733 officers and men .
Re Umberto was armed with a main battery of four 13 @.@ 5 in ( 343 mm ) 30 @-@ caliber guns , mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one on either end of the ship . She carried a secondary battery of eight 6 in ( 152 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns placed singly in shielded mounts atop the upper deck , with four on each broadside . Close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats was provided by a battery of sixteen 4 @.@ 7 in ( 119 mm ) guns in casemates in the upper deck , eight on each broadside . These were supported by sixteen 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) 43 @-@ cal. guns and ten 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns . As was customary for capital ships of the period , she carried five 17 @.@ 7 in ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes in above @-@ water launchers . The ship was lightly armored for her size . She was protected by belt armor that was 4 in ( 102 mm ) thick , an armored deck that was 3 in ( 76 mm ) thick , and her conning tower was armored with 11 @.@ 8 in ( 300 mm ) of steel plate . The turrets had 4 in thick faces and the supporting barbettes had 13 @.@ 75 in ( 349 mm ) thick steel .
= = Service history = =
Re Umberto was named after the Italian King Umberto I of Italy . Re Umberto was built by the Castellammare Naval Shipyard in Castellammare di Stabia , Naples . Her keel was laid down on 10 July 1884 . After over four years of construction , she was launched on 17 October 1888 . Following sea trials , the battleship was formally commissioned into the Regina Marina on 16 February 1893 .
At the time the Re Umberto was commissioned into the Regina Marina , the navy maintained two battleship squadrons ; the Active Squadron and the Reserve Squadron . The ships alternated between the two in February of each year ; in 1895 , Re Umberto was assigned to the Reserve Squadron , along with the older battleships Ruggiero di Lauria , Italia , and Lepanto . In June 1895 , the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal in Germany was completed ; to celebrate , dozens of warships from 14 different countries gathered in Kiel for a celebration hosted by Kaiser Wilhelm II . Re Umberto was one of four battleships in the flotilla that represented Italy . All three ships of the class participated in the 1896 Naval Maneuvers in the Tyrrhenian Sea .
For 1903 , the Active Squadron was on active service for seven months , with the rest of the year spent with reduced crews . In 1904 – 05 , Re Umberto and her sisters were in service with the Active Squadron , which was kept in service for nine months of the year , with three months in reduced commission . The following year , the ships were transferred to the Reserve Squadron , along with the three Ruggiero di Laurias and the ironclad Enrico Dandolo , three cruisers , and sixteen torpedo boats . This squadron only entered active service for two months of the year for training maneuvers , and the rest of the year was spent with reduced crews . Re Umberto was still in the Reserve Squadron in 1908 , along with her two sisters and the two Ammiraglio di Saint Bon @-@ class battleships . By this time , the Reserve Squadron was kept in service for seven months of the year .
= = = Italo @-@ Turkish War = = =
On 29 September 1911 , Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire in order to seize Libya . At the time , Re Umberto and her two sisters were assigned to the Training Division , along with the old armored cruiser Carlo Alberto , under the command of Rear Admiral Raffaele Borea Ricci D 'Olmo . On 3 – 4 October , Re Umberto and her sisters were tasked with bombarding Fort Sultanje , which was protecting the western approach to Tripoli . The ships used their 6 @-@ inch guns to attack the fort to preserve their stock of 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch shells . By the morning of the 4th , the ships ' gunfire had silenced the guns in the fort , allowing landing forces to go ashore and capture the city . The ships of the Training Division thereafter alternated between Tripoli and Khoms to support the Italian garrisons in the two cities . In November , Re Umberto , Sicilia , the torpedo cruiser Partenope , the destroyer Fulmine , and the torpedo boat Cassiopea bombarded the oasis at Taguira , though no Turkish forces were present . The Italians then sent a garrison to protect the oasis .
By December , the three ships were stationed in Tripoli , where they were replaced by the old ironclads Italia and Lepanto . Re Umberto and her sisters arrived back in La Spezia , where they had their ammunition and supplies replenished . In May 1912 , the Training Division patrolled the coast , but saw no action . The following month , Re Umberto and her sisters , along with six torpedo boats , escorted a convoy carrying an infantry brigade to Buscheifa , one of the last ports in Libya still under Ottoman control . The Italian force arrived off the town on 14 June and made a landing ; after taking the city , the Italian forces then moved on to Misrata . Re Umberto and the rest of the ships continued supporting the advance until the Italians had secured the city on 20 July . The Training Division then returned to Italy , where they joined the escort for another convoy on 3 August , this time to Zuara , the last port in Ottoman hands . The ships covered the landing two miles east of Zuara two days later , which was joined by supporting attacks from the west and south . With the capture of the city , Italy now controlled the entire Libyan coast . On 14 October the Ottomans agreed to sign a peace treaty to end the war .
= = = Later career = = =
She was laid up in Genoa in 1912 and became a depot ship . Towed to La Spezia in June 1915 , after having been stricken from the Navy List on 10 May 1914 , she became a depot ship for the dreadnought Andrea Doria . She was reinstated on 9 December 1915 and became a floating battery at Brindisi and , later , Valona , Albania . In 1918 Re Umberto was tasked to lead the planned assault on the primary Austro @-@ Hungarian naval base at Pola and modified for the role by the removal of her armament and the addition of eight 3 @-@ inch guns with gun shields as well as a number of trench mortars . A special saw and cutters were also installed to deal with the harbor boom and net defenses . The war ended before the Italians could carry out the attack and she was again stricken on 4 July 1920 .
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= Cyclone Hellen =
Very Intense Tropical Cyclone Hellen of March 2014 was one of the most powerful tropical cyclones in the Mozambique Channel on record , as well as the second most intense of the 2013 – 14 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season . It formed on March 27 in the northern portion of the channel , and in its formative stages brought rainfall to coastal Mozambique . While moving southeastward , it developed an organized area of convection over the center . Warm waters allowed Hellen to rapidly intensify while passing south of the Comoros , with a well @-@ defined eye forming in the middle of the thunderstorms . The cyclone attained peak intensity March 30 , with maximum sustained winds estimated 230 km / h ( 145 mph ) according to the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center , Météo @-@ France in La Réunion . Subsequently , Hellen weakened quickly due to dry air and interaction with Madagascar , and the eye dissipated . On March 31 , the storm made landfall in northwestern Madagascar as a weakened cyclone , despite previous forecasts for the center to remain over water . By April 1 , Hellen was no longer a tropical cyclone after most of the convection dissipated . The remnants turned to the west , moving over Mozambique without redeveloping .
Early in its duration , Hellen 's rainfall in Mozambique destroyed hundreds of houses and a bridge . Flooding killed four people in the country , three of whom due to a home collapsing . Later , the cyclone passed south of the Comoros islands , causing flooding due to high storm surge and waves that killed one person . The storm forced 8 @,@ 956 people to evacuate their homes due to the threat for landslides , while 901 houses were damaged or destroyed . On nearby Mayotte , high rainfall flooded rivers , sweeping one car away . In northwestern Madagascar , Hellen damaged or destroyed 611 houses , leaving 1 @,@ 736 people homeless . The storm killed three people after capsizing a boat .
= = Meteorological history = =
On March 25 , 2014 , a weak area of low pressure accompanied by broad , flaring convection became increasingly organized over Mozambique . Owing to favorable environmental conditions , featuring low wind shear , vorticity became more enhanced and symmetrical . A compact system , the low steadily organized as it emerged over the Mozambique Channel on March 26 . Though continued land interaction initially hindered development , enhanced outflow supported convective development as it straddled the Mozambique – Tanzania border . With high sea surface temperatures in the storm 's track , the JTWC anticipated further organization and issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert at 2000 UTC on March 26 . Once further offshore on March 27 , the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center Météo @-@ France in La Réunion classified the system as Disturbance 14 . Drifting slowly east , a prominent feeder band developed along the system 's eastern side ; however , this band disrupted low @-@ level inflow of warm , moist air and suppressed convection over the circulation center .
Though convection later began to consolidate into a small central dense overcast ( CDO ) feature by March 28 , continued disruption of the low @-@ level inflow prevented much development . Météo @-@ France noted that despite forecasting the storm to peak as a moderate tropical storm , with winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) , there was potential for rapid intensification due to the storm 's small size . Conversely , the JTWC noted that proximity to land and dry mid @-@ level air , represented by surface outflow boundaries , could hamper significant development . Once further over the Mozambique Channel , the system became increasingly organized and the JTWC initiated advisories on the storm as Tropical Cyclone 21S . Météo @-@ France followed suit at 0000 UTC on March 29 and classified the cyclone as a moderate tropical storm , with the tropical cyclone warning center in Madagascar assigning the name Hellen . Hellen soon assumed an east @-@ southeast track toward Madagascar as a ridge established itself to the northeast . Throughout March 29 , the storm became increasingly organized with an eye apparent on microwave satellite imagery .
Rapid to explosive intensification ensued during the later half of March 29 into March 30 at a rate Météo @-@ France later referred to as " astounding " . Deep convective banding wrapped around a ragged eye , which soon contracted to " pinhole " size . This prompted Météo @-@ France to upgrade Hellen to a tropical cyclone with winds estimated at 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) at 0000 UTC on March 30 . Six hours later , they further upgraded the storm to an intense tropical cyclone with winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) . Hellen attained its peak intensity between 1100 and 1500 UTC as a very intense tropical cyclone , with winds of 230 km / h ( 145 mph ) and a barometric pressure of 925 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 32 inHg ) . This ranked it as one of the most powerful storms over the Mozambique Channel on record . The storm featured a 20 km ( 12 mi ) wide eye embedded within a symmetrical and intense CDO , spanning 240 km ( 150 mi ) across . The JTWC estimated Hellen to have attained one @-@ minute sustained winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) , making it a high @-@ end Category 4 @-@ equivalent cyclone on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale , although this was lowered to 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) in reanalysis .
After peak intensity , the cyclone 's eye soon began to fill and cool as weakening ensued . Defying previous forecasts , Hellen continued on a southeasterly track toward Madagascar and the likelihood of it making landfall became apparent . By the end of March 30 , Hellen 's eye had collapsed and disappeared from satellite imagery , as the combination of dry air and land interaction took their toll on the storm . At about 0800 UTC on March 31 , Hellen made landfall on northwestern Madagascar , and the previously unfavorable conditions coupled with land interaction to induce rapid weakening . The ridge to the east turned Hellen to a southwest drift over land . By early on April 1 , the convection largely dissipated as the center became difficult to locate , with peak winds dropping to 45 km / h ( 30 mph ) . As a result , Météo @-@ France discontinued advisories that day , as did the JTWC . The remnants moved back over open waters , but were not expected to reorganize due to the poor nature of the convection . As the low continued to the west , the convection increased on April 4 while approaching the coastline of Mozambique , although the system failed to redevelop before moving onshore .
= = Preparations and impact = =
During its formative stages , Hellen meandered around northern Mozambique and produced prolonged heavy rains over the region . The city of Pemba in Cabo Delgado Province was the hardest hit area , with the Messalo River over @-@ topping its banks . Tagir Carimo , mayor of Pemba , described the rains as the heaviest he had seen in 20 years . More than 100 poorly constructed homes collapsed in the floods while severe erosion exposed and destroyed water pipes . A major bridge connecting Pemba to surrounding areas was washed away by the Messalo river . This isolated the northern portion of Cabo Delgado Province from the rest of the country , forcing ferries to transport cars . Three people died in the district of Cariaco when their home collapsed while a fourth drowned in Chiuba . Distributing assistance following the storm was disrupted by damaged roads .
= = = Comoro Islands = = =
Heavy rains and storm surge caused significant damage on all three islands of the Comoros , with the worst occurring on Anjouan . There , 901 houses were damaged , of which about 20 % were destroyed . Flooding displaced 389 people in Salamani where 33 mud @-@ built homes were destroyed . Landslides isolated the villages of Chiconi , Hamaba , Koni @-@ Djodjo , Miringoni , and Nioumachioi , and damaged a road between Ngandzalé and Domoni . On the island , 7 @,@ 879 people had to evacuate their houses due to the risk of further landslides , some of whom went to schools set up as shelters while others stayed with family or friends . Storm surge on Mohéli flooded parts of Tsamia , Walla , and Zirindani , resulting in one fatality . Several houses were damaged on the island , and Djandro lost power due to a damaged power line . The Prince Said Ibrahim International Airport in Moroni on Grande Comore was closed for about 24 hours due to the storm . Also on the island , a road was damaged , and one house was flooded . Shortly after the storm , workers began repairing roads and distributing aid .
Though the center of Cyclone Hellen remained south of Mayotte , it prompted an " orange alert " on March 30 for the area due to the potential for hurricane @-@ force gusts . The storm 's rapid intensification caught most residents on the island off @-@ guard , with widespread disruptions to traffic and electricity taking place . Wind gusts up to 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) downed trees and power lines , blocking off roads while heavy rains caused significant flooding . A peak 24 ‑ hour rainfall of 239 mm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) was measured in Mtsamboro between March 29 and 30 . In M 'Tsangamouji , cars were swept away by a swollen river . Along the coast , waves up to 5 m ( 16 ft ) damaged marinas in Dzaoudzi , Hagnoundrou , and Mamoudzou where skiffs were smashed against rocks or stranded .
= = = Madagascar = = =
On March 31 , a boat capsized off the coast of northwest Madagascar , killing three and leaving nine others missing . High seas washed away 20 canoes along the coast . Initial assessments of damage across Madagascar were initially hampered by poor weather and inaccessibility . The storm flooded 7 @,@ 795 ha ( 19 @,@ 260 acres ) of rice fields across the country , as well as 114 ha ( 280 acres ) of other crops , threatening harvests after a locust outbreak had occurred in the months prior to the storm . The storm also killed 23 zebu and damaged two dams . Cyclone Hellen destroyed 437 houses and damaged or flooded 174 others , leaving 1 @,@ 736 people homeless during its passage . The storm also damaged two health facilities and five schools . Overall impact from Hellen was less than expected due to its weakening , with most telephone lines still intact .
Due to the storm affecting water access in northwestern Madagascar , there was concern for a disease outbreak , with a flu outbreak noted in Mahajanga . The national Red Cross utilized 54 volunteers to assist in the storm 's aftermath , such as distributing kitchen kits and agriculture units . Residents donated 2 million ariary ( $ 800 USD ) to the Red Cross , which were used to purchase medicines , while the government provided 600 kg ( 1 @,@ 300 lb ) of rice for affected residents .
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= Gruban v Booth =
Gruban v Booth was a 1917 fraud case in England that generated significant publicity because the defendant , Frederick Handel Booth , was a Member of Parliament . Gruban was a German @-@ born businessman who ran several factories that made tools for manufacturing munitions for the First World War . In an effort to find money to expand his business he contacted a businessman and Member of Parliament named Frederick Handel Booth , who agreed to provide the necessary money . After stealing money Booth tricked Gruban into handing over the company and then had him interned under war @-@ time regulations to prevent the story coming out .
Gruban successfully appealed against his internment , and as soon as he was freed brought Booth to court . The case was so popular that the involved barristers found it physically difficult to get into the court each day due to the size of the crowds gathered outside . Although the barristers on both sides were noted for their skill the case went almost entirely one way , with the jury taking only ten minutes to find Booth guilty . This was one of the first noted cases of Patrick Hastings , and his victory in it led to him applying to become a King 's Counsel .
= = Background = =
John Gruban was a German @-@ born businessman , originally named Johann Wilhelm Gruban , who had come to England in 1893 to work for an engineering company , Haigh and Company . By 1913 he had turned the business from an almost bankrupt company to a successful manufacturer of machine tools , and at the outbreak of the First World War it was one of the first companies to produce machine tools used to make munitions . This made Gruban a major player in a now @-@ large market , and he attempted to raise £ 5 @,@ 000 to expand his business . On independent advice he contacted Frederick Handel Booth , a noted Liberal Member of Parliament who was chairman of the Yorkshire Iron and Coal Company and had led the government inquiry into the Marconi scandal . When Gruban contacted Booth , Booth told him that he could do " more for [ your ] company than any man in England " , claiming that David Lloyd George ( at the time Minister of Munitions ) and many other important government officials were close friends . With £ 3 @,@ 500 borrowed from his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Booth immediately invested in Gruban 's company .
The sinking of the RMS Lusitania in 1915 created a wave of anti @-@ German sentiment , and Gruban worried that he would find it difficult to find government work because of his nationality and thick German accent . He again contacted Booth , who again claimed to be friends with David Lloyd George and his secretary , Christopher Addison , and said that if Gruban put Booth on the Board of Directors he could " do with the Ministry of Munitions what I like " . Gruban immediately made Booth the chairman of his company , and over 3 months took £ 400 on expenses . He then claimed that this was not enough money for the work he did , and he should get a secret payment of 10 % of the value of a contract known as the " Birmingham Contract " . The contract was worth £ 6 @,@ 000 , and Booth wrote a memo saying that he should have £ 580 or £ 600 . Gruban refused , and Booth threw the note in the wastepaper basket . From that point onwards Booth worked as hard as he could to undermine Gruban 's position , while outwardly appearing to be his friend .
Over the next few months a series of complaints came from the Ministry of Munitions about Gruban 's work and his German origins , ending in a written statement by David Lloyd George 's private secretary that it was " undesirable that any person of recent German nationality or association should at the present time be connected in an important capacity with any company or firm engaged in the production of munitions of war " . Booth showed this to Gruban and told him that the only way to save the company and prevent Gruban being interned was for him to transfer the ownership of the company to Booth . Gruban did this , and Booth immediately " came out in his true colours " , treating Gruban with contempt and refusing to help support his wife and family now that Gruban had no income . Eventually Booth wrote to the Ministry of Munitions saying that Gruban had " taken leave of his senses " , and the Ministry had Gruban interned .
Gruban appealed against the internment order , and was called before a court consisting of Mr Justice Younger and Mr Justice Sankey . After reviewing the facts of the case and the stories of Gruban and Booth the judges ordered the immediate release of Gruban , and recommended that he seek legal advice to see if he could regain control of his company . After he was released Gruban found a solicitor , W.J. Synott , who gave the case to Patrick Hastings .
= = Trial = =
Hastings felt that their best chances lay in interviewing Christopher Addison about his contact with Booth ; as Addison was a government minister he could be relied on to tell the truth . The case of Gruban v Booth opened on 7 May 1917 at the King 's Bench Division of the High Court of Justice in front of Mr Justice Coleridge . Patrick Hastings and Hubert Wallington represented Gruban , while Booth was represented by Rigby Swift KC and Douglas Hogg . The trial attracted such public interest that on the final day the barristers found it physically difficult to get through the crowds surrounding the Law Courts .
As counsel for the prosecution , Hastings was the first barrister to speak . In his opening speech to the jury he criticised Booth for loving money rather than his country , saying that one of the things which the English prided themselves on was fair play , and " no matter how loudly the defendant raises the cry of patriotism , I feel sure that your sense of fair play , gentlemen , will ensure a verdict that the defendant is unfit to sit in the House of Commons , as he has been guilty of fraud " . Hastings then called Gruban to the witness stand , and asked him to tell the jury what had happened . Gruban described how Booth had claimed to have influence over David Lloyd George . Gruban was then cross @-@ examined by Rigby Swift .
Booth was then called to the witness stand , and initially claimed that Gruban had claimed to be " a very powerful man " and that it had been a case of Gruban using his power to help Booth , not the other way around . He was still in the witness box when the court day ended , and the next morning it was announced that Christopher Addison had come to the court . The judge allowed Addison to give his testimony before they continued with Booth , and during a cross @-@ examination by Hastings Addison stated that he had not been advising Booth in any way , and that " to say that Gruban 's only chance of escape from internment was to hand over his shares to Mr Booth was a lie " .
The final witness was Handel Booth himself . Booth stated that he would never have asked for a ten @-@ percent commission on the Birmingham contract , and that he had never claimed he could influence government ministers . Hastings showed the jury that both of these statements were lies , first by showing the piece of paper Booth had scribbled the " Birmingham contract " memo on and then by showing a telegram from Booth to Gruban in which Booth claimed that he " [ had ] already spoken to a Cabinet Minister and high official " .
In his summing up Mr Justice Coleridge was " on the whole unfavourable to Booth " . He also pointed out that the German nationality of Gruban might prejudice the jury , and asked them to " be sure that you permit no prejudice on their hand to disturb the balance of the scales of justice " . The jury decided the case in only ten minutes , finding Booth guilty and awarding Gruban £ 4 @,@ 750 .
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= Dan Cocoziello =
Daniel F. " Dan " Cocoziello ( born August 8 , 1985 ) is a lacrosse defenseman who plays professional field lacrosse in the Major League Lacrosse ( MLL ) . He starred as a member of the Princeton Tigers men 's lacrosse team from 2005 through 2008 where he started every game . He is the only defenseman to have earned the Men 's Ivy League Rookie of the Year . He was a three @-@ time United States Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association ( USILA ) All @-@ American ( once first team and twice second team ) and three @-@ time All @-@ Ivy League selection ( twice first team and once second team ) . During his college career , Princeton earned an Ivy League championship and two NCAA Men 's Lacrosse Championship invitations . In high school , he won three state lacrosse championships .
= = Background = =
Born in Oldwick , New Jersey , Cocoziello was a baseball and soccer player in his youth . He attended elementary school at Gil St. Bernards in New Jersey . He met his middle school , high school and college teammate Alex Hewit taking an entrance exam for New Jersey 's Delbarton School in sixth grade . Even in seventh grade at Delbarton , Cocoziello was still a baseball player who was introduced to lacrosse during lunch and free periods with his classmates . He eventually got a lacrosse stick and started practicing as much as he could . In eighth grade , he joined the school team and made a New Jersey state eighth @-@ grade all @-@ star team along with Hewit that competed against all @-@ stars from other states . He eventually joined the varsity team and helped lead the team to a cumulative 63 – 4 record and three high school lacrosse state championships . He was regarded as the best high school lacrosse recruit in the nation in the 2003 , according to Inside Lacrosse . He played linebacker in high school football and was offered a scholarship to play for Hofstra University , but opted to play lacrosse at Princeton .
= = College career = =
He started every game of his career at Princeton , where he earned the 2005 Men 's Ivy League Rookie of the Year , the only defensemen to every to garner the award . That year he was an honorable mention All @-@ Ivy League selection . He was also the first defenseman to win the Ivy League Rookie of the Year award . He was a first team All @-@ Ivy League choice in 2006 & 2008 and second team choice in 2007 He was a first team USILA All @-@ American Team selection in 2008 and second team selection in 2006 and 2007 . He served as co @-@ captain of the 2008 team along with longtime teammate Alex Hewit and Bob Schneider . The 2006 team was Ivy League co @-@ champion with Cornell . Princeton qualified for the NCAA Men 's Lacrosse Championship in 2006 & 2007 . During Cocoziello 's junior year , while playing in a scrimmage against Towson University , broke his vehicular bone in his left foot . Originally diagnosed as a sprain , Cocoziello played his entire junior and senior season on the broken foot . Upon graduation in 2008 , he was correctly diagnosed and underwent reconstructive surgery following his 2008 MLL Season with the Denver Outlaws . The surgery was unsuccessful causing Cocoziello to discontinue playing lacrosse .
= = Professional career = =
Cocoziello began his MLL career with the Denver Outlaws during the 2008 MLL season . On February 20 , 2009 , he was reassigned to the Toronto Nationals . In 2010 , he was a member of the Boston Cannons .
He has appeared in no National Lacrosse League games . However , his National Lacrosse League rights were acquired by the Philadelphia Wings in the 2010 Orlando Titans dispersal draft .
= = = MLL statistics = = =
The following are his MLL career stats :
= = Life after the MLL = =
Cocoziello currently lives in New York City where he works in real estate for New York @-@ based StructureTone , Inc . He is also pursuing a Master 's in Real Estate from New York University .
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= 2010 Singapore Grand Prix =
The 2010 Singapore Grand Prix ( formally the 2010 Formula 1 SingTel Singapore Grand Prix ) was a Formula One motor race held on 26 September 2010 at the Marina Bay Street Circuit , Marina Bay , Singapore . It was the fifteenth race of the 2010 Formula One season , and the third Singapore Grand Prix held as part of the Formula One World Championship . The 61 @-@ lap race was won by Ferrari driver Fernando Alonso who started in pole position . Sebastian Vettel finished second for Red Bull , his teammate Mark Webber was third .
Alonso held off Vettel to maintain his start line advantage on the first lap . Lewis Hamilton , who started third , fought off teammate Jenson Button to retain his start position . The top two remained the same through the first and only round of pit stops . Webber 's team , Red Bull , opted to pit him early allowing him to move ahead of Hamilton . The race was neutralised by the deployment of the safety car after Kamui Kobayashi and Bruno Senna crashed on lap 31 . Hamilton retired after a collision with Webber shortly after the race restarted on lap 36 . Alonso maintained his lead throughout the remainder of the race despite pressure from Vettel .
The race was Alonso 's second consecutive victory and his fourth of the 2010 season ; he had started from pole position to win the Italian Grand Prix two weeks earlier . The win meant Alonso moved into second place in the World Drivers ' Championship , eleven points behind leader Webber . Hamilton 's retirement meant he slipped to third , while Vettel 's second @-@ place finish moved him into fourth ahead of Jenson Button . In the Constructors ' Championship Red Bull extended its lead to twenty @-@ four points ahead of McLaren . Ferrari was a further forty points behind , with four races remaining in the season .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
The 2010 Singapore Grand Prix was the fifteenth round of the 2010 Formula One season after taking a two @-@ week break from the previous race in Italy . The event was held at the Marina Bay Street Circuit in Marina Bay , Singapore on 26 September 2010 . The Grand Prix was contested by twelve teams with two drivers each . The teams ( also known as constructors ) were : McLaren , Mercedes , Red Bull , Ferrari , Williams , Renault , Force India , Toro Rosso , Lotus , Hispania , Sauber and Virgin . Tyre supplier Bridgestone brought four different tyre types to the race : two dry compounds ( super soft " options " and medium " primes " ) and two wet @-@ weather compounds ( intermediate and full wets ) . The soft compounds were denoted by a green stripe on their side @-@ walls ; the wet compound tyres were identified by a green line at the bottom of their central groove . The rules of 2010 Grand Prix races stipulated that all cars should use both types of tyre during a race unless the driver used any one of two wet @-@ weather compounds . Each driver was limited to eleven sets of dry tyres for the weekend .
Before the race , Red Bull driver Mark Webber led the Drivers ' Championship with 187 points . He was ahead of Lewis Hamilton in second with 182 points and Fernando Alonso in third on 166 points . Hamilton 's teammate Jenson Button was fourth with 165 points , and Sebastian Vettel was fifth on 163 points . Red Bull was leading the Constructors ' Championship with 350 points ; McLaren and Ferrari were second and third with 347 and 290 points respectively , while Mercedes on 158 and Renault with 127 points contended for fourth position . Red Bull , McLaren , and Ferrari had won the previous fourteen races of the season ( with victories being taken by Alonso , Button , Vettel , Hamilton and Webber ) . Felipe Massa ( twice ) , Robert Kubica had finished in second place , and Nico Rosberg ( three times ) , Massa ( twice ) and Kubica ( once ) had all finished in third .
Singapore was a critical race in the championship as all five drivers had a chance to take the lead with a victory . The situation was made difficult for Alonso as he had used his allocation of eight engines following the Italian Grand Prix , and to replace one would incur a ten @-@ place grid penalty . His rivals each had at least one untouched engine in reserve ; Webber had two . Nevertheless , Alonso set himself the target to score points in Singapore . He also acknowledged that his car was not the fastest in the field and felt he needed five podiums in the season 's five remaining races . Webber stated that he was expecting Singapore to be a tough weekend for him after he had retired from the event in 2008 and 2009 , but felt there was still some time before a driver clinched the championship . After crashing out of the first lap of the Italian Grand Prix , Hamilton said he would push hard to stay in the running for the championship : " I 'll take each race as it comes , but I 'll also be making sure I get to the finish of the next five races , that 's more important than anything . I go to Singapore to win . " Hamilton felt Alonso was the favourite to win the Singapore Grand Prix and viewed the Spanish driver as his main rival for the Drivers ' Championship which was shared by Red Bull team principal Christian Horner . Button himself believed Alonso would have an extra advantage as the Spaniard 's teammate Massa was out of contention for the title .
The Marina Bay Street Circuit was resurfaced between turns three and seven , along with turns thirteen to seventeen , after drivers complained about its bumpiness following the 2009 Singapore Grand Prix . The Singapore Sling chicane was adjusted to allow for a more gradual curve to exist which enabled a safer exit for drivers . The outside wall at turn 21 was brought closer towards the race track to cover up half of a drain which was previously exposed to cars , and the pit lane was resurfaced to allow for a smoother exit for drivers rejoining the circuit . Hamilton , a vocal critic of the circuit 's condition , described it as " dangerous " because it had remained uneven , and said the Singapore Sling chicane was " the worst corner I have ever driven in Formula One " despite the safety modifications made to it . The organisers of the Singapore Grand Prix introduced a new machine to clean the surface of the track after drivers had problems with a dusty and slippery track surface in the previous year 's race . Two days before the first practice session , drivers expressed concerns over low visibility caused by rain showers combined with the glare from the circuit lighting .
There were two driver changes heading into the Grand Prix . Hispania Racing announced that Sakon Yamamoto , one of the team 's drivers since the tenth race of the season , was to be replaced for the weekend by the team 's reserve driver Christian Klien because he was suffering from food poisoning . Several journalists noticed a seemingly healthy Yamamoto in the paddock , suggesting that he had been dropped for sponsorship reasons instead . Team principal Colin Kolles confirmed that the arrangement would be for one race and Yamamoto would return to the cockpit at Suzuka . Pedro de la Rosa was summarily dropped by Sauber and replaced by Pirelli test driver Nick Heidfeld , who last drove for the Sauber team in 2009 . The change was made because of de la Rosa 's poor performance relative to that of teammate Kamui Kobayashi , and Heidfeld 's knowledge of the Marina Bay Street Circuit and the Yas Marina Circuit .
Several teams made modifications to their cars in preparation for the event . McLaren , Red Bull , and Williams all revised their front wings . McLaren 's revision was designed to separate airflow into two separate channels , with both directing airflow around the outside of the car 's front tyres . Red Bull 's design , used in the Friday practice sessions , had two vertical slots to the rear of its endplate along with another to avoid creating a vortex when it operated with the planes and endplate . A previous design , debuted at the British Grand Prix , was used both in qualifying and in the race . In addition , the team used a revised diffuser to allow for better management of airflow to the top of the diffuser 's side section . Williams ' design debuted for the first time and was designed to make the tyre act like a diffuser which took air in to improve its efficiency .
= = = Practice and qualifying sessions = = =
Three practice sessions — two on Friday and a third on Saturday — were held before the main Sunday race . The Friday morning and afternoon sessions each lasted ninety minutes . The third session was held on Saturday morning and lasted an hour . The first practice session was initially held on a wet track with a clear sky after rainstorms earlier in the day left standing water on parts of the circuit , and high humidity slowed the drying process . These conditions meant drivers used intermediate tyres first before dry tyres were utilised in the session 's closing minutes . Webber set the fastest time of the first session with a late lap of 1 : 54 @.@ 589 , one @-@ tenth of a second faster than Michael Schumacher in second who was briefly quickest before Webber set his lap . Adrian Sutil , with a lap of 1 : 58 @.@ 827 , was third fastest , ahead of Vettel and Jaime Alguersuari . Button , Vitantonio Liuzzi , Sébastien Buemi , Kubica , and Vitaly Petrov rounded out the session 's top ten fastest drivers .
In the second practice session , when the track was still damp in some sections , Vettel set the fastest time of the night , a lap of 1 : 46 @.@ 660 on super @-@ soft tyres ; Webber finished with the second fastest lap . Button drove aggressively and battled Vettel for the fastest time throughout before he ended with the third quickest lap , half a second off Vettel 's pace . Alonso , who was fourth fastest , ran wide at turn 17 while on a quick lap and slid down the access road at the next corner ; he stalled while attempting to rejoin the track and abandoned his car requiring marshals to push his Ferrari away from the track . Hamilton was fifth , with Barrichello and Massa in sixth and seventh places . The two Mercedes drivers were eighth and tenth ; with Nico Rosberg ahead of Schumacher , separated by Kubica . Sutil 's Force India was launched into the air when he hit a kerb at the Singapore Sling chicane and his front @-@ left suspension was broken upon landing requiring him to miss half the session , and Alguersuari 's left @-@ rear tyre made contact with a barrier but he avoided major damage to his car . Sutil was fined US $ 10 @,@ 000 ( £ 6 @,@ 300 ) by the stewards because he attempted to drive back to the pit lane in his damaged car and did not stop at a safe position on the circuit .
Rain hit the circuit on Saturday afternoon , ending three hours before the session started , resulting in several damp patches on the circuit though the air temperature remained hot . Different sections of the circuit dried out at different rates making it difficult for drivers to tell precisely how wet or dry certain corners were . The teams ran intermediate tyres before switching to the super @-@ soft tyre as the session progressed . Some drivers ran deep into turn five . Vettel was the fastest driver of the session with a time of 1 : 48 @.@ 028 set in the last twenty minutes of the one @-@ hour period . The time was four @-@ tenths faster than championship rival Alonso . Hamilton was third fastest , two @-@ thousandths of a second in front of Massa . Rosberg was fifth , ahead of Webber and Nico Hülkenberg . Kubica , Sutil and Buemi completed the top ten ahead of qualifying . Hispania Racing driver Bruno Senna 's right @-@ rear tyre got onto a white line at the Singapore Sling chicane and spun . Senna later brushed a wall entering the Esplanade Bridge in the final minute and stopped his car , causing the yellow @-@ flags to be shown ; drivers were unable to improve on their lap times because of the limited time available .
The qualifying session held on Saturday afternoon was split into three parts . The first part ran for twenty minutes and eliminated the cars that finished the session eighteenth or lower from qualifying . The second part of qualifying lasted fifteen minutes and eliminated cars that finished in positions eleven to seventeen . The final part of qualifying determined the positions from first to tenth and decided pole position . Cars which competed in the final qualifying session were not allowed to change tyres before the race ; these started the race fitted with the tyres with which they set their quickest lap times . It was held in dry weather conditions . Alonso was fastest in the first and third sessions , and clinched his second consecutive pole position with a lap time of 1 : 45 @.@ 390 which he set on his first run of the third session . He was restricted to one timed lap in the second session because of an engine mapping problem , which meant Ferrari immediately re @-@ programmed Alonso 's engine upon discovering the issue . Alonso was joined on the front row of the grid by Vettel , who recorded a lap 0 @.@ 067 seconds off Alonso 's pace , and felt he could have taken pole position as he misjudged a gap while following Schumacher and brushed the wall exiting the Singapore Sling chicane . Hamilton qualified third and was happy with his starting position despite losing downforce on the track 's final sector while running in teammate Button 's tow . Button secured fourth and pushed hard in the final session which meant he had slight damage to his rear tyres on his first run , and could not get the optimum tyre temperature in the first section on his second run . Webber managed fifth and admitted that he was struggling to find a good rhythm when driving the circuit . Barrichello qualified in sixth . The two Mercedes drivers took seventh and ninth ; Rosberg ahead of Schumacher . Rosberg believed that he should have performed better in qualifying than in the practice session , as he felt the soft tyres lacked grip ; Schumacher was satisfied with his qualifying performance . The Mercedes drivers were separated by Kubica , in the faster Renault , who was happy with his lap time despite his car sliding from a lack of grip . Kobayashi rounded out the top ten qualifiers .
Alguersuari , who qualified eleventh , was the fastest driver not advancing to the final session . His best time of 1 : 47 @.@ 666 was 1 @.@ 8 seconds slower than Vettel 's pace in the second session . Alguersuari 's time was followed by Hülkenberg , who was backed up by Sutil on his first run in the second session , and described his car 's balance like " night and day " . However , Hülkenberg was demoted five positions on the grid after the Williams team changed his gearbox after the race at Monza . As a consequence , Petrov inherited 12th position having pushed hard on a set of option tyres . He had lost control of his car after he went deep , under braking , heading for turn five ( a corner that was damp from the earlier rain shower ) , with his right @-@ rear wheel hitting the wall . Petrov 's crash meant he took no further part in qualifying . He was ahead of Buemi , in the slower of the two Torro Rossos , who lost a large amount of grip and got stuck in traffic . Heidfeld took 14th ahead of his fellow countryman Sutil in 15th . Liuzzi had a problem with his front brakes on the first run of the second session and managed 16th . Timo Glock , Heikki Kovalainen and Lucas di Grassi were the quickest drivers unable to advance beyond the first part of qualifying . The eleventh row of the grid was filled by Jarno Trulli and Klien . Senna took 23rd . Massa was unable to set a timed lap as his gearbox seized without warning forcing him to stop on the circuit ; Ferrari chose to replace his engine and gearbox as a precaution . Massa 's engine change was his ninth of the season which incurred a ten @-@ place grid penalty , but since he started from 24th position , the penalty was nullified .
= = = Race = = =
The race began at 20 : 00 SST ( UTC + 8 ) . The conditions on the grid were dry and cloudy before the race ; the air temperature ranged between 29 – 32 ° C ( 84 – 90 ° F ) and the track temperature was 31 ° C ( 88 ° F ) ; no rain was predicted during the race . Most drivers started on the super @-@ soft compound tyre . Alguersuari started from the pit lane as his team discovered a coolant leak in his car . As the five red lights went out to signal the start of the race , Alonso maintained his pole position advantage heading into the first corner and withstood Vettel 's attempt to pass him . Button got an early advantage over teammate Hamilton , but Hamilton fought him to retain third place . Barrichello fell from sixth to eighth place . Kubica passed Rosberg at the start but the German regained the sixth position in the same lap . Further down the field , the early momentum was broken when Heidfeld , attempting to overtake both Force India cars at turn seven , hit Sutil 's rear , damaging his front wing . Liuzzi subsequently went into Heidfeld 's rear @-@ end after the latter squeezed him towards the wall , causing front wing damage to his car . Heidfeld made a pit stop for a replacement front wing at the end of lap one , while Massa made his only pit stop of the race for the medium compound tyres .
Liuzzi pulled over to the inside of the circuit on the third lap , at turn ten , with left @-@ rear suspension damage resulting from contact with the wall . His retirement triggered the deployment of the safety car as marshals were required to push his car away from the track . Webber was the only top running driver to pit for the medium compound tyres during the safety car period on lap four . Red Bull had told Webber to enter the pit lane , assuring him that it was the right decision , though he questioned the move . Several drivers towards the rear also chose to pit . Racing resumed at the end of lap five when the safety car pulled into the pit lane . Webber immediately pushed hard and passed Glock for tenth position and a line of cars began to form behind Glock . Alonso began to pull away from Vettel as he set consecutive fastest laps . Webber passed Kobayashi at turn five to move into ninth on lap seven , and withstood an attempt to Kobayashi to reclaim ninth heading into turn seven . Hülkenberg and Petrov 's wheels made contact and both drivers went off the circuit on the same lap ; Hülkenberg managed to move ahead of Petrov with Massa taking advantage to pass the Renault driver . Webber caught Schumacher on lap 11 and passed the Mercedes driver on the same lap at turn five after Schumacher ran wide . Vettel was told by his team to cool his brakes on the same lap as Alonso continued to extend his lead . Sutil got ahead of Glock for eleventh place three laps later and started to pull away from the queue behind Glock . Hülkenberg ran wide at turn seven on the same lap but did not lose any positions . Hülkenberg passed Glock in the first sector of the track for twelfth on lap 16 .
Vettel and Alonso traded fastest laps as they pushed hard in their efforts to build up a sufficient lead over Webber to maintain first and second positions after their pit stops . Massa , Petrov , Buemi and Alguersuari all passed Glock on lap 17 thus eliminating the queue of cars . By lap 20 , Alonso was leading Vettel by 3 @.@ 2 seconds ; he in turn was a further 11 seconds in front of Hamilton . Button was in fourth , 20 seconds behind Alonso , with Rosberg 3 @.@ 3 seconds behind the World Champion in fifth . Webber changed his engine settings to give him a higher top speed in an attempt to get past Barrichello and decrease the time gap to Hamilton on lap 22 . He avoided colliding with an Armco barrier at the entry of turn eighteen one lap later . Hamilton was told to increase his pace on the 24th lap to try to stay ahead of Webber after the pit stop phase . But his car had a large amount of oversteer , as his rear , super @-@ soft , compound tyres began to deteriorate , causing his lap times to drop off the leader 's pace . Trulli drove to the pit lane and was pushed by his mechanics into the Lotus garage to retire with an hydraulic issue on lap 28 . Hamilton made the first scheduled stop for tyres on lap 29 and re @-@ emerged in eighth position behind Webber . Alonso and Vettel made simultaneous pit stops on the following lap ; Alonso retained his lead despite Vettel 's pit crew completing their pit stop first ; Vettel avoided stalling and drove away in second gear . With newer tyres which provided more grip , Vettel recorded faster lap times than Alonso to close the time gap as the two came across slower cars .
Kobayashi attempted to pass around the outside of Schumacher on lap 31 but the two made contact with Schumacher subsequently hitting a barrier . Kobayashi damaged his Sauber , losing control of his rear @-@ end , and crashed at the exit of turn 18 after his front wing was knocked off entering the corner . Senna was slow to react and buried his Hispania nose @-@ first into the barrier alongside Kobayashi . These incidents called for the race 's second safety car period to allow removal of both cars from the circuit which were on the racing line . Klien was pushed into his garage to retire with an hydraulic problem on lap 34 . The safety car pulled into the pit lane at the end of lap 35 and the race resumed with Alonso leading . Hamilton got a run on Webber who was caught behind di Grassi and lined up an overtaking manoeuvre on the Red Bull driver , and overtook him on the Raffles Boulevard straight . Webber 's front @-@ right tyre hit Hamilton 's left @-@ rear tyre at turn seven . He escaped without significant damage , while Hamilton had a punctured tyre and pulled off the circuit to retire for the second consecutive race . However , Webber did feel vibrations on the front @-@ end of his Red Bull . His tyre , which made contact with Hamilton 's , had been pushed 5 millimetres off its normal mounting on the rim , and Button drew closer to Webber who managed to maintain a good pace . On lap 37 , Schumacher went into Heidfeld 's rear @-@ end and limped back to the pit lane to replace his damaged front wing creating sparks as it was dragged along the surface of the track , while Heidfeld retired after hitting a barrier . Button was urged by his McLaren mechanics on lap 42 to push Webber whose tyres were older , while Vettel gradually closed the gap with Alonso . Hülkenberg , in ninth , made a mistake on lap 44 which allowed Massa to momentarily take advantage , but he fought back and retained ninth position . Kubica sustained a right @-@ rear puncture on lap 46 and made a pit stop on the same lap , rejoining in 13th .
Upfront , Vettel had reduced the gap between himself and Alonso to one second by lap 50 as the pair continued to trade the fastest lap time . Glock started to slow on the circuit and drove to the pit lane to retire . It was later confirmed that his retirement was the result of an issue with his car 's hydraulic system . With the advantage of having newer tyres which gave him more grip , Kubica was able to make short work of Alguersuari , Buemi , his teammate Petrov , Massa , Hülkenberg , and Sutil ( who was holding up a queue of five cars ) in the space of nine laps . Vettel continued to pressure race @-@ leader Alonso in the closing laps as the pair began to encounter slower cars . Kovalainen and Buemi made contact in the final sector of the lap , with the Lotus driver spinning around in front of the Toro Rosso , who was quick to avoid a head @-@ on collision . Kovalainen 's car suffered a cracked fuel tank pressure release valve and he limped back to the pit lane , the rear of his Lotus catching fire during the final few turns . Kovalainen aborted the pit entry , but did not make it much further as his car was consumed by the fire . Kovalainen stopped on the main straight and got out of his car to extinguish the fire himself after members of the Williams team handed him a fire extinguisher . As Kovalainen was off the racing line , yellow flags were waved in the final corners instead of a safety car deployment .
Vettel drew to within two @-@ tenths of a second behind Alonso as the final lap started , and came across Sutil , Hülkenberg , Petrov and Massa ; both drivers managed to get past Petrov , and Alonso maintained the first position heading into the final sector of the track . The yellow flag for Kovalainen 's car meant that Vettel 's final chance of an overtake , into the final corner , was denied , and Alonso took the checkered flag on lap 61 to win the race , 0 @.@ 293 seconds ahead of Vettel . Alonso secured the first , and , as of 2015 , the only Grand Chelem ( leading the entire race from pole position with fastest lap ) of his career as well as the first since Schumacher achieved the feat at the 2004 Hungarian Grand Prix . Webber was third , 1 @.@ 2 seconds ahead of Button in fourth . Rosberg , Barrichello and Kubica took the next three positions . Sutil held off Hülkenberg in the final sector of the track for eighth and ninth on the line with Massa in tenth . Petrov , Alguersuari , Schumacher and Buemi finished one lap behind Alonso , with di Grassi and Kovalainen ( despite his retirement ) the last of the classified finishers .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
The top three drivers appeared on the podium to collect their trophies and , in a later press conference , Alonso said that his victory " meant a lot " for him to remain in contention for the Drivers ' Championship and thanked his team for their efforts during the weekend . Alonso added that Ferrari would give " 100 per cent " in the season 's four remaining races and said the battle remained " very tight " despite scoring the most points out of all the drivers in the previous five races . Vettel said that he was hoping that Alonso would make a mistake but acknowledged that it was difficult to overtake on the circuit . He also said that attempting to overtake Alonso in the final stages of the race was " the only chance " that he had of winning the race and hoped that the remaining tracks would suit his Red Bull car . Webber stated that he was " very happy " with his third @-@ place finish and said the entire race weekend was the toughest of the year on him . He also said that he did not feel comfortable throughout the weekend and that he was staying composed through certain sections of the race .
Alonso 's win his been regarded as one of the best of his Formula One career . Former Formula One driver Martin Brundle described it as : " one of those races in which two drivers elevate themselves on to a separate plane from their rivals . " It reminded him of the 2000 Japanese Grand Prix where Schumacher won that year 's world championship from his main rival Mika Häkkinen . Will Saunders of crash.net said in 2014 that Alonso : " had little right to wrestle a performance of such magnitude out of either himself or the Ferrari , yet he found another level that day . " After the eventual conclusion of the championship in Vettel 's favour by four points , Saunders said : " Alonso 's performance in Singapore showed he would have been an equally deserving championship victor . " ESPN listed it as one of Alonso 's top ten races while driving for Ferrari .
The stewards immediately investigated the accident between Webber and Hamilton on lap 37 and took no further action . Hamilton later reviewed the incident on video and was adamant that he was not at fault saying that he was " unlucky " for the second consecutive Grand Prix . Webber stated the contact nearly forced him to retire and compared the accident to Hamilton 's collision with Massa at the Italian Grand Prix . Brundle felt Hamilton should have given Webber more space and agreed with the stewards ' decision . Bridgestone director of motorsport tyre development Hirohide Hamashima stated Webber was " very lucky " to make the finish and that if left hand high @-@ speed corners were installed on the track , the tyre would have moved more frequently and lost its pressure . Horner had also admitted that Webber had been lucky with his tyre lasting for a long distance .
Schumacher and Heidfeld 's accident on lap 37 was investigated by the stewards who took no further action after deciding it was a " racing incident " . Heidfeld felt Schumacher had braked too late and hoped that he would have had a better finishing position . Schumacher himself said that he was not happy with his first race in Singapore but enjoyed the second half of the race . BBC pundit , and former team principal , Eddie Jordan was highly critical of Schumacher arguing that the German driver should have been sacked by Mercedes to prevent him from being " slaughtered " in the event he was unable to win another race . Mercedes team principal Ross Brawn came to Schumacher 's defense and said his team was " happy " with his contribution . Motorsport pundits criticised Kovalainen 's decision to stop his car on the pit straight after it had caught fire and argued that he was " irresponsible " . Kovalainen defended his action arguing that it had not been safe to drive his Lotus into the pitlane . Nevertheless , Kovalainen 's fire was voted the Moment of the Year by readers of Autosport magazine in December 2010 at the Autosport Awards held in London .
Sutil was given a 20 @-@ second time penalty by the stewards as he was deemed to gain an advantage by taking the outside line at turn seven on the first lap . This demoted him from eighth to tenth , and promoted Hülkenberg from ninth to eighth and Massa from tenth to ninth . Following a protest from Force India , Hülkenberg was issued a 20 @-@ second time penalty after the stewards deemed him to have gained an advantage by corner cutting . This ruling meant Hülkenberg was demoted to tenth while Massa moved up to eighth and Sutil inherited ninth . Force India withdrew an appeal of Sutil 's penalty following the decision , and Williams technical director Sam Michael said that his team had accepted the stewards ' judgement . The stewards elected not to penalise Senna after examining a video of his collision with the stationary Kobayashi . Kobayashi admitted that he was at fault for his retirement and Senna believed the marshals were late reacting to Kobayashi 's accident and felt his own accident was unavoidable .
As a consequence of the race , Webber 's third @-@ place finish allowed him to increase his lead in the World Drivers ' Championship . Alonso 's victory allowed him to move up into second place , eleven points behind Webber . Hamilton 's retirement meant that he slipped to third place , nine points behind Alonso . Vettel 's second @-@ place finish resulted in him moving into fourth place ahead of Button . In the World Constructors ' Championship , Red Bull 's strong finish allowed them to draw further ahead of McLaren who were now twenty @-@ four points behind . Ferrari remained in third on 319 points , forty points behind McLaren . Mercedes increased their points advantage over Renault to thirty @-@ five with four races remaining in the season .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
Notes
^ – Nico Hülkenberg was given a five @-@ place grid penalty for changing his gearbox after the Italian Grand Prix .
^ – Felipe Massa failed to set a lap time after stopping on the circuit in the first part of the qualifying session .
^ – Ferrari replaced Massa 's gearbox and engine – his ninth for the season – after his stoppage in qualifying ; Massa could not be penalised because he had already qualified last after failing to set a time .
= = = Race = = =
Notes
^ – Adrian Sutil was penalised 20 seconds post @-@ race for illegally gaining an advantage at turn seven on the first lap .
^ – Following a protest by Force India , Hülkenberg was penalised 20 seconds post @-@ race for illegally gaining an advantage .
^ – Jaime Alguersuari started from the pit lane following a coolant leak before the race .
= = Championship standings after the race = =
Bold text indicates who still has a theoretical chance of becoming World Champion .
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
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= Shale oil extraction =
Shale oil extraction is an industrial process for unconventional oil production . This process converts kerogen in oil shale into shale oil by pyrolysis , hydrogenation , or thermal dissolution . The resultant shale oil is used as fuel oil or upgraded to meet refinery feedstock specifications by adding hydrogen and removing sulfur and nitrogen impurities .
Shale oil extraction is usually performed above ground ( ex situ processing ) by mining the oil shale and then treating it in processing facilities . Other modern technologies perform the processing underground ( on @-@ site or in situ processing ) by applying heat and extracting the oil via oil wells .
The earliest description of the process dates to the 10th century . In 1684 , Great Britain granted the first formal extraction process patent . Extraction industries and innovations became widespread during the 19th century . The industry shrank in the mid @-@ 20th century following the discovery of large reserves of conventional oil , but high petroleum prices at the beginning of the 21st century have led to renewed interest , accompanied by the development and testing of newer technologies .
As of 2010 , major long @-@ standing extraction industries are operating in Estonia , Brazil , and China . Its economic viability usually requires a lack of locally available crude oil . National energy security issues have also played a role in its development . Critics of shale oil extraction pose questions about environmental management issues , such as waste disposal , extensive water use , waste water management , and air pollution .
= = History = =
In the 10th century , the Arabian physician Masawaih al @-@ Mardini ( Mesue the Younger ) wrote of his experiments in extracting oil from " some kind of bituminous shale " . The first shale oil extraction patent was granted by the British Crown in 1684 to three people who had " found a way to extract and make great quantities of pitch , tarr , and oyle out of a sort of stone " . Modern industrial extraction of shale oil originated in France with the implementation of a process invented by Alexander Selligue in 1838 , improved upon a decade later in Scotland using a process invented by James Young . During the late 19th century , plants were built in Australia , Brazil , Canada , and the United States . The 1894 invention of the Pumpherston retort , which was much less reliant on coal heat than its predecessors , marked the separation of the oil shale industry from the coal industry .
China ( Manchuria ) , Estonia , New Zealand , South Africa , Spain , Sweden , and Switzerland began extracting shale oil in the early 20th century . However , crude oil discoveries in Texas during the 1920s and in the Middle East in the mid 20th century brought most oil shale industries to a halt . In 1944 , the US recommenced shale oil extraction as part of its Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program . These industries continued until oil prices fell sharply in the 1980s . The last oil shale retort in the US , operated by Unocal Corporation , closed in 1991 . The US program was restarted in 2003 , followed by a commercial leasing program in 2005 permitting the extraction of oil shale and oil sands on federal lands in accordance with the Energy Policy Act of 2005 .
As of 2010 , shale oil extraction is in operation in Estonia , Brazil , and China . In 2008 , their industries produced about 930 @,@ 000 metric tonnes ( 17 @,@ 700 barrels per day ) of shale oil . Australia , the US , and Canada have tested shale oil extraction techniques via demonstration projects and are planning commercial implementation ; Morocco and Jordan have announced their intent to do the same . Only four processes are in commercial use : Kiviter , Galoter , Fushun , and Petrosix .
= = Processing principles = =
Shale oil extraction process decomposes oil shale and converts its kerogen into shale oil — a petroleum @-@ like synthetic crude oil . The process is conducted by pyrolysis , hydrogenation , or thermal dissolution . The efficiencies of extraction processes are often evaluated by comparing their yields to the results of a Fischer Assay performed on a sample of the shale .
The oldest and the most common extraction method involves pyrolysis ( also known as retorting or destructive distillation ) . In this process , oil shale is heated in the absence of oxygen until its kerogen decomposes into condensable shale oil vapors and non @-@ condensable combustible oil shale gas . Oil vapors and oil shale gas are then collected and cooled , causing the shale oil to condense . In addition , oil shale processing produces spent oil shale , which is a solid residue . Spent shale consists of inorganic compounds ( minerals ) and char — a carbonaceous residue formed from kerogen . Burning the char off the spent shale produces oil shale ash . Spent shale and shale ash can be used as ingredients in cement or brick manufacture . The composition of the oil shale may lend added value to the extraction process through the recovery of by @-@ products , including ammonia , sulfur , aromatic compounds , pitch , asphalt , and waxes .
Heating the oil shale to pyrolysis temperature and completing the endothermic kerogen decomposition reactions require a source of energy . Some technologies burn other fossil fuels such as natural gas , oil , or coal to generate this heat and experimental methods have used electricity , radio waves , microwaves , or reactive fluids for this purpose . Two strategies are used to reduce , and even eliminate , external heat energy requirements : the oil shale gas and char by @-@ products generated by pyrolysis may be burned as a source of energy , and the heat contained in hot spent oil shale and oil shale ash may be used to pre @-@ heat the raw oil shale .
For ex situ processing , oil shale is crushed into smaller pieces , increasing surface area for better extraction . The temperature at which decomposition of oil shale occurs depends on the time @-@ scale of the process . In ex situ retorting processes , it begins at 300 ° C ( 570 ° F ) and proceeds more rapidly and completely at higher temperatures . The amount of oil produced is the highest when the temperature ranges between 480 and 520 ° C ( 900 and 970 ° F ) . The ratio of oil shale gas to shale oil generally increases along with retorting temperatures . For a modern in situ process , which might take several months of heating , decomposition may be conducted at temperatures as low as 250 ° C ( 480 ° F ) . Temperatures below 600 ° C ( 1 @,@ 110 ° F ) are preferable , as this prevents the decomposition of lime stone and dolomite in the rock and thereby limits carbon dioxide emissions and energy consumption .
Hydrogenation and thermal dissolution ( reactive fluid processes ) extract the oil using hydrogen donors , solvents , or a combination of these . Thermal dissolution involves the application of solvents at elevated temperatures and pressures , increasing oil output by cracking the dissolved organic matter . Different methods produce shale oil with different properties .
= = Classification of extraction technologies = =
Industry analysts have created several classifications of the technologies used to extract shale oil from oil shale .
By process principles : Based on the treatment of raw oil shale by heat and solvents the methods are classified as pyrolysis , hydrogenation , or thermal dissolution .
By location : A frequently used distinction considers whether processing is done above or below ground , and classifies the technologies broadly as ex situ ( displaced ) or in situ ( in place ) . In ex situ processing , also known as above @-@ ground retorting , the oil shale is mined either underground or at the surface and then transported to a processing facility . In contrast , in situ processing converts the kerogen while it is still in the form of an oil shale deposit , following which it is then extracted via oil wells , where it rises in the same way as conventional crude oil . Unlike ex situ processing , it does not involve mining or spent oil shale disposal aboveground as spent oil shale stays underground .
By heating method : The method of transferring heat from combustion products to the oil shale may be classified as direct or indirect . While methods that allow combustion products to contact the oil shale within the retort are classified as direct , methods that burn materials external to the retort to heat another material that contacts the oil shale are described as indirect
By heat carrier : Based on the material used to deliver heat energy to the oil shale , processing technologies have been classified into gas heat carrier , solid heat carrier , wall conduction , reactive fluid , and volumetric heating methods . Heat carrier methods can be sub @-@ classified as direct or indirect .
The following table shows extraction technologies classified by heating method , heat carrier and location ( in situ or ex situ ) .
By raw oil shale particle size : The various ex situ processing technologies may be differentiated by the size of the oil shale particles that are fed into the retorts . As a rule , gas heat carrier technologies process oil shale lumps varying in diameter from 10 to 100 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 9 in ) , while solid heat carrier and wall conduction technologies process fines which are particles less than 10 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) in diameter .
By retort orientation : " Ex @-@ situ " technologies are sometimes classified as vertical or horizontal . Vertical retorts are usually shaft kilns where a bed of shale moves from top to bottom by gravity . Horizontal retorts are usually horizontal rotating drums or screws where shale moves from one end to the other . As a general rule , vertical retorts process lumps using a gas heat carrier , while horizontal retorts process fines using solid heat carrier .
By complexity of technology : In situ technologies are usually classified either as true in situ processes or modified in situ processes . True in situ processes do not involve mining or crushing the oil shale . Modified in situ processes involve drilling and fracturing the target oil shale deposit to create voids in the deposit . The voids enable a better flow of gases and fluids through the deposit , thereby increasing the volume and quality of the shale oil produced .
= = Ex situ technologies = =
= = = Internal combustion = = =
Internal combustion technologies burn materials ( typically char and oil shale gas ) within a vertical shaft retort to supply heat for pyrolysis . Typically raw oil shale particles between 12 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) and 75 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) in size are fed into the top of the retort and are heated by the rising hot gases , which pass through the descending oil shale , thereby causing decomposition of the kerogen at about 500 ° C ( 932 ° F ) . Shale oil mist , evolved gases and cooled combustion gases are removed from the top of the retort then moved to separation equipment . Condensed shale oil is collected , while non @-@ condensable gas is recycled and used to carry heat up the retort . In the lower part of the retort , air is injected for the combustion which heats the spent oil shale and gases to between 700 ° C ( 1 @,@ 292 ° F ) and 900 ° C ( 1 @,@ 650 ° F ) . Cold recycled gas may enter the bottom of the retort to cool the shale ash . The Union A and Superior Direct processes depart from this pattern . In the Union A process , oil shale is fed through the bottom of the retort and a pump moves it upward . In the Superior Direct process , oil shale is processed in a horizontal , segmented , doughnut @-@ shaped traveling @-@ grate retort .
Internal combustion technologies such as the Paraho Direct are thermally efficient , since combustion of char on the spent shale and heat recovered from the shale ash and evolved gases can provide all the heat requirements of the retort . These technologies can achieve 80 @-@ 90 % of Fischer assay yield . Two well @-@ established shale oil industries use internal combustion technologies : Kiviter process facilities have been operated continuously in Estonia since the 1920s , and a number of Chinese companies operate Fushun process facilities .
Common drawbacks of internal combustion technologies are that the combustible oil shale gas is diluted by combustion gases and particles smaller than 10 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) can not be processed . Uneven distribution of gas across the retort can result in blockages when hot spots cause particles to fuse or disintegrate .
= = = Hot recycled solids = = =
Hot recycled solids technologies deliver heat to the oil shale by recycling hot solid particles — typically oil shale ash . These technologies usually employ rotating kiln or fluidized bed retorts , fed by fine oil shale particles generally having a diameter of less than 10 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) ; some technologies use particles even smaller than 2 @.@ 5 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 10 in ) . The recycled particles are heated in a separate chamber or vessel to about 800 ° C ( 1 @,@ 470 ° F ) and then mixed with the raw oil shale to cause the shale to decompose at about 500 ° C ( 932 ° F ) . Oil vapour and shale oil gas are separated from the solids and cooled to condense and collect the oil . Heat recovered from the combustion gases and shale ash may be used to dry and preheat the raw oil shale before it is mixed with the hot recycle solids .
In the Galoter and Enefit processes , the spent oil shale is burnt in a separate furnace and the resulting hot ash is separated from the combustion gas and mixed with oil shale particles in a rotating kiln . Combustion gases from the furnace are used to dry the oil shale in a dryer before mixing with hot ash . The TOSCO II process uses ceramic balls instead of shale ash as the hot recycled solids . The distinguishing feature of the Alberta Taciuk Process ( ATP ) is that the entire process occurs in a single rotating multi – chamber horizontal vessel .
Because the hot recycle solids are heated in a separate furnace , the oil shale gas from these technologies is not diluted with combustion exhaust gas . Another advantage is that there is no limit on the smallest particles that the retort can process , thus allowing all the crushed feed to be used . One disadvantge is that more water is used to handle the resulting finer shale ash .
= = = Conduction through a wall = = =
These technologies transfer heat to the oil shale by conducting it through the retort wall . The shale feed usually consists of fine particles . Their advantage lies in the fact that retort vapors are not combined with combustion exhaust . The Combustion Resources process uses a hydrogen – fired rotating kiln , where hot gas is circulated through an outer annulus . The Oil @-@ Tech staged electrically heated retort consists of individual inter @-@ connected heating chambers , stacked atop each other . Its principal advantage lies in its modular design , which enhances its portability and adaptability . The Red Leaf Resources EcoShale In @-@ Capsule Process combines surface mining with a lower @-@ temperature heating method similar to in situ processes by operating within the confines of an earthen structure . A hot gas circulated through parallel pipes heats the oil shale rubble . An installation within the empty space created by mining would permit rapid reclamation of the topography . A general drawback of conduction through a wall technologies is that the retorts are more costly when scaled @-@ up due to the resulting large amount of heat conducting walls made of high @-@ temperature alloys .
= = = Externally generated hot gas = = =
In general , externally generated hot gas technologies are similar to internal combustion technologies in that they also process oil shale lumps in vertical shaft kilns . Significantly , though , the heat in these technologies is delivered by gases heated outside the retort vessel , and therefore the retort vapors are not diluted with combustion exhaust . The Petrosix and Paraho Indirect employ this technology . In addition to not accepting fine particles as feed , these technologies do not utilize the potential heat of combusting the char on the spent shale and thus must burn more valuable fuels . However , due to the lack of combustion of the spent shale , the oil shale does not exceed 500 ° C ( 932 ° F ) and significant carbonate mineral decomposition and subsequent CO2 generation can be avoided for some oil shales . Also , these technologies tend to be the more stable and easier to control than internal combustion or hot solid recycle technologies .
= = = Reactive fluids = = =
Kerogen is tightly bound to the shale and resists dissolution by most solvents . Despite this constraint , extraction using especially reactive fluids has been tested , including those in a supercritical state . Reactive fluid technologies are suitable for processing oil shales with a low hydrogen content . In these technologies , hydrogen gas ( H2 ) or hydrogen donors ( chemicals that donate hydrogen during chemical reactions ) react with coke precursors ( chemical structures in the oil shale that are prone to form char during retorting but have not yet done so ) . Reactive fluid technologies include the IGT Hytort ( high @-@ pressure H2 ) process , donor solvent processes , and the Chattanooga fluidized bed reactor . In the IGT Hytort oil shale is processed in a high @-@ pressure hydrogen environment . The Chattanooga process uses a fluidized bed reactor and an associated hydrogen @-@ fired heater for oil shale thermal cracking and hydrogenation . Laboratory results indicate that these technologies can often obtain significantly higher oil yields than pyrolysis processes . Drawbacks are the additional cost and complexity of hydrogen production and high @-@ pressure retort vessels .
= = = Plasma gasification = = =
Several experimental tests have been conducted for the oil @-@ shale gasification by using plasma technologies . In these technologies , oil shale is bombarded by radicals ( ions ) . The radicals crack kerogen molecules forming synthetic gas and oil . Air , hydrogen or nitrogen are used as plasma gas and processes may operate in an arc , plasma arc , or plasma electrolysis mode . The main benefit of these technologies is processing without using water .
= = In situ technologies = =
In situ technologies heat oil shale underground by injecting hot fluids into the rock formation , or by using linear or planar heating sources followed by thermal conduction and convection to distribute heat through the target area . Shale oil is then recovered through vertical wells drilled into the formation . These technologies are potentially able to extract more shale oil from a given area of land than conventional ex situ processing technologies , as the wells can reach greater depths than surface mines . They present an opportunity to recover shale oil from low @-@ grade deposits that traditional mining techniques could not extract .
During World War II a modified in situ extraction process was implemented without significant success in Germany . One of the earliest successful in situ processes was underground gasification by electrical energy ( Ljungström method ) — a process exploited between 1940 and 1966 for shale oil extraction at Kvarntorp in Sweden . Prior to the 1980s , many variations of the in situ process were explored in the United States . The first modified in situ oil shale experiment in the United States was conducted by Occidental Petroleum in 1972 at Logan Wash , Colorado . Newer technologies are being explored that use a variety of heat sources and heat delivery systems .
= = = Wall conduction = = =
Wall conduction in situ technologies use heating elements or heating pipes placed within the oil shale formation . The Shell in situ conversion process ( Shell ICP ) uses electrical heating elements for heating the oil shale layer to between 650 and 700 ° F ( 340 and 370 ° C ) over a period of approximately four years . The processing area is isolated from surrounding groundwater by a freeze wall consisting of wells filled with a circulating super @-@ chilled fluid . Disadvantages of this process are large electrical power consumption , extensive water use , and the risk of groundwater pollution . The process was tested since the early 1980s at the Mahogany test site in the Piceance Basin . 1 @,@ 700 barrels ( 270 m3 ) of oil were extracted in 2004 at a 30 @-@ by @-@ 40 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 by 12 @.@ 2 m ) testing area .
In the CCR Process proposed by American Shale Oil , superheated steam or another heat transfer medium is circulated through a series of pipes placed below the oil shale layer to be extracted . The system combines horizontal wells , through which steam is passed , and vertical wells , which provide both vertical heat transfer through refluxing of converted shale oil and a means to collect the produced hydrocarbons . Heat is supplied by combustion of natural gas or propane in the initial phase and by oil shale gas at a later stage .
The Geothermic Fuels Cells Process ( IEP GFC ) proposed by Independent Energy Partners extracts shale oil by exploiting a high @-@ temperature stack of fuel cells . The cells , placed in the oil shale formation , are fueled by natural gas during a warm @-@ up period and afterward by oil shale gas generated by its own waste heat .
= = = Externally generated hot gas = = =
Externally generated hot gas in situ technologies use hot gases heated above @-@ ground and then injected into the oil shale formation . The Chevron CRUSH process , which was researched by Chevron Corporation in partnership with Los Alamos National Laboratory , injects heated carbon dioxide into the formation via drilled wells and to heat the formation through a series of horizontal fractures through which the gas is circulated . General Synfuels International has proposed the Omnishale process involving injection of super @-@ heated air into the oil shale formation . Mountain West Energy 's In Situ Vapor Extraction process uses similar principles of injection of high @-@ temperature gas .
= = = ExxonMobil Electrofrac = = =
ExxonMobil 's in situ technology ( ExxonMobil Electrofrac ) uses electrical heating with elements of both wall conduction and volumetric heating methods . It injects an electrically conductive material such as calcined petroleum coke into the hydraulic fractures created in the oil shale formation which then forms a heating element . Heating wells are placed in a parallel row with a second horizontal well intersecting them at their toe . This allows opposing electrical charges to be applied at either end .
= = = Volumetric heating = = =
The Illinois Institute of Technology developed the concept of oil shale volumetric heating using radio waves ( radio frequency processing ) during the late 1970s . This technology was further developed by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory . Oil shale is heated by vertical electrode arrays . Deeper volumes could be processed at slower heating rates by installations spaced at tens of meters . The concept presumes a radio frequency at which the skin depth is many tens of meters , thereby overcoming the thermal diffusion times needed for conductive heating . Its drawbacks include intensive electrical demand and the possibility that groundwater or char would absorb undue amounts of the energy . Radio frequency processing in conjunction with critical fluids is being developed by Raytheon together with CF Technologies and tested by Schlumberger .
Microwave heating technologies are based on the same principles as radio wave heating , although it is believed that radio wave heating is an improvement over microwave heating because its energy can penetrate farther into the oil shale formation . The microwave heating process was tested by Global Resource Corporation . Electro @-@ Petroleum proposes electrically enhanced oil recovery by the passage of direct current between cathodes in producing wells and anodes located either at the surface or at depth in other wells . The passage of the current through the oil shale formation results in resistive Joule heating .
= = Economics = =
The dominant question for shale oil production is under what conditions shale oil is economically viable . According to the United States Department of Energy , the capital costs of a 100 @,@ 000 barrels per day ( 16 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) ex @-@ situ processing complex are $ 3 – 10 billion . The various attempts to develop oil shale deposits have succeeded only when the shale @-@ oil production cost in a given region is lower than the price of petroleum or its other substitutes . According to a survey conducted by the RAND Corporation , the cost of producing shale oil at a hypothetical surface retorting complex in the United States ( comprising a mine , retorting plant , upgrading plant , supporting utilities , and spent oil shale reclamation ) , would be in a range of US $ 70 – 95 per barrel ( $ 440 – 600 / m3 ) , adjusted to 2005 values . Assuming a gradual increase in output after the start of commercial production , the analysis projects a gradual reduction in processing costs to $ 30 – 40 per barrel ( $ 190 – 250 / m3 ) after achieving the milestone of 1 billion barrels ( 160 × 10 ^ 6 m3 ) . The United States Department of Energy estimates that the ex @-@ situ processing would be economic at sustained average world oil prices above US $ $ 54 per barrel and in @-@ situ processing would be economic at prices above $ 35 per barrel . These estimates assume a return rate of 15 % . Royal Dutch Shell announced in 2006 that its Shell ICP technology would realize a profit when crude oil prices are higher than $ 30 per barrel ( $ 190 / m3 ) , while some technologies at full @-@ scale production assert profitability at oil prices even lower than $ 20 per barrel ( $ 130 / m3 ) .
To increase the efficiency of oil shale retorting and by this the viability of the shale oil production , researchers have proposed and tested several co @-@ pyrolysis processes , in which other materials such as biomass , peat , waste bitumen , or rubber and plastic wastes are retorted along with the oil shale . Some modified technologies propose combining a fluidized bed retort with a circulated fluidized bed furnace for burning the by @-@ products of pyrolysis ( char and oil shale gas ) and thereby improving oil yield , increasing throughput , and decreasing retorting time .
Other ways of improving the economics of shale oil extraction could be to increase the size of the operation to achieve economies of scale , use oil shale that is a by @-@ product of coal mining such as at Fushun China , produce specialty chemicals as by Viru Keemia Grupp in Estonia , co @-@ generate electricity from the waste heat and process high grade oil shale that yields more oil per shale processed .
A possible measure of the viability of oil shale as an energy source lies in the ratio of the energy in the extracted oil to the energy used in its mining and processing ( Energy Returned on Energy Invested , or EROEI ) . A 1984 study estimated the EROEI of the various known oil shale deposits as varying between 0 @.@ 7 – 13 @.@ 3 ; Some companies and newer technologies assert an EROEI between 3 and 10 . According to the World Energy Outlook 2010 , the EROEI of ex @-@ situ processing is typically 4 to 5 while of in @-@ situ processing it may be even as low as 2 .
To increase the EROEI , several combined technologies were proposed . These include the usage of process waste heat , e.g. gasification or combustion of the residual carbon ( char ) , and the usage of waste heat from other industrial processes , such as coal gasification and nuclear power generation .
The water requirements of extraction processes are an additional economic consideration in regions where water is a scarce resource .
= = Environmental considerations = =
Objections to its potential environmental impact have stalled governmental support for extraction of shale oil in some countries , such as Australia . Shale oil extraction may involve a number of different environmental impacts that vary with process technologies . Depending on the geological conditions and mining techniques , mining impacts may include acid drainage induced by the sudden rapid exposure and subsequent oxidation of formerly buried materials , the introduction of metals into surface water and groundwater , increased erosion , sulfur gas emissions , and air pollution caused by the production of particulates during processing , transport , and support activities . Surface mining for ex situ processing , as with in situ processing , requires extensive land use and ex situ thermal processing generates wastes that require disposal . Mining , processing , spent oil shale disposal , and waste treatment require land to be withdrawn from traditional uses . Depending on the processing technology , the waste material may contain pollutants including sulfates , heavy metals , and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons , some of which are toxic and carcinogenic . Experimental in situ conversion processes may reduce some of these impacts , but may instead cause other problems , such as groundwater pollution .
The production and usage of oil shale usually generates more greenhouse gas emissions , including carbon dioxide , than conventional fossil fuels . Depending on the technology and the oil shale composition , shale oil extraction processes may also emit sulfur dioxide , hydrogen sulfide , carbonyl sulfide , and nitrogen oxides . Developing carbon capture and storage technologies may reduce the processes ' carbon footprint .
Concerns have been raised over the oil shale industry 's use of water , particularly in arid regions where water consumption is a sensitive issue . Above @-@ ground retorting typically consumes between one and five barrels of water per barrel of produced shale oil , depending on technology . Water is usually used for spent oil shale cooling and oil shale ash disposal . In situ processing , according to one estimate , uses about one @-@ tenth as much water . In other areas , water must be pumped out of oil shale mines . The resulting fall in the water table may have negative effects on nearby arable land and forests .
A 2008 programmatic environmental impact statement issued by the United States Bureau of Land Management stated that surface mining and retort operations produce 2 to 10 U.S. gallons ( 7 @.@ 6 to 37 @.@ 9 l ; 1 @.@ 7 to 8 @.@ 3 imp gal ) of waste water per 1 short ton ( 0 @.@ 91 t ) of processed oil shale .
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= Typhoon Gay ( 1989 ) =
Typhoon Gay , also known as the Kavali Cyclone of 1989 , was a small but powerful tropical cyclone that caused more than 800 fatalities in and around the Gulf of Thailand in November 1989 . The worst typhoon to affect the Malay Peninsula in 35 years , Gay originated from a monsoon trough over the Gulf of Thailand in early November . Owing to favorable atmospheric conditions , the storm rapidly intensified , attaining winds of more than 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) by November 3 . Later that day , Gay became the first typhoon since 1891 to make landfall in Thailand , striking Chumphon Province with winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . The small storm emerged into the Bay of Bengal and gradually reorganized over the following days as it approached southeastern India . On November 8 , Gay attained its peak intensity as a Category 5 – equivalent cyclone with winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) . The typhoon then moved ashore near Kavali , Andhra Pradesh . Rapid weakening ensued inland , and Gay dissipated over Maharashtra early on November 10 .
The typhoon 's rapid development took hundreds of vessels in the Gulf of Thailand by surprise , leading to 275 offshore fatalities . Of these , 91 occurred after an oil drilling ship , the Seacrest , capsized amid 6 – 11 m ( 20 – 36 ft ) swells . Across the Malay Peninsula , 588 people died from various storm @-@ related incidents . Several towns in coastal Chumphon were destroyed . Losses throughout Thailand totaled ฿ 11 billion ( US $ 497 million ) . Striking India as a powerful cyclone , Gay damaged or destroyed about 20 @,@ 000 homes in Andhra Pradesh , leaving 100 @,@ 000 people homeless . In that country , 69 deaths and ₹ 410 million ( US $ 25 @.@ 3 million ) in damage were attributed to Gay .
= = Meteorological history = =
In early November , a monsoon trough over the Gulf of Thailand showed signs of tropical cyclogenesis . A small , concentrated area of convection quickly developed over a low @-@ pressure area within the trough , and on November 2 it became sufficiently organized for the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) to issue a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert . Owing to its small size , the system began strengthening within the narrow gulf by taking advantage of warm waters and good outflow . Moving generally northwestward , it became a tropical depression later that day and underwent rapid intensification . As the newly named Tropical Storm Gay strengthened , it " presented a paradox to forecasters " according to Lieutenant Dianne K. Crittenden ; synoptic data from Malaysia and Thailand indicated decreasing wind speeds and increasing barometric pressures around the storm , but these observations were later interpreted as increased subsidence .
Strengthening faster than anticipated , Gay attained typhoon status early on November 3 . Later that day , the storm developed an eye before passing over the Seacrest , an oil drilling ship . On November 4 , Gay 's winds increased to 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) , equivalent to a Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale , before making landfall in Chumphon Province , Thailand , at 0600 UTC . The Japan Meteorological Agency assessed that the storm had ten @-@ minute sustained winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) and a pressure of 960 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 35 inHg ) . Crossing the Kra Isthmus , Gay weakened to minimal typhoon status as it entered the Bay of Bengal . According to the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) , Gay was the first typhoon since 1891 to form in the Gulf of Thailand and enter the Bay of Bengal . Responding to a ridge to its north , Gay maintained a west @-@ northwestward to northwestward track for the next four days . The storm gradually restrengthened as it moved through an area of low wind shear and warm waters ; however , this was limited by restrictions to the cyclone 's outflow . Early on November 6 , Gay passed near the Andaman Islands as a Category 2 @-@ equivalent cyclone .
After changing little in intensity for much of November 6 , Gay strengthened as the ridge to its north intensified and the previous restrictions to its outflow diminished . The storm moved due west through a small fetch of warmer waters , fueling the process of intensification over the next 42 hours . Based on estimates provided through the use of the Dvorak technique , the JTWC assessed Gay to have attained its peak intensity as a Category 5 @-@ equivalent cyclone with winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) early on November 8 . Around this time , the IMD estimated that the storm had three @-@ minute sustained winds of 240 km / h ( 145 mph ) , classifying Gay as a modern @-@ day Super Cyclonic Storm . Additionally , the agency estimated the cyclone 's central pressure to have decreased to 930 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 46 inHg ) . Around 1800 UTC , Gay made landfall over a sparsely populated area near Kavali , India , in Andhra Pradesh . Upon coming ashore , the storm 's eye was about 20 km ( 12 mi ) wide , with gale @-@ force winds within 95 km ( 60 mi ) of the center . Now over land , Gay no longer had access to warm waters , causing it to weaken to a tropical storm less than 12 hours after landfall . The storm continued to deteriorate while moving across India , before it completely dissipated over Maharashtra on November 10 .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
= = = Gulf of Thailand = = =
The most powerful storm to affect the Gulf of Thailand in more than 35 years , Gay produced 6 – 11 m ( 20 – 36 ft ) swells that caught many ships in the region off @-@ guard . At least 16 vessels were reported missing by November 5 , including the 106 m ( 348 ft ) Unocal Corporation oil drilling ship Seacrest . According to survivors , the vessel received no warning of the developing typhoon . Just when all crew members were about to abandon ship , the eye of Typhoon Gay passed over . Winds fluctuated violently and changed direction , preventing the ship from remaining stabilized despite being within safe operating limits . The vessel abruptly capsized with all 97 crew members on board during the overnight hours of November 3 , before any life boat could be deployed . Initial rescue attempts on November 4 were hampered by rough seas . Two days after the sinking , four rescue ships and two helicopters in the region were searching for survivors ; four people were rescued from the wreckage on November 6 . Divers from the Thai Navy were sent to search the capsized vessel for anyone trapped inside . Of the crew , only six survived ; 25 bodies were recovered , and the remaining 66 members were presumed dead . Losses from the sinking of the Seacrest totaled $ 40 million . Another 20 cargo and fishing ships sank during the storm , resulting in 140 fatalities .
= = = Thailand = = =
Striking Thailand with unprecedented strength , Typhoon Gay caused damage across many of its provinces . Areas between Chumphon and Rayong Provinces were severely affected by heavy rains , high winds and large swells . Rainfall amounts peaked at Chumphon , where 7 @.@ 64 inches ( 194 mm ) fell during the cyclone 's passage . Widespread disruption of communication and electricity occurred in most areas south of Bangkok ; many households remained without power for weeks . Damaging winds uprooted numerous trees and power poles and toppled wooden houses built on stilts . Exacerbated by deforestation , flash flooding triggered by the storm damaged or destroyed thousands of homes and caused at least 365 fatalities . Several towns and villages across Chumphon province were devastated , and one of the destroyed villages " looked like it had been bombed " according to the Bangkok Post . Entire districts were reportedly " flattened " within Chumphon and Prachuap Khiri Khan provinces . The typhoon destroyed many schools across Chumphon and Surat Thani provinces , many of which constructed from wood . All structures close to the storm 's path had their windows and doors blown out , and some multi @-@ story buildings lost their upper floors . A few schools constructed from reinforced concrete sustained little damage . Over 1 @,@ 000 roads and 194 bridges were damaged or washed away . At the height of the floods , over 250 @,@ 000 hectares ( 618 @,@ 000 acres ) of land was under water . Onshore , 558 fatalities were attributed to the storm , and another 44 took place just offshore . Throughout Thailand , approximately 47 @,@ 000 homes were damaged or destroyed , and over 200 @,@ 000 people were affected , of which about 153 @,@ 000 were left homeless . Monetary losses reached 11 billion Baht ( $ 456 @.@ 5 million USD ) , ranking Gay as one of the costliest disasters in the country 's history .
Within a week of the storm 's passage , the Government of Thailand began distributing relief goods to residents throughout the affected provinces . Despite the effort by the government , 2 @,@ 500 people from Pa Thiew and Tha Sae demonstrated for additional and more intensive aid on November 9 . These protests were soon dispersed . Following considerable criticism for downplaying the impact of the typhoon , Prime Minister Chatichai Choonhavan delayed his visit to the United States to personally oversee relief efforts . By November 15 , the United States pledged to donate $ 25 @,@ 000 for recovery operations . Telephone connection was restored from Bangkok to Prachuap Khiri Khan by this time ; however , areas further south remained disconnected . Generators were brought in to keep hospitals and government offices running since much of Chumphon province remained without electricity for more than two weeks . As the scale of damage became more apparent , a request for international aid was made by November 17 to the United Nations Disaster Relief Organization . Upon the announcement of the request , six countries pledged to provide nearly $ 510 @,@ 000 in funds collectively . Agriculture across Surat Thani Province was severely affected by the typhoon in the long @-@ term as well . In the four years following Typhoon Gay , land use for orchard , rubber and oil palm plantations decreased from 33 @.@ 32 percent to 30 @.@ 53 percent . Additionally , rice paddy coverage decreased from 22 @.@ 96 percent to 13 @.@ 03 percent .
Following post @-@ storm surveys , it was determined that most of the severely damaged schools were built improperly and the upper @-@ floors were not designed to bear typhoon @-@ force winds . According to building codes in Thailand , structures are mandated to be able to withstand up to 120 kgf / m2 of pressure from winds . In the years following the typhoon , studies by engineers were conducted in the hardest hit regions to determine how to best rebuild structures in the country . With many of the destroyed structures being constructed from wood , reinforced concrete structures were the suggested replacement . The new buildings could last up to 50 years with proper construction ; however , sub @-@ standard building would result in a need for repairs within 5 years .
= = = India = = =
After crossing the Malay Peninsula , Typhoon Gay moved through the Andaman Islands on November 6 . As a precautionary measure , all air and sea traffic were suspended to the region . Winds in excess of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) battered North Andaman Island , causing two structures to collapse . A few days before Typhoon Gay made landfall , officials in Andhra Pradesh began evacuating roughly 50 @,@ 000 residents along the coast and stockpiled relief goods . Some people were forced to leave vulnerable locations in the Visakhapatnam and Srikakulam districts . Local meteorologists warned that the storm was comparable to a cyclone in 1977 that killed more than 10 @,@ 000 people . Striking the southern coast of Andhra Pradesh , Typhoon Gay produced wind gusts estimated at 320 km / h ( 200 mph ) . Along the coast , a storm surge of 3 @.@ 5 m ( 11 ft ) inundated areas up to 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) inland , washing away numerous structures . About 20 km ( 12 mi ) outside of Kavali , a 91 m ( 299 ft ) tall , steel lattice microwave tower collapsed after experiencing winds estimated at 142 km / h ( 88 mph ) . Transportation and communication across the region was disrupted and 20 @,@ 000 homes were damaged or destroyed , leaving at least 100 @,@ 000 people homeless . Nearly every structure in Annagaripalem were severely damaged or destroyed . Offshore , 25 fishermen drowned near Machilipatnam after ignoring warnings to return to port . Throughout Andhra Pradesh , 69 fatalities and ₹ 410 million ( US $ 25 @.@ 3 million ) worth of damage was attributed to Typhoon Gay . In the months after the storm , concrete shelters were built to house displaced persons .
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= Mike Gravel =
Maurice Robert " Mike " Gravel ( / ɡrəˈvɛl / ; born May 13 , 1930 ) is an American politician who is a former Democratic United States Senator from Alaska , who served two terms from 1969 to 1981 , and a candidate in the 2008 U.S. presidential election .
Born and raised in Springfield , Massachusetts , by French @-@ Canadian immigrant parents , Gravel served in the U.S. Army in West Germany , and he later graduated from the Columbia University School of General Studies . He moved to Alaska in the late 1950s , becoming a real estate developer and entering politics . He served in the Alaska House of Representatives from 1963 to 1966 and also became Speaker of the Alaska House . Gravel was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1968 .
As a Senator , Gravel became nationally known for his forceful but unsuccessful attempts to end the draft during the War in Vietnam and for putting the Pentagon Papers into the public record in 1971 at some risk to himself . He conducted an unusual campaign for the Democratic nomination in 1972 for Vice President of the United States , and then played a crucial role in getting Congressional approval for the Trans @-@ Alaska pipeline in 1973 . He was re @-@ elected to the Senate in 1974 , but gradually alienated most of his Alaskan constituencies and his bid for a third term was defeated in a primary election in 1980 .
Gravel returned to business ventures and went through difficult times , suffering corporate and personal bankruptcies amid poor health . He has been a quixotic advocate of direct democracy and the National Initiative . In 2006 , Gravel began a run for the Democratic nomination for President of the United States to promote those ideas . His campaign gained an Internet following and national attention due to forceful , humorous , and politically unorthodox debate appearances during 2007 , but he found very little support in national polls or in 2008 caucuses and primaries . In March 2008 , he announced that he was switching to the Libertarian Party to compete for its presidential nomination and the inclusion of the National Initiative into the Libertarian Platform . At the Libertarian National Convention of 2008 he failed on both counts , and he announced that his political electoral career had ended . He subsequently became an executive for a marijuana products company and continued to speak out on various political issues including Democratic Party politics .
= = Early life , military service , education = =
Gravel was born in Springfield , Massachusetts , one of five children born to French @-@ Canadian immigrant parents , Alphonse and Marie ( née Bourassa ) Gravel .
His parents were part of the Quebec diaspora , and he was raised in a working @-@ class neighborhood during the Great Depression , speaking only French until he was seven years old . Calling him " Mike " from an early age , his father valued work above all else , while his mother stressed to him the importance of education .
Gravel was educated in parochial schools as a Roman Catholic . There he struggled – due to what he later said was undiagnosed dyslexia – and was left back in third grade . He completed elementary school in 1945 and his class voted him " most charming personality " . A summer job as a soda jerk led to Gravel handing out campaign fliers for local candidates on behalf of his boss ; Gravel was immediately impressed with " the awesomeness of political office . "
Gravel then boarded at Assumption Preparatory School in Worcester , Massachusetts , where his performance was initially mediocre . Then an English teacher , the Assumptionist Edgar Bourque , gave him personal attention , improving Gravel 's language skills and instructing him in public speaking . Gravel 's grades improved measurably in his final year , and he graduated in 1949 . He has a sister , Marguerite , who became a Holy Cross nun , but Gravel himself struggled with the Catholic faith . He studied for one year at Assumption College , a Catholic school in Worcester , then transferred for his sophomore year to American International College in Springfield . Journalist I. F. Stone and philosopher Bertrand Russell strongly influenced Gravel in their willingness to challenge assumptions and oppose social convention and political authority .
Around May 1951 , Gravel saw that he was about to be drafted and instead enlisted in the U.S. Army for a three @-@ year term so that he could get into the Counterintelligence Corps . After basic training and counterintelligence school at Fort Holabird in Maryland and in South Carolina , he went to Officer Candidate School at Fort Benning , Georgia . While he expected to be sent off to the Korean War when he graduated as a second lieutenant in early 1952 , he was instead assigned to Stuttgart , West Germany , as a Special Adjutant in the Army 's Communications Intelligence Service . There he had an adventurous time moving around the country , conducting surveillance operations on civilians , and paying off spies . After about a year he transferred to Orléans , France , where his French language abilities ( if not his Quebec @-@ American accent ) allowed him to infiltrate French communist rallies . He worked as a Special Agent in the Counterintelligence Corps until 1954 , eventually becoming a first lieutenant .
Following his discharge , Gravel entered the Columbia University School of General Studies in New York City , where he studied economics and received a B.S. in 1956 . He moved to New York " flat broke " , and supported himself by working as a bar boy in a hotel , driving a taxicab , and working in the investment bond department at Bankers Trust . During this time he left the Catholic religion .
= = Move to Alaska = =
Gravel " decided to become a pioneer in a faraway place , " and moved to pre @-@ statehood Alaska in August 1956 , without funds or a job , looking for a place where someone without social or political connections could be a viable candidate for public office . Alaska 's voting age of 19 , less than most other states ' 21 , played a role in his decision , as did its newness and cooler climate . Broke when he arrived , he immediately found work in real estate sales until winter arrived . Gravel then was employed as a brakeman for the Alaska Railroad , working the snow @-@ clearing train on the Anchorage @-@ Fairbanks run . Subsequently he opened a small real estate brokerage in Anchorage ( the Territory of Alaska not requiring a license ) and saved enough so as not to have to work the railroad again . Gravel joined the Anchorage Unitarian Universalist Fellowship , and would continue a sporadic relationship with the movement throughout his life .
Gravel married Rita Jeannette Martin , who had been Anchorage 's " Miss Fur Rendezvous " of 1958 , on April 29 , 1959 . They had two children , Martin Anthony Gravel and Lynne Denise Gravel , born c . 1960 and 1962 respectively .
Meanwhile , he went to Washington , D.C. in 1957 to campaign for Alaskan statehood via the " Tennessee Plan " : dressed as Paul Revere , he rode with a petition to the steps of the U.S. Capitol . Seeing Alaska as a wide @-@ open place with no political establishment or entrenched interests , and using the slogan " Gravel , the Roadbed to Prosperity " , he ran for the territorial legislature in 1958 but lost . He went on a national speaking tour concerning tax reform in 1959 , sponsored by the Jaycees . He ran without avail for the City Council in Anchorage in 1960 . During this time , he had become a successful real estate agent ; after the 1960 election , he became a property developer in a mobile home park on the outskirts of Anchorage . A partner ran into financial difficulty , however , and the project went into Chapter 11 bankruptcy and Gravel was forced out in 1962 .
= = State legislator = =
With the support of Alaska wholesale grocer Barney Gottstein and supermarket builder Larry Carr , Gravel ran for the Alaska House of Representatives representing Anchorage in 1962 , initially assigned the 10th and then 8th districts , and won .
Gravel served in the Alaska House of Representatives from January 28 , 1963 to January 22 , 1967 , winning re @-@ election in 1964 . In his first term , he served as a minority member on two House committees : Commerce , and Labor and Management .
He coauthored and sponsored the act that created the Alaska State Commission for Human Rights . Gravel was the chief architect of the law that created a regional high school system for rural Alaska ; this allowed Alaska Natives to attend schools near where they lived , instead of having to go to schools run by the Bureau of Indian Affairs in the lower 48 states .
During the half @-@ years that the legislature was not in session , Gravel resumed his real estate work . With Gottstein and Carr 's backing , he became quite successful as a property developer on the Kenai Peninsula .
During 1965 and 1966 , he served as the Speaker of the House , surprising observers by winning that post . Gravel convinced former Speaker Warren A. Taylor to not try for the position against him by promising Taylor chairmanship of the Rules Committee , then reneged on the promise . Gravel denied later press charges that he had promised but not delivered on other committee chairmanships . As Speaker he antagonized fellow lawmakers by imposing his will on the legislature 's committees and feuded with Alaska State Senate president Robert J. McNealy .
Gravel did not run for re @-@ election in 1966 , instead choosing to run for Alaska 's seat in the U.S. House of Representatives , losing in a primary to four @-@ term incumbent Democrat Ralph Rivers by 1 @,@ 300 votes and splitting the Democratic party in the process . Rivers lost the general election that year to Republican state Senator Howard Wallace Pollock .
Following his defeat , Gravel returned to the real estate business in Anchorage .
= = U.S. Senator = =
= = = Election to Senate in 1968 = = =
In 1968 he ran against the 81 @-@ year @-@ old incumbent Democratic Senator Ernest Gruening , a popular former governor of the Alaska Territory who was considered one of the fathers of Alaska 's statehood , for his party 's nomination to the U.S. Senate . Gravel 's campaign was primarily based on his youth rather than issue differences . He hired Joseph Napolitan , the first self @-@ described political consultant , in late 1966 . They spent over a year and a half planning a short , nine @-@ day primary election campaign that featured the slogans " Alaska first " and " Let 's do something about the state we 're in " , the distribution of a collection of essays entitled Jobs and More Jobs , and the creation of a half @-@ hour , well @-@ produced , glamorized biographical film of Gravel , Man for Alaska . The film was shown twice a day on every television station in Alaska and carried by plane and shown on home projectors in hundreds of Alaska Native villages . The heavy showings quickly reversed a 2 – to – 1 Gruening lead in polls into a Gravel lead . Gravel visited many remote villages by seaplane and showed a thorough understanding of the needs of the bush country and the fishing and oil industries . Gravel also benefited by being deliberately ambiguous about his Vietnam policy . Gruening had been one of only two Senators to vote against the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution and his opposition to President Lyndon B. Johnson 's war policies was harming him among the Democratic electorate ; according to Gravel , " ... all I had to do was stand up and not deal with the subject , and people would assume that I was to the right of Ernest Gruening , when in point of fact I was to the left of him . "
Gravel beat Gruening in the primary in a tight result with a margin of about 2 @,@ 000 votes . Gruening found " the unexpected defeat hard to take " and thought that some aspects of his opponent 's biographical film had misled viewers . In the general election , Gravel faced Republican Elmer E. Rasmuson , a banker and former mayor of Anchorage . College students in the state implored Gruening to run a write @-@ in campaign as an Independent , but legal battles prevented the senator from getting approval for it until only two weeks were left . A late appearance by anti @-@ war presidential candidate Eugene McCarthy could not offset Gruening 's lack of funds and endorsements ; meanwhile , Gravel and Rasmuson both saturated local media with their filmed biographies . On November 5 , 1968 , Gravel won the general election , gaining 45 percent of the vote against 37 percent for Rasmuson and 18 percent for Gruening .
= = = Senate assignments and style = = =
When Gravel joined the Senate in January 1969 , he requested and received a seat on the Interior and Insular Affairs Committee , which had direct relevance to Alaskan issues . He also got a spot on the Public Works Committee , which he held throughout his time in the Senate . Finally , he was a member of the Select Committee on Small Business . In 1971 he became chair of the Public Works Committee 's Subcommittee on Public Buildings and Grounds , then by 1973 he was chair of its Subcommittee on Water Resources , then later its Subcommittee on Environmental Pollution . Gravel was also initially named to the Joint Committee on Congressional Operations . By 1973 Gravel was off the Interior and Insular Affairs Committee and the Select Small Business Committee and instead a member of the Finance Committee , and by 1977 was chair of that body 's Subcommittee on Energy and Foundations . By 1973 he had also been on the ad hoc Special Committee to Study Secret and Confidential Government Documents .
By his own admission , Gravel was too new and " too abrasive " to be effective in the Senate by the usual means of seniority @-@ based committee assignments or negotiating deals with other senators , and was sometimes seen as arrogant by the more senior members . Gravel instead relied upon attention @-@ getting gestures to achieve what he wanted , hoping national exposure would force other senators to listen to him . As part of this he voted with Southern Democrats to keep the Senate filibuster rule in place , and accordingly supported Russell Long and Robert Byrd but opposed Ted Kennedy in Senate leadership battles . In retrospective assessment , University of Alaska Anchorage history professor Stephen Haycox would say , " Loose cannon is a good description of Gravel 's Senate career . He was an off @-@ the @-@ wall guy , and you weren 't really ever sure what he would do . "
= = = Nuclear issues and the Cold War = = =
In the late 1960s and early 1970s the U.S. Department of Defense was in the process of performing tests for the nuclear warhead for the Spartan anti @-@ ballistic missile . Two tests , the " Milrow " and " Cannikin " tests , were planned , involving the detonation of nuclear bombs under Amchitka Island in Alaska . The Milrow test would be a one megaton calibration exercise for the second , and larger five megaton , Cannikin test , which would measure the effectiveness of the warhead . Gravel opposed the tests in Congress . Before the Milrow test took place in October 1969 , he wrote that there were significant risks of earthquakes and other adverse consequences , and called for an independent national commission on nuclear and seismic safety to be created ; he then made a personal appeal to President Nixon to stop the test .
After Milrow was conducted , there was continued pressure on the part of environmental groups against going forward with the larger Cannikin test , while the Federation of American Scientists claimed that the warhead being tested was already obsolete . In May 1971 , Gravel sent a letter to U.S. Atomic Energy Commission hearings held in Anchorage , in which he said the risk of the test was not worth taking . Eventually a group not involving Gravel took the case to the U.S. Supreme Court , which declined to issue an injunction against it , and the Cannikin test took place as scheduled in November 1971 . Gravel had failed to stop the tests ( notwithstanding his later claims during his 2008 presidential campaign ) .
Nuclear power was considered an environmentally clean alternative for the commercial generation of electricity and was part of a popular national policy for the peaceful use of atomic energy in the 1950s and 1960s . Gravel publicly opposed this policy ; besides the dangers of nuclear testing , he was a vocal critic of the Atomic Energy Commission , which oversaw American nuclear efforts , and of the powerful United States Congress Joint Committee on Atomic Energy , which had a stranglehold on nuclear policy and which Gravel tried to circumvent . In 1971 , Gravel sponsored a bill to impose a moratorium on nuclear power plant construction and to make power utilities liable for any nuclear accidents ; in 1975 , he was still proposing similar moratoriums . By 1974 , Gravel was allied with Ralph Nader 's organization in opposing nuclear power .
Six months before U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger 's secret mission to the People 's Republic of China ( P.R.C. ) in July 1971 , Gravel introduced legislation to recognize and normalize relations with China , including a proposal for unity talks between the P.R.C. and the Republic of China ( Taiwan ) regarding the Chinese seat on the U.N. Security Council . Gravel reiterated his position in favor of recognition , with four other senators in agreement , during Senate hearings in June 1971 .
= = = Vietnam War , the draft , and the Pentagon Papers = = =
President Richard Nixon had campaigned in 1968 on a promise to end the U.S. military draft , a decision endorsed by the February 1970 report of the Gates Commission . The existing draft law was scheduled to conclude at the end of June 1971 , and the Senate faced a contentious debate about whether to extend it as the Vietnam War continued . The Nixon administration announced in February 1971 that it wanted a two @-@ year extension to June 1973 , after which the draft would end ; Army planners had already been operating under the assumption of a two @-@ year extension , after which an all @-@ volunteer force would be in place . Skeptics such as Senate Armed Services Committee chairman John Stennis thought this unrealistic and wanted a four @-@ year extension , but the two @-@ year proposal is what went forward in Congress . By early May 1971 , Gravel had indicated his intention to filibuster the draft renewal legislation , halting conscription and thereby bringing U.S. involvement in the war to a rapid end .
By June 1971 , some Democratic senators opposed to the war wanted to limit the renewal to a one @-@ year extension , while others wanted to end it immediately ; Gravel reiterated that he was one of the latter , saying , " It 's a senseless war , and one way to do away with it is to do away with the draft . " A Senate vote on June 4 indicated majority support for the two @-@ year extension . On June 18 Gravel announced again his intention to counteract that by filibustering the renewal legislation , defending the practice against those who associated it only with blocking civil rights legislation . The first filibuster attempt failed on June 23 when , by three votes , the Senate voted cloture for only the fifth time since 1927 .
Protracted negotiations took place over House conference negotiations on the bill , revolving in large part around Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield 's eventually unsuccessful amendment to tie renewal to a troop withdrawal timetable from Vietnam ; during this time the draft law expired and no more were conscripted . On August 5 , the Nixon administration pleaded for a renewal before the Senate went on recess , but Gravel blocked Stennis 's attempt to limit debate , and no vote was held . Finally on September 21 , 1971 , the Senate invoked cloture over Gravel 's second filibuster attempt by one vote , and then passed the two @-@ year draft extension . Gravel 's attempts to stop the draft had failed ( notwithstanding Gravel 's later claims that he had stopped or shortened the draft , taken at face value in some media reports , during his 2008 presidential campaign ) .
Meanwhile , on June 13 , 1971 , The New York Times began printing large portions of the Pentagon Papers . The papers were a large collection of secret government documents and studies pertaining to the Vietnam War , of which former Defense Department analyst Daniel Ellsberg had made unauthorized copies and was determined to make public . Ellsberg had for a year and a half approached members of Congress – such as William Fulbright , George McGovern , Charles Mathias , and Pete McCloskey – about publishing the documents , on the grounds that the Speech or Debate Clause of the Constitution would give congressional members immunity from prosecution , but all had refused . Instead , Ellsberg gave the documents to the Times .
The U.S. Justice Department immediately tried to halt publication , on the grounds that the information revealed within the papers harmed the national interest . Within the next two weeks , a federal court injunction halted publication in The Times ; The Washington Post and several other newspapers began publishing parts of the documents , with some of them also being halted by injunctions ; and the whole matter went to the U.S. Supreme Court for arguments . Looking for an alternate publication mechanism , Ellsberg returned to his idea of having a member of Congress read them , and chose Gravel based on the latter 's efforts against the draft ; Gravel agreed where previously others had not . Ellsberg arranged for the papers to be given to Gravel on June 26 via an intermediary , Washington Post editor Ben Bagdikian . Gravel used his counter @-@ intelligence experience to choose a midnight transfer in front of the Mayflower Hotel in the center of Washington .
On the night of June 29 , 1971 , Gravel attempted to read the papers on the floor of the Senate as part of his filibuster against the draft , but was thwarted when no quorum could be formed . Gravel instead convened a session of the Buildings and Grounds subcommittee that he chaired . He got New York Congressman John Dow to testify that the war had soaked up funding for public buildings , thus making discussion of the war relevant to the committee . He began reading from the papers with the press in attendance , omitting supporting documents that he felt might compromise national security , and declaring , " It is my constitutional obligation to protect the security of the people by fostering the free flow of information absolutely essential to their democratic decision @-@ making . "
He read until 1 a.m. , until with tears and sobs he said that he could no longer physically continue , the previous three nights of sleeplessness and fear about the future having taken their toll . Gravel ended the session by , with no other senators present , establishing unanimous consent to insert 4 @,@ 100 pages of the Papers into the Congressional Record of his subcommittee . The following day , the Supreme Court 's New York Times Co. v. United States decision ruled in favor of the newspapers and publication in The Times and others resumed . In July 1971 , Bantam Books published an inexpensive paperback edition of the papers containing the material The Times had published .
Gravel , too , wanted to privately publish the portion of the papers he had read into the record , believing that " immediate disclosure of the contents of these papers will change the policy that supports the war . " After being turned down by many commercial publishers , on August 4 he reached agreement with Beacon Press , the publishing arm of the Unitarian Universalist Association , of which Gravel was a member . Announced on August 17 and published on October 22 , 1971 , this four @-@ volume , relatively expensive set became the " Senator Gravel Edition " , which studies from Cornell University and the Annenberg Center for Communication have labeled as the most complete edition of the Pentagon Papers to be published . The " Gravel Edition " was edited and annotated by Noam Chomsky and Howard Zinn , and included an additional volume of analytical articles on the origins and progress of the war , also edited by Chomsky and Zinn . Beacon Press then was subjected to a FBI investigation ; an outgrowth of this was the Gravel v. United States court case , which the U.S. Supreme Court ruled upon in June 1972 ; it held that the Speech or Debate Clause did grant immunity to Gravel for his reading the papers in his subcommittee , did grant some immunity to Gravel 's congressional aide , but granted no immunity to Beacon Press in relation to their publishing the same papers .
The events of 1971 changed Gravel in the months following from an obscure freshman senator in a far corner of the country to a nationally visible political figure . He became a sought @-@ after speaker on the college circuit as well as at political fundraisers , opportunities he welcomed as lectures were " the one honest way a Senator has to supplement his income . " The Democratic candidates for the 1972 presidential election sought out his endorsement . In January 1972 Gravel did endorse Maine Senator Ed Muskie , hoping his endorsement would help Muskie with the party 's left wing and in the ethnic French @-@ Canadian areas in first primary state New Hampshire ( which Muskie won , but not strongly , and his campaign faltered soon thereafter ) . In April 1972 , Gravel appeared on all three network nightly newscasts to decry the Nixon administration 's reliance on Vietnamization by making reference to the secret National Security Study Memorandum 1 document , which stated it would take 8 – 13 years before the Army of the Republic of Vietnam could defend South Vietnam . Gravel made excerpts from the study public , but his attempt to read NSSM 1 into the Congressional Record was blocked by Senators Robert P. Griffin and William B. Saxbe .
= = = Run for Vice President in 1972 = = =
Gravel actively campaigned for the office of Vice President of the United States during the 1972 presidential election , announcing on June 2 , 1972 , over a month before the 1972 Democratic National Convention began , that he was interested in running for the nomination should the choice be opened up to convention delegates . Towards this end he began soliciting delegates for their support in advance of the convention . He was not alone in this effort , as former Governor of Massachusetts Endicott Peabody had been running a quixotic campaign for the same post since the prior year . Likely presidential nominee George McGovern was in fact considering the unusual move of naming three or four acceptable vice @-@ presidential candidates and letting the delegates choose .
At the convention 's final day on July 14 , 1972 , presidential nominee McGovern selected and announced Senator Thomas Eagleton of Missouri as his vice @-@ presidential choice . Eagleton was unknown to many delegates and the choice seemed to smack of traditional ticket balancing considerations . Thus , there were delegates willing to look elsewhere . Gravel was nominated by Bettye Fahrenkamp , the Democratic National Committeewoman from Alaska . He then seconded his own nomination , breaking down in tears at his own words and maybe trying to withdraw his nomination . In any case he won 226 delegate votes , coming in third behind Eagleton and Frances " Sissy " Farenthold of Texas , in chaotic balloting that included several other candidates as well .
For his efforts , Gravel attracted some attention : famed writer Norman Mailer would say he " provided considerable excitement " and was " good @-@ looking enough to have played leads in B @-@ films " , while Rolling Stone correspondent Hunter S. Thompson said Gravel " probably said a few things that might have been worth hearing , under different circumstances ... " Yet , the whole process had been doubly disastrous for the Democrats . The time consumed with the nominating and seconding and other speeches of all the vice @-@ presidential candidates had lost the attention of the delegates on the floor and pushed McGovern 's speech until 3 : 30 a.m. The haste with which Eagleton had been selected led to surprise when his past mental health treatments were revealed ; he withdrew from the ticket soon after the convention , to be replaced by Sargent Shriver .
= = = Re @-@ election to Senate in 1974 = = =
Several years earlier , Alaska politicians had speculated that Gravel would have a hard time getting both renominated and elected when his first term expired , given that he was originally elected without a base party organization and tended to focus on national rather than local issues .
Nonetheless , in 1974 Gravel was re @-@ elected to the Senate , winning 58 percent of the vote against 42 percent for Republican State Senator C. R. Lewis , who was a national officer of the John Birch Society .
= = = Second term = = =
In September 1975 , Gravel was named as one of several Congressional Advisers to the Seventh Special Session of the United Nations , which met to discuss problems related to economic development and international economic cooperation .
In June 1976 , Gravel was the focus of a federal investigation into allegations that he was involved in a sex @-@ for @-@ vote arrangement . Congressional staff clerk Elizabeth Ray ( who was already the subject of a sex scandal that led to the downfall of Representative Wayne Hays ) stated that in August 1972 , she had sex with Gravel aboard a houseboat on the Potomac River , under the instruction of Representative Kenneth J. Gray , her boss at the time . Gray allegedly wanted to secure Gravel 's support for further funding for construction of the National Visitor Center in Washington , a troubled project that was under the jurisdiction of subcommittees that both members chaired . Another Congressional staffer said she witnessed the boat encounter , but Gravel said at the time that he had never met either of the women . Both Gravel and Gray strongly denied that they had made any arrangement regarding legislation , and neither was ever charged with any wrongdoing . Decades later , Gravel wrote that he had indeed had sex with Ray , but had not changed any votes because of it .
= = = Alaskan issues = = =
By 1971 , Gravel was urging construction of the much @-@ argued Trans @-@ Alaska pipeline , addressing environmental concerns by saying that the pipeline 's builders and operators should have " total and absolute " responsibility for any consequent environmental damage . Two years later , the debate over the pipeline came to a crux , with The New York Times describing it as " environmentalists [ in ] a holy war with the major oil companies . " In February 1973 the U.S. Court of Appeals blocked the issuance of permits for construction ; Gravel and fellow Alaskan Senator Ted Stevens reacted by urging Congress to pass legislation overturning the court 's decision . Environmentalists opposed to the pipeline , such as the Environmental Defense Fund and the Sierra Club then sought to use the recently passed National Environmental Policy Act to their advantage ; Gravel designed an amendment to the pipeline bill that would immunize the pipeline from any further court challenges under that law , and thus speed its construction . Passage of the amendment became the key battle regarding the pipeline . On July 17 , 1973 , in a dramatic roll call vote , the Gravel amendment was approved as a 49 – 49 tie was broken in favor by Vice President Spiro Agnew . The actual bill enabling the pipeline then passed easily ; Gravel had triumphed .
In opposition to the Alaskan fishing industry , Gravel advocated American participation in the formation of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea . For two years he opposed legislation that established a 200 @-@ mile ( 320 km ) Exclusive Economic Zone for marine resources . He was one of only 19 senators to vote against Senate approval for the expanded zone in 1976 , saying it would undermine the U.S. position in Law of the Sea negotiations and that nations arbitrarily extending their fishing rights limits would " produce anarchy of the seas . " The legislation was passed , and the United States has signed but never ratified the Law of the Sea treaty .
During his first year in the Senate Gravel urged abolition of the Bureau of Indian Affairs . In the early 1970s Gravel supported a demonstration project that established links between Alaskan villages and the National Institute of Health in Bethesda , Maryland , for medical diagnostic communications . Gravel helped secure a private grant to facilitate the first Inuit Circumpolar Conference in 1977 , attended by Inuit representatives from Alaska , Canada , and Greenland . These conferences now also include representatives from Russia . In 1977 , Gravel helped lead an effort to have the U.S. Interior Department rename Mount McKinley to Denali ; this eventually led to Denali National Park being so named . Subsequently Gravel proposed a never @-@ built " Denali City " development above the Tokositna River near the mountain , to consist of a giant Teflon dome enclosing hotels , golf courses , condominiums , and commercial buildings .
A key , emotional issue in the state at the time was " locking up Alaska " , making reference to allocation of its vast , mostly uninhabited land . In 1978 Gravel blocked passage , via procedural delays such as walking out of House @-@ Senate conference committee meetings , of a complex bill which represented a compromise on land use policy . The bill would have put some of Alaska 's vast federal land holdings under state control while preserving other portions for federal parks and refuges ; the action would earn Gravel the enmity of fellow Alaska Senator Ted Stevens . In 1980 , a new lands bill came up for consideration , that was less favorable to Alaskan interests and more liked by environmentalists ; it set aside 127 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 510 @,@ 000 km2 ) of Alaska 's 375 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 520 @,@ 000 km2 ) for national parks , conservation areas , and other restricted federal uses . Gravel blocked it , as not ensuring enough future development in the state . A new compromise version of the bill came forward , which reduced the land set aside to 104 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 420 @,@ 000 km2 ) . Gravel , in representation of Alaskan interests , tried to stop the bill , including staging a filibuster . The Senate , however , voted cloture and then passed the bill . Frustrated , Gravel said " the legislation denies Alaska its rights as a state , and denies the U.S. crucial strategic resources , " and commented that the Senate was " a little bit like a tank of barracudas . "
In 1978 , Gravel authored and secured the passage into law of the General Stock Ownership Corporation , that became Subchapter U of the Tax Code under the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 . While that was originally done as a prerequisite to a failed 1980 Alaskan ballot initiative that would have paid dividends to Alaskan citizens for pipeline @-@ related revenue , it also turned out to be significant in the development of binary economics .
= = = Loss of Senate seat in 1980 = = =
In 1980 , Gravel was challenged for the Democratic Party 's nomination by State Representative Clark Gruening , the grandson of the man Gravel had defeated in a primary 12 years earlier . Several factors made Gravel vulnerable . As an insurgent candidate in 1968 , Gravel had never established a firm party base . Not liking to hunt or fish , he was also always culturally suspect in the state . A group of Democrats , including future governor Steve Cowper , led the campaign against Gravel , with Gravel 's actions in respect to the 1978 and 1980 Alaskan lands bills a major issue , especially given that the latter 's dénouement happened but a week before the primary . The sources of Gravel 's campaign funds , some of which came from political action committees outside the state , also became an issue in the contest . Another factor may have been Alaska 's blanket primary system of the time , which allowed unlimited voting across party lines and from its many independents ; Republicans believed Gruening would be an easier candidate to defeat in the general election .
Gruening won the bitterly fought primary , with about 55 percent of the vote to Gravel 's 44 percent . Gravel would later concede that by the time of his defeat , he had alienated " almost every constituency in Alaska . "
Gruening lost the general election to Republican Frank Murkowski . Gravel was the last Democrat to represent Alaska in Congress for 28 years , until Anchorage Mayor Mark Begich defeated Stevens , by now an aged , iconic figure who had just been convicted of seven felonies for taking unreported gifts , in a very close and protracted election result in mid @-@ November 2008 . ( The charges against Stevens were subsequently dropped due to prosecutorial misconduct . )
= = Career after leaving the Senate = =
= = = A difficult transition = = =
Gravel took the 1980 defeat hard , recalling years later : " I had lost my career . I lost my marriage . I was in the doldrums for ten years after my defeat , " and " Nobody wanted to hire me for anything important . I felt like I was worthless . I didn 't know what I could do . " By his own later description , Gravel had been a womanizer while in the Senate , and in December 1980 he and his wife Rita separated . They filed for divorce in September 1981 ; she would later get all of his Senate pension income .
During the 1980s , Gravel was a real estate developer in Anchorage and Kenai , Alaska , a consultant , and a stockbroker . One of his real estate ventures , a condominium business , was forced to declare bankruptcy and a lawsuit ensued . During 1986 , Gravel worked in partnership with Merrill Lynch Capital Markets to buy losses that financially troubled Alaska Native Corporations could not take as tax deductions and sell them to large national companies looking for tax writeoffs .
Gravel married his second wife , Whitney Stewart Gravel , a former administrative assistant for Senator Jacob Javits , in 1984 .
= = = Return to politics = = =
In 1989 , Mike Gravel reentered politics . He founded and led The Democracy Foundation , which promotes direct democracy . He established the Philadelphia II corporation , which seeks to replicate the original 1787 Constitutional Convention in bringing direct democracy about . Around 2000 , David Parrish began helping Gravel on a technical level ; upon the former 's death in 2003 , Michael Grant took over the role of running Gravel 's websites and technology efforts .
Gravel led a quixotic effort to get a United States Constitutional amendment to allow voter @-@ initiated federal legislation similar to state ballot initiatives . He argued that Americans are able to legislate responsibly , and that the Act and Amendment in the National Initiative would allow American citizens to become " law makers " .
In 2001 , Gravel became director of the Alexis de Tocqueville Institution , where he admired institute co @-@ founder Gregory Fossedal 's work on direct democracy in Switzerland . By 2004 , Gravel had become chair of the institute , and Fossedal ( who in turn was a director of the Democracy Foundation ) gave the introduction at Gravel 's presidential announcement .
Mike and Whitney Gravel lived in Arlington County , Virginia , until 2010 and now reside in Burlingame , California . They have the two grown children from his first marriage , Martin Gravel and Lynne Gravel Mosier , and four grandchildren . Whitney Gravel 's income has sustained the couple since 1998 . In the 2000s ( decade ) , Gravel suffered poor health , requiring three surgeries in 2003 for back pain and neuropathy . Due to unreimbursed medical expenses and debts from his political causes , he declared personal bankruptcy in 2004 . He began taking a salary from the non @-@ profit organizations for which he was working ; much of that income was lent to his presidential campaign . In 2007 , he declared that he had " zero net worth . "
= = = Barnes Review controversy = = =
In June 2003 , Gravel gave a speech on direct democracy at a conference hosted by the American Free Press . The event was cosponsored by the Barnes Review , a journal that endorses Holocaust denial . In the wake of criticism for his appearance , Gravel has said repeatedly that he does not share such a view , stating , " You better believe I know that six million Jews were killed . I 've been to the Holocaust Museum . I 've seen the footage of General Eisenhower touring one of the camps . They 're [ referring to the Barnes Review and publisher Willis Carto ] nutty as loons if they don 't think it happened " . The newspaper had intended to interview Gravel about the National Initiative . Gravel later recounted the background to the event :
" He [ Carto ] liked the idea of the National Initiative . I figured it was an opportunity to discuss it . Whether it is the far right , far left , whatever , I 'll make my pitch to them . They gave me a free subscription to American Free Press . They still send it to me today . I flip through it sometimes . It has some extreme views , and a lot of the ads in it are even more extreme and make me want to upchuck . Anyways , sometime later , Carto contacted me to speak at that Barnes Review Conference . I had never heard of the Barnes Review , didn 't know anything about it or what they stood for . I was just coming to give a presentation about the National Initiative . I was there maybe 30 minutes . I could tell from the people in the room ( mainly some very old men ) that they were pretty extreme . I gave my speech , answered some questions and left . I never saw the agenda for the day or listened to any of the other presentations . "
The group invited Gravel to speak again , but he declined .
= = Political positions = =
Gravel has stated that he is an advocate for " a national , universal single @-@ payer not @-@ for @-@ profit health care system " in the United States which would utilize vouchers and enable citizens to choose their own doctor . He has proposed to index veteran health care entitlements to take full account of increases in the costs of care and medicine . He supports a drug policy that legalizes and regulates all drugs , treating drug abuse as a medical issue , rather than a criminal matter . Gravel favors a guest worker program , supports the FairTax proposal that calls for eliminating the IRS and the income tax and replacing it with a progressive national sales tax of 23 percent on newly manufactured items and services , retaining progressivity via all taxes on spending up to the poverty level being refunded to every household . Gravel has advocated that carbon energy should be taxed to provide the funding for a global effort to bring together the world 's scientific and engineering communities to develop energy alternatives to significantly reduce the world ’ s energy dependence on carbon .
Gravel in principle does not object to the use of embryonic stem cells for medical research purposes . He is avowedly pro @-@ choice on the issue of abortion and women 's reproductive rights . He supports constitutional amendments towards direct democracy . His political leanings and convictions are also in his 1972 manifesto , Citizen Power : A People 's Platform .
= = 2008 presidential campaign = =
At the start of 2006 , Gravel decided the best way he could promote direct democracy and the National Initiative was to run for president . On April 17 , 2006 , Gravel became the first candidate for the Democratic nomination for President of the United States in the 2008 election , announcing his run in a speech to the National Press Club in Washington , D.C. Short on campaign cash , he took public transportation to get to his announcement . Other principal Gravel positions were the FairTax , withdrawal of U.S. troops from Iraq within 120 days , a single payer national health care system , and term limits .
Gravel campaigned almost full @-@ time in New Hampshire , the first primary state , following his announcement . Opinion polls of contenders for the Democratic nomination showed Gravel with 1 percent or less support . By the end of March 2007 , Gravel 's campaign had less than $ 500 in cash on hand against debts of nearly $ 90 @,@ 000 .
Because of his time in the Senate , Gravel was invited to many of the early Democratic presidential debates . During the initial one at South Carolina State University on April 26 , 2007 , he suggested a bill requiring the president to withdraw from Iraq on pain of criminal penalties . He also advocated positions such as opposing preemptive nuclear war . He stated that the Iraq War had the effect of creating more terrorists and that the " war was lost the day that George Bush invaded Iraq on a fraudulent basis . " Regarding his fellow candidates , he said , " I got to tell you , after standing up with them , some of these people frighten me – they frighten me . " Media stories said that Gravel was responsible for much of whatever " heat " and " flashpoints " had taken place . Gravel gained considerable publicity by shaking up the normally staid multiple @-@ candidate format ; The New York Times ' media critic said that what Gravel had done was " steal a debate with outrageous , curmudgeonly statements . " The Internet was a benefit : a YouTube video of his responses in the debate was viewed more than 225 @,@ 892 times , ranking seventeenth in most views for week and first among news and politics clips ; his name became the fifteenth most searched @-@ for in the blogosphere ; and his website garnered more traffic than those of frontrunners Hillary Rodham Clinton , Barack Obama , or John Edwards . Gravel appeared on the popular Colbert Report on television on May 2 , and his campaign and career were profiled in national publications such as Salon . Two wordless , Warholesque campaign videos , " Rock " and " Fire " , were released on YouTube in late May and became hits , and eventually gained over 760 @,@ 000 and 185 @,@ 000 views respectively . " Rock , " in turn , was given airtime during an episode of The Daily Show with Jon Stewart . Some thirty @-@ five years after he first achieved the national spotlight , he had found it again .
All this did not improve his performance in the polls ; a May 2007 CNN poll showed him with less than 0 @.@ 5 percent support among Democrats . Gravel was in the next several debates , in one case after CNN reversed a decision to exclude him . Gravel , as with some of the other second @-@ tier candidates , did not get as much time as the leaders ; during the June 2 , 2007 , New Hampshire debate , which lasted two hours , he was asked 10 questions and allowed to speak for five minutes and 37 seconds .
During the July 23 , 2007 , CNN @-@ YouTube presidential debate , Gravel responded to audience applause when he had complained of a lack of airtime and said : " Thank you . Has it been fair thus far ? " Detractors began to liken him to " the cranky uncle who lives in the attic , " or " the angry old guy that just seemed to want to become angrier . " Berkeley political scientist David Terr found that moderator George Stephanopoulos directed roughly five percent of his questions to Gravel ; in a poll asking who did the best in the debate , Gravel placed seventh among the eight candidates . National opinion polls of contenders for the Democratic nomination continued to show Gravel with one percent or zero percent numbers . By the end of the third @-@ quarter 2007 , Gravel had about $ 17 @,@ 500 in cash on hand , had collected a total of about $ 380 @,@ 000 so far during the 2008 election cycle , and was continuing to run a threadbare campaign with minimal staff .
Beginning with the October 30 , 2007 , Philadelphia event , Gravel was excluded from most of the debates , with the debate sponsors or the Democratic National Committee saying Gravel 's campaign had not met fund @-@ raising , polling , or local campaign organizational thresholds . For the Philadelphia exclusion , Gravel blamed corporate censorship on the part of sponsor owner and alleged military @-@ industrial complex member General Electric for his exclusion and mounted a counter @-@ gathering and debate against a video screen a short distance away , but he had lost his easiest publicity . In reaction , supporters organized " mass donation days " to try to help the campaign gain momentum and funds , such as on December 5 , 2007 , the anniversary of the Repeal of Prohibition .
Gravel did not compete in the initial 2008 vote , the Iowa caucuses , but was still subjected to a false report from MSNBC that he had pulled out of the race afterward . Gravel did focus his attention on the second 2008 vote , the New Hampshire primary . There he received about 400 votes out of some 280 @,@ 000 cast , or 0 @.@ 14 percent , before taking time off to improve his health . He resumed campaigning , but fared no better in subsequent states . By the end of January 2008 , Hillary Clinton , Barack Obama , and Gravel were the only remaining Democrats from the initial debates still running ; Gravel vowed to stay in the presidential campaign until November . On March 11 , 2008 , Gravel continued to remain in the Democratic race but additionally endorsed a Green Party candidate for president , Jesse Johnson , saying he wanted to help Johnson prevail against Green Party rivals Cynthia McKinney and Ralph Nader . By late March , Gravel had almost no fundraising and was only on the ballot in one of the next ten Democratic primaries .
= = = Switch to Libertarian Party = = =
On March 25 , 2008 , Gravel announced that he would leave the Democrats and join the Libertarian Party , saying : " My libertarian views , as well as my strong stance against war , the military industrial complex and American imperialism , seem not to be tolerated by Democratic Party elites who are out of touch with the average American ; elites that reject the empowerment of American citizens I offered to the Democratic Party at the beginning of this presidential campaign with the National Initiative for Democracy . " The following day Gravel entered the race for the 2008 Libertarian presidential nomination , saying that he would have run as a third @-@ party candidate all along except that he needed the public exposure that came from being in the earlier Democratic debates . Gravel 's initial notion of running as a fusion candidate with other parties was met with skepticism and not pursued .
As a Libertarian candidate , Gravel faced resistance to his liberal past and unorthodox positions ; nevertheless , he garnered more support than he had as a Democrat , placing second and third in two April 2008 straw polls . In the May 25 balloting at the 2008 Libertarian National Convention in Denver , Gravel finished fourth out of eight candidates on the initial ballot , with 71 votes out of a total 618 ; he trailed former Congressman and eventual winner Bob Barr , author Mary Ruwart , and businessman Wayne Allyn Root . Gravel 's position did not subsequently improve and he was eliminated on the fourth ballot . Afterwards he stated that " I just ended my political career , " but he vowed to continue promoting his positions as a writer and lecturer .
= = After the campaigns = =
In June 2008 , Gravel endorsed the NYC 9 / 11 Ballot Initiative , saying the measure would create a " citizens commission rather than a government commission " with subpoena power against top U.S. officials to " make a true investigation as to what happened " regarding the September 11 , 2001 terrorist attacks . Gravel subsequently said that , " Individuals in and out of government may certainly have participated with the obviously known perpetrators of this dastardly act . Suspicions abound over the analysis presented by government . Obviously an act that has triggered three wars , Afghan , Iraqi and the continuing War on Terror , should be extensively investigated which was not done and which the government avoids addressing . "
In August 2008 , Gravel was speaking to a crowd of supporters of Sami Al @-@ Arian ( who two years earlier had pleaded guilty and been sentenced to prison for a charge of conspiracy in helping Palestinian Islamic Jihad , a " specially designated terrorist " organization ) when he was caught on tape saying of Al @-@ Arian 's prosecutor , " Find out where he lives , find out where his kids go to school , find out where his office is : picket him all the time . Call him a racist in signs if you see him . Call him an injustice . Call him whatever you want to call him , but in his face all the time . " Gravel was criticized for potentially involving the children of the prosecutor , and Al @-@ Arian 's family disavowed the sentiments .
Gravel defended Alaska Governor Sarah Palin after she was chosen as Republican presidential nominee John McCain 's running mate in September 2008 . He praised Palin 's record in standing up to corruption among Alaskan Republicans , thought her national inexperience was an asset not a detriment , and predicted that the " Troopergate " investigation into whether she improperly fired a state official would " come out in her favor . " Gravel made clear he would not support or vote for either McCain @-@ Palin or Obama @-@ Biden in the general election . The following year , Gravel said that Palin 's politics were " terrible , but that doesn 't detract from the fact that she 's a very talented person " . He predicted that Palin would run for president in 2012 and that " she 's going to surprise a lot of people " Palin did not run , but Gravel 's prediction about " TrooperGate " was accurate as Palin was found not to have violated ethics laws .
From mid @-@ 2008 through October 2009 Gravel gave several lectures at South Korean universities about the Korean National Initiative , a Korean adaption of the National Initiative Gravel has proposed in the United States .
In December 2010 , Gravel praised WikiLeaks , in the news during the year for the Afghan War documents leak , Iraq War documents leak , and United States diplomatic cables leak , as the " most significant effort to save democracy ( which is slowly being eclipsed by the Military Industrial Complex ) since the release of the Pentagon Papers " . Gravel indicated in December 2010 that he might run for president again and possibly challenge President Obama for the Democratic nomination for the 2012 presidential election , but he did not .
Gravel attended the International Conference on Hollywoodism in Tehran in February 2013 , noting that the conference was attended by " various elements of extremes " but saying that it was necessary to discuss how the U.S. film industry portrayed Iran in order to prevent " an insane war " between the two nations . In May 2013 , Gravel was one of several former members of Congress to accept $ 20 @,@ 000 from the Paradigm Research Group , an advocacy group for UFO disclosure , as part of holding what they termed a Citizen Hearing on Disclosure , modeled after congressional hearings , regarding supposed U.S. government suppression of evidence concerning UFOs . Gravel said , " Something is monitoring the planet , and they are monitoring it very cautiously , because we are a very warlike planet , " and , " What we 're faced with here is , in areas of the media , and the government too , an effort to marginalize and ridicule people who have specific knowledge . "
In December 2014 , he was announced as the new CEO of KUSH , a company which makes marijuana @-@ infused products for medicinal and recreational use , and a subsidiary of Cannabis Sativa , Inc . He also became an Independent Director of Cannabis Sativa .
During the Democratic Party presidential primaries , 2016 , Gravel spoke with high praise of Bernie Sanders , saying " Bernie is one of the most gifted politicians I have ever observed . He 's a person of great integrity and very clever . " He predicted that the Bernie Sanders presidential campaign , 2016 would end with Sanders being elected president , but that Sanders would be unable to get his key reforms through Congress and thus that Sanders and his supporters should back some of the proposals of the National Initiative .
= = Awards and honors = =
In 2008 , Gravel received the Columbia University School of General Studies ' first annual Isaac Asimov Lifetime Achievement Award .
= = Electoral history = =
= = Writings = =
Gravel , Mike . Jobs and More Jobs . Mt . McKinley Publishers , 1968 .
Gravel , Mike . Citizen Power : A People 's Platform . Holt , Rinehart and Winston , 1972 . ISBN 0 @-@ 03 @-@ 091465 @-@ 5 .
revised and reissued as Citizen Power : A Mandate for Change , AuthorHouse , 2008 . ISBN 1 @-@ 4343 @-@ 4315 @-@ 4 .
Gravel , Mike and Lauria , Joe . A Political Odyssey : The Rise of American Militarism and One Man 's Fight to Stop It . Seven Stories Press , 2008 . ISBN 1 @-@ 58322 @-@ 826 @-@ 8 .
Gravel , Mike and Eisenbach , David . The Kingmakers : How the Media Threatens Our Security and Our Democracy . Phoenix Books , 2008 . ISBN 1 @-@ 59777 @-@ 586 @-@ X.
Gravel , Mike . Voice of a Maverick : The Speeches and Writings of Senator Mike Gravel . Brandywine House , 2008 .
Gravel , Mike . Foreword to " Poisoned Power : The Case Against Nuclear Power Plants . " [ John W. Goffman & Arthur R. Tamplin , Rodale Press , Inc . , Emmaus , PA , June 1971 ] .
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= Glen P. Robinson =
Glen Parmelee Robinson , Jr . ( September 10 , 1923 – January 16 , 2013 ) , called the " father of high @-@ tech industry in Georgia " , was an American businessman and founder of Scientific Atlanta , now a subsidiary of Cisco Systems . Robinson was the first employee of Scientific Atlanta , where he remained CEO then Chairman of the company until he retired .
Initially a ham radio enthusiast and subsequently a graduate of the Georgia Institute of Technology ( Georgia Tech ) with both bachelor 's and master 's degrees in physics , Robinson worked at the Georgia Tech Research Institute and the Oak Ridge National Laboratory before founding Scientific Atlanta . Later in life , he founded and invested in numerous Atlanta @-@ based science @-@ related companies . Robinson was named an IEEE Fellow and held at least 39 patents in fields including solar energy devices and antenna systems .
For his contributions , he was named Georgia 's Small Businessman of the Year in 1965 , the Georgia Business and Industry Association 's Entrepreneur of the Year in 1981 , and was elected to the Georgia Technology Hall of Fame in 1993 . In 2003 , Georgia Tech awarded him an honorary Ph.D. in Physics , and in 2007 , half of Georgia Tech 's Molecular Science and Engineering Building was named the Glen P. Robinson , Jr . Tower in his honor .
= = Early life and education = =
Robinson was born in 1923 in Crescent City , Florida , an outskirt of Jacksonville , to Glen Parmelee and Laura Mae ( Lewis ) Robinson . His family moved to Valdosta , Georgia , in 1937 , and some time after , Robinson opened a small machine shop . He sold industrial products and metal tools to local industry . In 1942 , with the encouragement of his father , Robinson enrolled as a student at the Georgia Institute of Technology to study chemical engineering . However , his education was interrupted by his enlistment into the Naval Signal Corps and service in the Pacific Theatre of World War II where he installed telephones on recaptured American possessions during the war .
Robinson returned from the conflict as a junior and in 1948 he changed his major to physics , as the School of Physics started its degree program that year . He received a Bachelor of Science in Physics in 1948 , and a Master of Science in Physics ( also from Georgia Tech ) in 1950 . Robinson was also a member of Georgia Tech 's prestigious secret society , ANAK . Robinson had been a ham radio operator enthusiast since the age of 14 , and started a radio repair service to provide additional income while he was a student at Georgia Tech .
One of Robinson 's professors , James E. Boyd , convinced him to give up the radio repair business and work as a research assistant at the Georgia Tech Research Institute ( then known as the Engineering Experiment Station , or EES ) . One of his ham radio friends was actually his boss 's boss and EES director , Gerald Rosselot . Working after hours at EES , Robinson built a television set in the lab , which he and others claim was the first to be built in the state of Georgia . In 1950 , Robinson went to Tennessee to work in nuclear engineering for Oak Ridge National Laboratory , servicing radiology @-@ related equipment at local hospitals .
= = Scientific Atlanta = =
Robinson and six other Georgia Tech researchers ( including Robinson 's former professor James E. Boyd and EES director Gerald Rosselot ) each contributed $ 100 ( for a total of $ 700 ) and founded Scientific Associates on October 31 , 1951 , with the initial goal of marketing antenna structures being developed by the radar branch of the EES to the U.S. military . Robinson worked as the unpaid general manager for the first year . The relations between Scientific Associates and the EES were initially strained due to an unrelated dispute over station finances between EES director Gerald Rosselot and Georgia Tech vice president Cherry Emerson . Specifically , Emerson believed that surplus funds realized through research contracts should be returned to Georgia Tech , while the Georgia Tech Research Corporation and Rosselot felt they should be retained to foster additional research .
A strict conflict of interest policy was enacted , and researchers were forced to choose between the two entities ; the initial investors had all kept their faculty jobs , and most returned to them . After the fledgling company 's first contract resulted in a $ 4 @,@ 000 loss , Robinson bought out all but one of the original investors and paid them each back their original $ 100 . Robinson left EES and became president and CEO of the new company , which was renamed Scientific Atlanta . Boyd stayed on as a member of the board of directors ; Robinson 's friend Larry Clayton , previously involved in Robinson 's radio business and now having graduated from Georgia Tech with a degree in physics , became the head of the new company 's research and development . Years later , the school would promote Scientific Atlanta 's origins at Georgia Tech , and Scientific Atlanta has been a longtime financial contributor to Georgia Tech .
Scientific Atlanta helped NASA establish ground stations for communication with astronauts during the Mercury , Gemini and Apollo projects . When John Glenn became the first American to orbit the Earth in 1962 on Mercury @-@ Atlas 6 , his voice was transmitted and received by radio antennas designed and equipment built by Scientific Atlanta . In the 1970s , Robinson recognized the potential combination of communications satellites and cable television . Ted Turner purchased one of Scientific Atlanta 's first satellite systems , which formed the basis of Turner 's " Super Station " that was broadcast around the country to other cable providers . In 1975 , HBO and TelePrompTer used Scientific Atlanta equipment to transmit the first live satellite @-@ delivered cable event , the " Thrilla in Manila " heavyweight boxing championship bout between Muhammad Ali and Joe Frazier . Scientific Atlanta is perhaps best known for pioneering television cable set @-@ top boxes and equipment worldwide and the development of satellite Earth stations .
Robinson remained CEO of Scientific Atlanta for 20 years , and chairman of the board for an additional eight years , until he retired from the company in 1979 . Scientific Atlanta grew dramatically ; it earned $ 3 @.@ 1 million in revenue in 1962 , approximately $ 200 million in 1979 , and $ 1 @.@ 9 billion in yearly revenue by 2005 . Scientific Atlanta served as a regional business incubator , with hundreds of companies tracing their roots back to it .
= = Later career = =
Robinson founded E @-@ Tech in 1978 , which developed heat pump technology . Eight years later , in 1986 , E @-@ Tech merged with the Marvair Company to become Crispaire , which specialized in cooling equipment for telecommunications systems . Crispaire would later merge with other companies , and is now known as Airxcel . Robinson retired from Crispaire in 1997 .
In 1994 , Robinson funded and co @-@ founded LaserCraft , which focused on applications of LIDAR such as radar guns and traffic enforcement cameras , and in 2006 was the world 's largest manufacturer of laser products for law enforcement . LaserCraft was acquired by Public Safety Equipment in June 2006 , which was in turn acquired by Stirling Square Capital Partners and Diamond Castle Holdings in February 2007 .
Robinson was an angel investor , particularly in the fields of digital communications and biotechnology . In 1999 , he funded OmniMetrix and Mission Communications , two companies focused on AMPS cellular digital control channel and wireless SCADA communications . Omnimetrix was acquired by Acorn Energy in 2012 . Mission is currently the leading provider of cellular SCADA for water and wastewater in North America . In 2000 , he invested $ 1 @.@ 5 million in Genomic Solutions Inc , which was acquired by Digilab , Inc. in 2007 . Most recently , Robinson was an investor in and co @-@ founder of the 2007 VentureLab startup , C2 Biofuels , which attracted additional funding from Chevron and aims to build several $ 100 million cellulosic ethanol plants throughout the United States .
= = Legacy = =
Robinson held positions on numerous boards , including : Chairman of the Georgia Science and Technology Commission ; Chairman of the Georgia Tech Research Corporation ; Trustee of The Georgia Tech Foundation and Member of the Board of Visitors of Emory University ; the Atlanta Chamber of Commerce ; and the Georgia Business and Industry Association .
Robinson was selected as Georgia 's Small Businessman of the Year in 1965 , the Georgia Business and Industry Association 's ( now the Georgia Chamber of Commerce ) Entrepreneur of the Year in 1981 , and was elected to the Georgia Technology Hall of Fame in 1993 . Since 1995 , Scientific Atlanta has sponsored scholarships in Robinson 's name for children of its employees . In March 1998 , Robinson donated to create two endowed chairs at Georgia Tech : the Glen P. Robinson Chair in Non @-@ Linear Science ( in the School of Physics ) and the $ 1 @.@ 5 million Glen P. Robinson Chair in Electro @-@ Optics ( in GTRI ) .
In 2003 , Georgia Tech awarded him an honorary Ph.D. in physics , and in 2006 he was awarded the Joseph Mayo Pettit Alumni Distinguished Service Award . In 2007 , half of Georgia Tech 's Molecular Science and Engineering Building was named the Glen P. Robinson , Jr . Tower in his honor , due in part to his $ 5 million donation towards its construction .
Robinson continued working with startups and technology businesses throughout his later career . Near the end of his life , he and his wife , Jan Musgrove Robinson , had 5 children , 12 grandchildren , and 3 great @-@ grandchildren and lived in Atlanta . On Wednesday , January 16 , 2013 , Robinson died of apparent heart failure . The funeral was held at St. Anne ’ s Episcopal Church in Atlanta , and he was cremated by H.M. Patterson & Son , Arlington Chapel .
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= The Tower House =
The Tower House , 29 Melbury Road , is a late @-@ Victorian townhouse in the Holland Park district of Kensington and Chelsea , London , built by the architect and designer William Burges as his home . Designed between 1875 and 1881 , in the French Gothic Revival style , it was described by the architectural historian J. Mordaunt Crook as " the most complete example of a medieval secular interior produced by the Gothic Revival , and the last " . The house is built of red brick , with Bath stone dressings and green roof slates from Cumbria , and has a distinctive cylindrical tower and conical roof . The ground floor contains a drawing room , a dining room and a library , while the first floor has two bedrooms and an armoury . Its exterior and the interior echo elements of Burges 's earlier work , particularly the McConnochie House in Cardiff and Castell Coch . It was designated a Grade I listed building in 1949 .
Burges bought the lease on the plot of land in 1875 . The house was built by the Ashby Brothers , with interior decoration by members of Burges 's long @-@ standing team of craftsmen including Thomas Nicholls and Henry Stacy Marks . By 1878 the house was largely complete , although interior decoration and the designing of numerous items of furniture and metalwork continued until Burges 's death in 1881 . The house was inherited by his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Richard Popplewell Pullan . It was later sold to Colonel T. H. Minshall and then , in 1933 , to Colonel E. R. B. Graham . The poet John Betjeman inherited the remaining lease in 1962 but did not extend it . Following a period when the house stood empty and suffered vandalism , it was purchased and restored , first by Lady Jane Turnbull , later by the actor Richard Harris and then by the musician Jimmy Page .
The house retains most of its internal structural decoration , but much of the furniture , fittings and contents that Burges designed have been dispersed . Many items , including the Great Bookcase , the Zodiac settle , the Golden Bed and the Red Bed , are now in institutions such as The Higgins Art Gallery & Museum and the Victoria and Albert Museum , while others are in private collections .
= = Location and setting = =
The Tower House is on a corner of Melbury Road , just north of Kensington High Street , in the district of Holland Park . It stands opposite Stavordvale Lodge and next to Woodland House , built for the artist Luke Fildes . The development of Melbury Road in the grounds of Little Holland House created an art colony in Holland Park , the Holland Park Circle . Its most prominent member , Frederic , Lord Leighton , lived at Leighton House , 12 Holland Park Road , and at the time of Leighton 's death in 1896 six Royal Academicians , as well as one associate member , were living in Holland Park Road and Melbury Road .
= = History = =
= = = Design , construction and craftsmanship , 1875 – 78 = = =
In 1863 , William Burges gained his first major architectural commission , Saint Fin Barre 's Cathedral , Cork , at the age of 35 . In the following twelve years , his architecture , metalwork , jewellery , furniture and stained glass led Crook to claim that Burges rivaled Pugin as " the greatest art @-@ architect of the Gothic Revival " . But by 1875 , his short career was largely over . Although he worked to finalise earlier projects , he received no further major commissions , and the design , construction , decoration and furnishing of the Tower House occupied much of the last six years of his life . In December 1875 , after rejecting plots in Victoria Road , Kensington and Bayswater , Burges purchased the leasehold of the plot in Melbury Road from the Earl of Ilchester , the owner of the Holland Estate . The ground rent was £ 100 per annum . Initial drawings for the house had been undertaken in July 1875 and the final form was decided upon by the end of the year . Building began in 1876 , contracted to the Ashby Brothers of Kingsland Road at a cost of £ 6 @,@ 000 .
At the Tower House Burges drew on his own " experience of twenty years learning , travelling and building , " and used many of the artists and craftsmen who had worked with him on earlier buildings . An estimate book compiled by him , and now in the Victoria and Albert Museum , contains the names of the individuals and companies that worked at the house . Thomas Nicholls was responsible for the stone carving , including the capitals , corbels and the chimneypieces . The mosaic and marble work was contracted to Burke and Company of Regent Street , while the decorative tiles were supplied by WB Simpson and Sons Ltd of the Strand . John Ayres Hatfield crafted the bronze decorations on the doors , while the woodwork was the responsibility of John Walden of Covent Garden . Henry Stacy Marks and Frederick Weekes were employed to decorate the walls with murals , and Campbell and Smith of Southampton Row had responsibility for most of the painted decoration . Marks painted birds above the frieze in the library , and the illustrations of famous lovers in the drawing @-@ room were by Weekes . They also painted the figures on the bookcases in the library . The stained glass was by Saunders and Company of Long Acre , with initial designs by Horatio Walter Lonsdale .
= = = Burges to Graham , 1878 – 1962 = = =
Burges spent his first night at the house on 5 March 1878 . It provided a suitable backdrop for entertaining his range of friends , " the whole gamut of Pre @-@ Raphaelite London . " His dogs , Dandie , Bogie and Pinkie , are immortalised in paintings on various pieces of furniture such as the Dog Cabinet and the foot of The Red Bed . Burges displayed his extensive collection of armour in the armoury . The decoration of his bedroom hints at another of his passions : a fondness for opium . Stylised poppies cover the panels of a cupboard which was set next to his bed .
In 1881 , after catching a chill while overseeing work at Cardiff , Burges returned , half paralysed , to the house where he lay dying for some three weeks . Among his last visitors were Oscar Wilde and James Whistler . Burges died in the Red Bed on 20 April 1881 , just over three years after moving into the Tower House ; he was 53 years old . He was buried in West Norwood Cemetery .
The lease on the house was inherited by Burges 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Richard Popplewell Pullan . Pullan completed some of Burges 's unfinished projects and wrote two studies of his work . The lease was then purchased by Colonel T. H. Minshall , author of What to Do with Germany and Future Germany , and father of Merlin Minshall . Minshall sold his lease to Colonel E. R. B. and Mrs. Graham in 1933 . The Tower House was designated a Grade I listed building on 29 July 1949 .
= = = Betjeman to Turnbull , 1962 – 69 = = =
John Betjeman was a friend of the Grahams and was given the remaining two @-@ year lease on the house , together with some of the furniture , on Mrs. Graham 's death in 1962 . Betjeman , a champion of Victorian Gothic Revival architecture , was an early admirer of Burges . In 1957 the Tower House had featured in the fifth episode of his BBC television series , An Englishman 's Castle . In a radio interview of 1952 about Cardiff Castle Betjeman spoke of the architect and his foremost work : " a great brain has made this place . I don 't see how anyone can fail to be impressed by its weird beauty ... awed into silence from the force of this Victorian dream of the Middle Ages . "
Because of a potential liability for £ 10 @,@ 000 of renovation work upon the expiry of the lease , Betjeman considered the house too costly to maintain , and subsequently vacated it . From 1962 to 1966 , the house stood empty and suffered vandalism and neglect . A survey undertaken in January 1965 revealed that the exterior stonework was badly decayed , dry rot had eaten through the roof and the structural floor timbers , and the attics were infested with pigeons . Vandals had stripped the lead from the water tanks and had damaged the mirrors , fireplaces and carving work . The most notable loss was the theft of the carved figure of Fame from the Dining Room chimneypiece . Betjeman suggested that the owner 's agents had deliberately refused to let the house , and allowed it to decline , intending to demolish it and redevelop the site . Writing in Country Life in 1966 , Charles Handley @-@ Read took a different view saying that " the Ilchester Estate , upon which the house is situated , are anxious that it should be preserved and [ have ] entered into a long lease conditional upon the house being put into a state of good repair . " In March 1965 , the Historic Buildings Council obtained a preservation order on the house , enabling the purchaser of the lease , Lady Jane Turnbull , daughter of William Grey , 9th Earl of Stamford , to initiate a programme of restoration the following July . These renovations were supported by grants of £ 4 @,@ 000 from the Historic Buildings Council and £ 3 @,@ 000 from the Greater London Council . The lease was sold in 1969 .
= = = Harris and Page , 1969 onwards = = =
The actor Richard Harris bought the lease for £ 75 @,@ 000 in 1969 after discovering that the American entertainer Liberace had made an offer but had not put down a deposit . Reading of the intended sale in the Evening Standard , Harris bought it the following day , describing his purchase as the biggest gift he had ever given himself . In his autobiography , the entertainer Danny La Rue recalled visiting the house with Liberace , writing , " It was a strange building and had eerie murals painted on the ceiling ... I sensed evil " . Meeting La Rue later , Harris said he had found the house haunted by the ghosts of children from an orphanage that had previously occupied the site and that he had placated them by buying them toys . Harris employed the original decorators , Campbell Smith & Company Ltd . , to carry out restoration , using Burges 's drawings from the Victoria and Albert Museum .
Jimmy Page , the Led Zeppelin guitarist , bought the house from Harris in 1972 for £ 350 @,@ 000 , outbidding the musician David Bowie . Page , an enthusiast for Burges and for the Pre @-@ Raphaelite Brotherhood , commented in an interview in 2012 : " I was still finding things 20 years after being there – a little beetle on the wall or something like that ; it 's Burges 's attention to detail that is so fascinating . " In 2015 Page successfully challenged a planning application lodged by the pop star Robbie Williams , who had purchased the adjacent Woodland House in 2013 and planned extensive renovations . Page argued that the alterations , particularly the intended underground excavations , would threaten the structure of the Tower House .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Exterior and design = = =
The cultural historian Caroline Dakers wrote that the Tower House was a " pledge to the spirit of Gothic in an area given over to Queen Anne " . Burges loathed the Queen Anne style prevalent in Holland Park , writing that it : " like other fashions ... will have its day , I do not call it Queen Anne art , for , unfortunately I see no art in it at all " . His inspirations were French Gothic domestic architecture of the thirteenth century and more recent models drawn from the work of the nineteenth @-@ century French architect Viollet @-@ le @-@ Duc . Architectural historians Gavin Stamp and Colin Amery considered that the building " sums up Burges in miniature . Although clearly a redbrick suburban house , it is massive , picturesquely composed , with a prominent tourelle for the staircase which is surmounted by a conical roofed turret . " Burges 's neighbour Luke Fildes described the house as a " model modern house of moderately large size in the 13th @-@ century style built to show what may be done for 19th @-@ century everyday wants " .
The house has an L @-@ shaped plan , and the exterior is plain , of red brick , with Bath stone dressings and green roof slates from Cumberland . With a floor plan of 50 feet by 50 feet ( 15 m ) square , 2 @,@ 500 square feet ( 230 m2 ) , Burges went about its construction on a grand scale . The architect R. Norman Shaw remarked that the concrete foundations were suitable " for a fortress " . This approach , combined with Burges 's architectural skills and the minimum of exterior decoration , created a building that Crook described as " simple and massive " . Following his usual pattern , Burges re @-@ worked many elements of earlier designs , adapting them as appropriate . The frontages come from the other townhouse he designed , the McConnochie House in Cardiff , although they have been reversed , with the arcaded , street front from the McConnochie House forming the garden front of the Tower House . The staircase is consigned to the conical tower , avoiding the error Burges made at the earlier house , where he placed the staircase in the middle of the hall . The cylindrical tower and conical roof derive from Castell Coch , and the interiors are inspired from examples at Cardiff Castle . The house has two main floors , with a basement below and a garret above . The ground floor contains a drawing room , a dining room and a library , while the first floor has two bedrooms and an armoury .
= = = Plan = = =
= = = Interior = = =
The architectural writer Bridget Cherry wrote that " the sturdy exterior gives little hint of the fantasy [ Burges ] created inside " , interiors which the art historian and Burges scholar Charles Handley @-@ Read described as " at once opulent , aggressive , obsessional , enchanting , their grandeur border [ ing ] on grandiloquence " . Each room has a complex iconographic scheme of decoration : in the hall it is Time ; in the drawing room , Love ; in Burges 's bedroom , the Sea . Massive fireplaces with elaborate overmantels were carved and installed , described by Crook as " veritable altars of art ... some of the most amazing pieces of decoration Burges ever designed " . Handley @-@ Read considered that Burges 's decorations were " unique , almost magical [ and ] quite unlike anything designed by his contemporaries " .
= = = = Ground floor = = = =
A bronze @-@ covered door , with relief panels depicting figures , opens onto the entrance hall . In Burges 's time the door had a letterbox , in the form of Mercury , the messenger of the gods . The letterbox is now lost , but a contemporary copy is in the collection of The Higgins Art Gallery & Museum . The porch contains a white marble seat and column , and on the floor is a mosaic of Pinkie , a favourite poodle of Burges . Cartooned by H.W. Lonsdale , it resembles the cave canem floor at Pompei .
The interior centres on the double @-@ height entrance hall , with the theme of Time . The painted ceiling depicts the astrological signs of the constellations , arranged in the positions they held when the house was first occupied . A large stained glass window contains four female figures representing Dawn , Noon , Twilight and Night . A mosaic floor in the entrance hall contains a labyrinth design , with the centre depicting the myth of Theseus slaying the Minotaur . The garden 's entrance door , also covered in bronze , is decorated with a relief of the Madonna and Child . As elsewhere , Burges incorporated earlier designs , the bronze doors echoing those at Cork Cathedral , and the maze floor recalling an earlier ceiling at Burges 's office at 15 Buckingham Street . Emblems adorn the five doors on the ground floor , each one relevant to their respective room . A flower marked the door to the garden , with the front door marked by a key . The library is indicated by an open book , the drawing or music room by musical instruments , and the dining room by a bowl and flask of wine .
The library , its walls lined with bookcases , features a sculptured mantelpiece resembling the Tower of Babel . The hooded chimneypiece represents the " dispersion of languages " , with figures depicting Nimrod ruling over the elements of speech . Two trumpeters represent the pronouns , a queen embodies the verb , a porter the noun , and numerous other gilded and painted figures are displayed . The ceiling is divided into eight compartments , with depictions of the six founders of law and philosophy , Moses , St. Paul , Luther , Mahomet , Aristotle and Justinian . An illuminated alphabet frieze of architecture and the visual arts running around the bookcases completes the scheme , with the letters of the alphabet incorporated , including a letter " H " falling below the cornice . Due to H @-@ dropping being a social taboo in Victorian times , Handley @-@ Read described it as the " most celebrated of all Burges 's jokes " . Artists and craftsmen are featured at work on each lettered door of the bookcases that surround the room . In a panel in one of the glazed doors which open onto the garden , Burges is shown standing in front of a model of the Tower House . He features as Architect , the A forming the first letter of the alphabet frieze . Both the Architecture Cabinet and the Great Bookcase stood in this room . The stained glass windows in the room represent painting , architecture and sculpture , and were painted by Weekes .
On the wall opposite the library fireplace is an opening into the drawing room . Inside there are three stained glass windows which are set in ornamented marble linings . Opposite the windows stood the Zodiac Settle , which Burges moved from Buckingham Street . Love is the central decorative scheme to the room , with the ceiling painted with medieval cupids , and the walls covered with mythical lovers . Carved figures from the Roman de la Rose decorate the chimneypiece , which Crook considered " one of the most glorious that Burges and Nicholls ever produced " . Echoing Crook , Charles Handley @-@ Read wrote , " Working together , Burges and Nicholls had transposed a poem into sculpture with a delicacy that is very nearly musical . The Roman de la Rose has come to life . "
The dining room is devoted to Geoffrey Chaucer 's The House of Fame and the art of story @-@ telling , Crook explaining that " tall stories are part of the dining room rite " . The hooded chimneypiece , of Devonshire marble , contained a bronze figure above the fireplace representing the Goddess of Fame ; its hands and face were made of ivory , with sapphires for eyes . It was later stolen . The tiles on the walls depict fairy stories , including Reynard the Fox , Jack and the Beanstalk and Little Red Riding Hood . The room also shows Burges 's innovative use of materials : Handley @-@ Read observed that the Victorians had " a horror of food smells " and therefore the room was constructed using materials that did not absorb odours and could be washed . The walls are covered with Devonshire marble , surmounted by glazed picture tiles , while the ceiling is of sheet metal . The ceiling is divided into coffered compartments by square beams , and features symbols of the Sun , the planets and the signs of the Zodiac . Burges designed most of the cutlery and plate used in this room , which display his skills as a designer of metalwork , including the claret jug and Cat Cup chosen by Lord and Lady Bute as mementos from Burges 's collection after his death . The panels of the wine cupboard were decorated by Dante Gabriel Rossetti .
= = = = First floor and garret = = = =
The windows of the stair turret represent " the Storming of the Castle of Love " . On the first floor are two bedrooms and an armoury . Burges 's bedroom , with a theme of sea creatures , overlooks the garden . Its elaborate ceiling is segmented into panels by gilded and painted beams , studded with miniature convex mirrors set in to gilt stars . Fish and eels swim in a frieze of waves painted under the ceiling , and fish are also carved in relief on the chimneypiece . On the fire @-@ hood , a sculpted mermaid gazes into a looking @-@ glass , with seashells , coral , seaweed and a baby mermaid also represented . Charles Handley @-@ Read described the frieze around the Mermaid fireplace as " proto @-@ Art Nouveau " and noted " the debt of international art nouveau to Victorian Gothic designers , Burges included " . In this room , Burges placed two of his most personal pieces of furniture , the Red Bed , in which he died , and the Narcissus washstand , both of which originally came from Buckingham Street . The bed is painted blood red and features a panel depicting Sleeping Beauty . The washstand is red and gold ; its tip @-@ up basin of marble inlaid with fishes is silver and gold .
" The Earth and its productions " is the theme of the guest room facing the street . Its ceiling is adorned with butterflies and fleurs @-@ de @-@ lis , and at the crossing of the main beams is a convex mirror in a gilded surround . Along the length of the beams are paintings of frogs and mice . A frieze of flowers , once painted over , has since been restored . The Golden Bed and the Vita Nuova Washstand designed for this room are now in the Victoria and Albert Museum .
Burges designated the final room on the first floor an armoury and used it to display his large collection of armour . The collection was bequeathed to the British Museum upon his death . A carved chimneypiece in the armoury has three roundels carved with the goddesses Minerva , Venus and Juno in medieval attire .
The garret originally contained day and night nurseries , which the author James Stourton considers a surprising choice of arrangement for the " childless bachelor Burges " . They contain a pair of decorated chimneypieces featuring the tale of Jack and the Beanstalk and three monkeys at play .
= = = Garden = = =
The garden at the rear of the house featured raised flowerbeds which Dakers described as being " planned according to those pleasances depicted in medieval romances ; beds of scarlet tulips , bordered with stone fencing " . On a mosaic terrace , around a statue of a boy holding a hawk , sculpted by Thomas Nicholls , Burges and his guests would sit on " marble seats or on Persian rugs and embroidered cushions . " The garden , and that of the adjacent Woodland House , contain trees from the former Little Holland House .
= = Furniture = =
In creating the interior of the house , Burges demonstrated his skill as a jeweller , metalworker and designer . He included some of his best pieces of furniture such as the Zodiac Settle , the Dog Cabinet and the Great Bookcase , the last of which Charles Handley @-@ Read described as " occupying a unique position in the history of Victorian painted furniture " . The fittings were as elaborate as the furniture : the tap for one of the guest washstands was in the form of a bronze bull from whose throat water poured into a sink inlaid with silver fish . Within the Tower House Burges placed some of his finest metalwork ; the artist Henry Stacy Marks wrote , " he could design a chalice as well as a cathedral ... His decanters , cups , jugs , forks and spoons were designed with an equal ability to that with which he would design a castle . "
Many of the early pieces of furniture , such as the Narcissus Washstand , the Zodiac Settle and the Great Bookcase , were originally made for Burges 's office at Buckingham Street and were later moved to the Tower House . The Great Bookcase was also part of Burges 's contribution to the Medieval Court at the 1862 International Exhibition . Later pieces , such as the Crocker Dressing Table and the Golden Bed , and its accompanying Vita Nuova Washstand , were made specifically for the house . John Betjeman located the Narcissus Washstand in a junk shop in Lincoln and gave it to Evelyn Waugh , a fellow enthusiast for Victorian art and architecture , who featured it in his 1957 novel , The Ordeal of Gilbert Pinfold . Betjeman later gave Waugh both the Zodiac Settle and the Philosophy Cabinet .
Many of the decorative items Burges designed for the Tower House were dispersed following his death . Several pieces purchased by Charles Handley @-@ Read , who was instrumental in reviving interest in Burges , were acquired by The Higgins Art Gallery & Museum , Bedford . The museum also bought the Zodiac Settle from the Waugh family in 2011 .
= = = Dispersed furniture and locations = = =
The table below lists the known pieces of furniture originally in situ , with their dates of construction and their current location where known .
= = Architectural coverage = =
Richard Popplewell Pullan described the house in detail in the second of two works he wrote about his brother @-@ in @-@ law , The House of William Burges , A.R.A. , published in 1886 . The book contains photographs of the interior of the house by Francis Bedford . In 1893 , the building was the only private house to be recorded in an article in The Builder , which gave an overview of the architecture of the previous fifty years . It was then largely ignored , James Stourton describing its early twentieth @-@ century decline as " a paradigm of the reputation of the Gothic Revival " .
A renewed understanding and appreciation of the building , and of Burges himself , began with Charles Handley @-@ Read 's essay on Burges in Peter Ferriday 's collection Victorian Architecture , published in 1963 . In 1966 Handley @-@ Read followed this with a substantial article on the house for Country Life , " Aladdin 's Palace in Kensington " . His notes on Burges formed the basis of Mordaunt Crook 's centenary volume , William Burges and the High Victorian Dream , published in 1981 , in which Crook wrote at length on both the Tower House and its contents .
More recent coverage was given in London 3 : North West , the revision to the Buildings of England guide to London written by Nikolaus Pevsner and Bridget Cherry , published in 1991 ( revised 2002 ) . The house is referenced in Matthew Williams 's William Burges ( 2004 ) , and in Panoramas of Lost London by Philip Davies , published in 2011 , which includes some of Francis Bedford 's photographs of the house from 1885 . In a chapter on the building in Great Houses of London ( 2012 ) , the author James Stourton called The Tower House " the most singular of London houses , even including the Soane Museum . "
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= The Incredible Hulk ( roller coaster ) =
The Incredible Hulk is a launched roller coaster located in the Islands of Adventure theme park at Universal Orlando Resort . As the name suggests , the ride is themed after comic book superhero character , the Hulk . The ride was positively received when it opened on May 28 , 1999 . It is the first Bolliger & Mabillard roller coaster to feature a launch design , primarily implemented by Universal Creative and MTS Systems Corporation . The launched lift hill accelerates the train to 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) in approximately two seconds and reaches a top speed of 67 mph ( 108 km / h ) . Riders experience seven inversions throughout the course of the 3 @,@ 700 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) ride . The roller coaster temporarily closed on September 8 , 2015 , for a major refurbishment and is expected to reopen in the summer of 2016 .
= = History = =
In 1991 , planning began for a new theme park adjacent to Universal Studios Florida . By the end of 1993 , it was decided that one area of the future Islands of Adventure theme park would be themed after Marvel Comics , with a Hulk theme being selected for a thrill ride . The designers of the ride wanted to simulate being fired out of a cannon and subsequently set about prototyping a launch system . Universal Creative and MTS Systems Corporation had a working prototype in January 1995 . Methods to achieve this acceleration were investigated into mid @-@ 1996 . On @-@ site construction of Islands of Adventure was underway in 1997 , with Superior Rigging & Erection being responsible for erecting the supports and track of the roller coaster . On May 28 , 1999 , Islands of Adventure officially opened to the public , with The Incredible Hulk being one of its debut attractions .
On August 14 , 2015 , Universal announced that the coaster would undergo major enhancement and refurbishment work . The ride closed on September 8 , 2015 , and is expected to reopen in the summer of 2016 .
= = Characteristics = =
The Incredible Hulk is a Sitting Coaster by Swiss firm Bolliger & Mabillard ( B & M ) . The 3 @,@ 700 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) ride features seven inversions including a zero @-@ g roll , a cobra roll , two vertical loops , and two corkscrews . The ride features a maximum height of 110 feet ( 34 m ) , and a first drop stretching 105 feet ( 32 m ) . Riders reach a top speed of 67 miles per hour ( 108 km / h ) on the 1 @-@ minute , 30 @-@ second ride . Each of The Incredible Hulk 's trains feature eight cars which seat riders four abreast , giving each train a maximum capacity of 32 riders . Riders , who must be at least 54 inches ( 140 cm ) tall , are restrained with ratcheting over @-@ the @-@ shoulder restraints . This train configuration allows the ride to achieve a theoretical hourly capacity of 1 @,@ 920 riders per hour . The ride features two subterranean dives , is partially built over water , and is illuminated green at night .
A unique launch system propels riders up the 110 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 34 m ) hill . The system was developed by Universal Creative and MTS Systems Corporation . A prototype launch system was designed by January 1995 . The prototype consisted of a series of boxcars welded together to form a launch tunnel . A track @-@ mounted dune buggy was then propelled inside the tunnel through the use of a weight drop launch mechanism . The designers then experimented with different rates of acceleration , each emitting between one and five times the force of gravity . The final system which was implemented on The Incredible Hulk sees trains launch from 0 to 40 miles per hour ( 64 km / h ) in 2 seconds . Riders travel at an angle of 30 degrees through a 150 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 46 m ) tunnel , pulling 1 G. To power this launch the designers investigated a variety of systems ranging from hydraulic , pneumatic , cable , steam catapult , and conveyor belt . In the end a drive tire system was selected , where 230 electrical motors power a set of tires that pinch the train 's underside to provide propulsion . As this system required eight megawatts of power to launch a train , the park built several customized motor generator sets with large flywheels . Without these stored energy units , they would have had to build a whole substation and risk browning @-@ out the local energy grid with every launch . The launch system made The Incredible Hulk the only B & M ride to feature a launch , until Thunderbird opened at Holiday World in 2015 . Unlike The Incredible Hulk , Thunderbird uses a Linear Synchronous Motors ( LSM ) launch system that was designed by B & M.
= = Experience = =
= = = Queue = = =
Riders enter the science laboratory of Dr. Bruce Banner with many televisions showing the story of the Hulk . Bruce is now trying to find a way to reverse the effects , which the guests are about to take part in . While walking through the lab they encounter items including the generator , the gamma core and the towers of power . Riders are also able to watch the roller coaster through large holes in the walls as well as listen to the ride as it does a number of passes .
= = = Ride = = =
Once riders have boarded the train , it departs the station entering the gamma @-@ ray accelerator , where the anxious voice of Bruce Banner issues from speakers in the walls : " Everything looks good ... I think ... I think this time it 's ... going to work ! " On cue , a female voice announces that there has been a malfunction . Klaxons begin to sound inside the tube as Dr. Banner screams in terror : " No . No ! No ! ! ! " The last " No ! " is synchronized with the launch mechanism , which propels the train from 9 to 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) in 2 seconds . Upon exiting the gamma @-@ ray accelerator , the train immediately goes into a zero @-@ g roll , down a 105 @-@ foot ( 32 m ) drop , and into a cobra roll over the park 's main lagoon . Riders complete a vertical loop , then enter a subterranean tunnel full of mist . The train encircles the gamma @-@ ray accelerator and is sent into the back area via corkscrew . A smaller vertical loop wraps around the mid @-@ course brake run , which is flanked by two over @-@ banked turns . The train is slowed down by the mid @-@ course brakes before being sent down another hill to a corkscrew and turn @-@ around . Riders then travel sideways through an on @-@ ride camera zone and then to the ride 's final brake run after a helix .
= = Reception = =
The Incredible Hulk has been well received . In its debut year , the ride was voted the # 1 roller coaster by Discovery Channel viewers , appearing on the Thrills , Chills and Spills documentary . Amusement Business described The Incredible Hulk as one of Islands of Adventure 's two world @-@ class roller coasters ( the other being Dueling Dragons , now known as the Dragon Challenge ) . Dewayne Bevil of the Orlando Sentinel rated the ride as his eighth favorite attraction in Orlando . He states the ride is " too intense to take back @-@ to @-@ back trips . It rattles our nerves , in a good way . " Arthur Levine of About.com gave the ride 9 out of 10 stars . Levine describes the ride as " both terrifying and exhilarating " and " not for the faint of heart " .
In Amusement Today 's annual Golden Ticket Awards , The Incredible Hulk was consistently ranked until 2013 . It debuted at position 19 in 1999 before reaching its peak ranking of 9 in 2001 .
In Mitch Hawker 's worldwide Best Roller Coaster Poll , The Incredible Hulk entered at position 3 in 1999 , before slowly declining to a low of 65 in 2013 . The ride 's ranking in subsequent polls is shown in the table below .
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= Personent hodie =
" Personent hodie " is a Christmas carol originally published in the 1582 Finnish song book Piae Cantiones , a volume of 74 Medieval songs with Latin texts collected by Jaakko Suomalainen , a Swedish Lutheran cleric , and published by T.P. Rutha . The song book had its origins in the libraries of cathedral song schools , whose repertory had strong links with medieval Prague , where clerical students from Finland and Sweden had studied for generations . A melody found in a 1360 manuscript from the nearby Bavarian city of Moosburg in Germany is highly similar , and it is from this manuscript that the song is usually dated .
= = Textual origins = =
The Latin text is probably a musical parody of an earlier 12th century song beginning " intonent hodie voces ecclesie " , written in honour of Saint Nicholas , the patron saint of Russia , sailors and children – to whom he traditionally brings gifts on his feast day , 6 December . Hugh Keyte and Andrew Parrott note that two of the verses have an unusual double repeat ( ' Submersum , -sum , -sum puerum ' ; ' Reddens vir- , vir- , vir- ginibus ' ) . In ' intonent hodie ' , these were used to illustrate the three boys and three girls saved by St Nicholas from drowning and prostitution , respectively . The text was probably re @-@ written for the Feast of the Holy Innocents ( 28 December ) when choristers and their " boy bishop " traditionally displaced the senior clergy from the choir stalls . The carol is still often associated with Holy Innocents ' Day .
Songs from Piae Cantiones continued to be performed in Finland until the 19th century . The book became well known in Britain after a rare copy of Piae Cantiones owned by Peter of Nyland was given as a gift to the British Minister in Stockholm . He subsequently gave it to John Mason Neale in 1852 , and it was from this copy that Neale , in collaboration with Thomas Helmore published songs in two collections in 1853 and 1854 respectively .
= = Translations = =
The most common English translation of the text is by " James M. Joseph " , a pseudonym of the composer Jane M. Joseph ( 1894 – 1929 ) . She translates the title as " On this day earth shall ring " , although there are several other English translations . Other versions include Elizabeth Poston 's 1965 " Boys ' Carol " , which translates the first line of the text as " Let the boys ' cheerful noise / Sing today none but joys " and John Mason Neale 's " Let The Song be Begun " , which uses the melody but not the text of the carol . Aidan Oliver 's non @-@ verse translation renders the text as " Today let the voices of children resound in joyful praise of Him who is born for us . "
= = Arrangements = =
The carol became more prominent in England after being arranged for unison voices and orchestra in 1916 by Gustav Holst ( 1874 – 1934 ) , where in its organ reduction it is often used as a processional hymn in church and cathedral services . Holst 's version often forms part of the Festival of Nine Lessons and Carols , and was last featured in the service broadcast by BBC2 from King 's College Chapel , Cambridge in 2011 following the sixth lesson . This arrangement is sometimes referred to as " Theodoric " in reference to the composer 's middle name ( Theodore ) .
In addition to Holst 's version , there is a harmonised choral arrangement by Hugh Keyte and Andrew Parrott in the New Oxford Book of Carols , an arrangement by Antony Pitts in the Naxos Book of Carols and two arrangements by John Rutter ; one for choir and full orchestra which emulates percussive medieval instrumentation , and another in his anthology Dancing Day for female or boys voices with harp or piano accompaniment . The Retrover Ensemble 's performance for Naxos Records pairs the piece with Gaudete , another carol from Piae Cantiones .
Several recorded versions are arranged in a more folk @-@ oriented style : for example , a performance by Maddy Prior and The Carnival Band on their 1987 album A Tapestry of Carols , which utilises period instruments . The female a cappella quartet Anonymous 4 have also recorded the song with its original " Intonent hodie " text on their CD Legends of St. Nicholas .
The contemporary English cross @-@ disciplinary music ensemble North Sea Radio Orchestra have recorded a small @-@ ensemble instrumental version of the piece arranged for two violins , cello , clarinet , bassoon , oboe , piano , vibraphone , chamber organ and guitar . This appears on their 2008 album Birds .
Jazz musician Wayne Shorter recorded his arrangement of melody under the name 12th Century Carol on his 2003 album Alegria .
Robert Cummings , writing in the Allmusic guide , states that the " melody is glorious and ebullient in its lively , triumphant manner . It largely consists of bright , resolute three @-@ note phrases whose overall structure gradually rises , then descends . "
= = Text = =
In several versions , such as the Holst arrangement , the third verse has " parvulum inquirunt , Bethlehem adeunt " in place in place of " munera offerunt , parvulum inquirunt . "
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= Barry Fuller =
Barry Marc Fuller ( born 25 September 1984 ) is an English professional footballer who plays as a defender for League One side AFC Wimbledon . He previously played for Stevenage Borough , forming part of the squad that won the 2006 – 07 FA Trophy in the first competitive final at the new Wembley Stadium after they beat Kidderminster Harriers 2 – 1 on 12 May 2007 in front of a record FA Trophy crowd of 53 @,@ 262 . Fuller has also made over 100 league appearances for Gillingham and was captain of the squad that beat Shrewsbury Town 1 – 0 in the League Two play @-@ off final at Wembley Stadium on 23 May 2009 to win promotion to League One .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Born in Ashford , Kent , Fuller was spotted playing for his local club , Kennington Juniors FC , by Premier League side Charlton Athletic who signed him to their youth Academy at the age of thirteen . The full @-@ back progressed through the Addicks ' Academy up until the age of nineteen , signing his first professional contract on 1 July 2004 . On 17 July 2004 , he featured for Charlton Athletic in a pre @-@ season friendly win over Kent League side Sittingbourne ; he scored in the 83rd minute to confirm a 3 – 0 win following a brace by fellow youngster Lloyd Sam . The young right @-@ back was selected to captain Charlton Athletic 's Reserves side during the 2004 – 05 season , helping the club to finish as Champions of the Premier Reserve League Southern Division . He also represented Charlton in the first ever Premier Reserve League Shield national play @-@ off final on 12 May 2005 , which saw Northern Division champions Manchester United Reserves beat the Addicks 4 – 2 at The Valley . Despite his success with the Reserves , however , he failed to break into the first team and was subsequently loaned out to League Two side Barnet on an initial one @-@ month deal on 12 January 2006 . The 21 @-@ year @-@ old defender made his Football League debut on 14 January 2006 in a 4 – 1 defeat by Lincoln City . On 15 February 2006 , it was announced that he would remain with Barnet for a further month . On 18 March 2006 , he scored his first Football League goal in a 2 – 2 draw with Peterborough United . On 24 March 2006 , Barnet manager Paul Fairclough extended Fuller 's loan for a third and final time up until 22 April . He played his final game for the Bees on 22 April 2006 in a 0 – 0 draw with Chester City before subsequently returning to Charlton Athletic . In total , he made fifteen league appearances for Barnet during the 2005 – 06 season , which proved to be a vital contribution in helping the club avoid relegation from the Football League . Despite impressing on his loan spell , the 20 @-@ year @-@ old defender was released by Charlton Athletic manager Alan Curbishley at the end of the season .
= = = Stevenage Borough = = =
On 28 June 2006 , Fuller signed for Conference side Stevenage Borough . He made his debut for the Boro in a 2 – 1 defeat by York City on 15 August 2006 . The defender scored his only goal for the club in a 2 – 0 win over Grays Athletic on 17 February 2007 . He was ever @-@ present throughout the 2006 – 07 season , making thirty @-@ seven league appearances in all . He was also indispensable to the club 's FA Trophy success , featuring in both semi @-@ final legs which saw Stevenage Borough beat Grays Athletic 3 – 1 on aggregate . He was part of the squad that played in the 2007 FA Trophy Final against Kidderminster Harriers on 12 May 2007 in front of a record FA Trophy crowd of 53 @,@ 262 . Stevenage came back from 2 – 0 down to ultimately triumph 3 – 2 following an 88th @-@ minute goal by Steve Morison ; the victory was all the more significant for Fuller as he became a member of the first team to win a competitive final at the new Wembley Stadium . He would go on to make 24 league appearances for the Boro during the 2007 – 08 season before subsequently leaving the club to sign a two @-@ year deal with League One side Gillingham on 28 January 2008 along with team @-@ mate Stuart Lewis ; reuniting him with the manager who had previously recruited him at Stevenage Borough , Mark Stimson .
= = = Gillingham = = =
Fuller made his debut for Gillingham in the 2 – 0 defeat to Tranmere Rovers on 29 January 2008 . The defender would go on to make nine more appearances for the Gills in the 2007 – 08 season . On 10 October 2008 , despite having only been with the Gills for nine months , the 24 @-@ year @-@ old was appointed as club captain . He made forty league appearances in total during the 2008 – 09 season , making him integral to the club 's push for promotion . In spite of this level of consistency , however , his season was wrought with difficulty . The defender 's troubles began when he was sent off for a second yellow card offence after a foul on Sam Wood in the 88th minute of a 1 – 1 draw with Brentford on 20 December 2008 , resulting in a one match ban . His troubles did not end there however , as in January 2009 he was rushed to hospital after contracting bacterial pneumonia . He made a rapid recovery , however , and returned just five weeks later to play a full match in a 2 – 0 defeat by Rotherham United at Millmoor on 14 February 2009 . Despite these set @-@ backs , he was able to help Gillingham finish the season in 5th place , making them eligible for the League Two play @-@ offs . Gillingham faced Rochdale in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final , drawing 0 – 0 in the first leg on 7 May 2009 , before securing a place in the play @-@ off final by beating Rochdale 2 – 1 at the Priestfield Stadium in the second leg on 10 May 2009 . Gillingham faced Shrewsbury Town in the 2009 League Two play @-@ off final at Wembley Stadium on 23 May 2009 , in which Fuller captained his side to a 1 – 0 win over " The Shrews " in front of a crowd of 53 @,@ 706 to seal promotion to League One , a dramatic turn of events considering that he had been suffering with a life @-@ threatening illness just five months before .
Fuller made 36 league appearances for " The Gills " in their first season back in League One , however , once again the latter half of his season was blighted by injury . The 25 @-@ year @-@ old Gillingham captain suffered a broken arm after taking a kick on the forearm in a 1 – 1 draw with Leyton Orient on 23 February 2010 . A specialist subsequently confirmed that this injury would sideline him for approximately six weeks . By the time of his return the Gills were embroiled in a battle to avoid relegation and their fortunes took a turn for the worse when Fuller suffered a broken nose mere seconds after kick @-@ off after a clash of heads with team @-@ mate Darren Dennehy in what would go on to be a 3 – 2 win over Leeds United on 17 April 2010 ; he was substituted by Jack Payne in the fourth minute of play . Fuller was unable to prevent the Gills ' relegation slide back into League Two after he was sidelined for the rest of the season , undergoing surgery on his broken nose a few days after the incident . In spite of this , however , he was offered a two @-@ year contract extension , along with team @-@ mate Garry Richards , by new Gills manager Andy Hessenthaler on 25 March 2010 . He accepted the terms and on 4 June 2010 it was announced that he had signed a new contract along with striker Dennis Oli .
Gillingham began the 2010 – 11 season in poor form , winning just three of their first sixteen games of the season which brought the Gills captain under fire . However , the side quickly turned their form around by going on to win six of their next eight league games and were unbeaten for 16 league matches between a 2 – 1 win over Aldershot Town on 29 January 2011 and a 1 – 1 draw with Morecambe on 16 April 2011 . Fuller made his 100th league appearance for Gillingham on 30 October 2010 in a 2 – 1 defeat by Northampton Town . The Gills ultimately finished in 8th place , just missing out on the League Two play @-@ offs . He made forty @-@ two league appearances for Gillingham throughout the season . On 27 July 2011 , Gillingham announced that Fuller would be relieved of the captain 's armband , having worn it for three seasons , and would be replaced by new signing Andy Frampton . The right @-@ back once again found himself plagued by injury worries in the 2011 – 12 season , making just nine league appearances . He suffered an injury to his knee in a 6 – 1 win over Hereford United on 17 September 2011 . On further examination the injury was found to be serious and on 13 October 2011 it was announced that he would be out for the rest of the season and had to undergo a " career @-@ saving " knee operation immediately which would prevent him from playing again for nine months . This proved to be a devastating blow for Fuller , whose contract was due to expire at the end of the 2012 season , as his deal was not renewed by new Gillingham manager Martin Allen and he was subsequently released by the club on 28 July 2012 having made 137 league appearances .
= = = Barnet = = =
On 13 August 2012 , Fuller signed for League Two side Barnet on a free transfer , along with Gillingham team @-@ mate Curtis Weston . He made his debut for the Bees in a 1 – 1 draw with Bristol Rovers on 21 August 2012 . He would go on to make 39 league appearances , cementing his place as the club 's first choice right @-@ back . Barnet started the 2012 – 13 season poorly , failing to win any of their first 12 league matches and were ultimately relegated to the Conference on goal difference after finishing in 23rd place . Barnet 's relegation required manager Edgar Davids to release a number of players as an austerity measure to accommodate the fact that the club would be operating on a smaller wage budget in the 2013 – 14 season , and it was announced on 22 May 2013 that Fuller would be released along with 12 other players .
= = = AFC Wimbledon = = =
On 28 May 2013 , Fuller signed for League Two side AFC Wimbledon along with former Havant & Waterlooville midfielder Chris Arthur . Shortly after his signing , Fuller disclosed to the media that he hoped to establish himself as a key member of the squad and expressed his loyalty to the club by stating that he hoped to see out the rest of his professional career with AFC Wimbledon . A month later , he found himself reunited with former team @-@ mate and fellow ex @-@ Gillingham captain , Andy Frampton , when it was announced that he had also signed a contract with the South London club on 28 June 2013 . On 31 July 2013 , manager Neal Ardley appointed Alan Bennett as club captain and declared that Fuller would act as vice @-@ captain for the 2013 – 14 season . Fuller made his league debut for " The Dons " in a 1 – 1 draw with Torquay United on 3 August 2013 . He was an ever @-@ present for the club throughout the season , making forty five league appearances in total . Fuller 's consistently committed performances and dogged attitude quickly established him as a favourite with supporters , culminating in him being voted as Player of the Year at the end of season awards . He then went on to captain AFC Wimbledon to promotion from League Two in the 2015 – 16 season via the play @-@ offs after their highest ever finish in the Football League . After the play @-@ off final he signed a new contract to remain with the club for their first ever season in the third tier of English football .
= = International career = =
Fuller 's only appearance for a national team came when he was selected to represent the England C team , along with fellow Stevenage Borough team @-@ mates Ronnie Henry and Steve Morison , in an international friendly against Northern Ireland on 13 February 2007 which ended as a 3 – 1 win for England .
= = Honours = =
Stevenage Borough
FA Trophy Winners : 2006 – 07
Gillingham
Football League Two Play – off Winners : 2008 – 09
AFC Wimbledon
Football League Two Play @-@ off Winners : 2015 @-@ 16
= = Statistics = =
As of 3 May 2014
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= Lockheed Martin F @-@ 22 Raptor =
The Lockheed Martin F @-@ 22 Raptor is a fifth @-@ generation , single @-@ seat , twin @-@ engine , all @-@ weather stealth tactical fighter aircraft developed for the United States Air Force ( USAF ) . The result of the USAF 's Advanced Tactical Fighter program , the aircraft was designed primarily as an air superiority fighter , but also has ground attack , electronic warfare , and signals intelligence capabilities . The prime contractor , Lockheed Martin , built most of the F @-@ 22 's airframe and weapons systems and did its final assembly , while Boeing provided the wings , aft fuselage , avionics integration , and training systems .
The aircraft was variously designated F @-@ 22 and F / A @-@ 22 before it formally entered service in December 2005 as the F @-@ 22A . After a protracted development and despite operational issues , the USAF considers the F @-@ 22 critical to its tactical air power , and says that the aircraft is unmatched by any known or projected fighter . The Raptor 's combination of stealth , aerodynamic performance , and situational awareness gives the aircraft unprecedented air combat capabilities .
The high cost of the aircraft , a lack of clear air @-@ to @-@ air missions due to delays in Russian and Chinese fighter programs , a ban on exports , and development of the more versatile F @-@ 35 led to the end of F @-@ 22 production . A final procurement tally of 187 operational production aircraft was established in 2009 and the last F @-@ 22 was delivered to the USAF in 2012 .
= = Development = =
= = = Origins = = =
In 1981 the U.S. Air Force developed a requirement for an Advanced Tactical Fighter ( ATF ) as a new air superiority fighter to replace the F @-@ 15 Eagle and F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcon . Code named " Senior Sky " , this program was influenced by the emerging worldwide threats , including development and proliferation of Soviet Su @-@ 27 " Flanker " - and MiG @-@ 29 " Fulcrum " -class fighter aircraft . It would take advantage of the new technologies in fighter design on the horizon , including composite materials , lightweight alloys , advanced flight control systems , more powerful propulsion systems , and stealth technology . The request for proposals ( RFP ) was issued in July 1986 and two contractor teams , Lockheed / Boeing / General Dynamics and Northrop / McDonnell Douglas , were selected on 31 October 1986 to undertake a 50 @-@ month demonstration phase , culminating in the flight test of two technology demonstrator prototypes , the YF @-@ 22 and the YF @-@ 23 .
Each design team produced two prototype air vehicles , one for each of the two engine options . The Lockheed @-@ led team employed thrust vectoring nozzles on YF @-@ 22 for enhanced maneuverability in dogfights . The ATF 's increasing weight and cost drove out certain requirements during development . Side @-@ looking radars were deleted , and the dedicated infra @-@ red search and track ( IRST ) system was downgraded from multi @-@ color to single color and then deleted as well . However , space and cooling provisions were retained to allow for future addition of these components . The ejection seat requirement was downgraded from a fresh design to the existing McDonnell Douglas ACES II .
After the flight test demonstration and validation of the prototypes , on 23 April 1991 , Secretary of the USAF Donald Rice announced the YF @-@ 22 as the winner of the ATF competition . The YF @-@ 23 design was considered stealthier and faster while the YF @-@ 22 was more maneuverable . The aviation press speculated that the YF @-@ 22 was also more adaptable to the U.S. Navy 's Navalized Advanced Tactical Fighter ( NATF ) , but by 1992 , the Navy had abandoned NATF .
= = = Production and procurement = = =
Prime contractor Lockheed Martin Aeronautics manufactured the majority of the airframe and performed final assembly at Dobbins Air Reserve Base in Marietta , Georgia ; program partner Boeing Defense , Space & Security provided additional airframe components as well as avionics integration and training systems . F @-@ 22 production was split up over many subcontractors across 46 states to increase Congressional support , though this production split may have contributed to increased costs and delays . Many capabilities were deferred to post @-@ service upgrades , reducing the initial cost but increasing total program cost . Production supported over 1 @,@ 000 subcontractors and suppliers and up to 95 @,@ 000 jobs .
The F @-@ 22 had several design changes from the YF @-@ 22 . The swept @-@ back angle of the leading edge was decreased from 48 ° to 42 ° , while the vertical stabilizers were shifted rearward and decreased in area by 20 % . To improve pilot visibility , the canopy was moved forward 7 inches ( 18 cm ) , and the engine intakes moved rearward 14 inches ( 36 cm ) . The shapes of the wing and stabilator trailing edges were refined to improve aerodynamics , strength , and stealth characteristics . Increasing weight during development caused slight reductions in range and aerodynamic performance .
The first F @-@ 22 , an engineering and manufacturing development ( EMD ) aircraft named Raptor 4001 , was unveiled at Marietta , Georgia , on 9 April 1997 , and first flew on 7 September 1997 . In 2006 , the Raptor 's development team , composed of over 1 @,@ 000 contractors and the USAF , won the Collier Trophy , American aviation 's most prestigious award . The F @-@ 22 was in production for 15 years , at a rate of roughly two per month during peak production .
The USAF originally envisioned ordering 750 ATFs at a cost of $ 26 @.@ 2 billion , with production beginning in 1994 . The 1990 Major Aircraft Review led by Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney reduced this to 648 aircraft beginning in 1996 . By 1997 , funding instability had further cut the total to 339 , which was again reduced to 277 F @-@ 22s by 2003 . In 2004 , the Department of Defense ( DoD ) further reduced this to 183 operational aircraft , despite the USAF 's preference for 381 . In 2006 , a multi @-@ year procurement plan was implemented to save $ 15 billion but raise each aircraft 's cost . That year the program 's total cost was projected to be $ 62 billion for 183 F @-@ 22s distributed to seven combat squadrons . In 2007 , Lockheed Martin received a $ 7 @.@ 3 billion contract to increase the order to 183 production F @-@ 22s and extend manufacturing through 2011 .
In April 2006 , the Government Accountability Office ( GAO ) assessed the F @-@ 22 's cost to be $ 361 million per aircraft , with $ 28 billion invested in development and testing ; the Unit Procurement Cost was estimated at $ 178 million in 2006 , based on a production run of 181 aircraft . It was estimated by the end of production , $ 34 billion will have been spent on procurement , resulting in a total program cost of $ 62 billion , around $ 339 million per aircraft . The incremental cost for an additional F @-@ 22 was estimated at about $ 138 million in 2009 . The GAO stated the estimated cost was $ 412 million per aircraft in 2012 .
= = = Ban on exports = = =
The F @-@ 22 cannot be exported under American federal law to protect its stealth technology and other high @-@ tech features . Customers for U.S. fighters are acquiring earlier designs such as the F @-@ 15 Eagle and F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcon or the newer F @-@ 35 Lightning II Joint Strike Fighter , which contains technology from the F @-@ 22 but was designed to be cheaper , more flexible , and available for export . In September 2006 , Congress upheld the ban on foreign F @-@ 22 sales . Despite the ban , the 2010 defense authorization bill included provisions requiring the DoD to prepare a report on the costs and feasibility for an F @-@ 22 export variant , and another report on the effect of F @-@ 22 export sales on U.S. aerospace industry .
Some Australian politicians and defense commentators proposed that Australia should attempt to purchase F @-@ 22s instead of the planned F @-@ 35s , citing the F @-@ 22 's known capabilities and F @-@ 35 's delays and developmental uncertainties . However , the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) determined that the F @-@ 22 was unable to perform the F @-@ 35 's strike and close air support roles . The Japanese government also showed interest in the F @-@ 22 for its Replacement @-@ Fighter program . The Japan Air Self @-@ Defense Force ( JASDF ) would reportedly require fewer fighters for its mission if it obtained the F @-@ 22 , thus reducing engineering and staffing costs . However , in 2009 it was reported that acquiring the F @-@ 22 would require increases to the defense budget beyond the historical 1 percent of GDP . With the end of F @-@ 22 production , Japan chose the F @-@ 35 in December 2011 . Israel also expressed interest , but eventually chose the F @-@ 35 because of the F @-@ 22 's price and unavailability .
= = = Production termination = = =
Throughout the 2000s , the need for F @-@ 22s was debated due to rising costs and the lack of relevant adversaries . In 2006 , Comptroller General of the United States David Walker found that " the DoD has not demonstrated the need " for more investment in the F @-@ 22 , and further opposition to the program was expressed by Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld , Deputy Secretary of Defense Gordon R. England , Senator John McCain , and Chairman of U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services Senator John Warner . The F @-@ 22 program lost influential supporters in 2008 after the forced resignations of Secretary of the Air Force Michael Wynne and the Chief of Staff of the Air Force General T. Michael Moseley . Nevertheless , in 2008 , Congress passed a defense spending bill funding the F @-@ 22 's continued production and the Pentagon released $ 50 million of the $ 140 million for four additional aircraft , raising the total orders for production aircraft to 187 and leaving the program in the hands of the next administration .
In November 2008 , Secretary of Defense Robert Gates stated that the Raptor was not relevant in post @-@ Cold War conflicts such as in Iraq and Afghanistan , and in April 2009 , under the new Obama Administration , he called for ending F @-@ 22 production in fiscal year ( FY ) 2011 , leaving the USAF with 187 production aircraft . In July , General James Cartwright , Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , stated to the Senate Committee on Armed Services his reasons for supporting termination of F @-@ 22 production . They included shifting resources to the multirole F @-@ 35 to allow proliferation of fifth @-@ generation fighters for three service branches and preserving the F / A @-@ 18 production line to maintain the military 's electronic warfare ( EW ) capabilities in the Boeing EA @-@ 18G Growler . Issues with the F @-@ 22 's reliability and availability also raised concerns . After President Obama threatened to veto further production , the Senate voted in July 2009 in favor of ending production and the House subsequently agreed to abide by the 187 production aircraft cap . Gates stated that the decision was taken in light of the F @-@ 35 's capabilities , and in 2010 , he set the F @-@ 22 requirement to 187 aircraft by lowering the number of major regional conflict preparations from two to one .
In 2010 , USAF initiated a study to determine the costs of retaining F @-@ 22 tooling for a future Service Life Extension Program ( SLEP ) . A RAND Corporation paper from this study estimated that restarting production and building an additional 75 F @-@ 22s would cost $ 17 billion , resulting in $ 227 million per aircraft or 54 million higher than the flyaway cost . Lockheed Martin stated that restarting the production line itself would cost about $ 200 million . Production tooling will be documented in illustrated electronic manuals stored at the Sierra Army Depot . Retained tooling will produce additional components ; due to the limited production run there are no reserve aircraft , leading to considerable care during maintenance . Later attempts to retrieve this tooling found that the containers were empty .
Russian and Chinese fighter developments have fueled concern , and in 2009 , General John Corley , head of Air Combat Command , stated that a fleet of 187 F @-@ 22s would be inadequate , but Secretary Gates dismissed this concern . In 2011 , Gates explained that Chinese fifth @-@ generation fighter developments had been accounted for when the number of F @-@ 22s was set , and that the U.S. would have a considerable advantage in stealth aircraft in 2025 , even with F @-@ 35 delays . In December 2011 , the 195th and final F @-@ 22 was completed out of 8 test and 187 operational aircraft produced , the aircraft was delivered to the USAF on 2 May 2012 .
In April 2016 , the HASC Tactical Air and Land Forces Subcommittee proposed legislation that would direct the Air Force " to conduct a comprehensive assessment and study of the costs associated with resuming production of F @-@ 22 aircraft . " Defense Secretary Robert Gates had production halted at 187 F @-@ 22s ( at a cost of $ 67 billion ) to direct funds for ongoing irregular warfare operations in Iraq and Afghanistan . Since then , lawmakers and the Pentagon have noted that air warfare systems of Russia and China are catching up to U.S. air superiority capabilities . The bill notes that Air Combat Command has a stated requirement for 381 F @-@ 22s from initial program objectives of 749 aircraft , and would require reviewing of anticipated future air superiority capacity and capability requirements , estimated costs to restart F @-@ 22 production , and other measures . In addition to identifying the cost of building another 194 aircraft , the report must also consider the possibility of the 1998 prohibition on the export of the F @-@ 22 being repealed . Previous estimates of restarting production placed figures at around $ 2 billion , including $ 300 – 500 million in non @-@ recurring start @-@ up costs , with an estimated unit cost of $ 233 million for a production run of 75 aircraft over five years . Lockheed has proposed upgrading the 36 early training @-@ model Block 20 Raptors into combat @-@ coded Block 30 / 35 versions as a way to increase numbers available for deployment .
= = = Upgrades = = =
The first combat @-@ capable Block 3 @.@ 0 aircraft first flew in 2001 . Increment 2 , the first F @-@ 22 upgrade program , was implemented in 2005 and enables the aircraft to employ Joint Direct Attack Munitions ( JDAM ) . Increment 3 @.@ 1 provides improved ground @-@ attack capability through synthetic aperture radar mapping and radio emitter direction finding , electronic attack and the GBU @-@ 39 Small Diameter Bomb ( SDB ) ; testing began in 2009 and the first upgraded aircraft was delivered in 2012 . Increment 3 @.@ 2 is a two @-@ part upgrade process ; 3.2A focuses on electronic warfare , communications and identification , while 3.2B will allow the F @-@ 22 to fully exploit the AIM @-@ 9X and AIM @-@ 120D missiles . The subsequent Increment 3 @.@ 3 may include the adoption of an open avionics platform and air traffic control updates . Upgrades due in 2015 will allow the F @-@ 22 to employ the AIM @-@ 9X and have full Link 16 reception and transmission capability , and an upgrade scheduled in 2018 will integrate the AIM @-@ 120D into the weapons suite . The F @-@ 22 fleet is planned to have 36 Block 20 training and 149 Block 30 / 35 combat aircraft by 2016 . The Increment 3.2B upgrade planned for 2018 will include a new stores management system to show the correct symbols for the AIM @-@ 9X Sidewinder and AIM @-@ 120D AMRAAM and improved control of them .
To enable two @-@ way communication with other platforms , the F @-@ 22 can use the Battlefield Airborne Communications Node ( BACN ) as a gateway . The originally planned MADL integration was cut due to the lack of system maturity . In 2014 Lockheed Martin and Northrop Grumman were competing to connect the F @-@ 22 with other platforms while maintaining stealth . Other upgrades being developed include infra @-@ red search and track functionality for the AN / AAR @-@ 56 Missile Launch Detector ( MLD ) and integration of a helmet @-@ mounted cuing system ( HMCS ) to enable off @-@ boresight missile launches by 2020 . Until the F @-@ 22 gains a helmet mounted system it will use the AIM @-@ 9X 's helmetless high off @-@ boresight ( HHOBS ) capabilities . In March 2010 , the USAF accelerated software portions of 3 @.@ 2 to be completed in FY 2013 .
In January 2011 , the USAF opened the Raptor enhancement , development and integration ( REDI ) contract to bidders , with a $ 16 billion budget . In November 2011 , Lockheed Martin 's upgrade contract ceiling was raised to $ 7 @.@ 4 billion . Nearly $ 2 billion was allocated for structural repairs and to achieve fleet availability rate of 70 @.@ 6 % by 2015 . However , only 63 % was achieved . Some F @-@ 35 technology , such as more durable stealth coatings , have been applied to the F @-@ 22 . By 2012 , the update schedule had slipped seven years due to instability in requirements and funding . In 2014 the USAF moved to cut upgrade funding .
In 2012 the F @-@ 22 was upgraded with a backup oxygen system , software upgrades and oxygen sensors to address the frequent oxygen deprivation issues and normalize operations . In 2013 , the faulty flight vest valves were replaced and altitude restrictions lifted ; distance restrictions will be lifted once a backup oxygen system is installed . In April 2014 the USAF stated in Congressional testimony that installation of automatic backup oxygen systems on the F @-@ 22 fleet would be completed within twelve months .
The F @-@ 22 was designed for a lifespan of 30 years and 8 @,@ 000 flight hours , with a $ 100 million " structures retrofit program " . Investigations are being made for upgrades to extend their useful lives further . In the long term , the F @-@ 22 is expected to be superseded by a sixth @-@ generation jet fighter to be fielded in the 2030s .
= = Design = =
= = = Overview = = =
The F @-@ 22 Raptor is a fifth @-@ generation fighter that is considered fourth generation in stealth aircraft technology by the USAF . It is the first operational aircraft to combine supercruise , supermaneuverability , stealth , and sensor fusion in a single weapons platform . The Raptor has clipped delta wings with a reverse sweep on the rear , four empennage surfaces , and a retractable tricycle landing gear . Flight control surfaces include leading and trailing @-@ edge flaps , ailerons , rudders on the canted vertical stabilizers , and all @-@ moving horizontal tails ; these surfaces also serve as speed brakes .
The aircraft 's dual Pratt & Whitney F119 @-@ PW @-@ 100 afterburning turbofan engines are closely spaced and incorporate pitch @-@ axis thrust vectoring nozzles with a range of ± 20 degrees ; each engine has maximum thrust in the 35 @,@ 000 lbf ( 156 kN ) class . The F @-@ 22 's thrust to weight ratio in typical combat configuration is nearly at unity in maximum military power and 1 @.@ 25 in full afterburner . Maximum speed without external stores is estimated to be Mach 1 @.@ 82 during supercruise and greater than Mach 2 with afterburners .
The F @-@ 22 is among only a few aircraft that can supercruise , or sustain supersonic flight without using fuel @-@ inefficient afterburners ; it can intercept targets which subsonic aircraft would lack the speed to pursue and an afterburner @-@ dependent aircraft would lack the fuel to reach . The Raptor 's high operating altitude is also a significant tactical advantage over prior fighters . The use of internal weapons bays permits the aircraft to maintain comparatively higher performance over most other combat @-@ configured fighters due to a lack of aerodynamic drag from external stores . The F @-@ 22 's structure contains a significant amount of high @-@ strength materials to withstand stress and heat of sustained supersonic flight . Respectively , titanium alloys and composites comprise 39 % and 24 % of the aircraft 's structural weight .
The F @-@ 22 is highly maneuverable at both supersonic and subsonic speeds . Computerized flight control system and full authority digital engine control ( FADEC ) make the aircraft highly departure resistant and controllable . The Raptor 's relaxed stability and powerful thrust @-@ vectoring engines enable the aircraft to turn tightly and perform very high alpha ( angle of attack ) maneuvers such as the Herbst maneuver ( J @-@ turn ) and Pugachev 's Cobra . The aircraft is also capable of maintaining over 60 ° alpha while having some roll control .
The Raptor 's aerodynamic performance , sensor fusion , and stealth work together for increased effectiveness . Altitude , speed , and advanced active and passive sensors allow the aircraft to spot targets at considerable ranges and increase weapons range ; altitude and speed also complement stealth 's ability to increase the aircraft 's survivability against ground defenses such as surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles .
= = = Avionics = = =
Key avionics include BAE Systems EI & S AN / ALR @-@ 94 radar warning receiver ( RWR ) , Lockheed Martin AN / AAR @-@ 56 infrared and ultraviolet Missile Launch Detector ( MLD ) and Northrop Grumman AN / APG @-@ 77 active electronically scanned array ( AESA ) radar . The MLD features six sensors to provide full spherical infrared coverage . The RWR is a passive radar detector with more than 30 antennas blended into the wings and fuselage for all @-@ round coverage . Tom Burbage , former F @-@ 22 program head at Lockheed Martin , described it as " the most technically complex piece of equipment on the aircraft . " The range of the RWR ( 250 + nmi ) exceeds the radar 's , and can cue radar emissions to be confined to a narrow beam ( down to 2 ° by 2 ° in azimuth and elevation ) to increase stealth . Depending on the detected threat , the defensive systems can prompt the pilot to release countermeasures such as flares or chaff . According to Bill Sweetman , experts had said the ALR @-@ 94 can be used as a passive detection system capable of searching targets and providing enough information for a radar lock on .
The AN / APG @-@ 77 radar features a low @-@ observable , active @-@ aperture , electronically scanned array that can track multiple targets under any weather conditions . Radar emissions can also be focused to overload enemy sensors as an electronic @-@ attack capability . The radar changes frequencies more than 1 @,@ 000 times per second to lower interception probability and has an estimated range of 125 – 150 miles , though planned upgrades will allow a range of 250 miles ( 400 km ) or more in narrow beams . Radar information is processed by two Raytheon Common Integrated Processor ( CIP ) s , each capable of processing up to 10 @.@ 5 billion instructions per second . In a process known as sensor fusion , data from the radar , other sensors , and external systems is filtered and combined by the CIP into a common view , reducing pilot workload . However , upgrading the aircraft 's avionics was reportedly very challenging due to their highly integrated nature .
The F @-@ 22 's ability to operate close to the battlefield gives the aircraft threat detection and identification capability comparative with the RC @-@ 135 Rivet Joint , and the ability to function as a " mini @-@ AWACS " , though the radar is less powerful than those of dedicated platforms . The F @-@ 22 can designate targets for allies , and determine whether two friendly aircraft are targeting the same aircraft . This radar system can sometimes identify targets " many times quicker than the AWACS " . The IEEE 1394B bus developed for the F @-@ 22 was derived from the commercial IEEE 1394 " FireWire " bus system . In 2007 , the F @-@ 22 's radar was tested as a wireless data transceiver , transmitting data at 548 megabits per second and receiving at gigabit speed , far faster than the Link 16 system .
The F @-@ 22 's software has some 1 @.@ 7 million lines of code , the majority involving processing radar data . Former Secretary of the USAF Michael Wynne blamed the use of the DoD 's Ada for cost overruns and delays on many military projects , including the F @-@ 22 . Cyberattacks on subcontractors have reportedly raised doubts about the security of the F @-@ 22 's systems and combat @-@ effectiveness . In 2009 , former Navy Secretary John Lehman considered the F @-@ 22 to be safe from cyberattack , citing the age of its IBM software .
= = = Cockpit = = =
The F @-@ 22 has a glass cockpit with all @-@ digital flight instruments . The monochrome head @-@ up display offers a wide field of view and serves as a primary flight instrument ; information is also displayed upon six color liquid @-@ crystal display ( LCD ) panels . The primary flight controls are a force @-@ sensitive side @-@ stick controller and a pair of throttles . The USAF initially wanted to implement direct voice input ( DVI ) controls , but this was judged to be too technically risky and was abandoned . The canopy 's dimensions are approximately 140 inches long , 45 inches wide , and 27 inches tall ( 355 cm x 115 cm x 69 cm ) and weighs 360 pounds .
The F @-@ 22 has integrated radio functionality , the signal processing systems are virtualized rather than as a separate hardware module . There have been several reports on the F @-@ 22 's inability to communicate with other aircraft , and funding cuts have affected the integration of the Multifunction Advanced Data Link ( MADL ) . Voice communication is possible , but not data transfer .
The integrated control panel ( ICP ) is a keypad system for entering communications , navigation , and autopilot data . Two 3 in × 4 in ( 7 @.@ 6 cm × 10 @.@ 2 cm ) up @-@ front displays located around the ICP are used to display integrated caution advisory / warning data , communications , navigation and identification ( CNI ) data and also serve as the stand @-@ by flight instrumentation group and fuel quantity indicator . The stand @-@ by flight group displays an artificial horizon , for basic instrument meteorological conditions . The 8 in × 8 in ( 20 cm × 20 cm ) primary multi @-@ function display ( PMFD ) is located under the ICP , and is used for navigation and situation assessment . Three 6 @.@ 25 in × 6 @.@ 25 in ( 15 @.@ 9 cm × 15 @.@ 9 cm ) secondary multi @-@ function displays are located around the PMFD for tactical information and stores management .
The ejection seat is a version of the ACES II ( Advanced Concept Ejection Seat ) commonly used in USAF aircraft , with a center @-@ mounted ejection control . The F @-@ 22 has a complex life support system , which includes the on @-@ board oxygen generation system ( OBOGS ) , protective pilot garments , and a breathing regulator / anti @-@ g ( BRAG ) valve controlling flow and pressure to the pilot 's mask and garments . The pilot garments were developed under the Advanced Technology Anti @-@ G Suit ( ATAGS ) project and are to protect against chemical / biological hazards and cold @-@ water immersion , counter g @-@ forces and low pressure at high altitudes , and provide thermal relief . Suspicions regarding the performance of the OBOGS and life support equipment have been raised by several mishaps , including a fatal crash .
= = = Armament = = =
The Raptor has three internal weapons bays : a large bay on the bottom of the fuselage , and two smaller bays on the sides of the fuselage , aft of the engine intakes . The main bay can accommodate six LAU @-@ 142 / A launchers for beyond @-@ visual @-@ range missiles and each side bay has an LAU @-@ 141 / A launcher for short @-@ range missiles . Four of the launchers in the main bay can be replaced with two bomb racks that can each carry one 1 @,@ 000 lb ( 450 kg ) or four 250 lb ( 110 kg ) bombs . Carrying armaments internally maintains the aircraft 's stealth and minimizes additional drag . Missile launches require the bay doors to be open for less than a second , during which hydraulic arms push missiles clear of the aircraft ; this is to reduce vulnerability to detection and to deploy missiles during high speed flight .
The F @-@ 22 can also carry air @-@ to @-@ surface weapons such as bombs with Joint Direct Attack Munition ( JDAM ) guidance and the Small @-@ Diameter Bomb , but cannot self @-@ designate for laser @-@ guided weapons . Internal air @-@ to @-@ surface ordnance is limited to 2 @,@ 000 lb . An internally mounted M61A2 Vulcan 20 mm cannon is embedded in the right wing root with the muzzle covered by a retractable door to maintain stealth . The radar projection of the cannon fire 's path is displayed on the pilot 's head @-@ up display .
The F @-@ 22 's high cruise speed and altitude increase the effective ranges of its munitions , it has 50 % greater employment range for the AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM than prior platforms , and range will be further extended with the introduction of the AIM @-@ 120D . While specifics are classified , it is expected that JDAMs employed by F @-@ 22s will have twice or more the effective range of legacy platforms . In testing , an F @-@ 22 dropped a GBU @-@ 32 JDAM from 50 @,@ 000 feet ( 15 @,@ 000 m ) while cruising at Mach 1 @.@ 5 , striking a moving target 24 miles ( 39 km ) away .
While the F @-@ 22 typically carries weapons internally , the wings include four hardpoints , each rated to handle 5 @,@ 000 lb ( 2 @,@ 300 kg ) . Each hardpoint can accommodate a pylon that can carry a detachable 600 @-@ gallon ( 2 @,@ 270 L ) external fuel tank or a launcher holding two air @-@ to @-@ air missiles ; the two inboard hardpoints are " plumbed " for external fuel tanks . The use of external stores degrades the aircraft 's stealth and kinematic performance ; after releasing stores the external attachments can be jettisoned to restore those characteristics . A stealthy ordnance pod and pylon was being developed to carry additional weapons in the mid @-@ 2000s .
= = = Stealth = = =
The F @-@ 22 was designed to be highly difficult to detect and track by radar . Measures to reduce radar cross @-@ section include airframe shaping such as alignment of edges , fixed @-@ geometry serpentine inlets that prevent line @-@ of @-@ sight of the engine faces from any exterior view , use of radar @-@ absorbent material ( RAM ) , and attention to detail such as hinges and pilot helmets that could provide a radar return . The F @-@ 22 was also designed to have decreased radio emissions , infrared signature and acoustic signature as well as reduced visibility to the naked eye . The aircraft 's flat thrust vectoring nozzle reduces infrared emissions to mitigate the threat of infrared homing ( " heat seeking " ) surface @-@ to @-@ air or air @-@ to @-@ air missiles . Additional measures to reduce the infrared signature include special paint and active cooling of leading edges to manage the heat buildup from supersonic flight .
Compared to previous stealth designs like the F @-@ 117 , the F @-@ 22 is less reliant on RAM , which are maintenance @-@ intensive and susceptible to adverse weather conditions . Unlike the B @-@ 2 , which requires climate @-@ controlled hangars , the F @-@ 22 can undergo repairs on the flight line or in a normal hangar . The F @-@ 22 features a Signature Assessment System which delivers warnings when the radar signature is degraded and necessitates repair . The F @-@ 22 's exact radar cross @-@ section ( RCS ) is classified ; however , in 2009 Lockheed Martin released information indicating it has an RCS ( from certain angles ) of − 40 dBsm – equivalent to the radar reflection of a " steel marble " . Effectively maintaining the stealth features can decrease the F @-@ 22 's mission capable rate to 62 – 70 % .
The effectiveness of the stealth characteristics is difficult to gauge . The RCS value is a restrictive measurement of the aircraft 's frontal or side area from the perspective of a static radar . When an aircraft maneuvers it exposes a completely different set of angles and surface area , potentially increasing radar observability . Furthermore , the F @-@ 22 's stealth contouring and radar absorbent materials are chiefly effective against high @-@ frequency radars , usually found on other aircraft . The effects of Rayleigh scattering and resonance mean that low @-@ frequency radars such as weather radars and early @-@ warning radars are more likely to detect the F @-@ 22 due to its physical size . However , such radars are also conspicuous , susceptible to clutter , and have low precision . Additionally , while faint or fleeting radar contacts make defenders aware that a stealth aircraft is present , reliably vectoring interception to attack the aircraft is much more challenging . According to the USAF an F @-@ 22 surprised an Iranian F @-@ 4 Phantom II that was attempting to intercept an American UAV , despite Iran 's claim of having military VHF radar coverage over the Persian Gulf .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Designation and testing = = =
The YF @-@ 22 was originally given the unofficial name " Lightning II " , after the World War II Lockheed P @-@ 38 Lightning fighter , which persisted until the mid @-@ 1990s when the USAF officially named the aircraft " Raptor " . The name " Lightning II " was later given to the F @-@ 35 . The aircraft was also briefly dubbed " SuperStar " and " Rapier " . In September 2002 , USAF changed the Raptor 's designation to F / A @-@ 22 , mimicking the Navy 's McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornet and intended to highlight a planned ground @-@ attack capability amid debate over the aircraft 's role and relevance . The F @-@ 22 designation was reinstated in December 2005 , when the aircraft entered service .
Flight testing of the F @-@ 22 began in 1997 with Raptor 4001 , the first EMD jet , and eight more F @-@ 22s would participate in the EMD and flight test program . Raptor 4001 was retired from flight testing in 2000 and subsequently sent to Wright @-@ Patterson Air Force Base ( AFB ) for survivability testing , including live fire testing and battle damage repair training . EMD F @-@ 22s have been used for testing upgrades , and also as maintenance trainers . The first production F @-@ 22 was delivered to Nellis AFB , Nevada , in January 2003 .
In May 2006 , a released report documented a problem with the F @-@ 22 's forward titanium boom , caused by defective heat @-@ treating . This made the boom on roughly the first 80 F @-@ 22s less ductile than specified and potentially shortened the part 's life . Modifications and inspections were implemented to the booms to restore life expectancy .
In August 2008 , an unmodified F @-@ 22 of the 411th Flight Test Squadron performed in the first ever air @-@ to @-@ air refueling of an aircraft using synthetic jet fuel as part of a wider USAF effort to qualify aircraft to use the fuel , a 50 / 50 mix of JP @-@ 8 and a Fischer – Tropsch process @-@ produced , natural gas @-@ based fuel . In 2011 , an F @-@ 22 flew supersonic on a 50 % mixture of biofuel derived from camelina .
= = = Introduction into service = = =
In December 2005 , the USAF announced that the F @-@ 22 had achieved Initial Operational Capability ( IOC ) . During Exercise Northern Edge in Alaska in June 2006 , in simulated combat exercises 12 F @-@ 22s of the 94th FS downed 108 adversaries with no losses . In the exercises , the Raptor @-@ led Blue Force amassed 241 kills against two losses in air @-@ to @-@ air combat , with neither loss being an F @-@ 22 . During Red Flag 07 @-@ 1 in February 2007 , 14 F @-@ 22s of the 94th FS supported Blue Force strikes and undertook close air support sorties . Against superior numbers of Red Force Aggressor F @-@ 15s and F @-@ 16s , 6 – 8 F @-@ 22s maintained air dominance throughout . No sorties were missed because of maintenance or other failures ; a single F @-@ 22 was judged lost against the defeated opposing force . F @-@ 22s also provided airborne electronic surveillance .
The Raptor achieved Full Operational Capability ( FOC ) in December 2007 , when General John Corley of Air Combat Command ( ACC ) officially declared the F @-@ 22s of the integrated active duty 1st Fighter Wing and Virginia Air National Guard 192d Fighter Wing fully operational . This was followed by an Operational Readiness Inspection ( ORI ) of the integrated wing in April 2008 , in which it was rated " excellent " in all categories , with a simulated kill @-@ ratio of 221 – 0 .
= = = Deployments = = =
F @-@ 22 fighter units have been frequently deployed to Kadena Air Base in Okinawa , Japan . In February 2007 , on the aircraft 's first overseas deployment to Kadena Air Base , six F @-@ 22s of 27th Fighter Squadron flying from Hickam AFB , Hawaii , experienced multiple software @-@ related system failures while crossing the International Date Line ( 180th meridian of longitude ) . The aircraft returned to Hawaii by following tanker aircraft . Within 48 hours , the error was resolved and the journey resumed . In early 2013 , F @-@ 22s were involved in U.S.-South Korean military drills .
In November 2007 , F @-@ 22s of 90th Fighter Squadron at Elmendorf AFB , Alaska , performed their first NORAD interception of two Russian Tu @-@ 95MS " Bear @-@ H " bombers . Since then , F @-@ 22s have also escorted probing Tu @-@ 160 " Blackjack " bombers . The first pair of F @-@ 22s assigned to the 49th Fighter Wing became operational at Holloman AFB , New Mexico , in June 2008 . In 2014 , Holloman F @-@ 22s and their support personnel were reassigned to the reactivated 95th Fighter Squadron at Tyndall AFB .
Secretary of Defense Gates initially refused to deploy F @-@ 22s to the Middle East in 2007 . The type made its first deployment in the region at Al Dhafra Air Base in the UAE in 2009 . In April 2012 , F @-@ 22s have been rotating into Al Dhafra Air Base , less than 200 miles from Iran ; the Iranian defense minister referred to the deployment as a security threat . In March 2013 the USAF announced that an F @-@ 22 had intercepted an Iranian F @-@ 4 Phantom II that approached within 16 miles of an MQ @-@ 1 Predator flying off the Iranian coastline .
In June 2014 , F @-@ 22s from the 199th Fighter Squadron of the Hawaii Air National Guard were deployed to Malaysia to participate in the Cope Taufan 2014 exercise conducted by the USAF Pacific Air Forces and Royal Malaysian Air Force .
On 22 September 2014 , F @-@ 22s performed the type 's first combat sorties during the American @-@ led intervention in Syria ; a number of aircraft dropped 1 @,@ 000 @-@ pound GPS @-@ guided bombs on Islamic State targets in the vicinity of Tishrin Dam . Combat operations by F @-@ 22s are planned to continue into the foreseeable future . While some missions involve striking targets , the F @-@ 22 's main role is intelligence , surveillance and reconnaissance ( ISR ) gathering . By January 2015 , the F @-@ 22 accounted for three percent of Air Force sorties during Operation Inherent Resolve . General Mike Hostage of ACC said that it performed " flawlessly " during this deployment . Between September 2014 and July 2015 , F @-@ 22s flew 204 sorties over Syria , dropping 270 bombs at some 60 locations . On 23 June 2015 , a pair of F @-@ 22s performed the aircraft 's first close air support ( CAS ) mission after receiving a short @-@ notice request for airstrikes in close proximity to friendly forces .
In late 2014 , the USAF was testing a rapid deployment concept involving four F @-@ 22s and one C @-@ 17 for support , first proposed in 2008 by two F @-@ 22 pilots . The goal was for the type to be able to set up and engage in combat within 24 hours . Four F @-@ 22s were deployed to Spangdahlem Air Base in Germany in August and Lask Air Base in Poland and Amari Air Base in Estonia in September 2015 to train with NATO allies .
= = = Maintenance and training = = =
F @-@ 22 aircraft were available for missions 62 % of the time on average in 2004 and 70 % in 2009 . The rate was at 63 % in 2015 . Early on , the F @-@ 22 required more than 30 hours of maintenance per flight hour and a total cost per flight hour of $ 44 @,@ 000 ; by 2008 it was reduced to 18 @.@ 1 , and 10 @.@ 5 by 2009 ; lower than the Pentagon 's requirement of 12 maintenance hours per flight hour . When introduced , the F @-@ 22 had a Mean Time Between Maintenance ( MTBM ) of 1 @.@ 7 hours , short of the required 3 @.@ 0 ; in 2012 this rose to 3 @.@ 2 hours . By 2013 , the cost per flight hour was $ 68 @,@ 362 , over three times as much as the F @-@ 16 . In 2014 , the F @-@ 22 fleet required 43 maintenance man @-@ hours per flight hour .
Each aircraft requires a month @-@ long packaged maintenance plan ( PMP ) every 300 flight hours . The stealth system , including its radar absorbing metallic skin , account for almost one third of maintenance . The canopy was redesigned after the original design lasted an average of 331 hours instead of the required 800 hours . F @-@ 22 depot maintenance is performed at Ogden Air Logistics Complex at Hill AFB , Utah .
In January 2007 , the F @-@ 22 reportedly maintained 97 % sortie rate , flying 102 out of 105 tasked sorties while amassing a 144 @-@ to @-@ zero kill ratio during " Northern Edge " air @-@ to @-@ air exercises in Alaska . According to Lieutenant Colonel Wade Tolliver , squadron commander of the 27th Fighter Squadron , the stealth coatings of the F @-@ 22 are more robust than those used in earlier stealth aircraft , being less sensitive to weather and wear and tear . However , rain caused " shorts and failures in sophisticated electrical components " when F @-@ 22s were posted to Guam .
To reduce operating costs and lengthen the F @-@ 22 's service life , some pilot training sorties are performed using flight simulators , while the T @-@ 38 Talon is used for adversary training . DoD budget cuts led to F @-@ 22 demonstration flights being halted in 2013 before resuming in 2014 . In 2012 , it was reported that the F @-@ 22 's maintenance demands have increased as the fleet aged , the stealth coatings being particularly demanding .
= = = = Operational problems = = = =
Operational problems have been experienced and some have caused fleet @-@ wide groundings . Critically , pilots have experienced a decreased mental status , including losing consciousness . There were reports of instances of pilots found to have a decreased level of alertness or memory loss after landing . F @-@ 22 pilots have experienced lingering respiratory problems and a chronic cough ; other symptoms include irritability , emotional lability and neurological changes . A number of possible causes were investigated , including possible exposure to noxious chemical agents from the respiratory tubing , pressure suit malfunction , side effects from oxygen delivery at greater @-@ than @-@ atmospheric concentrations , and oxygen supply disruptions . Other problems include minor mechanical problems and navigational software failures . The fleet was grounded for four months in 2011 before resuming flight , but reports of oxygen issues persisted .
In 2005 , the Raptor Aeromedical Working Group , a USAF expert panel , recommended several changes to deal with the oxygen supply issues . In October 2011 , Lockheed Martin was awarded a $ 24M contract to investigate the breathing difficulties . In July 2012 , the Pentagon concluded that a pressure valve on flight vests worn during high @-@ altitude flights and a carbon air filter were likely sources of at least some hypoxia @-@ like symptoms . Long @-@ distance flights were resumed , but were limited to lower altitudes until corrections had been made . The carbon filters were changed to a different model to reduce lung exposure to carbon particulates . The breathing regulator / anti @-@ g ( BRAG ) valve , used to inflate the pilot 's vest during high G maneuvers , was found to be defective , inflating the vest at unintended intervals and restricting the pilot 's breathing . The on @-@ board oxygen generating system ( OBOGS ) also unexpectedly reduced oxygen levels during high @-@ G maneuvers . In late 2012 , Lockheed Martin was awarded contracts to install a supplemental automatic oxygen backup system , in addition to the primary and manual backup . Changes recommended by the Raptor Aeromedical Working Group in 2005 received further consideration in 2012 ; the USAF reportedly considered installing EEG brain wave monitors on the pilot 's helmets for inflight monitoring .
New backup oxygen generators and filters have been installed on the aircraft . The coughing symptoms have been attributed to acceleration atelectasis , which may be exacerbated by the F @-@ 22 's high performance ; there is no present solution to the condition . The presence of toxins and particles in some ground crew was deemed to be unrelated . On 4 April 2013 , the distance and altitude flight restrictions were lifted after the F @-@ 22 Combined Test Force and 412th Aerospace Medicine Squadron determined that breathing restrictions on the pilot were responsible as opposed to an issue with the oxygen provided .
= = Variants = =
YF @-@ 22A – pre @-@ production technology demonstrator for ATF demonstration / validation phase ; two were built .
F @-@ 22A – single @-@ seat production version , was designated F / A @-@ 22A in early 2000s .
F @-@ 22B – planned two @-@ seat variant , but was canceled in 1996 to save development costs .
Naval F @-@ 22 variant – a carrier @-@ borne variant of the F @-@ 22 with variable @-@ sweep wings for the U.S. Navy 's Navy Advanced Tactical Fighter ( NATF ) program to replace the F @-@ 14 Tomcat . Program was canceled in 1993 . Former SoAF Donald Rice has called the possibility of the naval variant the deciding factor for his choice of the YF @-@ 22 over the YF @-@ 23 .
= = = Derivatives = = =
The FB @-@ 22 was a proposed medium @-@ range bomber for the USAF . The FB @-@ 22 was projected to carry up to 30 Small Diameter Bombs to about twice the range of the F @-@ 22A , while maintaining the F @-@ 22 's stealth and supersonic speed . However , the FB @-@ 22 in its planned form appears to have been canceled with the 2006 Quadrennial Defense Review and subsequent developments , in lieu of a larger subsonic bomber with a much greater range .
The X @-@ 44 MANTA , or multi @-@ axis , no @-@ tail aircraft , was a planned experimental aircraft based on the F @-@ 22 with enhanced thrust vectoring controls and no aerodynamic surface backup . The aircraft was to be solely controlled by thrust vectoring , without featuring any rudders , ailerons , or elevators . Funding for this program was halted in 2000 .
= = Operators = =
United States
United States Air Force
The U.S. Air Force is the only operator of the F @-@ 22 . It ordered 8 test and 187 operational production aircraft . In November 2012 , it had 184 production aircraft in inventory .
Air Combat Command
1st Fighter Wing - Langley Air Force Base , Virginia
27th Fighter Squadron – The first combat F @-@ 22 squadron . Began conversion in December 2005 .
94th Fighter Squadron
53d Wing - Tyndall Air Force Base , Florida
422d Test and Evaluation Squadron ( Nellis Air Force Base , Nevada )
57th Wing - Nellis AFB , Nevada
433d Weapons Squadron
325th Fighter Wing - Tyndall AFB , Florida
43d Fighter Squadron – First squadron to operate the F @-@ 22 and continues to serve as the Formal Training Unit .
95th Fighter Squadron
Air Force Materiel Command
412th Test Wing - Edwards Air Force Base , California
411th Flight Test Squadron
Pacific Air Forces
3d Wing - Elmendorf Air Force Base , Alaska
90th Fighter Squadron
525th Fighter Squadron
15th Wing - Hickam Air Force Base , Hawaii
19th Fighter Squadron – Active Associate squadron to the 199th Fighter Squadron ( Hawaii Air National Guard ) .
Air National Guard
192d Fighter Wing ( Associate ) - Langley AFB , Virginia
149th Fighter Squadron
154th Wing - Hickam Air Force Base , Hawaii
199th Fighter Squadron
325th Fighter Wing Associate Unit ( also known as Florida Air National Guard Headquarters Detachment 1 ) - Tyndall AFB , Florida
Associate ANG unit to 325th Fighter Wing ( Air Combat Command )
Air Force Reserve Command
44th Fighter Group ( Associate ) - Tyndall AFB , Florida
301st Fighter Squadron
477th Fighter Group ( Associate ) - Elmendorf AFB , Alaska
302d Fighter Squadron
= = Accidents = =
In April 1992 , the second YF @-@ 22 crashed while landing at Edwards AFB . The test pilot , Tom Morgenfeld , escaped without injury . The cause of the crash was found to be a flight control software error that failed to prevent a pilot @-@ induced oscillation .
The first F @-@ 22 crash occurred during takeoff at Nellis AFB on 20 December 2004 , in which the pilot ejected safely before impact . The investigation revealed that a brief interruption in power during an engine shutdown prior to flight caused a flight @-@ control system malfunction ; consequently the aircraft design was corrected to avoid the problem . Following a brief grounding , F @-@ 22 operations resumed after a review .
On 25 March 2009 , an EMD F @-@ 22 crashed 35 miles ( 56 km ) northeast of Edwards AFB during a test flight , resulting in the death of Lockheed Martin test pilot David P. Cooley . An Air Force Materiel Command investigation found that Cooley momentarily lost consciousness during a high @-@ G maneuver , then ejected when he found himself too low to recover . Cooley was killed during ejection by blunt @-@ force trauma from windblast due to the aircraft 's speed . The investigation found no design issues .
On 16 November 2010 , an F @-@ 22 from Elmendorf AFB crashed , killing the pilot , Captain Jeffrey Haney . F @-@ 22s were restricted to flying below 25 @,@ 000 feet , then grounded during the investigation . The crash was attributed to a bleed air system malfunction after an engine overheat condition was detected , shutting down the Environmental Control System ( ECS ) and OBOGS . The accident review board ruled Haney was to blame , as he did not react properly and did not engage the emergency oxygen system . Haney 's widow sued Lockheed Martin , claiming equipment defects . She later reached a settlement . After the ruling , the engagement handle of the emergency oxygen system was redesigned ; the system should engage automatically if OBOGS shuts down due to engine failure . On 11 February 2013 , the DoD 's Inspector General released a report stating that the USAF had erred in blaming Haney , and that facts did not sufficiently support conclusions ; the USAF stated that it stood by the ruling .
During a training mission , an F @-@ 22 crashed to the east of Tyndall AFB , on 15 November 2012 . The pilot ejected safely and no injuries were reported on the ground . The investigation determined that a " chafed " electrical wire ignited the fluid in a hydraulic line , causing a fire that damaged the flight controls .
= = Aircraft on display = =
EMD F @-@ 22A 91 @-@ 4003 is on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force .
= = Specifications ( F @-@ 22A ) = =
Data from USAF , F @-@ 22 Raptor Team web site , manufacturers ' data , Aviation Week , and Journal of Electronic Defense ,
General characteristics
Crew : 1
Length : 62 ft 1 in ( 18 @.@ 92 m )
Wingspan : 44 ft 6 in ( 13 @.@ 56 m )
Height : 16 ft 8 in ( 5 @.@ 08 m )
Wing area : 840 ft ² ( 78 @.@ 04 m ² )
Airfoil : NACA 64A ? 05 @.@ 92 root , NACA 64A ? 04 @.@ 29 tip
Empty weight : 43 @,@ 340 lb ( 19 @,@ 700 kg )
Loaded weight : 64 @,@ 840 lb ( 29 @,@ 410 kg )
Max. takeoff weight : 83 @,@ 500 lb ( 38 @,@ 000 kg )
Powerplant : 2 × Pratt & Whitney F119 @-@ PW @-@ 100 pitch thrust vectoring turbofans
Dry thrust : 26 @,@ 000 lb ( 116 kN ) each
Thrust with afterburner : 35 @,@ 000 + lb ( 156 + kN ) each
Fuel capacity : 18 @,@ 000 lb ( 8 @,@ 200 kg ) internally , or 26 @,@ 000 lb ( 12 @,@ 000 kg ) with two external fuel tanks
Performance
Maximum speed : At altitude : Mach 2 @.@ 25 ( 1 @,@ 500 mph , 2 @,@ 410 km / h ) [ estimated ]
Supercruise : Mach 1 @.@ 82 ( 1 @,@ 220 mph , 1 @,@ 960 km / h )
Range : > 1 @,@ 600 nmi ( 1 @,@ 840 mi , 2 @,@ 960 km ) with 2 external fuel tanks
Combat radius : 460 nmi ( with 100 nmi in supercruise clean ) ( 529 mi , 852 km )
Ferry range : 1 @,@ 740 nmi ( 2 @,@ 000 mi , 3 @,@ 220 km )
Service ceiling : > 65 @,@ 000 ft ( 20 @,@ 000 m )
Wing loading : 77 @.@ 2 lb / ft ² ( 377 kg / m ² )
Thrust / weight : 1 @.@ 08
Maximum design g @-@ load : + 9 @.@ 0 / − 3 @.@ 0 g
Armament
Guns : 1 × 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 787 in ) M61A2 Vulcan 6 @-@ barrel Gatling cannon in right wing root , 480 rounds
Air to air mission loadout :
6 × AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM
2 × AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder
Air to ground mission loadout :
2 × 1 @,@ 000 lb ( 450 kg ) JDAM or 8 × 250 lb ( 110 kg ) GBU @-@ 39 Small Diameter Bombs
2 × AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM
2 × AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder
Hardpoints : 4 × under @-@ wing pylon stations can be fitted to carry 600 U.S. gallon drop tanks or weapons , each with a capacity of 5 @,@ 000 lb ( 2 @,@ 270 kg ) .
Avionics
AN / APG @-@ 77 radar : 125 – 150 miles ( 200 – 240 km ) against 1 m2 ( 11 sq ft ) targets ( estimated range )
AN / AAR @-@ 56 Missile Launch Detector ( MLD )
AN / ALR @-@ 94 radar warning receiver ( RWR ) : 250 nmi ( 463 km ) or more detection range
MJU @-@ 39 / 40 flares for protection against IR missiles
= = Notable appearances in media = =
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= The Call ( 2013 film ) =
The Call is a 2013 American crime thriller film directed by Brad Anderson and written by Richard D 'Ovidio . The film stars Abigail Breslin as Casey Welson , a teenage girl kidnapped by a serial killer and Halle Berry as Jordan Turner , a 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 operator , still suffering emotionally from a prior botched 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 call , who receives Casey 's call . Morris Chestnut , Michael Eklund , Michael Imperioli , and David Otunga also star . The story was originally envisioned as a television series , but D 'Ovidio later rewrote it as a 94 @-@ minute feature film . Filming began in July 2012 and spanned a period of 25 days , with all scenes being shot in Los Angeles , mainly Burbank and Santa Clarita .
A screening of The Call was held at the Women 's International Film Festival hosted at the Regal South Beach theater on February 26 , 2013 . TriStar Pictures released it to theatres a few weeks later on March 15 , 2013 . Considered to be high @-@ concept by many reviewers , the film proved a commercial success , grossing over $ 68 million against budget of $ 13 million . Halle Berry was nominated for Choice Movie Actress in a Drama at the Teen Choice Awards and Best Actress at the BET Awards and the film received generally mixed reviews from critics , but praised Berry 's performance and the film 's suspense .
= = Plot = =
A Los Angeles Police Department veteran 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 operator , Jordan Turner ( Berry ) , receives a call one night from a teenage girl , Leah Templeton ( Evie Thompson ) , fearing for her life as a man breaks into her home . Jordan calmly advises her to conceal herself upstairs , but when the call is disconnected , Jordan calls Leah back , a decision that later costs Leah her life , as the ringing phone gives her location away to the intruder . Jordan attempts to dissuade him from going further over the phone . He responds " It 's already done " and hangs up , leaving her distraught . The next day , Jordan sees a television report confirming that Leah has been murdered . Emotionally affected by the incident , Jordan tells her boyfriend , Officer Paul Phillips ( Morris Chestnut ) , that she can no longer handle field calls .
Six months later , she is working as a trainer for 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 operators . Simultaneously , teenager Casey Welson ( Breslin ) is kidnapped from a mall parking garage after parting with her friend , Autumn , and forced into the trunk of a car . Casey had taken Autumn 's disposable phone , and uses it to call 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 . A rookie operator ( Jenna Lamia ) receives the call but is unable to handle it , prompting Jordan to take over , though Casey 's use of a disposable phone means that her exact GPS location cannot be found . While the kidnapper drives , Jordan guides Casey through knocking out a tail light and signaling people in nearby cars . One woman who sees Casey waving her arm out of the trunk of the car calls 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 , allowing the police to narrow their search . When Casey tells Jordan that there are cans of paint in the trunk , Jordan has Casey pour the paint out of the taillight hole , attracting the attention of another motorist , Alan Denado ( Michael Imperioli ) but the kidnapper knocks him out with a shovel , assuming him to be dead and stuffs Alan in the trunk with Casey . He reawakens in the trunk and begins screaming uncontrollably , which causes the kidnapper to stab him . He stops at a gas station where Casey gets an idea to crawl out of the trunk and scream at an active worker for help . The worker attempts to bust the door open , but the kidnapper sprays him with gasoline and throws a lighter at him .
Upon arriving at his destination , the kidnapper , Michael Foster ( Michael Eklund ) , removes Casey from the trunk and finds the phone in her pocket , with 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 listening on the line . Through the phone , Jordan informs him that his identity is uncovered and advises him to turn himself in and not hurt the girl . Before smashing the phone , Michael responds , " It 's already done " and Jordan realizes that Michael is the same culprit who killed Leah six months prior . Meanwhile , Phillips , accompanied by Officer Jake Devans ( David Otunga ) and others in law enforcement , raid Michael 's home , but find only his wife and children . Finding a photo of Michael and his sister , Melinda , they realize that Casey resembles the latter . Additionally , the house seen in the photo is eventually revealed by Michael 's wife to have burned down , although a nearby cottage still remains . The police raid it , but find nobody there and leave . Michael begins to wash and cut Casey 's hair . Determined to rescue Casey , Jordan drives to the secondary home where she finds a number of photos of Michael with his leukemia @-@ stricken sister . Stepping outside , she recognizes sounds from an outdoor flagpole , reminiscent of sounds heard in the background in the final moments of the 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 call . She also finds a trap door amid dirt and scrub located where the primary house once stood . After she accidentally drops her cellphone down the cellar , she climbs down in without calling the police .
Navigating the cellar , Jordan hides from an emerging Michael . The cellar itself pieces together Michael 's backstory . Michael had incestuous feelings towards his sister and was distraught when she fell ill , lost all of her hair and died of leukemia . Foster has a prop head that he keeps in the cellar that he treats like his sister . He has also been scalping and killing young girls who have similar blond hair , trying to find scalps that match his sister 's hair . Jordan soon finds Casey strapped down to a dentist chair and attacks Michael , as he begins to lacerate Casey 's scalp . She frees Casey and both manage to gradually escape the cellar , and Casey stabs Michael in the back with a pair of scissors . Michael pursues them and they are able to injure and kick him back down into the cellar , rendering him unconscious . While he is knocked out , they tie him to a chair . When he regains consciousness , they inform him that they plan to leave him to die and claim that Casey had escaped , was found by Jordan in the woods , and that Michael disappeared . Pleading with them that they cannot just leave him there , Jordan replies to Foster using his own words , " It 's already done , " and as he shouts insults at them locks the door , avenges Leah 's death and leaves .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and casting = = =
Screenwriter Richard D 'Ovidio was inspired to script the story after his wife heard an NPR segment with a 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 operator discussing her job . He began to research the subject and visited the Los Angeles Metropolitan Communications Dispatch Center ( MCDC ) . Finding the center , which has backup generators , bulletproof windows , and a moat surrounding the building , to be " pretty amazing , " he decided to shed light on what he viewed as a previously overlooked occupation . The story was originally conceptualized as a television series entitled The Hive ( a reference to the constant calls and conversations sounding like bees buzzing ) , but D 'Ovidio decided to redraft it as a film on realizing that " the operators couldn 't be the ones kicking in doors and going out into the field " all the time . As a result , what was planned to be the pilot episode was expanded and revised as a movie .
For most of the film , Berry 's character , Turner , the 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 operator , does stay inside " the hive " before becoming actively involved in the search for Breslin 's character , Welson , the kidnapped caller . D 'Ovidio chose two female leads , explaining , " I wanted strong women ... I think it was appropriate here , since most 911 call operators are women . " Berry remarked , " I love the idea of being a part of a movie that was so empowering for women . We don 't often get to play roles like this , where ordinary people become heroic and do something extraordinary . " D 'Ovidio chose to tell the story from the perspective of two characters — the operator and the caller — believing that it would become repetitive if it focused on only one . As a result , he switched perspectives every ten pages when writing the screenplay . As well as collaborating on the story with his wife , Nicole and Jon Bokenkamp , he accepted suggestions from Berry , Breslin and Eklund : " Halle came in with some great notes and Abigail and Michael and it started to flesh things out . I 'm not one to say ' no ' to a great suggested line of dialogue . It just makes me look better as a writer ! I feel it 's a very collaborative process , and some of the happiest accidents happen when you just listen to people . When someone comes up to you and says , ' Why don 't we do it this way ? ' I think that it 's important to listen . "
Chestnut , who plays Phillips , a police officer and Turner 's boyfriend , prepared by riding along with Los Angeles police officers to observe what it is like to be an officer in a squad car and Berry prepared for the role by visiting a call center and observing the operators at work . She told a Miami Herald interviewer , " You get a different perspective by doing research ... You can 't know what it 's like to be a cop even though you 've seen it in the movies . But nobody ever saw a 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 center . I thought they lived in the ground somewhere ! It was interesting to see who they were and how they deal and how stressful it can be . I was a wreck watching them . They would just be as cool as can be doing their thing . I thought , ' I could never do this job . ' "
= = = Filming = = =
Producers scheduled for The Call to be filmed in Canada in June 2011 after they failed to make the cut for a California tax credit . With a low budget of $ 13 million , they settled on Ottawa , Ontario , where director Anderson had just finished another project . However , the California Film Commission ( CFC ) called back nine months later and informed them that the waiting list had been largely cleared and that they now qualified for $ 1 @.@ 9 million in tax deduction . According to Producer Michael Helfant , they were " literally days from starting to put down a deposit . " Berry was reportedly pleased with the news , having wanted to stay in Los Angeles and the CFC helped secure film locations for the project .
With a crew of roughly 120 persons , filming took a total of 25 days , spanning from July to August 2012 . Car chase scenes were shot at Long Beach and a Westlake Village office building was modeled as the emergency dispatch center . The latter was also used for the scenes in which Welson is locked in the trunk of a car . Other filming locations include the Burbank Town Center on Magnolia Boulevard in Burbank , California , Santa Clarita , California and the 170 Highway . At one point , Berry was rushed to Cedars @-@ Sinai Medical Center after falling headfirst on concrete while shooting a fight sequence . A spokesperson for Berry confirmed that she suffered a minor head injury and was taken to the hospital as a precaution , but she checked out healthy and was released .
Berry told interviewer Kimberly Grant , " The hard part for me was to try to stay connected to Phillips and Welson . " This was because , Grant writes , " she had to spend an entire day reading 21 pages of dialogue , rattling off in quick succession 911 @-@ operator jargon , that would be cut and edited to fit the film ... In film terms , that means Berry performed for 21 minutes straight with no breaks , not an easy feat for any actor . " Though she enjoyed working with Chestnut , Berry told Grant that it was difficult being unable to see her co @-@ stars for most of the film : " That was my constant challenge ; to stay on such an emotional level [ as Jordan ] , so that I would be on the same level as they [ i.e. , Casey and Officer Phillips ] were . I used that feeling of frustration and of being stuck to fuel my character . "
= = Promotion and release = =
Spanning 94 minutes upon completion , the movie received an R rating for violence , disturbing content and some language . Berry and Chestnut promoted the film at the ShowPlace ICON movie theater at the red @-@ carpet premiere in Chicago on February 28 . Berry also traveled to Rio to promote The Call in anticipation of its April 12 release in Brazil .
The Women 's International Film Festival hosted a screening of The Call at the Regal South Beach theater on February 26 , 2013 . Chestnut told the audience that he would sign on for a sequel , saying about Berry , " I didn 't get to kiss this woman enough ! " Berry added , " I 'm in the movie and even I was scared . " The film was released in theatres on March 15 and on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc on June 25 of that same year . DVD extras included a featurette entitled " Emergency Procedure : Making the Film " and commentary from Abigail Breslin , Halle Berry , and other filmmakers . The Blu @-@ ray version came with more features , including deleted scenes , an alternate ending , Michael Eklund 's audition tape , featurettes entitled " A Set Tour of The Hive and The Lair " and " Inside the Stunts " , as well as all of the original DVD content .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
According to Boxoffice , The Call was expected to earn about $ 11 – 12 million on its opening weekend in 2 @,@ 507 theaters across the United States but surpassed this by a significant margin and grossed $ 17 million in its first three days . This indicated good profits , as the film cost about $ 13 million to produce and TriStar Pictures paid a much smaller amount to acquire U.S. distribution rights . With box office takings of over $ 68 million , The Call is WWE Studios ' most commercially successful film to date , the previous top @-@ grossing productions being See No Evil , which stars professional wrestler Kane ( Glenn Jacobs ) ( $ 19 million ) and 12 Rounds , which stars professional wrestler John Cena ( $ 17 million ) .
Critics were surprised by the movie 's success because " Berry hadn 't had a hit in a number of years " and because the R rating narrowed down the audience . WWE Studios head Michael Luisi commented that The Call " [ exceeded ] our most optimistic forecasts . "
= = = Critical response = = =
The Call has received mostly mixed reviews from critics , having a 44 % overall film rating review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes based on 124 reviews with the consensus : " The Call builds plenty of suspense before taking a problematic turn in the third act . " Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B rating , saying that the tale " is surprisingly good and surprisingly gruesome fun . Eklund makes the most of the maniac role and Breslin is a sympathetic victim . " Similarly , Metacritic , another film review aggregator , gave the movie a 51 out of 100 based on 23 reviews . Reviewer Dwight Brown wrote , " The script gives Berry a blue @-@ collar character she can make accessible , vulnerable and gutsy ... Chestnut is not suitably gallant and stalwart as her caring lover and a cop on a mission ... This film is a whole lot scarier than you think it 's going to be . " Manohla Dargis of The New York Times wrote , " An effectively creepy thriller about a 911 operator and a young miss in peril , The Call is a model of low @-@ budget filmmaking . " She praised its " clean , clever premise " and said that Berry 's Jordan is " an old @-@ fashioned hero in many respects , so it 's fitting that Mr. Anderson uses old @-@ fashioned filmmaking techniques , like crosscutting , to build tension and old @-@ school exploitation tricks like evil to justify taking the story dark and then dark and bonkers . "
A reviewer for The Hutchinson News , Jake Coyle , commented , " Director Brad Anderson ... working from the simple , high @-@ concept screenplay by Richard D 'Ovidio , ably cuts between Berry 's increasingly emotionally @-@ attached Jordan Turner and Breslin 's panicking Casey Welson , contrasting the fraught strategizing of Turner with the frantic police pursuit of the kidnapper . " Coyle stated that " The Call dials up a shallow thrill ride , but one efficiently peppered with your typical ' don 't go in there ! ' moments , " but concluded , " The Call is a rudimentary , almost old @-@ fashioned 90 @-@ minute escape that manages to achieve its low ambitions . " Rating the film 2 stars out of 4 , Coyle writes that once the film " manages to build some suspense from the trunk of the car-- the clever attempts to elicit help , the dwindling cell phone battery-- its deficiencies become less forgivable once the action turns off the road . "
Roger Moore of The Seattle Times showed mixed feelings in his review : " Rare is the thriller that goes as completely and utterly wrong as The Call does at almost precisely the one @-@ hour mark . Which is a crying shame , because for an hour this is a riveting , by @-@ the @-@ book kidnapping . " Moore explained what he saw as the highs and lows : " Brad Anderson turns this ... serial @-@ killer hunt ... into a real edge @-@ of @-@ your @-@ seat thriller . Given ... a half @-@ decent tale of horror , guilt , problem @-@ solving and redemption , Anderson couldn 't go far wrong , " but , Moore states , " It 's only when our Oscar @-@ winning heroine puts down the phone and sets out to do some sleuthing of her own that The Call disconnects , turning into something far more generic and far less exciting . " The Los Angeles Times turned in a similar review : " The semi @-@ fresh thriller , set mainly in an emergency call center and on the freeways of Los Angeles , puts a tech slant on a damsel @-@ in @-@ distress setup . It buzzes along for a while , the promising plot innovations inviting suspension of disbelief , before by @-@ the @-@ numbers implausibility , over @-@ the @-@ top valor and unsavory contrivances take over and the line goes dead . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Berry was nominated for two awards for her role as Turner in The Call in 2013 . She was nominated for Best Actress for the BET Awards , which were created by the Black Entertainment Television network to celebrate African Americans and other minorities in music , acting , sports and other fields of entertainment over the past year , Berry lost to Kerry Washington for the role in Django Unchained . She was also nominated for Choice Movie Actress in a Drama at the Teen Choice Awards , but lost to Emma Watson for The Perks of Being a Wallflower .
The film was also nominated for Best Thriller Film at the 40th Saturn Awards and Berry was nominated for Saturn Award for Best Actress , but lost to World War Z and Sandra Bullock
= = Possible sequel = =
WWE Studios head Michael Luisi confirmed the possibility of a sequel , though no new information has been released since the announcement in 2013 .
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= Kannada =
Kannada / ˈkɑːnədə , ˈkæ- / ( ಕನ ್ ನಡ kannaḍa ; IPA : [ ˈkʌnːəɖɑː ] ) , also known as Canarese or Kanarese / kænəˈriːz / , is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by Kannada people in South India , mainly in the state of Karnataka , and by linguistic minorities in the states of Andhra Pradesh , Telangana , Tamil Nadu , Maharashtra , Kerala , and Goa . The language has roughly 40 million native speakers who are called Kannadigas ( Kannaḍigaru ) , and a total of 50 @.@ 8 million speakers according to a 2001 census . It is one of the scheduled languages of India and the official and administrative language of the state of Karnataka .
The Kannada language is written using the Kannada script , which evolved from the 5th @-@ century Kadamba script . Kannada is attested epigraphically for about one and a half millennium , and literary Old Kannada flourished in the 6th @-@ century Ganga dynasty and during the 9th @-@ century Rashtrakuta Dynasty . Kannada has an unbroken literary history of over a thousand years .
Based on the recommendations of the Committee of Linguistic Experts , appointed by the ministry of culture , the government of India designated Kannada a classical language of India . In July 2011 , a centre for the study of classical Kannada was established as part of the Central Institute of Indian Languages at Mysore to facilitate research related to the language .
= = Development = =
Kannada is a Southern Dravidian language , and according to Dravidian scholar Sanford B. Steever , its history can be conventionally divided into three periods ; Old Kannada ( Halegannada ) from 450 – 1200 A.D. , Middle Kannada ( Nadugannada ) from 1200 – 1700 A.D. , and Modern Kannada from 1700 to the present . Kannada is influenced to an appreciable extent by Sanskrit . Influences of other languages such as Prakrit and Pali can also be found in Kannada language . The scholar Iravatham Mahadevan indicated that Kannada was already a language of rich oral tradition earlier than 3rd century B.C. , and based on the native Kannada words found in Prakrit and Tamil inscriptions of that period , Kannada must have been spoken by a widespread and stable population . The scholar K. V. Narayana claims that many tribal languages which are now designated as Kannada dialects could be nearer to the earlier form of the language with lesser influence from other languages .. Kannada is seems to be oldest living language in the world ( Citation needed ) .
= = Influence of Sanskrit and Prakrit = =
The sources of influence on literary Kannada grammar appear to be three @-@ fold ; Pāṇini 's grammar , non @-@ Paninian schools of Sanskrit grammar , particularly Katantra and Sakatayana schools , and Prakrit grammar . Literary Prakrit seemed to have prevailed in Karnataka since ancient times . The vernacular Prakrit speaking people may have come in contact with the Kannada speakers , thus influencing their language , even before Kannada was used for administrative or liturgical purposes . Kannada phonetics , morphology , vocabulary , grammar and syntax show significant influence of these languages .
Some examples of naturalised ( tadbhava ) words of Prakrit origin in Kannada are : baṇṇa ( color ) derived from vaṇṇa , hunnime ( new moon ) from puṇṇivā . Examples of naturalized Sanskrit words in Kannada are : varṇa ( color ) , arasu ( king ) from rajan , paurṇimā , and rāya from rāja ( king ) . Kannada has numerous borrowed ( tatsama ) words such as dina ( day ) , kopa ( anger ) , surya ( sun ) , mukha ( face ) , nimiṣa ( minute ) and anna ( rice ) .
= = History = =
= = = Early traces = = =
Pre @-@ old Kannada ( or Purava HaleGannada ) was the language of Banavasi in the early Common Era , the Satavahana , Chutu Satakarni ( Naga ) and Kadamba periods and hence has a history of over 2000 years . The Ashoka rock edict found at Brahmagiri ( dated to 230 BC ) has been suggested to contain words in identifiable Kannada .
Aristophanes and Euripides ( 5th @-@ 4th century BCE ) : The great Greek dramatists of the 5th @-@ 4th century BCE , particularly Euripides and Aristophanes , appear to have been familiar with the Kannada country and the Kannada language , and had actually used Kannada phrases and expressions in the dialogues of their characters along with Persian and Punic in their skits and dramas . This shows a far more intimate contact of the Greeks with Kannada culture than with Indian culture elsewhere .
Alexandria ( Egypt ) ( 4th century BCE ) : Doddarange Gowda stumbled upon a piece of evidence in the Egyptian city of Alexandria that proves the existence of Kannada in 4th century BCE . He saw the Kannada word ' Ooralli ' ( lit in a village ) written on a huge wall constructed in Alexandria by ancient Greek ruler Alexander the Great in 4th century BCE . The Kannada word ‘ Ooralli ’ is part of the remnants of 36 @,@ 000 palm manuscripts that had been burnt in an accidental fire during Alexander ’ s time . When the accidental fire destroyed much of the palm manuscripts , Alexander ordered his commanders to erect a huge wall so that the remnants can be magnified and reproduced on it . The palm manuscripts contained texts written not only in Greek , Latin and Hebrew , but also Sanskrit and Kannada .
In some 3rd – 1st century BCE Tamil inscriptions , words of Kannada influence such as ' nalliyooraa ' , ' kavuDi ' and ' posil ' have been introduced . The use of the vowel ' a ' as an adjective is not prevalent in Tamil but its usage is available in Kannada . Kannada words such as ' gouDi @-@ gavuDi ' transform into Tamil ’ s ' kavuDi ' for lack of the usage of Ghosha svana in Tamil . Hence the Kannada word ' gavuDi ' becomes ' kavuDi ' in Tamil . ' Posil ' ( ' hosilu ' ) was introduced into Tamil from Kannada and colloquial Tamil uses this word as ' Vaayil ' . In a 1st century CE Tamil inscription , there is a personal reference to ' ayjayya ' , a word of Kannada origin . In a 3rd century CE Tamil inscription there is usage of ' oppanappa vIran ' . Here the honorific ' appa ' to a person ’ s name is an influence from Kannada . Another word of Kannada origin is ' taayviru ' and is found in a 4th @-@ century CE Tamil inscription . These are some examples that are proof of the influence of Kannada on Tamil before the common era and in the early centuries of the common era .
Pliny ( 23CE @-@ 79CE ) : Pliny , who was the naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire , writes about pirates between Muziris and Nitrias ( Netravati River ) . He also mentions Barace ( Barcelore ) . Nitrias of Pliny and Nitran of Ptolemy refer to the Netravati River as also the modern port city of Mangaluru , upon its mouth . Many of these are Kannada origin names of places and rivers of the Karnataka coast of 1st century CE .
Ptolemy ( 150 AD ) : The Greek Geographer Ptolemy mentions in his writing places such as Badiamaioi ( Badami ) , Inde ( Indi ) , Kalligeris ( Kalkeri ) , Modogoulla ( Mudagal ) , Petrigala ( Pattadakal ) , Hippokoura ( Huvina Hipparagi ) , Nagarouris ( Nagur ) , Tabaso ( Tavasi ) , Tiripangalida ( Gadahinglai ) , Soubouttou or Sabatha ( Savadi ) , Banaouase ( Banavasi ) , Thogorum ( Tagara ) , Biathana ( Paithan ) , Sirimalaga ( Malkhed ) , Aloe ( Ellapur ) and Pasage ( Palasige ) indicating prosperous trade between Egypt , Europe and Karnataka . He also mentions Pounnata ( Punnata ) and refers to beryls , i.e. , the Vaidhurya gems of that country . He mentions Malippala ( Malpe ) a coastal town of Karnataka . In this work Larika and Kandaloi are identified as Rastrika and Kuntala . Ptolemy writes in the midst of the false mouth and the Barios , there is a city called Maganur ( Mangalore ) . He mentions of inland centres of pirates called Oloikhora ( Alavakheda ) . He mentions Ariake Sadinon meaning Aryaka Satakarni and Baithana as capital of Siro ( e ) P ( t ) olmaios , i.e. , Sri Pulimayi clearly indicating his knowledge of the Satavahana kings . The word Pulimayi means One with body of Tiger in Kannada , which bears testimony to the possible Kannada origin of Satavahana kings .
A possibly more definite reference to Kannada is found in the ' Charition Mime ' ascribed to the late 1st to early 2nd century CE . The farce , written by an unknown author was discovered in the early 20th century at Oxyrynchus in Egypt . The play is concerned with a Greek lady named Charition who has been stranded on the coast of a country bordering the Indian Ocean . The king of this region , and his countrymen , sometimes use their own language , and the sentences they spoke include Koncha madhu patrakke haki ( lit having poured a little wine into the cup separately ) and paanam beretti katti madhuvam ber ettuvenu ( lit having taken up the cup separately and having covered it , I shall take wine separately ) . The language employed in the papyrus indicates that the play is set in one of the numerous small ports on the western coast of India , between Karwar and Kanhangad .
= = = Epigraphy = = =
The written tradition of Kannada begins in the early centuries of common era . The earliest examples of a full @-@ length Kannada language stone inscription ( shilaashaasana ) containing Brahmi characters with characteristics attributed to those of proto @-@ Kannada in Hale Kannada ( lit Old Kannada ) script can be found in the Halmidi inscription , usually dated c . AD 450 , indicating that Kannada had become an administrative language at that time . The Halmidi inscription provides invaluable information about the history and culture of Karnataka . The 5th century Tamatekallu inscription of Chitradurga and the Chikkamagaluru inscription of 500 AD are further examples . Recent reports indicate that the Old Kannada Nishadi inscription discovered on the Chandragiri hill , Shravanabelagola , is older than Halmidi inscription by about fifty to hundred years and may belong to the period AD 350 – 400 . The noted archaeologist and art historian S. Shettar is of the opinion that an inscription of the Western Ganga King Kongunivarma Madhava ( c . 350 – 370 ) found at Tagarthi ( Tyagarthi ) in Shikaripura taluk of Shimoga district is of 350 CE and is also older than the Halmidi inscription .
Current estimates of the total number of existing epigraphs written in Kannada range from 25 @,@ 000 by the scholar Sheldon Pollock to over 30 @,@ 000 by the Amaresh Datta of the Sahitya Akademi . Prior to the Halmidi inscription , there is an abundance of inscriptions containing Kannada words , phrases and sentences , proving its antiquity . The 543 AD Badami cliff inscription of Pulakesi I is an example of a Sanskrit inscription in old Kannada script . Kannada inscriptions are not only discovered in Karnataka but also quite commonly in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana , Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu . Some inscriptions were also found in Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat . The Northern most Kannada inscription of the Rashtrakutas of 964 CE is the Jura record found near Jabalpur in present @-@ day Madhya Pradesh , belonging to the reign of Krishna III . This indicates the spread of the influence of the language over the ages , especially during the rule of large Kannada empires . Pyu sites of Myanmar yielded variety of Indian scripts including those written in a script especially archaic , most resembling the Kadamba ( Kannada @-@ speaking Kadambas of 4th century CE Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh ) form of common Kannada @-@ Telugu script from Andhra Pradesh .
The earliest copper plates inscribed in Old Kannada script and language , dated to the early 8th century AD , are associated with Alupa King Aluvarasa II from Belmannu ( the Dakshina Kannada district ) , and display the double crested fish , his royal emblem . The oldest well @-@ preserved palm leaf manuscript in Old Kannada is that of Dhavala . It dates to around the 9th century and is preserved in the Jain Bhandar , Mudbidri , Dakshina Kannada district . The manuscript contains 1478 leaves written using ink .
= = = Coins = = =
Some early Kadamba Dynasty coins bearing the Kannada inscription Vira and Skandha were found in Satara collectorate . A gold coin bearing three inscriptions of Sri and an abbreviated inscription of king Bhagiratha 's name called bhagi ( c . AD 390 – 420 ) in old Kannada exists . A Kadamba copper coin dated to the 5th century AD with the inscription Srimanaragi in Kannada script was discovered in Banavasi , Uttara Kannada district . Coins with Kannada legends have been discovered spanning the rule of the Western Ganga Dynasty , the Badami Chalukyas , the Alupas , the Western Chalukyas , the Rashtrakutas , the Hoysalas , the Vijayanagar Empire , the Kadamba Dynasty of Banavasi , the Keladi Nayakas and the Mysore Kingdom , the Badami Chalukya coins being a recent discovery . The coins of the Kadambas of Goa are unique in that they have alternate inscription of the king 's name in Kannada and Devanagari in triplicate , a few coins of the Kadambas of Hangal are also available .
= = Literature = =
= = = Old Kannada = = =
The oldest existing record of Kannada poetry in Tripadi metre is the Kappe Arabhatta record of AD 700 . Kavirajamarga by King Nripatunga Amoghavarsha I ( AD 850 ) is the earliest existing literary work in Kannada . It is a writing on literary criticism and poetics meant to standardise various written Kannada dialects used in literature in previous centuries . The book makes reference to Kannada works by early writers such as King Durvinita of the 6th century and Ravikirti , the author of the Aihole record of 636 AD . Since the earliest available Kannada work is one on grammar and a guide of sorts to unify existing variants of Kannada grammar and literary styles , it can be safely assumed that literature in Kannada must have started several centuries earlier . An early extant prose work , the Vaddaradhane by Shivakotiacharya of AD 900 provides an elaborate description of the life of Bhadrabahu of Shravanabelagola .
Kannada works from earlier centuries mentioned in the Kavirajamarga are not yet traced . Some ancient texts now considered extinct but referenced in later centuries are Prabhrita ( AD 650 ) by Syamakundacharya , Chudamani ( Crest Jewel — AD 650 ) by Srivaradhadeva , also known as Tumbuluracharya , which is a work of 96 @,@ 000 verse @-@ measures and a commentary on logic ( Tatwartha @-@ mahashastra ) . Other sources date Chudamani to the 6th century or earlier . The Karnateshwara Katha , a eulogy for King Pulakesi II , is said to have belonged to the 7th century ; the Gajastaka , a work on elephant management by King Shivamara II , belonged to the 8th century , and the Chandraprabha @-@ purana by Sri Vijaya , a court poet of King Amoghavarsha I , is ascribed to the early 9th century . Tamil Buddhist commentators of the 10th century AD ( in the commentary on Nemrinatham , a Tamil grammatical work ) make references that show that Kannada literature must have flourished as early as the AD 4th century .
Around the beginning of the 9th century , Old Kannada was spoken from Kaveri to Godavari . The Kannada spoken between the rivers Varada and Malaprabha was the pure well of Kannada undefiled .
The late classical period gave birth to several genres of Kannada literature , with new forms of composition coming into use , including Ragale ( a form of blank verse ) and meters like Sangatya and Shatpadi . The works of this period are based on Jain and Hindu principles . Two of the early writers of this period are Harihara and Raghavanka , trailblazers in their own right . Harihara established the Ragale form of composition while Raghavanka popularised the Shatpadi ( six @-@ lined stanza ) meter . A famous Jaina writer of the same period is Janna , who expressed Jain religious teachings through his works .
The Vachana Sahitya tradition of the 12th century is purely native and unique in world literature , and the sum of contributions by all sections of society . Vachanas were pithy poems on that period 's social , religious and economic conditions . More importantly , they held a mirror to the seed of social revolution , which caused a radical re @-@ examination of the ideas of caste , creed and religion . Some of the important writers of Vachana literature include Basavanna , Allama Prabhu and Akka Mahadevi .
Emperor Nripatunga Amoghavarsha I of 850 CE recognised that the Sanskrit style of Kannada literature was Margi ( formal or written form of language ) and Desi ( folk or spoken form of language ) style was popular and made his people aware of the strength and beauty of their native language Kannada . In 1112 CE , Jain poet Nayasena of Mulugunda , Dharwad district , in his Champu work Dharmamrita , a book on morals , warns writers from mixing Kannada with Sanskrit by comparing it with mixing of clarified butter and oil . He has written it using very limited Sanskrit words which fit with idiomatic Kannada . In 1235 CE , Jain poet Andayya , wrote Kabbigara Kava ( Poet 's Defender ) , also called Sobagina Suggi ( Harvest of Beauty ) or Madana @-@ Vijaya and Kavana @-@ Gella ( Cupid 's Conquest ) , a Champu work in pure Kannada using only indigenous ( desya ) Kannada words and the derived form of Sanskrit words – tadbhavas , without the admixture of Sanskrit words . He succeeded in his challenge and proved wrong those who had advocated that it was impossible to write a work in Kannada without using Sanskrit words . Andayya may be considered as a protector of Kannada poets who were ridiculed by Sanskrit advocates . Thus Kannada is the only Dravidian language which is not only capable of using only native Kannada words and grammar in its literature ( like Tamil ) , but also use Sanskrit grammar and vocabulary ( like Telugu , Malayalam , Tulu , etc . ) The Champu style of literature of mixing poetry with prose owes its origins to the Kannada language which was later incorporated by poets into Sanskrit and other Indian languages .
= = = Middle Kannada = = =
During the period between the 15th and 18th centuries , Hinduism had a great influence on Middle Kannada ( Nadugannada ) language and literature . Kumara Vyasa , who wrote the Karnata Bharata Kathamanjari , was arguably the most influential Kannada writer of this period . His work , entirely composed in the native Bhamini Shatpadi ( hexa @-@ meter ) , is a sublime adaptation of the first ten books of the Mahabharata . During this period , the Sanskritic influence is present in most abstract , religious , scientific and rhetorical terms . During this period , several Hindi and Marathi words came into Kannada , chiefly relating to feudalism and militia .
Hindu saints of the Vaishnava sect such as Kanakadasa , Purandaradasa , Naraharitirtha , Vyasatirtha , Sripadaraya , Vadirajatirtha , Vijaya Dasa , Jagannatha Dasa , Prasanna Venkatadasa produced devotional poems in this period . Kanakadasa 's Ramadhanya Charite is a rare work , concerning with the issue of class struggle . This period saw the advent of Haridasa Sahitya ( lit Dasa literature ) which made rich contributions to Bhakti literature and sowed the seeds of Carnatic music . Purandara Dasa is widely considered the Father of Carnatic music .
= = = Modern Kannada = = =
The Kannada works produced from the 19th century make a gradual transition and are classified as Hosagannada or Modern Kannada . Most notable among the modernists was the poet Nandalike Muddana whose writing may be described as the " Dawn of Modern Kannada " , though generally , linguists treat Indira Bai or Saddharma Vijayavu by Gulvadi Venkata Raya as the first literary works in Modern Kannada . The first modern movable type printing of " Canarese " appears to be the Canarese Grammar of Carey printed at Serampore in 1817 , and the " Bible in Canarese " of John Hands in 1820 . The first novel printed was John Bunyan 's Pilgrim 's Progress , along with other texts including Canarese Proverbs , The History of Little Henry and his Bearer by Mary Martha Sherwood , Christian Gottlob Barth 's Bible Stories and " a Canarese hymn book . "
Modern Kannada in the 20th century has been influenced by many movements , notably Navodaya , Navya , Navyottara , Dalita and Bandaya . Contemporary Kannada literature has been highly successful in reaching people of all classes in society . Further , Kannada has produced a number of prolific and renowned poets and writers such as Kuvempu , Bendre , and V K Gokak . Works of Kannada literature have received eight Jnanpith awards , the highest number awarded to any Indian language .
= = Areas of influence = =
Besides being the official and administrative language of the state of Karnataka , Kannada language is present in other areas :
Kannadigas form Tamil Nadu 's 3rd biggest linguistic group and add up to about 1 @.@ 23 million which is 2 @.@ 2 % of Tamil Nadu 's total population .
Kannadigas account for 3 % of Mumbai 's population of 12 million as of 1991 , which is 360 @,@ 000 .
As of 2001 , there were 1 @.@ 26 million Kannada speakers in Maharashtra , 1 @.@ 3 % of its population .
Kannada is the third @-@ most spoken language in Hyderabad and is spoken by 677 @,@ 245 people in Andhra Pradesh , some 0 @.@ 8 % of its total population .
Kannada speakers in Kerala numbered 325 @,@ 571 which is 1 @.@ 2 % of its population as of 2001 .
Goa has 7 % Kannada speakers which accounts for 94 @,@ 360 Kannadigas .
There are 43 Kannadigas on the Lakshadweep islands . Amindivi islands were formerly a part of undivided Dakshina Kannada district . The Malayalam spoken by people of Lakshadweep has a fret deal of Kannada words .
New Delhi has approximately 11 @,@ 027 Kannada speakers or less than 100 @,@ 000 according to a different source .
As on 2001 , Gujarat had 15 @,@ 202 Kannada speakers ; Madhya Pradesh had 6 @,@ 039 ; Rajasthan had 5 @,@ 651 ; Punjab had 4 @,@ 872 ; Jammu & Kashmir had 4 @,@ 058 ; Assam had 2 @,@ 666 ; Haryana had 2 @,@ 115 ; Chhattisgarh had 2 @,@ 084 ; Pondicherry had 1 @,@ 177 ; Uttarakhand had 849 ; Dadra & Nagar Haveli had 728 ; Tripura had 640 ; Himachal Pradesh had 608 ; Arunachal Pradesh had 549 ; Chandigarh had 451 ; Nagaland had 398 ; Daman & Diu had 396 ; Andaman & Nicobar Islands had 321 ; Manipur had 239 ; Meghalaya had 232 ; Mizoram had 178 and Sikkim had 162 . The states of Uttar Pradesh , Bihar , West Bengal , Jharkhand and Odisha had not properly enumerated Kannada speakers in the census .
There are about 150 @,@ 000 Kannadigas in North America ( USA and Canada ) .
Singapore , Gulf countries of Middle @-@ East , Mauritius , US , UK , European countries , Japan , China , Australia and New Zealand have significant numbers of Kannada speakers .
= = Dialects = =
There is also a considerable difference between the spoken and written forms of the language . Spoken Kannada tends to vary from region to region . The written form is more or less consistent throughout Karnataka . The Ethnologue reports " about 20 dialects " of Kannada . Among them are Kundagannada ( spoken exclusively in Kundapura ) , Nadavar @-@ Kannada ( spoken by Nadavaru ) , Havigannada ( spoken mainly by Havyaka Brahmins ) , Are Bhashe ( spoken by Gowda community mainly in Madikeri and Sullia region of Dakshina Kannada ) , Malenadu Kannada ( Sakaleshpur , Coorg , Shimoga , Chikmagalur ) , Sholaga , Gulbarga Kannada , Dharawad Kannada etc . All of these dialects are influenced by their regional and cultural background . The one million Komarpants in and around Goa speak their own dialect of Kannada , known as Halegannada . They are settled in each and every village spread across Goa state , throughout Uttara Kannada district and Khanapur taluk of Belagavi district , Karnataka . The Halakki Vokkaligas of Uttara Kannada , Shimoga and Dakshina Kannada districts of Karnataka speak in their own dialect of Kannada called Halakki Kannada or Achchagannada . Their population estimate is about 75 @,@ 000 .
Ethnologue also classifies a group of four languages related to Kannada , which are , besides Kannada proper , Badaga , Holiya , Kurumba and Urali .
Nasik district of Maharashtra has a distinct tribe called ' Hatkar Kaanadi ' people who speak a Kannada ( Kaanadi ) dialect with lot of old Kannada words . Per Chidananda Murthy , they are the native people of Nasik from ancient times which shows that North Maharashtra 's Nasik area had Kannada population 1000 years ago . Kannada speakers formed 0 @.@ 12 % of Nasik district 's population as per 1961 census .
R. Narasimhacharya considers Tulu , Kodava , Toda , Kota , Badaga and Irula as Kannada dialects due to their closeness to Kannada .
= = Status = =
The Director of the Central Institute of Indian Languages , Udaya Narayana Singh , submitted a report in 2006 to the Indian government arguing for Kannada to be made a classical language of India . In 2008 the Indian government announced that Kannada was to be designated as one of the classical languages of India .
= = Writing system = =
The language uses forty @-@ nine phonemic letters , divided into three groups : swaragalu ( vowels – thirteen letters ) ; vyanjanagalu ( consonants – thirty @-@ four letters ) ; and yogavaahakagalu ( neither vowel nor consonant – two letters : anusvara ಂ and visarga ಃ ) . The character set is almost identical to that of other Indian languages . The Kannada script is almost perfectly phonetic , but for the sound of a " half n " ( which becomes a half m ) . The number of written symbols , however , is far more than the forty @-@ nine characters in the alphabet , because different characters can be combined to form compound characters ( ottakshara ) . Each written symbol in the Kannada script corresponds with one syllable , as opposed to one phoneme in languages like English . The Kannada script is syllabic .
= = = Obsolete Kannada letters = = =
Kannada literary works employed the letters ಱ ( transliterated ' ṟ ' or ' rh ' ) and ೞ ( transliterated ' ḻ ' , ' lh ' or ' zh ' ) , whose manner of articulation most plausibly could be akin to those in present @-@ day Malayalam and Tamil . The letters dropped out of use in the 12th and 18th centuries , respectively . Later Kannada works replaced ' rh ' and ' lh ' with ರ ( ra ) and ಳ ( la ) respectively .
Another letter ( or unclassified vyanjana ( consonant ) ) that has become extinct is ' nh ' or ' inn ' . Likewise , this has its equivalent in Telugu , where it is called Nakaara pollu . The usage of this consonant was observed until the 1980s in Kannada works from the mostly coastal areas of Karnataka ( especially the Dakshina Kannada district ) . Now , hardly any mainstream works use this consonant . This letter has been replaced by ನ ್ ( consonant n ) .
= = = Kannada script evolution = = =
The image below shows the evolution of Kannada script from prehistoric times to the modern period . The Kannada script evolved in stages :
Proto @-@ Kannada → Pre – Old Kannada → Old Kannada → Modern Kannada .
The Proto @-@ Kannada script has its root in ancient Brahmi and appeared around the 3rd century BC . The Pre @-@ Old @-@ Kannada script appeared around the 4th century AD . Old @-@ Kannada script can be traced to around the 10th century AD , whereas Modern @-@ Kannada script appeared around the 17th century AD .
= = = Dictionary = = =
Kannada – Kannada dictionary has existed in Kannada along with ancient works of Kannada grammar . The oldest available Kannada dictionary was composed by the poet ' Ranna ' called ' Ranna Kanda ' in 996 ACE . Other dictionaries are ' Abhidhana Vastukosha ' by Nagavarma ( 1045 ACE ) , ' Amarakoshada Teeku ' by Vittala ( 1300 ) , ' Abhinavaabhidaana ' by Abhinava Mangaraja ( 1398 ACE ) and many more . A Kannada – English dictionary consisting of more than 70 @,@ 000 words was composed by Ferdinand Kittel .
G. Venkatasubbaiah edited the first modern Kannada – Kannada dictionary , a 9 @,@ 000 @-@ page , 8 @-@ volume series published by the Kannada Sahitya Parishat . He also wrote a Kannada – English dictionary and a kliṣtapadakōśa , a dictionary of difficult words .
= = = Kannada script in computing = = =
= = = = Transliteration = = = =
Several transliteration schemes / tools are used to type Kannada characters using a standard keyboard . These include Baraha ( based on ITRANS ) , Pada Software and several internet tools like Google transliteration , Quillpad ( predictive transliterator ) . Nudi , the Government of Karnataka 's standard for Kannada Input , is a phonetic layout loosely based on transliteration .
= = = = Unicode = = = =
= = Grammar = =
The canonical word order of Kannada is SOV ( subject – object – verb ) as is the case with Dravidian languages . Kannada is a highly inflected language with three genders ( masculine , feminine , and neuter or common ) and two numbers ( singular and plural ) . It is inflected for gender , number and tense , among other things . The most authoritative known book on old Kannada grammar is Shabdhamanidarpana by Keshiraja . The first available Kannada book , a treatise on poetics , rhetoric and basic grammar is the Kavirajamarga from 850 C.E.
The most influential account of Kannada grammar is Keshiraja 's Shabdamanidarpana ( c . AD 1260 ) . The earlier grammatical works include portions of Kavirajamarga ( a treatise on alańkāra ) of the 9th century , and Kavyavalokana and Karnatakabhashabhushana ( both authored by Nagavarma II in the first half of the 12th century ) .
= = = Compound bases = = =
Compound bases , called samāsa in Kannada , are a set of two or more words compounded together . There are several types of compound bases , based on the rules followed for compounding . Examples : taṅgāḷi , hemmara , immadi .
= = = Pronouns = = =
In many ways the third @-@ person pronoun is more like demonstratives than like the other pronouns . They are pluralized like nouns , whereas the first- and second @-@ person pronouns have different ways to distinguish number .
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= Texas =
Texas ( / ˈtɛksəs / , locally / ˈtɛksɨz / ; Spanish : Texas or Tejas [ ˈtexas ] ) is the second largest state in the United States by both area and population . Geographically located in the south central part of the country , Texas shares borders with the other US states of Louisiana to the east , Arkansas to the northeast , Oklahoma to the north , New Mexico to the west , and the Mexican states of Chihuahua , Coahuila , Nuevo León , and Tamaulipas to the southwest , while the Gulf of Mexico is to the southeast .
Houston is the most populous city in Texas and the fourth largest in the US , while San Antonio is the second most populous in the state and seventh largest in the US . Dallas – Fort Worth and Greater Houston are the fourth and fifth largest metropolitan statistical areas in the country , respectively . Other major cities include Austin , the second most populous state capital in the US , and El Paso . Texas is nicknamed the Lone Star State to signify its former status as an independent republic , and as a reminder of the state 's struggle for independence from Mexico . The " Lone Star " can be found on the Texan state flag and on the Texan state seal . The origin of the state name , Texas , is from the word , " Tejas " , which means ' friends ' in the Caddo language .
Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault , Texas contains diverse landscapes that resemble both the US southern and southwestern regions . Although Texas is popularly associated with the US southwestern deserts , less than 10 percent of Texas ' land area is desert . Most of the population centers are located in areas of former prairies , grasslands , forests , and the coastline . Traveling from east to west , one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods , to rolling plains and rugged hills , and finally the desert and mountains of the Big Bend .
The term " six flags over Texas " refers to several nations that have ruled over the territory . Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas . France held a short @-@ lived colony . Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence , becoming an independent Republic . In 1845 , Texas joined the United States as the 28th state . The state 's annexation set off a chain of events that caused the Mexican – American War in 1846 . A slave state before the American Civil War , Texas declared its secession from the US in early 1861 , and officially joined the Confederate States of America on March 2 of the same year . After the Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government , Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation .
One Texan industry that thrived after the Civil War was cattle . Due to its long history as a center of the industry , Texas is associated with the image of the cowboy . The state 's economic fortunes changed in the early 20th century , when oil discoveries initiated an economic boom in the state . With strong investments in universities , Texas developed a diversified economy and high tech industry in the mid @-@ 20th century . As of 2010 it shares the top of the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with California at 57 . With a growing base of industry , the state leads in many industries , including agriculture , petrochemicals , energy , computers and electronics , aerospace , and biomedical sciences . Texas has led the nation in export revenue since 2002 and has the second @-@ highest gross state product .
= = Etymology = =
The name Texas , based on the Caddo word tejas meaning " friends " or " allies " , was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves and to the region of their settlement in East Texas .
During Spanish colonial rule , the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas : La Provincia de Texas .
= = Geography = =
Texas is the second largest U.S. state , behind Alaska , with an area of 268 @,@ 820 square miles ( 696 @,@ 200 km2 ) . Though 10 percent larger than France and almost twice as large as Germany or Japan , it ranks only 27th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size . If it were an independent country , Texas would be the 40th largest behind Chile and Zambia .
Texas is in the south central part of the United States of America . Three of its borders are defined by rivers . The Rio Grande forms a natural border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua , Coahuila , Nuevo León , and Tamaulipas to the south . The Red River forms a natural border with Oklahoma and Arkansas to the north . The Sabine River forms a natural border with Louisiana to the east . The Texas Panhandle has an eastern border with Oklahoma at 100 ° W , a northern border with Oklahoma at 36 ° 30 ' N and a western border with New Mexico at 103 ° W. El Paso lies on the state 's western tip at 32 ° N and the Rio Grande .
With 10 climatic regions , 14 soil regions and 11 distinct ecological regions , regional classification becomes problematic with differences in soils , topography , geology , rainfall , and plant and animal communities . One classification system divides Texas , in order from southeast to west , into the following : Gulf Coastal Plains , Interior Lowlands , Great Plains , and Basin and Range Province .
The Gulf Coastal Plains region wraps around the Gulf of Mexico on the southeast section of the state . Vegetation in this region consists of thick piney woods . The Interior Lowlands region consists of gently rolling to hilly forested land and is part of a larger pine @-@ hardwood forest .
The Great Plains region in central Texas is located in spans through the state 's panhandle and Llano Estacado to the state 's hill country near Austin . This region is dominated by prairie and steppe . " Far West Texas " or the " Trans @-@ Pecos " region is the state 's Basin and Range Province . The most varied of the regions , this area includes Sand Hills , the Stockton Plateau , desert valleys , wooded mountain slopes and desert grasslands .
Texas has 3 @,@ 700 named streams and 15 major rivers , with the Rio Grande as the largest . Other major rivers include the Pecos , the Brazos , Colorado , and Red River . While Texas has few natural lakes , Texans have built over 100 artificial reservoirs .
The size and unique history of Texas make its regional affiliation debatable ; it can be fairly considered a Southern or a Southwestern state , or both . The vast geographic , economic , and cultural diversity within the state itself prohibits easy categorization of the whole state into a recognized region of the United States . Notable extremes range from East Texas which is often considered an extension of the Deep South , to Far West Texas which is generally acknowledged to be part of the interior Southwest .
= = = Geology = = =
Texas is the southernmost part of the Great Plains , which ends in the south against the folded Sierra Madre Occidental of Mexico . The continental crust forms a stable Mesoproterozoic craton which changes across a broad continental margin and transitional crust into true oceanic crust of the Gulf of Mexico . The oldest rocks in Texas date from the Mesoproterozoic and are about 1 @,@ 600 million years old .
These Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks underlie most of the state , and are exposed in three places : Llano uplift , Van Horn , and the Franklin Mountains , near El Paso . Sedimentary rocks overlay most of these ancient rocks . The oldest sediments were deposited on the flanks of a rifted continental margin , or passive margin that developed during Cambrian time .
This margin existed until Laurasia and Gondwana collided in the Pennsylvanian subperiod to form Pangea . This is the buried crest of the Appalachian Mountains – Ouachita Mountains zone of Pennsylvanian continental collision . This orogenic crest is today buried beneath the Dallas – Waco — Austin – San Antonio trend .
The late Paleozoic mountains collapsed as rifting in the Jurassic period began to open the Gulf of Mexico . Pangea began to break up in the Triassic , but seafloor spreading to form the Gulf of Mexico occurred only in the mid and late Jurassic . The shoreline shifted again to the eastern margin of the state and the Gulf of Mexico passive margin began to form . Today 9 to 12 miles ( 14 to 19 km ) of sediments are buried beneath the Texas continental shelf and a large proportion of remaining US oil reserves are located here . At the start of its formation , the incipient Gulf of Mexico basin was restricted and seawater often evaporated completely to form thick evaporite deposits of Jurassic age . These salt deposits formed salt dome diapirs , and are found in East Texas along the Gulf coast .
East Texas outcrops consist of Cretaceous and Paleogene sediments which contain important deposits of Eocene lignite . The Mississippian and Pennsylvanian sediments in the north ; Permian sediments in the west ; and Cretaceous sediments in the east , along the Gulf coast and out on the Texas continental shelf contain oil . Oligocene volcanic rocks are found in far west Texas in the Big Bend area . A blanket of Miocene sediments known as the Ogallala formation in the western high plains region is an important aquifer . Located far from an active plate tectonic boundary , Texas has no volcanoes and few earthquakes .
= = = Wildlife = = =
See also : List of mammals of Texas , List of birds of Texas , List of reptiles of Texas , List of amphibians of Texas
A wide range of animals and insects live in Texas . It is the home to 65 species of mammals , 213 species of reptiles and amphibians , and the greatest diversity of bird life in the United States — 590 native species in all . At least 12 species have been introduced and now reproduce freely in Texas .
Texas plays host to several species of wasps . Texas is one of the regions that has the highest abundance of Polistes exclamans . Additionally , Texas has provided an important ground for the study of Polistes annularis .
During the spring Texas wildflowers such as the state flower , the bluebonnet , line highways throughout Texas . During the Johnson Administration the first lady , Lady Bird Johnson , worked to draw attention to Texas wildflowers .
= = Climate = =
The large size of Texas and its location at the intersection of multiple climate zones gives the state highly variable weather . The Panhandle of the state has colder winters than North Texas , while the Gulf Coast has mild winters . Texas has wide variations in precipitation patterns . El Paso , on the western end of the state , averages 8 @.@ 7 inches ( 220 mm ) of annual rainfall , while parts of southeast Texas average as much as 64 inches ( 1 @,@ 600 mm ) per year . Dallas in the North Central region averages a more moderate 37 inches ( 940 mm ) per year .
Snow falls multiple times each winter in the Panhandle and mountainous areas of West Texas , once or twice a year in North Texas , and once every few years in Central and East Texas . Snow falls south of San Antonio or on the coast in rare circumstances only . Of note is the 2004 Christmas Eve snowstorm , when 6 inches ( 150 mm ) of snow fell as far south as Kingsville , where the average high temperature in December is 65 ° F.
Maximum temperatures in the summer months average from the 80s ° F ( 26 ° C ) in the mountains of West Texas and on Galveston Island to around 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) in the Rio Grande Valley , but most areas of Texas see consistent summer high temperatures in the 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) range .
Night @-@ time summer temperatures range from the upper 50s ° F ( 14 ° C ) in the West Texas mountains to 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) in Galveston .
The table below consists of averages for August ( generally the warmest month ) and January ( generally the coldest ) in selected cities in various regions of the state . El Paso and Amarillo are exceptions with July and December respectively being the warmest and coldest months respectively , but with August and January only being narrowly different .
= = = Storms = = =
Thunderstorms strike Texas often , especially the eastern and northern portions of the state . Tornado Alley covers the northern section of Texas . The state experiences the most tornadoes in the United States , an average of 139 a year . These strike most frequently in North Texas and the Panhandle . Tornadoes in Texas generally occur in the months of April , May , and June .
Some of the most destructive hurricanes in U.S. history have impacted Texas . A hurricane in 1875 killed about 400 people in Indianola , followed by another hurricane in 1886 that destroyed the town . These events allowed Galveston to take over as the chief port city . The 1900 Galveston hurricane subsequently devastated that city , killing about 8 @,@ 000 people or possibly as many as 12 @,@ 000 . This makes it the deadliest natural disaster in U.S. history .
Other devastating Texas hurricanes include the 1915 Galveston hurricane , Hurricane Audrey in 1957 which killed over 600 people , Hurricane Carla in 1961 , Hurricane Beulah in 1967 , Hurricane Alicia in 1983 , Hurricane Rita in 2005 , and Hurricane Ike in 2008 . Tropical storms have also caused their share of damage : Allison in 1989 and again during 2001 , and Claudette in 1979 among them .
= = = Greenhouse gases = = =
Texas emits the most greenhouse gases in the U.S. The state emits nearly 1 @.@ 5 trillion pounds ( 680 billion kg ) of carbon dioxide annually . As an independent nation , Texas would rank as the world 's seventh @-@ largest producer of greenhouse gases . Causes of the state 's vast greenhouse gas emissions include the state 's large number of coal power plants and the state 's refining and manufacturing industries . In 2010 , there were 2 @,@ 553 " emission events " which poured 44 @.@ 6 million pounds of contaminants into the Texas sky .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ European era = = =
Texas lies between two major cultural spheres of Pre @-@ Columbian North America : the Southwestern and the Plains areas . Archaeologists have found that three major indigenous cultures lived in this territory , and reached their developmental peak before the first European contact . These were :
the Pueblo from the upper Rio Grande region , centered west of Texas ;
the Mississippian culture , also known as Mound Builders , which extended along the Mississippi River Valley east of Texas ; and
the civilizations of Mesoamerica , centered south of Texas . Influence of Teotihuacan in northern Mexico peaked around AD 500 and declined over the 8th to 10th centuries .
No culture was dominant in the present @-@ day Texas region , and many peoples inhabited the area . Native American tribes that lived inside the boundaries of present @-@ day Texas include the Alabama , Apache , Atakapan , Bidai , Caddo , Coahuiltecan , Comanche , Choctaw , Coushatta , Hasinai , Jumano , Karankawa , Kickapoo , Kiowa , Tonkawa , and Wichita . The name Texas derives from táyshaʔ , a word in the Caddoan language of the Hasinai , which means " friends " or " allies " .
Whether a Native American tribe was friendly or warlike was critical to the fates of European explorers and settlers in that land . Friendly tribes taught newcomers how to grow indigenous crops , prepare foods , and hunt wild game . Warlike tribes made life difficult and dangerous for Europeans through their attacks and resistance to the newcomers .
= = = Colonization = = =
The first historical document related to Texas was a map of the Gulf Coast , created in 1519 by Spanish explorer Alonso Álvarez de Pineda . Nine years later , shipwrecked Spanish explorer Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and his cohort became the first Europeans in what is now Texas . Cabeza de Vaca reported that in 1528 , when the Spanish landed in the area , " half the natives died from a disease of the bowels and blamed us . " Cabeza de Vaca also made observations about the way of life of the Ignaces Natives of Texas : " They went about with a firebrand , setting fire to the plains and timber so as to drive off the mosquitos , and also to get lizards and similar things which they eat , to come out of the soil . In the same manner they kill deer , encircling them with fires , and they do it also to deprive the animals of pasture , compelling them to go for food where the Indians want . "
Francisco Vázquez de Coronado describes his 1541 encounter with " Two kinds of people travel around these plains with the cows ; one is called Querechos and the others Teyas ; they are very well built , and painted , and are enemies of each other . They have no other settlement or location than comes from traveling around with the cows . They kill all of these they wish , and tan the hides , with which they clothe themselves and make their tents , and they eat the flesh , sometimes even raw , and they also even drink the blood when thirsty . The tents they make are like field tents , and they set them up over some poles they have made for this purpose , which come together and are tied at the top , and when they go from one place to another they carry them on some dogs they have , of which they have many , and they load them with the tents and poles and other things , for the country is so level , as I said , that they can make use of these , because they carry the poles dragging along on the ground . The sun is what they worship most . "
European powers ignored the area until accidentally settling there in 1685 . Miscalculations by René @-@ Robert Cavelier de La Salle resulted in his establishing the colony of Fort Saint Louis at Matagorda Bay rather than along the Mississippi River . The colony lasted only four years before succumbing to harsh conditions and hostile natives .
In 1690 Spanish authorities , concerned that France posed competitive threat , constructed several missions in East Texas . After Native American resistance , the Spanish missionaries returned to Mexico . When France began settling Louisiana , mostly in the southern part of the state , in 1716 Spanish authorities responded by founding a new series of missions in East Texas . Two years later , they created San Antonio as the first Spanish civilian settlement in the area .
Hostile native tribes and distance from nearby Spanish colonies discouraged settlers from moving to the area . It was one of New Spain 's least populated provinces . In 1749 , the Spanish peace treaty with the Lipan Apache angered many tribes , including the Comanche , Tonkawa , and Hasinai . The Comanche signed a treaty with Spain in 1785 and later helped to defeat the Lipan Apache and Karankawa tribes . With more numerous missions being established , priests led a peaceful conversion of most tribes . By the end of the 18th century only a few nomadic tribes had not converted to Christianity .
When the United States purchased Louisiana from France in 1803 , American authorities insisted that the agreement also included Texas . The boundary between New Spain and the United States was finally set at the Sabine River in 1819 , at what is now the border between Texas and Louisiana . Eager for new land , many United States settlers refused to recognize the agreement . Several filibusters raised armies to invade the area west of the Sabine River . In 1821 , the Mexican War of Independence included the Texas territory , which became part of Mexico . Due to its low population , Mexico made the area part of the state of Coahuila y Tejas .
Hoping that more settlers would reduce the near @-@ constant Comanche raids , Mexican Texas liberalized its immigration policies to permit immigrants from outside Mexico and Spain . Under the Mexican immigration system , large swathes of land were allotted to empresarios , who recruited settlers from the United States , Europe , and the Mexican interior . The first grant , to Moses Austin , was passed to his son Stephen F. Austin after his death .
Austin 's settlers , the Old Three Hundred , made places along the Brazos River in 1822 . Twenty @-@ three other empresarios brought settlers to the state , the majority of whom were from the United States . The population of Texas grew rapidly . In 1825 , Texas had about 3 @,@ 500 people , with most of Mexican descent . By 1834 , the population had grown to about 37 @,@ 800 people , with only 7 @,@ 800 of Mexican descent .
Many immigrants openly flouted Mexican law , especially the prohibition against slavery . Combined with United States ' attempts to purchase Texas , Mexican authorities decided in 1830 to prohibit continued immigration from the United States . New laws also called for the enforcement of customs duties angering both native Mexican citizens ( Tejanos ) and recent immigrants .
The Anahuac Disturbances in 1832 were the first open revolt against Mexican rule and they coincided with a revolt in Mexico against the nation 's president . Texians sided with the federalists against the current government and drove all Mexican soldiers out of East Texas . They took advantage of the lack of oversight to agitate for more political freedom . Texians met at the Convention of 1832 to discuss requesting independent statehood , among other issues . The following year , Texians reiterated their demands at the Convention of 1833 .
= = = Republic = = =
Within Mexico , tensions continued between federalists and centralists . In early 1835 , wary Texians formed Committees of Correspondence and Safety . The unrest erupted into armed conflict in late 1835 at the Battle of Gonzales . This launched the Texas Revolution , and over the next two months , the Texians defeated all Mexican troops in the region . Texians elected delegates to the Consultation , which created a provisional government . The provisional government soon collapsed from infighting , and Texas was without clear governance for the first two months of 1836 .
During this time of political turmoil , Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna personally led an army to end the revolt . The Mexican expedition was initially successful . General José de Urrea defeated all the Texian resistance along the coast culminating in the Goliad massacre . Santa Anna 's forces , after a thirteen @-@ day siege , overwhelmed Texian defenders at the Battle of the Alamo . News of the defeats sparked panic amongst Texas settlers .
The newly elected Texian delegates to the Convention of 1836 quickly signed a Declaration of Independence on March 2 , forming the Republic of Texas . After electing interim officers , the Convention disbanded . The new government joined the other settlers in Texas in the Runaway Scrape , fleeing from the approaching Mexican army . After several weeks of retreat , the Texian Army commanded by Sam Houston attacked and defeated Santa Anna 's forces at the Battle of San Jacinto . Santa Anna was captured and forced to sign the Treaties of Velasco , ending the war .
While Texas had won its independence , political battles raged between two factions of the new Republic . The nationalist faction , led by Mirabeau B. Lamar , advocated the continued independence of Texas , the expulsion of the Native Americans , and the expansion of the Republic to the Pacific Ocean . Their opponents , led by Sam Houston , advocated the annexation of Texas to the United States and peaceful co @-@ existence with Native Americans . The conflict between the factions was typified by an incident known as the Texas Archive War .
Mexico launched two small expeditions into Texas in 1842 . The town of San Antonio was captured twice and Texans were defeated in battle in the Dawson massacre . Despite these successes , Mexico did not keep an occupying force in Texas , and the republic survived . The republic 's inability to defend itself added momentum to Texas 's eventual annexation into the United States .
= = = Statehood = = =
As early as 1837 , the Republic made several attempts to negotiate annexation with the United States . Opposition within the republic from the nationalist faction , along with strong abolitionist opposition within the United States , slowed Texas 's admission into the Union . Texas was finally annexed when the expansionist James K. Polk won the election of 1844 . On December 29 , 1845 , Congress admitted Texas to the U.S. as a constituent state of the Union .
After Texas 's annexation , Mexico broke diplomatic relations with the United States . While the United States claimed that Texas 's border stretched to the Rio Grande , Mexico claimed it was the Nueces River . While the former Republic of Texas could not enforce its border claims , the United States had the military strength and the political will to do so . President Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor south to the Rio Grande on January 13 , 1846 . A few months later Mexican troops routed an American cavalry patrol in the disputed area in the Thornton Affair starting the Mexican – American War . The first battles of the war were fought in Texas : the Siege of Fort Texas , Battle of Palo Alto and Battle of Resaca de la Palma . After these decisive victories , the United States invaded Mexican territory ending the fighting in Texas .
After a series of United States victories , the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the two @-@ year war . In return , for US $ 18 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 , Mexico gave the U.S. undisputed control of Texas , ceded the Mexican Cession in 1848 , most of which today is called the American Southwest , and Texas 's borders were established at the Rio Grande .
The Compromise of 1850 set Texas 's boundaries at their present form . U.S. Senator James Pearce of Maryland drafted the final proposal where Texas ceded its claims to land which later became half of present @-@ day New Mexico , a third of Colorado , and small portions of Kansas , Oklahoma , and Wyoming to the federal government , in return for the assumption of $ 10 million of the old republic 's debt . Post @-@ war Texas grew rapidly as migrants poured into the cotton lands of the state .
They also brought or purchased enslaved African Americans , whose numbers tripled in the state from 1850 to 1860 , from 58 @,@ 000 to 182 @,@ 566 .
= = = Civil War and Reconstruction ( 1860 – 1900 ) = = =
Texas was at war again after the election of 1860 . At this time , blacks comprised 30 percent of the state 's population , and they were overwhelmingly enslaved . When Abraham Lincoln was elected , South Carolina seceded from the Union . Five other Lower South states quickly followed . A State Convention considering secession opened in Austin on January 28 , 1861 . On February 1 , by a vote of 166 – 8 , the Convention adopted an Ordinance of Secession from the United States . Texas voters approved this Ordinance on February 23 , 1861 . Texas joined the newly created Confederate States of America on March 4 , 1861 ratifying the permanent C.S. Constitution on March 23 .
Not all Texans favored secession initially , although many of the same would later support the Southern cause . Texas 's most notable Unionist was the state Governor , Sam Houston . Not wanting to aggravate the situation , Houston refused two offers from President Lincoln for Union troops to keep him in office . After refusing to swear an oath of allegiance to the Confederacy , Houston was deposed as governor .
While far from the major battlefields of the American Civil War , Texas contributed large numbers of men and equipment to the rest of the Confederacy . Union troops briefly occupied the state 's primary port , Galveston . Texas 's border with Mexico was known as the " backdoor of the Confederacy " because trade occurred at the border , bypassing the Union blockade . The Confederacy repulsed all Union attempts to shut down this route , but Texas 's role as a supply state was marginalized in mid @-@ 1863 after the Union capture of the Mississippi River . The final battle of the Civil War was fought near Brownsville , Texas at Palmito Ranch with a Confederate victory .
Texas descended into anarchy for two months between the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia and the assumption of authority by Union General Gordon Granger . Violence marked the early months of Reconstruction . Juneteenth commemorates the announcement of the Emancipation Proclamation in Galveston by General Gordon Granger , almost two and a half years after the original announcement . President Johnson , in 1866 , declared the civilian government restored in Texas . Despite not meeting reconstruction requirements , Congress resumed allowing elected Texas representatives into the federal government in 1870 . Social volatility continued as the state struggled with agricultural depression and labor issues .
= = = 20th century to present = = =
In 1900 , Texas suffered the deadliest natural disaster in U.S. history during the Galveston hurricane . On January 10 , 1901 , the first major oil well in Texas , Spindletop , was found south of Beaumont . Other fields were later discovered nearby in East Texas , West Texas , and under the Gulf of Mexico . The resulting " oil boom " transformed Texas . Oil production eventually averaged three million barrels per day at its peak in 1972 .
In 1901 , the Democratic @-@ dominated state legislature passed a bill requiring payment of a poll tax for voting , which effectively disenfranchised most blacks , and many poor whites and Latinos . In addition , the legislature established white primaries , ensuring that minorities were excluded from the formal political process . The number of voters dropped dramatically , and the Democrats crushed competition from the Republican and Populist parties .
The Great Depression and the Dust Bowl dealt a double blow to the state 's economy , which had significantly improved since the Civil War . Migrants abandoned the worst hit sections of Texas during the Dust Bowl years . Especially from this period on , blacks left Texas in the Great Migration to get work in the Northern United States or California and to escape the oppression of segregation . In 1940 , Texas was 74 percent Anglo , 14 @.@ 4 percent black , and 11 @.@ 5 percent Hispanic .
World War II had a dramatic impact on Texas , as federal money poured in to build military bases , munitions factories , POW detention camps and Army hospitals ; 750 @,@ 000 young men left for service ; the cities exploded with new industry ; the colleges took on new roles ; and hundreds of thousands of poor farmers left the fields for much better paying war jobs , never to return to agriculture . Texas manufactured 3 @.@ 1 percent of total United States military armaments produced during World War II , ranking eleventh among the 48 states .
Texas modernized and expanded its system of higher education through the 1960s . The state created a comprehensive plan for higher education , funded in large part by oil revenues , and a central state apparatus designed to manage state institutions more efficiently . These changes helped Texas universities receive federal research funds .
On November 22 , 1963 , President John F. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas .
On 18 April 2016 , Houston experienced severe flooding .
On 31 May 2016 , several cities experienced record setting flooding
= = Government and politics = =
The current Texas Constitution was adopted in 1876 . Like many states , it explicitly provides for a separation of powers . The state 's Bill of Rights is much larger than its federal counterpart , and has provisions unique to Texas .
= = = State government = = =
Texas has a plural executive branch system limiting the power of the governor , which is a weak executive compared to some other states . Except for the Secretary of State , voters elect executive officers independently ; thus candidates are directly answerable to the public , not the governor . This election system has led to some executive branches split between parties and reduced the ability of the governor to carry out a program . When Republican President George W. Bush served as Texas 's governor , the state had a Democratic lieutenant governor , Bob Bullock . The executive branch positions consist of the Governor , Lieutenant Governor , Comptroller of Public Accounts , Land Commissioner , Attorney General , Agriculture Commissioner , the three @-@ member Texas Railroad Commission , the State Board of Education , and the Secretary of State .
The bicameral Texas Legislature consists of the House of Representatives , with 150 members , and a Senate , with 31 members . The Speaker of the House leads the House , and the lieutenant governor , the Senate . The Legislature meets in regular session biennially for just over 100 days , but the governor can call for special sessions as often as desired ( notably , the Legislature cannot call itself into session ) . The state 's fiscal year spans from the previous calendar year 's September 1 to the current year 's August 31 . Thus , the FY 2015 dates from September 1 , 2014 through August 31 , 2015 .
The judiciary of Texas is one of the most complex in the United States , with many layers and overlapping jurisdictions . Texas has two courts of last resort : the Texas Supreme Court , for civil cases , and the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals . Except for some municipal benches , partisan elections select judges at all levels of the judiciary ; the governor fills vacancies by appointment . Texas is notable for its use of capital punishment , having led the country in executions since capital punishment was reinstated in the Gregg v. Georgia case ( see Capital punishment in Texas ) .
The Texas Ranger Division of the Texas Department of Public Safety is a law enforcement agency with statewide jurisdiction . Over the years , the Texas Rangers have investigated crimes ranging from murder to political corruption . They have acted as riot police and as detectives , protected the Texas governor , tracked down fugitives , and functioned as a paramilitary force both for the republic and the state . The Texas Rangers were unofficially created by Stephen F. Austin in 1823 and formally constituted in 1835 . The Rangers were integral to several important events of Texas history and some of the best @-@ known criminal cases in the history of the Old West .
The Texas constitution defines the responsibilities of county governments , which serve as agents of the state . What are called commissioners court and court judges are elected to serve as the administrative arm . Most cities in the state , those over 5 @,@ 000 in population , have home @-@ rule governments . The vast majority of these have charters for council @-@ manager forms of government , by which voters elect council members , who hire a professional city manager as operating officer .
= = = Politics = = =
In the 1870s , white Democrats wrested power back in the state legislature from the biracial coalition at the end of Reconstruction . In the early 20th century , the legislature passed bills to impose poll taxes , followed by white primaries ; these measures effectively disfranchised most blacks , poor whites and Mexican Americans . In the 1890s , 100 @,@ 000 blacks voted in the state ; by 1906 , only 5 @,@ 000 could vote . As a result , the Democratic Party dominated Texas politics from the turn of the century , imposing racial segregation and white supremacy . It held power until after passage in the mid @-@ 1960s of national civil rights legislation enforcing constitutional rights of all citizens .
The state 's conservative white voters began to support Republican presidential candidates by the mid @-@ 20th century . After this period , they supported Republicans for local and state offices as well , and most whites have become Republican Party members . The party has attracted some minorities , but many have continued to vote for Democratic candidates .
Texas voters lean toward fiscal conservatism conservatism , while enjoying the benefits of huge federal investment in the state in military and other facilities achieved by the power of the Solid South in the 20th century . They also support social conservatism .
Since 1980 , most Texas voters have supported Republican presidential candidates . In 2000 and 2004 , Republican George W. Bush won Texas with 60 @.@ 1 percent of the vote , partly due to his " favorite son " status as a former governor of the state . John McCain won the state in 2008 , but with a smaller margin of victory compared to Bush at 55 percent of the vote . Austin , Dallas , Houston , and San Antonio consistently lean Democratic in both local and statewide elections .
Residents of counties along the Rio Grande closer to the Mexico @-@ United States border , where there are many Latino residents , generally vote for Democratic Party candidates , while most other rural and suburban areas of Texas have shifted to voting for Republican Party candidates .
The 2003 Texas redistricting of Congressional districts led by Republican Tom DeLay , was called by the New York Times " an extreme case of partisan gerrymandering " . A group of Democratic legislators , the " Texas Eleven " , fled the state in a quorum @-@ busting effort to prevent the legislature from acting , but was unsuccessful . The state had already redistricted following the 2000 census . Despite these efforts , the legislature passed a map heavily in favor of Republicans , based on 2000 data and ignoring the estimated nearly one million new residents in the state since that date . Career attorneys and analysts at the Department of Justice objected to the plan as diluting the votes of African American and Hispanic voters , but political appointees overrode them and approved it . Legal challenges to the redistricting reached the national Supreme Court in the case League of United Latin American Citizens v. Perry ( 2006 ) , but the court ruled in favor of the state ( and Republicans ) .
As of the general elections of 2014 , a large majority of the members of Texas 's U.S. House delegation are Republican , along with both U.S. Senators . In the 114th United States Congress , of the 36 Congressional districts in Texas , 25 are held by Republicans and 11 by Democrats . Texas 's Senators are John Cornyn and Ted Cruz . Since 1994 , Texans have not elected a Democrat to a statewide office . The state 's Democratic voters are made up primarily by liberal and minority groups in Austin , San Antonio , Dallas , Houston , Beaumont , and El Paso , as well as minority voters in East Texas and South Texas .
= = = Administrative divisions = = =
Texas has 254 counties — the most nationwide . Each county runs on Commissioners ' Court system consisting of four elected commissioners ( one from each of four precincts in the county , roughly divided according to population ) and a county judge elected at large from the entire county . County government runs similar to a " weak " mayor @-@ council system ; the county judge has no veto authority , but votes along with the other commissioners .
Although Texas permits cities and counties to enter " interlocal agreements " to share services , the state does not allow consolidated city @-@ county governments , nor does it have metropolitan governments . Counties are not granted home rule status ; their powers are strictly defined by state law . The state does not have townships — areas within a county are either incorporated or unincorporated . Incorporated areas are part of a municipality . The county provides limited services to unincorporated areas and to some smaller incorporated areas . Municipalities are classified either " general law " cities or " home rule " . A municipality may elect home rule status once it exceeds 5 @,@ 000 population with voter approval .
Texas also permits the creation of " special districts " , which provide limited services . The most common is the school district , but can also include hospital districts , community college districts , and utility districts ( one utility district located near Austin was the plaintiff in a landmark Supreme Court case involving the Voting Rights Act ) .
Municipal , school district , and special district elections are nonpartisan , though the party affiliation of a candidate may be well @-@ known . County and state elections are partisan .
= = = Criminal law = = =
Texas has a reputation of very harsh criminal punishment for criminal offenses . It is one of the 32 states that practice capital punishment , and since the US Supreme Court allowed capital punishment to resume in 1976 , 40 % of all US executions have taken place in Texas . As of 2008 , Texas had the 4th highest incarceration rate in the US . Texas also has strong self defense laws , allowing citizens to use lethal force to defend themselves , their families , or their property .
= = Economy = =
As of 2014 , Texas had a gross state product ( GSP ) of $ 1 @.@ 648 trillion , the second highest in the U.S. Its GSP is greater than the GDPs of Australia and South Korea , which are the world 's 12th- and 13th @-@ largest economies , respectively . Texas ' economy is the fourth @-@ largest of any country subdivision globally , behind England ( as part of the UK ) , California , and Tokyo Prefecture . Its Per Capita personal income in 2009 was $ 36 @,@ 484 , ranking 29th in the nation .
Texas 's large population , abundance of natural resources , thriving cities and leading centers of higher education have contributed to a large and diverse economy . Since oil was discovered , the state 's economy has reflected the state of the petroleum industry . In recent times , urban centers of the state have increased in size , containing two @-@ thirds of the population in 2005 . The state 's economic growth has led to urban sprawl and its associated symptoms .
As of April 2013 , the state 's unemployment rate is 6 @.@ 4 percent .
In 2010 , Site Selection Magazine ranked Texas as the most business @-@ friendly state in the nation , in part because of the state 's three @-@ billion @-@ dollar Texas Enterprise Fund . Texas has the joint @-@ highest number of Fortune 500 company headquarters in the United States , along with California .
In 2010 , there were 346 @,@ 000 millionaires in Texas , constituting the second @-@ largest population of millionaires in the nation .
= = = Taxation = = =
Texas has a " low taxes , low services " reputation . According to the Tax Foundation , Texans ' state and local tax burdens rank among the lowest in the nation , 7th lowest nationally ; state and local taxes cost $ 3 @,@ 580 per capita , or 8 @.@ 4 percent of resident incomes . Texas is one of seven states that lack a state income tax .
Instead , the state collects revenue from property taxes ( though these are collected at the county , city , and school district level ; Texas has a state constitutional prohibition against a state property tax ) and sales taxes . The state sales tax rate is 6 @.@ 25 percent , but local taxing jurisdictions ( cities , counties , special purpose districts , and transit authorities ) may also impose sales and use tax up to 2 percent for a total maximum combined rate of 8 @.@ 25 percent .
Texas is a " tax donor state " ; in 2005 , for every dollar Texans paid to the federal government in federal income taxes , the state got back about $ 0 @.@ 94 in benefits . To attract business , Texas has incentive programs worth $ 19 billion per year ( 2012 ) ; more than any other US state .
= = = Agriculture and mining = = =
Texas has the most farms and the highest acreage in the United States . Texas leads the nation in livestock production . Cattle is the state 's most valuable agricultural product , and the state leads nationally in production of sheep and goat products . Texas leads the nation in production of cotton which is the number one crop grown in the state in terms of value . The state grows significant amounts of cereal crops and produce . Texas has a large commercial fishing industry . With mineral resources , Texas leads in creating cement , crushed stone , lime , salt , sand and gravel .
Texas throughout the 21st century has been hammered by drought . This has cost the state billions of dollars in livestock and crops .
= = = Energy = = =
Ever since the discovery of oil at Spindletop , energy has been a dominant force politically and economically within the state . If Texas were its own country it would be the sixth largest oil producer in the world .
The Railroad Commission of Texas , contrary to its name , regulates the state 's oil and gas industry , gas utilities , pipeline safety , safety in the liquefied petroleum gas industry , and surface coal and uranium mining . Until the 1970s , the commission controlled the price of petroleum because of its ability to regulate Texas 's oil reserves . The founders of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries ( OPEC ) used the Texas agency as one of their models for petroleum price control .
Texas has known petroleum deposits of about 5 billion barrels ( 790 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) , which makes up about one @-@ fourth of the known U.S. reserves . The state 's refineries can process 4 @.@ 6 million barrels ( 730 @,@ 000 m3 ) of oil a day . The Baytown Refinery in the Houston area is the largest refinery in America . Texas also leads in natural gas production , producing one @-@ fourth of the nation 's supply . Several petroleum companies are based in Texas such as : Anadarko Petroleum Corporation , Conoco @-@ Phillips , Exxon @-@ Mobil , Halliburton , Marathon Oil , Tesoro , and Valero , Western Refining .
According to the Energy Information Administration , Texans consume , on average , the fifth most energy ( of all types ) in the nation per capita and as a whole , following behind Wyoming , Alaska , Louisiana , North Dakota , and Iowa .
Unlike the rest of the nation , most of Texas is on its own alternating current power grid , the Texas Interconnection . Texas has a deregulated electric service . Texas leads the nation in total net electricity production , generating 437 @,@ 236 MWh in 2014 , 89 % more MWh than Florida , which ranked second . As an independent nation , Texas would rank as the world 's eleventh @-@ largest producer of electricity , after South Korea , and ahead of the United Kingdom .
The state is a leader in renewable energy commercialization ; it produces the most wind power in the nation . In 2014 , 10 @.@ 6 % of the electricity consumed in Texas came from wind turbines . The Roscoe Wind Farm in Roscoe , Texas , is one of the world 's largest wind farms with a 781 @.@ 5 megawatt ( MW ) capacity . The Energy Information Administration states that the state 's large agriculture and forestry industries could give Texas an enormous amount biomass for use in biofuels . The state also has the highest solar power potential for development in the nation .
= = = Technology = = =
With large universities systems coupled with initiatives like the Texas Enterprise Fund and the Texas Emerging Technology Fund , a wide array of different high tech industries have developed in Texas . The Austin area is nicknamed the " Silicon Hills " and the north Dallas area the " Silicon Prairie " . Texas has the headquarters of many high technology companies , such as Dell , Inc . , Texas Instruments , Perot Systems , Rackspace and AT & T.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration 's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center ( NASA JSC ) located in Southeast Houston , sits as the crown jewel of Texas 's aeronautics industry . Fort Worth hosts both Lockheed Martin 's Aeronautics division and Bell Helicopter Textron . Lockheed builds the F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcon , the largest Western fighter program , and its successor , the F @-@ 35 Lightning II in Fort Worth .
= = = Commerce = = =
Texas 's affluence stimulates a strong commercial sector consisting of retail , wholesale , banking and insurance , and construction industries . Examples of Fortune 500 companies not based on Texas traditional industries are AT & T , Kimberly @-@ Clark , Blockbuster , J. C. Penney , Whole Foods Market , and Tenet Healthcare . Nationally , the Dallas – Fort Worth area , home to the second shopping mall in the United States , has the most shopping malls per capita of any American metropolitan area .
Mexico , the state 's largest trading partner , imports a third of the state 's exports because of the North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) . NAFTA has encouraged the formation of controversial maquiladoras on the Texas / Mexico border .
= = Demographics = =
The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Texas was 27 @,@ 469 @,@ 114 on July 1 , 2015 , a 9 @.@ 24 percent increase since the 2010 United States Census .
As of 2004 , the state had 3 @.@ 5 million foreign @-@ born residents ( 15 @.@ 6 percent of the state population ) , of which an estimated 1 @.@ 2 million are illegal . Texas from 2000 – 2006 had the fastest growing illegal immigration rate in the nation . In 2010 , illegal immigrants constituted an estimated 6 @.@ 0 percent of the population . This was the fifth highest percentage of any state in the country . In 2015 , the population of illegal immigrants living in Texas was around 0 @.@ 8 million .
Texas ' Rio Grande Valley is ground zero for illegal immigration across the Southwest border . According to a June 2014 Los Angeles Times article , illegal immigrants are arriving at a rate of more than 35 @,@ 000 a month . It is expected that the number of minors traveling alone from Guatemala , Honduras , and El Salvador is growing and will reach up to 90 @,@ 000 by the end of 2014 . Hondurans , Salvadorans , and Guatemalans make up roughly 75 % of illegal immigrants in South Texas .
Texas 's population density is 34 @.@ 8 persons / km2 which is slightly higher than the average population density of the U.S. as a whole , at 31 persons / km2 . In contrast , while Texas and France are similarly sized geographically , the European country has a population density of 116 persons / km2 .
Two @-@ thirds of all Texans live in a major metropolitan area such as Houston . The Dallas @-@ Fort Worth Metropolitan Area is the largest in Texas . While Houston is the largest city in Texas and the fourth largest city in the United States , the Dallas @-@ Fort Worth metropolitan area is larger than that of Houston .
= = = Race and ethnicity = = =
According to the 2010 United States census , the racial composition of Texas was the following :
White American 70 @.@ 4 percent ( Non @-@ Hispanic whites 45 @.@ 3 percent )
Black or African American : 11 @.@ 8 percent
American Indian : 0 @.@ 7 percent
Asian : 3 @.@ 8 percent ( 1 @.@ 0 percent Indian , 0 @.@ 8 percent Vietnamese , 0 @.@ 6 percent Chinese , 0 @.@ 4 percent Filipino , 0 @.@ 3 percent Korean , 0 @.@ 1 percent Japanese , 0 @.@ 6 percent Other Asian )
Pacific Islander : 0 @.@ 1 percent
Some other race : 10 @.@ 5 percent
Two or more races : 2 @.@ 7 percent
In addition , 37 @.@ 6 percent of the population are Hispanic or Latino ( of any race ) ( 31 @.@ 6 percent Mexican , 0 @.@ 9 percent Salvadoran , 0 @.@ 5 percent Puerto Rican , 0 @.@ 4 percent Honduran , 0 @.@ 3 percent Guatemalan 0 @.@ 3 percent Spaniard , 0 @.@ 2 percent Colombian , 0 @.@ 2 percent Cuban )
As of 2011 , 69 @.@ 8 % of the population of Texas younger than age 1 were minorities ( meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non @-@ Hispanic white ) .
German , Irish , and English Americans are the three largest European ancestry groups in Texas . German Americans make up 11 @.@ 3 percent of the population , and number over 2 @.@ 7 million members . Irish Americans make up 8 @.@ 2 percent of the population , and number over 1 @.@ 9 million members . There are roughly 600 @,@ 000 French Americans and 472 @,@ 000 Italian Americans residing in Texas ; these two ethnic groups make up 2 @.@ 5 percent and 2 @.@ 0 percent of the population respectively . In the 1980 United States Census the largest ancestry group reported in Texas was English with 3 @,@ 083 @,@ 323 Texans citing that they were of English or mostly English ancestry making them 27 percent of the state at the time . Their ancestry primarily goes back to the original thirteen colonies and thus many of them today identify as " American " in ancestry , though they are of predominately British stock . There are nearly 200 @,@ 000 Czech @-@ Americans living in Texas , the largest number of any state .
African Americans are the largest racial minority in Texas . Their proportion of population has declined since the early 20th century , after many left the state in the Great Migration . Blacks of both Hispanic and non @-@ Hispanic origin make up 11 @.@ 5 percent of the population ; blacks of non @-@ Hispanic origin form 11 @.@ 3 percent of the populace . African Americans of both Hispanic and non @-@ Hispanic origin number at roughly 2 @.@ 7 million individuals .
Native Americans are a smaller minority in the state . Native Americans make up 0 @.@ 5 percent of Texas ' population , and number over 118 @,@ 000 individuals . Native Americans of non @-@ Hispanic origin make up 0 @.@ 3 percent of the population , and number over 75 @,@ 000 individuals . Cherokee made up 0 @.@ 1 percent of the population , and numbered over 19 @,@ 400 members . In contrast , only 583 identified as Chippewa .
Asian Americans are a sizable minority group in Texas . Americans of Asian descent form 3 @.@ 8 percent of the population , with those of non @-@ Hispanic descent making up 3 @.@ 7 percent of the populace . They total more than 808 @,@ 000 individuals . Non @-@ Hispanic Asians number over 795 @,@ 000 . Just over 200 @,@ 000 Indians make Texas their home . Texas is also home to over 187 @,@ 000 Vietnamese and 136 @,@ 000 Chinese . In addition to 92 @,@ 000 Filipinos and 62 @,@ 000 Koreans , there are 18 @,@ 000 Japanese Americans living in the state . Lastly , over 111 @,@ 000 people are of other Asian ancestry groups , such as Cambodian , Thai , and Hmong . Sugar Land , a city within the Houston metropolitan area , and Plano , located within the Dallas metropolitan area , both have high concentrations of ethnic Chinese and Korean residents . The Houston and Dallas areas , and to a lesser extent , the Austin metropolitan area , all contain substantial Vietnamese communities .
Americans with origins from the Pacific are the smallest minority in Texas . According to the survey , only 18 @,@ 000 Texans are Pacific Islanders ; 16 @,@ 400 are of non @-@ Hispanic descent . There are roughly 5 @,@ 400 Native Hawaiians , 5 @,@ 300 Guamanians , and 6 @,@ 400 people from other groups . Samoan Americans were scant ; only 2 @,@ 920 people were from this group . The city of Euless , a suburb of Fort Worth , contains a sizable population of Tongan Americans , at nearly 900 people , over one percent of the city 's population . Killeen has a sufficient population of Samoans and Guamanian , and people of Pacific Islander descent surpass one percent of the city 's population .
Multiracial individuals are also a visible minority in Texas . People identifying as multiracial form 1 @.@ 9 percent of the population , and number over 448 @,@ 000 people . Almost 80 @,@ 000 Texans claim African and European heritage , and make up 0 @.@ 3 percent of the population . People of European and Native American heritage number over 108 @,@ 800 ( close to the number of Native Americans ) , and make up 0 @.@ 5 percent of the population . People of European and Asian heritage number over 57 @,@ 600 , and form just 0 @.@ 2 percent of the population . People of African and Native American heritage were even smaller in number ( 15 @,@ 300 ) , and make up just 0 @.@ 1 percent of the total population .
Hispanics and Latinos are the second largest group in Texas after non @-@ Hispanic European Americans . Over 8 @.@ 5 million people claim Hispanic or Latino ethnicity . This group forms over 37 percent of Texas ' population . People of Mexican descent alone number over 7 @.@ 9 million , and make up 31 @.@ 6 percent of the population . The vast majority of the Hispanic / Latino population in the state is of Mexican descent , the next two largest groups are Salvadorans and Puerto Ricans . There are over 222 @,@ 000 Salvadorans and over 130 @,@ 000 Puerto Ricans in Texas . Other groups with large numbers in Texas include Hondurans , Guatemalans , Nicaraguans and Cubans , among others . The Hispanics in Texas are more likely than in some other states ( such as California ) to identify as white ; according to the 2010 U.S. Census , Texas is home to 6 @,@ 304 @,@ 207 White Hispanics and 2 @,@ 594 @,@ 206 Hispanics of " some other race " ( usually mestizo ) .
German descendants inhabit much of central and southeast @-@ central Texas . Over one @-@ third of Texas residents are of Hispanic origin ; while many have recently arrived , some Tejanos have ancestors with multi @-@ generational ties to 18th century Texas . In addition to the descendants of the state 's former slave population , many African American college graduates have come to the state for work recently in the New Great Migration . Recently , the Asian population in Texas has grown — primarily in Houston and Dallas . Other communities with a significantly growing Asian American population is in Austin , Corpus Christi , and the Sharyland area next McAllen , Texas . Three federally recognized Native American tribes reside in Texas : the Alabama @-@ Coushatta Tribe , the Kickapoo Traditional Tribe , and the Ysleta Del Sur Pueblo .
In 2010 , 49 percent of all births were Hispanics ; 35 percent were non @-@ Hispanic whites ; 11 @.@ 5 percent were non @-@ Hispanic blacks , and 4 @.@ 3 percent were Asians / Pacific Islanders . Based on Census Bureau data released on February 2011 , for the first time in recent history , Texas ' white population is below 50 percent ( 45 percent ) and Hispanics grew to 38 percent . Between 2000 and 2010 , the total population growth by 20 @.@ 6 percent , but Hispanics growth by 65 percent , whereas non @-@ Hispanic whites only grew by 4 @.@ 2 percent . Texas has the fifth highest rate of teenage births in the nation and a plurality of these are to Hispanics .
= = = Cities and towns = = =
The state has three cities with populations exceeding one million : Houston , San Antonio , and Dallas . These three rank among the 10 most populous cities of the United States . As of 2010 , six Texas cities had populations greater than 600 @,@ 000 people . Austin , Fort Worth , and El Paso are among the 20 largest U.S. cities . Texas has four metropolitan areas with populations greater than a million : Dallas – Fort Worth – Arlington , Houston – Sugar Land – Baytown , San Antonio – New Braunfels , and Austin – Round Rock – San Marcos . The Dallas – Fort Worth and Houston metropolitan areas number about 6 @.@ 3 million and 5 @.@ 7 million residents , respectively .
Three interstate highways — I @-@ 35 to the west ( Dallas – Fort Worth to San Antonio , with Austin in between ) , I @-@ 45 to the east ( Dallas to Houston ) , and I @-@ 10 to the south ( San Antonio to Houston ) define the Texas Urban Triangle region . The region of 60 @,@ 000 square miles ( 160 @,@ 000 km2 ) contains most of the state 's largest cities and metropolitan areas as well as 17 million people , nearly 75 percent of Texas 's total population . Houston and Dallas have been recognized as beta world cities . These cities are spread out amongst the state . Texas has 254 counties , which is more than any state by 95 ( Georgia ) .
In contrast to the cities , unincorporated rural settlements known as colonias often lack basic infrastructure and are marked by poverty . The office of the Texas Attorney General in 2011 that Texas had about 2 @,@ 294 colonias and estimates that about 500 @,@ 000 lived in the colonias . Hidalgo County , as of 2011 , has the largest number of colonias . Texas has the largest number of people of all states , living in colonias .
= = = Languages = = =
The most common accent and / or dialect spoken by natives throughout Texas is sometimes referred to as Texan English , which itself is a sub @-@ variety of a broader category of American English known as Southern American English . Creole language is spoken in East Texas . In some areas of the state — particularly in the large cities – Western American English and General American English , have been on the increase . Chicano English — due to a growing Hispanic population — is widespread in South Texas , while African American Vernacular English , is especially notable in historically minority areas of urban Texas .
As of 2010 , 65 @.@ 8 % ( 14 @,@ 740 @,@ 304 ) of Texas residents age 5 and older spoke only English at home , while 29 @.@ 2 % ( 6 @,@ 543 @,@ 702 ) spoke Spanish , 0 @.@ 75 percent ( 168 @,@ 886 ) Vietnamese , and Chinese ( which includes Cantonese and Mandarin ) was spoken by 0 @.@ 56 % ( 122 @,@ 921 ) of the population over the age of five .
Other languages spoken include German ( including Texas German ) by 0 @.@ 33 % ( 73 @,@ 137 , ) Tagalog with 0 @.@ 29 % ( 73 @,@ 137 ) speakers , and French ( including Cajun French ) was spoken by 0 @.@ 25 % ( 55 @,@ 773 ) of Texans . Reportedly , Cherokee is the most widely spoken Native American language in Texas .
In total , 34 @.@ 2 % ( 7 @,@ 660 @,@ 406 ) of Texas 's population aged five and older spoke a language at home other than English .
= = = Religion = = =
The 2014 Pew Religious Landscape Survey showed the religious makeup of the state was as follows :
The largest denominations by number of adherents in 2010 were the Roman Catholic Church ( 4 @,@ 673 @,@ 500 ) ; the Southern Baptist Convention ( 3 @,@ 721 @,@ 318 ) ; the United Methodist Church with ( 1 @,@ 035 @,@ 168 ) ; and Islam ( 421 @,@ 972 ) .
Known as the buckle of the Bible Belt , East Texas is socially conservative . The Dallas – Fort Worth metroplex is home to three major evangelical seminaries and a host of Bible schools . Lakewood Church in Houston , boasts the largest attendance in the nation averaging more than 43 @,@ 000 weekly .
Adherents of many other religions reside predominantly in the urban centers of Texas . In 1990 , the Islamic population was about 140 @,@ 000 with more recent figures putting the current number of Muslims between 350 @,@ 000 and 400 @,@ 000 . The Jewish population is around 128 @,@ 000 . Around 146 @,@ 000 adherents of religions such as Hinduism and Sikhism live in Texas . It is the fifth @-@ largest Muslim @-@ populated state in the country .
= = Culture = =
Historically , Texas culture comes from a blend of Southern ( Dixie ) , Western ( frontier ) , and Southwestern ( Mexican / Anglo fusion ) influences , varying in degrees of such from one intrastate region to another . A popular food item , the breakfast burrito , draws from all three , having a soft flour tortilla wrapped around bacon and scrambled eggs or other hot , cooked fillings . Adding to Texas 's traditional culture , established in the 18th and 19th centuries , immigration has made Texas a melting pot of cultures from around the world . East Texas and the Gulf Coastal Plains regions near the Louisiana border have a Cajun / Creole influence .
Texas has made a strong mark on national and international pop culture . The state is strongly associated with the image of the cowboy shown in westerns and in country western music . The state 's numerous oil tycoons are also a popular pop culture topic as seen in the hit TV series Dallas .
The internationally known slogan " Don 't Mess with Texas " began as an anti @-@ littering advertisement . Since the campaign 's inception in 1986 , the phrase has become " an identity statement , a declaration of Texas swagger " .
= = = Texas self perception = = =
Texas @-@ sized is an expression that can be used in two ways : to describe something that is about the size of the U.S. state of Texas , or to describe something ( usually but not always originating from Texas ) that is large compared to other objects of its type . Texas was the largest U.S. state , until Alaska became a state in 1959 . The phrase , " everything is bigger in Texas , " has been in regular use since at least 1950 ; and was used as early as 1913 .
= = = Arts = = =
Houston is one of only five American cities with permanent professional resident companies in all of the major performing arts disciplines : the Houston Grand Opera , the Houston Symphony Orchestra , the Houston Ballet , and The Alley Theatre . Known for the vibrancy of its visual and performing arts , the Houston Theater District — a 17 @-@ block area in the heart of Downtown Houston — ranks second in the country in the number of theater seats in a concentrated downtown area , with 12 @,@ 948 seats for live performances and 1 @,@ 480 movie seats .
Founded in 1892 , Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth , also called " The Modern " , is Texas 's oldest art museum . Fort Worth also has the Kimbell Art Museum , the Amon Carter Museum , the National Cowgirl Museum and Hall of Fame , the Will Rogers Memorial Center , and the Bass Performance Hall downtown . The Arts District of Downtown Dallas has arts venues such as the Dallas Museum of Art , the Morton H. Meyerson Symphony Center , the Margot and Bill Winspear Opera House , the Trammell & Margaret Crow Collection of Asian Art , and the Nasher Sculpture Center .
The Deep Ellum district within Dallas became popular during the 1920s and 1930s as the prime jazz and blues hotspot in the Southern United States . The name Deep Ellum comes from local people pronouncing " Deep Elm " as " Deep Ellum " . Artists such as Blind Lemon Jefferson , Robert Johnson , Huddie " Lead Belly " Ledbetter , and Bessie Smith played in early Deep Ellum clubs .
Austin , The Live Music Capital of the World , boasts " more live music venues per capita than such music hotbeds as Nashville , Memphis , Los Angeles , Las Vegas or New York City . " The city 's music revolves around the nightclubs on 6th Street ; events like the film , music , and multimedia festival South by Southwest ; the longest @-@ running concert music program on American television , Austin City Limits ; and the Austin City Limits Music Festival held in Zilker Park .
Since 1980 , San Antonio has evolved into " The Tejano Music Capital Of The World . " The Tejano Music Awards have provided a forum to create greater awareness and appreciation for Tejano music and culture .
= = Education = =
The second president of the Republic of Texas , Mirabeau B. Lamar , is the Father of Texas Education . During his term , the state set aside three leagues of land in each county for equipping public schools . An additional 50 leagues of land set aside for the support of two universities would later become the basis of the state 's Permanent University Fund . Lamar 's actions set the foundation for a Texas @-@ wide public school system .
Between 2006 and 2007 , Texas spent $ 7 @,@ 275 per pupil ranking it below the national average of $ 9 @,@ 389 . The pupil / teacher ratio was 14 @.@ 9 , below the national average of 15 @.@ 3 . Texas paid instructors $ 41 @,@ 744 , below the national average of $ 46 @,@ 593 . The Texas Education Agency ( TEA ) administers the state 's public school systems . Texas has over 1 @,@ 000 school districts- all districts except the Stafford Municipal School District are independent from municipal government and many cross city boundaries . School districts have the power to tax their residents and to assert eminent domain over privately owned property . Due to court @-@ mandated equitable school financing for school districts , the state has a controversial tax redistribution system called the " Robin Hood plan " . This plan transfers property tax revenue from wealthy school districts to poor ones . The TEA has no authority over private or home school activities .
Students in Texas take the State of Texas Assessments of Academic Readiness ( STAAR ) in primary and secondary school . STAAR assess students ' attainment of reading , writing , mathematics , science , and social studies skills required under Texas education standards and the No Child Left Behind Act . The test replaced the Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills ( TAKS ) test in the 2011 – 2012 school year .
= = = Higher education = = =
The state 's two most widely @-@ recognized flagship universities are The University of Texas at Austin and Texas A & M University , ranked as the 52nd and 69th best universities in the nation according to the 2014 edition of U.S. News & World Report 's " Best Colleges " , respectively . Some observers also include the University of Houston and Texas Tech University as tier one flagships alongside UT Austin and A & M. The Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board ( THECB ) ranks the state 's public universities into three distinct tiers :
National Research Universities ( Tier 1 ) The University of Texas at Austin
Texas A & M University
Texas Tech University
University of Houston
Emerging Research Universities ( Tier 2 ) The University of Texas at Arlington
The University of Texas at Dallas
The University of Texas at El Paso
The University of Texas at San Antonio
The University of North Texas
Texas State University
Comprehensive Universities ( Tier 3 ) All other public universities ( 25 in total )
Texas 's controversial alternative affirmative action plan , Texas House Bill 588 , guarantees Texas students who graduated in the top 10 percent of their high school class automatic admission to state @-@ funded universities . The bill encourages demographic diversity while avoiding problems stemming from the Hopwood v. Texas ( 1996 ) case .
Thirty @-@ six ( 36 ) separate and distinct public universities exist in Texas , of which 32 belong to one of the six state university systems . Discovery of minerals on Permanent University Fund land , particularly oil , has helped fund the rapid growth of the state 's two largest university systems : The University of Texas System and the Texas A & M System . The four other university systems : the University of Houston System , the University of North Texas System , the Texas State System , and the Texas Tech System are not funded by the Permanent University Fund .
The Carnegie Foundation classifies three of Texas 's universities as Tier One research institutions : The University of Texas at Austin , the Texas A & M University , and the University of Houston . The University of Texas at Austin and Texas A & M University are flagship universities of the state of Texas . Both were established by the Texas Constitution and hold stakes in the Permanent University Fund . The state has been putting effort to expand the number of flagship universities by elevating some of its seven institutions designated as " emerging research universities . " The two that are expected to emerge first are the University of Houston and Texas Tech University , likely in that order according to discussions on the House floor of the 82nd Texas Legislature .
The state is home to various private institutions of higher learning — ranging from liberal arts colleges to a nationally recognized top @-@ tier research university . Rice University in Houston is one of the leading teaching and research universities of the United States and is ranked the nation 's 17th @-@ best overall university by U.S. News & World Report . Trinity University , a private , primarily undergraduate liberal arts university in San Antonio , has ranked first among universities granting primarily bachelor 's and select master 's degrees in the Western United States for 20 consecutive years by U.S. News . Private universities include Austin College , Baylor University , University of Mary Hardin – Baylor , and Southwestern University .
Universities in Texas host three presidential libraries : George Bush Presidential Library at Texas A & M University , the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum at The University of Texas at Austin , and the George W. Bush Presidential Library at Southern Methodist University .
= = Healthcare = =
The Commonwealth Fund ranks the Texas healthcare system the third worst in the nation . Texas ranks close to last in access to healthcare , quality of care , avoidable hospital spending , and equity among various groups . Causes of the state 's poor rankings include politics , a high poverty rate , and the highest rate of illegal immigration in the nation . In May 2006 , Texas initiated the program " code red " in response to the report that the state had 25 @.@ 1 percent of the population without health insurance , the largest proportion in the nation . Texas also has controversial non @-@ economic damages caps for medical malpractice lawsuits , set at $ 250 @,@ 000 , in an attempt to " curb rising malpractice premiums , and control escalating healthcare costs " .
The Trust for America 's Health ranked Texas 15th highest in adult obesity , with 27 @.@ 2 percent of the state 's population measured as obese . The 2008 Men 's Health obesity survey ranked four Texas cities among the top 25 fattest cities in America ; Houston ranked 6th , Dallas 7th , El Paso 8th , and Arlington 14th . Texas had only one city , Austin , ranked 21st , in the top 25 among the " fittest cities " in America . The same survey has evaluated the state 's obesity initiatives favorably with a " B + " . The state is ranked forty @-@ second in the percentage of residents who engage in regular exercise .
= = = Medical research = = =
Many elite research medical centers are located in Texas . The state has nine medical schools , three dental schools , and two optometry schools . Texas has two Biosafety Level 4 ( BSL @-@ 4 ) laboratories : one at The University of Texas Medical Branch ( UTMB ) in Galveston , and the other at the Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research in San Antonio — the first privately owned BSL @-@ 4 lab in the United States .
The Texas Medical Center in Houston , holds the world 's largest concentration of research and healthcare institutions , with 47 member institutions . Texas Medical Center performs the most heart transplants in the world . The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center in Houston is a highly regarded academic institution that centers around cancer patient care , research , education and prevention .
San Antonio 's South Texas Medical Center facilities rank sixth in clinical medicine research impact in the United States . The University of Texas Health Science Center is another highly ranked research and educational institution in San Antonio .
Both the American Heart Association and the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center call Dallas home . The Southwestern Medical Center ranks " among the top academic medical centers in the world " . The institution 's medical school employs the most medical school Nobel laureates in the world .
= = Transportation = =
Texans have historically had difficulties traversing Texas due to the state 's large size and rough terrain . Texas has compensated by building both America 's largest highway and railway systems in length . The regulatory authority , the Texas Department of Transportation ( TxDOT ) maintains the state 's immense highway system , regulates aviation , and public transportation systems .
Located centrally in North America , the state is an important transportation hub . From the Dallas / Fort Worth area , trucks can reach 93 percent of the nation 's population within 48 hours , and 37 percent within 24 hours . Texas has 33 foreign trade zones ( FTZ ) , the most in the nation . In 2004 , a combined total of $ 298 billion of goods passed though Texas FTZs .
= = = Highways = = =
The first Texas freeway was the Gulf Freeway opened in 1948 in Houston . As of 2005 , 79 @,@ 535 miles ( 127 @,@ 999 km ) of public highway crisscrossed Texas ( up from 71 @,@ 000 miles ( 114 @,@ 263 km ) in 1984 ) . To fund recent growth in the state highways , Texas has 17 toll roads ( see list ) with several additional tollways proposed . In central Texas , the southern section of the State Highway 130 toll road has a speed limit of 85 miles per hour ( 137 km / h ) , the highest in the nation . All federal and state highways in Texas are paved .
= = = Airports = = =
Texas has 730 airports , second most of any state in the nation . Largest in Texas by size and passengers served , Dallas / Fort Worth International Airport ( DFW ) is the second largest by area in the United States , and fourth in the world with 18 @,@ 076 acres ( 73 @.@ 15 km2 ) . In traffic , DFW is the busiest in the state , the fourth busiest in the United States , and sixth worldwide . American Airlines Group 's American / American Eagle , the world 's largest airline in total passengers @-@ miles transported and passenger fleet size , uses DFW as its largest and main hub . Southwest Airlines , headquartered in Dallas , has its operations at Dallas Love Field . It ranks as the largest airline in the United States by number of passengers carried domestically per year and the largest airline in the world by number of passengers carried .
Texas 's second @-@ largest air facility is Houston 's George Bush Intercontinental Airport ( IAH ) . It served as the largest hub for the former Continental Airlines , which was based in Houston ; it serves as the largest hub for United Airlines , the world 's third @-@ largest airline , by passenger @-@ miles flown . IAH offers service to the most Mexican destinations of any U.S. airport . The next five largest airports in the state all serve over 3 million passengers annually ; they include Austin @-@ Bergstrom International Airport , William P. Hobby Airport , San Antonio International Airport , Dallas Love Field and El Paso International Airport . The smallest airport in the state to be designated an international airport is Del Rio International Airport .
= = = Ports = = =
Around 1 @,@ 150 seaports dot Texas 's coast with over 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) of channels . Ports employ nearly one @-@ million people and handle an average of 317 million metric tons . Texas ports connect with the rest of the U.S. Atlantic seaboard with the Gulf section of the Intracoastal Waterway . The Port of Houston today is the busiest port in the United States in foreign tonnage , second in overall tonnage , and tenth worldwide in tonnage . The Houston Ship Channel spans 530 feet ( 160 m ) wide by 45 feet ( 14 m ) deep by 50 miles ( 80 km ) long .
= = = Railroads = = =
Part of the state 's tradition of cowboys is derived from the massive cattle drives which its ranchers organized in the nineteenth century to drive livestock to railroads and markets in Kansas , for shipment to the East . Towns along the way , such as Baxter Springs , the first cow town in Kansas , developed to handle the seasonal workers and tens of thousands of head of cattle being driven .
The first railroad to operate in Texas was the Buffalo Bayou , Brazos and Colorado Railway , opening in August 1853 . The first railroad to enter Texas from the north , completed in 1872 , was the Missouri – Kansas – Texas Railroad . With increasing railroad access , the ranchers did not have to take their livestock up to the Midwest , and shipped beef out from Texas . This caused a decline in the economies of the cow towns .
Since 1911 , Texas has led the nation in length of railroad miles within the state . Texas railway length peaked in 1932 at 17 @,@ 078 miles ( 27 @,@ 484 km ) , but declined to 14 @,@ 006 miles ( 22 @,@ 540 km ) by 2000 . While the Railroad Commission of Texas originally regulated state railroads , in 2005 the state reassigned these duties to TxDOT .
Both Dallas and Houston feature light rail systems . Dallas Area Rapid Transit ( DART ) built the first light rail system in the Southwest United States , completed in 1996 . The Trinity Railway Express ( TRE ) commuter rail service , which connects Fort Worth and Dallas , is provided by the Fort Worth Transportation Authority ( the T ) and DART . In the Austin area , Capital Metropolitan Transportation Authority operates a commuter rail service known as Capital MetroRail to the northwestern suburbs . The Metropolitan Transit Authority of Harris County , Texas ( METRO ) operates light rail lines in the Houston area .
Amtrak provides Texas with limited intercity passenger rail service . Three scheduled routes serve the state : the daily Texas Eagle ( Chicago – San Antonio ) ; the tri @-@ weekly Sunset Limited ( New Orleans – Los Angeles ) , with stops in Texas ; and the daily Heartland Flyer ( Fort Worth – Oklahoma City ) .
= = Sports = =
While American football has long been considered " king " in the state , Texans today enjoy a wide variety of sports .
Texans can cheer for a plethora of professional sports teams . Within the " Big Four " professional leagues , Texas has two NFL teams ( the Dallas Cowboys and the Houston Texans ) , two Major League Baseball teams ( the Texas Rangers and the Houston Astros ) , three NBA teams ( the Houston Rockets , the San Antonio Spurs , and the Dallas Mavericks ) , and one National Hockey League team ( the Dallas Stars ) . The Dallas – Fort Worth Metroplex is one of only twelve American metropolitan areas that hosts sports teams from all the " Big Four " professional leagues . Outside of the " Big Four " leagues , Texas also has one WNBA team ( the San Antonio Stars ) and two Major League Soccer teams ( the Houston Dynamo and FC Dallas ) .
Collegiate athletics have deep significance in Texas culture , especially football . The state has ten Division I @-@ FBS schools , the most in the nation . Four of the state 's universities , the Baylor Bears , Texas Longhorns , TCU Horned Frogs , and Texas Tech Red Raiders , compete in the Big 12 Conference . The Texas A & M Aggies left the Big 12 and joined the Southeastern Conference in 2012 , which led the Big 12 to invite TCU to join ; TCU was previously in the Mountain West Conference . The Houston Cougars and the SMU Mustangs compete in the American Athletic Conference . The Texas State Bobcats and the UT Arlington Mavericks compete in the Sun Belt Conference . Four of the state 's schools claim at least one national championship in football : the Texas Longhorns , the Texas A & M Aggies , the TCU Horned Frogs , and the SMU Mustangs .
According to a survey of Division I @-@ A coaches the rivalry between the University of Oklahoma and the University of Texas at Austin , the Red River Shootout , ranks the third best in the nation . The TCU Horned Frogs and SMU Mustangs also share a rivalry and compete annually in the Battle for the Iron Skillet . A fierce rivalry , the Lone Star Showdown , also exists between the state 's two largest universities , Texas A & M University and the University of Texas at Austin . The athletics portion of the Lone Star Showdown rivalry has been put on hold after the Texas A & M Aggies joined the Southeastern Conference .
The University Interscholastic League ( UIL ) organizes most primary and secondary school competitions . Events organized by UIL include contests in athletics ( the most popular being high school football ) as well as artistic and academic subjects .
Texans also enjoy the rodeo . The world 's first rodeo was hosted in Pecos , Texas . The annual Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo is the largest rodeo in the world . It begins with trail rides that originate from several points throughout the state that convene at Reliant Park . The Southwestern Exposition and Livestock Show in Fort Worth is the oldest continuously running rodeo incorporating many of the state 's most historic traditions into its annual events . Dallas hosts the State Fair of Texas each year at Fair Park .
Texas Motor Speedway hosts annual NASCAR Cup Series and IndyCar Series auto races since 1997 . Since 2012 , Austin 's Circuit of the Americas plays host to a round of the Formula 1 World Championship — the first at a permanent road circuit in the United States since the 1980 Grand Prix at Watkins Glen International — , as well as Grand Prix motorcycle racing , FIA World Endurance Championship and United SportsCar Championship races .
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= Fanno Creek =
Fanno Creek is a 15 @-@ mile ( 24 km ) tributary of the Tualatin River in the U.S. state of Oregon . Part of the drainage basin of the Columbia River , its watershed covers about 32 square miles ( 83 km2 ) in Multnomah , Washington , and Clackamas counties , including about 7 square miles ( 18 km2 ) within the Portland city limits .
From its headwaters in the Tualatin Mountains ( West Hills ) in southwest Portland , the creek flows generally west and south through the cities of Portland , Beaverton , Tigard and Durham , and unincorporated areas of Washington County . It enters the Tualatin River about 9 miles ( 14 km ) above the Tualatin 's confluence with the Willamette River at West Linn .
When settlers of European origin arrived , the Kalapuya lived in the area , having displaced the Multnomahs in pre @-@ contact times . The first settler of European descent , Augustus Fanno , for whom the creek is named , arrived in the mid @-@ 19th century . He established an onion farm in what became Beaverton . Fanno Farmhouse , the restored family home , is a Century Farm on the National Register of Historic Places and is one of 16 urban parks in a narrow corridor along the creek .
Although heavily polluted , the creek supports aquatic life , including coastal cutthroat trout ( leopard spotted ) in its upper reaches . Watershed councils such as the Fans of Fanno Creek and government agencies have worked to limit pollution and to restore native vegetation in riparian zones .
= = Course = =
Fanno Creek arises at an elevation of 478 feet ( 146 m ) above sea level and falls 370 feet ( 110 m ) between source and mouth to an elevation of 108 feet ( 33 m ) . The main stem begins at about river mile ( RM ) 15 or river kilometer ( RK ) 24 in the Hillsdale neighborhood of southwest Portland , in Multnomah County . The creek flows west along the north side of Oregon Route 10 ( the Beaverton – Hillsdale Highway ) , passing Albert Kelly Park and receiving Ivey Creek and Bridlemile Creek on the right before reaching the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) stream gauge at Southwest 56th Avenue 11 @.@ 9 miles ( 19 @.@ 2 km ) from the mouth . Shortly thereafter and in quick succession , it enters Washington County and the unincorporated community of Raleigh Hills , crosses under Route 10 , and receives Sylvan Creek on the right . Here the stream turns south , passing through Bauman Park , where Vermont Creek enters on the left about 10 miles ( 16 km ) from the mouth , and then southwest to flow through the Portland Golf Club and Vista Brook Park , where Woods Creek enters on the left . From here it flows west again for about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , passing through Fanno Creek Trail Park and entering Beaverton about 8 miles ( 13 km ) from the mouth before turning sharply south and flowing under Oregon Route 217 ( Beaverton – Tigard Highway ) .
Fanno Creek then flows roughly parallel to Route 217 for about 2 miles ( 3 km ) through Fanno Creek Park and Greenway Park . Near the southern end of Greenway Park , the creek passes under Oregon Route 210 ( Scholls Ferry Road ) , and enters Tigard about 5 miles ( 8 km ) from the mouth . In quick succession , Hiteon Creek enters on the right , Ash Creek on the left , and Summer Creek on the right before the creek reaches Woodard Park , goes under Oregon Route 99W ( Southwest Pacific Highway ) , and flows through Fanno Park and Bonita Park as well as residential neighborhoods . Between the two parks , Red Rock Creek enters on the left about 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) from the mouth . Slightly downstream of Bonita Park , Ball Creek enters on the left . Fanno Creek then enters Durham , passes a USGS gauging station 1 @.@ 13 miles ( 1 @.@ 82 km ) from the mouth , flows through Durham City Park , and empties into the Tualatin River 9 @.@ 3 miles ( 15 @.@ 0 km ) from its confluence with the Willamette River .
= = = Discharge = = =
The USGS monitors the flow of Fanno Creek at two stations , one in Durham , 1 @.@ 13 miles ( 1 @.@ 82 km ) from the mouth , and the other in Portland , 11 @.@ 9 miles ( 19 @.@ 2 km ) from the mouth . The average flow of the creek at the Durham station is 43 @.@ 9 cubic feet per second ( 1 @.@ 24 m3 / s ) . This is from a drainage area of 31 @.@ 5 square miles ( 81 @.@ 6 km2 ) , more than 99 percent of the total Fanno Creek watershed . The maximum flow recorded there was 1 @,@ 670 cubic feet per second ( 47 m3 / s ) on December 3 , 2007 , and the minimum flow was 1 cubic foot per second ( 0 @.@ 03 m3 / s ) on September 13 , 2001 , and September 15 , 2009 . At the Portland station , the average flow is 3 @.@ 15 cubic feet per second ( 0 @.@ 09 m3 / s ) . This is from a drainage area of 2 @.@ 37 square miles ( 6 @.@ 1 km2 ) or about 7 percent of the total Fanno Creek watershed . The maximum flow recorded there was 733 cubic feet per second ( 21 m3 / s ) on February 8 , 1996 , and the minimum flow was 0 @.@ 01 cubic feet per second ( 0 @.@ 0003 m3 / s ) on September 4 , 2001 .
= = Watershed = =
Draining 31 @.@ 7 square miles ( 82 @.@ 1 km2 ) , Fanno Creek receives water from Portland 's West Hills , Sexton Mountain in Beaverton , and Bull Mountain near Tigard . Nearly all of the watershed is urban . About 7 square miles ( 18 km2 ) , roughly 22 percent of the total , lies inside the Portland city limits . The highest elevation in the watershed is 1 @,@ 060 feet ( 320 m ) at Council Crest in the West Hills . The peak elevation on Sexton Mountain is 476 feet ( 145 m ) , while Bull Mountain rises to 715 feet ( 218 m ) . About 117 miles ( 188 km ) of streams flow through the watershed , including Ash Creek , Summer Creek , and 12 smaller tributaries . A small part of the drainage basin lies in the city of Lake Oswego in Clackamas County , near the headwaters of Ball Creek , a Fanno Creek tributary .
The slopes at the headwaters of Fanno Creek consist mainly of Columbia River Basalt exposed in ravines but otherwise covered by up to 25 feet ( 8 m ) of wind @-@ deposited silt . Silts and clays are the most common watershed soils , and significant erosion is common . About 50 inches ( 1 @,@ 300 mm ) of precipitation , almost all of which is rain and about half of which arrives in November , December , and January , falls on the watershed each year . Although significant flooding occurred in 1977 , the watershed has not experienced a 100 @-@ year flood since the area became urban .
Small watersheds adjacent to the Fanno Creek watershed include those of minor tributaries of the Willamette or Tualatin rivers . Tryon Creek , Balch Creek , and other small streams east of Fanno Creek flow down the eastern flank of the West Hills into the Willamette . To the northwest , Hall Creek , Cedar Mill Creek , and Bronson Creek flow into Beaverton Creek , a tributary of Rock Creek , which empties into the Tualatin River at the larger stream 's RM 38 @.@ 4 ( RK 61 @.@ 8 ) , about 29 miles ( 47 km ) upriver from the mouth of Fanno Creek .
= = = Annual report card = = =
In 2015 , Portland 's Bureau of Environmental Services ( BES ) began issuing annual " report cards " for watersheds or fractions thereof that lie within the city . BES assigns grades for each of four categories : hydrology , water quality , habitat , and fish and wildlife . Hydrology grades depend on the amount of pavement and other impervious surfaces in the watershed and the degree to which its streams flow freely , not dammed or diverted . Water @-@ quality grades are based on measurements of dissolved oxygen , E @-@ coli bacteria , temperature , suspended solids , and substances such as mercury and phosphorus . Habitat ranking depends on the condition of stream banks and floodplains , riparian zones , tree canopies , and other variables . The fish and wildlife assessment includes birds , fish , and macroinvertebrates . In 2015 , the BES grades for the Fanno Creek watershed fraction within Portland are hydrology , C ; water quality , C + ; habitat , B − , and fish and wildlife , D − .
= = History = =
The previous people of the Fanno Creek watershed were the Atfalati or Tualaty tribe of the Kalapuya , said to have displaced even earlier inhabitants , the Multnomahs , prior to European contact . The valleys of the Willamette River and its major tributaries such as the Tualatin River consisted of open grassland maintained by annual burning , with scattered groves of trees along the rivers and creeks . The Kalapuya moved from place to place in good weather to fish , to hunt small animals , birds , waterfowl , deer , and elk , and to gather nuts , seeds , roots , and berries . Important foods included camas and wapato . In addition to fishing for eels , suckers , and trout , the Atfalati traded for salmon from Chinookan tribes near Willamette Falls . During the winter , the Kalapuya lived in longhouses in settled villages . Their population was greatly reduced after contact in the late 18th century with Europeans , who carried malaria , smallpox , measles , and other diseases . Added pressure came from white settlers who seized and fenced native land , regarded it as private property , and sometimes punished natives for trespassing . Of the original population of 1 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 000 Atfalati reported in 1780 , only 65 remained in 1851 . In 1855 , the U.S. government sent the survivors to the Grande Ronde reservation further west .
Fanno Creek is named after Augustus Fanno , the first European American settler along the creek . In 1847 , he started an onion farm on a 640 @-@ acre ( 260 ha ) donation land claim in what later became part of Beaverton . Other 19th century newcomers along the creek engaged mainly in logging , farming , and dairy farming until the Southern Pacific Railroad and the Oregon Electric Railway lines made the watershed more accessible for urban development around the turn of the 20th century . The Oregon Electric , a 49 @-@ mile ( 79 km ) system built between 1903 and 1915 , ran between downtown Portland and Garden Home in the Fanno Creek watershed , where it split into branches leading to Salem and Forest Grove . The Southern Pacific began running electric passenger trains , known as the Red Electric , in the watershed in 1914 . The company that eventually became Portland General Electric installed electric service in the area , and by 1915 the population of the upper Fanno Creek neighborhoods of Multnomah , Maplewood , Hillsdale , and West Portland Park had grown to 2 @,@ 000 .
Passenger service on the Red Electric line ended in 1929 , and the Oregon Electric Railway ceased passenger operations in 1933 . Private autos largely replaced interurban rail service . Oregon Highway 217 between Durham and Beaverton , and Oregon Highway 10 between Beaverton and Portland , follow the creek . Although passenger rail ceased for nearly 80 years , freight trains continued to use the tracks . In 2009 , a new rail passenger service began along a former Oregon Electric line owned by Portland and Western Railroad in Washington County . The Westside Express Service ( WES ) runs 14 @.@ 7 miles ( 23 @.@ 7 km ) between Beaverton on the north and Wilsonville on the south . The middle stretch of this run lies close to the lower 8 miles ( 13 km ) of Fanno Creek between Beaverton and Durham . WES is the first modern commuter rail in Oregon and one of the few suburb @-@ to @-@ suburb commuter rail lines in the United States . At the northern end of the line , WES connects to the MAX Blue Line , an east @-@ west light rail line linking Hillsboro and Gresham via Portland and the MAX Red Line , with connections to Portland International Airport .
The highways and railroads serve a population that increased most dramatically in the second half of the 20th century . When Beaverton was incorporated as a city in 1893 , it had a population of 400 . By 2010 , the number had soared to 94 @,@ 000 , although not all of them lived in the watershed . Tigard , which did not exist as a city until 1961 , grew to 49 @,@ 000 by the year 2013 , all in the watershed . The estimated population of the entire watershed reached 123 @,@ 000 just before the 2000 census . Fanno Creek , which had few people living near it until 1850 , " is surrounded by the most populous region in Oregon " .
= = Pollution = =
Although the Oregon Department of Environmental Quality ( DEQ ) rated the average water quality of Fanno Creek as " very poor " between 1986 and 1995 , it also noted steady improvement over that span . Historically , Fanno Creek has been polluted by urban and industrial sources , small sewage treatment plants , ineffective septic systems , farming and grazing operations , and illegal dumping . Health and environmental concerns led to the closing of substandard wastewater treatment plants in the 1970s , and urban development reduced the number of farms and farm animals along the creek . A ban in 1991 on phosphate detergents , increased connection to municipal sewers , stormwater management , and greater public awareness helped to reduce urban pollution not coming from point sources , and water quality improved .
DEQ monitors Fanno Creek at Bonita Road in Tigard , at about 2 miles ( 3 km ) from the mouth . On the Oregon Water Quality Index ( OWQI ) used by DEQ , water quality scores can vary from 10 ( worst ) to 100 ( ideal ) . The average for Fanno Creek between 1986 and 1995 was 55 but steadily improved to 65 , or " poor " , by the end of the period . By comparison , the average in the nearby Willamette River at the Hawthorne Bridge in downtown Portland was 74 during the same years . Measurements of water quality at the Tigard site during the years covered by the DEQ report showed high concentrations of phosphates , fecal coliform bacteria , and suspended solids , and a high biochemical oxygen demand . Moderately high concentrations of ammonia and nitrate nitrogen occurred during high flows during fall , winter , and spring . High temperatures and low dissolved oxygen concentration in the summer were evidence of eutrophication .
The high fraction of impervious surfaces in the watershed makes it difficult to improve water quality in the creek . The Portland Bureau of Environmental Services estimates that one @-@ third of the surface area of the watershed that lies within its jurisdiction is impervious . All of the roughly 12 square miles ( 31 km2 ) of the surface of Tigard , much of it impervious , drains into Fanno Creek . The watershed watch coordinator for Tualatin Riverkeepers , a volunteer group , was quoted in a July 2008 newspaper article saying that " the biggest impact to Fanno Creek is the impervious area " . To slow run @-@ off , reduce erosion , and keep pollutants out of streams , watershed councils , neighborhood groups , and government agencies have been planting native species of vegetation at selected sites throughout the watershed .
= = Biology = =
= = = Fish and wildlife = = =
About 100 bird species , several kinds of mammals , and a few fish species live in the watershed . Mammals commonly seen include beaver , raccoon , opossum , spotted skunk , Douglas squirrel , and Townsend 's chipmunk ; black @-@ tail deer and coyotes are more rare . Fanno Creek supports non @-@ migrating coastal cutthroat trout that spawn in the fast @-@ flowing , gravel @-@ bottomed headwaters and grow to as long as 14 inches ( 36 cm ) . Other fish species found in the creek include sculpins , mosquitofish and eel .
Beavers , rodents weighing up to 60 pounds ( 27 kg ) , have sometimes caused problems along Fanno Creek . In 2014 and 2015 , a growing population of beavers gnawed down trees and dammed the creek in Greenway Park in Beaverton . Rising waters have covered one of the side trails in the park , which has been gated and closed . During heavy rains , water from the beaver pond sometimes covers the main trail . Park officials are considering a variety of options , including re @-@ routing the trails , building a boardwalk over the water , or removing the beaver dams .
= = = Vegetation = = =
The creek begins in the Coast Range ecoregion designated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) and flows thereafter through the Willamette Valley ecoregion . The narrow riparian corridors along streams in the watershed commonly include native species such as western redcedar , Douglas fir , vine maple , and sword fern as well as invasive species like English ivy . Many red alder and big leaf maple grow in the watershed , and shrubs include red huckleberry , Oregon @-@ grape , elderberry , wood rose , and salmonberry . A restoration project in Tigard along the main stem has removed invasive plants such as reed canary grass and Himalayan blackberry and replaced them with native species . A project in Beaverton is replacing turf and degraded habitat along the creek with native shrubs and trees such as Oregon white oak .
The Tualatin Riverkeepers , a nonprofit watershed council based in Tigard ; Clean Water Services , a public utility that protects water resources in the Tualatin River watershed , and the Tualatin Hills Park & Recreation District ( THPRD ) have formed the Tualatin Basin Invasive Species Working Group to identify and eradicate invasive plants that displace native plants , cause erosion , and diminish water quality . The five plants considered most threatening are Japanese knotweed , meadow knapweed , giant hogweed , garlic mustard and purple loosestrife . The Oregon Department of Agriculture and the city of Tigard are working to eradicate giant hogweed from lower Fanno Creek .
= = Parks = =
Fanno Creek passes through or near 16 parks in several jurisdictions . Portland Parks & Recreation manages three : Hillsdale Park , 5 acres ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) with picnic tables and a dog park near the headwaters ; Albert Kelly Park , 12 acres ( 4 @.@ 9 ha ) with unpaved paths , picnic tables , play areas , and Wi @-@ Fi north of the creek about 14 miles ( 23 km ) from the mouth , and the Fanno Creek Natural Area , 7 acres ( 2 @.@ 8 ha ) north of the creek about 12 miles ( 19 km ) from the mouth .
The Tualatin Hills Park & Recreation District ( THPRD ) manages seven Fanno Creek parks in Beaverton and unincorporated Washington County . The district , tax @-@ supported and governed by an elected board , is the largest special park and recreation district in Oregon . The seven include Bauman Park , about 8 acres ( 3 @.@ 2 ha ) at about 10 miles ( 16 km ) from the mouth . Slightly downstream from Bauman Park are Vista Brook Park , about 4 acres ( 1 @.@ 6 ha ) with trails including one that is accessible to people with physical handicaps , a playground , and courts for basketball and tennis , and Fanno Creek Trail , about 2 acres ( 0 @.@ 8 ha ) , with picnic tables and trails . Other THPRD parks lie along Fanno Creek from roughly 7 miles ( 11 km ) to roughly 5 miles ( 8 km ) from the mouth . These are Fanno Creek Park , about 21 acres ( 8 @.@ 5 ha ) , with trails including one accessible to people with handicaps ; Fanno Farmhouse , about 1 acre ( 0 @.@ 4 ha ) with an accessible trail and picnic tables as well as the Fanno family home , restored by THPRD and listed on the National Register of Historic Places ; Greenway Park , about 87 acres ( 35 ha ) with trails including an accessible trail , picnic tables , a playground , and sports fields , and Koll Center Wetlands , about 13 acres ( 5 @.@ 3 ha ) with wildlife .
The five Fanno Creek parks managed by the city of Tigard include Englewood Park , 15 acres ( 6 @.@ 1 ha ) with play structures and trails , including a segment of the Fanno Creek Trail ; Woodard Park , 15 acres ( 6 @.@ 1 ha ) of big trees , trails , and play structures ; Bonita Park , 3 @.@ 5 acres ( 1 @.@ 4 ha ) including a playground and picnic areas ; Dirksen Nature Park , 48 acres ( 19 ha ) of forest , wetlands , and open space , and Fanno Creek Park , a 30 @-@ acre ( 12 ha ) natural area in downtown Tigard . About 20 percent of the small city of Durham is parkland . Surrounded by the larger cities of Tigard and Tualatin , the city covers 265 acres ( 107 ha ) occupied by about 1 @,@ 400 people . Durham City Park , at the confluence of Fanno Creek and the Tualatin River , consists of 46 acres ( 19 ha ) of heavily wooded floodplain with paved trails , children 's play areas , and a picnic shelter .
Sections of trail along the main stem of Fanno Creek form part of a planned 15 @-@ mile ( 24 km ) Fanno Creek Greenway Trail linking Willamette Park on the Willamette River in southwest Portland to the confluence of the creek with the Tualatin River in Durham . The trail , for pedestrians and bicyclists , is accessible to people with disabilities . Several unfinished segments remained as of 2013 .
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= St Mary 's Church , Pentraeth =
St Mary 's Church , Pentraeth is a small medieval parish church in the village of Pentraeth , in Anglesey , north Wales . The date of construction is unknown , but is probably from some time between the 12th to 14th centuries . A church dedicated to St Mary was recorded here in 1254 , but there is a tradition that there was an older church dedicated to St Geraint , an early British saint . Some medieval stonework remains in three walls of the building ( the west wall , and parts of the north and south walls ) . A chapel was added to the south side in the 16th or 17th century . The church was altered and refurbished during the 19th century , including an extensive rebuilding by Henry Kennedy , the architect for the Diocese of Bangor , in 1882 . St Mary 's is still used for worship by the Church in Wales , and is one of three churches in a combined parish . Its conservation is specifically included in the aims of a Chester @-@ based charity that promotes health and the arts in Anglesey and the north @-@ west of England .
It is a Grade II listed building , a national designation given to " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " , in particular because of the retention of medieval fabric in a predominately 19th @-@ century building , and its " fine " memorials . It is built from rubble masonry with a slate roof , and part of a font thought to date from the 12th century has been reused as a water basin in the porch . St Mary 's has a number of memorials from the 18th and 19th centuries , some commemorating residents of a nearby manor house . There was once a tradition of decorating the interior with paper garlands , although writers differ on whether this was to celebrate parishioners ' weddings or to mark the death of unmarried women . It was one of only two churches in Anglesey included by the 18th @-@ century writer Francis Grose in his multi @-@ volume guide to English and Welsh antiquities .
= = History and location = =
St Mary 's Church is in the middle of Pentraeth , Anglesey , about 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) from the town of Menai Bridge . It is situated at the junction of the A5025 and the B5109 roads . The date of the foundation of the first religious building on this site is unknown . There is a tradition that there was originally a church here dedicated to St Geraint , an early British saint , since the old name for the village was Llanfair @-@ Bettws @-@ Geraint . However , a Pentraeth church dedicated to St Mary was recorded in the Norwich Taxation of 1254 . The present building probably dates from sometime between the 12th and the 14th centuries , with the nave and chancel being medieval in origin .
A chapel was added to the south side of the parish church at the end of the 16th century or the early part of the 17th century . A restoration of the interior took place in 1821 with further changes in 1839 . Henry Kennedy , the architect of the Diocese of Bangor , oversaw a partial but extensive rebuilding in 1882 , which included reconstruction of the east wall and the addition of the porch on the south side . He also added an internal arch to mark the sanctuary as part of rebuilding or extending of the chancel . A reredos and some other fittings were added in the first part of the 20th century .
St Mary 's is still in use for worship and belongs to the Church in Wales . It is one of three churches in the combined benefice of Llanfair Mathafarn Eithaf with Llanbedrgoch with Pentraeth . The church is in the deanery of Tindaethwy and Menai , the archdeaconry of Bangor and the Diocese of Bangor . As of 2012 , the position of rector is held by the Venerable R P Davies , Archdeacon of Bangor .
The " conservation , protection and improvement " of St Mary 's are included in the aims of the Tyrer Charitable Trust , a Chester @-@ based charity that promotes health and the arts in Anglesey and north @-@ west England ; it is the only church so specified in the charity 's aims and objectives .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
The church is built from irregularly positioned pieces of rubble masonry , and Kennedy added red sandstone dressings in his 1882 work . The nave measures 50 feet 3 inches long by 17 feet 3 inches wide ( about 15 @.@ 3 by 5 @.@ 3 m ) ; the chancel is the same width , and about 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) long . The chapel is 17 feet by 20 feet 6 inches ( about 5 @.@ 2 by 6 @.@ 25 m ) . There is medieval masonry in three of the walls : the west wall , and the lower parts of the north and south walls . The roof is made of slate , with a stone bellcote containing one bell at the west end . Inside , the wooden trusses of the roof are visible . The trusses were re @-@ used when the roof was reconstructed . The church is entered through a porch on the south side , added in the 19th century , and a Tudor arch doorway ; the porch contains a stone piscina ( a water basin ) , said to be part of a font dating from the 12th century . An old entrance in the north wall of the nave has been blocked up . Two of the three windows in the north wall are from the 19th century . The third , nearest to the east end , is from the early 17th century and has a square frame . The eight @-@ sided font also dates from the 19th century . The 1937 survey by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire also recorded the existence of an oak poor box , with iron straps , bearing the date of 1740 , and a plain silver cup from about 1685 .
The chancel and the south chapel are each separated from the nave by arches ; the chancel arch , which was added by Kennedy in 1882 , is decorated with carvings of an eagle on one side and a lamb on the other . Steps lead up from the nave to the chancel , with a further step marking the sanctuary . The east window dates from the late 14th or the early 15th century , although it has been rebuilt , with three lights ( vertical sections separated by mullions ) . These are topped with tracery ( decorative stone work ) and cinquefoils ( a five leaf pattern ) . It contains stained glass depicting St Mary and St John , added in 1890 . The east window in the chapel is of similar design to the 17th @-@ century window in the north wall of the nave , and dates from the late 16th or early 17th century ; restoration work has been carried out on it . The south window has a pointed arch with two lights topped by cinquefoils ; it is above a sill for an older window . There is also a window in the west wall of the chapel .
St Mary 's contains a number of memorials from the 18th and 19th centuries . Members of the families associated with Plas Gwyn , a nearby manor house , have their memorials in the chapel . John Jones , who was Dean of Bangor Cathedral from 1689 to 1727 , was born at Plas Gwyn , and is commemorated with a stone tablet on the south wall of the chancel . Another native of Pentraeth , the cleric and writer Thomas Owen , who died in 1812 , also has a tablet in the chancel . Charles Vivian , 2nd Baron Vivian ( who died in 1886 ) , and his wife Mary are remembered with a bronze tablet on the east wall of the chapel . There are other memorials on the walls of the chapel and the nave . The south window of the chapel has stained glass in memory of Claud Panton Vivian , of Plas Gwyn , who died at the age of 24 during the Second World War . The churchyard has a number of graves for members of the Vivian family , and their plot contains " four beautifully @-@ carved Celtic crosses . " The churchyard also contains two Commonwealth war graves , of a South Lancashire Regiment soldier of World War I and a Royal Navy sailor of World War II .
The church used to be decorated with paper garlands . This tradition was noted in the 18th century , when a writer thought that they symbolised the " hymeneal union " ( i.e. marriage ) of parishioners , because the garlands each had a pair of hands in the centre . In 1833 , another writer said that the garlands marked the death of unmarried women , but the tradition was no longer observed .
= = Assessment = =
St Mary 's has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated as a Grade II listed building – the lowest of the three grades of listing , designating " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " . It was given this status on 30 January 1968 , and has been listed because it is " a predominantly late 19th @-@ century church which retains some Medieval fabric " . Cadw ( the Welsh Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales and for the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists ) also notes " some fine 18th @-@ century and 19th @-@ century memorials . "
The 18th @-@ century writer Francis Grose , who wrote a multi @-@ volume guide to the antiquities of England and Wales , included St Mary 'a in his survey of Anglesey , one of only two churches on the island that he featured ( the other being St Cybi 's , Holyhead ) . He said that this " little edifice is more remarkable for its simplicity , and the beauty of the rural scene by which it is surrounded , than for any matters of antiquity or curiosity in its construction , or contained within its walls " . The Welsh antiquarian Angharad Llwyd and the writer Samuel Lewis ( both writing in the 19th century before the 1882 alterations ) each described St Mary 's as a " small neat edifice " . They particularly noted the internal and external monuments to members of various local families .
Writing in 1847 , the clergyman and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones said that St Mary 's was " remarkable for being in one of the sweetest spots in the isle of Anglesey " The interior , he said , was " greatly blocked up with pews " , but was in " excellent repair " , with " a degree of neatness and comfort about it quite unusual in this district . " The roof timbers , he commented , were " closely set together , light in section , but producing a good effect . " The Welsh politician and church historian Sir Stephen Glynne visited a couple of years later , in 1849 . He described St Mary 's as being in a " pretty " situation , " surrounded by trees " . He noted the " fair " east window and the " rude timber framework " of the roof . In 2006 , a guide to the churches of Anglesey noted that the red sandstone used in the windows and in the bellcote was showing signs of " severe weathering " in places .
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= Rainbow trout =
The rainbow trout ( Oncorhynchus mykiss ) is a trout and species of salmonid native to cold @-@ water tributaries of the Pacific Ocean in Asia and North America . The steelhead ( sometimes called " steelhead trout " ) is an anadromous ( sea @-@ run ) form of the coastal rainbow trout ( O. m. irideus ) or Columbia River redband trout ( O. m. gairdneri ) that usually returns to fresh water to spawn after living two to three years in the ocean . Freshwater forms that have been introduced into the Great Lakes and migrate into tributaries to spawn are also called steelhead .
Adult freshwater stream rainbow trout average between 1 and 5 lb ( 0 @.@ 5 and 2 @.@ 3 kg ) , while lake @-@ dwelling and anadromous forms may reach 20 lb ( 9 kg ) . Coloration varies widely based on subspecies , forms and habitat . Adult fish are distinguished by a broad reddish stripe along the lateral line , from gills to the tail , which is most vivid in breeding males .
Wild @-@ caught and hatchery @-@ reared forms of this species have been transplanted and introduced for food or sport in at least 45 countries and every continent except Antarctica . Introductions to locations outside their native range in the United States ( U.S. ) , Southern Europe , Australia , New Zealand and South America have damaged native fish species . Introduced populations may affect native species by preying on them , out @-@ competing them , transmitting contagious diseases ( such as whirling disease ) , or hybridizing with closely related species and subspecies , thus reducing genetic purity . Other introductions into waters previously devoid of any fish species or with severely depleted stocks of native fish have created world @-@ class sport fisheries such as the Great Lakes and Wyoming 's Firehole River .
Some local populations of specific subspecies , or in the case of steelhead , distinct population segments , are listed as either threatened or endangered under the Endangered Species Act . The steelhead is the official state fish of Washington .
= = Taxonomy = =
The scientific name of the rainbow trout is Oncorhynchus mykiss . The species was originally named by German naturalist and taxonomist Johann Julius Walbaum in 1792 based on type specimens from the Kamchatka Peninsula in Siberia . Walbaum 's original species name , mykiss , was derived from the local Kamchatkan name used for the fish , mykizha . The name of the genus is from the Greek onkos ( " hook " ) and rynchos ( " nose " ) , in reference to the hooked jaws of males in the mating season ( the " kype " ) .
Sir John Richardson , a Scottish naturalist , named a specimen of this species Salmo gairdneri in 1836 to honor Meredith Gairdner , a Hudson 's Bay Company surgeon at Fort Vancouver on the Columbia River who provided Richardson with specimens . In 1855 , William P. Gibbons , the curator of Geology and Mineralogy at the California Academy of Sciences , found a population and named it Salmo iridia ( Latin : rainbow ) , later corrected to Salmo irideus . These names faded once it was determined that Walbaum 's description of type specimens was conspecific and therefore had precedence . In 1989 , morphological and genetic studies indicated that trout of the Pacific basin were genetically closer to Pacific salmon ( Oncorhynchus species ) than to the Salmos – brown trout ( Salmo trutta ) or Atlantic salmon ( Salmo salar ) of the Atlantic basin . Thus , in 1989 , taxonomic authorities moved the rainbow , cutthroat and other Pacific basin trout into the genus Oncorhynchus . Walbaum 's name had precedence , so the species name Oncorhynchus mykiss became the scientific name of the rainbow trout . The previous species names irideus and gairdneri were adopted as subspecies names for the coastal rainbow and Columbia River redband trout , respectively . Anadromous forms of the coastal rainbow trout ( O. m. irideus ) or redband trout ( O. m. gairdneri ) are commonly known as steelhead .
= = = Subspecies = = =
Subspecies of Oncorhynchus mykiss are listed below as described by fisheries biologist Robert J. Behnke ( 2002 ) .
= = Description = =
Resident freshwater rainbow trout adults average between 1 and 5 lb ( 0 @.@ 5 and 2 @.@ 3 kg ) in riverine environments , while lake @-@ dwelling and anadromous forms may reach 20 lb ( 9 kg ) . Coloration varies widely between regions and subspecies . Adult freshwater forms are generally blue @-@ green or olive green with heavy black spotting over the length of the body . Adult fish have a broad reddish stripe along the lateral line , from gills to the tail , which is most pronounced in breeding males . The caudal fin is squarish and only mildly forked . Lake @-@ dwelling and anadromous forms are usually more silvery in color with the reddish stripe almost completely gone . Juvenile rainbow trout display parr marks ( dark vertical bars ) typical of most salmonid juveniles . In some redband and golden trout forms parr marks are typically retained into adulthood . Some coastal rainbow trout ( O. m. irideus ) and Columbia River redband trout ( O. m. gairdneri ) populations and cutbow hybrids may also display reddish or pink throat markings similar to cutthroat trout . In many regions , hatchery @-@ bred trout can be distinguished from native trout via fin clips ,
= = Life cycle = =
Rainbow trout , including steelhead forms , generally spawn in early to late spring ( January to June in the Northern Hemisphere and September to November in the Southern Hemisphere ) when water temperatures reach at least 42 to 44 ° F ( 6 to 7 ° C ) . The maximum recorded lifespan for a rainbow trout is 11 years .
= = = Freshwater life cycle = = =
Freshwater resident rainbow trout usually inhabit and spawn in small to moderately large , well oxygenated , shallow rivers with gravel bottoms . They are native to the alluvial or freestone streams that are typical tributaries of the Pacific basin , but introduced rainbow trout have established wild , self @-@ sustaining populations in other river types such as bedrock and spring creeks . Lake resident rainbow trout are usually found in moderately deep , cool lakes with adequate shallows and vegetation to support production of sufficient food sources . Lake populations generally require access to gravelly bottomed streams to be self @-@ sustaining .
Spawning sites are usually a bed of fine gravel in a riffle above a pool . A female trout clears a redd in the gravel by turning on her side and beating her tail up and down . Female rainbow trout usually produce 2000 to 3000 4 @-@ to @-@ 5 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 16 to 0 @.@ 20 in ) eggs per kilogram of weight . During spawning , the eggs fall into spaces between the gravel , and immediately the female begins digging at the upstream edge of the nest , covering the eggs with the displaced gravel . As eggs are released by the female , a male moves alongside and deposits milt ( sperm ) over the eggs to fertilize them . The eggs usually hatch in about four to seven weeks although the time of hatching varies greatly with region and habitat . Newly hatched trout are called sac fry or alevin . In approximately two weeks , the yolk sac is completely consumed and fry commence feeding mainly on zooplankton . The growth rate of rainbow trout is variable with area , habitat , life history and quality and quantity of food . As fry grow , they begin to develop " parr " marks or dark vertical bars on their sides . In this juvenile stage , immature trout are often called " parr " because of the marks . These small juvenile trout are sometimes called fingerlings because they are approximately the size of a human finger . In streams where rainbow trout are stocked for sport fishing but no natural reproduction occurs , some of the stocked trout may survive and grow or " carryover " for several seasons before they are caught or perish .
= = = Steelhead life cycle = = =
The oceangoing ( anadromous ) form , including those returning for spawning , are known as steelhead in Canada and the U.S. In Tasmania they are commercially propagated in sea cages and are known as ocean trout , although they are the same species .
Like salmon , steelhead return to their original hatching grounds to spawn . Similar to Atlantic salmon , but unlike their Pacific Oncorhynchus salmonid kin , steelhead are iteroparous ( able to spawn several times , each time separated by months ) and make several spawning trips between fresh and salt water , although fewer than 10 percent of native spawning adults survive from one spawning to another . The survival rate for introduced populations in the Great Lakes is as high as 70 percent . As young steelhead transition from freshwater to saltwater , a process called " smoltification " occurs where the trout undergoes physiological changes to allow it to survive in sea water . There are genetic differences between freshwater and steelhead populations that may account for the smoltification in steelheads .
Juvenile steelhead may remain in the river for one to three years before smolting and migrating to sea . Individual steelhead populations leave the ocean and migrate into their freshwater spawning tributaries at different times of the year . Two general forms exist — " summer @-@ run steelhead " and " winter @-@ run steelhead " . Summer @-@ run fish leave the ocean between May and October , before their reproductive organs are fully mature . They mature in fresh water while en route to spawning grounds where they spawn in the spring . Summer @-@ run fish generally spawn in longer , more inland rivers such as the Columbia River . Winter @-@ run fish are ready to spawn when they leave the ocean , typically between November and April , and spawn shortly after returning to fresh water . Winter @-@ run fish generally spawn in shorter , coastal rivers typically found along the Olympic Peninsula and British Columbia coastline , and summer @-@ run fish are found in some shorter , coastal streams . Once steelhead enter riverine systems and reach suitable spawning grounds , they spawn just like resident freshwater rainbow trout .
= = Feeding = =
Rainbow trout are predators with a varied diet and will eat nearly anything they can capture . They are not as piscivorous or aggressive as brown trout or chars . Rainbow trout , including juvenile steelhead in fresh water , routinely feed on larval , pupal and adult forms of aquatic insects ( typically caddisflies , stoneflies , mayflies and aquatic diptera ) . They also eat fish eggs and adult forms of terrestrial insects ( typically ants , beetles , grasshoppers and crickets ) that fall into the water . Other prey include small fish up to one @-@ third of their length , crayfish , shrimp , and other crustaceans . As rainbow trout grow , the proportion of fish consumed increases in most populations . Some lake @-@ dwelling forms may become planktonic feeders . In rivers and streams populated with other salmonid species , rainbow trout eat varied fish eggs , including those of salmon , brown and cutthroat trout , mountain whitefish and the eggs of other rainbow trout . Rainbows also consume decomposing flesh from carcasses of other fish . Adult steelhead in the ocean feed primarily on other fish , squid and amphipods .
= = Range = =
The native range of Oncorhynchus mykiss is in the coastal waters and tributary streams of the Pacific basin , from the Kamchatka Peninsula in Russia , east along the Aleutian Islands , throughout southwest Alaska , the Pacific coast of British Columbia and southeast Alaska , and south along the west coast of the U.S. to northern Mexico . It is claimed that the Mexican forms of Oncorhynchus mykiss represent the southernmost native range of any trout or salmon ( Salmonidae ) , though the Formosan landlocked salmon ( O. masou formosanus ) in Asia inhabits a similar latitude . The range of coastal rainbow trout ( O. m. irideus ) extends north from the Pacific basin into tributaries of the Bering Sea in northwest Alaska , while forms of the Columbia River redband trout ( O. m. gairdneri ) extend east into the upper Mackenzie River and Peace River watersheds in British Columbia and Alberta , Canada , which eventually drain into the Beaufort Sea , part of the Arctic Ocean . Since 1875 , the rainbow trout has been widely introduced into suitable lacustrine and riverine environments throughout the United States and around the world . Many of these introductions have established wild , self @-@ sustaining populations .
= = Artificial propagation = =
Since 1870 , rainbow trout have been artificially propagated in fish hatcheries to restock streams and to introduce them into non @-@ native waters . The first rainbow trout hatchery was established on San Leandro Creek , a tributary of San Francisco Bay , in 1870 , and trout production began in 1871 . The hatchery was stocked with the locally native rainbow trout , and likely steelhead of the coastal rainbow trout subspecies ( O. m. irideus ) . The fish raised in this hatchery were shipped to hatcheries out of state for the first time in 1875 , to Caledonia , New York , and then in 1876 to Northville , Michigan . In 1877 , another California rainbow trout hatchery , the first federal fish hatchery in the National Fish Hatchery System , was established on Campbell Creek , a McCloud River tributary . The McCloud River hatchery indiscriminately mixed coastal rainbow trout eggs with the eggs of local McCloud River redband trout ( O. m. stonei ) . Eggs from the McCloud hatchery were also provided to the San Leandro hatchery , thus making the origin and genetic history of hatchery @-@ bred rainbow trout somewhat diverse and complex . In the U.S. , there are hundreds of hatcheries operated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and various state agencies and tribal governments propagating rainbow trout for conservation and recreational sport fishing . Six of ten Canadian provinces have rainbow trout farms , with Ontario leading production .
= = = Aquaculture = = =
Rainbow trout are commercially farmed in many countries throughout the world . The practice began in the late 19th century , and since the 1950s commercial production has grown dramatically . Worldwide , in 2007 , 604 @,@ 695 tonnes ( 595 @,@ 145 long tons ; 666 @,@ 562 short tons ) of farmed rainbow trout were harvested with a value of about US $ 2 @.@ 6 billion . The largest producer is Chile . In Chile and Norway , sea cage production of steelhead has expanded to supply export markets . Inland production of rainbow trout to supply domestic markets has increased in countries such as Italy , France , Germany , Denmark and Spain . Other significant trout @-@ producing countries include the U.S. , Iran , the United Kingdom , and Lesotho . While the U.S. rainbow trout industry as a whole is viewed as ecologically responsible , trout raised elsewhere are not necessarily farmed with the same methods .
About three @-@ quarters of U.S. production comes from Idaho , particularly the Snake River area , due in part to the quality and temperature of the water available there . California and Washington also produce significant amounts of farmed trout . In the east , Pennsylvania , North Carolina and West Virginia have farming operations . Rainbow trout farming is one of the largest finfish aquaculture industries in the U.S. They are raised inland in facilities where raceways or ponds have continuously flowing water with little pollution and a low risk of escape . The U.S. industry is noted for using best management practices . Imports constitute only about 15 percent of farmed rainbows sold in the U.S. , and nearly all domestic production is consumed within the country ; very little is exported . The U.S. produces about 7 percent of the world 's farmed trout . Rainbow trout , especially those raised in farms and hatcheries , are susceptible to enteric redmouth disease . A considerable amount of research has been conducted on redmouth disease , given its serious implications for rainbow trout farming . The disease does not infect humans .
= = Conservation = =
Populations of many rainbow trout subspecies , including anadromous forms ( steelhead ) of O. m. irideus ( coastal rainbow trout ) and O. m. gairdneri ( Columbia River redband trout ) have declined in their native ranges due to over @-@ harvest , habitat loss , disease , invasive species , pollution and hybridization with other subspecies , and some introduced populations , once healthy , have declined for the same reasons . As a consequence , some rainbow populations , particularly anadromous forms within their native range , have been classified as endangered , threatened or species of special concern by federal or state agencies . Rainbow trout , and subspecies thereof , are currently a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency @-@ approved indicator species for acute fresh water toxicity testing .
Many non @-@ profit organizations have formed to protect , conserve and restore native rainbow trout and steelhead populations . Generally , in partnership with various universities , state , federal and tribal agencies and private interests , these organizations sponsor projects to restore habitat , prevent habitat loss and promote awareness of threats to native trout populations .
Trout Unlimited ( TU ) is a non @-@ profit organization dedicated to the conservation of North American freshwater streams , rivers , and associated upland habitats for trout , salmon , other aquatic species and people . A typical TU project is the Circle Creek Fish Passage Project , in which access to a spawning stream is being improved for steelhead and other salmonid species . The Wild Salmon Center , an international coalition of Russian , Canadian and U.S. scientists , sponsors the Kamchatka Steelhead Project , a 20 @-@ year ( 1994 – 2014 ) scientific program to study and conserve the present condition of Kamchatkan steelhead ( " mikizha " ) , a species listed in the Red Data Book of Russia . Other high @-@ profile organizations involved in rainbow trout conservation include California Trout , which protects wild trout and other salmonids in the waters of California . The Steelhead Society of British Columbia promotes the wellbeing of wild salmonids in British Columbia . In 1997 , a group of approximately 40 ichthyologists , biologists and naturalists from several U.S. and Mexican institutions formed a collaborative group — Truchas Mexicanas — to study the diversity of Mexican native trout , most of which are considered subspecies of O. mykiss .
= = = Hybridization and habitat loss = = =
Rainbow trout , primarily hatchery @-@ raised fish of the coastal rainbow trout subspecies ( O. m. irideus ) introduced into waters inhabited with cutthroat trout , will breed with cutthroats and produce fertile hybrids called cutbows . In the case of the westslope cutthroat trout ( O. clarki lewisi ) , hybridization with introduced rainbow and Yellowstone cutthroat trout ( O. clarki bouvieri ) is threatening the westslope cutthroat trout with genomic extinction . Such introductions into the ranges of redband trout ( O. m. gairdneri , newberrii , and stonei ) have severely reduced the range of pure stocks of these subspecies , making them " species of concern " in their respective ranges .
Within the range of the Kern River golden trout of Southern California , hatchery @-@ bred rainbows introduced into the Kern River have diluted the genetic purity of the Kern River rainbow trout ( O. m. gilberti ) and golden trout ( O. m. aguabonita ) through intraspecific breeding . The Beardslee trout , ( O. m. irideus var. beardsleei ) , a genetically unique lake @-@ dwelling variety of the coastal rainbow trout that is isolated in Lake Crescent ( Washington ) , is threatened by the loss of its only spawning grounds in the Lyre River to siltation and other types of habitat degradation .
= = = Invasive species and disease = = =
Whirling disease
Myxobolus cerebralis is a myxosporean parasite of salmonids ( salmon , trout , and their allies ) that causes whirling disease in farmed salmon and trout and also in wild fish populations . It was first described in rainbow trout in Germany a century ago , but its range has spread and it has appeared in most of Europe , northern Asia , the U.S. , South Africa and other countries . In the 1980s , M. cerebralis was found to require Tubifex tubifex ( a kind of segmented worm ) to complete its life cycle . The parasite infects its hosts with its cells after piercing them with polar filaments ejected from nematocyst @-@ like capsules .
This parasite was originally a mild pathogen of brown trout in central Europe and other salmonids in northeast Asia , and the spread of the rainbow trout has greatly increased its impact . Having no innate immunity to M. cerebralis , rainbow trout are particularly susceptible , and can release so many spores that even more resistant species in the same area , such as Salmo trutta , can become overloaded with parasites and incur mortalities of 80 to 90 percent . Where M. cerebralis has become well @-@ established , it has caused decline or even elimination of whole cohorts of fish .
The parasite M. cerebralis was first recorded in North America in 1956 in Pennsylvania , but until the 1990s whirling disease was considered a manageable problem only affecting rainbow trout in hatcheries . It eventually became established in natural waters of the Rocky Mountain states ( Colorado , Wyoming , Utah , Montana , Idaho , New Mexico ) , where it is damaging several sport fishing rivers . Some streams in the western U.S. lost 90 percent of their trout . Whirling disease threatens recreational fishing , which is important for the tourism industry , a key component of the economies of some U.S. western states . For example , in 2005 anglers in Montana spent approximately $ 196 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in activities directly related to trout fishing in the state . Some of the salmonids that M. cerebralis infects ( bull trout , cutthroat trout , and anadromous forms of rainbow trout — steelhead ) are already threatened or endangered , and the parasite could worsen their population decline .
New Zealand mud snail
The New Zealand mud snail ( Potamopyrgus antipodarum ) , once endemic to New Zealand , has spread widely and has become naturalised and an invasive species in many areas including : Australia , Tasmania , Asia ( Japan ) , in the Garmat Ali River in Iraq since 2008 ) , Europe ( since 1859 in England ) , and North America ( U.S. and Canada : Thunder Bay in Ontario since 2001 , British Columbia since July 2007 ) , most likely inadvertently during human activity . It can reach concentrations greater than 500 @,@ 000 per m ² , endangering the food chain by outcompeting native snails and water insects for food , leading to sharp declines in native populations . There is evidence North American fishes are unable to digest the tiny but hard shells of the mud snail , and that their presence may result in poor growth outcomes for rainbow trout .
The mud snail was first detected in the U.S. in Idaho 's Snake River in 1987 . Since then , the snail has spread to the Madison River , Firehole River , and other watercourses around Yellowstone National Park , and has been discovered throughout the western U.S. The exact means of transmission is unknown , but it is likely that it was introduced in water transferred with live game fish and has been spread by ship ballast or contaminated recreational equipment such as wading gear .
Didymo
Didymosphenia geminata , commonly known as didymo or rock snot , is a species of diatom that produces nuisance growths in freshwater rivers and streams with consistently cold water temperatures . In New Zealand , invasive didymo can form large mats on the bottom of rivers and streams in late winter . It is not considered a significant human health risk , but it can affect stream habitats and sources of food for fish , including rainbow trout , and make recreational activities unpleasant . Even though it is native in North America , it is considered a nuisance organism or invasive species .
Redmouth disease
Enteric redmouth disease is a bacterial infection of freshwater and marine fish caused by the pathogen Yersinia ruckeri . It is primarily found in rainbow trout and other cultured salmonids . The disease is characterized by subcutaneous hemorrhaging of the mouth , fins , and eyes . It is most commonly seen in fish farms with poor water quality . Redmouth disease was first discovered in Idaho rainbow trout in the 1950s .
= = = Removal Methods = = =
Some fisheries are focused on removing rainbow trout in order to reestablish native trout populations . This can be done by poisoning rivers with chemicals such as antimycin or rotenone which have been declared safe in the USA by the Environmental Protection Agency . Once the chemicals have dissipated native trout are released into the river . Another method is to use electrofishing which enable the fish to be caught alive and harvested or re @-@ located . This technique has been used in the Great Smokey Mountains National Park to rid it of rainbow trout that were introduced in the 1930s and have thrived ever since . They are hoping to re @-@ establish native brook trout in at least some of the 2100 @-@ mile river system . Neither method of control is 100 % effective and are best regarded as methods to change the relative population sizes of fish species .
= = = Steelhead declines = = =
Steelhead populations in parts of its native range have declined due to a variety of human and natural causes . While populations in Alaska and along the British Columbia coast are considered healthy , populations in Kamchatka and some populations along the U.S. west coast are in decline . The U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service has 15 identified distinct population segments ( DPS ) s , in Washington , Oregon , and California . Eleven of these DPSs are listed under the U.S. Endangered Species Act , ten as threatened and one as endangered . One DPS on the Oregon Coast is designated a U.S. Species of Concern .
The Southern California DPS , which was listed as endangered in 2011 , has been affected by habitat loss due to dams , confinement of streams in concrete channels , water pollution , groundwater pumping , urban heat island effects , and other byproducts of urbanization . Steelhead in the Kamchatka Peninsula are threatened by over @-@ harvest , particularly from poaching and potential development , and are listed in the Red Data Book of Russia that documents rare and endangered species .
= = = = Hatchery stocking influence = = = =
Several studies have shown that almost all California coastal steelhead are of native origin , despite over a century of hatchery stocking . Genetic analysis shows that the South Central California Coast DPS and Southern California DPS from Malibu Creek north , and including the San Gabriel River , Santa Ana River and San Mateo Creek , are not hatchery strains . Steelhead from Topanga Creek and the Sweetwater River were partly , and those from San Juan Creek completely , of hatchery origin . Genetic analysis has also shown that the steelhead in the streams of the Santa Clara County and Monterey Bay basins are not of hatchery origin , including the Coyote Creek , Guadalupe River , Pajaro River , Permanente Creek , Stevens Creek , San Francisquito Creek , San Lorenzo River , and San Tomas Aquino Creek basins . Natural waterfalls and two major dams have isolated Russian River steelhead from freshwater rainbow trout forms above the impassable barriers ; a 2007 genetic study of fin samples collected from steelhead at 20 different sites both above and below passage barriers in the watershed found that although 30 million hatchery trout were stocked in the river from 1911 to 1925 , the steelhead remain of native and not hatchery origin .
Releases of conventionally reared hatchery steelhead pose ecological risks to wild steelhead populations . Hatchery steelhead are typically larger than the wild forms and can displace wild @-@ form juveniles from optimal habitats . Dominance of hatchery steelhead for optimal microhabitats within streams may reduce wild steelhead survival as a result of reduced foraging opportunity and increased rates of predation .
= = Uses = =
= = = Fishing = = =
Rainbow trout and steelhead are highly regarded game fish . Rainbow trout are a popular target for fly fishers , and several angling methods are used . The use of lures presented via spinning , casting or trolling techniques is common . Rainbow trout can also be caught on various live and dead natural baits . The International Game Fish Association recognizes the world record for rainbow trout as a fish caught on Saskatchewan 's Lake Diefenbaker by Sean Konrad on September 5 , 2009 . The fish weighed 48 lb ( 22 kg ) and was a genetically modified hatchery escapee . Many anglers consider the rainbow trout the hardest @-@ fighting trout species , as this fish is known for leaping when hooked and putting up a powerful struggle . It is considered one of the top five sport fish in North America and the most important game fish west of the Rocky Mountains .
There are tribal commercial fisheries for steelhead in Puget Sound , the Washington coast and in the Columbia River , but there has been controversy regarding over @-@ harvesting of native stocks .
The highly desirable sporting qualities and adaptability of the rainbow trout to hatchery rearing and new habitats resulted in it being introduced to many countries around the world by or at the behest of sport fishermen . Many of these introductions have resulted in environmental and ecological problems , as the introduced rainbow trout disrupt local ecosystems and outcompete or eat indigenous fishes . Other introductions to support sport angling in waters either devoid of fish or with seriously depleted native stocks have created world @-@ class fisheries such as in the Firehole River in Yellowstone National Park , and in the Great Lakes .
= = = As food = = =
Rainbow trout is popular in Western cuisine ; both wild @-@ caught and farmed fish are eaten . It has tender flesh and a mild , somewhat nutty flavor . Wild fish has a stronger , gamier taste than farmed fish . While the taste of wild @-@ caught trout is often promoted as superior , it is illegal to sell or market wild @-@ caught rainbow trout , which are legally classified as game fish , in the United States . Thus , rainbow trout and " steelhead " sold in American restaurants is farmed . Farmed rainbow are considered one of the safest fish to eat and are noted for high levels of vitamin B and a generally appealing flavor . Seafood Watch ranks farmed rainbow as a " Best Choice " fish for human consumption .
The color and flavor of the flesh depends on the diet and freshness of the trout . Farmed trout and some populations of wild trout , especially anadromous steelhead , have reddish or orange flesh as a result of high astaxanthin levels in their diets . Astaxanthin is a powerful antioxidant that may be from a natural source or a synthetic trout feed . Rainbow trout raised to have pinker flesh from a diet high in astaxanthin are sometimes sold in the U.S. with labeling calling them " steelhead " . As wild steelhead are in decline in some parts of their range , farmed rainbow are viewed as a preferred alternative . In Chile and Norway , rainbow trout farmed in saltwater sea cages are sold labeled as steelhead .
Trout can be cooked as soon as they are cleaned , without scaling , skinning or filleting . If cooked with the skin on , the meat tends to hold together better . While trout sold commercially in Europe is often prepared and served this way , most trout sold commercially in the U.S. have had heads removed and have been fully or partially deboned and filleted . Medium to heavy bodied white wines , such as chardonnay , sauvignon blanc or pinot gris are typical wine pairings for trout .
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= O Canada =
" O Canada " ( French : Ô Canada ) is the national anthem of Canada . The song was originally commissioned by Lieutenant Governor of Quebec Théodore Robitaille for the 1880 Saint @-@ Jean @-@ Baptiste Day ceremony ; Calixa Lavallée composed the music , after which words were written by the poet and judge Sir Adolphe @-@ Basile Routhier . The lyrics were originally in French and an English version was created in 1906 . Robert Stanley Weir wrote in 1908 another English version , which is the official and most popular version , one that is not a literal translation of the French . Weir 's lyrics have been revised twice , taking their present form in 1980 , but the French lyrics remain unaltered . " O Canada " had served as a de facto national anthem since 1939 , officially becoming Canada 's national anthem in 1980 when the Act of Parliament making it so received Royal Assent and became effective on July 1 as part of that year 's Dominion Day celebrations .
= = Official lyrics = =
The Crown @-@ in @-@ Council established set lyrics for " O Canada " in Canada 's two official languages , English and French . The lyrics are as follows :
Official bilingual version
O Canada !
Our home and native land !
True patriot love in all thy sons command .
Car ton bras sait porter l 'épée ,
Il sait porter la croix !
Ton histoire est une épopée
Des plus brillants exploits .
God keep our land glorious and free !
O Canada , we stand on guard for thee .
O Canada , we stand on guard for thee .
It has been noted that the opening theme of " O Canada " bears a strong resemblance to the " March of the Priests " from the opera The Magic Flute , composed in 1791 by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart . The line " The True North strong and free " is based on the Lord Tennyson 's description of Canada as " that true North , whereof we lately heard / A strain to shame us " . In the context of Tennyson 's poem To the Queen , the word true means " loyal " or " faithful " .
The lyrics and melody of " O Canada " are both in the public domain , a status unaffected by the trademarking of the phrases " with glowing hearts " and " des plus brillants exploits " for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver . Two provinces have adopted Latin translations of phrases from the English lyrics as their mottos : Manitoba — Gloriosus et Liber ( Glorious and Free ) — and Alberta — Fortis et Liber ( Strong and Free ) . Similarly , the Canadian Army 's motto is Vigilamus pro te ( we stand on guard for thee ) .
= = = Lyric changes = = =
Weir 's original lyrics from 1908 contained no religious references and used the phrase " thou dost in us command " before they were changed by Weir in 1914 to read " in all thy sons command " . In 1926 , a fourth verse of a religious nature was added .
In June 1990 , Toronto City Council voted 12 to 7 in favour of recommending to the Canadian government that the phrase " our home and native land " be changed to " our home and cherished land " and that " in all thy sons command " be partly reverted to " in all of us command . " Councillor Howard Moscoe said that the words native land were not appropriate for the many Canadians who were not native @-@ born and that the word sons implied " that women can 't feel true patriotism or love for Canada . " Senator Vivienne Poy similarly criticized the English lyrics of the anthem as being sexist and she introduced a bill in 2002 proposing to change the phrase " in all thy sons command " to " in all of us command . " In the late 2000s , the anthem 's religious references ( to God in English and to the Christian cross in French ) were criticized by secularists .
In the Throne Speech delivered by Governor General Michaëlle Jean on March 3 , 2010 , a plan to have parliament review the " original gender @-@ neutral wording of the national anthem " was announced . However , three @-@ quarters of Canadians polled after the speech objected to the proposal and , two days later , the prime minister 's office announced that the Cabinet had decided not to restore the original lyrics .
In May 2016 , Liberal MP Mauril Bélanger introduced a private member 's Bill C @-@ 210 to change two words in " O Canada " . These proposed changes are said to make the anthem more gender @-@ neutral by changing the words " thy sons " to " of us " . In June 2016 , the bill passed its third reading with a vote of 225 to 74 in the House of Commons .
= = History = =
The original French lyrics of " O Canada " were written by Sir Adolphe @-@ Basile Routhier , to music composed by Calixa Lavallée , as a French Canadian patriotic song for the Saint @-@ Jean @-@ Baptiste Society and first performed on June 24 , 1880 , at a Saint @-@ Jean @-@ Baptiste Day banquet in Quebec City . At that time , the " Chant National " , also by Routhier , was popular amongst Francophones as an anthem , while " God Save the Queen " and " The Maple Leaf Forever " had , since 1867 , been competing as unofficial national anthems in English Canada . " O Canada " joined that fray when a group of school children sang it for the 1901 tour of Canada by the Duke and Duchess of Cornwall ( later King George V and Queen Mary ) .
Five years later , the Whaley and Royce company in Toronto , Ontario , published the music with the French text and a first translation into English by Thomas Bedford Richardson and , in 1908 , Collier 's Weekly magazine held a competition to write new English lyrics for " O Canada " . The competition was won by Mercy E. Powell McCulloch , but her version never gained wide acceptance . In fact , many made English translations of Routhier 's words ; however , the most popular version was created in 1908 by Robert Stanley Weir , a lawyer and Recorder of the City of Montreal . A slightly modified version was officially published for the Diamond Jubilee of Confederation in 1927 , and gradually it became the most widely accepted and performed version of this song .
The tune was thought to have become the de facto national anthem after King George VI remained at attention during its playing at the dedication of the National War Memorial in Ottawa , Ontario , on May 21 , 1939 ; though George was actually following a precedent set by his brother , Edward , the previous king of Canada , when he dedicated the Canadian National Vimy Memorial in France in 1936 . Still , by @-@ laws and practices governing the use of song during public events in municipalities varied ; in Toronto , " God Save the Queen " was employed , while in Montreal it was " O Canada " .
Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson in 1964 said one song would have to be chosen as the country 's national anthem and the government resolved to form a joint committee to review the status of the two musical works . The next year , Pearson put to the House of Commons a motion that " the government be authorized to take such steps as may be necessary to provide that ' O Canada ' shall be the National Anthem of Canada while ' God Save the Queen ' shall be the Royal Anthem of Canada , " of which parliament approved . In 1967 , the Prime Minister advised Governor General Georges Vanier to appoint the Special Joint Committee of the Senate and House of Commons on the National and Royal Anthems ; the group first met in February and , within two months , on April 12 , 1967 , presented its conclusion that " O Canada " should be designated as the national anthem and " God Save the Queen " as the Royal Anthem of Canada , one verse from each , in both official languages , to be adopted by parliament . The group was then charged with establishing official lyrics for each song . For " O Canada " , the Robert Stanley Weir version of 1908 was recommended , with a few minor changes , for the English words ; two of the " stand on guard " phrases were replaced with " from far and wide " and " God keep our land . "
Still , it was not until 1970 that the Queen of Canada purchased the right to the lyrics and music of " O Canada " and 1980 before the song finally became the official national anthem via the National Anthem Act . The act established a religious reference to the English lyrics and the phrase " From far and wide , O Canada " to replace one of the repetitions of the phrase " We stand on guard . " This change was controversial with traditionalists and , for several years afterwards , it was not uncommon to hear people still singing the old lyrics at public events . In contrast , the French version has never been changed from its original .
Gordon V. Thompson Music , Toronto , held the publishing copyright to the English words of the song " O Canada " . Thompson sold that copyright to the Government of Canada for $ 1 , stating : " At a certain point , a song belongs to the people . "
= = = The second and third stanzas : Historical refrain = = =
Below are some slightly different versions of the second and third stanzas and the chorus , plus an additional fourth stanza , but these are rarely sung .
O Canada ! Where pines and maples grow .
Great prairies spread and lordly rivers flow .
How dear to us thy broad domain ,
From East to Western sea .
Thou land of hope for all who toil !
Thou True North , strong and free !
Chorus :
God keep our land glorious and free !
O Canada , we stand on guard for thee .
O Canada , we stand on guard for thee .
O Canada ! Beneath thy shining skies
May stalwart sons , and gentle maidens rise ,
To keep thee steadfast through the years
From East to Western sea .
Our own beloved native land !
Our True North , strong and free !
Chorus
Ruler supreme , who hearest humble prayer ,
Hold our Dominion in thy loving care ;
Help us to find , O God , in thee
A lasting , rich reward ,
As waiting for the better Day ,
We ever stand on guard .
Chorus
= = = Original French version = = =
The first verse is the same . The other verses follow .
= = Performances = =
" O Canada " is routinely played before sporting events involving Canadian teams . Singers at such public events often mix the English and French lyrics to represent Canada 's linguistic duality . Other linguistic variations have also been performed : During the opening ceremonies of the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary , " O Canada " was sung in the southern Tutchone language by Yukon native Daniel Tlen . At a National Hockey League ( NHL ) game in Calgary in February , 2007 , Cree singer Akina Shirt became the first person ever to perform " O Canada " in the Cree language at such an event .
Major League Baseball , Major League Soccer , the National Basketball Association , and the NHL all require venues to perform both the Canadian and American national anthems at games that involve teams from both countries , with the away team 's anthem being performed first , followed by the host country . One American NHL team , the Buffalo Sabres , goes a step further and performs both anthems before every game as a nod to Buffalo 's location near the Canadian border and the team 's substantial number of Canadian fans . Major League Baseball teams have played the song at games involving the Toronto Blue Jays and the former Montreal Expos , and National Basketball Association teams do so for games involving the Toronto Raptors , and previously , the Vancouver Grizzlies . Major League Soccer has the anthem performed at league and Amway Canadian Championship matches involving Toronto FC , Montreal Impact , and Vancouver Whitecaps FC .
= = Laws and etiquette = =
The National Anthem Act specifies the lyrics and melody of " O Canada " , placing both of them in the public domain , allowing the anthem to be freely reproduced or used as a base for derived works , including musical arrangements . There are no regulations governing the performance of " O Canada " , leaving citizens to exercise their best judgment . When it is performed at an event , traditional etiquette is to either start or end the ceremonies with the anthem , including situations when other anthems are played , and for the audience to stand during the performance . Civilian men usually remove their hats , while women and children are not required to do so . Military men and women in uniform traditionally keep their hats on and offer the military salute during the performance of the anthem , with the salute offered in the direction of the Maple Leaf Flag if one is present , and if not present it is offered standing at attention .
= = Adaptations = =
" O Canada " ' s melody , in the 1950s , was adapted to serve as the school anthem for the Ateneo de Manila University in the Philippines , titled " A Song for Mary " or simply " The Ateneo de Manila Graduation Hymn " . The lyrics were written by Rf . James B. Reuter , and the melody was adapted by Col. Jose Campaña .
At the 2016 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game , The Tenors performed " O Canada " , during which one of the group , Remigio Pereira , held up a sign reading " All Lives Matter " while singing " We 're all brothers and sisters , all lives matter to the great " in place of " With glowing hearts we see thee rise , the True North strong and free " .
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= Ian O 'Brien =
Ian Lovett O 'Brien ( born 3 March 1947 ) is an Australian breaststroke swimmer of the 1960s , who won the 200 metre breaststroke at the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo in world record time . He won five Commonwealth Games gold medals and claimed a total of nine individual and six relay titles at the Australian Championships , before retiring at the age of 21 due to financial pressures .
After showing promise at an early age , O 'Brien was sent to Sydney to train under renowned coach Forbes Carlile and his breaststroke assistant Terry Gathercole . He competed in his first national championships in 1962 at the age of 15 , winning the 220 yard breaststroke to gain selection for the 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games in Perth , Western Australia , where he won both the 110 and 220 yd ( 200 m ) breaststroke and the 4 × 110 yd medley relay . He won both breaststroke events at the 1963 Australian Championships , repeating the feat for the next three years . In 1964 , O 'Brien went to the Tokyo Olympics and came from third at the 150 m mark to win the gold medal . He added a bronze in the medley relay . O 'Brien successfully defended both his breaststroke titles at the 1966 British Empire and Commonwealth Games in Kingston , Jamaica , before retiring to support his family . Swimming officials persuaded him to make a comeback for the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City , as Australia did not have a breaststroker , and after a crash diet , came sixth in the 100 m event but failed to reach the final in the 200 m event . He then retired and went into the television industry .
= = Early years = =
O 'Brien grew up in the rural town of Wellington , 360 kilometres ( 225 miles ) from Sydney . Neither of his parents were skilled swimmers . His father Roy knew only one swimming stroke — the breaststroke — and his mother Thelma did not take her first swimming lesson until she was 55 . O 'Brien 's sister Ann was a talented swimmer in her childhood years , but she preferred horseback riding . The local pool was an old @-@ style facility that had no pump system and was only manually drained once a week . Aged four , O 'Brien got his first swimming lessons from the local Learn to Swim program . There were not many non @-@ sporting activities for children in Wellington , and O 'Brien played basketball and rugby league , did athletics , swimming and rode horses . In 1954 , a chlorinated pool was built in the town , leading to the formation of Wellington Swimming Club . At the age of 10 , he began competitive swimming under local coach Bert Eslick , and raced in regional country swimming carnivals at Dubbo , Bathurst and Orange .
After winning all the breaststroke events at the country championships , O 'Brien was taken by his father to the Ryde pool in Sydney in 1960 , to be coached by Forbes Carlile and his assistant , retired world record @-@ breaking breaststroker Terry Gathercole . Carlile was regarded as the leading swimming coach in Australia at the time . At age 13 , O 'Brien was already a large teenager , weighing in at 82 @.@ 6 kg . He only trained with Gathercole during holidays , when his father could take him to Sydney ; Jim Wilkins , a Catholic priest in Bathurst , supervised him according to Gathercole 's program while he was in the countryside . Within a year , O 'Brien rose from being a country carnival champion to a national @-@ level athlete , despite the death of his father in the same year .
= = International debut = =
In 1962 , O 'Brien gained selection for the Australian swimming team at the age of 15 when he won the 220 yard ( yd ) breaststroke at his first Australian Championships in the time of 2 minutes ( min ) 41 @.@ 8 seconds ( s ) . He added a second gold as part of the New South Wales team that won the 4 × 100 m medley relay in a time of 4 min 18 @.@ 3 s . His performances gained him selection for the 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games in Perth . At his first international competition , he won gold in each of his three events . He competed in the 110 yd ( 100 m ) and 220 yd ( 200 m ) breaststroke , defeating fellow Australian William Burton in both events with times of 1 min 11.4s and 2 min 38 @.@ 1 s , respectively . He then completed his campaign with a victory in the 4 × 110 yd medley relay , combining with Julian Carroll , Kevin Berry and David Dickson to complete the race in a time of 4 min 12 @.@ 4 s .
In 1963 , O 'Brien captured the breaststroke double at the Australian Championships , setting personal bests in both events , and was a member of the New South Wales team that won the medley relay . His performances earned him selection for an overseas tour to Europe with the Australian team , competing in the Soviet Union , Germany and England , before visiting Japan and Hong Kong . O 'Brien defended his breaststroke double at the 1964 Australian Championships , lowering his times to 1 min 8 @.@ 1 s and 2 min 32 @.@ 6 s for the 100 metres ( m ) and 200 m breaststroke respectively . He capped off his campaign as well as a third consecutive medley relay triumph for New South Wales . Within a year , he had reduced his times in the two events by more than 3 % . As O 'Brien was widely regarded as Australia 's best breaststroker , he was selected for the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo . O 'Brien joined the rest of the team for the national camp before the Olympics in Ayr in northern Queensland , where he trained under head coach Don Talbot . O 'Brien described Talbot as a " slavedriver " , but felt that the experience was invaluable .
= = Olympic gold = =
Arriving in Tokyo , O 'Brien was nominated in the 200 m event and the medley relay ; the 100 m event was yet to be included in the Olympic program . The favourites for the 200 m breaststroke were Chet Jastremski of the United States — the world record holder — and Georgy Prokopenko of the Soviet Union . Gathercole had modelled O 'Brien 's technique on that of Jastremski , attempting to refine and smoothen it . Years after O 'Brien retired , Harry Gallagher said that " Ian O 'Brien has an almost faultless style and is a great example for Australian youngsters to copy " . O 'Brien was known for the strength that his torso generated , and his powerful kicks ; sports science experiments showed that his vertical jump was especially strong . O 'Brien was also known for his efficient start . He often gained a lead of approximately a metre from his dive and underwater glide at the start , and was able to complete 50 m in 31 @.@ 0 s .
During the final training sessions in Tokyo , Talbot organised time trials for the Australians , which were held in front of opposition swimmers in an attempt to intimidate them . O 'Brien posted a time of 2 min 33 s , which Talbot felt had a negative psychological effect on O 'Brien 's opponents . When competition started , O 'Brien swam an Olympic record to win the first heat by 2 @.@ 0 s . He posted a time of 2 min 31 @.@ 4 s , reducing the previous Olympic mark by 5 @.@ 8 s , an indication of how much the world record had fallen in the preceding four years . However , in the next heat , Egon Henninger of Germany immediately lowered the mark , and by the end of the heats , O 'Brien was the fourth fastest qualifier for the semifinals , with both Prokopenko and Jastremski posting faster times . O 'Brien lowered Henninger 's Olympic record by winning the second semifinal in a time of 2 min 28 @.@ 7 s , after Jastremski had won the first semifinal in a time that was 3 @.@ 4 s slower than O 'Brien . This made O 'Brien the fastest qualifier for the final , with a time that was 1 @.@ 0 s faster than the next qualifier Prokopenko , who came second to him in the second semifinal . O 'Brien planned to swim the race at an even pace and record even splits for the first and second half of the race . He was mindful of not chasing Jastremski , who was known for an aggressive opening style , which resulted in a faster first half .
In the final , Jastremski attacked from the outset as expected , while O 'Brien raced with a characteristically even pace . After being fourth at the halfway mark behind Jastremski , Prokopenko and Henninger , O 'Brien panicked and accelerated in the third 50 m and overtook Jastremski , leaving the American in fourth place . He then moved past Henninger , before overtaking Prokopenko . O 'Brien 's acceleration in the third meant that he tired at the end , but he had enough energy to fend off Prokopenko in the late stages to win the gold medal in a new world record time of 2 min 27 @.@ 8 s , a margin of 0 @.@ 4 s , with Jastremski a further 1 @.@ 4 s in arrears . O 'Brien had reduced his personal best time by more than four seconds during the Olympics to claim an upset win .
The Australian coaches rested O 'Brien for the heats of the 4 × 100 m medley relay ; Peter Tonkin swam the breaststroke leg instead . It turned out to be a close call for the Australians , as they finished fourth in their heat and qualified seventh fastest , only 1 @.@ 2 s from elimination . In the final , O 'Brien was brought into the team to combine with Peter Reynolds , Berry and Dickson . At the end of Reynolds ' backstroke leg , Australia were sixth , 3 @.@ 4 s behind the American leaders . O 'Brien dived in and completed his leg in 1 min 7 @.@ 8 s , a breaststroke split bettered by only Henninger and Prokopenko . This pulled Australia up to fourth position , 1 @.@ 7 s in arrears of the Americans at the halfway mark . Australia progressed further to finish third behind the United States and Germany in a time of 4 min 2 @.@ 3 s , missing the silver by 0 @.@ 7 s .
= = Later career = =
O 'Brien completed a hat @-@ trick of breaststroke doubles at the 1965 Australian Championships , but in a year with no international competition , he swam much slower times of 1 min 11 @.@ 1 s and 2 min 38 @.@ 6 s respectively . He completed a fourth consecutive medley relay win with New South Wales . At the 1966 Australian Championships , his times were again slower , at 1 min 11 @.@ 8 s and 2 min 41 @.@ 6 s respectively , more than 4 % slower than his personal bests , but it was still enough to retain his titles and qualify for the 1966 British Empire and Commonwealth Games in Kingston , Jamaica . Critics had written him off , because just six weeks before the competition , he was 16 kg overweight . However , he returned to his peak form by the time the team reached Jamaica , where he won both breaststroke events with times of 1 min 8 @.@ 2 s and 2 min 29 @.@ 3 s respectively . His winning run in the 4 × 100 m medley relay came to an end when the Australians were disqualified for an illegal changeover .
In 1967 , O 'Brien skipped the Australian Championships because he had no sponsorship and ran out of money , forcing him to seek full @-@ time work . In 1968 , despite Graham Edwards winning the National 200 m breaststroke title , the Australian Swimming Union persuaded an overweight O 'Brien to make a comeback in 1968 on the grounds that Australia did not have a quality breaststroker for the Olympics . Undergoing a crash diet and fitness program , O 'Brien lost 12 @.@ 7 kg in twelve weeks of intense training . O 'Brien was unable to reclaim either of his individual Australian titles , but New South Wales again won the medley relay . Nevertheless , he was selected for his second Olympics .
At the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico , O 'Brien placed second in his heat of the 200 m breaststroke in a time of 2 min 36 @.@ 8 s , which placed him 13th . He was eliminated , having been 2 @.@ 9 s slower than the last @-@ placed qualifier for the final . The eventual winner posted a time 0 @.@ 9 s slower than that of O 'Brien four years earlier . O 'Brien did better in the newly introduced 100 m event , winning his heat in a time of 1 min 8 @.@ 9 s to qualify second @-@ fastest for the semifinals . O 'Brien scraped into the final after coming second in his semifinal in a time of 1 min 9 @.@ 0 s . It was the barest of margins ; O 'Brien was the slowest qualifier and could not be electronically separated from the ninth @-@ fastest semifinalist , with judges being used to decide the placings . O 'Brien went on to finish sixth in a time of 1 min 8 @.@ 6 s .
O 'Brien narrowly missed a medal in the 4 × 100 m medley relay . Along with Michael Wenden , Robert Cusack and Karl Byrom , the Australian quartet won their heat and entered the final as the equal fifth fastest qualifier . In the final , O 'Brien swam his leg in 1 min 8 @.@ 6 s , which was only the fifth fastest breaststroke leg . Australia were fourth at the end of each leg , except O 'Brien 's , when they were third . Australia eventually missed out on the bronze by 0 @.@ 1 s to the Soviet Union . O 'Brien admitted that his training had been insufficient for Olympic standards , noting that " I needed to put on another thousand kilometres in training " . O 'Brien also rued the absence of Talbot to motivate him to work , and had a further accident at the Olympic Village when his fingers were slammed by a closing window . Under competition regulations , he was not allowed to bind his hand during competition .
= = Out of the pool = =
At age 21 , O 'Brien retired after the 1968 Olympics , so he could concentrate solely on making a living . Since his father 's death in 1962 , O 'Brien 's swimming career had caused substantial financial stress for his family , with his mother having to sell the family home to make ends meet . O 'Brien had also been forced to leave high school before he had completed his leaving certificate , so that he could support the family 's income by wrapping parcels . Television and camera work had always interested O 'Brien , and he secured a job as a stagehand for Channel Nine after returning from the Tokyo Olympics , which he held for more than ten years . He then worked for Channel Ten for two years , before working for an independent production company for another two years . In 1979 , he started Videopak , which became one of the largest privately owned television documentary companies in Australia . Videopak 's sound stages were used by public and private television companies .
= = Recognition = =
O 'Brien was inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame in 1986 . In 2000 , he received an Australian Sports Medal .
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= Tropical Storm Debby ( 2006 ) =
Tropical Storm Debby was the fifth tropical storm of the 2006 Atlantic hurricane season . Debby formed just off the coast of Africa on August 21 from a tropical wave . After passing near the Cape Verde islands , Debby moved generally northwestward for much of its life , reaching a peak intensity of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . Strong wind shear weakened the storm , and Debby dissipated on August 27 over the northern Atlantic Ocean .
Early in its life , Debby was forecast to pass through the southern Cape Verde islands as a tropical storm , potentially causing life @-@ threatening flooding . Most computer models consistently predicted Debby to track to the northwest throughout its lifetime , though intensity was more problematic for forecasters . The National Hurricane Center continually predicted Debby to intensify to hurricane status , though strong vertical shear ultimately prevented the storm from becoming a hurricane .
= = Meteorological history = =
A vigorous tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa late on August 20 , and almost immediately developed convective banding and a broad circulation . A broad area of low pressure formed within the wave the next day while located 260 mi ( 420 km ) southeast of the Cape Verde islands . Though convection decreased early on August 21 , the area of low pressure remained well @-@ organized and the system developed into Tropical Depression Four late on August 21 . Water temperatures remained warm enough for development , while upper level shear was minimal as the depression moved west @-@ northwestward due to a ridge of high pressure to its north . Initial predictions by the National Hurricane Center also forecast a motion to the northwest based on consistent model predictions , though , as quoted by forecaster James Franklin , " The models have also been excellently wrong thus far " .
Despite a decrease in convection shortly after forming , the large depression remained well organized , with a wind field 575 mi ( 930 km ) in diameter . On August 22 , as it passed 140 mi ( 225 km ) to south of the Cape Verde islands , deep convection developed over the center of circulation , and early on August 23 the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Debby about 300 mi ( 485 km ) southwest of Cape Verde . Banding features continued to organize as the system slowly strengthened , and on August 23 Debby attained a peak intensity of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) over the open waters of the Atlantic Ocean . Forecasters predicted Debby to continue to intensify to attain hurricane status , while its projected path placed the storm in an area of warm water temperatures and moderate upper level shear .
Shortly after reaching its peak intensity , Debby encountered an area of dry air , and subsequently weakened . The low level circulation detached itself from the diminishing convection while the system as a whole continued west @-@ northwestward . Convection redeveloped over a portion of the center , while banding features redeveloped as well . Organization continued , and Debby again reached its peak intensity of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) on August 24 . Southerly wind shear displaced the convection to the north of the center , and Debby weakened to a minimal tropical storm on August 25 . The center of the storm became asymmetric and elongated , and on August 26 Debby weakened to a tropical depression . Convection remained minimal and it quickly degenerated into a remnant area of low pressure . The low turned to the north and north @-@ northeast ahead of an approaching trough , and on August 28 the low dissipated .
= = Preparation and Impact = =
The government of the Cape Verde islands issued a tropical storm warning coinciding with the issuance of the first advisory on Tropical Depression Four , meaning tropical storm conditions were expected in the area within 24 hours . The National Hurricane Center stated that heavy rainfall , potentially as high as 10 in ( 250 mm ) in mountainous areas , would be possible in the territory , possibly causing life @-@ threatening flash floods and mudslides . However , due to a reformation further to the south , tropical storm warnings were discontinued as the depression moved from the area . While passing around 115 mi ( 185 km ) to the southwest of the southwestern most islands , the depression produced a 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) wind gust at Fogo and some rainfall , though no damage was reported .
Long range forecasts brought the storm near Bermuda . However Debby remained over 900 mi ( 1 @,@ 450 km ) from the island at its closest approach . Though the storm was forecast to remain far away from the Gulf of Mexico , investors tracking the storm caused the price of crude oil to rise 60 cents a barrel due to the potential impact to oil installations .
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= Brown County State Park =
Brown County State Park is located in the United States in the center of the southern half of the state of Indiana . The park is the largest of 24 state parks in Indiana , and occupies 15 @,@ 776 acres ( 63 @.@ 84 km2 ) — making it one of the larger state parks in the United States . It is Indiana 's most visited state park , and has about 1 @.@ 3 million visitors each year . Although Bloomington , Indiana , is the closest city , the park is closer to the small town of Nashville in Brown County . Brown County is named for General Jacob Brown , who fought in the War of 1812 and became Commanding General of the United States Army .
The park opened in 1929 , and was dedicated in 1932 as a memorial to Indiana humorist Frank McKinney " Kin " Hubbard . Although Hubbard lived and worked in Indianapolis , he was a frequent visitor to Nashville and the surrounding woods . The park 's Abe Martin Lodge is named after Hubbard 's fictional backwoodsmen character used to convey Hubbard 's humor and witticisms .
Brown County and its park are known for their scenic views of the hills of southern Indiana . Both are the home of a wide variety of trees that attract visitors each year when the vegetation transforms to its autumn colors . The park also contains many trees that flower in the springtime . Visitors will find a rustic atmosphere , enhanced by an infrastructure that was mostly constructed by the Civilian Conservation Corps during the 1930s . In addition to the park 's lodge , cabins can be rented and campsites are available . The park has trails for hiking , biking and horseback riding . It has two lakes for fishing that complement the surrounding forests and provide a water source for the local wildlife . The area 's beauty attracts artists and photographers worldwide .
= = History = =
= = = Brown County = = =
Brown County was created in 1836 from portions of Monroe , Jackson , and Bartholomew counties , and is named after General Jacob Brown , a hero of the War of 1812 . Early settlers tried farming in Brown County 's hilly woodlands , leading them to clear the forests . Beginning in the 1840s and continuing for the rest of the century , most of Brown County 's forests were cleared . At first , the largest trees were cut for lumber used in the construction industry . In later years , smaller trees were cleared for furniture wood , barrels , railroad ties , and firewood . The rugged land eventually became difficult to farm because of poor quality soil . A combination of poor farming practices and erosion caused by deforestation depleted the soil 's nutrients . Many farmers abandoned the area .
= = = Beginning = = =
At least two people played major roles in the creation of Brown County State Park . Richard Lieber , an Indianapolis businessman who became the first director of the Indiana Department of Conservation , visited Brown County in 1910 . Lieber was so impressed with the beauty of the land that he built a cabin near Nashville and suggested that a portion of the county should be set aside for a state park . Lieber eventually became known as " the father of Indiana 's state parks " , and the state opened 10 state parks ( including Brown County ) during his tenure as director of the Indiana Department of Conservation . Lieber was not the only one from Indianapolis that was impressed with Brown County . In 1923 , the Order of Elks expressed interest in establishing a state park in Brown County .
Lee Bright lived in the small Indiana town of Nashville in Brown County . Bright believed that creation of a state park would restore the economic health of the region through tourism . His idea proved difficult to accomplish , since Indiana law did not allow purchasing land for a state park using state funds . The law did allow funds to be used for a game preserve . By 1926 , Bright , working as the state 's agent , purchased enough land to start a game reserve in Brown County .
= = = Game preserve = = =
Brown County 's game preserve was created in late 1924 . During November , 1924 , the Indiana Department of Conservation appointed a game warden to manage the preserve . The new manager was a resident of Nashville , and familiar with the area . It was also announced that much of the land would be reforested . A total of 7 @,@ 680 acres ( 31 @.@ 1 km2 ) of Brown County land was designated for the propagation of wildlife . Plans were made to surround the reserve with wire fencing , and game wardens patrolled the area . Deer and small game were brought in to propagate . Additional acreage was added in 1927 , increasing the reserve to over 10 @,@ 000 acres ( 40 km2 ) . During the same year , an observation tower was constructed on Weed Patch Hill , the highest point in the area . A dam was constructed in 1928 to create an artificial lake that was expected to cover 10 to 15 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 to 6 @.@ 1 ha ) . It was planned to stock the lake with game fish then allow fishing after two or three years . The lake was completed by the spring of 1929 , and plans were announced to build a second ( and larger ) lake . By January 1929 , the preserve covered about 12 @,@ 000 acres ( 49 km2 ) . Funds from the sale of hunting and fishing licenses were used to acquire the additional land .
= = = State Park = = =
In 1927 , the Indiana state legislature passed a law allowing county commissioners to acquire land for the purpose of establishing a state park , and donate the land to the state conservation department . Brown County State Park was the fourth such park established after this legislation . In 1929 , Brown County commissioners gave the state conservation department 1 @,@ 129 acres ( 4 @.@ 57 km2 ) of land adjacent to the Brown County Game Preserve for the creation of a state park . Four parks had been donated using other means before the legislation , making Brown County State Park Indiana 's eighth state park .
In 1933 , eleven Civilian Conservation Corps groups were established for Indiana 's state forests , game preserves , and state parks . Each group had 200 workers involved in the construction of buildings , bridges , trails , roads , and water supplies . One project was a large shelter in the Brown County game preserve . After training , workers from the Corps arrived in Brown County in 1934 . The Corps began constructing much of the park 's extant infrastructure . They worked to prevent erosion by reforesting with walnut , pine , and spruce trees . A second camp for the Civilian Conservation Corps opened in the park in 1938 . The CCC Trail — the park 's Trail 2 — is one built by the Corps .
Beginning in 1941 , the Brown County Game Preserve and Brown County State Park were unified as a single state park . Since that time , two portions of the park have been designated as nature preserves — giving them additional protection from development . Ogle Hollow Nature Preserve was established in 1970 and consists of 41 acres ( 17 ha ) in Ogle Hollow containing the rare yellowwood tree . The second preserve is the 3 @,@ 349 @-@ acre ( 13 @.@ 55 km2 ) Ten O 'Clock Line Nature Preserve . This preserve was designated in 2010 , and is Indiana 's largest . It also contains yellowwood trees , and is the home of some of Indiana 's deep forest species , including the red bat , timber rattlesnake , and broad @-@ winged hawk . The term " Ten O 'Clock Line " refers to a treaty with the Miami Indians from the early 1800s .
= = = Kin Hubbard = = =
Frank McKinney " Kin " Hubbard ( 1868 – 1930 ) was an American humorist @-@ cartoonist whose humor and witticisms were expressed through fictional backwoods characters living in Brown County . His work ( usually a cartoon and a sentence or two ) appeared every day on the back page of the Indianapolis News , and was syndicated in about 200 newspapers throughout the country . Hubbard was named to the Ohio Journalism Hall of Fame in 1939 , and the Indiana Journalism Hall of Fame in 1967 .
In 1932 , Brown County State Park was dedicated in honor of Kin Hubbard . Abe Martin was Hubbard 's main character , and Brown County State Park 's Abe Martin Lodge is named in his honor . A picture of Hubbard hangs in the lounge of the lodge , and a collection of Hubbard memorabilia is in a room nearby .
= = Description = =
Brown County State Park is the largest of the 24 state parks managed by the Indiana Department of Natural Resources . It is in the center of Indiana 's southern half , " just minutes " from the town of Nashville , Indiana . The park occupies 15 @,@ 543 acres ( 6 @,@ 290 ha ) in Brown County . It has three entrances , adjacent to state roads 46 and 135 . The northern entrance is close to the Abe Martin Lodge , Saddle Barn , tennis courts and a swimming pool . Large trucks and recreational vehicles must use the western entrance . Campers bringing horses must use the southeast entrance , which leads to a specialized campground with hitching posts known as the Horsemen 's Camp . Interstate 65 's Columbus exit is about 13 mi ( 21 km ) east of the park . Indiana University and the city of Bloomington , Indiana , are less than 20 mi ( 32 km ) away .
Brown County is nationally known for its outdoor scenery and dramatic views from southern Indiana hilltops . Brown County State Park affords a number of vistas that overlook wide swaths of deciduous forest that display a large array of colors in the fall . Peak visitation is in the fall during the leaf @-@ changing season . In spring the dogwood , redbud , and serviceberry trees are in bloom . About 1 @.@ 3 million people come to the park each year , including overseas visitors .
Brown County State Park is sometimes called " the Little Smokies " because of similarities with the Smokey Mountains . Activities available in the park include camping , fishing , biking , hiking , and seasonal horseback riding . Many of these activities are available all year . Overnight visitors may stay in the campgrounds , rental cabins , or the Abe Martin Lodge . The park has a nature center and a nature preserve . Within the park boundaries are two manmade lakes : the 17 @-@ acre ( 6 @.@ 9 ha ) Ogle Lake , and 7 @-@ acre ( 2 @.@ 8 ha ) Strahl Lake . The park contains nine mountain bike trails totaling 25 miles ( 40 km ) . Four of the trails are rated as beginner trails , two are considered intermediate , and two advanced . The last trail is rated for experts and is 4 @.@ 1 miles ( 6 @.@ 6 km ) long . A total of slightly over 9 miles ( 14 km ) of hiking trails range from easy to rugged terrain . The park has over 20 miles ( 32 km ) of roads and 70 miles ( 110 km ) of bridle trails . The third highest point in Indiana is located on Trail 10 near a 100 feet ( 30 m ) high fire tower . This point , known as Weed Patch Hill , has an elevation of 1 @,@ 056 feet ( 322 m ) . When settlers first arrived at this hill , they found only a patch of weeds — a tornado had destroyed the trees — leading to the name . Hesitation Point is another vantage point for scenic views .
= = Natural resources = =
= = = Flora = = =
The most important tree in the park is the yellowwood ( Cladrastis lutea ) . This tree typically does not grow further north than central Kentucky , and has been designated as a state threatened species in Indiana . Other trees found in the park include at least four types of oak ( black , chestnut , red , and white ) and three types of hickory ( bitternut , pignut , and shagbark ) . The park also contains at least two types of maple trees : black and sugar . Patches of paw paw trees can be found throughout the park , and these trees produce an edible fruit . In areas with good moist soil , the black walnut tree grows , and this tree is an excellent source of wood for lumber or furniture . Among other trees growing in the park are the American beech , basswood , black cherry , black gum , and red elm . Also the sassafras , sycamore , white ash . The park also contains at least eight kinds of ferns and 20 types of wildflowers , including bloodroot and wild geranium .
= = = Fauna = = =
Mammals typically found in Brown County State Park include white @-@ tailed deer , opossum , eastern gray squirrels , and chipmunks . The larger sycamore trees are sometimes the home of raccoons and flying squirrels . Red bats live in the park 's Ten O 'Clock Line nature preserve . Other animals include the American toad , the eastern box turtle , the spotted salamander , and the red @-@ backed salamander . At least two species of snakes live in the park : the timber rattler and the copperhead . The two lakes contain bass and bluegill .
The park has good bird viewing areas along the trails , near the two lakes , and at the Nature Center . The hooded warbler , pileated woodpecker , and ruffed grouse nest in the park . Goldfinches and northern cardinals can be seen at feeders near the Nature Center . The pileated woodpecker , Acadian flycatcher , eastern wood pewee , white @-@ breasted nuthatch , wood thrush , and yellow @-@ billed cuckoo can all be observed in the park 's Ogle Hollow Nature Preserve . Owls and woodpeckers are known to occupy sycamore trees . The cerulean warbler , whippoorwill , and broad @-@ winged hawk all live in the Ten O 'Clock Nature Preserve . Wild turkeys can be seen ( and heard ) along the park 's Trail 10 , known as the Fire Tower Trail . Other bird species in the park include the blue jay , the crow , the junco , the white @-@ breasted nuthatch , and the robin .
= = = Geology = = =
Glaciers from the most recent ice ages did not reach south far enough to flatten the land in Brown County , though glacier meltwater helped deepen gullies in the region , and made hills steeper . Brown County State Park 's Weed Patch Hill is the highest point in the area , at 1 @,@ 058 feet ( 322 m ) above sea level . The region is part of the Knobstone Escarpment land form , which consists of steep hills and valleys located between northern Brown County and the Ohio River . The rocks in this area contain significant amounts of silica , and were part of a large delta system over 330 million years ago . Brown County 's minerals are part of the Borden Group , and are mostly siltstone . Limestone , dolostone , and chert are the Borden Group 's secondary minerals .
= = = Climate = = =
The Brown County area has a humid subtropical climate , classified as " Cfa " in the Köppen climate classification system . Precipitation is somewhat evenly distributed throughout the year , and temperatures can be relatively high . The record high temperature over the last 99 years for county seat Nashville is 102 ° F ( 39 ° C ) . The record low over the last 99 years is − 17 ° F ( − 27 ° C ) . May is the month with the most precipitation , and February has the least . Most of the area 's snowfall occurs in December , January , and February .
= = Recreation and facilities = =
= = = Places to stay = = =
The park ’ s Abe Martin Lodge , built in 1932 , has 30 guest rooms , two lobbies , a gift shop , and a full @-@ service restaurant . An annex to the lodge has 54 more rooms . An indoor water park was added recently . Rental cabins are available nearby . Each of 20 two @-@ story family cabins can accommodate up to 8 people , and 56 rustic cabins are available . Campers have the choice of two classes of campgrounds — all with restrooms and showers . The Class A campgrounds have electrical hook @-@ ups , while the Class B do not . A horseman ’ s campground is available with one portion having electrical hook @-@ ups , showers , and toilets — while the other portion is more primitive .
= = = Activities = = =
Sight seeing , birdwatching , mountain biking , fishing , hiking and horse riding are all popular activities at Brown County State park . The park has over 25 miles ( 40 km ) of mountain bike trails , including trails endorsed by the International Mountain Bicycling Association and Bike Magazine . Four beginner trails are 1 @.@ 2 miles ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) to 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) long . The expert trail is 4 @.@ 1 miles ( 6 @.@ 6 km ) long .
Fishing is available at two lakes to holders of a state fishing license . Bass and bluegill are stocked at Ogle Lake and the smaller Strahl Lake . Rowboats and electric trolling motors are permitted on Ogle Lake to holders of an Indiana Department of Natural Resources lake permit . Boats are not allowed on Strahl Lake . Licenses and permits are available at the park office , and bait at the park 's country store .
The park has 12 hiking trails that total over 18 miles ( 29 km ) . These trails can be used to access places of interest in the park , including the two lakes , the Ogle Hollow Nature Preserve , Hesitation Point , and lookout towers . The CCC Trail is a moderate difficulty 2 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) trail built by the Civilian Conservation Corps . This trail " crosses over impressive stone bridges , stairways , and retaining walls and passes by the Lower Shelter and the North Lookout Tower , both CCC projects " .
Horseback riding is one of the fastest growing forms of recreation . Brown County State Park has over 20 horse trails , and 11 are wide enough that riders can ride two abreast . These trails range from 0 @.@ 3 miles ( 0 @.@ 48 km ) to nearly 12 miles ( 19 km ) in length . Horseback riders have their own entrance to the park , in the park 's southeast corner , which leads to the horsemen 's campground — also in the southeast of the park . There are facilities typical of the park 's regular and primitive campgrounds and hitch rails . A maximum of six horses per campsite is allowed , and horse permits are mandatory . On the other side of the park , a saddle barn is open from late March through October . Trail rides with a guide , pony rides , and hayrides are available . The barn is located on the north side of the park , not far from the Abe Martin Lodge .
Winter sports include cross @-@ country skiing , sledding , and ice fishing . Cross @-@ country skiing can be done in open fields within the park , though the park does not maintain any trails specifically for skiing , and does not rent ski equipment . Some hills suitable for sledding are located near the park 's swimming pool . Ice fishing is allowed at both lakes for those with a state fishing license . Roads to the lakes sometimes closed due to ice or snow .
= = = Other facilities = = =
A country store is open during the warm season with food , firewood , souvenirs , and bait for fishing . The nature center has a bird observation window and nature exhibits . The country store and nature center are located in the southern portion of the park . A swimming pool and tennis courts are located on the north side near the Abe Martin Lodge . The Olympic @-@ size swimming pool is open from Memorial Day to no later than Labor Day . The park has at least 10 picnic areas , with tables and grills and some with nearby playgrounds and toilet facilities . Picnic shelters can be reserved for fees that vary by shelter .
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= Pulmonary contusion =
A pulmonary contusion ( or lung contusion ) is a contusion ( bruise ) of the lung , caused by chest trauma . As a result of damage to capillaries , blood and other fluids accumulate in the lung tissue . The excess fluid interferes with gas exchange , potentially leading to inadequate oxygen levels ( hypoxia ) . Unlike pulmonary laceration , another type of lung injury , pulmonary contusion does not involve a cut or tear of the lung tissue .
A pulmonary contusion is usually caused directly by blunt trauma but can also result from explosion injuries or a shock wave associated with penetrating trauma . With the use of explosives during World Wars I and II , pulmonary contusion resulting from blasts gained recognition . In the 1960s its occurrence in civilians began to receive wider recognition , in which cases it is usually caused by traffic accidents . The use of seat belts and airbags reduces the risk to vehicle occupants .
Diagnosis is made by studying the cause of the injury , physical examination and chest radiography . Typical signs and symptoms include direct effects of the physical trauma , such as chest pain and coughing up blood , as well as signs that the body is not receiving enough oxygen , such as cyanosis . The contusion frequently heals on its own with supportive care . Often nothing more than supplemental oxygen and close monitoring is needed ; however , intensive care may be required . For example , if breathing is severely compromised , mechanical ventilation may be necessary . Fluid replacement may be required to ensure adequate blood volume , but fluids are given carefully since fluid overload can worsen pulmonary edema , which may be lethal .
The severity ranges from mild to deadly : small contusions may have little or no impact on the patient 's health , yet pulmonary contusion is the most common type of potentially lethal chest trauma . It occurs in 30 – 75 % of severe chest injuries . With an estimated mortality rate of 14 – 40 % , pulmonary contusion plays a key role in determining whether an individual will die or suffer serious ill effects as the result of trauma . Pulmonary contusion is usually accompanied by other injuries . Although associated injuries are often the cause of death , pulmonary contusion is thought to cause death directly in a quarter to half of cases . Children are at especially high risk for the injury because the relative flexibility of their bones prevents the chest wall from absorbing force from an impact , causing it to be transmitted instead to the lung . Pulmonary contusion is associated with complications including pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome , and it can cause long @-@ term respiratory disability .
= = Classification = =
Pulmonary contusion and laceration are injuries to the lung tissue . Pulmonary laceration , in which lung tissue is torn or cut , differs from pulmonary contusion in that the former involves disruption of the macroscopic architecture of the lung , while the latter does not . When lacerations fill with blood , the result is pulmonary hematoma , a collection of blood within the lung tissue . Contusion involves hemorrhage in the alveoli ( tiny air @-@ filled sacs responsible for absorbing oxygen ) , but a hematoma is a discrete clot of blood not interspersed with lung tissue . A collapsed lung can result when the pleural cavity ( the space outside the lung ) accumulates blood ( hemothorax ) or air ( pneumothorax ) or both ( hemopneumothorax ) . These conditions do not inherently involve damage to the lung tissue itself , but they may be associated with it . Injuries to the chest wall are also distinct from but may be associated with lung injuries . Chest wall injuries include rib fractures and flail chest , in which multiple ribs are broken so that a segment of the ribcage is detached from the rest of the chest wall and moves independently .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Presentation may be subtle ; people with mild contusion may have no symptoms at all . However , pulmonary contusion is frequently associated with signs ( objective indications ) and symptoms ( subjective states ) , including those indicative of the lung injury itself and of accompanying injuries . Because gas exchange is impaired , signs of low blood oxygen saturation , such as low concentrations of oxygen in arterial blood gas and cyanosis ( bluish color of the skin and mucous membranes ) are commonly associated . Dyspnea ( painful breathing or difficulty breathing ) is commonly seen , and tolerance for exercise may be lowered . Rapid breathing and a rapid heart rate are other signs . With more severe contusions , breath sounds heard through a stethoscope may be decreased , or rales ( an abnormal crackling sound in the chest accompanying breathing ) may be present . People with severe contusions may have bronchorrhea ( the production of watery sputum ) . Wheezing and coughing are other signs . Coughing up blood or bloody sputum is present in up to half of cases . Cardiac output ( the volume of blood pumped by the heart ) may be reduced , and hypotension ( low blood pressure ) is frequently present . The area of the chest wall near the contusion may be tender or painful due to associated chest wall injury .
Signs and symptoms take time to develop , and as many as half of cases are asymptomatic at the initial presentation . The more severe the injury , the more quickly symptoms become apparent . In severe cases , symptoms may occur as quickly as three or four hours after the trauma . Hypoxemia ( low oxygen concentration in the arterial blood ) typically becomes progressively worse over 24 – 48 hours after injury . In general , pulmonary contusion tends to worsen slowly over a few days , but it may also cause rapid deterioration or death if untreated .
= = Causes = =
Pulmonary contusion is the most common injury found in blunt chest trauma , occurring in 25 – 35 % of cases . It is usually caused by the rapid deceleration that results when the moving chest strikes a fixed object . About 70 % of cases result from motor vehicle collisions , most often when the chest strikes the inside of the car . Falls , assaults , and sports injuries are other causes . Pulmonary contusion can also be caused by explosions ; the organs most vulnerable to blast injuries are those that contain gas , such as the lungs . Blast lung is severe pulmonary contusion , bleeding , or edema with damage to alveoli and blood vessels , or a combination of these . This is the primary cause of death among people who initially survive an explosion . Unlike other mechanisms of injury in which pulmonary contusion is often found alongside other injuries , explosions can cause pulmonary contusion without damage to the chest wall .
In addition to blunt trauma , penetrating trauma can cause pulmonary contusion . Contusion resulting from penetration by a rapidly moving projectile usually surrounds the path along which the projectile traveled through the tissue . The pressure wave forces tissue out of the way , creating a temporary cavity ; the tissue readily moves back into place , but it is damaged . Pulmonary contusions that accompany gun and knife wounds are not usually severe enough to have a major effect on outcome ; penetrating trauma causes less widespread lung damage than does blunt trauma . An exception is shotgun wounds , which can seriously damage large areas of lung tissue through a blast injury mechanism .
= = Mechanism = =
The physical processes behind pulmonary contusion are poorly understood . However , it is known that lung tissue can be crushed when the chest wall bends inward on impact . Three other possible mechanisms have been suggested : the inertial effect , the spalling effect , and the implosion effect .
In the inertial effect , the lighter alveolar tissue is sheared from the heavier hilar structures , an effect similar to diffuse axonal injury in head injury . It results from the fact that different tissues have different densities , and therefore different rates of acceleration or deceleration .
In the spalling effect , lung tissue bursts or is sheared where a shock wave meets the lung tissue , at interfaces between gas and liquid . The alveolar walls form such a gas @-@ liquid interface with the air in the alveoli . The spalling effect occurs in areas with large differences in density ; particles of the denser tissue are spalled ( thrown ) into the less dense particles .
The implosion effect occurs when a pressure wave passes through a tissue containing bubbles of gas : the bubbles first implode , then rebound and expand beyond their original volume . The air bubbles cause many tiny explosions , resulting in tissue damage ; the overexpansion of gas bubbles stretches and tears alveoli . This effect is thought to occur microscopically when the pressure in the airways increases sharply .
Contusion usually occurs on the lung directly under the site of impact , but , as with traumatic brain injury , a contrecoup contusion may occur at the site opposite the impact as well . A blow to the front of the chest may cause contusion on the back of the lungs because a shock wave travels through the chest and hits the curved back of the chest wall ; this reflects the energy onto the back of the lungs , concentrating it . ( A similar mechanism may occur at the front of the lungs when the back is struck . )
The amount of energy transferred to the lung is determined in a large part by the compliance ( flexibility ) of the chest wall . Children 's chests are more flexible because their ribs are more elastic and there is less ossification of their intercostal cartilage . Therefore , their chest walls bend , absorbing less of the force and transmitting more of it to the underlying organs . An adult 's more bony chest wall absorbs more of the force itself rather than transmitting it . Thus children commonly get pulmonary contusions without fractures overlying them , while elderly people are more likely to suffer fractures than contusions . One study found that pulmonary contusions were accompanied by fractures 62 % of the time in children and 80 % of the time in adults .
= = Pathophysiology = =
Pulmonary contusion results in bleeding and fluid leakage into lung tissue , which can become stiffened and lose its normal elasticity . The water content of the lung increases over the first 72 hours after injury , potentially leading to frank pulmonary edema in more serious cases . As a result of these and other pathological processes , pulmonary contusion progresses over time and can cause hypoxia ( insufficient oxygen ) .
= = = Bleeding and edema = = =
In contusions , torn capillaries leak fluid into the tissues around them . The membrane between alveoli and capillaries is torn ; damage to this capillary – alveolar membrane and small blood vessels causes blood and fluids to leak into the alveoli and the interstitial space ( the space surrounding cells ) of the lung . With more severe trauma , there is a greater amount of edema , bleeding , and tearing of the alveoli . Pulmonary contusion is characterized by microhemorrhages ( tiny bleeds ) that occur when the alveoli are traumatically separated from airway structures and blood vessels . Blood initially collects in the interstitial space , and then edema occurs by an hour or two after injury . An area of bleeding in the contused lung is commonly surrounded by an area of edema . In normal gas exchange , carbon dioxide diffuses across the endothelium of the capillaries , the interstitial space , and across the alveolar epithelium ; oxygen diffuses in the other direction . Fluid accumulation interferes with gas exchange , and can cause the alveoli to fill with proteins and collapse due to edema and bleeding . The larger the area of the injury , the more severe respiratory compromise will be .
= = = Consolidation and collapse = = =
Pulmonary contusion can cause parts of the lung to consolidate , alveoli to collapse , and atelectasis ( partial or total lung collapse ) to occur . Consolidation occurs when the parts of the lung that are normally filled with air fill with material from the pathological condition , such as blood . Over a period of hours after the injury , the alveoli in the injured area thicken and may become consolidated . A decrease in the amount of surfactant produced also contributes to the collapse and consolidation of alveoli ; inactivation of surfactant increases their surface tension . Reduced production of surfactant can also occur in surrounding tissue that was not originally injured .
Inflammation of the lungs , which can result when components of blood enter the tissue due to contusion , can also cause parts of the lung to collapse . Macrophages , neutrophils , and other inflammatory cells and blood components can enter the lung tissue and release factors that lead to inflammation , increasing the likelihood of respiratory failure . In response to inflammation , excess mucus is produced , potentially plugging parts of the lung and leading to their collapse . Even when only one side of the chest is injured , inflammation may also affect the other lung . Uninjured lung tissue may develop edema , thickening of the septa of the alveoli , and other changes . If this inflammation is severe enough , it can lead to dysfunction of the lungs like that seen in acute respiratory distress syndrome .
= = = Ventilation / perfusion mismatch = = =
Normally , the ratio of ventilation to perfusion is about one @-@ to @-@ one ; the volume of air entering the alveoli ( ventilation ) is about equal to that of blood in the capillaries around them ( perfusion ) . This ratio is reduced in pulmonary contusion ; fluid @-@ filled alveoli cannot fill with air , oxygen does not fully saturate the hemoglobin , and the blood leaves the lung without being fully oxygenated . Insufficient inflation of the lungs , which can result from inadequate mechanical ventilation or an associated injury such as flail chest , can also contribute to the ventilation / perfusion mismatch . As the mismatch between ventilation and perfusion grows , blood oxygen saturation is reduced . Pulmonary hypoxic vasoconstriction , in which blood vessels near the hypoxic alveoli constrict ( narrow their diameter ) in response to the lowered oxygen levels , can occur in pulmonary contusion . The vascular resistance increases in the contused part of the lung , leading to a decrease in the amount of blood that flows into it , directing blood to better @-@ ventilated areas . Although reducing blood flow to the unventilated alveoli is a way to compensate for the fact that blood passing unventilated alveoli is not oxygenated , the oxygenation of the blood remains lower than normal . If it is severe enough , the hypoxemia resulting from fluid in the alveoli cannot be corrected just by giving supplemental oxygen ; this problem is the cause of a large portion of the fatalities that result from trauma .
= = Diagnosis = =
To diagnose pulmonary contusion , health professionals use clues from a physical examination , information about the event that caused the injury , and radiography . Laboratory findings may also be used ; for example , arterial blood gasses may show insufficient oxygen and excessive carbon dioxide even in someone receiving supplemental oxygen . However , blood gas levels may show no abnormality early in the course of pulmonary contusion .
= = = X @-@ ray = = =
Chest X @-@ ray is the most common method used for diagnosis , and may be used to confirm a diagnosis already made using clinical signs . Consolidated areas appear white on an X @-@ ray film . Contusion is not typically restricted by the anatomical boundaries of the lobes or segments of the lung . The X @-@ ray appearance of pulmonary contusion is similar to that of aspiration , and the presence of hemothorax or pneumothorax may obscure the contusion on a radiograph . Signs of contusion that progress after 48 hours post @-@ injury are likely to be actually due to aspiration , pneumonia , or ARDS .
Although chest radiography is an important part of the diagnosis , it is often not sensitive enough to detect the condition early after the injury . In a third of cases , pulmonary contusion is not visible on the first chest radiograph performed . It takes an average of six hours for the characteristic white regions to show up on a chest X @-@ ray , and the contusion may not become apparent for 48 hours . When a pulmonary contusion is apparent in an X @-@ ray , it suggests that the trauma to the chest was severe and that a CT scan might reveal other injuries that were missed with X @-@ ray .
= = = Computed tomography = = =
Computed tomography ( CT scanning ) is a more sensitive test for pulmonary contusion , and it can identify abdominal , chest , or other injuries that accompany the contusion . In one study , chest X @-@ ray detected pulmonary contusions in 16 @.@ 3 % of people with serious blunt trauma , while CT detected them in 31 @.@ 2 % of the same people . Unlike X @-@ ray , CT scanning can detect the contusion almost immediately after the injury . However , in both X @-@ ray and CT a contusion may become more visible over the first 24 – 48 hours after trauma as bleeding and edema into lung tissues progress . CT scanning also helps determine the size of a contusion , which is useful in determining whether a patient needs mechanical ventilation ; a larger volume of contused lung on CT scan is associated with an increased likelihood that ventilation will be needed . CT scans also help differentiate between contusion and pulmonary hematoma , which may be difficult to tell apart otherwise . However , pulmonary contusions that are visible on CT but not chest X @-@ ray are usually not severe enough to affect outcome or treatment .
= = = Ultrasound = = =
Pulmonary ultrasound , performed at the bedside or on the accident scene , is being explored as a diagnosis for pulmonary contusion . Its use is still not widespread , being limited to facilities which are comfortable with its use for other applications , like pneumothorax , airway management , and hemothorax . Accuracy has been found to be comparable to CT scanning .
= = Prevention = =
Prevention of pulmonary contusion is similar to that of other chest trauma . Airbags in combination with seat belts can protect vehicle occupants by preventing the chest from striking the interior of the vehicle during a collision , and by distributing forces involved in the crash more evenly across the body . However , in rare cases , an airbag causes pulmonary contusion in a person who is not properly positioned when it deploys . Child restraints such as carseats protect children in vehicle collisions from pulmonary contusion . Equipment exists for use in some sports to prevent chest and lung injury ; for example , in softball the catcher is equipped with a chest protector . Athletes who do not wear such equipment , such as basketball players , can be trained to protect their chests from impacts . Protective garments can also prevent pulmonary contusion in explosions . Although traditional body armor made from rigid plates or other heavy materials protects from projectiles generated by a blast , it does not protect against pulmonary contusion , because it does not prevent the blast 's shock wave from being transferred to the lung . Special body armor has been designed for military personnel at high risk for blast injuries ; these garments can prevent a shock wave from being propagated across the chest wall to the lung , and thus protect wearers from blast lung injuries . These garments alternate layers of materials with high and low acoustic impedance ( the product of a material 's density and a wave 's velocity through it ) in order to " decouple " the blast wave , preventing its propagation into the tissues .
= = Treatment = =
No treatment is known to speed the healing of a pulmonary contusion ; the main care is supportive . Attempts are made to discover injuries accompanying the contusion , to prevent additional injury , and to provide supportive care while waiting for the contusion to heal . Monitoring , including keeping track of fluid balance , respiratory function , and oxygen saturation using pulse oximetry is also required as the patient 's condition may progressively worsen . Monitoring for complications such as pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome is of critical importance . Treatment aims to prevent respiratory failure and to ensure adequate blood oxygenation . Supplemental oxygen can be given and it may be warmed and humidified . When the contusion does not respond to other treatments , extracorporeal membranous oxygenation may be used , pumping blood from the body into a machine that oxygenates it and removes carbon dioxide prior to pumping it back in .
= = = Ventilation = = =
Positive pressure ventilation , in which air is forced into the lungs , is needed when oxygenation is significantly impaired . Noninvasive positive pressure ventilation including continuous positive airway pressure ( CPAP ) and bi @-@ level positive airway pressure ( BiPAP ) , may be used to improve oxygenation and treat atelectasis : air is blown into the airways at a prescribed pressure via a face mask . Noninvasive ventilation has advantages over invasive methods because it does not carry the risk of infection that intubation does , and it allows normal coughing , swallowing , and speech . However , the technique may cause complications ; it may force air into the stomach or cause aspiration of stomach contents , especially when level of consciousness is decreased .
People with signs of inadequate respiration or oxygenation may need to be intubated and mechanically ventilated . Mechanical ventilation aims to reduce pulmonary edema and increase oxygenation . Ventilation can reopen collapsed alveoli , but it is harmful for them to be repeatedly opened , and positive pressure ventilation can also damage the lung by overinflating it . Intubation is normally reserved for when respiratory problems occur , but most significant contusions do require intubation , and it may be done early in anticipation of this need . People with pulmonary contusion who are especially likely to need ventilation include those with prior severe lung disease or kidney problems ; the elderly ; those with a lowered level of consciousness ; those with low blood oxygen or high carbon dioxide levels ; and those who will undergo operations with anesthesia . Larger contusions have been correlated with a need for ventilation for longer periods of time .
Pulmonary contusion or its complications such as acute respiratory distress syndrome may cause lungs to lose compliance ( stiffen ) , so higher pressures may be needed to give normal amounts of air and oxygenate the blood adequately . Positive end @-@ expiratory pressure ( PEEP ) , which delivers air at a given pressure at the end of the expiratory cycle , can reduce edema and keep alveoli from collapsing . PEEP is considered necessary with mechanical ventilation ; however , if the pressure is too great it can expand the size of the contusion and injure the lung . When the compliance of the injured lung differs significantly from that of the uninjured one , the lungs can be ventilated independently with two ventilators in order to deliver air at different pressures ; this helps avoid injury from overinflation while providing adequate ventilation .
= = = Fluid therapy = = =
The administration of fluid therapy in individuals with pulmonary contusion is controversial . Excessive fluid in the circulatory system ( hypervolemia ) can worsen hypoxia because it can cause fluid leakage from injured capillaries ( pulmonary edema ) , which are more permeable than normal . However , low blood volume ( hypovolemia ) resulting from insufficient fluid has an even worse impact , potentially causing hypovolemic shock ; for people who have lost large amounts of blood , fluid resuscitation is necessary . A lot of the evidence supporting the idea that fluids should be withheld from people with pulmonary contusion came from animal studies , not clinical trials with humans ; human studies have had conflicting findings on whether fluid resuscitation worsens the condition . Current recommendations suggest giving enough fluid to ensure sufficient blood flow but not giving any more fluid than necessary . For people who do require large amounts of intravenous fluid , a catheter may be placed in the pulmonary artery to measure the pressure within it . Measuring pulmonary artery pressure allows the clinician to give enough fluids to prevent shock without exacerbating edema . Diuretics , drugs that increase urine output to reduce excessive fluid in the system , can be used when fluid overload does occur , as long as there is not a significant risk of shock . Furosemide , a diuretic used in the treatment of pulmonary contusion , also relaxes the smooth muscle in the veins of the lungs , thereby decreasing pulmonary venous resistance and reducing the pressure in the pulmonary capillaries .
= = = Supportive care = = =
Retaining secretions in the airways can worsen hypoxia and lead to infections . Thus , an important part of treatment is pulmonary toilet , the use of suction , deep breathing , coughing , and other methods to remove material such as mucus and blood from the airways . Chest physical therapy makes use of techniques such as breathing exercises , stimulation of coughing , suctioning , percussion , movement , vibration , and drainage to rid the lungs of secretions , increase oxygenation , and expand collapsed parts of the lungs . People with pulmonary contusion , especially those who do not respond well to other treatments , may be positioned with the uninjured lung lower than the injured one to improve oxygenation . Inadequate pulmonary toilet can result in pneumonia . People who do develop infections are given antibiotics . No studies have yet shown a benefit of using antibiotics as a preventative measure before infection occurs , although some doctors do recommend prophylactic antibiotic use even without scientific evidence of its benefit . However , this can cause the development of antibiotic resistant strains of bacteria , so giving antibiotics without a clear need is normally discouraged . For people who are at especially high risk of developing infections , the sputum can be cultured to test for the presence of infection @-@ causing bacteria ; when they are present , antibiotics are used .
Pain control is another means to facilitate the elimination of secretions . A chest wall injury can make coughing painful , increasing the likelihood that secretions will accumulate in the airways . Chest injuries also contribute to hypoventilation ( inadequate breathing ) because the chest wall movement involved in breathing adequately is painful . Insufficient expansion of the chest may lead to atelectasis , further reducing oxygenation of the blood . Analgesics ( pain medications ) can be given to reduce pain . Injection of anesthetics into nerves in the chest wall , called nerve blockade , is another approach to pain management ; this does not depress respiration the way some pain medications can .
= = Prognosis = =
Pulmonary contusion usually resolves itself without causing permanent complications ; however it may also have long @-@ term ill effects on respiratory function . Most contusions resolve in five to seven days after the injury . Signs detectable by radiography are usually gone within 10 days after the injury — when they are not , other conditions , such as pneumonia , are the likely cause . Chronic lung disease correlates with the size of the contusion and can interfere with an individual 's ability to return to work . Fibrosis of the lungs can occur , resulting in dyspnea ( shortness of breath ) , low blood oxygenation , and reduced functional residual capacity for as long as six years after the injury . As late as four years post @-@ injury , decreased functional residual capacity has been found in most pulmonary contusion patients studied . During the six months after pulmonary contusion , up to 90 % of people suffer difficulty breathing . In some cases , dyspnea persists for an indefinite period . Contusion can also permanently reduce the compliance of the lungs .
= = = Complications = = =
Pulmonary contusion can result in respiratory failure — about half of such cases occur within a few hours of the initial trauma . Other severe complications , including infections and acute respiratory distress syndrome ( ARDS ) occur in up to half of cases . Elderly people and those who have heart , lung , or kidney disease prior to the injury are more likely to stay longer in hospital and have complications from the injury . Complications occur in 55 % of people with heart or lung disease and 13 % of those without . Of people with pulmonary contusion alone , 17 % develop ARDS , while 78 % of people with at least two additional injuries develop the condition . A larger contusion is associated with an increased risk . In one study , 82 % of people with 20 % or more of the lung volume affected developed ARDS , while only 22 % of people with less than 20 % did so .
Pneumonia , another potential complication , develops in as many as 20 % of people with pulmonary contusion . Contused lungs are less able to remove bacteria than uninjured lungs , predisposing them to infection . Intubation and mechanical ventilation further increase the risk of developing pneumonia ; the tube is passed through the nose or mouth into the airways , potentially tracking bacteria from the mouth or sinuses into them . Also , intubation prevents coughing , which would clear bacteria @-@ laden secretions from the airways , and secretions pool near the tube 's cuff and allow bacteria to grow . The sooner the endotracheal tube is removed , the lower the risk of pneumonia , but if it is removed too early and has to be put back in , the risk of pneumonia rises . People who are at risk for pulmonary aspiration ( e.g. those with lowered level of consciousness due to head injuries ) are especially likely to get pneumonia . As with ARDS , the chances of developing pneumonia increase with the size of the contusion . Children and adults have been found to have similar rates of complication with pneumonia and ARDS .
= = = Associated injuries = = =
A large amount of force is required to cause pulmonary contusion ; a person injured with such force is likely to have other types of injuries as well . In fact , pulmonary contusion can be used to gauge the severity of trauma . Up to three quarters of cases are accompanied by other chest injuries , the most common of these being hemothorax and pneumothorax . Flail chest is usually associated with significant pulmonary contusion , and the contusion , rather than the chest wall injury , is often the main cause of respiratory failure in people with these injuries . Other indications of thoracic trauma may be associated , including fracture of the sternum and bruising of the chest wall . Over half of fractures of the scapula are associated with pulmonary contusion . The contusion is frequently found underlying fracture sites . When accompanied by a fracture , it is usually concentrated into a specific location — the contusion is more diffuse when there is no fracture . Pulmonary lacerations may result from the same blunt or penetrating forces that cause contusion . Lacerations can result in pulmonary hematomas ; these are reported to develop in 4 – 11 % of pulmonary contusions .
= = Epidemiology = =
Pulmonary contusion is found in 30 – 75 % of severe cases of chest injury , making it the most common serious injury to occur in association with thoracic trauma . Of people who have multiple injuries with an injury severity score of over 15 , pulmonary contusion occurs in about 17 % . It is difficult to determine the death rate ( mortality ) because pulmonary contusion rarely occurs by itself . Usually , deaths of people with pulmonary contusion result from other injuries , commonly traumatic brain injury . It is controversial whether pulmonary contusion with flail chest is a major factor in mortality on its own or whether it merely contributes to mortality in people with multiple injuries . The estimated mortality rate of pulmonary contusion ranges from 14 – 40 % , depending on the severity of the contusion itself and on associated injuries . When the contusions are small , they do not normally increase the chance of death or poor outcome for people with blunt chest trauma ; however , these chances increase with the size of the contusion . One study found that 35 % of people with multiple significant injuries including pulmonary contusion die . In another study , 11 % of people with pulmonary contusion alone died , while the number rose to 22 % in those with additional injuries . Pulmonary contusion is thought to be the direct cause of death in a quarter to a half of people with multiple injuries ( polytrauma ) who die . An accompanying flail chest increases the morbidity and mortality to more than twice that of pulmonary contusion alone .
Pulmonary contusion is the most common cause of death among vehicle occupants involved in accidents , and it is thought to contribute significantly in about a quarter of deaths resulting from vehicle collisions . As vehicle use has increased , so has the number of auto accidents , and with it the number of chest injuries . However an increase in the number of airbags installed in modern cars may be decreasing the incidence of pulmonary contusion . Use of child restraint systems has brought the approximate incidence of pulmonary contusion in children in vehicle accidents from 22 % to 10 % .
Differences in the bodies of children and adults lead to different manifestations of pulmonary contusion and associated injuries ; for example , children have less body mass , so the same force is more likely to lead to trauma in multiple body systems . Since their chest walls are more flexible , children are more vulnerable to pulmonary contusion than adults are , and thus suffer from the injury more commonly . Pulmonary contusion has been found in 53 % of children with chest injuries requiring hospitalization . Children in forceful impacts suffer twice as many pulmonary contusions as adults with similar injury mechanisms , yet have proportionately fewer rib fractures . The rates of certain types of injury mechanisms differ between children and adults ; for example , children are more often hit by cars as pedestrians . Some differences in children 's physiology might be advantageous ( for example they are less likely to have other medical conditions ) , and thus they have been predicted to have a better outcome . However , despite these differences , children with pulmonary contusion have similar mortality rates to adults .
= = History = =
In 1761 , the Italian anatomist Giovanni Battista Morgagni was first to describe a lung injury that was not accompanied by injury to the chest wall overlying it . Nonetheless , it was the French military surgeon Guillaume Dupuytren who is thought to have coined the term pulmonary contusion in the 19th century . It still was not until the early 20th century that pulmonary contusion and its clinical significance began to receive wide recognition . With the use of explosives during World War I came many casualties with no external signs of chest injury but with significant bleeding in the lungs . Studies of World War I injuries by D.R. Hooker showed that pulmonary contusion was an important part of the concussive injury that results from explosions .
Pulmonary contusion received further attention during World War II , when the bombings of Britain caused blast injuries and associated respiratory problems in both soldiers and civilians . Also during this time , studies with animals placed at varying distances from a blast showed that protective gear could prevent lung injuries . These findings suggested that an impact to the outside of the chest wall was responsible for the internal lesions . In 1945 , studies identified a phenomenon termed " wet lung " , in which the lungs accumulated fluid and were simultaneously less able to remove it . They attributed the respiratory failure often seen in blunt chest trauma in part to excessive fluid resuscitation , and the question of whether and how much to administer fluids has remained controversial ever since .
During the Vietnam War , combat again provided the opportunity for study of pulmonary contusion ; research during this conflict played an important role in the development of the modern understanding of its treatment . The condition also began to be more widely recognized in a non @-@ combat context in the 1960s , and symptoms and typical findings with imaging techniques such as X @-@ ray were described . Before the 1960s , it was believed that the respiratory insufficiency seen in flail chest was due to " paradoxical motion " of the flail segment of the chest wall ( the flail segment moves in the opposite direction as the chest wall during respiration ) , so treatment was aimed at managing the chest wall injury , not the pulmonary contusion . For example , positive pressure ventilation was used to stabilize the flail segment from within the chest . It was first proposed in 1965 that this respiratory insufficiency is most often due to injury of the lung rather than to the chest wall , and a group led by J.K. Trinkle confirmed this hypothesis in 1975 . Hence the modern treatment prioritizes the management of pulmonary contusion . Animal studies performed in the late 1960s and 1970s shed light on the pathophysiological processes involved in pulmonary contusion . Studies in the 1990s revealed a link between pulmonary contusion and persistent respiratory difficulty for years after the injury in people in whom the injury coexisted with flail chest . In the next decade studies demonstrated that function in contused lungs improves for years after the injury .
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= The Life and Death of 9413 : a Hollywood Extra =
The Life and Death of 9413 : a Hollywood Extra is a 1928 American silent experimental short film co @-@ written and co @-@ directed by Robert Florey and Slavko Vorkapić . Considered a landmark of American avant @-@ garde cinema , it tells the story of a man ( Jules Raucourt ) who comes to Hollywood with dreams of becoming a star , only to fail and become dehumanized , with studio executives reducing him to the role of extra and writing the number " 9413 " on his forehead .
The film 's visual style includes abrupt cuts , rapid camera movement , extensive superimposition , dim lighting , and shapes and forms in twisted and disoriented angles . Filmed with a budget of only $ 97 ( $ 1 @,@ 337 in today 's dollars ) , it includes a combination of close @-@ ups of live actors and long shots of miniature sets , which were made from such items as cardboard , paper cubes , tin cans , cigar boxes , and toy trains . With no access to Hollywood studios or equipment , most of the filming took place in the filmmakers ' residences , with walls painted black for use as a background .
The story was inspired by Florey 's own experiences in Hollywood , as well as the George Gershwin composition Rhapsody in Blue . It was one of the first films shot by Gregg Toland , who later received acclaim for his work on such films as The Grapes of Wrath ( 1939 ) and Citizen Kane ( 1941 ) . The film serves as a satire of the social conditions , dominant practices , and ideologies of Hollywood , as well as the film industry 's perceived mistreatment of actors . Douglas Fairbanks assisted with the development of the film , and Charlie Chaplin and Joseph M. Schenck helped promote it .
Unlike most experimental films , it received a wide public exhibition , released by FBO Pictures Corporation into more than 700 theaters in North America and Europe . The film was well received by critics , both in its time period and in modern day ; film historian Brian Taves said " more than any other American film , it initiated the avant @-@ garde in this country " . The entirety of the film has not survived . It has been selected for preservation by the National Film Registry , and Florey co @-@ wrote and directed a remake , Hollywood Boulevard ( 1936 ) .
= = Plot = =
Mr. Jones ( Jules Raucourt ) , an artist and aspiring movie star , arrives in Hollywood and is immediately star @-@ struck by the glitz and glamour of the film industry . He speaks with a film studio representative , presenting a letter of recommendation and attempting to speak on his own behalf , but the representative cuts him off and writes the number " 9413 " on his forehead . From this point on , 9413 speaks only in unintelligible gibberish and moves in a mechanical fashion , mindlessly following the instructions of film directors and studio representatives . He goes on a series of casting calls , but is unable to find any success , constantly being confronted with signs that read , " No Casting Today " . A series of images are interspersed throughout these scenes , including shots of Hollywood , cameras filming , the word " DREAMS " written in the stars , and an endlessly repeating loop of a man walking up a stairway toward the word " SUCCESS " , without ever reaching the top .
Unlike 9413 , other extras around him begin to find success . A woman ( Adriane Marsh ) with the number " 13 " on her head constantly kneels and stands back up at the behest of a film director , and eventually succeeds in landing a part , greeted by a " Casting Today " sign . Another extra ( Voya George ) with the number " 15 " , who unlike 9413 has expressionless and unenthusiastic facial expressions , holds paper masks in front of his face , symbolizing his performances . He is greeted with enthusiasm by the cheering masses , all of whom speak in the same gibberish as 9413 . His number 15 is replaced with a star and he achieves tremendous success . 9413 admires this new movie star and attempts to mimic him , presenting his own , much more impressive @-@ looking mask . But the star is unimpressed and disregards 9413 , who sadly cradles his mask like a baby , lamenting his inability to achieve success .
Time passes and 9413 remains unable to find work in Hollywood . Despite constant phone calls to studio representatives begging for work , he is repeatedly confronted by " No Casting Today " signs . He cannot afford to buy food , and bills that he is unable to pay are constantly slipped under his door . A series of images symbolizing his mental anguish are shown , including twisted trees blowing in the wind , and a man laying on the stairway leading to " SUCCESS " , still unable to reach the top . He falls to the ground , starving , exhausted , and in a state of despair over his failures . Finally , he dies , and after images are shown of the other actors laughing at him , his tombstone is revealed to read " Here Lies No. 9413 , a Hollywood Extra " , next to the words " No Casting Today " .
After his death , 9413 's spirit leaves his body and is pulled by a platform into the sky . As he gets higher , he grows angel wings and ascends into heaven , a place with glittering crystal towers and bright blinking lights . A hand removes the " 9413 " from his forehead , and he smiles happily before flying further into heaven .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
Robert Florey and Slavko Vorkapić , who met after Florey attended one of Vorkapić 's American Society of Cinematographers lectures , are credited as co @-@ writers and co @-@ directors of The Life and Death of 9413 : a Hollywood Extra . Accounts differ as to the level of involvement the two men had in the creation of the film , but most identify Florey as primarily responsible . Film historian Brian Taves has claimed Vorkapić was not involved in the writing or direction of the film , and that his contribution was limited to set design and miniature lighting , but that Florey nevertheless insisted on sharing equal credit with him for his role in bringing the film to fruition . Some early journalistic stories about the film uphold this viewpoint , including a 1928 article about Florey in Hollywood Magazine . Taves further claims that while Vorkapić did nothing to promote the film when it was first released , he later exaggerated his role in the production of the film when it became so esteemed . Paul Ivano , who did camerawork on the film , echoed these sentiments , saying : " Vorkapić tries to get credit , but he didn 't do much . " For his part , Vorkapić himself has said the initial idea was Florey 's , and that they discussed it and drafted a rough one @-@ page synopsis together . But Vorkapić said " all the effects were devised , designed , photographed , and added by me " , and that " at least 90 percent of the editing and montage " was his work . He claims to have directed most of the opening and ending sequences himself , while he credits Florey with filming the casting scene and shots of laughing extras , and said the rise of Voya George 's character to stardom was filmed jointly .
Within a few years of his first arrival in Hollywood , Florey conceived the idea of making a film about the common actor 's dreams of becoming a star , and subsequent failure to achieve his hopes . Florey 's work as a publicist and journalist covering the film industry gave him familiarity with the struggles of aspiring actors and their disappointment at failing to achieve their dreams , which informed the writing of A Hollywood Extra . But the final inspiration for the film came after Florey attended a performance of the George Gershwin composition Rhapsody in Blue . Florey had been working in Hollywood for only a few months when he heard the music , and it inspired him to incorporate the rhythm of the blues into a film . He would later describe the film as a " continuity in musical rhythm of the adventures of my extra in Hollywood , the movements and attitudes of which appeared to synchronize themselves with Gershwin 's notes " . Although most avant @-@ garde films of the time emphasized moods rather than emotion , he wanted his script to merge both abstraction and narrative in equal parts . Florey wrote the script in precise detail , describing each shot in proportion to the length of film it would take to shoot it , which was necessary due to the high cost of film stock .
= = = Development = = =
Florey owned no camera at the time , and his efforts to obtain one were unsuccessful until he met Vorkapić . Florey said of their discussion : " I say to Slav , ' Slav , I have an idea but not much money . You have a camera and are a clever painter . Let 's make the picture in collaboration and we split the benefit . ' " Vorkapić himself claimed to have said : " Florey , you get me 100 dollars and I 'll make you a picture in my own kitchen . " Vorkapić allowed Florey to borrow a small box camera that he had purchased with the proceeds from the sale of one of his oil paintings . It was a DeVry camera with one lens , a type that Florey said was sold as a " toy " . Florey also had trouble obtaining film , as he found it cost @-@ prohibitive to purchase negative and positive film from film laboratories . However , Florey knew that " film ends " , scraps of leftover unexposed film stock , were often discarded after shooting on big budget Hollywood films , so he attempted to persuade filmmakers to give them to him . Camera work had just been completed on The Gaucho , a film starring Douglas Fairbanks , and he was able to obtain more than 1 @,@ 000 feet of film from the production in 10- and 20 @-@ foot strips . Florey then spliced the film ends together by hand , a process he found time @-@ consuming and frustrating , but one that resulted in the equivalent of a full reel of negative film . Fairbanks , who had previously hired Florey to handle his European public relations , provided financial assistance for the production of A Hollywood Extra . He also gave Florey access to his editing rooms and helped provide him with film ends .
The film was shot by Gregg Toland , credited simply as " Gregg " , who was simultaneously working as an assistant to cinematographer George Barnes at the Samuel Goldwyn Studio . It was one of the first films for Toland , who later received acclaim for his cinematography on such films as The Grapes of Wrath ( 1939 ) and Citizen Kane ( 1941 ) . The Life and Death of 9413 : a Hollywood Extra cost $ 97 ( $ 1 @,@ 337 today ) to make , which was covered entirely by Florey . The budget was composed of $ 55 ( $ 758 today ) for development and printing , $ 25 ( $ 345 today ) for negatives , $ 14 ( $ 193 today ) for transportation , and $ 3 ( $ 41 today ) for store props , most of which cost five or ten cents individually . From the development costs , the salary expenses for everyone involved in the film totaled $ 3 . Toland had use of a Mitchell camera during filming , which allowed for some shots that would have been impossible with the DeVry carema , including about 300 feet of closeups . Additional camerawork was done by Paul Ivano , and Taves has in fact argued that Ivano was primarily responsible for much of the film 's camerawork , with Toland handling primarily the close @-@ ups . The film was shot on 35 mm film , over a period of three weeks in late 1927 , filmed mostly on weekends . No subtitles are used in the film . Only two captions are used , each with one word – " DREAMS " and " SUCCESS " – but they are created not through subtitles , but by reflecting moving light through cardboard cutouts , creating words among the shadows .
= = = Casting = = =
The role of extra 9413 was played by Jules Raucourt , credited in the film simply as " Raucourt " . Although Raucourt started his career as a leading man of silent action films , he ironically became a film extra himself after cinema transitioned into the sound era . Raucourt later wrote a novel using the title of the film . The role of Extra # 13 was played by Adriane Marsh , herself a film extra , who never again obtained a named role in cinema . Extra # 15 , who then becomes a movie star , was portrayed by Voya George , a personal friend of Vorkapić , who went on to a career in European films . Robert Florey also himself appears in the film as a casting director , although only his disembodied mouth and hand are visible , shaking his finger at the protagonist . Slavko Vorkapić also had a brief role in the film as the man constantly walking up the stairs toward the words " SUCCESS " .
= = = Filming = = =
The filmmakers had no access to a studio , so shooting took place in rooms at their homes , with the walls painted black for use as a background . Herman G. Weinberg , a writer for Movie Makers , and Jack Spears of Films in Review , said it was filmed mostly at Florey 's residence , while film historian David E. James claimed it was filmed in Vorkapić 's kitchen . In an interview , Florey claimed the filming took place both in his kitchen and in Vorkapić 's living room . Some scenes were also filmed in Toland 's garage . The film is shot in three basic types of compositions : miniature sets , close @-@ ups of live actors , and newsreel @-@ like scenes of Hollywood and film studios . The film 's visual motif includes abrupt cuts , rapid camera movement , extensive superimposition , dim lighting , and shapes and forms in twisted and disoriented angles . In this way , it shares some similarities with German Expressionism , particularly the film The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari ( 1920 ) . The opening credits , in particular , are angular and expressionistic . A single 400 @-@ watt lamp was used as lighting in the film ; they originally planned to use two lamps , but one of them burned out before filming began . During close @-@ up shots , the actors would hold the light bulb in their hands so their faces would be lit . When an actor changed position , he or she would switch the bulb from one hand to another . As a result , the faces of the actors are often kept in partial shadow , keeping their features obscured . Toland also used small reflectors that he borrowed from film studios , which included a light bulb hung inside a mirror shaped like a cone . The film 's acting is heavily abstract and stylized , with the actors mouthing gibberish instead of speaking actual words . A record of Rhapsody in Blue was played constantly during filming , so that the actors would , in Florey 's words , become " saturated " with the rhythm of the " blues " . This was a source of aggravation for Florey 's neighbors and landlord .
Scenes of Hollywood cityscapes , as well as shots of heaven at the end of the film , were achieved through the creation of miniature sets that were filmed in long shots to give the appearance that they were large and expansive . A total of 45 sets were built in total , none larger than about two square feet , with the most expensive costing $ 1 @.@ 67 . It took days to prepare these sets . Florey cut cardboard from laundered shirts and shaped them into squares while Vorkapić painted them impressionistically to resemble buildings . The elevated trains in the cityscape scenes were actually toy trains Florey purchased and mounted on pasteboard runaways . He would pull them along the track on a string with one hand while he shot the scene with the other . Movement on the miniature sets was simulated by moving lamps and casting shadows . To make the miniature sets look more realistic and to conceal defects , prisms and kaleidoscopes were placed in front of the camera lens and moved during filming , and cylinder lens systems were used and rotated during shooting to magnify the image to the desired diameter . Florey said this was useful in " giving the scenes the rhythms which we thought they required " .
Skyscrapers in the sets were oblong cubes that were shot from an angle that exaggerated their height . To create the effect of sunlight glimmering off the buildings , one person would stand on one side of the cubes with a mirror , and another would stand on the opposite side with a light bulb and swing it back and forth , so the mirror could catch reflections of the swinging light and throw it back onto the skyscrapers . To create a sense of hysteria and excitement surrounding an opening night performance , a skyscraper was photographed with the camera swinging quickly up and down from side to side . While scenes from miniature sets were composed of long shots , scenes were actors were shot entirely in close @-@ ups , which make up about 300 feet of the final film reel . Rather than attempting to put the actor into the miniature backgrounds through trick photography , the scenes were cut rapidly and successively , so the viewer first sees the actor and then the set , creating the impression they are in the same place . Sets involving actors were minimalistic , with some consisting of only a few elements like a table , telephone , two chairs , and a cigar .
A film studio set was created by photographing several reel spools with strips of film dangling against a background of blinking lights . The casting office was created by silhouetting strips of cardboard against a white background . To portray the mental anguish of the protagonist , strips of paper were cut into the shape of twisted trees , which were silhouetted against a background of moving shadows and set in motion with an electric fan . To create a scene near the end of the film , when the protagonist starts becoming delirious , the camera moves through a maze of different sized cubes , with geometric designs inside them , all placed on a flat , shiny service . The heaven setting was also a miniature set created from paper cubes , tin cans , cigar boxes , toy trains , and a motorized Erector Set . No still photos were taken for the film , but illustrations showing prism and kaleidoscope effects have been made by enlarging frames of negative . The paper prints were considerably softer than the movie print in order to avoid graininess . The final film was edited to a one @-@ reel length of 1 @,@ 200 feet of film strip , featuring about 150 scenes . Florey said it featured the same number of angles as full @-@ length feature films of the time . Although the film was carefully edited to be synchronized with Rhapsody in Blue , much of the original lyrical quality has been lost in shortened and modified versions of the film .
= = Themes and interpretations = =
The film serves as a satire of the social conditions , dominant practices , and ideologies of Hollywood , as well as the film industry 's perceived mistreatment of actors . Filmmaking was becoming more expensive and requiring larger technical resources , particularly with the rise of sound production , making it increasingly difficult for amateur filmmakers to enter the profession . This deepened a divide between amateurs and Hollywood professionals , and as a result , a growing number of amateurs started lampooning Hollywood in their films , including A Hollywood Extra . The subject of the film is an extra who starts his Hollywood career with hopes and dreams , but ultimately finds himself used and discarded by the industry , and his artistic ambitions destroyed . At the start of the film , the protagonist has a name ( Mr. Jones ) and a letter of recommendation outlining his talents , but his abilities are ignored and he is reduced to a number , symbolizing his dehumanization .
The movie star served as an illustration of hero worship in American culture , and the painted masks he dons represent his performances . Actors and spectators alike are portrayed as unintelligent automatons , their mouths yapping senselessly as they respond to Hollywood films and to hand signals from film directors . One scene repeatedly loops the same shot of a man climbing a flight of stairs with the word " SUCCESS " atop it , representing the actors ' vain attempts to find fulfillment and advancement in his career . Film historians William Moritz and David E. James have compared this to a similar scene involving a washerwoman in the Dadaist post @-@ Cubist film Ballet Mécanique ( 1924 ) . Other segments in the A Hollywood Extra are also frequently repeated , like views of the city lights , and shots of " Hollywood " and " No Casting " signs . This further exemplifies the protagonist 's constant struggle to succeed in Hollywood .
The film 's abrupt cuts , artificial scenery , extreme close @-@ ups , and twisted angles all metaphorically amplify the dark and somber narrative . Shots of film producers and critics in A Hollywood Extra are shot from low angles with dark backdrops , giving the characters a powerful and foreboding ambiance . Gregg Toland would make use of similar camera techniques in his later work on Citizen Kane . Due to the lighting , close @-@ ups of the actors ' faces are often shadowed , shrouding some of their features and depriving the characters of wholeness . The all @-@ black backdrops in these close @-@ ups also derive the film of a real @-@ world presence . During a scene in which the protagonist await phone calls to learn about casting decisions , the image of a telephone is superimposed directly onto the actor 's forehead , symbolizing his growing obsession with finding work . His failure to achieve success mocks him even after his death , as the words " No Casting Today " appear next to his gravestone . His death is symbolized by a pair of scissors cutting a film strip .
While the film portrays the reality of the protagonist 's experience in an expressionistic style , the glamour of Hollywood is portrayed more objectively . In reversing these conventional expectations , however , the film invites the viewer to interpret this version of Hollywood as merely " the material of dreams " and " an unreal paradise of cruelty and failure " , according to Taves . Scenes on the streets of Hollywood are filmed with a wildly moving camera from tilted angles , and edited into rapid juxtapositions , to reflect the false and excessive nature of the Hollywood film industry . The protagonist 's ascension to heaven at the end of the film serves simultaneously as a fitting conclusion to the story , and as a satire of Hollywood 's desire for traditional happy endings . As he ascends , heaven is located in the opposite direction from Hollywood , another jab at the industry . James wrote that the vision of heaven as an escape from the film industry 's brutality " figures the avant @-@ garde 's recurrent utopian aspirations " .
The film also touches upon Hollywood 's perceived mistreatment of women . While the male actors wear masks , which symbolize their ability to act , the female Extra # 13 does not wear any and is instead expected to simply stand obediently and listen to the male filmmakers . Her only role is to be an object for men to look upon . The fact that she is able to achieve success by filling this simple role , contrasted against the protagonist 's inability to succeed despite his hard work , reveals how differently the film industry views the roles of male and female actors .
= = Release = =
Although most commonly known by its proper title , The Life and Death of 9413 : a Hollywood Extra has also been released and advertised under different titles at various times , including Hollywood Extra 9413 , and $ 97 , a reference to the film 's low budget . Other titles include The Rhapsody of Hollywood , a name suggested by comic actor and filmmaker Charlie Chaplin , and The Suicide of a Hollywood Extra , a misnomer created by the distributor , FBO Pictures Corporation . While many experimental films from the period were simply screened in the filmmakers ' homes for private audiences of families and friends , A Hollywood Extra received a wide public exhibition . Upon its release , Florey described the film this way :
Sources differ on when and where the film premiered . According to film critic Daniel Eagan , Florey premiered the film in a movie club in Los Angeles , while film writer Anthony Slide wrote that it opened at New York City 's Cameo Theatre on June 17 , 1928 . However , David E. James said the film had its true premiere at Charlie Chaplin 's villa in Beverly Hills , California . Chaplin , who by this time was disenchanted with many aspects of Hollywood filmmaking , was so impressed with the film that he watched it five times , and then screened it for guests at his home . This audience included elites from the film industry , including Douglas Fairbanks , John Considine , Harry d 'Arrast , D. W. Griffith , Jesse L. Lasky , Ernst Lubitsch , Lewis Milestone , Mary Pickford , Joseph M. Schenck , Norma Talmadge , Josef von Sternberg , and King Vidor . The screening was accompanied by a record of Rhapsody in Blue , as well as Chaplin himself playing the organ . Florey was so fearful of a negative reaction due to the film 's satire of Hollywood that he removed his name from the credits and hid in the projection room during the screening . While the audience originally expected it to be one of Chaplin 's gags , they were very impressed with the film , and Schenck arranged for it to be shown on a United Artists Theater on Broadway starting on March 21 , 1928 . A special musical score , based on Rhapsody in Blue , was prepared by Hugo Riesenfeld for the showing , which was played by a live orchestra , and made heavy use of the saxophone . With a presentation usually reserved for bigger budget films , it played twice nightly along with the Gloria Swanson film Sadie Thompson , and was billed as " the first of the impressionistic photoplays to be made in America " .
The film was heavily publicized , which many of the media reports emphasizing its low budget of $ 97 . It achieved enough fame to become picked up for distribution by FBO Pictures Corporation , which eventually became RKO Pictures through a merger . The company released the film to more than 700 theaters in North America and Europe . In North America , it was shown not only in New York and Hollywood , but also in the Philadelphia , Cleveland , Montreal , and Washington , D.C. areas . It played in Philadelphia along with Prem Sanyas ( 1925 ) , but it generated more praise than the main attraction film and earned $ 32 in a single week . A Hollywood Extra became one of the first widely @-@ seen American avant @-@ garde films , not only in the United States but also throughout the Soviet Union and Europe , including England , France , Germany , and Italy . The French rights for the film , along with Florey 's The Love of Zero ( 1928 ) , were sold for $ 390 .
Though the film was made in opposition to classical style , it was embraced by those within the Hollywood industry , and ultimately helped Florey , Vorkapić , and Toland get more prestigious assignments within the film industry . Vorapich was offered a special effects position at Paramount Pictures shortly after A Hollywood Extra was released . Paramount wanted to hire Florey for the position , but after Josef von Sternberg clarified that Vorkapić was most responsible for A Hollywood Extra 's special effects , they made the offer to him . Film production designer William Cameron Menzies was anxious to work with Florey after watching A Hollywood Extra , so the two co @-@ authored The Love of Zero , with Florey directing and Menzies designing the sets .
= = Reception = =
The film was well received by critics , both in its time period and in modern day . One reviewer said it ranked in cinema " where Gertrude Stein ranks in poetry " , while another praised Florey as " the Eugene O 'Neill of the cinema " . A 1929 edition of Movie Makers , the official publication of the Amateur Cinema League , called it a triumph of amateur experimentation and imaginative use of limited resources . In a separate Movie Makers article , Herman G. Weinberg called the scenery " a fantastically beautiful vision of a dream metropolis , done in the expressionistic manner , but done with a fine eye for the camera and the context of the piece " . C. Adolph Glassgold , contributing editor for the journal The Arts , called it " a truly tremendous picture " and said Florey could become " the eventual leader of cinematic art " . He added : " It has movement , tempo , form , intensity of feeling , highly dramatic moments ; in short , it is a real motion picture . " In a Film Mercury review , Anabel Lane predicted Florey would " one day hold a position of one of the bigger film directors " , and said of the film : " If this production had been made in Europe and heralded as a hit , it would ... have been called a masterpiece . " One reviewer from Variety even speculated as to whether A Hollywood Extra was " an unannounced foreign @-@ made short " given how similar in style it was to European art films . Film director Henry King praised the film as " way ahead of its time " and " a stroke of genius " , declaring : " It was the most original thought I ever saw " .
It has also been acclaimed by modern @-@ day film historians and critics , and has often been included in lists of the most prominent experimental films . Brian Taves called it a " landmark " of avant @-@ garde film , and said : " A Hollywood Extra was something entirely new , in both style and substance ; more than any other American film , it initiated the avant @-@ garde in this country . " Film historian William Moritz called it " a genuine little masterpiece " , and " perhaps the most famous American experimental film of the 1920s " . Hye Seung Chung , a film professor at Colorado State University , called the film an " early American avant @-@ garde masterpiece " and described Florey as " one of the most undeservingly neglected B film auteurs " . David E. James called it the " prototypical 20th @-@ century avant @-@ garde film " , and wrote that A Hollywood Extra 's successful commercial distribution indicates experimental films were acceptable among a popular audience during its time period , " rather than only an elite or mandarin audience " . Director and author Lewis Jacobs wrote : " Its style , broad and impressionistic , disclosed a remarkable sensitivity and resourcefulness in the use of props , painting , camera , and editing . "
The entirety of the original A Hollywood Extra has not survived . In 1997 , the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " . The film has been restored and released on two DVD collections : Unseen Cinema : Early American Avant Garde Film 1894 – 1941 , by Image Entertainment , and Avant @-@ Garde : Experimental Cinema of the 1920s and 1930s , by Kino International . In 1996 , the BFI commissioned composer David Sawer to write a score for the film . It and first performed by the Matrix Ensemble , conducted by Robert Ziegler . The work , called Hollywood Extra , is scored for eight musicians and was published by Universal Edition .
= = Remake = =
The Life and Death of 9413 : a Hollywood Extra was adapted into a remake called Hollywood Boulevard ( 1936 ) , which was co @-@ written and directed by Florey . Like in the original film , the remake 's central character is an actor seeking a job in Hollywood , who is subjected to the cruelties of the film industry and the whims of studio executives and film producers . Hollywood Boulevard also includes some visual similarities to the original film , such as unusual angles to reflect the disordered nature of Hollywood . However , the remake includes several subplots that lengthen the running time of the film and make it more attractive to mass audiences , which Brian Taves said " tend ( s ) to diminish the importance of the central characterization , depriving Hollywood Boulevard of the singleness of purpose that made A Hollywood Extra so unforgettable " .
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= Global warming =
Global warming and climate change are terms for the observed century @-@ scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Although the increase of near @-@ surface atmospheric temperature is the measure of global warming often reported in the popular press , most of the additional energy stored in the climate system since 1970 has gone into ocean warming . The remainder has melted ice and warmed the continents and atmosphere . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented over tens to thousands of years .
Scientific understanding of global warming is increasing . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reported in 2014 that scientists were more than 95 % certain that global warming is mostly being caused by human ( anthropogenic ) activities , mainly increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . Human @-@ made carbon dioxide continues to increase above levels not seen in hundreds of thousands of years : currently , about half of the carbon dioxide released from the burning of fossil fuels is not absorbed by vegetation and the oceans and remains in the atmosphere . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0 @.@ 3 to 1 @.@ 7 ° C ( 0 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 1 ° F ) for their lowest emissions scenario using stringent mitigation and 2 @.@ 6 to 4 @.@ 8 ° C ( 4 @.@ 7 to 8 @.@ 6 ° F ) for their highest . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing .
Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large " inertia " and CO2 will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years .
Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . The UNFCCC have adopted a range of policies designed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to assist in adaptation to global warming . Parties to the UNFCCC had agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and as first target the future global warming should be limited to below 2 @.@ 0 ° C ( 3 @.@ 6 ° F ) relative to the pre @-@ industrial level , while the Paris Agreement of 2015 stated that the parties will also " pursue efforts to " limit the temperature increase to 1 @.@ 5 ° F ( 0 @.@ 8 ° C ) .
Public reactions to global warming and general fears of its effects are also steadily on the rise , with a global 2015 Pew Research Center report showing a median of 54 % who consider it " a very serious problem " . There are , however , significant regional differences . Notably , Americans and Chinese , whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions , are among the least concerned .
= = Observed temperature changes = =
The global average ( land and ocean ) surface temperature shows a warming of 0 @.@ 85 [ 0 @.@ 65 to 1 @.@ 06 ] ° C in the period 1880 to 2012 , based on multiple independently produced datasets . Earth 's average surface temperature rose by 0 @.@ 74 ± 0 @.@ 18 ° C over the period 1906 – 2005 . The rate of warming almost doubled for the last half of that period ( 0 @.@ 13 ± 0 @.@ 03 ° C per decade , versus 0 @.@ 07 ± 0 @.@ 02 ° C per decade ) .
The average temperature of the lower troposphere has increased between 0 @.@ 13 and 0 @.@ 22 ° C ( 0 @.@ 23 and 0 @.@ 40 ° F ) per decade since 1979 , according to satellite temperature measurements . Climate proxies show the temperature to have been relatively stable over the one or two thousand years before 1850 , with regionally varying fluctuations such as the Medieval Warm Period and the Little Ice Age .
The warming that is evident in the instrumental temperature record is consistent with a wide range of observations , as documented by many independent scientific groups . Examples include sea level rise , widespread melting of snow and land ice , increased heat content of the oceans , increased humidity , and the earlier timing of spring events , e.g. , the flowering of plants . The probability that these changes could have occurred by chance is virtually zero .
= = = Trends = = =
Temperature changes vary over the globe . Since 1979 , land temperatures have increased about twice as fast as ocean temperatures ( 0 @.@ 25 ° C per decade against 0 @.@ 13 ° C per decade ) . Ocean temperatures increase more slowly than land temperatures because of the larger effective heat capacity of the oceans and because the ocean loses more heat by evaporation . Since the beginning of industrialisation the temperature difference between the hemispheres has increased due to melting of sea ice and snow in the North . Average arctic temperatures have been increasing at almost twice the rate of the rest of the world in the past 100 years ; however arctic temperatures are also highly variable . Although more greenhouse gases are emitted in the Northern than Southern Hemisphere this does not contribute to the difference in warming because the major greenhouse gases persist long enough to mix between hemispheres .
The thermal inertia of the oceans and slow responses of other indirect effects mean that climate can take centuries or longer to adjust to changes in forcing . Climate commitment studies indicate that even if greenhouse gases were stabilized at year 2000 levels , a further warming of about 0 @.@ 5 ° C ( 0 @.@ 9 ° F ) would still occur .
Global temperature is subject to short @-@ term fluctuations that overlay long @-@ term trends and can temporarily mask them . The relative stability in surface temperature from 2002 to 2009 , which has been dubbed the global warming hiatus by the media and some scientists , is consistent with such an episode . 2015 updates to account for differing methods of measuring ocean surface temperature measurements show a positive trend over the recent decade .
= = = Warmest years = = =
15 of the top 16 warmest years have occurred since 2000 . While record @-@ breaking years can attract considerable public interest , individual years are less significant than the overall trend . So some climatologists have criticized the attention that the popular press gives to " warmest year " statistics ; for example , Gavin Schmidt stated " the long @-@ term trends or the expected sequence of records are far more important than whether any single year is a record or not . "
2015 was not only the warmest year on record , it broke the record by the largest margin by which the record has been broken . 2015 was the 39th consecutive year with above @-@ average temperatures . Ocean oscillations like El Niño Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) can affect global average temperatures , for example , 1998 temperatures were significantly enhanced by strong El Niño conditions . 1998 remained the warmest year until 2005 and 2010 and the temperature of both of these years was enhanced by El Niño periods . The large margin by which 2015 is the warmest year is also attributed to another strong El Niño . However , 2014 was ENSO neutral . According to NOAA and NASA , 2015 had the warmest respective months on record for 10 out of the 12 months . The average temperature around the globe was 1 @.@ 62 ˚ F ( 0 @.@ 90 ˚ C ) or 20 % above the twentieth century average . In a first , December 2015 was also the first month to ever reach a temperature 2 degrees Fahrenheit above normal for the planet .
= = Initial causes of temperature changes ( external forcings ) = =
The climate system can warm or cool in response to changes in external forcings . These are " external " to the climate system but not necessarily external to Earth . Examples of external forcings include changes in atmospheric composition ( e.g. , increased concentrations of greenhouse gases ) , solar luminosity , volcanic eruptions , and variations in Earth 's orbit around the Sun .
= = = Greenhouse gases = = =
The greenhouse effect is the process by which absorption and emission of infrared radiation by gases in a planet 's atmosphere warm its lower atmosphere and surface . It was proposed by Joseph Fourier in 1824 , discovered in 1860 by John Tyndall , was first investigated quantitatively by Svante Arrhenius in 1896 , and was developed in the 1930s through 1960s by Guy Stewart Callendar .
On Earth , naturally occurring amounts of greenhouse gases cause air temperature near the surface to be about 33 ° C ( 59 ° F ) warmer than it would be in their absence . Without the Earth 's atmosphere , the Earth 's average temperature would be well below the freezing temperature of water . The major greenhouse gases are water vapor , which causes about 36 – 70 % of the greenhouse effect ; carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , which causes 9 – 26 % ; methane ( CH4 ) , which causes 4 – 9 % ; and ozone ( O3 ) , which causes 3 – 7 % . Clouds also affect the radiation balance through cloud forcings similar to greenhouse gases .
Human activity since the Industrial Revolution has increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , leading to increased radiative forcing from CO2 , methane , tropospheric ozone , CFCs and nitrous oxide . According to work published in 2007 , the concentrations of CO2 and methane have increased by 36 % and 148 % respectively since 1750 . These levels are much higher than at any time during the last 800 @,@ 000 years , the period for which reliable data has been extracted from ice cores . Less direct geological evidence indicates that CO2 values higher than this were last seen about 20 million years ago .
Fossil fuel burning has produced about three @-@ quarters of the increase in CO2 from human activity over the past 20 years . The rest of this increase is caused mostly by changes in land @-@ use , particularly deforestation . Another significant non @-@ fuel source of anthropogenic CO2 emissions is the calcination of limestone for clinker production , a chemical process which releases CO2 . Estimates of global CO2 emissions in 2011 from fossil fuel combustion , including cement production and gas flaring , was 34 @.@ 8 billion tonnes ( 9 @.@ 5 ± 0 @.@ 5 PgC ) , an increase of 54 % above emissions in 1990 . Coal burning was responsible for 43 % of the total emissions , oil 34 % , gas 18 % , cement 4 @.@ 9 % and gas flaring 0 @.@ 7 %
In May 2013 , it was reported that readings for CO2 taken at the world 's primary benchmark site in Mauna Loa surpassed 400 ppm . According to professor Brian Hoskins , this is likely the first time CO2 levels have been this high for about 4 @.@ 5 million years . Monthly global CO2 concentrations exceeded 400 ppm in March 2015 , probably for the first time in several million years . On 12 November 2015 , NASA scientists reported that human @-@ made carbon dioxide continues to increase above levels not seen in hundreds of thousands of years : currently , about half of the carbon dioxide released from the burning of fossil fuels is not absorbed by vegetation and the oceans and remains in the atmosphere .
Over the last three decades of the twentieth century , gross domestic product per capita and population growth were the main drivers of increases in greenhouse gas emissions . CO2 emissions are continuing to rise due to the burning of fossil fuels and land @-@ use change . Emissions can be attributed to different regions . Attributions of emissions due to land @-@ use change are subject to considerable uncertainty .
Emissions scenarios , estimates of changes in future emission levels of greenhouse gases , have been projected that depend upon uncertain economic , sociological , technological , and natural developments . In most scenarios , emissions continue to rise over the century , while in a few , emissions are reduced . Fossil fuel reserves are abundant , and will not limit carbon emissions in the 21st century . Emission scenarios , combined with modelling of the carbon cycle , have been used to produce estimates of how atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases might change in the future . Using the six IPCC SRES " marker " scenarios , models suggest that by the year 2100 , the atmospheric concentration of CO2 could range between 541 and 970 ppm . This is 90 – 250 % above the concentration in the year 1750 .
The popular media and the public often confuse global warming with ozone depletion , i.e. , the destruction of stratospheric ozone ( e.g. , the ozone layer ) by chlorofluorocarbons . Although there are a few areas of linkage , the relationship between the two is not strong . Reduced stratospheric ozone has had a slight cooling influence on surface temperatures , while increased tropospheric ozone has had a somewhat larger warming effect .
= = = Aerosols and soot = = =
Global dimming , a gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface , was observed from 1961 until at least 1990 . Solid and liquid particles known as aerosols , produced by volcanoes and human @-@ made pollutants , are thought to be the main cause of this dimming . They exert a cooling effect by increasing the reflection of incoming sunlight . The effects of the products of fossil fuel combustion – CO2 and aerosols – have partially offset one another in recent decades , so that net warming has been due to the increase in non @-@ CO2 greenhouse gases such as methane . Radiative forcing due to aerosols is temporally limited due to the processes that remove aerosols from the atmosphere . Removal by clouds and precipitation gives tropospheric aerosols an atmospheric lifetime of only about a week , while stratospheric aerosols can remain for a few years . Carbon dioxide has a lifetime of a century or more , and as such , changes in aerosols will only delay climate changes due to carbon dioxide . Black carbon is second only to carbon dioxide for its contribution to global warming .
In addition to their direct effect by scattering and absorbing solar radiation , aerosols have indirect effects on the Earth 's radiation budget . Sulfate aerosols act as cloud condensation nuclei and thus lead to clouds that have more and smaller cloud droplets . These clouds reflect solar radiation more efficiently than clouds with fewer and larger droplets , a phenomenon known as the Twomey effect . This effect also causes droplets to be of more uniform size , which reduces growth of raindrops and makes the cloud more reflective to incoming sunlight , known as the Albrecht effect . Indirect effects are most noticeable in marine stratiform clouds , and have very little radiative effect on convective clouds . Indirect effects of aerosols represent the largest uncertainty in radiative forcing .
Soot may either cool or warm Earth 's climate system , depending on whether it is airborne or deposited . Atmospheric soot directly absorbs solar radiation , which heats the atmosphere and cools the surface . In isolated areas with high soot production , such as rural India , as much as 50 % of surface warming due to greenhouse gases may be masked by atmospheric brown clouds . When deposited , especially on glaciers or on ice in arctic regions , the lower surface albedo can also directly heat the surface . The influences of atmospheric particles , including black carbon , are most pronounced in the tropics and sub @-@ tropics , particularly in Asia , while the effects of greenhouse gases are dominant in the extratropics and southern hemisphere .
= = = Solar activity = = =
Since 1978 , solar irradiance has been measured by satellites . These measurements indicate that the Sun 's radiative output has not increased since 1978 , so the warming during the past 30 years cannot be attributed to an increase in solar energy reaching the Earth .
Climate models have been used to examine the role of the Sun in recent climate change . Models are unable to reproduce the rapid warming observed in recent decades when they only take into account variations in solar output and volcanic activity . Models are , however , able to simulate the observed 20th century changes in temperature when they include all of the most important external forcings , including human influences and natural forcings .
Another line of evidence against solar variations having caused recent climate change comes from looking at how temperatures at different levels in the Earth 's atmosphere have changed . Models and observations show that greenhouse warming results in warming of the lower atmosphere ( the troposphere ) but cooling of the upper atmosphere ( the stratosphere ) . Depletion of the ozone layer by chemical refrigerants has also resulted in a strong cooling effect in the stratosphere . If solar variations were responsible for observed warming , warming of both the troposphere and stratosphere would be expected .
= = = Variations in Earth 's orbit = = =
The tilt of the Earth ’ s axis and the shape of its orbit around the Sun vary slowly over tens of thousands of years and are a natural source of climate change , by changing the seasonal and latitudinal distribution of solar insolation .
During the last few thousand years , this phenomenon contributed to a slow cooling trend at high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere during summer , a trend that was reversed by greenhouse @-@ gas @-@ induced warming during the 20th century .
Variations in orbital cycles may initiate a new glacial period in the future , though the timing of this depends on greenhouse gas concentrations as well as the orbital forcing . A new glacial period is not expected within the next 50 @,@ 000 years if atmospheric CO2 concentration remains above 300 ppm .
= = Feedback = =
The climate system includes a range of feedbacks , which alter the response of the system to changes in external forcings . Positive feedbacks increase the response of the climate system to an initial forcing , while negative feedbacks reduce it .
There are a range of feedbacks in the climate system , including water vapor , changes in ice @-@ albedo ( snow and ice cover affect how much the Earth 's surface absorbs or reflects incoming sunlight ) , clouds , and changes in the Earth 's carbon cycle ( e.g. , the release of carbon from soil ) . The main negative feedback is the energy the Earth 's surface radiates into space as infrared radiation . According to the Stefan @-@ Boltzmann law , if the absolute temperature ( as measured in kelvin ) doubles , radiated energy increases by a factor of 16 ( 2 to the 4th power ) .
Feedbacks are an important factor in determining the sensitivity of the climate system to increased atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations . Other factors being equal , a higher climate sensitivity means that more warming will occur for a given increase in greenhouse gas forcing . Uncertainty over the effect of feedbacks is a major reason why different climate models project different magnitudes of warming for a given forcing scenario . More research is needed to understand the role of clouds and carbon cycle feedbacks in climate projections .
The IPCC projections previously mentioned span the " likely " range ( greater than 66 % probability , based on expert judgement ) for the selected emissions scenarios . However , the IPCC 's projections do not reflect the full range of uncertainty . The lower end of the " likely " range appears to be better constrained than the upper end .
= = Climate models = =
A climate model is a representation of the physical , chemical and biological processes that affect the climate system . Such models are based on scientific disciplines such as fluid dynamics and thermodynamics as well as physical processes such as radiative transfer . The models may be used to predict a range of variables such as local air movement , temperature , clouds , and other atmospheric properties ; ocean temperature , salt content , and circulation ; ice cover on land and sea ; the transfer of heat and moisture from soil and vegetation to the atmosphere ; and chemical and biological processes , among others .
Although researchers attempt to include as many processes as possible , simplifications of the actual climate system are inevitable because of the constraints of available computer power and limitations in knowledge of the climate system . Results from models can also vary due to different greenhouse gas inputs and the model 's climate sensitivity . For example , the uncertainty in IPCC 's 2007 projections is caused by ( 1 ) the use of multiple models with differing sensitivity to greenhouse gas concentrations , ( 2 ) the use of differing estimates of humanity 's future greenhouse gas emissions , ( 3 ) any additional emissions from climate feedbacks that were not included in the models IPCC used to prepare its report , i.e. , greenhouse gas releases from permafrost .
The models do not assume the climate will warm due to increasing levels of greenhouse gases . Instead the models predict how greenhouse gases will interact with radiative transfer and other physical processes . Warming or cooling is thus a result , not an assumption , of the models .
Clouds and their effects are especially difficult to predict . Improving the models ' representation of clouds is therefore an important topic in current research . Another prominent research topic is expanding and improving representations of the carbon cycle .
Models are also used to help investigate the causes of recent climate change by comparing the observed changes to those that the models project from various natural and human causes . Although these models do not unambiguously attribute the warming that occurred from approximately 1910 to 1945 to either natural variation or human effects , they do indicate that the warming since 1970 is dominated by anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions .
The physical realism of models is tested by examining their ability to simulate contemporary or past climates . Climate models produce a good match to observations of global temperature changes over the last century , but do not simulate all aspects of climate . Not all effects of global warming are accurately predicted by the climate models used by the IPCC . Observed Arctic shrinkage has been faster than that predicted . Precipitation increased proportionally to atmospheric humidity , and hence significantly faster than global climate models predict . Since 1990 , sea level has also risen considerably faster than models predicted it would .
= = Observed and expected environmental effects = =
Anthropogenic forcing has likely contributed to some of the observed changes , including sea level rise , changes in climate extremes ( such as the number of warm and cold days ) , declines in Arctic sea ice extent , glacier retreat , and greening of the Sahara .
During the 21st century , glaciers and snow cover are projected to continue their widespread retreat . Projections of declines in Arctic sea ice vary . Recent projections suggest that Arctic summers could be ice @-@ free ( defined as ice extent less than 1 million square km ) as early as 2025 @-@ 2030 .
" Detection " is the process of demonstrating that climate has changed in some defined statistical sense , without providing a reason for that change . Detection does not imply attribution of the detected change to a particular cause . " Attribution " of causes of climate change is the process of establishing the most likely causes for the detected change with some defined level of confidence . Detection and attribution may also be applied to observed changes in physical , ecological and social systems .
= = = Extreme weather = = =
Changes in regional climate are expected to include greater warming over land , with most warming at high northern latitudes , and least warming over the Southern Ocean and parts of the North Atlantic Ocean .
Future changes in precipitation are expected to follow existing trends , with reduced precipitation over subtropical land areas , and increased precipitation at subpolar latitudes and some equatorial regions . Projections suggest a probable increase in the frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , such as heat waves .
A 2015 study published in Nature Climate Change , states :
Data analysis of extreme events from 1960 till 2010 suggests that droughts and heat waves appear simultaneously with increased frequency . Extremely wet or dry events within the monsoon period have increased since 1980 .
= = = Sea level rise = = =
The sea level rise since 1993 has been estimated to have been on average 2 @.@ 6 mm and 2 @.@ 9 mm per year ± 0 @.@ 4 mm . Additionally , sea level rise has accelerated from 1995 to 2015 . Over the 21st century , the IPCC projects for a high emissions scenario , that global mean sea level could rise by 52 – 98 cm . The IPCC 's projections are conservative , and may underestimate future sea level rise . Other estimates suggest that for the same period , global mean sea level could rise by 0 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 0 m ( 0 @.@ 7 – 6 @.@ 6 ft ) , relative to mean sea level in 1992 .
Widespread coastal flooding would be expected if several degrees of warming is sustained for millennia . For example , sustained global warming of more than 2 ° C ( relative to pre @-@ industrial levels ) could lead to eventual sea level rise of around 1 to 4 m due to thermal expansion of sea water and the melting of glaciers and small ice caps . Melting of the Greenland ice sheet could contribute an additional 4 to 7 @.@ 5 m over many thousands of years . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea @-@ level rise of approximately 2 @.@ 3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2 @,@ 000 years .
Warming beyond the 2 ° C target would potentially lead to rates of sea @-@ level rise dominated by ice loss from Antarctica . Continued CO2 emissions from fossil sources could cause additional tens of meters of sea level rise , over the next millennia and eventually ultimately eliminate the entire Antarctic ice sheet , causing about 58 meters of sea level rise .
= = = Ecological systems = = =
In terrestrial ecosystems , the earlier timing of spring events , as well as poleward and upward shifts in plant and animal ranges , have been linked with high confidence to recent warming . Future climate change is expected to affect particular ecosystems , including tundra , mangroves , and coral reefs . It is expected that most ecosystems will be affected by higher atmospheric CO2 levels , combined with higher global temperatures . Overall , it is expected that climate change will result in the extinction of many species and reduced diversity of ecosystems .
Increases in atmospheric CO2 concentrations have led to an increase in ocean acidity . Dissolved CO2 increases ocean acidity , measured by lower pH values . Between 1750 and 2000 , surface @-@ ocean pH has decreased by ≈ 0 @.@ 1 , from ≈ 8 @.@ 2 to ≈ 8 @.@ 1 . Surface @-@ ocean pH has probably not been below ≈ 8 @.@ 1 during the past 2 million years . Projections suggest that surface @-@ ocean pH could decrease by an additional 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 4 units by 2100 . Future ocean acidification could threaten coral reefs , fisheries , protected species , and other natural resources of value to society .
Ocean deoxygenation is projected to increase hypoxia by 10 % , and triple suboxic waters ( oxygen concentrations 98 % less than the mean surface concentrations ) , for each 1 ° C of upper ocean warming .
= = = Long @-@ term effects = = =
On the timescale of centuries to millennia , the magnitude of global warming will be determined primarily by anthropogenic CO2 emissions . This is due to carbon dioxide 's very long lifetime in the atmosphere .
Stabilizing the global average temperature would require large reductions in CO2 emissions , as well as reductions in emissions of other greenhouse gases such as methane and nitrous oxide . Emissions of CO2 would need to be reduced by more than 80 % relative to their peak level . Even if this were achieved , global average temperatures would remain close to their highest level for many centuries .
Long @-@ term effects also include a response from the Earth 's crust , due to ice melting and deglaciation , in a process called post @-@ glacial rebound , when land masses are no longer depressed by the weight of ice . This could lead to landslides and increased seismic and volcanic activities . Tsunamis could be generated by submarine landslides caused by warmer ocean water thawing ocean @-@ floor permafrost or releasing gas hydrates . Some world regions , such as the French Alps , already show signs of an increase in landslide frequency .
= = = Large @-@ scale and abrupt impacts = = =
Climate change could result in global , large @-@ scale changes in natural and social systems . Examples include the possibility for the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation to slow- or shutdown , which in the instance of a shutdown would change weather in Europe and North America considerably , ocean acidification caused by increased atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide , and the long @-@ term melting of ice sheets , which contributes to sea level rise .
Some large @-@ scale changes could occur abruptly , i.e. , over a short time period , and might also be irreversible . Examples of abrupt climate change are the rapid release of methane and carbon dioxide from permafrost , which would lead to amplified global warming , or the shutdown of thermohaline circulation . Scientific understanding of abrupt climate change is generally poor . The probability of abrupt change for some climate related feedbacks may be low . Factors that may increase the probability of abrupt climate change include higher magnitudes of global warming , warming that occurs more rapidly , and warming that is sustained over longer time periods .
= = Observed and expected effects on social systems = =
The effects of climate change on human systems , mostly due to warming or shifts in precipitation patterns , or both , have been detected worldwide . Production of wheat and maize globally has been impacted by climate change . While crop production has increased in some mid @-@ latitude regions such as the UK and Northeast China , economic losses due to extreme weather events have increased globally . There has been a shift from cold- to heat @-@ related mortality in some regions as a result of warming . Livelihoods of indigenous peoples of the Arctic have been altered by climate change , and there is emerging evidence of climate change impacts on livelihoods of indigenous peoples in other regions . Regional impacts of climate change are now observable at more locations than before , on all continents and across ocean regions .
The future social impacts of climate change will be uneven . Many risks are expected to increase with higher magnitudes of global warming . All regions are at risk of experiencing negative impacts . Low @-@ latitude , less developed areas face the greatest risk . A study from 2015 concluded that economic growth ( gross domestic product ) of poorer countries is much more impaired with projected future climate warming , than previously thought .
A meta @-@ analysis of 56 studies concluded in 2014 that each degree of temperature rise will increase violence by up to 20 % , which includes fist fights , violent crimes , civil unrest or wars .
Examples of impacts include :
Food : Crop production will probably be negatively affected in low latitude countries , while effects at northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Global warming of around 4 @.@ 6 ° C relative to pre @-@ industrial levels could pose a large risk to global and regional food security .
Health : Generally impacts will be more negative than positive . Impacts include : the effects of extreme weather , leading to injury and loss of life ; and indirect effects , such as undernutrition brought on by crop failures .
= = = Habitat inundation = = =
In small islands and mega deltas , inundation as a result of sea level rise is expected to threaten vital infrastructure and human settlements . This could lead to issues of homelessness in countries with low @-@ lying areas such as Bangladesh , as well as statelessness for populations in countries such as the Maldives and Tuvalu .
= = = Economy = = =
Estimates based on the IPCC A1B emission scenario from additional CO2 and CH4 greenhouse gases released from permafrost , estimate associated impact damages by US $ 43 trillion .
= = = Infrastructure = = =
Continued permafrost degradation will likely result in unstable infrastructure in Arctic regions , or Alaska before 2100 . Thus , impacting roads , pipelines and buildings , as well as water distribution , and cause slope failures .
= = Possible responses to global warming = =
= = = Mitigation = = =
Mitigation of climate change are actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , or enhance the capacity of carbon sinks to absorb GHGs from the atmosphere . There is a large potential for future reductions in emissions by a combination of activities , including : energy conservation and increased energy efficiency ; the use of low @-@ carbon energy technologies , such as renewable energy , nuclear energy , and carbon capture and storage ; and enhancing carbon sinks through , for example , reforestation and preventing deforestation . A 2015 report by Citibank concluded that transitioning to a low carbon economy would yield positive return on investments .
Near- and long @-@ term trends in the global energy system are inconsistent with limiting global warming at below 1 @.@ 5 or 2 ° C , relative to pre @-@ industrial levels . Pledges made as part of the Cancún agreements are broadly consistent with having a likely chance ( 66 to 100 % probability ) of limiting global warming ( in the 21st century ) at below 3 ° C , relative to pre @-@ industrial levels .
In limiting warming at below 2 ° C , more stringent emission reductions in the near @-@ term would allow for less rapid reductions after 2030 . Many integrated models are unable to meet the 2 ° C target if pessimistic assumptions are made about the availability of mitigation technologies .
= = = Adaptation = = =
Other policy responses include adaptation to climate change . Adaptation to climate change may be planned , either in reaction to or anticipation of climate change , or spontaneous , i.e. , without government intervention . Planned adaptation is already occurring on a limited basis . The barriers , limits , and costs of future adaptation are not fully understood .
A concept related to adaptation is adaptive capacity , which is the ability of a system ( human , natural or managed ) to adjust to climate change ( including climate variability and extremes ) to moderate potential damages , to take advantage of opportunities , or to cope with consequences . Unmitigated climate change ( i.e. , future climate change without efforts to limit greenhouse gas emissions ) would , in the long term , be likely to exceed the capacity of natural , managed and human systems to adapt .
Environmental organizations and public figures have emphasized changes in the climate and the risks they entail , while promoting adaptation to changes in infrastructural needs and emissions reductions .
= = = Climate engineering = = =
Climate engineering ( sometimes called geoengineering or climate intervention ) is the deliberate modification of the climate . It has been investigated as a possible response to global warming , e.g. by NASA and the Royal Society . Techniques under research fall generally into the categories solar radiation management and carbon dioxide removal , although various other schemes have been suggested . A study from 2014 investigated the most common climate engineering methods and concluded they are either ineffective or have potentially severe side effects and cannot be stopped without causing rapid climate change .
= = Discourse about global warming = =
= = = Political discussion = = =
Most countries in the world are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the Convention is to prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . As stated in the Convention , this requires that GHG concentrations are stabilized in the atmosphere at a level where ecosystems can adapt naturally to climate change , food production is not threatened , and economic development can proceed in a sustainable fashion . The Framework Convention was agreed in 1992 , but since then , global emissions have risen .
During negotiations , the G77 ( a lobbying group in the United Nations representing 133 developing nations ) pushed for a mandate requiring developed countries to " [ take ] the lead " in reducing their emissions . This was justified on the basis that : the developed world 's emissions had contributed most to the cumulation of GHGs in the atmosphere ; per @-@ capita emissions ( i.e. , emissions per head of population ) were still relatively low in developing countries ; and the emissions of developing countries would grow to meet their development needs .
This mandate was sustained in the Kyoto Protocol to the Framework Convention , which entered into legal effect in 2005 . In ratifying the Kyoto Protocol , most developed countries accepted legally binding commitments to limit their emissions . These first @-@ round commitments expired in 2012 . United States President George W. Bush rejected the treaty on the basis that " it exempts 80 % of the world , including major population centers such as China and India , from compliance , and would cause serious harm to the US economy . "
At the 15th UNFCCC Conference of the Parties , held in 2009 at Copenhagen , several UNFCCC Parties produced the Copenhagen Accord . Parties associated with the Accord ( 140 countries , as of November 2010 ) aim to limit the future increase in global mean temperature to below 2 ° C. The 16th Conference of the Parties ( COP16 ) was held at Cancún in 2010 . It produced an agreement , not a binding treaty , that the Parties should take urgent action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to meet a goal of limiting global warming to 2 ° C above pre @-@ industrial temperatures . It also recognized the need to consider strengthening the goal to a global average rise of 1 @.@ 5 ° C.
= = = Scientific discussion = = =
There is continuing discussion through published peer @-@ reviewed scientific papers , which are assessed by scientists working in the relevant fields taking part in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The scientific consensus as of 2013 stated in the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report is that it " is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid @-@ 20th century " . A 2008 report by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences stated that most scientists by then agreed that observed warming in recent decades was primarily caused by human activities increasing the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . In 2005 the Royal Society stated that while the overwhelming majority of scientists were in agreement on the main points , some individuals and organisations opposed to the consensus on urgent action needed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions have tried to undermine the science and work of the IPCC . National science academies have called on world leaders for policies to cut global emissions .
In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human @-@ induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view .
= = = Discussion by the public and in popular media = = =
The global warming controversy refers to a variety of disputes , substantially more pronounced in the popular media than in the scientific literature , regarding the nature , causes , and consequences of global warming . The disputed issues include the causes of increased global average air temperature , especially since the mid @-@ 20th century , whether this warming trend is unprecedented or within normal climatic variations , whether humankind has contributed significantly to it , and whether the increase is completely or partially an artifact of poor measurements . Additional disputes concern estimates of climate sensitivity , predictions of additional warming , and what the consequences of global warming will be .
From 1990 to 1997 , right @-@ wing conservative think tanks in the United States mobilized to challenge the legitimacy of global warming as a social problem . They challenged the scientific evidence , argued that global warming will have benefits , and asserted that proposed solutions would do more harm than good . Some people dispute aspects of climate change science . Organizations such as the libertarian Competitive Enterprise Institute , conservative commentators , and some companies such as ExxonMobil have challenged IPCC climate change scenarios , funded scientists who disagree with the scientific consensus , and provided their own projections of the economic cost of stricter controls . On the other hand , some fossil fuel companies have scaled back their efforts in recent years , or even called for policies to reduce global warming . Global oil companies have begun to acknowledge climate change exists and is caused by human activities and the burning of fossil fuels .
= = = = Surveys of public opinion = = = =
The world public , or at least people in economically advanced regions , became broadly aware of the global warming problem in the late 1980s . Polling groups began to track opinions on the subject , at first mainly in the United States . The longest consistent polling , by Gallup in the US , found relatively small deviations of 10 % or so from 1998 to 2015 in opinion on the seriousness of global warming , but with increasing polarization between those concerned and those unconcerned .
The first major worldwide poll , conducted by Gallup in 2008 @-@ 2009 in 127 countries , found that some 62 % of people worldwide said they knew about global warming . In the advanced countries of North America , Europe and Japan , 90 % or more knew about it ( 97 % in the U.S. , 99 % in Japan ) ; in less developed countries , especially in Africa , fewer than a quarter knew about it , although many had noticed local weather changes . Among those who knew about global warming , there was a wide variation between nations in belief that the warming was a result of human activities .
By 2010 , with 111 countries surveyed , Gallup determined that there was a substantial decrease since 2007 – 08 in the number of Americans and Europeans who viewed global warming as a serious threat . In the US , just a little over half the population ( 53 % ) now viewed it as a serious concern for either themselves or their families ; this was 10 points below the 2008 poll ( 63 % ) . Latin America had the biggest rise in concern : 73 % said global warming is a serious threat to their families . This global poll also found that people are more likely to attribute global warming to human activities than to natural causes , except in the US where nearly half ( 47 % ) of the population attributed global warming to natural causes .
A March – May 2013 survey by Pew Research Center for the People & the Press polled 39 countries about global threats . According to 54 % of those questioned , global warming featured top of the perceived global threats . In a January 2013 survey , Pew found that 69 % of Americans say there is solid evidence that the Earth 's average temperature has got warmer over the past few decades , up six points since November 2011 and 12 points since 2009 .
A 2010 survey of 14 industrialized countries found that skepticism about the danger of global warming was highest in Australia , Norway , New Zealand and the United States , in that order , correlating positively with per capita emissions of carbon dioxide .
= = Etymology = =
In the 1950s , research suggested increasing temperatures , and a 1952 newspaper reported " climate change " . This phrase next appeared in a November 1957 report in The Hammond Times which described Roger Revelle 's research into the effects of increasing human @-@ caused CO2 emissions on the greenhouse effect , " a large scale global warming , with radical climate changes may result " . Both phrases were only used occasionally until 1975 , when Wallace Smith Broecker published a scientific paper on the topic ; " Climatic Change : Are We on the Brink of a Pronounced Global Warming ? " The phrase began to come into common use , and in 1976 Mikhail Budyko 's statement that " a global warming up has started " was widely reported . Other studies , such as a 1971 MIT report , referred to the human impact as " inadvertent climate modification " , but an influential 1979 National Academy of Sciences study headed by Jule Charney followed Broecker in using global warming for rising surface temperatures , while describing the wider effects of increased CO2 as climate change .
In 1986 and November 1987 , NASA climate scientist James Hansen gave testimony to Congress on global warming . There were increasing heatwaves and drought problems in the summer of 1988 , and when Hansen testified in the Senate on 23 June he sparked worldwide interest . He said : " global warming has reached a level such that we can ascribe with a high degree of confidence a cause and effect relationship between the greenhouse effect and the observed warming . " Public attention increased over the summer , and global warming became the dominant popular term , commonly used both by the press and in public discourse .
In a 2008 NASA article on usage , Erik M. Conway defined Global warming as " the increase in Earth ’ s average surface temperature due to rising levels of greenhouse gases " , while Climate change was " a long @-@ term change in the Earth ’ s climate , or of a region on Earth . " As effects such as changing patterns of rainfall and rising sea levels would probably have more impact than temperatures alone , he considered global climate change a more scientifically accurate term , and like the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , the NASA website would emphasise this wider context .
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= HD 209458 b =
HD 209458 b ( sometimes unofficially called Osiris ) is an exoplanet that orbits the solar analog HD 209458 in the constellation Pegasus , some 150 light @-@ years from the Solar System . The radius of the planet 's orbit is 7 million kilometres , about 0 @.@ 047 astronomical units , or one eighth the radius of Mercury 's orbit . This small radius results in a year that is 3 @.@ 5 Earth days long and an estimated surface temperature of about 1 @,@ 000 ° C ( about 1 @,@ 800 ° F ) . Its mass is 220 times that of Earth ( 0 @.@ 69 Jupiter masses ) and its volume is some 2 @.@ 5 times greater than that of Jupiter . The high mass and volume of HD 209458 b indicate that it is a gas giant .
HD 209458 b represents a number of milestones in extraplanetary research . It was the first of many categories :
a transiting extrasolar planet
the first planet detected through more than one method
an extrasolar planet known to have an atmosphere
an extrasolar planet observed to have an evaporating hydrogen atmosphere
an extrasolar planet found to have an atmosphere containing oxygen and carbon
one of the first two extrasolar planets to be directly observed spectroscopically
the first extrasolar gas giant to have its superstorm measured
the first planet to have its orbital speed measured , determining its mass directly .
Based on the application of new , theoretical models , as of April 2007 , it is alleged to be the first extrasolar planet found to have water vapor in its atmosphere .
In July , 2014 , NASA announced finding very dry atmospheres on HD 209458 b and two other exoplanets ( HD 189733 b and WASP @-@ 12b ) orbiting Sun @-@ like stars .
= = Detection and discovery = =
= = = Transits = = =
Spectroscopic studies first revealed the presence of a planet around HD 209458 on November 5 , 1999 . Astronomers had made careful photometric measurements of several stars known to be orbited by planets , in the hope that they might observe a dip in brightness caused by the transit of the planet across the star 's face . This would require the planet 's orbit to be inclined such that it would pass between the Earth and the star , and previously no transits had been detected .
Soon after the discovery , separate teams , one led by David Charbonneau including Timothy Brown and others , and the other by Gregory W. Henry , were able to detect a transit of the planet across the surface of the star making it the first known transiting extrasolar planet . On September 9 and 16 , 1999 , Charbonneau 's team measured a 1 @.@ 7 % drop in HD 209458 's brightness , which was attributed to the passage of the planet across the star . On November 8 , Henry 's team observed a partial transit , seeing only the ingress . Initially unsure of their results , the Henry group decided to rush their results to publication after overhearing rumors that Charbonneau had successfully seen an entire transit in September . Papers from both teams were published simultaneously in the same issue of the Astrophysical Journal . Each transit lasts about three hours , during which the planet covers about 1 @.@ 5 % of the star 's face .
The star had been observed many times by the Hipparcos satellite , which allowed astronomers to calculate the orbital period of HD 209458 b very accurately at 3 @.@ 524736 days .
= = = Spectroscopic = = =
Spectroscopic analysis had shown that the planet had a mass about 0 @.@ 69 times that of Jupiter . The occurrence of transits allowed astronomers to calculate the planet 's radius , which had not been possible for any previously known exoplanet , and it turned out to have a radius some 35 % larger than Jupiter 's .
= = = Direct detection = = =
On March 22 , 2005 , NASA released news that infrared light from the planet had been measured by the Spitzer Space Telescope , the first ever direct detection of light from an extrasolar planet . This was done by subtracting the parent star 's constant light and noting the difference as the planet transited in front of the star and was eclipsed behind it , providing a measure of the light from the planet itself . New measurements from this observation determined the planet 's temperature as at least 750 ° C ( 1300 ° F ) . The circular orbit of HD 209458 b was also confirmed .
= = = Spectral observation = = =
On February 21 , 2007 , NASA and Nature released news that HD 209458 b was one of the first two extrasolar planets to have their spectra directly observed , the other one being HD 189733 b . This was long seen as the first mechanism by which extrasolar but non @-@ sentient life forms could be searched for , by way of influence on a planet 's atmosphere . A group of investigators led by Jeremy Richardson of NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center spectrally measured HD 209458 b 's atmosphere in the range of 7 @.@ 5 to 13 @.@ 2 micrometres . The results defied theoretical expectations in several ways . The spectrum had been predicted to have a peak at 10 micrometres which would have indicated water vapor in the atmosphere , but such a peak was absent , indicating no detectable water vapor . Another unpredicted peak was observed at 9 @.@ 65 micrometres , which the investigators attributed to clouds of silicate dust , a phenomenon not previously observed . Another unpredicted peak occurred at 7 @.@ 78 micrometres , which the investigators did not have an explanation for . A separate team led by Mark Swain of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory reanalyzed the Richardson et al. data , and had not yet published their results when the Richardson et al. article came out , but made similar findings .
On 23 June 2010 , astronomers announced they have measured a superstorm ( with windspeeds of up to 7000 km / h ) for the first time in the atmosphere of HD 209458 b . The very high @-@ precision observations done by ESO ’ s Very Large Telescope and its powerful CRIRES spectrograph of carbon monoxide gas show that it is streaming at enormous speed from the extremely hot day side to the cooler night side of the planet . The observations also allow another exciting " first " — measuring the orbital speed of the exoplanet itself , providing a direct determination of its mass .
= = Rotation = =
As of August 2008 , the most recent calculation of HD 209458 b 's Rossiter – McLaughlin effect and hence spin – orbit angle is − 4 @.@ 4 ± 1 @.@ 4 ° .
= = Physical characteristics = =
It had been previously hypothesized that hot Jupiters particularly close to their parent star should exhibit this kind of inflation due to intense heating of their outer atmosphere . Tidal heating due to its orbit 's eccentricity , which may have been more eccentric at formation , may also have played a role over the past billion years .
= = = Stratosphere and upper clouds = = =
The atmosphere is at a pressure of one bar at an altitude of 1 @.@ 29 Jupiter radii above the planet 's center .
Where the pressure is 33 ± 5 millibars , the atmosphere is clear ( probably hydrogen ) and its Rayleigh effect is detectable . At that pressure the temperature is 2200 ± 260 K.
Observations by the orbiting Microvariability and Oscillations of STars telescope initially limited the planet 's albedo ( or reflectivity ) below 0 @.@ 3 , making it a surprisingly dark object . ( The geometric albedo has since been measured to be 0 @.@ 038 ± 0 @.@ 045 . ) In comparison , Jupiter has a much higher albedo of 0 @.@ 52 . This would suggest that HD 209458 b 's upper cloud deck is either made of less reflective material than is Jupiter 's , or else has no clouds and Rayleigh @-@ scatters incoming radiation like Earth 's dark ocean . Models since then have shown that between the top of its atmosphere and the hot , high pressure gas surrounding the mantle , there exists a stratosphere of cooler gas . This implies an outer shell of dark , opaque , hot cloud ; usually thought to consist of vanadium and titanium oxides like red dwarfs ( " pM planets " ) , but other compounds like tholins cannot be ruled out yet . The Rayleigh @-@ scattering heated hydrogen rests at the top of the stratosphere ; the absorptive portion of the cloud deck floats above it at 25 millibars .
= = = Exosphere = = =
Surrounding that level , on November 27 , 2001 the Hubble Space Telescope detected sodium , the first planetary atmosphere outside the Solar System to be measured . This detection was predicted by Sara Seager in late 2001 . The core of the sodium line runs from pressures of 50 millibar to a microbar . This turns out to be about a third the amount of sodium at HD 189733 b .
In 2003 – 4 , astronomers used the Hubble Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph to discover an enormous ellipsoidal envelope of hydrogen , carbon and oxygen around the planet that reaches 10 @,@ 000 K. The hydrogen exosphere extends to a distance RH = 3 @.@ 1 RJ , much larger than the planetary radius of 1 @.@ 32 RJ . At this temperature and distance , the Maxwell – Boltzmann distribution of particle velocities gives rise to a significant ' tail ' of atoms moving at speeds greater than the escape velocity . The planet is estimated to be losing about 100 – 500 million ( 1 – 5 × 108 ) kg of hydrogen per second . Analysis of the starlight passing through the envelope shows that the heavier carbon and oxygen atoms are being blown from the planet by the extreme " hydrodynamic drag " created by its evaporating hydrogen atmosphere . The hydrogen tail streaming from the planet is approximately 200 @,@ 000 kilometres long , which is roughly equivalent to its diameter .
It is thought that this type of atmosphere loss may be common to all planets orbiting Sun @-@ like stars closer than around 0 @.@ 1 AU . HD 209458 b will not evaporate entirely , although it may have lost up to about 7 % of its mass over its estimated lifetime of 5 billion years . It may be possible that the planet 's magnetic field may prevent this loss , because the exosphere would become ionized by the star , and the magnetic field would contain the ions from loss .
= = = Presumed atmospheric water vapor = = =
On April 10 , 2007 , Travis Barman of the Lowell Observatory announced evidence that the atmosphere of HD 209458 b contained water vapor . Using a combination of previously published Hubble Space Telescope measurements and new theoretical models , Barman found strong evidence for water absorption in the planet 's atmosphere . His method modeled light passing directly through the atmosphere from the planet 's star as the planet passed in front of it . However , this hypothesis is still being investigated for confirmation .
Barman drew on data and measurements taken by Heather Knutson , a student at Harvard University , from the Hubble Space Telescope , and applied new theoretical models to demonstrate the likelihood of water absorption in the atmosphere of the planet . The planet orbits its parent star every three and a half days , and each time it passes in front of its parent star , the atmospheric contents can be analyzed by examining how the atmosphere absorbs light passing from the star directly through the atmosphere in the direction of Earth .
According to a summary of the research , atmospheric water absorption in such an exoplanet renders it larger in appearance across one part of the infrared spectrum , compared to wavelengths in the visible spectrum . Barman took Knutson 's Hubble data on HD 209458 b , applied to his theoretical model , and allegedly identified water absorption in the planet 's atmosphere .
On April 24 , the astronomer David Charbonneau , who led the team that made the Hubble observations , cautioned that the telescope itself may have introduced variations that caused the theoretical model to suggest the presence of water . He hoped that further observations would clear the matter up in the following months . As of April 2007 , further investigation is being conducted .
On October 20 , 2009 , researchers at JPL announced the discovery of water vapor , carbon dioxide , and methane in the atmosphere .
= = Magnetic field = =
In 2014 , a magnetic field around HD 209458 b was inferred from the way hydrogen was evaporating from the planet . It is the first ( indirect ) detection of a magnetic field on an exoplanet . The magnetic field is estimated to be about one tenth as strong as Jupiter 's .
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= Budapest Gambit =
The Budapest Gambit ( or Budapest Defence ) is a chess opening that begins with the moves :
1 @.@ d4 Nf6
2 @.@ c4 e5
Despite an early debut in 1896 , the Budapest Gambit received attention from leading players only after a win as Black by Grandmaster Milan Vidmar over Akiba Rubinstein in 1918 . [ 1 ] It enjoyed a rise in popularity in the early 1920s , but nowadays is rarely played at the top level . It experiences a lower percentage of draws than other main lines , but also a lower overall performance for Black .
After 3.dxe5 Black can try the Fajarowicz variation 3 ... Ne4 which concentrates on the rapid development of the pieces , but the most common move is 3 ... Ng4 with three main possibilities for White . The Adler variation 4.Nf3 sees White seeking a spatial advantage in the centre with his pieces , notably the important d5 @-@ square . The Alekhine variation 4.e4 gives White an important spatial advantage and a strong pawn centre . The Rubinstein variation 4.Bf4 leads to an important choice for White , after 4 ... Nc6 5.Nf3 Bb4 + , between 6.Nbd2 and 6.Nc3. The reply 6.Nbd2 brings a positional game in which White enjoys the bishop pair and tries to break through on the queenside , while 6.Nc3 keeps the material advantage of a pawn at the cost of a weakening of the white pawn structure . Black usually looks to have an aggressive game ( many lines of which can shock opponents that do not know the theory ) or cripple white 's pawn structure .
The Budapest Gambit contains several specific strategic themes . After 3.dxe5 Ng4 , there is a battle over White 's extra pawn on e5 , which Black typically attacks with ... Nc6 and ( after ... Bc5 or ... Bb4 + ) ... Qe7 , while White often defends it with Bf4 , Nf3 , and sometimes Qd5 . In the 4.Nf3 variation the game can evolve either with Black attacking White 's kingside with manoeuvres of rook lifts , or with White attacking Black 's kingside with the push f2 – f4 , in which case Black reacts in the centre against the e3 @-@ pawn . In numerous variations the move c4 – c5 allows White to gain space and to open prospects for his light @-@ square bishop . For Black , the check Bf8 – b4 + often allows rapid development .
= = History = =
In a Chess Notes feature article , Edward Winter showed that the origins of this opening are not yet entirely elucidated . The first known game with the Budapest Gambit is Adler – Maróczy ( played in Budapest in 1896 ) . This game already featured some key aspects of the gambit , such as active play for the black pieces , and White making the typical mistake of moving the queen too early . As the player of the white pieces was not a strong player , the new opening went unnoticed apart from the local experts who had witnessed the game . The Hungarians István Abonyi , Zsigmond Barász and Gyula Breyer further developed the opening . Abonyi played it in 1916 against the Dutch surgeon Johannes Esser in a small tournament in Budapest . The Austrian player Josef Emil Krejcik played it against Helmer in Vienna in 1917 . Carl Schlechter published an optimistic analysis of the gambit in the Deutsche Schachzeitung .
The first use of the opening against a world @-@ class player was at Berlin in April 1918 , a double round @-@ robin tournament with four players : Akiba Rubinstein , Carl Schlechter , Jacques Mieses and Milan Vidmar . Vidmar had to play Black in the first round against Rubinstein , then ranked the fourth best player in the world with a very positional style . At a loss for what to play , he sought advice from his friend Abonyi , who showed him the Budapest Gambit and the main ideas the Hungarian players had found . Vidmar followed Abonyi 's advice and beat Rubinstein convincingly in just 24 moves . This victory so heartened Vidmar that he went on to win the tournament , while Rubinstein was so demoralised by this defeat that he lost another game against Mieses and drew a third one against Schlechter in the same opening .
After this tournament , the gambit finally began to be taken seriously . Top players like Savielly Tartakower and Siegbert Tarrasch started to play it . Schlechter published in 1918 the monograph Die budapester Verteidigung des Damengambits , which can be considered the first book on this opening . The gambit reached its peak of popularity ( around five Budapest Gambits for every thousand games played ) around 1920 , so much so that many White players adopted the move @-@ order 1.d4 Nf6 2.Nf3 to avoid it .
The leading exponents of 1.d4 started to look for reliable antidotes . Alexander Alekhine showed how White could get a strong attack with 4.e4 in his games against Ilya Rabinovich ( Baden @-@ Baden 1925 ) and Adolf Seitz ( Hastings 1925 – 26 ) . But a few weeks later a theme tournament on the Budapest Gambit was held , in Budapest , and the result was 14 ½ – 21 ½ in Black 's favor . Another tournament in Semmering the same year saw Alekhine losing to Karl Gilg in his pet line with White against the gambit , so that the e4 @-@ line had a mixed reputation . Meanwhile , more positional plans were also developed for White . Rubinstein showed how White could get a small positional advantage with 4.Bf4 Nc6 5.Nf3 Bb4 + 6.Nbd2 , an assessment still valid today . The possibility 6.Nc3 was also considered attractive , as structural weaknesses were not valued as much as a material advantage of one pawn in those days . By the end of the 1920s , despite the invention of the highly original Fajarowicz variation 3 ... Ne4 in 1928 , the Budapest Gambit was considered theoretically dubious .
This assessment was left unchanged for decades , as few players at the highest level used the Budapest Gambit and information about games from lesser players could not easily be found . During that time , various responses were developed against the 4.Bf4 line ; these included 4 ... g5 , invented by István Abonyi , further developed by the masters Bakonyi and Drimer . The master Kaposztas showed that even when White succeeded in his positional plan , it only meant for Black a worse endgame with drawish tendencies . Two pawn sacrifices were also introduced in the variation with 6.Nbd2 ( still in the 4.Bf4 line ) , based on pawn pushes d7 – d6 or f7 – f6 and a quick attack against b2 .
The Budapest Gambit saw a short @-@ lived revival in 1984 – 85 when Chess Informant included three games ( as many as in the previous fifteen years ) , all played at a high level of competition , and all won by Black . But White players found reinforcements and even invented a line with 4.e3 and 5.Nh3. In the 21st century , despite Shakhriyar Mamedyarov 's successful efforts to rehabilitate the line 4.Bf4 g5 , the Budapest Gambit almost never appears at the highest level . , however Richard Rapport with black defeated Gelfand using the opening in round 2 of the 2014 Tata Steel Chess competition .
= = Performance = =
In the database of the website ChessGames.com , the Budapest Gambit scores 28 @.@ 9 % Black wins , 44 @.@ 1 % White wins and 27 @.@ 1 % draws . The percentage of draws is especially low compared to mainstream alternatives such as 2 ... e6 ( 43 @.@ 7 % draws ) or 2 ... g6 ( 37 % draws ) . This opening gives more chance to win for both opponents , although the percentage of Black wins is still lower than the alternative 2 ... c5 . In the main line 3.dxe5 Ng4 4.Bf4 the percentage of Black wins already falls to 21 @.@ 1 % , lower than the main lines after 2 ... e6 or 2 ... g6 .
The Budapest Gambit has never been widely used as Black by the top @-@ ten chessplayers . Richard Réti used it five times in the period 1919 – 26 when he was among the ten best players in the world , but he scored only 1 ½ points . Savielly Tartakower used it four times in 1928 when he was the eighth @-@ best player in the world , including thrice in one tournament ( Bad Kissingen 1928 ) but he scored only ½ point against world @-@ class opposition : Bogoljubov then ranked number four in the world , Capablanca ranked number two , and Rubinstein ranked number seven . Rudolf Spielmann used it thrice in 1922 – 23 when he was about number 9 – 12 in the world , with a win against Euwe but defeats against Yates and Sämisch . Nigel Short played the gambit twice in the years 1992 – 93 when he was number 7 – 11 , scoring only ½ points against Karpov ( then ranked number two ) and Ivanchuk ( then ranked number three ) . Recently , Mamedyarov used it twice in 2004 ( scoring 1 ½ with a win against Van Wely ) when he was not already among the top @-@ players , and six times in 2008 when he was about number 6 – 14 ; he scored five points with wins against former world champion Kramnik ( then ranked number three ) , and grandmasters Tkachiev and Eljanov , but all six games took place in rapid or blitz events .
Nicolas Giffard summarises the modern assessment of the Budapest Gambit :
[ It is ] an old opening , seldom used by champions without having fallen in disgrace . While White has several methods to get a small advantage , this defence is strategically sound . Black gets a good pawn structure and possibilities of attack on the kingside . His problems generally come from the white pressure on the d @-@ column and a lack of space to manoeuvre his pieces .
Boris Avrukh writes , " The Budapest Gambit is almost a respectable opening ; I doubt there is a refutation . Even in the lines where White manages to keep an extra pawn , Black always has a lot of play for it . "
= = Strategic and tactical themes = =
= = = White builds up an imposing pawn centre = = =
In the Alekhine variation White does not try to defend his e5 @-@ pawn and keep his material advantage , but instead he concentrates on building an imposing pawn centre . This brings him good prospects of a space advantage that may serve as a basis for a future attack on the kingside . However , the extended pawn centre has its drawbacks , as Lalic explains : " White must invest some valuable tempi in protecting his pawn structure , which allows Black to seize the best squares for his minor pieces with excellent prospects for counterplay against the white centre . "
Hence in this variation Black lets White build his pawn centre only to undermine it later , a playing philosophy espoused in the teachings of the hypermodern school . The strategic themes are similar to the ones that can be found in other openings like the Four Pawns Attack , the Alekhine Defence or the Grünfeld Defence .
= = = Budapest rook = = =
The " Budapest rook " is a manoeuvre , introduced by the IM Dolfi Drimer in 1968 , with which Black develops the a8 rook aggressively along the sixth rank using the moves a7 – a5 and the rook lift Ra8 – a6 – h6 . For example , this can happen in the Adler variation after the move sequence 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e5 3.dxe5 Ng4 4.Nf3 Bc5 5.e3 Nc6 6.Be2 Ngxe5 7.Nxe5 Nxe5 8.a3 a5 9 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 0 @-@ 0 10.Nc3 Ra6 11.b3 Rh6 .
The rook is then used to support a piece attack against White 's castled King . Black can easily get several pieces around the white king , notably a rook to h6 , a queen to h4 and a knight on g4 . The queen 's arrival on the h4 @-@ square is facilitated by the absence of a white knight on the f3 @-@ square ( that would otherwise cover the h4 @-@ square ) and of a black knight on the f6 @-@ square ( that would block the way for the black queen ) . If White tries to defend with h2 – h3 , this may allow the Bc8 to be sacrificed at h3 in order to open the h @-@ file .
The Bc5 may not seem particularly useful in this attack , but by eyeing e3 it makes it difficult for White to play f4 to chase away the black knight ; furthermore , the attack on e3 is sometimes intensified with major pieces doubling on the e @-@ file . Besides , the Bc5 can sometimes be recycled to the b8 – h2 diagonal via Bc5 – a7 – b8 , to apply still more pressure on h2 . It can also stay on the a7 – g1 diagonal to put pressure on f2 , if White pushes e3 – e4 at some stage .
The " Budapest rook " was an invigorating innovation of the 1980s , and gave the gambit new life . However , inconveniences arise from delaying d7 – d6 in order to allow the lift : the light @-@ square bishop has to wait a long time to develop , and any attack on the Bc5 is potentially annoying for Black ( since it means either closing the sixth rank with ... d6 / ... b6 , abandoning the active a7 – g1 diagonal , or blocking the rook when deployed to a7 ) . This , in addition to the risk of awkwardness in the king side ( a knight on f5 will fork the Rh6 and the Qh4 ) and the single @-@ mindedness of Black 's plan ( with nothing to fall back on if the direct attack is repelled ) , has made some revisit the old lines , where it is instead the king 's rook that is developed to h6 . The queen 's rook can then be retained on the queenside , and will be well @-@ placed if the b @-@ file opens as a result of Black 's Bc5 being exchanged and recaptured with a b6 pawn .
= = = Advantages of ... Bb4 + = = =
In most variations Black has the opportunity to play Bb4 + , a move whose advisability depends on White 's possible answers . If White blocks the check with Nb1 – c3 then Black should capture the knight only if White is forced to take back with the pawn , after which the isolated , doubled pawns are a positional advantage for Black that fully compensates the loss of the bishop pair , and even the gambitted pawn . Due to its immunity to pawn attacks , the c5 @-@ square may be used by Black as a stronghold for his pieces . Piece exchanges can be good for Black even if he is a pawn down , as he can hope to exploit the crippled pawn structure in the ending . On the other hand , if White can recapture with a piece , the trade on c3 typically concedes the bishop pair for insufficient compensation .
If White is compelled to play Nb1 – d2 , it is sometimes a minuscule positional concession , as it makes it harder for this knight to reach its ideal square d5 . However , if Black is later compelled to exchange Bxd2 , that is advantageous to White who thereby gains the bishop pair . Besides , in some situations the Bb4 could be as misplaced as the Nd2 . Finally , if White has to play Bd2 , then Black should exchange the bishops only if White is forced to recapture with the Nb1 , as a recapture by the Qd1 would still allow the Nb1 to reach the d5 @-@ square through Nb1 – c3 – d5 .
For example in the Alekhine variation , after 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e5 3.dxe5 Ng4 4.e4 Nxe5 5.f4 Ng6 6.Nf3 , the move 6 ... Bb4 + ( see diagram at right ) is good because White has no good reply apart from 7.Nc3. Indeed , 7.Nbd2 ? just loses a pawn after 7 ... Nxf4 whereas 7.Bd2 ? ! Qe7 ! causes White great problems : both the pawn f4 and e4 pawns are attacked , and 8.Bxb4 Qxb4 + results in a double attack against b2 and f4 . After 7.Nc3 Black can either answer with 7 ... Bxc3 + 8.bxc3 or with 7 ... Qf6 , simultaneously attacking c3 and f4 .
= = = Pressure against the e4 @-@ square and the e3 @-@ pawn = = =
In the Adler variation 3 ... Ng4 4.Nf3 , after White has moved f2 – f4 , the e3 @-@ pawn becomes a backward pawn on an open file . Black can then apply pressure on the e @-@ file in general , against the e3 @-@ pawn and the e4 @-@ square in particular . Typical moves in this plan would include the manoeuvre Ne5 – d7 – f6 , followed by putting the heavy pieces on the e @-@ file with Rf8 – e8 and Qd8 – e7 ( see diagram at right ) . The Bc5 is already well placed to pressure the e3 @-@ pawn . Depending on circumstances , the Bc8 may be involved either on b7 or on f5 , in both cases to assert control over the central e4 @-@ square .
This plan is viable only if certain conditions are met . The d7 @-@ square must be available for the Ne5 , so that it can later transfer to f6 . White should also not be able to easily advance the e3 @-@ pawn to e4 , where it would be adequately defended by the Nc3 and a possible Bf3 . Finally , White should not have the time to launch a quick attack on Black 's castled position with the pawn thrust f4 – f5 – f6 .
= = = Breakthrough with the c4 – c5 push = = =
In the main lines the pawn push c4 – c5 often brings positional gains to White . In the Rubinstein variation 3 ... Ng4 4.Bf4 with 4 ... Nc6 5.Nf3 Bb4 + 6.Nbd2 Qe7 7.a3 , after 7 ... Ngxe5 8.Nxe5 Nxe5 9.e3 Bxd2 + 10.Qxd2 ( see diagram at right ) White gets the bishop pair and a space advantage . In order to build up on these potential advantages , the most common plan is to perform a minority attack on the queenside , with the goal of performing the pawn advance c4 – c5 in favourable conditions . This push can yield several advantages to White : it enhances the prospects of the light @-@ square bishop , it creates a half @-@ open file to attack with the rooks , and it creates an isolated , backward pawn on d6 after the exchange c5xd6 .
For example , in the diagram on the right , after the natural but mistaken 10 ... 0 @-@ 0 ? ! White can immediately realise his strategic goal with 11.c5 ! Then if Black accepts the temporary sacrifice after 11 ... Qxc5 12.Rc1 Qd6 13.Qxd6 cxd6 14.Rd1 White gets his pawn back and has created a weak pawn in d7 , while if Black declines the pawn he has difficulties in developing his queenside ( for example 11 ... d6 might be followed by 12.cxd6 Qxd6 13.Qxd6 cxd6 and the pawn on d6 is weak ) . Therefore Black generally tries to hinder the c4 – c5 push with moves like d7 – d6 , b7 – b6 or Rf8 – d8 ( if this creates a hidden vis @-@ à @-@ vis between the Rd8 and the Qd2 ) .
Similarly , in the Rubinstein variation 3 ... Ng4 4.Bf4 with 4 ... Nc6 5.Nf3 Bb4 + 6.Nc3 , after 6 ... Bxc3 + 7.bxc3 White is saddled with doubled pawns in c3 and c4 that limit the scope of his bishop pair . Hence the push c4 – c5 can be used to free the light @-@ squared bishop and disrupt Black 's position .
In the Adler variation 3 ... Ng4 4.Nf3 , after 4 ... Bc5 5.e3 Nc6 6.Be2 0 @-@ 0 7 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Re8 8.Nc3 Ngxe5 9.b3 a5 10.Bb2 Nxf3 + Bxf3 Ne5 12.Be2 Ra6 13.Qd5 Qe7 14.Ne4 Ba7 White has good reasons to push 15.c5. This move would close the diagonal of the Ba7 . It would make it harder for Black to develop the Bc8 as pawn pushes like b7 – b6 or d7 – d6 may be answered respectively by cxb6 or cxd6 , creating a weak pawn for Black . Also , the prospects of the Be2 would be enhanced .
= = = Kieninger Trap = = =
1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e5 3.dxe5 Ng4 4.Bf4 Nc6 5.Nf3 Bb4 6.Nbd2 Qe7 7.a3 Ngxe5 8.axb4 Nd3 #
The Kieninger Trap is named after Georg Kieninger who used it in an offhand game against Godai at Vienna in 1925 . It occurs in the Rubinstein variation 3 ... Ng4 4.Bf4 with 4 ... Nc6 5.Nf3 Bb4 + 6.Nbd2 Qe7 7.a3. The Bb4 is attacked but Black does not have to move it for the moment , and instead both regains the gambit pawn and sets a trap with 7 ... Ngxe5 ( see diagram at right ) . Superficially , White seems to win a piece with 8.axb4 ? ? , but that would be falling into the Kieninger Trap because it would allow 8 ... Nd3 mate ; even after the exchange 8.Nxe5 Nxe5 , the threat of ... Nd3 mate remains and indirectly defends the Bb4 from capture .
A rare variant has also occurred in a miniature in the Fajarowicz variation , after the moves 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e5 3.dxe5 Ne4 4.Qc2 Bb4 + 5.Nd2 d5 6.exd6 Bf5 7.Qa4 + Nc6 8.a3 Nc5 9.dxc7 Qe7 ! when White , trying to save his queen , fell into 10.Qd1 Nd3 mate .
= = Adler variation 3 ... Ng4 4.Nf3 = =
1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e5 3.dxe5 Ng4 4.Nf3
The Adler variation is named after the game Adler – Maróczy , played at the 1896 Budapest tournament . White is ready to return the e5 @-@ pawn in order to develop his pieces on their best squares , i.e. the d5 @-@ square for the Nb1 , the f3 @-@ square for the Ng1 and the a1 – h8 diagonal for the Bc1 .
Black can try the minor line 4 ... Nc6 that delays the development of its dark @-@ square bishop , to develop it along the a1 – h8 diagonal instead of the a3 – f8 diagonal , depending on the circumstances . But the main line is 4 ... Bc5 to attack the f2 @-@ pawn , forcing 5.e3 , blocking in White 's bishop on c1 , so that after 5 ... Nc6 White will not have enough pieces to protect his e5 @-@ pawn in the long run . Placing the bishop on the c5 @-@ square also has subtler points , as Tseitlin explains :
At first sight the bishop on c5 lacks prospects , being held at bay by the pawn on e3 , and is insecure in view of the threat to exchange it by Nc3 – a4 / e4 . In reality , posting the bishop here has a deep strategic significance . It holds up the advance of the e- and the f @-@ pawns ( assuming the white bishop will go to b2 ) , and thereby secures e5 as a future knight outpost , which in turn restricts the activity of both White 's bishops . As to the exchanging threat , the bishop may conveniently retreat on a7 or f8 , or even in some cases remain on c5 with support from a pawn on b6 .
An important theoretical decision for White is to choose whether to play a2 – a3 . While this move protects the b4 square and threatens the pawn advance b2 – b4 , it encourages Black 's rook lift Ra8 – a6 – h6 . As Lalic puts it :
It was not so long ago that 8.a3 , with the obvious intention of expanding with b2 – b4 , was the standard move . However , after Black responds with the logical a7 – a5 , it became apparent in tournament practice that the inclusion of these moves is in fact in Black 's favour , as it gives his queen 's rook access into play via the a6 @-@ square .
= = = Line 4 ... Bc5 with a2 – a3 = = =
1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e5 3.dxe5 Ng4 4.Nf3 Bc5 5.e3 Nc6 6.a3
The opinion of the move 6.a3 has gradually shifted from being the main continuation to being a possible continuation , then down to its present status of being considered a mistake . The threat to push b2 – b4 must be taken seriously by Black , who typically answers 6 ... a5 . But in the 1980s it was discovered that the push a7 – a5 was actually a very useful one for Black , as it allows the Ra8 to be developed along the sixth rank . Meanwhile , the push a2 – a3 is less useful for White , as he will not be able to easily push b2 – b4 . As Tseitlin puts it , " the point is that 6 ... a5 fits into the plan of attacking White 's kingside , whereas 6.a3 does little in the way of defending it " . Thus if White does not find a clear way to make good use of his move a2 – a3 , it may turn out to be a critical waste of tempo .
After the topical moves 7.b3 0 @-@ 0 8.Bb2 Re8 9.Nc3 Ngxe5 10.Nxe5 Nxe5 11.Be2 Black has regained the invested pawn . White has a space advantage in the centre and can initiate pressure here or on the queenside by pawn pushes like b3 – b4 and c4 – c5 ( possibly supported by a knight on the d5 @-@ square ) . Meanwhile , the white king lacks defenders so Black can start a pieces @-@ driven attack with the rook lift 11 ... Ra6 ( see section " Budapest rook " ) . The stem game continued with 12.Nd5 Rh6 13.Bd4 d6 14.Ra2 Bf5 15.Bxc5 dxc5 and Black won in 26 moves . To avoid such an unfavourable development , White players have changed the move @-@ order to keep the Bc1 on its original square as long as possible , so that it can help the defence . Thus , the typical move @-@ order became 7.b3 0 @-@ 0 8.Nc3 Re8 9.Be2 Ngxe5 10.Nxe5 Nxe5 11 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 when 11 ... Ra6 would be met with 12.Nd5 Rh6 13.e4 immediately attacking the maveric rook . So Black usually opts for 11 ... d6 , forgetting about the Ra8 – a6 – h6 manoeuvre . After 12.Bb2 ECO considers the situation as favourable to White , but Tseitlin thinks Black still has a lot of possibilities ( e.g. the other rook lift Re8 – e6 – h6 ) , so that " the struggle still lies ahead " .
= = = Line 4 ... Bc5 without a2 – a3 = = =
1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e5 3.dxe5 Ng4 4.Nf3 Bc5 5.e3 Nc6
By refraining from the advance a2 @-@ a3 White tries to gain a tempo on the lines of the previous section , making it more difficult for Black to initiate the Re8 – e6 – h6 or Ra8 – a6 – h6 lifts . After the moves 6.Be2 0 @-@ 0 7 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Re8 8.Nc3 Ngxe5 9.Nxe5 Nxe5 White has tried two different plans .
The older one sees White attack in the centre with moves like b2 – b3 , Bc1 – b2 , Qd1 – d5 , Nc3 – e4 and c4 – c5 . White gets an important space advantage in the centre , but Black can attack the kingside with rook lifts . After 10.b3 a5 White can try to capture the Bc5 with 11.Na4 or 11.Ne4 , one point being that the retreat 11 ... Ba7 would lock the Ra8 because Black has not played Ra8 – a6 already . Lalic still thinks 11 ... Ba7 is the right move after 11.Ne4 due to the importance of the a7 – g1 diagonal , but Black can also reroute the bishop with 11 ... Bf8 and " White has no obvious path to even a minute advantage " . After 11.Na4 Black can also simply react by 11 ... b6 when the loss of the bishop pair is compensated by the semi @-@ open b @-@ file and improved control of the central squares . Tseitlin considers that after the exchange on c5 Black has the better position . Hence the main continuation is 11.Bb2 , keeping the knight jumps for later . Then the most common plan for Black is a rook lift : the plan Ra8 – a6 – h6 was tried in the much @-@ commented game Åkesson – Tagnon ( Berlin Open 1984 ) . Black duly won , but after the game continuation 11 ... Ra6 12.Qd5 ! Qe7 13.Ne4 Ba7 14.c5 Rg6 15.Rac1 Bb8 16.f4 authors do not agree on which side had the advantage . Borik and Tseitlin both consider White to have a positional advantage , with Tseitlin recommending instead 15 ... Nc6 ! , with dangerous threats . However Lalic writes of 15 ... Bb8 , " it is true that the bishop pair looks a bit pathetic lined up on the back rank just now , but there is no way to stop them breaking out later " .
The second plan for White , unveiled by Spassky in 1990 , aims at a kingside blitzkrieg with moves like Kg1 – h1 , f2 – f4 , Be2 – d3 and Qd1 – h5 . In the original game Black did not fathom White 's idea , so that after 10.Kh1 a5 ? ! 11.f4 Nc6 12.Bd3 d6 13.Qh5 ! h6 14.Rf3 Black 's pieces were ill @-@ placed to counter White 's attack . A more principled plan for Black is to react in the centre , specifically targeting the backward e3 @-@ pawn and e4 @-@ square . After 10.Kh1 d6 11.f4 Nd7 ! 12.Bd3 Nf6 13.Qf3 Ng4 14.Nd1 f5 ! and Black has succeeded in inhibiting White 's e3 – e4 expansion . As Black was doing fine with the 11.f4 move @-@ order , White has been searching for a new path with 10.Kh1 d6 11.Na4 ! ? b6 ! 12.Bd2 a5 13.Nxc5 bxc5 14.f4 Nd7 15.Bf3 when Jeremy Silman prefers White . White has even dared the immediate 10.f4 Nc6 11.Bd3 when it is extremely dangerous for Black to take the offered e3 @-@ pawn , as White gets a fierce kingside attack for free .
= = Rubinstein variation 3 ... Ng4 4.Bf4 = =
1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e5 3.dxe5 Ng4 4.Bf4
This move sequence is called the " Rubinstein variation " in reference to the famous game Rubinstein – Vidmar ( Berlin 1918 ) when 4.Bf4 was first employed . Various authors consider this move to be the most dangerous for Black . It aims to answer 4 ... Bc5 with 5.e3 without blocking the Bc1 , contrary to what happens in the Adler variation 4.Nf3. Another point is that in the Adler variation White faces the risk of a strong attack against his kingside ( see section " Budapest rook " ) , while in the 4.Bf4 variation this is seldom the case because the Bf4 is well placed to protect White 's kingside . On the other hand , the early development of the bishop means that White is more vulnerable to the check Bf8 – b4 + , the b2 @-@ pawn is not defended , and in some rare cases the Bf4 can become subject to attack .
Apart from the sideline 4 ... g5 , the main line continues with both players developing their pieces around the e5 @-@ pawn with 4 ... Nc6 5.Nf3 Bb4 + when White has an important choice between the moves 6.Nc3 and 6.Nbd2 , each leading to extremely different play . With 6.Nc3 White acquiesces to the breakup of his queenside pawns in return for a material advantage of one pawn , the bishop pair and active play in the centre . With 6.Nbd2 White gives back the gambited pawn to keep a healthy pawn structure and acquire the bishop pair . After 6.Nbd2 Qe7 White generally plays 7.a3 to force the immediate exchange of bishop for knight , gaining the bishop pair , a spatial advantage and chances for a minority attack on the queenside . White can also try 6.Nbd2 Qe7 7.e3 to win a tempo over the 7.a3 variation , though he may end up with the exchange at d2 made in less favourable circumstances , or not at all . The maverick gambit 6 ... f6 also exists .
= = = Sideline 4 ... g5 = = =
1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e5 3.dxe5 Ng4 4.Bf4 g5
The sideline 4 ... g5 ! ? was not well regarded at the end of the 20th century . It weakens several squares — particularly f5 and h5 — as they cannot be covered by the g @-@ pawn any more . White can try to exploit these weaknesses with the manoeuvres Bf4 – d2 – c3 ( pressure along the diagonal a1 – h8 ) , Ng1 – e2 – g3 – h5 ( pressure against the squares f6 and g7 ) and h2 – h4 ( to open the h @-@ file ) . Nonetheless , the 4 ... g5 line has found new supporters in recent years thanks to black wins against both 5.Bg3 and 5.Bd2.
For years , the reaction 5.Bg3 was not well considered , because the retreat does not make the most out of Black 's provocative fourth move ; as Tseitlin points out , " the bishop is in danger of staying out of play for a long time " . But later Lalic found that 5.Bg3 was " just as effective " as 5.Bd2. Black concentrates on capturing the e5 @-@ pawn while White tries to get an advantage from the weakening of the black kingside . After the typical moves 5 ... Bg7 6.Nf3 Nc6 7.Nc3 Ngxe5 8.Nxe5 Nxe5 9.e3 d6 Lalic considers the best try to be 10.c5 ! , sacrificing a pawn to weaken Black 's control on the e5 @-@ square and expose the black king further . White has also tried to quickly open the h @-@ file with 7.h4 Ngxe5 8.Nxe5 Nxe5 9.e3 but after 9 ... g4 ! Black succeeds in keeping the file closed .
The alternative to 5.Bg3 is 5.Bd2 to place the bishop on the wide @-@ open diagonal a1 – h8 , after which " White can expect a safe advantage " . Then according to Lalic , delaying the recapture with 5 ... Bg7 6.Bc3 Nc6 7.e3 Ngxe5 is not correct as White can gain an advantage by 8.h4 or 8.Qh5 , so the immediate 5 ... Nxe5 is better . For some time 6.Bc3 was well considered because Black had problems dealing with various positional threats , but the correct way for Black was found in 5 ... Nxe5 6.Bc3 Qe7 7.e3 Rg8 ! 8.Nf3 Nbc6 9.Be2 d6 10.Nd4 Bd7 11.b4 g4 with good counterplay for Black on the kingside . White 's efforts then switched to 6.Nf3 to open the e @-@ file , something that Black cannot really avoid , as 6 ... Bg7 7.Nxe5 Bxe5 8.Bc3 would leave an advantage to White . For example 8 ... Qe7 9.Bxe5 Qxe5 10.Nc3 d6 11.e3 and Black is at a loss for an equalising line , White 's advantage consisting in his ability to install his knight on the strong d5 @-@ square and to attack the weakened Black 's kingside with the advance h2 – h4 . It is better for Black to continue with 6 ... Nxf3 + 7.exf3 when both 7 ... h5 ? and 7 ... Bg7 would fail to 8.Qe2 + , so Black must try 7 ... d6 8.Qe2 + Be6 instead .
= = = Line 6.Nc3 = = =
1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e5 3.dxe5 Ng4 4.Bf4 Nc6 5.Nf3 Bb4 + 6.Nc3
This is the only important line in the Budapest where Black is not ensured of regaining his sacrificed pawn . Black does best to immediately exchange the Nc3 with 6 ... Bxc3 + 7.bxc3 as otherwise White gets a small positional advantage simply by avoiding the doubled pawns ( see the section " Advantages of ... Bb4 + " ) . Then Black can put pressure on the e5 @-@ pawn with 7 ... Qe7 when White 's only possibility to keep the pawn is 8.Qd5. White threatens to ease the pressure with the move h2 – h3 that would force the Ng4 to the unfavourable square h6 , so Black 's only possibilities to sustain the initiative are 8 ... Qa3 and 8 ... f6 .
The line 8 ... Qa3 puts pressure on the white queenside pawns , pressure that may later be intensified with Nf6 – e4 . The black queen also gains access to the a5 @-@ square , from where it puts pressure on the e1 – a5 diagonal aimed towards the white king . After 9.Rc1 f6 10.exf6 Nxf6 11.Qd2 d6 12.Nd4 0 @-@ 0 we reach the position of the famous game between Rubinstein and Vidmar , when Rubinstein erred with 13.e3 ? and later lost . After the better 13.f3 the correct method for Black is to target the c4 @-@ pawn with the regrouping Ne5 / Qc5 . Hence Lalic thinks 11.Qd2 is inappropriate and gives Black excellent counterplay , and prefers 11.Qd3 or even 11.Qd1 ! ? After 11.Qd3 0 @-@ 0 12.g3 d6 13.Bg2 Black should switch to a materialistic mode with 13 ... Qxa2 .
In the other line 8 ... f6 Black does not want to decentralise his queen and prefers to concentrate on active piece play in the centre . After 9.exf6 Nxf6 , 10.Qd1 , 10.Qd2 and 10.Qd3 are all possible , but each has its drawbacks : on d1 the queen is not developed , on d3 it is exposed to Bc8 – f5 and on d2 it is exposed to Nf6 – e4 . Lalic considers 10.Qd3 to be the main move , qualifies 10.Qd1 as a " respectable option " , but considers 10.Qd2 as " inaccurate " . Meanwhile , Black will try to create counterplay by attacking either the weak c4 @-@ pawn , or the kingside with g7 – g5 and h7 – h5 . In both cases a key possibility is the move Nf6 – e4 that centralises the knight , attacks the weak c3 @-@ pawn , controls the c5 @-@ square and supports the g7 – g5 thrust .
= = = Line 6.Nbd2 Qe7 7.a3 = = =
= = = = On the way till 10 ... d6 = = = =
1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e5 3.dxe5 Ng4 4.Bf4 Nc6 5.Nf3 Bb4 + 6.Nbd2 Qe7 7.a3
The Bb4 is attacked but Black can play 7 ... Ngxe5 to get the gambitted pawn back , as 8.axb4 ? ? would allow the Kieninger trap 8 ... Nd3 mate ( see the section " Kieninger trap " ) . Now White is more or less forced to exchange a pair of knights with 8.Nxe5 Nxe5 . White still cannot win a piece with 9.axb4 ? ? Nd3 # or 9.Bxe5 ? ! Bxd2 + 10.Qxd2 Qxe5 , so he usually plays 9.e3 in order to protect the c4 @-@ pawn and defuse the mating threat , so that now Black is obliged to move his Bb4 . As 9 ... Bd6 would misplace the bishop and 9 ... Ba5 ? ? would lose the bishop to 10.b4 Bb6 11.c5 , Black usually plays 9 ... Bxd2 + 10.Qxd2.
After 10.Qxd2 , Tseitlin explains that " opening manuals assess this position as favourable to White on the basis of the bishop pair . However , considering the closed nature of the position , White faces substantial difficulties in the realisation of this nominal advantage . " Black has not a lot of things to be proud of as there are no targets in White 's camp , but can put up a lot of resistance thanks to small assets . Black 's Ne5 is strongly centralised , attacks the c4 @-@ pawn , and restricts the Bf1 from moving to the natural squares d3 and f3 . Moreover , exchanging the knight with Bxe5 is not appealing for White , since that would mean losing the advantage of the bishop pair . Also , the Bc8 can sometimes become better than its counterpart the Bf1 , if it makes it to the good squares b7 or c6 while the Bf1 remains restricted by the Ne5 .
This explains the most natural plans for both sides . White will try a minority attack on the queenside , in order to increase its space advantage and to create some weaknesses in the black pawns ( e.g. an isolated pawn or a backward pawn ) . So White will try to use the advances b2 – b4 or c4 – c5 in good conditions , supported by the queen and the rooks on the c @-@ file and the d @-@ file . On the other hand , Black will try to keep the position closed , most importantly by keeping the c4 @-@ pawn where it is in order to keep the Bf1 at bay . This can be achieved by moves like b7 – b6 and d7 – d6 , and sometimes the manoeuvre Ne5 – d7 – f8 – e6 . The first move by Black has to be 10 ... d6 ! because otherwise White plays 11.c5 ! and gets a clear advantage immediately . For example 10 ... b6 ? loses a pawn to 11.Qd5 Nc6 12.Bxc7 , and 10 ... 0 @-@ 0 ? ! is bad because of 11.c5 ! Qxc5 ? 12.Rc1 Qe7 13.Rxc7 and White is winning already .
International Master Timothy Taylor has suggested an alternative for Black on move 9 . He regards 9 ... Bxd2 + as inferior , arguing that " the strong black bishop is traded for the inoffensive knight , and white gets the long @-@ term advantage of the two bishops in a semi @-@ open game " . Taylor instead advocates 9 ... Bc5 , when Black stands well after 10.b4 Bd4 ! ( 11.exd4 ? ? Nd3 # ) 11.Rb1 d6 12.Be2 Bf5 13.Rb3 Ng6 14.Bg3 ( 14.exd4 Nxf4 15.Re3 ? Nxg2 + wins ; 14.Bxd6 exd6 15.exd4 Nf4 16.g3 Bc2 ! wins material ) Bf6 ; 10.Ne4 Ng6 ; 10.Nb3 Bd6 ; or 10.Be2 d6 .
= = = = Battle for the push c4 – c5 = = = =
1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e5 3.dxe5 Ng4 4.Bf4 Nc6 5.Nf3 Bb4 + 6.Nbd2 Qe7 7.a3 Ngxe5 8.Nxe5 Nxe5 9.e3 Bxd2 + 10.Qxd2 d6
After 10 ... d6 ! White can try ( and has tried ) about any move that supports the aforementioned plan . In particular , White has to choose if he wants to start active operations on the queenside immediately ( e.g. Rc1 , Qc3 , c5 ) , or if he wants to finish his development first ( with Be2 and 0 @-@ 0 ) . The immediate 11.c5 ! ? is a possible pawn sacrifice in order to open some diagonals for the bishops . As Lalic points out , " after 11 ... dxc5 Black 's knight on e5 has lost its support and therefore all tactical motifs based on Qd5 and Bb5 + must be carefully checked " . White gets a powerful attack for his pawn but nothing decisive . The same idea can be tried with the preparatory 11.Rc1 , and after 11 ... 0 @-@ 0 12.c5 ! ? dxc5 13.Qd5 Ng6 14.Bg3 White should be reminded that he has not finished his development with 14 ... Qf6 ! and a counter @-@ attack on the b2 @-@ pawn . Playing Black , Svidler chose a different path with 11 ... b6 but his opponent Lesiège nevertheless sacrificed the pawn with 12.c5 ! bxc5 13.b4 0 @-@ 0 14.bxc5 Bb7 15.f3 and Svilder chose to destroy his own pawn structure with 15 ... dxc5 ! ? to activate his pieces and make use of the d @-@ file . The most popular move is 11.Be2 , where White delays his queenside play until he has achieved castling . It also gives Black more time to organise a defence on the queenside with b7 – b6 , either now or after 11 ... 0 @-@ 0 .
= = = Line 6.Nbd2 Qe7 7.e3 = = =
1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e5 3.dxe5 Ng4 4.Bf4 Nc6 5.Nf3 Bb4 + 6.Nbd2 Qe7 7.e3
In this variation White tries to avoid the move a2 – a3 in order to gain a tempo over the 7.a3 variation . After the standard moves 7 ... Ngxe5 8.Nxe5 Nxe5 9.Be2 followed by 10 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 it is Black 's last chance to exchange the Bb4 for the Nd2 . The game will take an entirely different structure depending on whether Black gives up the bishop pair or tries to keep it .
Lalic thinks the strategies in which Black gives up the bishop pair ( by exchanging its Bb4 for the Nd2 ) for nothing are a mistake . He does not like the strategy to retreat the Bb4 in d6 either , because they are too drawish . He recommends the strategy to retreat the bishop in c5 , and maintain its position there with the help of the a7 – a5 pawn advance .
= = = = Black gives up the bishop pair = = = =
When Black opts for 10 ... Bxd2 , he runs the risk to end up a tempo down over the 7.a3 variation and to be soon unable to meet White 's positional threats on the queenside . White can avoid the push a2 – a3 and continue with the standard plans of the 7.a3 variation . However , everything is not that bad for Black . First , to implement his plan White has to concentrate on development ( 9.Be2 , 10 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 ) before he turns his attention to the queenside . That means Black has more time to organise his play than in the 7.a3 variation , notably to attempt a blockade of the c5 @-@ square . Moreover , as White does not put immediate pressure on Black 's position , Black is not compelled to castle rapidly and he can keep his king in the centre for a longer time , or even castle queenside . Hence Lalic note that " White has not wasted time with a2 – a3 , but in fact it is not so easy to capitalise on this extra tempo . "
A possibility for Black is to develop his light @-@ square bishop rapidly , by prioritising the moves b7 – b6 and Bc8 – b7 over castling and d7 – d6 . The game Solozhenkin – Stiazhkin ( Leningrad 1990 ) continued with 9 ... b6 10 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Bxd2 11.Qxd2 Bb7 12.c5 bxc5 13.Qa5 d6 14.Bxe5 dxe5 15.Rfc1 and Moskalenko assesses this position as better for White ; Lalic suggests that 13 ... Ng6 is an improvement . In the game Gausel – Reite ( Norwegian Team Championship 1991 ) , after the same 9.Be2 b6 10 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Bxd2 11.Qxd2 Bb7 Black introduced a highly original plan by avoiding the natural advance d7 – d6 , and instead blocked a white c5 @-@ push by playing ... c5 himself . The game continued 12.Qc3 f6 13.b4 c5 ! ? and Lalic was " deeply impressed by this plan , which really spoils all of White 's fun " . The c4 @-@ pawn is never allowed to advance , so that the Be2 is durably restricted . The Bf4 is obstructed by the Ne5 , that cannot be easily removed . The weakness of the d7 @-@ pawn is not a worry as it can be protected by Bb7 – c6 if necessary .
= = = = Black keeps the bishop pair = = = =
After 9.Be2 0 @-@ 0 10 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Black can avoid the immediate exchange of his Bb4 against the Nd2 in several ways . The first one , resurrected and elaborated by the grandmaster Pavel Blatny , is to exchange the Bb4 for the Bf4 . This can be achieved via 10 ... Ng6 11.Bg3 ( 11.Bxc7 ? ? d6 loses a piece ) 11 ... Bd6 12.Bxd6 Qxd6 . White still has possibilities to play for an advantage due to his more advanced development , his space advantage on the queenside and the possibility to install his knight on the good square d5 . Taylor considers this Black 's best line , stating that Black has not given White the bishop pair , nor weakened his pawn structure , and should be able to gradually equalize .
The other possibility for Black is to keep his Bb4 as long as possible , exchanging it against the white knight only in favourable circumstances . A couple of attempts have been done with this in mind , with subtle variations along the moves a7 – a5 , b7 – b6 and d7 – d6 . Against the mundane 10 ... d6 White can continue with 11.Nb3 ( see diagram at right ) to play on the queenside against the exposed Bb4 , or 11.Nb1 to recycle the knight on the ideal d5 @-@ square . Another idea is the immediate 10 ... a5 , to have the d6 @-@ square for the bishop , inhibit the b2 – b4 push and have the possible a5 – a4 pawn advance if the white knight moves to b3 . In the game Mikhalevski – Chabanon ( Bad Endbach 1995 ) Black kept the bishop with 11.Nb3 a4 12.a3 Bd6 13.Nd4 Bc5 14.Nb5 d6 15.Nc3 Ng6 16.Bg3 f5 and had dynamic play .
= = = Gambits 5.Nbd2 d6 and 6.Nbd2 f6 = = =
With 4 ... Bb4 + 5.Nbd2 d6 ( see diagram at right ) Black wants to open the diagonal a1 – h8 for his queen . After 6.exd6 Qf6 White can react to the attack on his Bf4 in several ways , the best one being 7.Nh3 to develop a piece and protect both the Bf4 and the f2 @-@ pawn . It also helps that the Bf4 is still guarding the Nd2 , so that after 7 ... Qxb2 ? there is not the threat of winning the exchange ( 8 ... Bxd2 + would be answered by 9.Bxd2 ) and White can repel Black 's attack with 8.Rb1 Qa3 9.Rb3 Qa5 10.dxc7 Nc6 11.a3 ! Be7 12.e3. Instead , Black must play energetically with 7 ... Nxf2 8.Kxf2 Bxh3 9.g3 Bxf1 10.dxc7 ! ? Nc6 11.Rxf1 and here Lalic recommends 11 ... 0 @-@ 0 12.Kg2 Rfe8 .
The other gambit , 4 ... Nc6 5.Nf3 Bb4 + 6.Nbd2 f6 7.exf6 Qxf6 , is much riskier , as Black weakens his kingside and does not open a diagonal for his Bc8 . Black tries to take advantage of the fact White has moved his dark @-@ squared bishop away from the queenside , leaving the b2 @-@ pawn without protection . The correct plan for White was shown by Gleizerov who played 8.e3 Qxb2 9.Be2 d6 10 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 0 @-@ 0 11.Nb3 Qf6 12.c5 ! to open the a2 – g8 diagonal that was weakened precisely by the gambit move 6 ... f6 . The move 11.Nb3 is not only useful to support the c4 – c5 push , but also to exchange the knight against Black 's dark @-@ squared bishop after a possible a2 – a3 forcing the retreat Bb4 – c5 . As Lalic puts it , " I doubt if Black has a satisfactory answer to White 's play in this game " .
= = Alekhine variation 3 ... Ng4 4.e4 = =
1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e5 3.dxe5 Ng4 4.e4
This variation is named after Alekhine thanks to his wins in the games Alekhine – Rabinovic ( Baden Baden , 1925 ) and Alekhine – Seitz ( Hastings , 1926 ) . White does not try to keep its material advantage ( the e5 @-@ pawn ) and concentrates on establishing a strong pawn center and space advantage . A controversial point is whether the typical black manoeuvre Bf8 – b4 – xc3 is advantageous for Black ( as it saddles White with doubled pawns ) or for White ( as it reinforces his centre ) . Lalic thinks both , considering 6 ... Bb4 + to be a bad move after 4 ... Nxe5 5.f4 Nec6 6.Nf3 , but a good one after 4 ... Nxe5 5.f4 Nec6 6.Be3. After 4.e4 the main line is 4 ... Nxe5 5.f4 when Black has an important choice to make about where to move the Ne5 . The retreat to the queenside with 5 ... Nec6 is considered best , while the retreat to the kingside with 5 ... Ng6 is probably playable .
Taylor considers 4 ... Nxe5 inferior , recommending instead a rarely played idea of Richard Réti , 4 ... h5 ! ( Taylor 's exclamation point ) . Then 5.Nf3 would allow 5 ... Bc5 , while Taylor suggests meeting 5.Be2 with 5 ... Nc6 ! and 5.f4 with 5 ... Bc5 with quick development compensating for the lost pawn . He considers the main line to be 4 ... h5 5.h3 Nxe5 6.Be3 Bb4 + , with good play for Black .
= = = Line 5 ... Nec6 = = =
1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e5 3.dxe5 Ng4 4.e4 Nxe5 5.f4 Nec6
The Knight on c6 is safer than on g6 , and is well @-@ placed as part of a general strategy to control the central dark squares . It can go to d4 while the other Knight can go to c5 via a6 or d7 . After 6.Nf3 Bc5 White has difficulties castling short , because the plan to exchange the dark @-@ squared bishops with Bd3 / Qe2 / Be3 can be met by Bg4 / Nd4 to muddy the waters . As Lalic points out :
White can no longer castle kingside and will usually have to go the other way . However , this is rather slow and gives Black time to try to undermine the white centre . To this end Bc8 – g4 often comes in handy , in order to pin the white knight on f3 against the white queen . Note that Black should wait until his opponent has wasted a tempo with Qe2 .
The main continuation 6.Be3 controls the a7 – g1 diagonal and is considered to be the best reply . If Black wants to contest the c5 @-@ square for his Bf8 he can try 6 ... Na6 , but most games continue with 6 ... Bb4 + . Here the best reply for White is controversial .
After 7.Nc3 Black has the zwischenzug 7 ... Qh4 + 8.g3 Bxc3 + 9.bxc3 Qe7 so that the diagonal a8 – h1 is weakened before Black develops the Bc8 to the b7 @-@ square . The queen on the e7 @-@ square is well placed to pressure the e4 @-@ pawn . However , as most of Black 's pieces are on the queenside , continuing with pawn pushes like f7 – f5 is probably too weakening , as Alekhine demonstrated in his game against Seitz in 1925 . So Black does best to attack with pieces , possibly with the setup b6 / Nc5 / Bb7 / 0 @-@ 0 @-@ 0 . In that case Tseitlin considers that with a knight on c5 the move d7 – d6 should be avoided if Black has to respond to the capture Bxc5 by dxc5 , because the white pawns in e4 and f4 would have too much leeway .
After 7.Nd2 Qe7 8.a3 Lalic considers 8 ... Qxe4 should be avoided , e.g. the continuation 9.Kf2 Bxd2 10.Qxd2 0 @-@ 0 11.Nf3 d6 12.Re1 gives White several tempi against the black queen . After the better 8 ... Bc5 9.Bxc5 Qxc5 10.Qf3 Lalic recommends 10 ... a5 . The introduction of the intermediate 7 ... Qh4 + 8.g3 Qe7 does not change Lalic 's opinion , as after 9.Bg2 Na6 10.a3 Bc5 11.Bxc5 Nxc5 12.b4 Ne6 the bishop was well placed on g2 and Black experienced difficulties developing the Bc8 . But Lalic does not mention the game Pomar – Heidenfeld cited by Borik , in which Black played the advance a7 – a5 to restrict the white advance b2 – b4 , and achieved equality after 9.Bg2 a5 10.Ne2 Na6 . Instead , he recommends 7 ... d6 8.Nf3 0 @-@ 0 9.Bd3 and now the same development as in Pomar 's game :
9 ... a5 and 10 ... Na6 deserves attention , when White 's movements on the queenside are more restricted and the black knight will be able to settle on the c5 @-@ square without being kicked by the thematic b2 – b4 . It may appear that we have reached the same position elaborated in previous games a tempo down for Black , since he has committed his bishop to b4 and will later drop back to the c5 @-@ square instead of heading there at once . However , the white knight is less actively placed on d2 and in fact this fully compensates Black for the slight loss of time .
= = = Line 5 ... Ng6 = = =
1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e5 3.dxe5 Ng4 4.e4 Nxe5 5.f4 Ng6
The Knight on g6 puts the f4 @-@ pawn under pressure , but may be embarrassed later by the pawn thrust f4 – f5 . Now 6.a3 , an attempt to deny squares from the Bf8 by continuing with b2 – b4 or Bc1 – e3 , does not achieve its goal after 6 ... Bc5 ! 7.b4 ? ! Bxg1 ! 8.Rxg1 0 @-@ 0 ! 9.Qf3 d6 10.g4 a5 11.b5 Nd7 12.Ra2 Nc5 when Black 's superior pawn structure and well @-@ positioned Nc5 gives him the advantage . That leaves White with the choice between 6.Nf3 and 6.Be3.
The move 6.Nf3 controls the e5 @-@ square in order to prepare the push f4 – f5 . Unlike after 5 ... Nec6 , White does not have to fear 6 ... Bc5 ? ! , which encounters difficulties after 7.f5 ! Nh4 8.Ng5 ! , when the black knight is already in danger of being lost to Qd1 – g4 or Qd1 – h5 . Instead Black must react quickly with 6 ... Bb4 + 7.Nc3 when he can adopt a normal setup with d6 / 0 @-@ 0 / Nc6 / b6 or act boldly with 7 ... Qf6 threatening both the Nc3 and the f4 @-@ pawn . One point in favour of 7 ... Qf6 is that after 8.e5 Qb6 the black queen prevents White from castling short and is well placed if White castles long .
The move 6.Be3 takes the a7 – g1 diagonal from Black 's Bf8 and may in some lines prepare the long castle . After the mandatory 6 ... Bb4 + White can opt for 7.Nd2 to avoid having doubled pawns , but he must be prepared to sacrifice a pawn after 7 ... Qe7 8.Kf2 ! ? Bxd2 9.Qxd2 Qxe4 10.Bd3 with piece activity for the pawn deficit , because the normal defence 8.Bd3 ? runs into 8 ... Qd6 ! and both the Bd3 and the f4 @-@ pawn are attacked . White does not need , however , bother too much about the doubled pawns and after 7.Nc3 Bxc3 + 8.bxc3 a peaceful black player might choose the quiet 8 ... b6 ! ? followed by a normal development with d6 / 0 @-@ 0 / Bb7 / Nd7 / Re8 / Nc5 . Instead of 8 ... b6 a more adventurous black player could choose 8 ... Qe7 9.Bd3 f5 ! ? as indicated by Borik , Tseitlin and Lalic , but in his more recent book Moskalenko thinks " this move complicates the game too much " . If the black player is neither peaceful nor aggressive , Lalic proposes an alternative with 8 ... Qe7 9.Bd3 0 @-@ 0 10.Qd2 and only now that Black has his king safe shall he unleash 10 ... f5 ! ? , when " it is not so easy for White to meet [ 10 ... f5 ] as the two main responses , 11.e5 and 11.exf5 , allow Black promising chances with 11 ... d6 and 11 ... Nxf4 respectively " .
= = Fajarowicz variation 3 ... Ne4 = =
1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e5 3.dxe5 Ne4 The Fajarowicz variation is said to have its origins in the chess circles from Leipzig , with the first important game being H.Steiner – Fajarowicz at the 1928 Wiesbaden tournament . In this variation , Black makes no immediate effort to regain the gambit pawn , preferring to concentrate on active piece play and tactical tricks .
The move 4.a3 allows White to avoid the annoying bishop check on b4 , the also annoying knight jump to b4 , and prepares Qc2 to undermine Black 's knight . Both Lalic and de Firmian consider it to be White 's best move , with de Firmian assessing it as leading to a large advantage for White . Lalic considers 4 ... b6 ! ? to be the best answer , one point being that Qd1 – c2 , so effective in most of the other lines , can be met by Bc8 – b7 . After 5.Nd2 Bb7 6.Qc2 Lalic gives 6 ... Nxd2 7.Bxd2 a5 ! when the black bishops will be excellently placed on the b7- and c5 @-@ squares . Lalic recommends 6.Nf3 instead , while de Firmian continues by 5.Nf3 Bb7 6.Nbd2 Qe7 7.Qc2 with a large advantage for White .
The move 4.Nf3 develops a piece and covers the sensitive d2 @-@ square . After 4 ... Bb4 + 5.Nbd2 Nc6 6.a3 Black can easily get confused by the move @-@ order . The natural 6 ... Nxd2 7.Bxd2 Bxd2 + 8.Qxd2 Qe7 9.Qc3 transposes in the same position as after 5.Bd2 , but White can also try 6 ... Nxd2 7.axb4 ! Nxf3 + 8.gxf3 Nxe5 9.Rg1 Qe7 10.Ra3 ! with a strong initiative . White can even retain his bishop with 6 ... Nxd2 7.Nxd2 and now Borik recommends 7 ... Bf8 with difficult play for Black as he is not certain to gain his pawn back . To avoid these possibilities Lalic advises the move @-@ order 6 ... Bxd2 + 7.Bxd2 Nxd2 8.Qxd2 Qe7 , but does not mention the possibility of White answering 6 ... Bxd2 + with 7.Nxd2. A possible improvement for Black ( after 4 ... Bb4 + 5.Nbd2 ) would be 5 ... d5 with compensation for the pawn in all lines .
The line 4.Qc2 immediately attacks the Ne4 , as a retreat by Black would effectively surrender his temporary lead in development , which is the compensation for the sacrificed pawn . Black must continue to develop while trying to keep the Ne4 on its square , but that is by no means easy . Borik thinks 4.Qc2 is the move " that gives Black the most problems to solve " , but Lalic does not agree at all , stating that the reply " 4 ... Bb4 + [ .... ] followed by d7 – d5 ensures Black a rapid development and plenty of counterplay . It is for this reason that 4.Qc2 is not on the danger list " . The reply 4 ... Bb4 + ( see diagram at right ) pins the white pieces before deciding what to do with the Ne4 . White cannot reply 5.Bd2 as he would lose the bishop pair and Black would easily regain the e5 @-@ pawn with Nc6 / Qe7 / 0 @-@ 0 / Re8 . After 5.Nd2 this knight would be misplaced and would block the Bc1 , so Black could open the game with 5 ... d5 in favourable circumstances . Best for White is 5.Nc3 d5 6.exd6 Bf5 7.Bd2 Nxd6 8.e4 ! Bxc3 9.Bxc3 Bxe4 when Black has regained his pawn but White has the bishop pair and possibilities of an attack on the kingside .
= = Other possibilities = =
= = = Line 3 ... Ng4 4.e3 = = =
1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e5 3.dxe5 Ng4 4.e3
Apart from the main lines 4.Bf4 , 4.Nf3 and 4.e4 , the only significant other fourth move is 4.e3 to continue by 4 ... Nxe5 5.Nh3 ( or the other move @-@ order 4.Nh3 and 5.e3 ) so that the white knight starts the journey Ng1 – h3 – f4 – d5 reach its ideal d5 @-@ square . The idea with 4.e3 and 5.Nh3 was favorite of a leading Soviet coach and writer Mikhail Shereshevsky , who wrote in his 1994 book The Soviet Chess Conveyor that the line was first shown to him by a strong correspondence player Donatas Lapienis . Black has tried to prevent White 's idea by the suitably strange @-@ looking move 5 ... Ng6 , taking the f4 @-@ square from the Nh3 . Then White can develop along various setups , the most active being 6.Qh5 with the possibility Nh3 – g5 in store to recycle the knight towards a more central position . Black can also ignore White 's intentions and concentrate on his own play by placing the Nb8 on c5 , in order to put pressure on the d3 @-@ square . After 5 ... g6 6.Nf4 Bg7 7.Be2 0 @-@ 0 8 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 d6 9.Nc3 Nbd7 10.Qd2 a5 11.b3 Nc5 the position of Black 's knights is secured and Black 's position is similar to the Leningrad variation of the Dutch Defence ( once he has played f7 – f5 ) . White has no reason , however , to abandon the a1 – h8 diagonal to Black , and he can try 5 ... g6 6.Bd2 d6 7.Nf4 Bg7 8.Bc3 0 @-@ 0 9.Be2 Nbd7 10.Nd2 b6 and in one game White gained a minimal edge .
= = = Other fourth moves after 3 ... Ng4 = = =
A few other lines have been tried , with the outcome varying from an immediate equality to a clear advantage for Black . The cooling 4.e6 avoids complications and heads for an equal endgame with 4 ... dxe6 5.Qxd8 + Kxd8 , Black 's loss of the right to castle being of no great importance since queens have been traded . If Black wants to avoid this early endgame , he can try 4 ... Bb4 + 5.Nc3 Bxc3 + 6.bxc3 dxe6 and now the exchange of queens would give a plus to Black , as the white queenside pawns are isolated and doubled . The greedy 4.f4 is weak because White neglects his development and weakens the a7 – g1 diagonal . Black can immediately exploit this with 4 ... Bc5 , which threatens a fork on f2 and forbids White 's castling ; Black may later push d7 – d6 to open the centre , e.g. 5.Nh3 0 @-@ 0 6.Nc3 d6 7.exd6 cxd6 when Black has good squares for its pieces while White 's castling is delayed .
Another reasonable @-@ looking move is 4.Qd4 as it protects the e5 @-@ pawn and attacks the Ng4 . However , " the problem for White in the Budapest is that natural moves often lead to disaster " . Best for Black is the gambit 4 ... d6 5.exd6 Nc6 ! 6.Qd1 Bxd6 , when the natural 7.Nf3 ? ? is an error because of 7 ... Nxf2 ! 8.Kxf2 Bg3 + winning the queen . White must develop quietly with moves like Nc3 / Nf3 / e3 / Be2 , allowing Black to find active positions for his pieces with 0 @-@ 0 / Be6 / Qe7 / Rfd8 , and preparing several sacrificial ideas on e3 or f2 , with excellent attacking possibilities . Similar to 4.Qd4 is 4.Qd5 when after 4 ... Nc6 White can seize the last opportunity to return to calm waters with 5.Bf4 Bb4 + 6.Nc3 which will transpose in the Rubinstein line , or he can try 5.Nf3 d6 6.exd6 Be6 7.d7 + Bxd7 when Black 's lead in development compensates for the pawn .
= = = Declining the gambit = = =
Declining the gambit is almost never seen in master play because it promises White equality at best . After 3.d5 ? ! Bc5 White has prematurely blocked the central position , giving the a7 – g1 diagonal to Black for his bishop . In this variation Black can either play on the queenside with a plan like b5 / Nb6 / Bd7 , or on the kingside with a plan like Ne8 / g6 / Ng7 / f5 . The shy 3.e3 ? ! exd4 4.exd4 transposes into a line of the Exchange Variation of the French Defence with 4 ... d5 , but Black can also develop rapidly with 4 ... Bb4 + 5.Bd2 Bxd2 + 6.Nxd2 0 @-@ 0 . After 3.e4 ? Black gains a crushing attack via 3 ... Nxe4 4.dxe5 Bc5 5.Nh3 d6 6.Qe2 f5 7.exf6 0 @-@ 0 ! 8.fxg7 Re8 9.Be3 Bxe3 10.fxe3 Bxh3 11.gxh3 Qh4 + . After 3.Bg5 ? ! the game Ladmann – Tartakower ( Scarborough 1929 ) continued with 3 ... exd4 4.Qxd4 Be7 5.Nf3 Nc6 6.Qd1 Ne4 7.Bxe7 Qxe7 8.a3 d6 9.e3 0 @-@ 0 10.Be2 Qf6 11.Nbd2 Bf5 when both Tseitlin and Borik assess the position as favourable for Black . After 3.Nf3 ? ! the game Menchik – Tartakower ( Paris 1929 ) continued with 3 ... e4 4.Nfd2 d5 5.cxd5 ? ! Qxd5 6.e3 Bb4 7.Nc3 Bxc3 8.bxc3 0 @-@ 0 and White has problems developing his kingside because of the potential weakness of g2 .
= = Illustrative games = =
= = = Wu Shaobin – Nadanian , Singapore 2006 = = =
The following game was played between the Chinese GM Wu Shaobin ( White ) and Armenian IM Ashot Nadanian ( Black ) at Singapore 2006 .
1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e5 3.dxe5 Ng4 4.Nf3 Bc5 5.e3 Nc6 6.Be2 Ncxe5 7.Nxe5 Nxe5 8 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 0 @-@ 0 9.b3 Re8 10.Bb2 a5 Preparing Dolfi Drimer 's rook manoeuvre Ra8 – a6 – h6 . Nadanian calls the pawn advance a7 – a5 " the soul of the Budapest Gambit " . 11.Nc3 Ra6 12.Ne4 Ba7 13.Ng3 Qh4 14.Nf5 Qg5 ! ? This was a new move , before 14 ... Qe4 had been played . 15.Nd4 Rg6 16.g3 d5 ? ! 18 ... Qh6 was stronger . 17.cxd5 ? White should have played 17.Nb5 ! 17 ... Bh3 ! 18.Re1 Ng4 19.Nf3 Qxe3 ! Karolyi writes , " This shows Kasparov @-@ like aggression and ingenuity . " 20.Bd4 Qxf2 + ! ! 21.Bxf2 Bxf2 + 22.Kh1 Bb6 23.Qb1 ? White should have defended with 23.Rf1 ! After 23 ... Ne3 24.Qd3 Bg2 + 25.Kg1 Bh3 White can either repeat moves with 26.Kh1 , or try 26.Nd4. 23 ... Nf2 + 24.Kg1 Rf6 ! Black has time to increase the pressure . 25.b4 ! If 25.Qc2 ? , then 25 ... Ng4 + 26.Kh1 Bg2 + ! winning the queen . 25 ... a4 ! But not 25 ... Rxf3 ? 26.bxa5. 26.Ng5 Black can now force mate in 8 moves . 26 ... Ng4 + ! 27.Kh1 Bg2 + ! ! " This is a marvellous move , and it must have been such a thrill to play it on the board . " ( Karolyi ) . 28.Kxg2 Rf2 + 29.Kh3 Rxh2 + 30.Kxg4 h5 + 31.Kf4 Be3 + 0 – 1
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= Rhodotus =
Rhodotus is a genus in the fungus family Physalacriaceae . It is a monotypic genus and consists of the single mushroom species Rhodotus palmatus , known in the vernacular as the netted rhodotus , the rosy veincap , or the wrinkled peach . This uncommon species has a circumboreal distribution , and has been collected in eastern North America , northern Africa , Europe , and Asia ; declining populations in Europe have led to its appearance in over half of the European fungal Red Lists of threatened species . Typically found growing on the stumps and logs of rotting hardwoods , mature specimens may usually be identified by the pinkish color and the distinctive ridged and veined surface of their rubbery caps ; variations in the color and quantity of light received during development lead to variations in the size , shape , and cap color of fruit bodies .
The unique characteristics of R. palmatus have made it difficult for taxonomists to agree on how it should be classified , resulting in an elaborate taxonomical history and an extensive synonymy . First named Agaricus palmatus by Bulliard in 1785 , it was reclassified into several different genera before becoming Rhodotus in 1926 . The familial placement of the genus Rhodotus within the order Agaricales has also been subject to dispute , and the taxon has been transferred variously to the families Amanitaceae , Entolomataceae , and Tricholomataceae . More recently , molecular phylogenetics analysis has helped determine that Rhodotus is most closely related to genera in the Physalacriaceae .
= = History and etymology = =
The type species of genus Rhodotus was originally described as Agaricus palmatus in 1785 by French botanist Jean Bulliard ; mycologist Elias Magnus Fries later included it under the same name in his Systema Mycologicum . It was transferred to the then newly described genus Rhodotus in a 1926 publication by French mycologist René Maire . The specific epithet is derived from the Latin palmatus , meaning " shaped like a hand " — possibly a reference to the resemblance of the cap surface to the lines in the palm of a hand . Common names for R. palmatus include the netted rhodotus , the rosy veincap , and the wrinkled peach .
= = = Synonymy = = =
French botanist Claude Gillet called the species Pleurotus subpalmatus in 1876 . A 1986 paper reported that the species Pleurotus pubescens , first described by American mycologist Charles Horton Peck in 1891 , was the same as Rhodotus palmatus , making their names synonymous . According to the same publication , another synonym is Lentinula reticeps , described by William Alphonso Murrill in 1915 , who thought it to be synonymous with Agaricus reticeps ( described by Montagne in 1856 ) , Agaricus reticulatus ( Johnson , 1880 ) , Agaricus alveolatus ( Cragin , 1885 ) , Pluteus alveolatus ( Saccardo , 1887 ) , and Panus meruliiceps ( Peck , 1905 ) .
= = Taxonomy = =
The placement of the genus Rhodotus in the order Agaricales is uncertain , and various authors have offered solutions to the taxonomic conundrum . In 1951 , Agaricales specialist Rolf Singer placed Rhodotus in the Amanitaceae because of similarities between the tribes Amaniteae and Rhodoteae , such as spore color and ornamentation ( modifications of the spore wall that result in surface irregularities ) , structure of the hyphae and trama , and chlamydospore production during culture growth .
In 1953 , French mycologists Robert Kühner and Henri Romagnesi placed Rhodotus in the family Tricholomataceae — a traditional " wastebasket taxon " — on the basis of spore color . In 1969 , Besson argued for the placement of Rhodotus with the Entolomataceae after studying the ultrastructure of the spores . By 1986 , Singer had revised the placement of Rhodotus in his latest edition of The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy , noting that " It has formerly been inserted in the family Amanitaceae but is obviously closer to tribus Pseudohiatuleae of the Tricholomataceae . " Tribe Pseudohiatuleae included such genera as Flammulina , Pseudohiatula , Cyptotrama , and Callistodermatium . In 1988 , a proposal was made to split the Tricholomataceae into several new families , including a family , Rhodotaceae , to contain the problematic genus .
The use of molecular phylogenetics has helped to clarify the proper taxonomic placement of Rhodotus . Studies of the ribosomal DNA sequences from a wide variety of agaric fungi have corroborated Kühner and Romagnesi 's placement of Rhodotus in the Tricholomataceae as then understood . A large scale phylogenetic analysis published in 2005 showed Rhodotus to be in the " core euagarics clade " , a name given to a grouping of gilled mushrooms corresponding largely to the suborder Agaricineae as defined by Singer ( 1986 ) , but also including taxa that were traditionally classified in the Aphyllophorales ( e.g. , Clavaria , Typhula , Fistulina , Schizophyllum , etc . ) and several orders of Gasteromycetes ( e.g. , Hymenogastrales , Lycoperdales , Nidulariales ) . These results corroborated a previous study which showed Rhodotus to be part of a clade containing species such as Cyptotrama asprata , Marasmius trullisatus , Flammulina velutipes , Xerula furfuracea , Gloiocephala menieri , and Armillaria tabescens . The genera containing these latter species have been reassigned to the family Physalacriaceae ; as of 2009 , both Index Fungorum and MycoBank also list Rhodotus as belonging to the Physalacriaceae .
= = Characteristics = =
The fruit body of Rhodotus has a cap , and stem without a ring or volva . The cap initially assumes a convex shape before flattening somewhat with age , and typically reaches widths of 2 – 6 centimeters ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) . The edges of the cap are rolled inwards , and the cap surface typically has a conspicuous network of lightly colored ridges or veins that outline deep and narrow grooves or pits — a condition technically termed sulcate or reticulate . Between the ridges , the surface color is somewhat variable ; depending on the lighting conditions experienced by the mushroom during its development , it may range from salmon @-@ orange to pink to red . The texture of the cap surface is gelatinous , and the internal flesh is firm but rubbery , and pinkish in color .
The gills have an adnate attachment to the stem , that is , broadly attached to the stem along all or most of the gill width . The gills are thick , packed close to each other , with veins and color similar to , but paler than , the cap . Some of the gills do not extend the full distance from the edge of the cap to the stem . These short gills , called lamellulae , form two to four groups of roughly equal length . The stem is 1 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 0 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) tall and 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 16 – 0 @.@ 24 in ) thick ( usually slightly larger near the base ) , and may be attached to the underside of the cap in a central or lateral manner . Like the cap color , stem size is also affected by the type of light received during fruit body maturation .
In nature , Rhodotus palmatus is sometimes seen " bleeding " a red- or orange @-@ colored liquid . A similar phenomenon has also been observed when it is grown in laboratory culture on a petri dish : the orange @-@ colored drops that appear on the mat formed by fungal mycelia precede the initial appearance of fruit bodies . The mature fruit body will turn green when exposed to a 10 % aqueous solution of Iron ( II ) sulfate ( FeSO4 ) , a common mushroom identification test known as iron salts .
= = = Microscopic features = = =
In deposit , the spore color of Rhodotus palmatus has been described most commonly as pink , but also as cream colored . Viewed microscopically , the spores of Rhodotus have a roughly spherical shape , with dimensions of 6 – 7 @.@ 2 by 5 @.@ 6 – 6 @.@ 5 µm ; the spore surface is marked with numerous wart @-@ like projections ( defined as verricose ) , typically 0 @.@ 5 – 0 @.@ 7 µm long . The spores are non @-@ amyloid — unable to take up iodine stain in the chemical test with Melzer 's reagent .
The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are club @-@ shaped and 4 @-@ spored , with dimensions of 33 @.@ 6 – 43 @.@ 2 by 5 @.@ 6 – 8 µm . Although this species lacks cells called pleurocystidia ( large sterile cells found on the gill face in some mushrooms ) , it contains abundant cheilocystidia ( large sterile cells found on the gill edge ) that are 27 @.@ 2 – 48 by 4 @.@ 8 – 8 µm in size . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae . The outer cellular layer of the cap cuticle is made of bladder @-@ shaped , thick @-@ walled hyphae , each individually supported by a small stalk that extends down into a " gelatinized zone " .
Chlamydospores are asexual reproductive units made by some fungi that allow them to exist solely as mycelium , a process which helps them survive over periods unsuitable for growth ; Rhodotus was shown experimentally to be capable of producing these structures in 1906 . The chlamydospores of Rhodotus are thick @-@ walled cells that develop from single hyphal compartments , and have dimensions of 12 – 8 by 8 – 6 micrometres ( 0 @.@ 00031 – 0 @.@ 00024 in ) .
= = = Edibility = = =
Depending on the source consulted , the edibility of Rhodotus palmatus is typically listed as unknown or inedible . The species has no distinguishable odor , and a " bitter " taste , although one early description referred to the taste as " sweet " .
= = = Antimicrobial activity = = =
As part of a Spanish research study to evaluate the antimicrobial activity of mushrooms , Rhodotus palmatus was one of 204 species screened against a panel of human clinical pathogens and laboratory control strains . Using a standard laboratory method to determine antimicrobial susceptibility , the mushroom was shown to have moderate antibacterial activity against Bacillus subtilis , and weak antifungal activity against both Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Aspergillus fumigatus .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Rhodotus palmatus is saprobic , meaning it obtains nutrients from decomposing organic matter . It grows scattered or clustered in small groups on rotting hardwoods , such as basswood , maple , and especially elm ; in Europe it is known to grow on horse chestnut . The mushroom prefers low @-@ lying logs in areas that are periodically flooded and that receive little sunlight , such as areas shaded by forest canopy . A pioneer species in the fungal colonization of dead wood , it prefers to grow on relatively undecayed substrates . It is often found growing on dark @-@ stained wood , especially the dried @-@ out upper parts of trunks that have lost their bark . R. palmatus tends to fruit in cooler and moister weather , from spring to autumn in the United States , or autumn to winter in Britain and Europe .
Described as having a circumboreal distribution , R. palmatus has been reported from Canada , Iran , Hungary , Italy , Poland , Slovakia , Denmark , Sweden , Norway , Germany , the area formerly known as the USSR , Korea , Japan , and New Zealand . In the United States it has been found in Indiana , and elsewhere in eastern North America . Although often described as " rare " , a 1997 study suggests that it may be relatively common in Illinois . It has been suggested that an increase in the number of dead elms , a byproduct of Dutch elm disease , has contributed to its resurgence .
= = = Light requirements = = =
Light at the red end of the visible spectrum has been observed to be required for the development of R. palmatus fruit bodies , contrary to the typical requirement for blue light seen with many other mushroom species . Fruiting occurs in the presence of green , yellow or red light with wavelengths above 500 nm , but only when blue light ( under 500 nm ) is absent . Consequently , phenotypic variations observed in the field — such as size , shape , and cap color — may be influenced by differing conditions of light color and intensity . For example , specimens grown in the laboratory under green light had fruit bodies with short , straight stems and pale orange , large caps with well @-@ developed ridges and pits , an appearance similar to specimens found in the field that were growing under a canopy of green leaves . Laboratory @-@ grown specimens under amber light had bright orange , small caps with less pronounced reticulations ; similarly , field specimens found in the fall , after the leaves had fallen , were more orange to orange @-@ pink in color .
= = Conservation status = =
In the 1980s in Europe , increases in the levels of air pollution , as well as changing land use practices coincided with reports of declines in the populations of certain mushrooms . Consequently , a number of fungal conservation initiatives were started to better understand fungal biodiversity ; as of October 2007 , 31 European countries have produced fungal Red Lists of threatened species . Rhodotus palmatus is a candidate species in over half of the European fungal Red Lists , and is listed as critically endangered , endangered , or near threatened ( or the equivalent ) in 12 countries . In the Baltic countries Estonia , Latvia , and Lithuania , it is considered by the Environmental Protection Ministries ( a branch of government charged with implementing the Convention on Biological Diversity ) to be regionally extinct , reported as " extinct or probably extinct " . It was one of 35 fungal species to gain legal protection in Hungary in 2005 , making it a fineable offense to pick them .
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= Heart @-@ Shaped Box =
" Heart @-@ Shaped Box " is a song by American rock band Nirvana , written by vocalist and guitarist Kurt Cobain . The song was released as the first single from the group 's third and final studio album , In Utero , in 1993 . It was one of two songs from the album mixed by Scott Litt in order to augment the original production by producer Steve Albini . While Nirvana 's label DGC Records did not release a physical single for sale in the United States , " Heart @-@ Shaped Box " received much American radio airplay , reaching number one on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart . The international release of the single reached number five on the UK Singles Chart . The song 's music video , directed by Anton Corbijn , garnered critical plaudits , and won two awards , including Best Alternative Video at the MTV Video Music Awards in 1994 .
= = Origin and recording = =
Kurt Cobain wrote " Heart @-@ Shaped Box " in early 1992 . Cobain forgot about the song for a while , but began working on it again when he and his wife , Courtney Love , moved to a house in the Hollywood Hills . In a 1994 Rolling Stone interview , Love said she overheard him working on the song 's riff in a closet . She said she asked him if she could use the riff for one of her songs , to which he replied , " Fuck off ! " and closed the closet door . " He was trying to be so sneaky " , said Love . " I could hear that one from downstairs . " The couple shared a journal in which they would write lyrics ; Cobain biographer Charles R. Cross noted that Love 's songwriting sensibility informed Cobain 's on the song . The song 's name came from a heart @-@ shaped box Love had given Cobain . However , Cobain had originally titled the song " Heart @-@ Shaped Coffin " .
Nirvana had difficulty completing the song . Cobain attempted to have the rest of the band complete the song during jam sessions . He said , " During those practices , I was trying to wait for Krist and Dave to come up with something but it just turned into noise all the time . " One day Cobain made one last attempt at completing the song . Cobain was able to come up with a vocal melody and the band finally finished writing the song . Cobain said that when they completed " Heart @-@ Shaped Box " , " We finally realized that it was a good song . "
In January 1993 , the band recorded a demo of " Heart @-@ Shaped Box " during sessions with Craig Montgomery in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil ; it was the first song recorded . The In Utero version was recorded in February 1993 by Steve Albini in Cannon Falls , Minnesota . Prior to the album 's release , the track was remixed by Scott Litt . Cobain was unapologetic about the band 's decision to remix it , and maintained that the vocals and bass were not prominent enough in the original mixes . Nirvana bassist Krist Novoselic was also unhappy with the original mix of " Heart @-@ Shaped Box " . In a 1993 Chicago Sun @-@ Times interview , he said the original effect used on the song 's guitar solo sounded " like a fucking abortion hitting the floor . " When the song was remixed by Litt , Cobain took the opportunity to add acoustic guitar and vocal harmonies .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
Journalist Gillian Gaar described " Heart @-@ Shaped Box " as " the Nirvana formula personified , with a restrained , descending riff played through the verse , building in intensity to the cascading passion of the chorus " .
Cobain said the song was inspired by documentaries about children with cancer . He told biographer Michael Azerrad , " Anytime I think about it , it makes me sadder than anything I can think of . " Azerrad asserted in his biography Come as You Are : The Story of Nirvana that despite Cobain 's explanation , the song actually appeared to be about Courtney Love . Charles Cross wrote in his Kurt Cobain biography Heavier Than Heaven that with the lyric " I wish I could eat your cancer when you turn black " , the frontman " sang in what has to be the most convoluted route any songwriter undertook in pop history to say ' I love you ' " . After a performance of the song by singer Lana Del Rey in 2012 , Courtney Love asserted on Twitter that the song is about her vagina . The tweets were deleted shortly after . Cobain said that the song 's chorus of " Hey / Wait / I 've got a new complaint " was him giving an example of how he was perceived by the media .
= = Release = =
In the United States , DGC issued " Heart @-@ Shaped Box " to college , modern rock , and album @-@ oriented rock radio stations in early September 1993 . There were no plans to release a single for the song domestically . At the time , Geffen Records ' head of marketing told Billboard that the label was not actively courting Top 40 radio , explaining " Nirvana didn 't sell nearly 5 million [ records ] because of a hit single . They sold that many albums because of who they are . " The song entered the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart at number seven , and eventually peaked at number one on the chart . The song also reached number four on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart . A single of the song was released in the United Kingdom , where it peaked at number five on the UK Singles Chart . Issued in August 1993 , the 7 @-@ inch vinyl and cassette formats featured " Marigold " as a B @-@ side , while the 12 @-@ inch vinyl and CD editions added the In Utero track " Milk It " . In 1999 the song was voted in at number 10 in Kerrang ! magazine 's " 100 Greatest Rock Tracks Ever ! " .
= = Music video = =
Nirvana originally wanted Kevin Kerslake , who had directed the videos for the band 's singles " Come as You Are " , " Lithium " , " In Bloom " , and " Sliver " , to direct the " Heart @-@ Shaped Box " music video . Kerslake prepared five treatments during July and August 1993 , but no shoot arrangements were made and by the end of the month , the group decided to work with Dutch photographer and video director Anton Corbijn . Corbijn , who typically created his own ideas for videos , was initially unsure of directing the video since Cobain 's treatment was so detailed . Corbijn said , " But then I looked at it and I thought that actually it was pretty good . I was very amazed by somebody writing a song and having those ideas as precise as he did . "
The video begins and ends with the band in a hospital setting watching an old man being administered medication through an IV drip . The majority of the video takes place in a surreal outdoor setting that incorporates imagery from the film The Wizard of Oz . During the song 's first verse , the old man from the hospital climbs onto a crow @-@ ridden Christian cross . The second verse introduces a young girl in a white robe and peaked cap reaching for human fetuses in a tree , and an overweight woman in a suit with human organs painted onto it and with angel wings affixed to her back . In the video 's final cut , the band is only shown performing in the outdoor setting during the choruses , where Cobain 's face moves in and out of focus in the camera . While most of the video was devised by Cobain , Corbijn added elements such as the intentionally artificial crows , a ladder for the old man to climb onto the cross with , and a box with a heart at the top that the band performs inside of during the song 's final chorus . Corbijn created another cut of the video featuring alternate footage during the final verse , including more shots of the young girl and the woman , and scenes of Cobain lying on his back in the poppy field , with mist surrounding him . This version of the video is featured on the DVD The Work of Director Anton Corbijn .
After the video 's release , Kevin Kerslake sued Nirvana , alleging copyright infringement . The case was settled out of court . The " Heart @-@ Shaped Box " music video was the number one most played music video on MTV in the US as recorded by Billboard magazine on November 20 , 1993 . The video won two MTV Video Music Awards in 1994 , for Best Alternative Video and for Best Art Direction . As the ceremony was held after Kurt Cobain 's April 1994 death , the awards were accepted by Cobain 's former bandmates Novoselic , Grohl , and touring guitarist Pat Smear . " Heart @-@ Shaped Box " also topped the music video category in the 1993 Village Voice Pazz & Jop critics ' poll . In 2011 , NME ranked the song 's music video at number 22 on its of the " 100 Greatest Music Videos " . That same year , Time magazine ranked " Heart @-@ Shaped Box " at number 10 on its list of " The 30 All @-@ TIME Best Music Videos " , where it was described as " beautiful and [ ... ] terrible " .
In February 2016 , Nirvana drummer Dave Grohl reunited with the actress , Kesley Rohr , who played the girl in the " Heart @-@ Shaped Box " music video twenty @-@ three years earlier and who was then just six years old . Rohr stated that " Today reminded me that I peaked at 6 years old BUT I was the most badass kid on the playground . Today was the absolute coolest . Or in Dave ’ s words seeing each other today was a ‘ historic moment ’ ! What a legend ! " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Kurt Cobain except where noted .
= = Chart positions = =
= = Personnel = =
Kurt Cobain : vocals , guitar
Krist Novoselic : bass
Dave Grohl : drums , backing vocals
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= B 'Day ( Beyoncé album ) =
B 'Day is the second studio album by American recording artist Beyoncé . It was released to coincide with her twenty @-@ fifth birthday on September 4 , 2006 , by Columbia Records in collaboration with Music World Music and Sony Urban Music . The record was originally planned as a 2004 follow @-@ up to Beyoncé 's debut studio album Dangerously in Love ( 2003 ) , although it was delayed to accommodate the recording of Destiny 's Child 's final studio album Destiny Fulfilled ( 2004 ) and her starring role in the film Dreamgirls ( 2006 ) . While on vacation after filming Dreamgirls , Beyoncé began contacting various producers ; she rented Sony Music Studios , and completed B 'Day in three weeks . Most of the lyrical content of the album was inspired by Beyoncé 's role in the film . The album 's musical style ranges from 1970s – 80s funk influences and balladry to urban contemporary elements such as hip hop and R & B. Live instrumentation was employed in recording most of the tracks as part of Beyoncé 's vision of creating a record using live instruments .
Upon its release , B 'Day received generally positive reviews from most music critics and has since earned Beyoncé several accolades , including the Grammy Award for Best Contemporary R & B Album at the 2007 Grammy Awards . The album debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 chart , selling 541 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , the second @-@ highest debut @-@ week sales for Beyoncé . The album has been certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . It was also successful in international music markets and yielded six singles , including three commercial hits : " Déjà Vu " , " Irreplaceable " and " Beautiful Liar " . B 'Day Anthology Video Album , which features thirteen music videos to accompany the songs , was released alongside the deluxe edition of B 'Day . Beyoncé then embarked on her second solo concert tour in 2007 , which she titled The Beyoncé Experience . A live album , The Beyoncé Experience Live , was released which featured footage from the tour . As of June 2015 , B 'Day has sold 8 million copies worldwide .
= = Background = =
In 2002 , Beyoncé had productive studio sessions while making her debut album , Dangerously in Love , recording up to forty @-@ five songs . After the release of Dangerously in Love in 2003 , Beyoncé had planned to produce a follow @-@ up album using several of the left @-@ over tracks . However , on January 7 , 2004 , a spokesperson for her record label , Columbia , announced that Beyoncé had put her plans on hold in order to concentrate on the recording of Destiny Fulfilled , the final studio album by Destiny 's Child , and to sing the U.S. national anthem at the Super Bowl XXXVIII in Houston , which was a childhood dream of hers . In late 2005 , Beyoncé decided to postpone the recording of her second album because she had landed a lead role in Dreamgirls , a film adaptation of the 1981 Tony Award @-@ winning Broadway musical of the same name . As she wanted to focus on one project at a time , Beyoncé decided to wait until the movie was completed before returning to the recording studio . Beyoncé later told Billboard magazine , " I 'm not going to write for the album until I finish doing the movie . "
While having a month @-@ long vacation after filming Dreamgirls , Beyoncé went to the studio to start working on the album . She said , " [ When filming ended ] I had so many things bottled up , so many emotions , so many ideas , " prompting her to begin working without telling her father and then @-@ manager , Mathew Knowles . Beyoncé kept the recording of B 'Day somewhat quiet , telling only her artists and repertoire man Max Gousse , and the team of producers they contacted to collaborate for the album . She began working with songwriter @-@ producers Rich Harrison , Rodney Jerkins , Sean Garrett , Cameron Wallace ; the Neptunes , Norwegian production duo Stargate , American hip hop producer @-@ rapper Swizz Beatz , and Walter Millsap . Two female songwriters were also included in the production team who helped structure the album : Beyoncé 's cousin Angela Beyincé , who had previously collaborated in Dangerously in Love , and up @-@ and @-@ coming songwriter Makeba Riddick , who made her way onto the team after writing " Déjà Vu " , the lead single off the album .
= = Recording and production = =
Beyoncé rented the Sony Music Studios in New York City , and was influenced by her husband Jay @-@ Z 's method of collaborating with multiple record producers ; she used four recording studios simultaneously . She booked Harrison , Jerkins and Garrett , each with a room to work in . During the sessions , Beyoncé would move from studio to studio to check her producers ' progress , later claiming this fostered " healthy competition " among producers . When Beyoncé conceived a potential song , she would tell the group who would deliberate , and after three hours the song would be created . While Beyoncé and the team brainstormed the lyrics , other collaborators such as the Neptunes , Jerkins and Swizz Beatz would simultaneously produce the tracks . They would sometimes begin working at eleven o 'clock , spending up to fourteen hours a day in the studios during the recording process . Beyoncé arranged , co @-@ wrote and co @-@ produced all the songs . Makeba Riddick , in an interview with MTV News , recounted her experience in the production :
[ Beyoncé ] had multiple producers in Sony Studios . She booked out the whole studio and she had the biggest and best producers in there . She would have us in one room , we would start collaborating with one producer , then she would go and start something else with another producer . We would bounce around to the different rooms and work with the different producers . It was definitely a factory type of process .
B 'Day , which is titled as a reference to Beyoncé 's birthday , was completed in three weeks , ahead of the originally scheduled six weeks . Swizz Beatz co @-@ produced four songs for the album , the most from a single producer in the team . Beyoncé recorded three songs a day , finishing recording within two weeks . Twenty @-@ five songs were produced for the album ; ten of the tracks were selected for the track list , and mastered in early July by Brian " Big Bass " Gardner in Los Angeles .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Many of the themes and musical styles of the album were inspired by Beyoncé 's role in Dreamgirls . The plot of the film revolves around The Dreams , a fictional 1960s group of three female singers who attempt success in the mainstream music industry with the help of their manager , Curtis Taylor . Beyoncé portrays Deena Jones , the lead singer of the group and the wife of Taylor , and is emotionally abused by him . Because of her role , Beyoncé was inspired to produce an album with an overriding theme of feminism and female empowerment . In the bonus track , " Encore for the Fans " , Beyoncé says , " Because I was so inspired by Deena , I wrote songs that were saying all the things I wish she would have said in the film . "
B 'Day was influenced by a variety of American genres , and , like Beyoncé 's previous album , incorporated urban contemporary elements including contemporary R & B and hip hop . Some songs have 1970s and 1980s styles , inspired through record sampling . " Suga Mama " , which employs blues @-@ guitar samples from Jake Wade and the Soul Searchers ' " Searching for Soul " , contains a 1970s funk- and 1980s go @-@ go @-@ influenced melody . " Upgrade U " is sampled from the 1968 Betty Wright song " Girls Can 't Do What the Guys Do " . " Resentment " used Curtis Mayfield 's 1972 " Think ( Instrumental ) " , from the Super Fly soundtrack . " Déjà Vu " has 1970s influence , " Green Light " is a classic groove , and " Get Me Bodied " features twang , a musical style that originated from Texas .
Beyoncé crafted most songs on B 'Day through live instrumentation and diverse techniques . This is evident on " Déjà Vu " , which utilizes bass guitar , conga , hi @-@ hat , horns and the 808 drum ; it also features rap vocals by Jay @-@ Z. In an interview with MTV , Beyoncé said , " When I recorded ' Déjà Vu ' [ ... ] I knew that even before I started working on my album , I wanted to add live instruments to all of my songs ... " The album 's second single " Ring the Alarm " is noted for the use of a siren in its melody . It was called a song that " shows a harder edge to Beyoncé 'ss sound " . " Freakum Dress " is a crescendo that uses a two @-@ note riff and galloping beats . The song " advises women who have partners with straying eyes to put on sexy dresses and grind on other guys in the club to regain their affections . " Meanwhile , the use of the " uh @-@ huh huh huh " vocals and brassy stabs in the song " Green Light " is a direct echo to " Crazy in Love " , according to Peter Robinson of The Guardian .
= = Release and promotion = =
In collaboration with Sony Urban Music and Music World Music , B 'Day was first released outside of North America through Columbia Records on September 4 , 2006 to coincide with Beyoncé 's 25th birthday . The following day , it was released in North America . Seven months after the release of the original version , an expanded double @-@ disc deluxe edition of the album was released in the United States on April 3 , 2007 . In addition to the original track listing , the deluxe edition features five new songs , including " Beautiful Liar " , a duet with Colombian singer Shakira . The single made Billboard Hot 100 history when it moved ninety @-@ one positions — from number ninety @-@ four to number three — on April 7 , 2007 . " Amor Gitano " ( " Gypsy Love " ) , a Spanish @-@ language flamenco @-@ pop duet with Mexican singer Alejandro Fernández served as a soundtrack for Telemundo 's " El Zorro " telenovela , was included in the deluxe edition , alongside Spanish re @-@ recordings of " Listen " ( " Oye " ) , " Irreplaceable " ( " Irreemplazable " ) and " Beautiful Liar " ( " Bello Embustero " ) . The idea of recording songs in a foreign language emanated from her experience when Destiny 's Child collaborated with Alejandro Sanz for " Quisiera Ser " ( 2000 ) . Beyoncé worked with producer Rudy Perez for these recordings in order to retain the same feeling of the English version of the song into the Spanish translation . The Spanish language EP on the deluxe edition was later released independently under the title Irreemplazable .
B 'Day Anthology Video Album was released simultaneously with the deluxe edition ; the anthology features thirteen videos including the director 's cut of " Listen " and the extended mix of " Get Me Bodied " . Most of the videos were accompaniments for the up @-@ tempo tracks on B 'Day ; which featured retro stylization , use of color and black hair styles , as Beyoncé thought it would create a resemblance between herself and the character she played in Dreamgirls , Deena Jones . The shooting of the videos was completed in two weeks ; they were directed by Jake Nava , Anthony Mandler , Melina Matsoukas , Cliff Watts , Ray Kay , Sophie Muller , Diane Martel and Beyoncé . Initially the DVD was available exclusively in Wal @-@ Mart , but was later released to other markets . The Spanish songs were not included on international releases of the deluxe edition , but instead feature the thirteen music videos from the anthology DVD .
= = = Singles = = =
" Déjà Vu " , featuring Jay @-@ Z , was released on July 31 , 2006 , as the album 's lead single . " Green Light " was planned to be released as the second single for the international market , but the management opted for " Ring the Alarm " instead , which was released in the United States only . " Irreplaceable " was serviced to international markets as the second international and third overall single from B 'Day . " Ring the Alarm " was released on October 3 , and became her highest @-@ charting single debut , opening at number twelve on the Billboard Hot 100 . " Upgrade U " , also featuring Jay @-@ Z , was released as a promotional single in November 2006 , and reached number fifty @-@ nine on the Hot 100 .
The album 's third single " Irreplaceable " became the best @-@ selling single in the U.S. in 2007 and the 25th most successful song of the 2000s ( decade ) , according to the Billboard Hot 100 Songs of the Decade . " Irreplaceable " became the most successful single to be released from the album , received positive critical reception , and spent ten consecutive weeks atop the Billboard Hot 100 . The single 's music video features the debut performance of her all @-@ female band , Suga Mama . " Get Me Bodied " was released on July 10 , 2007 as the fifth single . " Get Me Bodied " peaked at number sixty @-@ eight on the Hot 100 . The single 's accompanying music video features sister Solange Knowles and former Destiny 's Child band @-@ mates Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams in its 1960s @-@ influenced instructional music video . " Green Light " was released in the United Kingdom on July 30 , 2007 . Along with the release of the single , the remix EP Green Light : Freemasons EP was released on July 27 , 2007 as a digital download .
= = = Tour = = =
In mid @-@ 2006 , Beyoncé looked for an all @-@ female band for her 2007 tour , The Beyoncé Experience , to promote the album . She held an audition for keyboard players , bassists , guitarists , horn players , percussionists and drummers around the world . Beyoncé named the band Suga Mama . Although the band only consisted of women , both male and female backup dancers performed onstage . As well as singing songs from B 'Day , Beyoncé also performed songs from Dangerously in Love and gave a medley of Destiny 's Child songs . She embarked on the tour in Japan on April 10 , 2007 and concluded it in Tapei , Taiwan on November 12 , 2007 . At the Los Angeles show Jay @-@ Z and Destiny 's Child bandmates Rowland and Williams made guest appearances . Footage from this show was filmed and released on November 20 , 2007 as a live album titled The Beyoncé Experience Live .
= = Commercial performance = =
Despite an average commercial performance of the album 's first two singles , " Déjà Vu " and " Ring the Alarm " , B 'Day peaked at number one on the Billboard 200 , the official albums chart in the United States , on September 23 , 2006 . The album sold 541 @,@ 000 units in its first week of release . B 'Day was Beyoncé 's highest debut week album sales , until it was surpassed by her self @-@ titled fifth album , which sold 617 @,@ 213 digital copies in its first week . The album gave Beyoncé her second number @-@ one album following Dangerously in Love , which also topped the chart on its debut . This feat was noted by Keith Caulfield of Billboard magazine , surmising that perhaps " its handsome debut was generated by goodwill earned from the performance of her smash first album Dangerously in Love " . By the end of 2006 , the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , and became the thirty @-@ eighth best @-@ selling album of that year in the US .
The album 's commercial performance was reinforced by the subsequent release of its editions . The release of the deluxe edition helped B 'Day re @-@ enter the top ten , gaining 903 percent in sales . On April 16 , 2007 , the RIAA re @-@ certified B 'Day as triple platinum , combining the sales from the original edition of album with those of the deluxe edition . However , B 'Day 's extended life in the music market has been attributed to the release and eventual success of " Irreplaceable " , which is the album 's certifiable smash hit . The single , which was released by the end of 2006 , helped the album in regaining its strength , having re @-@ entered into the top ten of Billboard 200 . As of July 2014 , the album has sold 3 @.@ 4 million copies in the US .
In the United Kingdom , B 'Day debuted at number three on September 11 , 2007 selling 35 @,@ 012 copies in its first week . The British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) certified B 'Day platinum for shipping 300 @,@ 000 units , and the deluxe edition gold for shipping 100 @,@ 000 units . As of July 3 , 2011 , B 'Day has sold 385 @,@ 078 copies in the UK . The album peaked at number three on the European Top 100 Albums , while reaching the top ten in the albums charts of Denmark , Flanders , Germany , Ireland , Italy , the Netherlands , Portugal , Spain and Switzerland . The album reached number two on the Canadian Albums Chart , where it stayed for two weeks and receiving a platinum certification from the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) . Across Oceania , it had the same reception debuting on Australian Albums Chart and New Zealand Albums Chart both at number eight on the same week , September 11 , 2006 . B 'Day remained on the charts for twenty and twenty @-@ five weeks respectively , and was certified platinum by both the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) and the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) . As of September 2013 , B 'Day had sold 8 million copies worldwide .
= = Critical reception = =
B 'Day received generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 70 , based on 23 reviews . Jody Rosen , writing for Entertainment Weekly , commented that the album 's songs " arrive in huge gusts of rhythm and emotion , with Beyoncé 's voice rippling over clattery beats " . Jonah Weiner of Blender commented that " sweaty up @-@ tempo numbers prove the best platform for Beyoncé 's rapperly phrasing and pipe @-@ flaunting fireballs " . Andy Kellman of Allmusic felt that , despite " no songs with the smooth elegance " of " Me , Myself and I " or " Be with You " , the album is " lean in a beneficial way " . The Boston Globe 's Sarah Rodman commented that the production team helped Beyoncé " focus on edgier , up @-@ tempo tracks that take her sweet soprano to new places " . Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian felt that , " apart from a few pop @-@ R & B space @-@ fillers , there 's not much to dislike about B 'Day " . Robert Christgau from MSN Music said " on most of [ the songs ] she 's wronged yet still in control because she 's got so much money " and felt that Beyoncé " earns her props " if " opulence can signify liberation in this grotesquely materialistic time , as in hip @-@ hop it can " .
In a mixed review , Jon Pareles of The New York Times found the album " tense , high @-@ strung and obsessive " , and said that it was neither " ingratiating or seductive " . Richard Cromelin of the Los Angeles Times observed that Beyoncé " heads into a new , more challenging terrain " , but " some of the experiments don 't click " . Although he found the album " solid " , Mike Joseph of PopMatters said that " aside from its relatively short running time , it sounds suspiciously under produced " . Brian Hiatt of Rolling Stone averred that " while the mostly up @-@ tempo disc never lacks for energy , some of the more beat @-@ driven tracks feel harmonically and melodically undercooked , with hooks that don 't live up to ' Crazy in Love ' or the best Destiny 's Child hits " . Priya Elan of NME cited only " Freakum Dress " and " Ring the Alarm " as highlights and criticized that " too many tracks sound like updated versions of former glories " , with no song on @-@ par with " Crazy in Love " .
= = = Accolades = = =
In 2007 , B 'Day was nominated for five Grammy Awards at the 49th annual ceremony , including Best Contemporary R & B Album , Best Female R & B Vocal Performance for " Ring the Alarm " and Best R & B Song and Best Rap / Sung Collaboration " for " Déjà Vu " . The Freemasons club mix of " Déjà Vu " without the rap was put forward in the Best Remixed Recording , Non @-@ Classical category . B 'Day won the award for Best Contemporary R & B Album . The following year , B 'Day received two Grammy nominations for Record of the Year for " Irreplaceable " and Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals for " Beautiful Liar " ( with Shakira ) . The same year , she also received a Grammy nomination for her work on Dreamgirls . In April 2013 , Vibe magazine named B 'Day the 41st best album since 1993 , as well as the greatest party album of the last twenty years .
= = Controversy = =
The cover art for the single " Ring the Alarm " fueled controversy after Beyoncé used alligators during the photo shoot . Beyoncé revealed that using the animal and taping their mouths shut was her idea . PETA , an animal rights organization which had previously confronted her after she had used furs for her fashion line 's clothing design , contacted a biologist who later wrote a letter to her , stating " As a specialist in reptile biology and welfare , I 'm concerned about your posing with a terrified baby alligator for your new album cover . Humans and alligators are not natural bedfellows , and the two should not mix at events such as photo shoots . In my view , doing so is arguably abusive to an animal . "
In 2007 , Beyoncé appeared on billboards and newspapers across Australia showing her holding an antiquated cigarette holder . Taken from the back cover of B 'Day , the image provoked response from an anti @-@ smoking group , stating that she did not need to add the cigarette holder " to make herself appear more sophisticated " . In the same year , three weeks after their release , the deluxe edition and the video anthology DVD were temporarily ceased for retail in stores . A lawsuit was filed for breach of contract of using " Still in Love ( Kissing You ) " , a version of British singer Des 'ree 's original song " Kissing You " . Not intended for the album 's inclusion , Des 'ree 's deal also stipulated that the title of the song was not to be altered , and a video was not to be made . After the infringement case , the re @-@ issued version of the album does not include the track , and instead includes " If " as a replacement . The lawsuit was dismissed with prejudice in October 2007 .
= = Track listing = =
North American deluxe edition
International deluxe edition
Notes
^ a signifies an additional producer
^ b signifies a co @-@ producer
" Suga Mama " samples " Searching for Soul " by Jake Wade and the Soul Searchers .
" Upgrade U " samples " Girls Can 't Do What the Guys Do " by Betty Wright .
" Resentment " samples " Think ( Instrumental ) " by Curtis Mayfield .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of B 'Day .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications and sales = =
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= MediEvil 2 =
MediEvil 2 ( stylised as MediEvil II in North America ) is an action @-@ adventure hack and slash video game developed by SCE Cambridge Studio and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation . It is the second instalment in the MediEvil series and a sequel to MediEvil . It was first released on 19 April 2000 in Europe and 30 April 2000 in North America . Taking place 500 years after the events of the first game , it follows series ' protagonist Sir Daniel Fortesque 's revival in Victorian era London as he attempts to stop sorcerer Lord Palethorn and Jack the Ripper 's plans to terrorise the city by raising the dead .
Following the positive reception of the first game , Sony Computer Entertainment commissioned SCE Cambridge Studio to make a sequel to MediEvil before the end of the PlayStation 's lifespan . The original concepts for MediEvil 2 went through many transformations during development before the Cambridge team finally settled on making a sequel set during the Victorian Gothic revival , largely reminiscent of its predecessor . The game received mostly positive reviews from critics upon release , with praise including slight improvements over its predecessor such as artificial intelligence and graphical enhancements , but was criticised for lack of innovation from the original .
= = Gameplay = =
The interface and gameplay style do not differ much from the previous title . MediEvil 2 sees the player once again in control of Sir Daniel Fortesque , who can use various forms of weaponry , such as close range swords and clubs to long @-@ range crossbows or catapults . The game contains several of the original forms of gameplay , weaponry , and graphics that were present in the first instalment of the series . Similar to its predecessor , Dan is able to tear off his skeletal arm and use it as a club to fight off enemies during the early levels . Whilst featuring many of the classic swords and other medieval weaponry , new weapons featured in MediEvil 2 include pistols , shotguns and Gatling guns .
Dan can visit merchants known as ' Spivs ' to buy additional ammunition and services . He can also get advice from his ghost sidekick named Winston to learn new moves or to save the player 's game between longer levels . Similar to the previous game , Dan 's health is determined by a single health bar , which reduces when Dan is hit . It also depletes completely if he drowns or falls from a great height . If Dan completely runs out of health , the game restarts from the last known save point . Dan can refill his maximum health by collecting Life Bottles , which automatically refill his health if it is depleted . Whilst defeating enemies , Dan 's Chalice of Souls will gradually fill up , which can then be collected and traded with Professor Kift to unlock new weapons and items .
= = Plot = =
The game begins 500 years after Sir Daniel Fortesque 's battle against the evil sorcerer Zarok in events from the previous game . In Kensington in the year 1886 , a sorcerer named Lord Palethorn discovers Zarok 's spellbook and casts its spell of raising the dead over the city of London . However , the pages of the book soon scatter across London and Palethorn gains a demon @-@ like appearance as a result . The spell Palethorn casts once again brings Sir Daniel Fortesque , who was resting at a nearby museum , back to life . He is recruited by a professor named Hamilton Kift and his ghostly sidekick Winston ( a play on Winston Churchill ) to recover the pages of Zarok 's spellbook and put a stop to Palethorn 's plans . Along the way , they end up being joined by an ancient mummy princess named Kiya , Dan 's future love interest .
During an incident in which Kiya goes off on her own , she is killed by Jack the Ripper , much to Dan 's shock . Having discovered a time machine , Dan travels back in time to save Kiya in Whitechapel , merging with his past self to gain golden armour . As Dan finally confronts Palethorn , he steals the pages from him and uses them to summon a large blue demon . Dan manages to turn the demon against Palethorn , putting a stop to both of them . As Palethorn blows up his lair with his last breath , Dan decides to join Kiya in the afterlife as they return to their eternal rest . If the player has collected all the Chalices , Dan and Kiya go for a ride on the time machine which takes them back to the time of the first MediEvil instead only to find Palethorn has merged with Zarok .
= = Development = =
After the success of the first MediEvil , Sony Computer Entertainment commissioned SCE Cambridge to develop a sequel that would be released before the end of the PlayStation 's lifespan . Chris Sorrell , who previously served as director of the first game , was not involved in development so the project was handed over to James Shepherd instead . According to Shepherd , the original plot for MediEvil 2 had previous antagonist Zarok being held prisoner in the Tower of London and Sir Daniel Fortesque 's objective would be to free him , but this idea was eventually dropped due it being considered identical to a " B @-@ movie twist ending " .
The Cambridge studio decided it would not be difficult to make a sequel to the first MediEvil , considering that the ending of its predecessor would give the team an opportunity to set the next game in a different time period . Shepherd settled on MediEvil 2 being set in the Victorian era , the birthplace of the Neo @-@ Gothic revival . Shepherd considered the hardest part of the development was deciding how to make the game better than its predecessor through making certain aspects of the game humorous . To achieve this end , the Cambridge studio recoded a lot of core technology , which Shepherd considered was arguably similar to " starting from scratch " . Various features cut from the previous game were added into MediEvil 2 , such as playable characters and levels that featured puzzles . By the time the game reached beta status the game offered larger levels , improved NPC logic , and more moves for the protagonist .
= = Reception = =
MediEvil 2 received mostly positive reviews from critics upon release . The game was mostly praised for its rich , detailed graphics but was criticised by many reviewers for its bad camera angles , easy difficulty and for being too similar to the first game . The game received an aggregate score of 79 % from GameRankings , slightly lower than its predecessor . At the 2000 BAFTA Interactive Entertainment Awards , MediEvil 2 won the best console game category .
IGN 's Doug Perry praised the graphical advancements of the game , noticing that the sharper detail brings out a more " sophisticated feel " to the story and the new addition of cutscenes create a better sense of continuity and story to help break up the game into a more controlled broader world . Shawn Sparks of Game Revolution similarly praised the improved graphics , noting that smooth frame rate and sharper graphics brought out the original PlayStation 's power despite nearing the end of its lifespan . Sparks hailed the graphics as " eye candy " and said that the levels are " a joy to explore " .
Despite the graphical achievements of the game , the level layouts and camera work were among the main criticisms . Perry noted the game 's " plain wide confusion " in level layouts would cause frustration for players , and was several times found without direction in the larger levels . Sparks also noted similar concerns with confusing level layout . Perry disliked the fixed camera positioning throughout the game , saying that at least 20 % of the camera angles could have been tuned or changed to provide better views for the player , outlining that the camera was " good , not great " and a small improvement to its predecessor . Daily Radar 's Stephen Frost praised the game 's improved artificial intelligence and harder difficulty in comparison to the first game , summarising that MediEvil 2 was " better , not perfect " although he thought that the game was still lacking in innovation .
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= Little Red Rooster =
" Little Red Rooster " ( or " The Red Rooster " as it was first titled ) is a blues standard credited to arranger and songwriter Willie Dixon . The song was first recorded in 1961 by American blues musician Howlin ' Wolf in the Chicago blues style . His vocal and slide guitar playing are key elements of the song . It is rooted in the Delta blues tradition and the theme is derived from folklore . Musical antecedents to " Little Red Rooster " appear in earlier songs by blues artists Charlie Patton and Memphis Minnie .
A variety of musicians have interpreted and recorded " Little Red Rooster " . Some add new words and instrumentation to mimic the sounds of animals mentioned in the lyrics . American soul music singer Sam Cooke adapted the song using a more uptempo approach and it became a successful single on both the US rhythm and blues and pop record charts in 1963 . Concurrently , Dixon and Howlin ' Wolf toured the UK with the American Folk Blues Festival and helped popularize Chicago blues with local rock musicians overseas .
The Rolling Stones were among the first British rock groups to record modern electric blues songs . In 1964 , they recorded " Little Red Rooster " with original member Brian Jones , a key player in the recording . Their rendition , which remains closer to the original arrangement than Cooke 's , became a number one record in the UK and continues to be the only blues song to reach the top of the British chart . The Stones frequently performed it on television and in concert and released several live recordings of the song . " Little Red Rooster " continues to be performed and recorded , making it one of Willie Dixon 's best @-@ known compositions .
= = Background = =
Willie Dixon 's " The Red Rooster " / " Little Red Rooster " uses elements from several earlier blues songs . The theme reflects early twentieth century folk beliefs in the American South that a rooster contributes to peace in the barnyard . The image of the rooster appears in several blues songs from the 1920s and 1930s , with two particular songs identified as precursors . Influential Delta blues musician Charlie Patton 's 1929 " Banty Rooster Blues " contains the verses " What you want with a rooster , he won 't crow ' fore day " and " I know my dog anywhere I hear him bark " , which are analogous to Dixon 's " I have a little red rooster , too lazy to crow ' fore day " and " Oh the dogs begin to bark " . Some of the lyrics to Memphis Minnie 's 1936 acoustic combo blues " If You See My Rooster ( Please Run Him Home ) " are also similar . For example , she sings " If you see my rooster , please run ' im on back home " , while Dixon uses " If you see my little red rooster , please drive ' im home " . Additionally , similar melody lines are found in both songs . For her recording , Memphis Minnie does a full @-@ throated imitation of a rooster 's crow . Mimicking animal sounds later became a feature of several recordings of " Little Red Rooster " .
In the post @-@ war era , Margie Day with the Griffin Brothers recorded a song in 1950 titled " Little Red Rooster " in an updated jump blues style . It is a boisterous , uptempo piece performed by a small combo group . Day 's lyrics include " Got a little red rooster , and man how he can crow ... He 's a boss of the barnyard , any ol ' place he goes " ; Dixon 's song uses the line " Keep everything in the barnyard , upset in every way " . The original Dot Records single lists the songwriters as " Griffin @-@ Griffin " . Day 's song was a hit , reaching number five on Billboard 's Best Selling Retail Rhythm & Blues Records chart in 1951 .
= = Howlin ' Wolf song = =
Delta blues musician Charlie Patton influenced Howlin ' Wolf 's early musical development . Wolf later recorded adaptations of several Patton songs , including " Spoonful " , " Smokestack Lightning " , and " Saddle My Pony " . Relatives and early friends recall Howlin ' Wolf playing a song similar to " The Red Rooster " in the 1930s . Evelyn Sumlin , who was the wife of long @-@ time Wolf guitarist Hubert Sumlin , felt that several of the songs that were later arranged by and credited to Willie Dixon had already been developed by Howlin ' Wolf .
Howlin ' Wolf recorded " The Red Rooster " in Chicago in June 1961 . The song is performed as a slow blues in the key of A. Although Dixon biographer Mitsutoshi Inaba notes it as a twelve @-@ bar blues , the changes in the first section vary due to extra beats . Lyrically , it follows the classic AAB blues pattern , where two repeated lines are followed by a second . The opening verse echoes Charlie Patton 's second verse :
As with many blues songs , Dixon 's lyrics are ambiguous and may be seen on several levels . Interpretations of his verses range from the " most overtly phallic song since Blind Lemon Jefferson 's [ 1927 ] ' Black Snake Moan ' " to an innocuous farm ditty . Although Dixon described it in the latter terms , he added , " I wrote it as a barnyard song really , and some people even take it that way ! " The lyrics are delivered in Howlin ' Wolf 's distinctive vocal style ; music writer Bill Janovitz describes it as displaying a " master singer 's attention to phrasing and note choice , milking out maximum emotion and nuance from the melody " .
A key element of the song is the distinctive slide guitar , played by Howlin ' Wolf , with backing by long @-@ time accompanist Hubert Sumlin on electric guitar . It is one of only two of the many songs recorded by Howlin ' Wolf in the early 1960s which include his guitar playing . Described as " slinky " by Janovitz and " sly " by music historian Ted Gioia , it weaves in and out of the vocal lines and is the stylistic foundation of the song . The other musicians include Johnny Jones on piano , Willie Dixon on double bass , Sam Lay on drums , and possibly Jimmy Rogers on guitar .
" The Red Rooster " , backed with " Shake for Me " , which was also recorded during the same session , was issued by Chess Records in October 1961 . Neither song , nor his other songs from the period now considered to be among his best known , entered the record charts . Both were included on his acclaimed 1962 album Howlin ' Wolf , often called the Rockin ' Chair album . " The Red Rooster " also appears on many Howlin ' Wolf compilations , including Howlin ' Wolf : The Chess Box and Howlin ' Wolf : His Best – The Chess 50th Anniversary Collection .
Later , Chess arranged for Howlin ' Wolf to record " The Red Rooster " and some other songs with Eric Clapton , Steve Winwood , Bill Wyman , and Charlie Watts for the 1971 album The London Howlin ' Wolf Sessions . At the beginning of the recording , Howlin ' Wolf can be heard attempting to explain the timing of the song , because as Wyman later explained , " we were kind of playing it backwards " . Finally , Clapton ( joined in by the others ) encourages him to play it on guitar so " I can follow you if I can see what you 're doing " . Despite their efforts to get it right , according to Wyman , " the Chess people ended up using the old ' backwards ' take anyway " .
= = Sam Cooke rendition = =
On February 23 , 1963 , American soul singer Sam Cooke recorded his interpretation of Willie Dixon 's song , calling it " Little Red Rooster " . The song was first proposed for Cooke 's brother , L.C. , who was recording some new material at the time . However , L.C. felt the song was not suitable for him . " I said , ' I 'm not a blues singer . ' So Sam said , ' Well , I 'm gonna do it then , ' " L.C. recalled . Sam Cooke chose to forgo Howlin ' Wolf 's gutbucket approach and came up with an arrangement that music writer Charles Keil describes as " somewhat more relaxed and respectable " . Dixon 's lyrics are delivered in Cooke 's articulate vocal style , but with an additional verse :
Cooke 's musical arrangement follows a typical twelve @-@ bar blues structure and is performed at a faster tempo than Howlin ' Wolf 's . It has been notated as a moderate blues ( 92 beats per minute ) in 12 / 8 time in the key of A. The recording took place in Los Angeles with a small group of session musicians . A young Billy Preston uses " playful organ vocalizing " or organ lines to imitate the sounds of a rooster crowing and , following the lyrics , dogs barking and hounds howling . Also backing Cooke are Ray Johnson on piano and Hal Blaine on drums ( Barney Kessel has also been mentioned as the guitarist ) . The song was a hit , reaching number seven on Billboard 's Hot R & B singles chart . It was also a crossover hit and appeared at number eleven on the Billboard Hot 100 pop chart . " Little Red Rooster " is included on Cooke 's 1963 album Night Beat , which reached number 62 on the Billboard 200 album chart . It also appears on several Cooke compilation albums , including Portrait of a Legend : 1951 – 1964 , which was released in 2003 .
= = Rolling Stones version = =
= = = Background = = =
Chess Records Chicago artists , including Howlin ' Wolf and Muddy Waters , influenced the Rolling Stones , with the band taking their name from a Muddy Waters tune and playing from a repertoire of blues songs at the beginning of their career . In 1962 , before they had recorded as a group , Mick Jagger , Brian Jones , and Keith Richards , attended the first American Folk Blues Festival , whose performers included Howlin ' Wolf . Willie Dixon , another Festival player , later recalled " When the Rolling Stones came to Chess studios , they had already met me and doing my songs , especially ' Little Red Rooster ' " . When Dixon and Howlin ' Wolf were in London , they met several local rock musicians . Early Stones manager Giorgio Gomelsky described such a meeting :
There was Howlin ' Wolf , Sonny Boy [ Williamson II ] and Willie Dixon , the three of them sitting on this sofa ... Willie was just singing and tapping on the back of the chair and Sonny Boy would play the harmonica and they would do new songs . To a degree , that 's why people know those songs and recorded them later . I remember ' 300 Pounds of Joy ' , ' Little Red Rooster ' , ' You Shook Me ' were all songs Willie passed on at that time ... Jimmy Page came often , the Yardbirds , [ and ] Brian Jones .
Dixon added , " I left lots of tapes when I was over there [ in London ... I told ] them anybody who wanted to could go and make a blues song . That 's how the Rolling Stones and the Yardbirds got their songs " . Stones biographer Sean Egan noted , " In many ways , this is Brian Jones ' record . [ He was ] always the biggest blues purist in the band " .
Although they had already recorded several Chess songs , according to Bill Wyman , " Little Red Rooster " was " a slow , intense blues song ... [ that producer Andrew Loog Oldham argued was ] totally uncommercial and wrong for our new @-@ found fame ... the tempo made the track virtually undanceable " . Mick Jagger commented
The reason we recorded ' Little Red Rooster ' isn 't because we want to bring blues to the masses . We 've been going on and on about blues , so we thought it was about time we stopped talking and did something about it . We liked that particular song , so we released it . We 're not on the blues kick as far as recording goes . The next record will be entirely different , just as all the others have been .
= = = Composition and recording = = =
Although Wyman noted some early criticism of their rendition , Janovitz described it as " a fairly faithful version [ of the original ] " . It is performed as a moderately slow ( 74 bpm ) blues in the key of G. Although AllMusic reviewer Matthew Greenwald describes their arrangement as having a straight I @-@ IV @-@ V twelve @-@ bar blues progression , they sometimes vary the changes , but not in the same manner as Howlin ' Wolf . Jagger uses the lyrics from the original ( omitting Cooke 's extra verse ) , but makes one important change — instead of " I got a little red rooster " , he sings " I am the little red rooster " , although the later verse reverts to " If you see my little red rooster " . Instrumentally , Bill Wyman generally follows Dixon 's bass lines . Charlie Watts later admitted that his drum part was inspired by Sam Cooke 's version , which was played by Hal Blaine . Keith Richards adds a second guitar part ; according to Egan , " the juxtaposition of acoustic guitar and electric slide all make for something richer and warmer than any blues they had ever attempted before " .
However , it is Jones ' contributions that are usually singled out . Egan writes " it is his [ Jones ' ] playing that makes the record via both the cawing bottleneck that is its most prominent feature and his closing harmonica " . Biographer Stephen Davis adds , " It was his [ Jones ' ] masterpiece , his inspired guitar howling like a hound , barking like a dog , crowing like a rooster " ( similar to Billy Preston 's " playful organ vocalizing " ) . Wyman wrote " I believe ' Rooster ' provided Brian Jones with one of his finest hours .
Two different dates and recording locations are known . Wyman recalled that the song was recorded September 2 , 1964 , at Regent Sound in London , while the session information for the 1989 Rolling Stones box set Singles Collection : The London Years lists " November 1964 Chess Studios , Chicago " . Biographer Massimo Bonanno commented , " The boys entered the Regent Sound Studios on September 2nd [ 1964 ] to resume work on ... ' Little Red Rooster ' ... [ and later on November 8 , 1964 , at Chess ] some unverified sources [ indicate ] the boys also put the final touches to their next British single ' Little Red Rooster ' " . According to Davis , Jones was left to later record overdubs after the track was recorded without him .
= = = Charts and releases = = =
" Little Red Rooster " was released on Friday , November 13 , 1964 , and reached number one on the UK Singles Chart on December 5 , 1964 , where it stayed for one week . It remains to this day the only time a blues song has ever topped the British pop charts . According to AllMusic writer Matthew Greenwald , " Little Red Rooster " was Brian Jones ' favorite Stones single . Wyman noted that it " realized a cherished ambition [ of Jones ] to put blues music at the top of the charts , and meant his guilt of having ' sold out ' completely to pop fame was diminished " . It was the band 's last cover song to be released as a single during the 1960s .
In 1964 and 1965 , the Rolling Stones performed " Little Red Rooster " several times on television , including the British programs Ready Steady Go ! ( November 20 , 1964 ) and Thank Your Lucky Stars ( December 5 , 1964 ) ; and the American The Ed Sullivan Show ( May 2 , 1965 ) , Shindig ! ( May 20 , 1965 ) , and Shivaree ( May 1965 ) . On Shindig ! , Jagger and Jones introduced Howlin ' Wolf as the first one to record " Little Red Rooster " and as one of their first influences . Although often reported that the Stones would only agreed to appear if Howlin ' Wolf ( or Muddy Waters ) also performed , Keith Richards later explained that the show 's producer , Jack Good , was in on the idea to present an original blues artist on prime time network television . During the group 's concerts in 1965 , Charlie Watts , who did not normally address the audiences , was often brought from behind the drum kit to the front of the stage to introduce " Little Red Rooster " from Jagger 's microphone . Wyman recalled particularly enthusiastic responses to the song in Sydney ( at the Agricultural Hall in January 1965 ) , Paris ( Olympia in April 1965 ) , and Long Beach , California ( Long Beach Auditorium on May 16 , 1965 ) .
" Little Red Rooster " is included on their third American album , The Rolling Stones , Now ! , released in February 1965 . It also appears on several Rolling Stones compilation albums , including the UK version of Big Hits ( High Tide and Green Grass ) , Singles Collection : The London Years , Rolled Gold : The Very Best of the Rolling Stones , and GRRR ! . Live versions appear on Love You Live and Flashpoint ( with Eric Clapton , who contributed to Howlin ' Wolf 's 1971 remake , on slide guitar ) .
= = = No U.S. single release = = =
Bill Wyman later wrote in his book Stone Alone that " on December 18 , 1964 , news came from America that ' Little Red Rooster ' was banned from record release because of its ' sexual connotations ' " . This has been repeated and embellished to include that it had been banned by or from American radio stations ; however , Sam Cooke 's version with nearly the same lyrics had been a Top 40 crossover pop hit one year earlier . Additionally , the Rolling Stones ' " Little Red Rooster " was included on Los Angeles radio station KRLA 's ( at the time the number @-@ one Top 40 radio station in the second largest market in the U.S. ) playlist from December 9 , 1964 to February 5 , 1965 . Radio personality Bob Eubanks wrote in his weekly Record Review column for January 1 , 1965 , " ' Little Red Rooster ' , by the Stones , is still KRLA 's exclusive ... Don 't fret , though , it may still be released in this country " .
" Mona ( I Need You Baby ) " from the Rolling Stones ' first UK album was also being aired and considered for their next single , but with " Time Is on My Side " , " Heart of Stone " , and " The Last Time " on the U.S. charts during this same period , neither " Little Red Rooster " or " Mona " were released as singles . However , they were included on Rolling Stones , Now ! ( by contrast , only " Little Red Rooster " and " The Last Time " were released as singles in the UK during this period ) . Although it appeared at the top of the British chart for one week , Jagger later commented , " I still dig ' Little Red Rooster ' , but it didn 't sell " . Egan believes that actual sales of the record may have fallen short of previous Stones ' singles .
= = = Charts = = =
= = Recognition and influence = =
Howlin ' Wolf 's original " The Red Rooster " is included in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's list of the " 500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll " . As well as being a blues standard , Janovitz calls " Little Red Rooster " a " classic song [ that ] has been recorded countless times , a warhorse for most late- ' 60s and 1970s classic rock acts " . Dixon and Snowden have noted cover versions by Luther Allison , Eddie C. Campbell , the Doors ( with John Sebastian ) , Jose Feliciano , Grateful Dead , Ratdog , Ronnie Hawkins , Z.Z. Hill , Hubert Sumlin , and Big Mama Thornton .
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= Michael Wacha =
Michael Joseph Wacha ( / ˈwɑːkə / ; born July 1 , 1991 ) is an American professional baseball pitcher for the St. Louis Cardinals of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He played college baseball for the Texas A & M Aggies .
The Cardinals selected Wacha in the first round of the 2012 Major League Baseball Draft from Texas A & M. With just one year in the minor leagues , he made his MLB debut on May 30 , 2013 . Following a strong regular season , Wacha earned the 2013 National League Championship Series Most Valuable Player Award , after yielding one run and eight hits in his first 21 postseason innings pitched .
= = Early life = =
Michael Wacha was born in Iowa City , Iowa , to Tom and Karen Wacha as the second of four children . He has one older brother , Charlie , one younger brother , Lucas , and a younger sister , Brette . When Wacha was three years old , his family moved from Iowa City to Texarkana , Texas . His future college coach , Rob Childress , first spotted Wacha pitching in an American Legion game ; Wacha 's father was the coach and his sister the batgirl . Wacha 's uncle , Dusty Rogers , pitched in the Cincinnati Reds organization from 1984 through 1988 .
= = Amateur career = =
Wacha attended Pleasant Grove High School in Texarkana , Texas , where he played for the school 's baseball and basketball teams . As a basketball player , he lettered three years as a forward and was honored on the first @-@ team all @-@ district on his way to advancing his school to the regional finals during his senior year . In his junior baseball season , Wacha posted a 16 – 3 W – L record , pitching the Hawks to the state finals . As a senior , he led the Hawks to the state semi @-@ finals in his senior year in 2009 with a 6 – 3 win – loss record ( W – L record ) . Wacha was a two @-@ time all @-@ state selection ; he was selected to the all @-@ state first @-@ team and all @-@ state tournament team . Excelling academically , Wacha was a member of the National Honor Society ; in basketball , Wacha earned first @-@ team academic all @-@ state honors .
As an enrollee at Texas A & M University , Wacha played three years of college baseball for the Texas A & M Aggies . At this point , Wacha stood 6 ' 5 " ( 77 inches ( 200 cm ) ) tall , weighed 180 pounds ( 82 kg ) and threw his fastball with a velocity between 84 miles per hour ( 135 km / h ) and 88 miles per hour ( 142 km / h ) . During his freshman campaign , he made ten starts in 25 total appearances and posted a 2 @.@ 90 earned run average ( ERA ) and a 9 – 2 W – L record . Wacha also registered 97 strikeouts ( SO ) and 22 walks ( BB ) in 105 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched ( IP ) . His nine wins ranked fifth and 2 @.@ 90 ERA sixth in the Big 12 Conference . For his performance , Louisville Slugger named Wacha a freshman All @-@ American .
In his sophomore year , Wacha posted a 9 – 4 record in 16 starts with 123 SO and just 20 BB and a 2 @.@ 29 ERA in 129 2 ⁄ 3 IP . That performance earned him a spot as a Third Team All @-@ American and All @-@ Big 12 Second Team . Wacha was a member of the USA Baseball Collegiate National Team . He also pitched in the Big 12 Championship , NCAA College Station Regional and College World Series at the end of his sophomore year .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Draft and minor leagues ( 2012 – 13 ) = = =
The Cardinals selected Wacha in the first round with the 19th overall selection of the 2012 MLB Draft and signed him for $ 1 @.@ 9 million on June 14 , 2012 . His draft slot originally belonged to the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim , who , upon signing Albert Pujols as a free agent , surrendered it to the Cardinals . Cardinals director of scouting Dan Kantrovitz foresaw Wacha as a future starter for the Cardinals whose size and competitive nature drew favorable comparisons with right @-@ handers Chris Carpenter and Adam Wainwright .
Wacha ascended quickly through the minor leagues . The Cardinals first assigned Wacha to the Gulf Coast League ( Rookie League ) Cardinals , then promoted him to the Palm Beach Cardinals in the Florida State League and finally to the Springfield Cardinals of the Double @-@ A Texas League before the 2012 season ended . In 21 innings pitched ( IP ) between the three levels , he struck out 40 batters , allowed just eight hits , four walks and two runs . With Springfield , he pitched eight innings , struck out 17 batters , and allowed just one home run ( HR ) .
The Cardinals invited Wacha to their major league spring training camp in 2013 . He impressed team management and players alike , striking out fifteen batters while only allowing one walk and one unearned run in eleven and two @-@ thirds innings of work before being reassigned to the minor league camp .
Wacha started the 2013 season with the Memphis Redbirds of the Class AAA Pacific Coast League , going 4 – 0 with a league @-@ leading 2 @.@ 05 ERA in nine games started and 52 2 ⁄ 3 IP before his first call @-@ up to the Major Leagues . His overall season totals at Memphis included a 2 @.@ 65 ERA in 15 starts , 73 SO and 85 IP .
= = = St. Louis Cardinals ( 2013 – present ) = = =
= = = = Rookie season ( 2013 ) = = = =
The Cardinals activated Wacha on May 30 to make his major league debut against the Kansas City Royals at Busch Stadium . Just 364 days after throwing his last pitch for Texas A & M , Wacha was standing on a major league mound for the first time .
In his first at @-@ bat in the majors , Wacha singled to right @-@ center field . On the mound , he demonstrated the prodigious pitching ability that rapidly shuttled him through the minor leagues when he retired the first 13 Royals he faced before giving up a hit , a double in the fifth inning . That runner then scored after another hit . He pitched seven innings with 93 pitches ( 67 strikes ) , giving up only two hits and one run , walking none , and striking out six , leaving with a 2 – 1 lead . Wacha lost the chance for a win in the ninth , when Mitchell Boggs relieved and gave up a tying home run to the first batter he faced .
The Arizona Diamondbacks scored six runs against Wacha in his second start , which turned out to be a no @-@ decision on his part . Wacha earned his first MLB win on June 11 as the Cardinals beat the New York Mets 9 – 2 at Citi Field . The game got off to a rough start as he gave up a home run to the second Met batter he faced , walked three others and saw his team fall behind two runs in the first inning . However , he rebounded and scattered five hits and no more walks over six total innings of work . It was Wacha 's third career start . Three days after earning his first major league win , the Cardinals optioned Wacha back to Memphis to clear roster room for pitcher Jake Westbrook as he returned from the disabled list ( DL ) . During his first stint with the Cardinals , Wacha posted a 1 @-@ 0 record with an ERA of 4 @.@ 58 in three starts .
The Cardinals recalled Wacha in mid @-@ August and he was on the roster to stay for the remainder of the season . He started one game against the Chicago Cubs before being moved to the bullpen . Manager Mike Matheny placed him back in the rotation in September . He pitched six shutout innings with just three hits against the Cincinnati Reds .
Encompassing his last regular @-@ season game and first three playoff appearances in 2013 , Wacha authored a series of masterful performances . On September 24 , he pitched a no @-@ hitter through 8 2 ⁄ 3 innings against the Washington Nationals that ended when Ryan Zimmerman stroked an infield single that glanced off Wacha 's glove . It was Washington 's only hit as the Cardinals prevailed 2 – 0 . It was also the third potential no @-@ hitter lost with the final out to go on the 2013 season , after Yu Darvish and Yusmeiro Petit . Wacha finished his regular season in the Major Leagues appearing in 15 games , making nine starts and pitching 64 2 ⁄ 3 innings . He surrendered 52 hits , twenty runs , five home runs and struck out 65 hitters for a 2 @.@ 78 ERA .
= = = = First playoff experience ( 2013 ) = = = =
On October 7 , Wacha started his first Major League playoff game . In 7 1 ⁄ 3 innings of Game 4 of the 2013 National League Division Series ( NLDS ) – an elimination game against the Pittsburgh Pirates – he again surrendered one hit ( a home run ) and two walks . Due to Wacha 's back @-@ to @-@ back one @-@ hit performances , Matheny announced that he would start Game 2 of the National League Championship Series ( NLCS ) . In that game on October 12 , he outdueled Clayton Kershaw in 6 2 ⁄ 3 innings for a 1 – 0 victory over the Los Angeles Dodgers . In just the 11th start of his MLB career , Wacha joined Bob Gibson as the only pitchers in franchise history to strike out at least eight batters while yielding one or no runs in consecutive postseason starts .
Facing Kershaw again in Game 6 , Wacha yielded just two hits in seven innings as his opponent unravelled in a 9 – 0 victory that sent the Cardinals to the World Series . Wacha won both his NLCS starts , holding the Dodgers to a .149 batting average against ( BAA ) , two walks and 13 SO in 13 2 ⁄ 3 scoreless IP as he earned the NLCS MVP . He became the fourth rookie to win a postseason MVP , following Larry Sherry ( 1959 World Series ) , Mike Boddicker ( 1983 NLCS ) , and Liván Hernández ( 1997 NLCS and 1997 World Series ) . Through the NLCS , Wacha allowed just one run on eight hits in 21 IP for a 0 @.@ 43 ERA while striking out 22 .
Starting Game Two of the World Series against the Boston Red Sox , Wacha pitched six innings in a 4 – 2 Cardinals ' victory , although he said after the game he " didn 't have [ his ] best stuff . " Before surrendering a home run to David Ortiz , Wacha tied Gibson with the longest scoreless streak ( 19 innings ) in Cardinals ' postseason history . Wacha became the 17th @-@ youngest pitcher overall to win a World Series game and the second @-@ youngest in Cardinals history behind only Paul Dean . In Game 6 , with the Cardinals facing elimination once more , Wacha was again called upon to save their season after winning four consecutive playoff starts with a 1 @.@ 00 ERA and just 11 hits allowed in 27 innings for a .122 opponents ' batting average . However , the Red Sox finally solved him , tagging him for six runs in 3 2 ⁄ 3 innings on the way to defeating the Cardinals for their eighth World Series title .
= = = = 2014 – present = = = =
Wacha was guaranteed a regular post in the rotation at the outset of the 2014 season , and his first two starts came against the Reds . Receiving one win and one no @-@ decision , he furthered a strong start against them . His first career 22 2 ⁄ 3 IP against them included just 13 hits and five walks allowed with 20 SO and a 0 @.@ 40 ERA . In an April 24 start against the New York Mets , Wacha struck out nine batters in the first three innings . This was just the 11th such occurrence in the expansion era . With 41 miles per hour ( 66 km / h ) winds whipping , he struck out ten total in four innings but also walked five and required 93 pitches . Two of the walks proved costly as they were with the bases loaded ; the Mets took advantage in a 3 – 2 triumph .
Wacha 's first 15 starts of 2014 included a 2 @.@ 79 ERA and 5 – 5 W – L. However , after pitching with lingering shoulder discomfort and fatigue in May and June , the Cardinals placed him on the DL on June 18 . A series of magnetic resonance ( MRI ) and computed tomography ( CT ) images revealed an injury termed as a stress reaction in the scapula behind his throwing arm . The stress reaction apparently was a case of the shoulder not repairing itself as fast as the strain from regular pitching had caused between the scapula bone and tendons .
Although similar to the stress fracture injury Brandon McCarthy suffered , it was deemed less severe . According to medical opinion , it was part of the same injury process , but Wacha 's injury had not progressed as far as McCarthy 's as a fracture had yet to occur . Therefore , Cardinals general manager John Mozeliak stated , as " a precursor to a stress fracture , ... which is a precursor to a ... fracture , " it was more manageable to correct . With limited knowledge on the related biomechanical processes , the Cardinals training and medical staff researched methods to treat Wacha 's injury and circumvent the same course from happening again ; likewise , they were uncertain of when he was to return to play .
Wacha surrendered a series @-@ ending , three @-@ run walk @-@ off home run to Travis Ishikawa of the San Francisco Giants in the ninth inning of Game 5 of the 2014 NLCS , as the Giants prevailed , 6 – 3 .
The Cardinals won each of Wacha 's first nine starts of 2015 while he credited as the winner in seven of them . With an ERA of 1 @.@ 87 , he became the first Cardinal to start with a 7 – 0 record since Matt Morris started 8 – 0 in 2005 . He was selected to his first All @-@ Star Game , played at Great American Ball Park in Cincinnati . The Cardinals skipped 10 days between two August starts over concerns about his shoulder . To that point , he was 15 – 4 with a 2 @.@ 69 ERA and 1 @.@ 12 WHIP . In Game 4 of the NLDS against the Cubs on October 12 , 2015 , Wacha surrendered three home runs in 4 1 ⁄ 3 innings in an 8 – 6 loss .
= = Pitching profile = =
Standing 6 ' 6 " ( 78 inches ( 200 cm ) ) tall and weighing 210 pounds ( 95 kg ) , Wacha repeats the same delivery with all his pitches . Featuring a sinking fastball that usually travels between 92 miles per hour ( 148 km / h ) and 95 miles per hour ( 153 km / h ) , Wacha frequently shows velocity up to 97 miles per hour ( 156 km / h ) . His high arm angle and release point create substantial downward action on his fastball . Wacha 's fastball complement , a changeup , features deep , fading movement to right @-@ handed hitters with a 10 miles per hour ( 16 km / h ) to 12 miles per hour ( 19 km / h ) decrease in velocity from his fastball . Not only is his arm angle on the two pitches the same , the arm speed appears virtually identical to the hitter , thus disguising the difference in velocity .
Wacha 's third pitch is an average curveball that travels about 77 miles per hour ( 124 km / h ) and has improved in break and consistency ; in college , scouts considered his curveball a below average pitch . He has a fourth pitch , a slider , that lacks consistent break and darts horizontally similar to the cutter . Wacha attributed the increase in pitch velocity to gaining weight from physical exercise and increased food consumption , asserting that he " felt like the velocity just kept on increasing every single year . I changed my mechanics a little bit when I was in college , and that might have added a few ticks . " Wacha added a cut fastball ( commonly called a " cutter " ) late in the 2013 season , though he only threw the pitch 1 @.@ 8 % of the time . During the 2014 spring training , Wacha showed increased confidence in the pitch after finding a consistent grip .
Depending on the source , Wacha shows a wide range of potential . Scouting reports initially projected him for a potential of two plus @-@ plus pitches ( fastball and changeup ) with command of both . Baseball Prospectus noted that his polish due to pitch command helped fast @-@ track him to the Major Leagues . However , a dearth of vigorous fastball life escalates the importance of command . Wacha offsets the shortage of sizable vertical movement with the pronounced descent through which his fastball , changeup and curve travel to create an additional obstacle as hitters to attempt square the bat on the pitch . In addition , the drop in elevation changes the hitter 's eye level . Wacha was previously criticized for a heavy reliance on the fastball from lacking a solid breaking pitch . Before refining his curveball , Baseball Prospect Nation commented that development of a slider " to even only an occasional ' show @-@ me ' pitch would add another element to his game and allow him to become more refined in his pitch sequencing ability to work through a lineup . "
During each at @-@ bat , Wacha does not easily give in to the batter . He maintains his composure on the mound . With both fastball and changeup being plus @-@ plus pitches and improved command , Baseball Prospectus and Baseball Prospect Nation conclude his likely future is as a solid number @-@ three starter . However , as command of his curve has markedly improved , so have his projections . The same initial reports stated that if he could enhance his slider 's reliability , he may be able to become a low @-@ end number two starter . Still others , such as scout Ralph Garr , Jr . , and Kantrovitz , project him as a " future top @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rotation guy . "
= = Awards = =
= = Personal life = =
As both a play on his last name , and the pronunciation of his first and last names together , " Wacha Wacha " became a phenomenon in 2013 following the favorite catch phrase of Fozzie Bear of The Muppets , and for its similarity to the sound effects from the Pac @-@ Man arcade game . A restaurant in St. Louis named a milkshake the " Wacha Wacha " following his 2013 NLCS MVP honors . The milkshake 's ingredients included vanilla with chocolate chips and Cracker Jacks . Although he could not remember the name of the restaurant ( believed to be Fozzie 's ) , he stated the Cracker Jacks " added a little baseball flair to it . "
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= Cyber Rights =
Cyber Rights : Defending Free speech in the Digital Age is a non @-@ fiction book about cyberlaw , written by free speech lawyer Mike Godwin . It was first published in 1998 by Times Books . It was republished in 2003 as a revised edition by The MIT Press . Godwin graduated from the University of Texas School of Law in 1990 and was the first staff counsel for the Electronic Frontier Foundation . Written with a first @-@ person perspective , Cyber Rights offers a background in the legal issues and history pertaining to free speech on the Internet . It documents the author 's experiences in defending free speech online , and puts forth the thesis that " the remedy for the abuse of free speech is more speech " . Godwin emphasizes that decisions made about the expression of ideas on the Internet affect freedom of speech in other media as well , as granted by the First Amendment to the United States Constitution .
The book was received favorably by Library Journal , where it was " Recommended for anyone concerned about expression on the Internet and democratic society . " Publishers Weekly noted Godwin 's " unusually broad view of free speech " , and criticized the author for viewing issues " filtered through rose @-@ colored screens " . The Philadelphia Inquirer highlighted Cyber Rights among " 1998 's Best Reading " .
= = Author = =
Godwin is a graduate of the University of Texas School of Law . At the time of the book 's first publication , Godwin was employed as a staff counsel EFF . He had been hired as EFF 's first staff counsel after graduating from law school in 1990 . Law Library Journal noted , " In this position , he worked on the frontlines of the fight to make sure that freedom of expression is more than tolerated , that in fact it is able to flourish in cyberspace . "
Cyber Rights is Godwin 's first book . Godwin described himself as a civil libertarian . From 1997 to 1998 , Godwin was a fellow of the Media Studies Center . In 2007 , he took a research fellowship at Yale University . Godwin became general counsel for Wikimedia Foundation in July 2007 .
= = Contents = =
Cyber Rights analyzes the legal issues involved with communicating on the Internet , including those relating to Internet privacy and government involvement . The book is written with a first @-@ person perspective : the reader learns of the author 's morning ritual , the fact that his cat is named Francie and that he married a woman he met through a Bulletin Board System . Godwin 's motivation was to keep the Internet safe from government actions that restrict freedom of speech . He asserts that the First Amendment to the United States Constitution should apply equally to the Internet as it does to other media .
The book 's early chapters ground the reader in principles involving cyberspace and the law . The author provides enough background that a layperson can understand the relevant legal history , including explaining libel and the extent to which copyrighted text may be quoted and used under the fair use principle . Godwin explains his goal is " to show that striking a balance in favor of individual rights has always been the right decision for us and that it remains so even when technology gives us new ways to exercise those rights . Individual liberty has never weakened us ; freedom of speech , enhanced by the Net , will only make us stronger " . He instructs the reader on how to become proficient in dealing with mainstream news media , writing , " Learn how to hack all the media . Then put that knowledge to good use " .
Subsequent chapters consider traditional challenges to broad free speech in the online context , including : defamation , sexual harassment , copyright and issues involving privacy . He dismisses these issues as less important than freedom of speech . Godwin argues that individuals maintain latitude when communicating over the Internet because " it 's far more likely that they 'll do good than otherwise . This is because freedom of speech is itself a good . The framers of the Constitution were right to give it special protection , because societies in which people can speak freely are better off than societies in which they can 't " .
The author discusses influential legal cases including a judgment involving Compuserve , where the court ruled that the Internet service provider should be deemed similar to a bookstore avoiding liability for publishing potentially offensive speech . He recounts Steve Jackson Games , Inc. v. United States Secret Service which followed a raid by the United States Secret Service in 1990 on Steve Jackson Games and his involvement influencing the media relating to the incident . He cites the LaMacchia case , which dealt with charges of copyright infringement of software subsequently dismissed . An incident at Santa Rosa Junior College which involved issues of free speech and gender discrimination is discussed and analyzed in the book .
Godwin analyzes the effects of a 1995 cover story " Cyberporn " in TIME magazine and writings by Martin Rimm that discussed the effect of Internet pornography . He explains how the theories presented in the article were discredited . Godwin calls the incident following the TIME article the " cyber @-@ porn panic " ; noting how the magazine published a cover story on a purported pornography " study " and how he and others exposed flaws in the piece .
He cites the Communications Decency Act of 1996 ( CDA ) as an example of U.S. government action which cramps free speech . Godwin describes the subsequent attempts to defeat CDA . The Supreme Court of the United States held two sections to be unconstitutional and Godwin recounts how he became emotional over the decision . Throughout the book Godwin emphasizes that " the remedy for the abuse of free speech is more speech " . Cyber Rights puts forth the notion that " virtual communities " can be fostered on the Internet that serve the values of democracy , writing " The decisions we make about the Internet don 't affect just the Internet – they are answers to basic questions about the relationship each citizen has to the government and about the extent to which we trust one another with the full range of fundamental rights granted by the Constitution , " .
= = Reception = =
Cyber Rights was reviewed favorably in Library Journal , where it was described as " a provocative discussion of the social and legal issues concerning computer online communications " . The review noted that Godwin , " provides an excellent background to the governmental and privacy dimensions of the Internet , using anecdotal accounts to illustrate web @-@ related legal issues . " Library Journal concluded , " Recommended for anyone concerned about expression on the Internet and democratic society . " Booklist observed , " He wants us to understand that the principles upon which this country is founded are unquestionably worth the risk . He passionately defends , in clear , one @-@ two @-@ three soundbites , the online freedom he wants his daughter to inherit , and he insists that his readers untangle the meanings behind the use of words such as indecency and pornography to frighten and to confuse . " Booklist recommended Cyber Rights be carried in libraries , concluding , " Most libraries will want copies for both circulating and professional collections . "
Cyber Rights received a positive review in Salon , which noted , " Readers of ' Cyber Rights ' will range from those who have never heard of Mike Godwin to those who have tangoed with him online at some point or have at least lurked silently as the debate raged . Whatever the number in the first category , those falling into the second are legion . Godwin has been online so long he 's had a celebrated law that predicts the course of online discussions named after him . " The review observed , " Throughout ' Cyber Rights , ' it becomes clear that what makes Godwin a sometimes unpleasant online sparring partner is precisely what has catapulted him to the front lines in the seemingly endless battles for free speech on the Net . ... his tenacity and his insistence on wrestling every last breath out of his opponents ' arguments . " Salon characterized the book as , " an instructional book with an argument to convey – a sort of cross between a dry , textbookish primer and a lively personal history . "
Columbia Journalism Review gave the book a favorable review , noting , " This is a lively , garrulous account by an activist who was deeply involved in turning back the threat of regulation and , at least for the time being , securing rights of free expression online . " The review described the latter portion of the book as " a more intense personal chronicle of Godwin 's deep involvement in what he calls the ' cyberporn panic ' – the push to control Internet content . " Columbia Journalism Review concluded , " Ultimately , Godwin shows , this strong response laid the groundwork for lawsuits that enabled the Supreme Court to declare the ' decency ' amendment unconstitutional . He was in the thick of things throughout this effort , and his journal lets the reader relive the tension and uncertainty of trying to halt a media stampede before it crushed everything in its path . "
School Library Journal recommended the book for young readers , and commented , " Teens growing up with the Net aren 't likely to find a better roadmap to the issues affecting their First Amendment future there than this book . " The New York Times Book Review was critical of Godwin 's writing style in the book , and observed , " He writes in a strong , piercing voice that probably does wonders in a courtroom , but comes off increasingly shrill over several hundred pages of commentary , and at one point fairly warns his reader , ' Subtlety isn 't my strong point . ' " The Journal of Information Ethics wrote , " This is less an analytic study than a personal survey of situations or occurrences articulated in an informal , colloquial , and anecdotal fashion . It is not aimed at the intelligentsia or legal profession , although members of these groups would certainly benefit from the details . " The review concluded , " The details are sometimes overwhelming , but for those who wish to know everything , this is a good place to start . "
The Philadelphia Inquirer highlighted Cyber Rights among " 1998 's Best Reading " , and concluded , " Often reads , as Godwin intends , as a handbook for free @-@ speech activism " . A review in the San Antonio Express @-@ News concluded , " ' Cyber Rights ' is an extremely important book , one that anyone who accesses the Internet should read . Those who support the causes Godwin fights against aren 't going to be happy with it , because he pokes some big holes in their arguments . But one of the bedrock freedoms we all enjoy is freedom of speech , and Godwin makes an elegant defense in its behalf . " The Dallas Morning News characterized the book as a multifacted legal instructive work , and commented , " Part philosophical musings , part legal primer , part history and part political analysis , the book touches on just about every facet of how the Internet is transforming free @-@ speech issues . " The Houston Chronicle wrote , " Godwin makes a passionate case for ensuring the online world has the same civil rights as the ' real ' world . " Writing in the book Internet and the Law , author Aaron Schwabach comments , " The book takes an anticensorship position , but it presents all sides of the various questions fairly and completely . "
CommLaw Conspectus of The Catholic University of America noted , " Cyber Rights brims with anecdotes and behind @-@ the @-@ scenes looks at the people and organizations struggling with the [ reality ] and potential of the information superhighway . " A review of the book in The Green Bag concluded , " Overall , Godwin seems to be preaching to the choir , rather than making legal arguments to win over converts . Lower publication costs do increase the possibility of publication , but , standing alone , may not justify replacing the legal regimes developed over time to regulate expression – legal regimes which , for the most part , have endured through previous revolutions in the technology of disseminating information . Theology , which calls on faith , and economics , which calls on reason and empiricism , may not be compatible . But the Internet is about a shift in the economics of expression , not a theological revolution in how the First Amendment affects society , and when the project is getting the legal prescriptions right , all of the implications must be taken seriously . "
Publishers Weekly commented that in the book Godwin put forth " an unusually broad view of free speech " . The review noted that by citing noteworthy legal cases affecting free speech online , " he frames nicely some of the issues raised by the encounter of the 200 @-@ year @-@ old Bill of Rights and the cutting @-@ edge Internet . " Publishers Weekly wrote that by the end of the book , " his arguments have become predictable – or flimsy , as when he implies that the Net poses no new risks with its dissemination of dangerous information , such as bomb @-@ making instructions , because libraries have carried such information for years . " The review concluded , " Godwin 's book is a thoughtful examination of an important subject , but its thoughts seem too often filtered through rose @-@ colored screens . "
In a review of the revised and updated 2003 edition of the book , Law Library Journal wrote , " Cyber Rights : Defending Free Speech in the Digital Age is a book that can help the uninitiated become familiar with the issues and arguments that have shaped the debate over regulating cyberspace . " The review noted , " Cyber Rights was inspired by Godwin 's unwavering belief that an uncensored Internet can transform society into a true democracy . It is an exceptionally personal work and resembles an online journal . ... The book , written in the first person , has a casual and conversational style . As the reader is able to ' hear ' the author 's voice , Cyber Rights is extremely easy to read . " Law Library Journal criticized the book for being repetitive , and for dismissing arguments of his opponents as " an irrational fear of the unknown ( i.e. , cyberspace ) or as a poor understanding of case law or the Framers ' intent " . The review acknowledged , " Cyber Rights is a good introduction to the world of cyberspace and the legal issues that affect the Internet . It presents , in a readable style , a passionate perspective on an emerging area of law . " Law Library Journal recommended the book for " large academic law libraries " .
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= RTI International =
RTI International ( formerly Research Triangle Institute ) is a nonprofit organization headquartered in the Research Triangle Park in North Carolina that provides research and technical services . It was founded in 1958 with $ 500 @,@ 000 in funding by local businesses and the three North Carolina universities in the Research Triangle region . RTI started with departments for research in isotopes , operational sciences and statistics . It restructured into four departments in 1971 and later created the Office for International Projects , now called the International Development Group .
RTI later split into eleven departments , including Health Research , Drug Discovery & Development , Education & Training Research , Survey Research , among others . The US Agency for International Development has come to account for 35 percent of RTI 's research revenue . RTI research has covered HIV / AIDS , healthcare , education curriculum and the environment , among others . Forbes magazine ranked RTI International sixth of 250 in its America ’ s Best Employers list for mid @-@ size companies for 2016 .
= = History = =
In 1954 , Romeo Guest , a building contractor , met with the North Carolina state treasurer , Brandon Hodges , and the president of Wachovia , Robert Hanes , to discuss building a research park in North Carolina to attract new industries to the region . They obtained support for the concept of Research Triangle Park from state governor Luther Hodges and the three universities that form the research triangle : University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , Duke University and North Carolina State University . The Research Triangle Institute ( now RTI International ) was formed as the research park 's first tenant in 1958 by the park 's founders . The following January they announced that $ 1 @.@ 425 million had been raised by the Research Triangle Foundation to fund the park and that $ 500 @,@ 000 of it had been set aside for RTI .
RTI started with three divisions : Isotope Development , Operational Sciences and Statistics Research . Its first contract was a $ 4 @,@ 500 statistical study of morbidity data from Tennessee . In RTI 's first year of operation , it had 25 staff and $ 240 @,@ 000 in research contracts . Its early work was focused on statistics , but within a few years expanded into radioisotopes , organic chemistry and polymers . In 1960 the Institute had its first international research contract , for an agricultural census in Nigeria . RTI won contracts with the Department of Education , Defense Department , NASA and the Atomic Energy Commission , growing to $ 3 @.@ 4 million in contracts in 1964 and $ 85 million in 1988 .
In 1971 , RTI 's staff of 430 was reorganized into four research groups : social and economic systems , statistical sciences , environmental sciences and engineering , and chemistry and life sciences . It also created a division for education called the Center for Education Research and Evaluation . Four years later , RTI created the Office for International Programs to manage international projects . RTI provided funding assistance to help found the North Carolina School of Science and Mathematics in 1980 , and two years later was part of a joint venture to create Microelectronics Center of North Carolina ( MCNC ) , a non @-@ profit whose computer network connected local K @-@ 12 schools . A Health Solutions division formed in 2000 serves the pharmaceutical , biotechnology and medical device industries . In 2015 , it formed a subsidiary in New Delhi , India . Among other projects , it was funded to develop a waterless toilet for use in third @-@ world countries .
= = Organization = =
RTI International is a not @-@ for @-@ profit research organization established by three local universities , but managed independently by a separate board and management team . RTI 's structure consists of members of the corporation , the board of governors and corporate officers . The members of the corporation elect governors , who in turn create the organization 's policies . Corporate officers are senior managers that report to the board for their area of responsibility .
RTI has eleven service areas :
RTI also has a separate business called RTI Health Solutions , which supports biotech , diagnostic and medical device companies . As of 2012 , the organization 's largest division managed the social , statistical and environmental sciences services . More than half of RTI 's staff have advanced degrees in one of 120 fields and work on approximately 1 @,@ 200 projects at a time . RTI has partnerships with the Research Triangle Energy Consortium , the Triangle Global Health Consortium and other universities and research organizations . Many of RTI 's staff hold faculty positions at the three universities that form the Research Triangle and participate in cooperative research projects .
There are nine US offices and nine international locations in France , the United Kingdom , South America , Indian and Indonesia , among others , supporting operations in 80 countries . About 60 percent of RTI 's staff are headquartered on a 180 @-@ acre campus inside the Research Triangle Park . Most of RTI International 's funding comes from government research contracts . In 2012 it authored 627 journal articles . At the time , RTI owned 400 patents . RTI competes with the three universities that form the research triangle and other research institutes for contracts . It bids on $ 2 billion in research contracts a year and wins approximately 40 percent of the budget it bids on .
= = Projects = =
RTI International 's research has spanned areas like cancer , pollution , drug abuse and education .
RTI scientists Monroe Wall and Mansukh Wani synthesized anti @-@ cancer treatments camptothecin in 1966 , from the bark of the Camptotheca tree , and Taxol in 1971 , from a Pacific yew tree . These two drugs account for $ 3 billion a year in sales by pharmaceutical companies . In 1986 , RTI was awarded a $ 4 million contract with the National Cancer Institute to conduct an eight @-@ year clinical trial on the effects of an anti @-@ smoking campaign . Two years later , RTI began a $ 4 @.@ 4 million program to coordinate AIDS drug trials for the National Institutes of Health . This had grown to $ 26 million by 1988 .
RTI scientists helped identify toxic chemicals in the Love Canal in the 1970s . In 1978 , RTI researched the possibility of improving solar cells for the US Department of Energy and coal gasification for the Environmental Protection Agency in 1979 . It trained Chinese government employees on using computer models to forecast pollution patterns before the 2007 Olympics in Beijing .
An RTI survey in 1973 , commissioned by the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs , confirmed prior research that found no connection between drug use and violent crime , despite prior perceptions of heroin users as more prone to violence . A 1975 study RTI conducted for the National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism found that 28 percent of 13 @,@ 000 teenagers polled were " problem drinkers , " despite their age . A 1996 study done by RTI and funded by the Pentagon found that drug abuse in the military had been reduced by 90 percent since 1980 .
RTI in 1975 recommended that the Bureau of the Mint halt expensive production of pennies , and replace half @-@ dollars with a new dollar coin . In 2001 , RTI scientists created a new thinfilm superlattice material that uses the thermoelectric effect to cool microprocessors . A 2009 study by RTI and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention published in Health Affairs estimated that obesity in the US caused $ 147 billion in increased medical care costs annually . RTI also developed a reading skill measurement program , the Early Grade Reading Assessment ( EGRA ) , for the USAID and the World Bank . The EGRA has been used in 70 languages and 50 countries .
RTI began working for the US Agency for International Development ( USAID ) after the conflict between Iraq and the US began in 2003 . USAID work represented 35 percent of RTI 's revenue by 2010 . An employee of the contractor Unity Resources Group , hired to protect RTI staff doing USAID work in Iraq , shot and killed two Iraqi women on October 9 , 2007 .
In 2004 , Nextreme was spun off of RTI to develop a thermoelectric material for semiconductors commercially . RTI acquired a healthcare marketing firm called MasiMax in March 2009 . It also created another semiconductor startup that year called SiXis . In 2011 RTI created the Center for Agricultural and Environmental Biotechnology and in 2012 it acquired a California @-@ based education research firm , MPR Associates .
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= Quatermass and the Pit ( film ) =
Quatermass and the Pit ( US title : Five Million Years to Earth ) is a 1967 British science fiction horror film . Made by Hammer Film Productions it is a sequel to the earlier Hammer films The Quatermass Xperiment and Quatermass 2 . Like its predecessors it is based on a BBC Television serial – Quatermass and the Pit – written by Nigel Kneale . It was directed by Roy Ward Baker and stars Andrew Keir in the title role as Professor Bernard Quatermass , replacing Brian Donlevy who played the role in the two earlier films . James Donald , Barbara Shelley and Julian Glover appear in co @-@ starring roles .
The plot , which is largely faithful to the original television production , centres on the discovery of a mysterious object buried at the site of an extension to the London Underground . Also uncovered nearby are the remains of early human ancestors more than five million years old . Realising that the object is in fact an ancient Martian spacecraft , Quatermass deduces that the aliens have influenced human evolution and the development of human intelligence . The spacecraft has an intelligence of its own , and once uncovered begins to exert a malign influence , resurrecting Martian memories and instincts buried deep within the human psyche .
Nigel Kneale wrote the first draft of the screenplay in 1961 but difficulties in attracting interest from American co @-@ financiers meant the film did not go into production until 1967 . The director , Roy Ward Baker , was chosen because of his experience with technically demanding productions such as A Night to Remember ; this was the first of six films that he directed for Hammer . Andrew Keir , playing Quatermass , found making the film an unhappy experience , believing Baker had wanted Kenneth More to play the role . Owing to lack of space the film was shot at the MGM studios in Elstree , Borehamwood rather than Hammer 's usual home at the time , which was the Associated British Studios , also in Elstree .
The film opened in November 1967 to favourable reviews and remains generally well regarded .
= = Plot = =
Workers building an extension to the London Underground at Hobbs End dig up skeletal remains . Palaeontologist Dr Matthew Roney ( James Donald ) is called in and deduces that they are the remnants of a group of apemen over five million years old , more ancient than any previous finds . One of Roney 's assistants uncovers part of a metallic object . Believing it to be an unexploded bomb , they call in an army bomb disposal team .
Meanwhile , Professor Bernard Quatermass ( Andrew Keir ) is dismayed to learn that his plans for the colonisation of the Moon are to be taken over by the military . He gives a cold reception to Colonel Breen ( Julian Glover ) , who has been assigned to join Quatermass 's British Experimental Rocket Group . When the bomb disposal team call for Breen 's assistance , Quatermass accompanies him to the site . Breen concludes it is a V @-@ weapon , but Quatermass disagrees . When another skeleton is found in an inner chamber , Quatermass and Roney realise that the object must also be five million years old . Quatermass suspects it is of alien origin , but Roney is certain the apemen are terrestrial .
Quatermass becomes intrigued by the name of the area , recalling that " hob " is an old name for the Devil . Working with Roney 's assistant , Barbara Judd ( Barbara Shelley ) , Quatermass finds historical accounts of hauntings and other spectral appearances going back over many centuries . They deduce that these events coincided with any disturbances of the ground around Hobbs End .
An attempt to open a sealed chamber using a Borazon drill fails to make any progress . However , a few moments after the drill is stopped , a small hole is seen , though the drill operator , Sladden ( Duncan Lamont ) , is certain it was not created by his machine . The hole widens to reveal the contents : the corpses of three @-@ legged , insectoid creatures with horned heads . Roney and Judd work to preserve the bodies before they decay . An examination of the creatures ' physiology suggests they came from the planet Mars . Quatermass and Roney note the similarity between the appearance of the creatures and the Devil .
Sladden is overcome by a powerful telekinetic force emanating from the missile and flees to the sanctuary of a church . Sladden tells Quatermass he saw a vision of hordes of the creatures from the missile . Quatermass believes this is a race memory . Seeking proof , he returns to Hobbs End , bringing a machine Roney has been working on which taps into the primeval psyche . While trying to replicate the circumstances under which Sladden was affected , he notices that Judd has fallen under its influence . Using Roney 's machine , he is able to record her thoughts .
Quatermass presents his theory to a government minister ( Edwin Richfield ) and other officials . The occupants of the missile came from the dying Mars . Unable to survive on Earth , they chose to preserve some part of their race by creating a colony by proxy by significantly enhancing the intelligence of the natives . The descendants of these apemen evolved into modern humans , but retain the vestiges of the Martian influence buried in their subconscious . He plays the recording of Judd 's mind as evidence : it shows hordes of Martians engaged in what he interprets as a racial purge , cleansing the Martian hives of weaker members of the race . A disbelieving Breen offers an alternative theory : the missile is a Nazi propaganda exercise designed to sow fear of an alien invasion among the populace . The minister rejects Quatermass 's theory in favour of Breen 's and decides to unveil the missile to the press .
Disaster strikes at the press event . The missile apparently draws power from the broadcasting equipment , and its influence is magnified . The streets of London erupt into violence as those affected go on a rampage . Breen becomes drawn towards the missile and is killed . Quatermass falls under alien control as well , but is snapped out of it by Roney , who is unaffected . The two men realise that a small portion of the population are immune . The psychic energy becomes stronger , ripping up streets and buildings , and the spectral image of a Martian towers over the city , centred on Hobbs End . Recalling stories about how the Devil could be defeated with iron and water , Roney theorises the alien energy could be discharged into the earth . Roney climbs to the top of a building crane and swings it into the spectre . The crane bursts into flames as it discharges the energy , killing Roney , but the image disappears .
= = Production = =
= = = Origins = = =
Professor Bernard Quatermass was first introduced to audiences in two BBC television serials , The Quatermass Experiment ( 1953 ) and Quatermass II ( 1955 ) , written by Nigel Kneale . The rights to both these serials were acquired by Hammer Film Productions , and the film adaptations – The Quatermass Xperiment and Quatermass 2 , both directed by Val Guest and starring Brian Donlevy as Quatermass – were released in 1955 and 1957 respectively . Kneale went on to write a third Quatermass serial – Quatermass and the Pit – for the BBC , which was broadcast in December 1958 and January 1959 . Hammer were once again interested in making a film adaptation , and Kneale , who had by then left the BBC and was working as a freelance screenwriter , completed a script in 1961 . It was intended that Val Guest would once again direct and Brian Donlevy would reprise the role of Quatermass , with production to commence in 1963 . However , securing finance for the new Quatermass film proved problematic . In 1957 Hammer had struck a deal with Columbia Pictures to distribute their pictures , and the two companies would go on to collaborate on thirty films between 1957 and 1964 . Columbia , who were not interested in Quatermass , passed on the script and production went into limbo for several years . In 1964 Kneale and Anthony Hinds submitted a revised , lower @-@ budget script to Columbia ; but by this time the relationship between Hammer and Columbia had begun to sour , and the script was once again rejected . In 1966 Hammer entered into a new distribution deal with Seven Arts , ABPC and Twentieth Century Fox , and Quatermass and the Pit finally entered production .
= = = Writing = = =
The script of Quatermass and the Pit is largely faithful to the television original . The plot was heavily condensed to fit the shorter running time of the film , with the main casualty being the removal of a subplot involving the journalist James Fullalove , who does not appear in the film adaptation at all . The climax was altered slightly to make it more cinematic , with Roney using a crane to short out the Martian influence , whereas in the television version he merely throws a metal chain into the pit . The setting for the pit itself was changed from a building site to the London Underground . The closing scene of the television version , in which Quatermass pleads with humanity to prevent Earth 's becoming the " second dead planet " , was also dropped , in favour of a shot of Quatermass and Judd sitting alone amid the devastation wrought by the Martian spacecraft . The script was sent to John Trevelyan of the British Board of Film Censors in December 1966 . Trevelyan replied that the film would require an ' X ' -Certificate and raised concerns regarding the sound of the vibrations from the alien ship , the scenes of the Martian massacre , the scenes of destruction and panic as the Martian influence takes hold and the image of the Devil .
= = = Casting = = =
James Donald as Doctor Roney : Donald first came to prominence playing Theo van Gogh in Lust for Life ( 1956 ) before going on to play a string of roles in the World War II prisoner of war films The Bridge on the River Kwai ( 1957 ) , The Great Escape ( 1963 ) and King Rat ( 1965 ) . Although not playing the title role , Donald was accorded top @-@ billing status .
Andrew Keir as Professor Bernard Quatermass : Nigel Kneale had long been highly critical of Brian Donlevy 's interpretation of Quatermass and lobbied for the role to be recast , arguing that enough time had passed that audiences would not resist a change of actor . A number of actors were considered for the part including André Morell who had played Quatermass in the television version of Quatermass and the Pit . However , Morell was not interested in revisiting a role he had already played . The producers eventually settled on Scottish actor Andrew Keir who had appeared in supporting roles in a number of Hammer productions including The Pirates of Blood River ( 1962 ) , The Devil @-@ Ship Pirates ( 1964 ) and Dracula : Prince of Darkness ( 1966 ) . Keir found the shoot an unhappy experience : he later recalled , “ The director – Roy Ward Baker – didn 't want me for the role . He wanted Kenneth More ... and it was a very unhappy shoot . [ … ] Normally I enjoy going to work every day . But for seven and a half weeks it was sheer hell . ” Roy Ward Baker denied he had wanted Kenneth More , who he felt would be " too nice " for the role , saying , “ I had no idea he [ Keir ] was unhappy while we were shooting . His performance was absolutely right in every detail and I was presenting him as the star of the picture . Perhaps I should have interfered more . ” Keir went on to appear for Hammer in The Viking Queen ( 1967 ) and Blood from the Mummy 's Tomb ( 1971 ) . He reprised the role of Quatermass for BBC Radio 3 in The Quatermass Memoirs ( 1996 ) , making him the only actor other than Donlevy to play the role more than once .
Barbara Shelley as Barbara Judd : Shelley was a regular leading lady for Hammer , having appeared in The Camp on Blood Island ( 1958 ) , Shadow of the Cat ( 1961 ) , The Gorgon ( 1964 ) , The Secret of Blood Island ( 1964 ) , Dracula : Prince of Darkness and Rasputin , the Mad Monk ( 1966 ) for them . Quatermass and the Pit was her last film for the company and she subsequently worked in television and the theatre . Roy Ward Baker was particularly taken with his leading lady , telling Bizarre Magazine in 1974 he was “ mad about her in the sense of love . We used to waltz about the set together , a great love affair . ”
Julian Glover as ( Lieutenant ) Colonel Breen : Roy Ward Baker first met Glover when he directed him in an episode of The Avengers ( " Two 's a Crowd " , 1965 ) . Baker said of Glover 's performance , “ He turned in a tremendous character , forceful , autocratic but never over the top . ” Glover recalled of the role , “ I think I was too young for it . [ … ] I think I played it all right . It was very straightforward . Bit of a stereotype . [ … ] The obligatory asshole ! ”
Other actors appearing in the film include Bryan Marshall , Peter Copley , Edwin Richfield ( who previously appeared in Quatermass 2 ) , Grant Taylor , and Robert Morris . Duncan Lamont , playing Sladden , had appeared in the original BBC production of The Quatermass Experiment in the key role of the hapless astronaut Victor Carroon . Quatermass and the Pit also features an early film role for Sheila Steafel who makes a brief appearance as a journalist near the start of the movie .
= = = Filming = = =
By the time Quatermass and the Pit finally entered production Val Guest was occupied on Casino Royale ( 1967 ) , so directing duties went instead to Roy Ward Baker . Baker 's first film had been The October Man ( 1947 ) and he was best known for The One That Got Away ( 1957 ) and A Night to Remember ( 1958 ) . Following the failure of Two Left Feet ( 1963 ) , he moved into television , directing episodes of The Human Jungle ( 1963 – 64 ) , The Saint ( 1962 – 69 ) and The Avengers . Producer Anthony Nelson Keys chose Baker as director because he felt his experience on such films as A Night to Remember gave him the technical expertise to handle the film 's significant special effects requirements . Baker , for his part , felt that his background on fact @-@ based dramas such as A Night to Remember and The One That Got Away enabled him to give Quatermass and the Pit the air of realism it needed to be convincing to audiences . He was impressed by Nigel Kneale 's screenplay , feeling the script was " taut , exciting and an intriguing story with excellent narrative drive . It needed no work at all . All one had to do was cast it and shoot it . " He was also impressed with Hammer Films ’ lean set @-@ up : having been used to working for major studios with thousands of full @-@ time employees , he was surprised to find that Hammer 's core operation consisted of just five people and enjoyed how this made the decision making process fast and simple . Quatermass and the Pit was the first film the director was credited as “ Roy Ward Baker ” , having previously been credited as “ Roy Baker ” . The change was made to avoid confusion with another Roy Baker who was a sound editor . Baker later regretted making the change as many people assumed he was a new director .
Filming took place between 27 February and 25 April 1967 . The budget was £ 275 @,@ 000 . At this time , Hammer was operating out of the Associated British Studios in Elstree , Borehamwood . However , a lack of space meant that production was relocated to the nearby MGM Borehamwood studio . There were no other productions working at the MGM Studios at this time so the Quatermass crew had full access to all the facilities of the studio . Roy Ward Baker was particularly pleased to be able to use MGM 's extensive backlot for the exteriors of the Underground station . The production team included many Hammer regulars , including production designer Bernard Robinson who , as an in @-@ joke , incorporated a poster for Hammer 's The Witches ( 1966 ) into the dressing of his set for the Hobbs End station . Another Hammer regular was special effects supervisor Les Bowie . Roy Ward Baker recalled he had a row with Bowie , who believed the film was entirely a special effects picture , when he tried to run the first pre @-@ production conference . Bowie 's contribution to the film included the Martian massacre scene , which was achieved with a mixture of puppets and live locusts , and model sequences of London 's destruction , including the climatic scene of the crane swinging into the Martian apparition .
= = = Music = = =
Chosen to provide the score for Quatermass and the Pit was Tristram Cary . He developed an interest in electronic music while serving in the Royal Navy as an electronics expert working on radar during the Second World War . He became a professional composer in 1954 , working in film , theatre , radio and television , with credits including The Ladykillers ( 1955 ) . He said of his assignment , “ I was not mad about doing the film because Hammer wanted masses of electronic material and a great deal of orchestral music . But I had three kids , all of which were at fee @-@ paying schools , so I needed every penny I could get ! ” . Cary also recalled that , “ The main use of electronics in Quatermass , I think , was the violent shaking , vibrating sound that the " thing in the tunnel " gave off [ … ] It was not a terribly challenging sound to do , though I never played it very loud because I didn 't want to destroy my speakers – I did have hopes of destroying a few cinema loudspeaker systems , though it never happened ” . Carey went on to write the score for another Hammer film , Blood from the Mummy 's Tomb , in 1971 . Several orchestral and electronic cues from the film were released by GDI Records on a compilation titled The Quatermass Film Music Collection .
= = Reception = =
Quatermass and the Pit premiered on 9 November 1967 and went on general release in a double bill with Circus of Fear on 19 November 1967 . It was released under the title Five Million Years to Earth in the US in March 1968 . The critical reception was generally positive . Writing in The Times , John Russell Taylor found that , “ After a slowish beginning , which shows up the deficiencies of acting and direction , things really start hopping when a mysterious missile @-@ like object discovered in a London excavation proves to be a relic of a prehistoric Martian attempt ( successful , it would seem ) to colonize Earth [ … ] The development of this situation is scrupulously worked out and the film is genuinely gripping even when ( a real test this ) the Power of Evil is finally shown personified in hazy glowing outline , a spectacle as a rule more likely to provoke titters than gasps of horror . ” Paul Errol of the Evening Standard described the film as a “ well @-@ made , but wordy , blob of hokum ” , a view echoed by William Hall of the Evening News who described the film as " entertaining hokum " with an " imaginative ending " . A slightly more critical view was espoused by Penelope Mortimer in The Observer who said , “ This nonsense makes quite a good film , well put together , competently photographed , on the whole sturdily performed . What it totally lacks is imagination . ”
= = Legacy = =
The film was a success for Hammer and they quickly announced that Nigel Kneale was writing a new Quatermass story for them but the script never went further than a few prelimininary discussions . Kneale did eventually write a fourth Quatermass story , broadcast as a four @-@ part serial , titled Quatermass , by ITV television in 1979 , an edited version of which was also given a limited cinema release under the title The Quatermass Conclusion . Quatermass and the Pit marked the return to directing for the cinema for Roy Ward Baker and he went on to direct such films as The Anniversary ( 1968 ) , Moon Zero Two ( 1969 ) , The Vampire Lovers ( 1970 ) , Scars of Dracula ( 1970 ) , Dr. Jekyll and Sister Hyde ( 1971 ) and The Legend of the 7 Golden Vampires ( 1974 ) for Hammer . He also directed Asylum ( 1972 ) , And Now the Screaming Starts ! ( 1973 ) and The Vault of Horror ( 1973 ) for Hammer 's rival , Amicus Productions .
Quatermass and the Pit continues to be generally well regarded among critics . John Baxter notes in Science Fiction in the Cinema that “ Baker 's unravelling of this crisp thriller is tough and interesting . [ … ] The film has moments of pure terror , perhaps the most effective that in which the drill operator , driven off the spaceship by the mysterious power within is caught up in a whirlwind that fills the excavation with a mass of flying papers . ” John Brosnan , writing in The Primal Scream , found that , “ As a condensed version of the serial , the film is fine but the old black @-@ and @-@ white version , though understandably creaky in places and with inferior effects , still works surprisingly well , having more time to build up a disturbing atmosphere . Bill Warren in Keep Watching the Skies ! said , “ The ambition of the storyline is contained in a well @-@ constructed mystery that unfolds carefully and clearly ” . Nigel Kneale had mixed feelings about the end result : he said , “ I was very happy with Andrew Keir , who they eventually chose , and very happy with the film . There are , however , a few things that bother me ... The special effects in Hammer films were always diabolical . ”
= = Home media release = =
The region 1 release of Quatermass and the Pit from Anchor Bay includes a commentary from Nigel Kneale and Roy Ward Baker as well as trailers and an instalment of a documentary called The Worlds of Hammer devoted to Hammer 's forays into science fiction .
A UK Blu @-@ ray release of the film , was released in Oct 10 , 2011 and was followed by releases in Germany , Australia and Italy .
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= Philippine resistance against Japan =
During the Japanese occupation of the islands in World War II , there was an extensive Philippine resistance movement , which opposed the Japanese with active underground and guerrilla activity that increased over the years . Fighting the guerrillas – apart from the Japanese regular forces – were a Japanese @-@ formed Bureau of Constabulary ( later taking the name of the old Philippine Constabulary during the Second Republic ) , Kempeitai ( the Japanese military police ) , and the Makapili ( Filipinos fighting for the Japanese ) . Postwar studies estimate that around 260 @,@ 000 persons were organized under guerrilla groups and that members of anti @-@ Japanese underground organizations were more numerous . Such was their effectiveness that by the end of World War II , Japan controlled only twelve of the forty @-@ eight provinces .
Select units of the resistance would go on to be reorganized and equipped as units of the Philippine Army and Constabulary . The United States Government officially granted payments and benefits to various ethnicites who have fought with the Allies by the war 's end . However , only the Filipinos were excluded from such benefits , and since then these veterans have made efforts in finally being acknowledged by the United States . Some 277 separate guerrilla units made up of 260 @,@ 715 individuals were officially recognized as having fought in the resistance movement .
= = Background = =
The Attack on Pearl Harbor ( called Hawaii Operation or Operation AI by the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters ) was a surprise military strike conducted by the Imperial Japanese Navy against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor , Hawaii , on the morning of December 7 , 1941 ( December 8 in Japan and the Philippines ) . The attack was intended as a preventive action in order to keep the U.S. Pacific Fleet from interfering with military actions the Empire of Japan was planning in Southeast Asia against the overseas territories of the United Kingdom , the Netherlands , and the United States .
Immediately after the attack on Pearl Harbor , the Japanese operations to invade the Philippines began . 43 planes bombed Tuguegarao and Baguio in the first preemptive strike in Luzon . The Japanese forces then quickly conducted a landing at Batan Island , and by December 17 , General Masaharu Homma gave his estimate that the main component of the United States Air Force in the archipelago was destroyed . By January 2 , Manila was under Japanese control and by January 9 , Homma had cornered the remaining forces in Bataan . By April 9 , the remaining of the combined Filipino @-@ American force was forced to retire from Bataan to Corregidor . Meanwhile , Japanese invasions of Cebu ( April 19 ) and Panay ( April 20 ) were successful . By May 7 , after the last of the Japanese attacks on Corregidor , General Jonathan M. Wainwright announced through a radio broadcast in Manila the surrender of the Philippines . Following Wainwright was General William F. Sharp , who surrendered Visayas and Mindanao on May 10 .
Afterwards came the Bataan Death March , which was the forcible transfer , by the Imperial Japanese Army , of 60 @,@ 000 Filipino and 15 @,@ 000 American prisoners of war after the three @-@ month Battle of Bataan in the Philippines during World War II . The death toll of the march is difficult to assess as thousands of captives were able to escape from their guards ( although many were killed during their escapes ) , and it is not known how many died in the fighting that was taking place concurrently . All told , approximately 2 @,@ 500 – 10 @,@ 000 Filipino and 300 – 650 American prisoners of war died before they could reach Camp O 'Donnell .
= = Resistance in Luzon = =
= = = USAFFE and American sponsored guerrillas = = =
After Bataan and Corregidor , many who escaped the Japanese reorganized in the mountains as guerrillas still loyal to the U.S. Army Forces Far East ( USAFFE ) . One example would be the unit of Ramon Magsaysay in Zambales , which first served as a supply and intelligence unit . After the surrender in May 1942 , Magsaysay and his unit formed a guerrilla force which grew to a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ man force by the end of the war . Another was the Hunters ROTC which operated in the Southern Luzon area , mainly near Manila . It was created upon dissolution of the Philippine Military Academy in the beginning days of the war . Cadet Terry Adivoso , refused to simply go home as cadets were ordered to do , and began recruiting fighters willing to undertake guerrilla action against the Japanese . This force would later be instrumental , providing intelligence to the liberating forces led by General Douglas MacArthur , and took an active role in numerous battles , such as the Raid at Los Baños . When war broke out in the Philippines , some 300 Philippine Military Academy and ROTC cadets , unable to join the USAFFE units because of their youth , banded together in a common desire to contribute to the war effort throughout the Bataan campaign . The Hunters originally conducted operations with another guerrilla group called Marking 's Guerrillas , with whom they went about liquidating Japanese spies . Led by Miguel Ver , a PMA cadet , the Hunters raided the enemy @-@ occupied Union College in Manila and seized 130 Enfield rifles .
Also , before being proven false in 1985 by the United States Military , Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos claimed that he had commanded a 9 @,@ 000 @-@ strong guerrilla force known as the Maharlika Unit . Marcos also used maharlika as his personal pseudonym ; depicting himself as a bemedalled anti @-@ Japanese Filipino guerrilla fighter during World War II . Marcos told exaggerated tales and exploits of himself fighting the Japanese in his self @-@ published autobiography Marcos of the Philippines which was proven to be fiction . His father , Mariano Marcos , did however , collaborated with the Japanese and was executed by Filipino guerillas in April 1945 , and Ferdinand himself was accused of being a collaborator as well .
In July 1942 , South West Pacific Area , became aware of the resistance movements forming in occupied Philippines through attempted radio communications to Allies outside of the Philippines ; by late 1942 , couriers had made it to Australia confirming the existence of the resistance . By December 1942 , SWPA sent Captain Jesús A. Villamor to the Philippines to make contact with guerrilla organizations , eventually developing extensive intelligence networks including contacts within the Second Republic Government . In addition , through the Allied Intelligence Bureau 's Philippine Regional Section , SWPA began to send operatives , and equipment , into the Philippines to make contact and supply guerrilla organizations . Unique to other guerrillas in the Philippines were the Wa Chi ; a resistance unit composed of Filipino @-@ Chinese and Chinese immigrants . They were established to counter the Japanese suspicion and abuse of the Chinese living in the country , and had over 700 men strong . The movement was aided by the American guerrilla forces and were also supported by anti @-@ Japanese civilians and farmers living in the outskirts . In Nueva Ecija , guerrillas led by Juan Pajota and Eduardo Joson protected the U.S. Army Rangers and Alamo Scouts who were conducting a rescue mission of Allied POWS from a counterattack by Japanese reinforcements . Pajota and the Filipino guerrillas received Bronze Stars for their role in the raid . Among the guerrilla units , the Blue Eagles were a specialized unit established for landmine and sniper detection , as well as in hunting Japanese spies who have blended in with the civilian population .
Nonetheless , Japanese crackdowns on these guerrillas in Luzon were widespread and brutal . The Japanese Army , Kempeitai and Filipino collaborators hunted down resistance fighters and anyone associated with them . One example happened to resistance leader Wenceslao Vinzons ; leader of the successful guerilla movement in Bicol . After being betrayed to the Japanese by a Japanese collaborator , Vinzons was tortured to give up information on his resistance movement . Vinzons however , refused to cooperate , and he and his family , consisting of his father Gabino , his wife Liwayway , sister Milagros and children Aurora and Alexander , were bayonet to death .
= = = Hukbalahap resistance = = =
As originally constituted in March 1942 , the Hukbalahap was to be part of a broad united front resistance to the Japanese occupation of the Philippines . This original intent is reflected in its name : " Hukbong Bayan Laban sa mga Hapon " , which was " People 's Army Against the Japanese " when translated into English . The adopted slogan was " Anti @-@ Japanese Above All " . The Huk Military Committee was at the apex of Huk structure and was charged to direct the guerrilla campaign and to lead the revolution that would seize power after the war . Luis Taruc ; a communist leader and peasant @-@ organizer from a barrio in Pampanga ; was elected as head the committee , and became the first Huk commander called " El Supremo " .
The Huks began their anti @-@ Japanese campaign as five 100 @-@ man units . They obtained needed arms and ammunition from Philippine army stragglers , which were escapees from the Battle of Bataan and deserters from the Philippine Constabulary , in exchange of civilian clothes . The Huk recruitment campaign progressed more slowly than Taruc had expected , due to competition with U.S. Army Forces Far East ( USAFFE ) guerrilla units in enlisting new soldiers . The U.S. units already had recognition among the islands , had trained military leaders , and an organized command and logistical system . Despite being restrained by the American sponsored guerrilla units , the Huks nevertheless took to the battlefield with only 500 men and much fewer weapons . Several setbacks at the hands of the Japanese and with less than enthusiastic support from USAFFE units did not hinder the Huks growth in size and efficiency throughout the war , developing into a well trained , highly organized force with some 15 @,@ 000 armed fighters by war 's end . The Huks attacked both the Japanese and other non @-@ Huk guerrillas .
= = Resistance in the Visayas = =
Various guerrilla groups also sprang out throughout the central islands of the Visayas . Like those in Luzon , many of these Filipino guerrillas were trained by the Americans to fight in case the Japanese set its sight towards Visayas . When the Americans finally surrendered the country to the Japanese , these soldiers continued to fight , believing that it was they who have surrendered and not them . As such , they commanded loyalty to the Philippine Commonwealth , and participated in many pivotal battles during the war besides their guerrilla activities . In Cebu , guerrillas and irregulars under Lieutenant Colonel James M. Cushing and Basilio J. Valdes aided in the Battle for Cebu City . They were also successful in their capture of Maj. Gen. Takeo Manjom and his 2 @,@ 000 soldiers and munitions . Panay las under Col. Macario Peralta helped in the seizing of the Tiring Landing Field and Mandurriao district airfield during the Battle of the Visayas . Major Ingeniero commanded the guerrilla forces in Bohol , in which they were credited in the liberation of the island from Japanese outposts at a cost of only seven men .
Another significant achievement for the guerrillas was the capture of the " Koga Papers " in March 1944 . Named after Admiral Mineichi Koga , these papers contained vital battle plans and defensive strategies of the Japanese Navy codenamed the " Z Plan " , as well as information on the overall strength of the Japanese fleet , naval air units and stationed troops . The documents also revealed how the Japanese managed to deduce MacArthur 's initial plans to invade the Philippines through Mindanao . These papers came into the possession of the Filipino guerrillas when the seaplane of Admiral Koga , who was on route to Davao , crashed into the coast San Fernando , Cebu . Koga was killed , and 12 other high @-@ ranking officers including Chief of Staff of the Combined Fleet Vice Admiral Shigeru Fukodome were captured by Cebuano guerrillas under Lt. Col. James M. Cushing . The papers were inside a briefcase which was fished out of the sea by Cebuano fishermen before being handed down to the guerrillas . The Japanese ruthlessly hunted down the documents and their captured officers ; burning villages and holding out civilians in their search . This forced the guerrillas to release their captives in order to stop the Japanese , but Cushing managed to send for a submarine that took the documents to the Allied headquarters in Australia . The discovery of the papers helped the Allies make a breakthrough in the Pacific , aiding them in the Battle of the Philippine Sea . It also allowed MacArthur to move his invasion not in Mindanao as the Japanese were expecting but in Leyte .
Waray guerrillas under a former schoolteacher named Captain Nieves Fernandez , fought the Japanese in Tacloban . Being infamously known as a crackshot , Nieves extensively trained her men in combat skills and the making of improvised weaponry . She led her men in the front and managed to take out over 200 Japanese soldiers in the war with only 110 men . Her activities earned her the ire of the Imperial Japanese Army and they posted a 10 @,@ 000 Pesos reward on her head . The main commander of the resistance movement in Leyte however , was Ruperto Kangleon , a former Filipino soldier turned resistance fighter and leader . After the fall of the country , he successfully escaped from being captured by the Japanese . Kangleon established a united guerrilla front that is unique for being well @-@ connected to U.S. guerrilla leader Wendell Fertig . He and his men , the Black Army , were successful in pushing the Japanese from the mainland province and further into the coastlands of Southern Leyte . Kangleon 's guerrillas provided intelligence for the American landings and assisted in the subsequent Battle of Leyte . The guerrillas in Leyte were also very instrumental not only in the opposition against Japanese rule , but also in the safety and aid of the civilians living in the island . In the book The Hidden Battle of Leyte : The Picture Diary of a Girl taken by the Japanese Military by Remedios Felias ; a former comfort woman , revealed how the Filipino guerrillas saved the lives of many young girls raped or to @-@ be raped by the Japanese . In her vivid account of the Battle of Burauen , she recounts how the guerrillas managed to wipe out entire Japanese platoons off the various villages in the municipality , eventually saving the lives of many .
= = Moro resistance in Mindanao = =
While Moros rebels were still unsuccessfully at war with the United States , the Japanese invasion became the new perceived threat to their religion and culture . Some of those who opposed the occupation , and a fighter for Moro nationalism , were Sultan Jainal Abirin II of Sulu , the Sulu Sultanate of the Tausug , the Maranao Moros living around Lake Lanao and ruled by the Confederation of sultanates in Lanao led by Salipada Pendatun . Another anti @-@ Japanese Moro unit , the Moro @-@ Bolo Battalion led by Datu Gumbay Piang , consisted of about 20 @,@ 000 fighting men made up of both Muslims and Christians . As their name suggests , these fighters were known visibly by their large bolos and kris . The Japanese Major Hiramatsu , a propaganda officer , tried convincing Datu Busran Kalaw of Maranao to join their side as " brother Orientals " . Kalaw sent a response which goaded Major Hiramatsu into sending a force of Japanese soldiers to attack him , whom Kalaw butchered completely with no survivors . The infamous juramentados brigands , who were veterans in fighting the Filipinos , Spanish and the Americans , now focused their assaults on the Japanese , using their traditional hit and run as well as suicide charges . The Japanese were anxious of being attacked by the resistance , and they fought back by murdering innocent civilians and destroying properties .
During these times , the Moros had no allegiance with the Filipinos and the Americans , and they were largely unwelcoming of their assistance . In many cases , they would even indiscriminately attack them as well . The Moros also performed various cruelties during the war , such as thoughtlessly assaulting Japanese immigrants already living in Mindanao before the war . The vicious warlord Datu Busran Kalaw , was known for boasting that he " fought both the Americans , Filipinos and the Japanese " , which took the lives of both American and Filipino agents and the Japanese occupiers . Nonetheless , the Americans respected the success of the Moros during the war . An American POW Herbert Zincke recalled in his secret diary that the Japanese guarding him and other prisoners were scared of the Moro warriors and tried to keep as far away from them as possible to avoid getting attacked . The American Captain Edward Kraus recommended Moro fighters for a suggested plan to capture an airbase in Lake Lanao for eventually driving the Japanese occupiers out of the Philippines . The Moro Datu Pino sliced the ears off Japanese and cashed them in with the American guerilla leader Colonel Fertig at the exchange rate of a pair of ears for one bullet and 20 centavos .
= = Recognition = =
The Filipino guerrillas were successful in their resistance against the Japanese occupation . Of the 48 provinces in the Philippines , only 12 were in firm control of the Japanese . Many provinces in Mindanao were already liberated by the Moros way before the Americans came , as well as major islands in the Visayas such as Cebu , Panay and Negros . After the war , the American and Philippines governments officially recognized some of the units and individuals who had fought against the Japanese . Recognition led to benefits as veterans but not all claims were upheld ; there were 277 recognized guerrilla units out of over a thousand claimed and 260 @,@ 715 individuals were recognized from nearly 1 @.@ 3 million claims . These beneficiaries are only available to the guerrillas and veterans who have served for the Commonwealth , and doesn 't include the brigand groups of the Huks and the Moros . Resistance leaders Wendell Fertig , Russell W. Volckmann and Donald Blackburn would incorporate what they 've learned fighting with the Filipino guerrillas in establishing what would become the U.S. Special Forces .
Back then in 1944 , only Filipino soldiers were denied from being given benefits by the GI Bill of Rights , which was supposed to give welfare to all those who have served in the United States Military irrespective of race , color or nationality . Over 66 countries were inducted into the bill but only the Philippines were not allowed , describing the Filipino soldiers as mere " Second Class Veterans " . Then in 1946 , the Rescission Act was enacted to mandate some aid to Filipino veterans , but only to those who had disabilities or serious injury . The only benefit the United States could only give at that time was the Immigrant Act , which made the naturalization of Filipinos who served in World War II into American citizens easier . It was not until in 1996 when the veterans started seeking for recognition from the United States . Representative Colleen Hanabusa submitted legislation to award Filipino Veterans with a Congressional Gold Medal , which became known as the Filipino Veterans of World War II Congressional Gold Medal Act . The Act was referred to the Committee on Financial Services and the Committee on House Administration . The Philippine government has also enacted laws concerning the benefits of Filipino guerrillas .
World War II guerrilla movement in the Philippines has also garnered attention in Hollywood films such as Back to Bataan , Back Door to Hell , American Guerrilla in the Philippines , Cry of Battle and the more contemporary John Dahl film The Great Raid . Filipino and Japanese films have also paid homage to the valiancy of the Filipino guerrillas during the occupation , such as Yamashita : The Tiger 's Treasure , In the Bosom of the Enemy , Aishite Imasu 1941 : Mahal Kita and the critically acclaimed Japanese film Fires on the Plain . There have been various memorials and monuments erected to commemorate the actions of the Filipino guerrillas . Among such as the Filipino Heroes Memorial in Corregidor , the Luis Taruc Memorial in San Luis , Pampanga , the bronze statue of a Filipino guerrilla in Corregidor , Balantang National Shrine in Jaro , Iloilo City to commemorate the 6th Military District that liberated the provinces of Panay , Romblon , and Guimaras , and the NL Military Shrine and Park in La Union . The Libingan ng mga Bayani ( translated to Cemetery of the Heroes ) , which houses many historical Filipino national heroes , erected a special monument to pay respect to the numerous unnamed Filipino guerrillas who fought in the occupation .
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= Arbitration Act 1979 =
The Arbitration Act 1979 ( c.42 ) was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that reformed arbitration law in England and Wales . Prior to 1979 , arbitration law was based on the Arbitration Act 1950 , which allowed use of the " Case Stated " procedure and other methods of judicial intervention , which marked English arbitration law as significantly different from that of other jurisdictions . The prior law significantly increased the cost and time required for arbitration , which made England an unpopular jurisdiction to conduct such negotiations in . As a result , while London maintained its traditional position as a centre for arbitration in insurance , admiralty and commodities trading , it failed to attract more modern forms of trade . Following pressure from industry groups , the Lord Chancellor introduced the Arbitration Bill into Parliament , having it passed hours before the dissolution of James Callaghan 's government . It was given the Royal Assent on 4 April 1979 , and commenced working on 1 August 1979 .
The Act completely abolished the " Case Stated " procedure and other forms of judicial interference , replacing it with a limited system of appeal to the High Court of Justice and Court of Appeal of England and Wales ; it also allowed for exclusion agreements limiting the rights of parties to arbitration to appeal to the courts , and gave arbitrators the ability to enforce interlocutory orders . Academics met the Act with a mixed response ; while some praised it for bringing English law more into line with that of other nations , others criticised the wording used as unnecessarily complex and hazy . The Act did , in the eyes of some commentators , lead to a shift in judicial policy away from legal certainty and towards a system focused on speed and finality . Having been repealed in its entirety by Section 107 ( 2 ) of the Arbitration Act 1996 , the Act is no longer in force .
= = Background = =
= = = Previous law = = =
London was historically a centre for trade and arbitration , which Peter S. Smedresman , writing in the Journal of Maritime Law and Commerce divides into three categories of transaction . English commodities trading , through bodies such as the Baltic Exchange , specify that any conflicts are to be settled through arbitration in London , even when the goods being traded have no relation to the United Kingdom . London has also been a centre for arbitration on maritime issues , and insurance . However , it failed to significantly attract more modern forms of trade , such as major communications developments or high @-@ technology projects , due to the nature of its arbitration law . These contracts normally involve large amounts of money and are administered by the International Chamber of Commerce , which rarely sent arbitration cases to London due to the individual nature of English law on the subject .
In most nations , arbitrators can apply the principle of " amiable composition " ; the case is decided under broad , sweeping principles of equity , without judicial oversight or the application of national commercial law . In England , this was not the case ; the Arbitration Act 1950 , in Section 22 ( 1 ) , allowed the courts to instruct an arbitrator to " correct " his decision , if it had an incorrect statement of law immediately obvious . In response to this , English arbitrators simply stopped giving reasons for their decisions . The second form of judicial oversight was found in Section 21 , and was an application of the " Case Stated " procedure . This allowed judicial review of a decision by the High Court of Justice , and was regularly applied during the 1970s , because the freeze on interest rates during a delayed case made it attractive for debtors to delay ; conversely , this made London a far less attractive venue for creditors .
Before the 1979 Act , English law did not provide many ways to avoid the Case Stated procedure , even prohibiting parties from agreeing in advance not to use it ; this was due to Scrutton LJ 's statement , in Czarnikow v Roth , Schmidt & Co , that " There must be no Alsatia in England where the King 's writ does not run " . In The Lysland , the Court of Appeal of England and Wales gave a decision interpreted as saying that the courts must consider a Case Stated " even if there is no great some in dispute , no point of general importance is involved or the answer is reasonably clear " . Lord Denning 's statement in that case has been described as " [ T ] he death knell of arbitrator autonomy " , and led to arbitrators almost automatically asking for judicial supervision for fear that they would otherwise be found to have committed misconduct . For obvious reasons , companies and parties to a case who submit their issues to arbitration expect something private , quick , and cheap , with fixed results . The traditional English emphasis on judicial oversight , therefore , meant that with the Case Stated procedure , London was a highly unpopular venue for arbitration .
= = = Development of the Act = = =
By the 1960s , even before the increase of abuse of the Case Stated procedure , the United Kingdom was estimated to be losing £ 500 million a year through the movement of arbitration business to other countries . In response , the Lord Chancellor convened a Commercial Court Users Conference in 1960 , and tasked them with reviewing the system ; the conclusion was that the status quo should remain . With the increased use of the Case Stated procedure , more calls for reform came . In June 1977 the London Arbitration Group ( LAG ) was formed , taking it upon itself to make the government aware of the damage current law was causing . In 1978 , in reaction to the continued pressure , the Lord Chancellor established a Commercial Court Committee to again look at the issue ; their report , in June 1978 , recommended changing the system so that appeal was only allowed when either the High Court permitted it , or both parties to the arbitration agreed it was necessary . This was intended to ensure that any new Act of Parliament fulfilled two roles – firstly , decreasing the use of the Case Stated procedure , and secondly , encouraging arbitrators to give reasons for their decisions .
The report was endorsed by the government , and published the following month . After being announced in the Queen 's Speech , the Arbitration Bill was introduced to the House of Lords by the Lord Chancellor in late 1978 , given its second reading on 12 December 1978 , and after passing through the committee stage , its third reading on 15 February 1979 . Before it could be sent to the House of Commons , however , James Callaghan 's government collapsed following a motion of no confidence . As " the final drama " , the Arbitration Bill quickly made it to the House of Commons and was passed during the few hours it took Callaghan to get to Buckingham Palace and ask for a dissolution . Royal Assent was granted on 4 April 1979 , and the Arbitration Act 1979 came into force on 1 August .
= = Act = =
The Act was " a compromise between two opposing jurisprudential approaches to arbitration ... that the courts should be kept out of arbitration altogether except to prevent abuses against the rules of natural justice , [ and ] that the courts should retain a substantial measure of control over arbitrations to ensure that arbitral awards apply the law " .
= = = Section 1 = = =
The primary reforms are found in Section 1 of the Act . Section 1 ( 1 ) repeals Section 21 of the 1950 Act , abolishing the Case Stated procedure in arbitration matters , and states that the courts cannot set aside a decision based on an error in law or fact that is blatantly obvious , effectively repealing Section 22 ( 1 ) . Instead , Sections 1 ( 2 ) and 1 ( 3 ) provide that an appeal may be made " on any question of law arising out of an award made on an arbitration agreement " , if either the High Court agrees the appeal is valid , or if both parties to the arbitration request it . In Petraco ( Bermuda ) Ltd v Petromed International , the Court of Appeal was asked to explain what guidelines should be applied by a High Court judge when deciding whether or not to grant an appeal . The High Court had refused leave to appeal , because a point was raised which had not been mentioned during arbitration . Staughton LJ , with the rest of the Court in agreement , explained that :
the judge should give such weight as he thinks fit to the failure to argue the point before the arbitrator . In particular , he should have regard to whether the new point is similar to points that were argued , perhaps a variant of one of those points or a different way of putting it on the one hand , or whether it is a totally new and different point on the other .
The conditions for leave to appeal are laid out in Section 1 ( 4 ) . No conditions attach to an appeal where all parties consent , but when the permission of the High Court is sought , the judge may only grant leave if he " considers that ... the question of law concerned could substantially affect the rights of one or more parties to the arbitration agreement " . Under Sections 1 ( 5 ) and 1 ( 6 ) , the High Court may ask for additional reasons as to why the arbitrator reached the decision that he did , but only if one of the parties gave notice to the arbitrator that reasons would be required , or there was " some special reason why such a notice was not given " . In Universal Petroleum Co v Handels und Transport GmbH , the Court of Appeal interpreted the meaning of Sections 1 ( 4 ) and 1 ( 5 ) . The dispute came from a highly detailed " Schedule of Further Reasons " ordered by the High Court because the judge felt that there was an ambiguous element in the reasons given . The appellate judges found that Section 1 ( 5 ) required judges to order further reasons only to deal with points of law arising from the award . Material ambiguity was " inadmissible and irrelevant for the purpose of the exercise of any jurisdiction under section 1 of the Act " .
If the High Court refuses to hear an appeal , the case cannot proceed further ; similarly , with one exception , once the High Court has heard a case , no decision may be reviewed by the Court of Appeal . The one exception is laid out in Section 1 ( 7 ) , and provides that leave to appeal is only valid if either the High Court or Court of Appeal certifies it as such , and the High Court confirms that the case concerns a point of law which merits consideration . In National Westminster Bank Plc v Arthur Young McClelland Moores & Co ( No.1 ) , the Court of Appeal confirmed that , once the High Court has decided not to allow an appeal , the registrar of the Court of Appeal cannot intervene and otherwise validate such a request .
= = = Sections 2 – 6 = = =
Section 21 of the 1950 Act contained a secondary method of appeal to the High Court . Through the " Consultative Case " procedure , parties in a pending arbitration could ask the High Court to quickly give a decision on a point of law . This provision was maintained in the 1979 Act , despite efforts by legislators to remove it . Section 2 provides that , should a party apply to the High Court with either the consent of the arbitrator or the other parties , the High Court may explain any point of law given in the reference , on the condition that the point of law meets the requirements laid out in Section 1 , and if " the determination of the application might produce substantial savings in costs to the parties " .
Czarnikow v Roth , Schmidt & Co , the decision in which it was decided agreements excluding judicial supervision are invalid , is partially overruled by Sections 3 and 4 . Section 3 provides that , where such an agreement is drafted , the High Court no longer has the automatic right to request additional reasons from the arbitrator or grant leave to appeal the decision . Such exclusion clauses must be specific , but can be general in nature ; Section 3 ( 2 ) states that it can be framed " to relate to a particular award , to awards under a particular reference or to any other description of awards , whether arising out of the same reference or not " . Section 3 ( 6 ) provides an exception , which covers " domestic " arbitration agreements ; these are defined as agreements where leave to appeal would not be valid in a jurisdiction outside the United Kingdom , and no parties are businesses or individuals legally based in the UK . In this situation , the exclusion clause is only valid if agreed to after the start of arbitration . A second exception is found in Section 4 ( 1 ) ; where the contract arbitration is based on is within admiralty jurisdiction , to do with commodities trading , or an insurance agreement , it will not be valid unless either it was entered into after the start of arbitration or the law applicable to the contract is not that of England and Wales . In any situation , the High Court can be asked to give a decision on a point of law , or the exclusion clause removed , should all parties agree .
Prior to the 1979 Act , arbitrators were allowed to make interlocutory orders penalising parties who failed to follow the arbitrator 's timetable or requests ; there was , however , no effective enforcement mechanism . Section 5 of the Act allows the High Court to intervene ; if a party fails to comply , the High Court may ( on the application of the arbitrator or any other party ) order the arbitrator to continue as if the offending party was not there ; he can immediately issue an award without considering their missing submission or failure to appear . Section 6 amends the 1950 Act , which required any two arbitrators hearing a case to immediately appoint an umpire . This caused unnecessary delay and expenditure . Section 6 instead provides that arbitrators can choose to appoint an umpire at any point , but must do " forthwith " if they fundamentally disagree .
= = Assessment = =
David Shenton and Gordon Toland concluded that the Act brought judicial oversight in English law into compliance with that of other nations , saying that it is " broadly comparable to the provisions ... to be found in Swedish , Swiss and French law " . Smedresman , however , argued that it would do little to help attract new arbitration and would in fact drive it away , saying that " the vagueness of the statutory language , combined with the rather hazy policy considerations behind the Act , make confusion and litigation likely " . David Hacking , who helped promote the Act , says that it " was not drafted with the elegance of the 1996 Arbitration Act . In the style of the Parliamentary Draftsmen of that time , many of its provisions were drafted with a complexity which was happily avoided in the 1996 Act " , and criticises the failure to achieve more than minor reform of existing law . However , he does note that the Act led to a shift in judicial policy , with future judgments to be issued with regards " to the need for finality ... the striving for legal accuracy may be said to have been overtaken by commercial expediency " . Jaffe agrees , writing in the journal Arbitration that " [ i ] t is clear that with the passage of the 1979 Act ... there has been a distinct and noticeable shift of emphasis from legal certainty to finality for arbitral awards " . The Act is no longer in force , having been repealed in its entirety by Section 107 ( 2 ) of the Arbitration Act 1996 .
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= Hurricane Ignacio ( 1985 ) =
Hurricane Ignacio threatened Hawaii during July 1985 . A tropical depression formed on July 21 far from land . It became Tropical Storm Ignacio later that day . Ignacio then rapidly intensified and peaked with 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) winds on July 24 . Ignacio weakened quickly , though it briefly leveled off in intensity as a Category 2 hurricane . Ignacio was downgraded into a tropical storm on July 26 while passing south of Hawaii . Continuing to weaken , Ignacio dissipated on July 27 . A hurricane watch was briefly issued for the Hawaiian Islands even though the watch was dropped when Ignacio weakened . However , Ignacio still brought high waves and light rainfall to the islands . A few roads were closed , but otherwise , damage was minimal .
= = Meteorological history = =
Based on data from the ships UJGN and Okean and satellite imagery , the next tropical cyclone of 1985 was spotted early on July 21 while located 1 @,@ 623 mi ( 2 @,@ 612 km ) southwest of San Diego . Situated over 81 ° F ( 27 ° C ) sea surface temperatures , the depression attained tropical storm intensity a few hours later . Intensifying further west than normal , the storm reached winds of 70 mph ( 140 km / h ) roughly 24 hours after formation . Nine hours later , the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center dropped advisories on Ignacio as it had left their area of responsibility and into the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's ( CPHC ) warning zone .
A Hurricane Hunter aircraft investigated Ignacio at daybreak on July 22 , and found that Ignacio had developed a well @-@ defined eye and winds of 85 mph ( 165 km / h ) . Based on this , the CPHC upgraded Ignacio to hurricane status . Continuing to rapidly intensify , Hurricane Ignacio moved west @-@ northwest at 10 mph ( 16 km / h ) and was soon upgraded into Category 2 status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale ( SSHS ) . Several hours later , the hurricane attained major hurricane status , Category 3 or higher on the SSHS . Later that day , a Hurricane Hunter aircraft discovered that Hurricane Ignacio had reached its peak wind speed of 130 mph ( 210 km / h ) and a central pressure of 960 mbar ( 28 inHg ) , making Ignacio one of the most intense hurricane to traverse the Central Pacific .
The hurricane held peak intensity for several hours , however , an upper trough northwest of the Hawaiian Islands was gradually approaching Ignacio . Subsequently , the environment was rapidly becoming less conductive as the trough induced increased southwesterly wind shear and introduced colder and drier air into Ignacio 's circulation . By 1800 UTC July 24 , Ignacio was no longer a major hurricane as satellite imagery suggested that the eye had become irregular and soon disappeared . Air Force aircraft confirmed the weakening trend despite being located in an area where other hurricanes such as Hurricane Dot in 1959 and Hurricane Fico in 1978 maintained their intensity around the same time of the year . Minor re @-@ intensification may have occurred the next day as the eye re @-@ developed , however , this theory is not supported in the hurricane database .
The hurricane resumed its westerly course , and Hurricane Ignacio was downgraded a Category 1 hurricane at 1800 UTC on July 25 , and a tropical storm the next day . While passing south of Hawaii , Ignacio dropped to tropical depression status early on July 27 , and dissipated shortly after that .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Because of a strong trough was located northwest of Ignacio , many tropical cyclone forecast models predicted a more northerly track than what ultimately occurred . By July 24 , a high surf advisory was in effect for east @-@ facing shores of Hawaii ; subsequently , a hurricane watch was issued at 0300 UTC July 25 for the Big Island of Hawaii Because the island chain only recently recovered from the devastating Hurricane Iwa during the 1982 Pacific hurricane season , civil defense authorities evacuated low @-@ lying residents . One drugstore opened a special hurricane supplies center . In addition , beach activities on south @-@ facing shores were cancelled . Roughly 24 hours after the hurricane watch was issued , the watch was cancelled as Ignacio resumed weakening though a small craft advisory initially remained in effect for the Hawaiian Islands .
Ignacio resulted in 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) to 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) surf , peaking midday on July 25 . Rainfall from the storm was generally light , with a few reports exceeding 2 in ( 51 mm ) on the windward slopes of Maui and the Big Island . Some structures and roads near Kalapana and Kapoh were damaged . Many secondary roads that led to the beaches were closed . Picnic areas and nature trails in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park were closed and overnight camping throughout the state was banned .
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= Slavery in ancient Greece =
Slavery was a very common practice in Ancient Greek history , as in other places of the time . It is estimated that the majority of Athenian citizens owned at least one slave ; most ancient writers considered slavery natural and even necessary . This paradigm was notably questioned in Socratic dialogues ; the Stoics produced the first recorded condemnation of slavery .
Modern historiographical practice distinguishes chattel ( personal possession ) slavery from land @-@ bonded groups such as the penestae of Thessaly or the Spartan helots , who were more like medieval serfs ( an enhancement to real estate ) . The chattel helot is an individual deprived of liberty and forced to submit to an owner , who may buy , sell or lease them like any other chattel .
The academic study of slavery in ancient Greece is beset by significant methodological problems . Documentation is disjointed and very fragmented , focusing primarily on Athens . No treatises are specifically devoted to the subject , and jurisprudence was interested in slavery only inasmuch as it provided a source of revenue . Comedies and tragedies represented stereotypes while iconography made no substantial differentiation between slaves and craftsmen .
= = Terminology = =
The ancient Greeks had several words for slaves , which leads to textual ambiguity when they are studied out of their proper context . In Homer , Hesiod and Theognis of Megara , the slave was called δμώς / dmōs . The term has a general meaning but refers particularly to war prisoners taken as booty ( in other words , property ) . During the classical period , the Greeks frequently used ἀνδράποδον / andrapodon , ( literally , " one with the feet of a man " ) as opposed to τετράποδον / tetrapodon , " quadruped " , or livestock . The most common word is δοῦλος / doulos , used in opposition to " free man " ( ἐλεύθερος / eleútheros ) ; an earlier form of the former appears in Mycenaean inscriptions as do @-@ e @-@ ro , " male slave " ( or " servant " , " bondman " ; Linear B : 𐀈𐀁𐀫 ) , or do @-@ e @-@ ra , " female slave " ( or " maid @-@ servant " , " bondwoman " ; Linear B : ) . The verb δουλεὐω ( which survives in Modern Greek , meaning " work " ) can be used metaphorically for other forms of dominion , as of one city over another or parents over their children . Finally , the term οἰκέτης / oiketēs was used , meaning " one who lives in house " , referring to household servants .
Other terms used were less precise and required context :
θεράπων / therapōn – At the time of Homer , the word meant " squire " ( Patroclus was referred to as the therapōn of Achilles and Meriones that of Idomeneus ) ; during the classical age , it meant " servant " .
ἀκόλουθος / akolouthos – literally , " the follower " or " the one who accompanies " . Also , the diminutive ἀκολουθίσκος , used for page boys .
παῖς / pais – literally " child " , used in the same way as " houseboy " , also used in a derogatory way to call adult slaves .
σῶμα / sōma – literally " body " , used in the context of emancipation .
= = Origins of slavery = =
Slaves were present through the Mycenaean civilization , as documented in numerous tablets unearthed in Pylos 140 . Two legal categories can be distinguished : " slaves ( εοιο ) " and " slaves of the god ( θεοιο ) " , the god in this case probably being Poseidon . Slaves of the god are always mentioned by name and own their own land ; their legal status is close to that of freemen . The nature and origin of their bond to the divinity is unclear . The names of common slaves show that some of them came from Kythera , Chios , Lemnos or Halicarnassus and were probably enslaved as a result of piracy . The tablets indicate that unions between slaves and freemen were common and that slaves could work and own land . It appears that the major division in Mycenaean civilization was not between a free individual and a slave but rather if the individual was in the palace . ·
There is no continuity between the Mycenaean era and the time of Homer , where social structures reflected those of the Greek dark ages . The terminology differs : the slave is no longer do @-@ e @-@ ro ( doulos ) but dmōs . In the Iliad , slaves are mainly women taken as booty of war , while men were either ransomed or killed on the battlefield . In the Odyssey , the slaves also seem to be mostly women . These slaves were servants and sometimes concubines . There were some male slaves , especially in the Odyssey , a prime example being the swineherd Eumaeus . The slave was distinctive in being a member of the core part of the oikos ( " family unit " , " household " ) : Laertes eats and drinks with his servants ; in the winter , he sleeps in their company . The term dmōs is not considered pejorative , and Eumaeus , the " divine " swineherd , bears the same Homeric epithet as the Greek heroes . Slavery remained , however , a disgrace . Eumaeus himself declares , " Zeus , of the far @-@ borne voice , takes away the half of a man 's virtue , when the day of slavery comes upon him " . ·
It is difficult to determine when slave trading began in the archaic period . In Works and Days ( 8th century BC ) , Hesiod owns numerous dmōes although their status is unclear . The presence of douloi is confirmed by lyric poets such as Archilochus or Theognis of Megara . According to epigraphic evidence , the homicide law of Draco ( c . 620 BC ) mentioned slaves . According to Plutarch , Solon ( c . 594 @-@ 593 BC ) forbade slaves from practising gymnastics and pederasty . By the end of the period , references become more common . Slavery becomes prevalent at the very moment when Solon establishes the basis for Athenian democracy . Classical scholar Moses Finley likewise remarks that Chios , which , according to Theopompus , was the first city to organize a slave trade , also enjoyed an early democratic process ( in the 6th century BC ) . He concludes that " one aspect of Greek history , in short , is the advance hand in hand , of freedom and slavery . "
= = Economic role = =
All activities were open to slaves with the exception of politics . For the Greeks , politics was the only activity worthy of a citizen , the rest being relegated wherever possible to non @-@ citizens . It was status that was of importance , not activity .
The principal use of slavery was in agriculture , the foundation of the Greek economy . Some small landowners might own one slave , or even two . An abundant literature of manuals for landowners ( such as the Economy of Xenophon or that of Pseudo @-@ Aristotle ) confirms the presence of dozens of slaves on the larger estates ; they could be common labourers or foremen . The extent to which slaves were used as a labour force in farming is disputed . It is certain that rural slavery was very common in Athens , and that ancient Greece did not know of the immense slave populations found on the Roman latifundia .
Slave labour was prevalent in mines and quarries , which had large slave populations , often leased out by rich private citizens . The strategos Nicias leased a thousand slaves to the silver mines of Laurium in Attica ; Hipponicos , 600 ; and Philomidès , 300 . Xenophon indicates that they received one obolus per slave per day , amounting to 60 drachmas per year . This was one of the most prized investments for Athenians . The number of slaves working in the Laurium mines or in the mills processing ore has been estimated at 30 @,@ 000 . Xenophon suggested that the city buy a large number of slaves , up to three state slaves per citizen , so that their leasing would assure the upkeep of all the citizens .
Slaves were also used as craftsmen and tradespersons . As in agriculture , they were used for labour that was beyond the capability of the family . The slave population was greatest in workshops : the shield factory of Lysias employed 120 slaves , and the father of Demosthenes owned 32 cutlers and 20 bedmakers .
Slaves were also employed in the home . The domestic 's main role was to stand in for his master at his trade and to accompany him on trips . In time of war he was batman to the hoplite . The female slave carried out domestic tasks , in particular bread baking and textile making . Only the poorest citizens did not possess a domestic slave .
= = Demographics = =
= = = Population = = =
It is difficult to estimate the number of slaves in ancient Greece , given the lack of a precise census and variations in definitions during that era . It is certain that Athens had the largest slave population , with as many as 80 @,@ 000 in the 6th and 5th centuries BC , on average three or four slaves per household . In the 5th century BC , Thucydides remarked on the desertion of 20 @,@ 890 slaves during the war of Decelea , mostly tradesmen . The lowest estimate , of 20 @,@ 000 slaves , during the time of Demosthenes , corresponds to one slave per family . Between 317 BC and 307 BC , the tyrant Demetrius Phalereus ordered a general census of Attica , which arrived at the following figures : 21 @,@ 000 citizens , 10 @,@ 000 metics and 400 @,@ 000 slaves . The orator Hypereides , in his Against Areistogiton , recalls that the effort to enlist 15 @,@ 000 male slaves of military age led to the defeat of the Southern Greeks at the Battle of Chaeronea ( 338 BC ) , which corresponds to the figures of Ctesicles .
According to the literature , it appears that the majority of free Athenians owned at least one slave . Aristophanes , in Plutus , portrays poor peasants who have several slaves ; Aristotle defines a house as containing freemen and slaves . Conversely , not owning even one slave was a clear sign of poverty . In the celebrated discourse of Lysias For the Invalid , a cripple pleading for a pension explains " my income is very small and now I 'm required to do these things myself and do not even have the means to purchase a slave who can do these things for me . " However , the huge slave populations of the Romans were unknown in ancient Greece . When Athenaeus cites the case of Mnason , friend of Aristotle and owner of a thousand slaves , this appears to be exceptional . Plato , owner of five slaves at the time of his death , describes the very rich as owning 50 slaves .
Thucydides estimates that the isle of Chios had proportionally the largest number of slaves .
= = = = War = = = =
By the rules of war of the period , the victor possessed absolute rights over the vanquished , whether they were soldiers or not . Enslavement , while not systematic , was common practice . Thucydides recalls that 7 @,@ 000 inhabitants of Hyccara in Sicily were taken prisoner by Nicias and sold for 120 talents in the neighbouring village of Catania . Likewise in 348 BC the population of Olynthus was reduced to slavery , as was that of Thebes in 335 BC by Alexander the Great and that of Mantineia by the Achaean League .
The existence of Greek slaves was a constant source of discomfort for free Greeks . The enslavement of cities was also a controversial practice . Some generals refused , such as the Spartans Agesilaus II and Callicratidas . Some cities passed accords to forbid the practice : in the middle of the 3rd century BC , Miletus agreed not to reduce any free Knossian to slavery , and vice versa . Conversely , the emancipation by ransom of a city that had been entirely reduced to slavery carried great prestige : Cassander , in 316 BC , restored Thebes . Before him , Philip II of Macedon enslaved and then emancipated Stageira .
= = = = Piracy and banditry = = = =
Piracy and banditry provided a significant and consistent supply of slaves , though the significance of this source varied according to era and region . Pirates and brigands would demand ransom whenever the status of their catch warranted it . Whenever ransom was not paid or not warranted , captives would be sold to a trafficker . In certain areas , piracy was practically a national specialty , described by Thucydides as " the old @-@ fashioned " way of life . Such was the case in Acarnania , Crete , and Aetolia . Outside of Greece , this was also the case with Illyrians , Phoenicians , and Etruscans . During the Hellenistic period , Cilicians and the mountain peoples from the coasts of Anatolia could also be added to the list . Strabo explains the popularity of the practice among the Cilicians by its profitability ; Delos , not far away , allowed for " moving a myriad of slaves daily " . The growing influence of the Roman Republic , a large consumer of slaves , led to development of the market and an aggravation of piracy . In the 1st century BC , however , the Romans largely eradicated piracy to protect the Mediterranean trade routes .
= = = = Slave trade = = = =
There was slave trade between kingdoms and states of the wider region . The fragmentary list of slaves confiscated from the property of the mutilators of the Hermai mentions 32 slaves whose origin have been ascertained : 13 came from Thrace , 7 from Caria , and the others came from Cappadocia , Scythia , Phrygia , Lydia , Syria , Ilyria , Macedon and Peloponnese . Local professionals sold their own people to Greek slave merchants . The principal centres of the slave trade appear to have been Ephesus , Byzantium , and even faraway Tanais at the mouth of the Don . Some " barbarian " slaves were victims of war or localised piracy , but others were sold by their parents . There is a lack of direct evidence of slave traffic , but corroborating evidence exists . Firstly , certain nationalities are consistently and significantly represented in the slave population , such as the corps of Scythian archers employed by Athens as a police force — originally 300 , but eventually nearly a thousand . Secondly , the names given to slaves in the comedies often had a geographical link ; thus Thratta , used by Aristophanes in The Wasps , The Acharnians , and Peace , simply signified Thracian woman . Finally , the nationality of a slave was a significant criterion for major purchasers ; the ancient advice was not to concentrate too many slaves of the same origin in the same place , in order to limit the risk of revolt . It is also probable that , as with the Romans , certain nationalities were considered more productive as slaves than others .
The price of slaves varied in accordance with their ability . Xenophon valued a Laurion miner at 180 drachmas ; while a workman at major works was paid one drachma per day . Demosthenes ' father 's cutlers were valued at 500 to 600 drachmas each . Price was also a function of the quantity of slaves available ; in the 4th century BC they were abundant and it was thus a buyer 's market . A tax on sale revenues was levied by the market cities . For instance , a large helot market was organized during the festivities at the temple of Apollo at Actium . The Acarnanian League , which was in charge of the logistics , received half of the tax proceeds , the other half going to the city of Anactorion , of which Actium was a part . Buyers enjoyed a guarantee against latent defects ; the transaction could be invalidated if the bought slave turned out to be crippled and the buyer had not been warned about it .
= = = Natural growth = = =
Curiously , it appears that the Greeks did not " breed " their slaves , at least during the Classical Era , though the proportion of houseborn slaves appears to have been rather large in Ptolemaic Egypt and in manumission inscriptions at Delphi . Sometimes the cause of this was natural ; mines , for instance , were exclusively a male domain . On the other hand , there were many female domestic slaves . The example of African slaves in the American South on the other hand demonstrates that slave populations can multiply . This incongruity remains relatively unexplained .
Xenophon advised that male and female slaves should be lodged separately , that " … nor children born and bred by our domestics without our knowledge and consent — no unimportant matter , since , if the act of rearing children tends to make good servants still more loyally disposed , cohabiting but sharpens ingenuity for mischief in the bad . " The explanation is perhaps economic ; even a skilled slave was cheap , so it may have been cheaper to purchase a slave than to raise one . Additionally , childbirth placed the slave @-@ mother 's life at risk , and the baby was not guaranteed to survive to adulthood .
Houseborn slaves ( oikogeneis ) often constituted a privileged class . They were , for example , entrusted to take the children to school ; they were " pedagogues " in the first sense of the term . Some of them were the offspring of the master of the house , but in most cities , notably Athens , a child inherited the status of its mother .
= = Status of slaves = =
The Greeks had many degrees of enslavement . There was a multitude of categories , ranging from free citizen to chattel slave , and including Penestae or helots , disenfranchised citizens , freedmen , bastards , and metics . The common ground was the deprivation of civic rights .
Moses Finley proposed a set of criteria for different degrees of enslavement :
had no rights
Right to own property
Authority over the work of another
Power of punishment over another
Legal rights and duties ( liability to arrest and / or arbitrary punishment , or to litigate )
Familial rights and privileges ( marriage , inheritance , etc . )
Possibility of social mobility ( manumission or emancipation , access to citizen rights )
Religious rights and obligations
Military rights and obligations ( military service as servant , heavy or light soldier , or sailor )
= = = Athenian slaves = = =
Athenian slaves were the property of their master ( or of the state ) , who could dispose of them as he saw fit . He could give , sell , rent , or bequeath them . A slave could have a spouse and children , but the slave family was not recognized by the state , and the master could scatter the family members at any time . Slaves had fewer judicial rights than citizens and were represented by their master in all judicial proceedings . A misdemeanour that would result in a fine for the free man would result in a flogging for the slave ; the ratio seems to have been one lash for one drachma . With several minor exceptions , the testimony of a slave was not admissible except under torture . Slaves were tortured in trials because they often remained loyal to their master . A famous example of trusty slave was Themistocles 's Persian slave Sicinnus ( the counterpart of Ephialtes of Trachis ) , who , despite his Persian origin , betrayed Xerxes and helped Athenians in the Battle of Salamis . Despite torture in trials , the Athenian slave was protected in an indirect way : if he was mistreated , the master could initiate litigation for damages and interest ( δίκη βλάβης / dikē blabēs ) . Conversely , a master who excessively mistreated a slave could be prosecuted by any citizen ( γραφὴ ὕβρεως / graphē hybreōs ) ; this was not enacted for the sake of the slave , but to avoid violent excess ( ὕβρις / hubris ) .
Isocrates claimed that " not even the most worthless slave can be put to death without trial " ; the master 's power over his slave was not absolute . Draco 's law apparently punished with death the murder of a slave ; the underlying principle was : " was the crime such that , if it became more widespread , it would do serious harm to society ? " The suit that could be brought against a slave 's killer was not a suit for damages , as would be the case for the killing of cattle , but a δίκη φονική ( dikē phonikē ) , demanding punishment for the religious pollution brought by the shedding of blood . In the 4th century BC , the suspect was judged by the Palladion , a court which had jurisdiction over unintentional homicide ; the imposed penalty seems to have been more than a fine but less than death — maybe exile , as was the case in the murder of a Metic .
However , slaves did belong to their master 's household . A newly @-@ bought slave was welcomed with nuts and fruits , just like a newly @-@ wed wife . Slaves took part in most of the civic and family cults ; they were expressly invited to join the banquet of the Choes , second day of the Anthesteria , and were allowed initiation into the Eleusinian Mysteries . A slave could claim asylum in a temple or at an altar , just like a free man . The slaves shared the gods of their masters and could keep their own religious customs if any .
Slaves could not own property , but their masters often let them save up to purchase their freedom , and records survive of slaves operating businesses by themselves , making only a fixed tax @-@ payment to their masters . Athens also had a law forbidding the striking of slaves : if a person struck what appeared to be a slave in Athens , that person might find himself hitting a fellow @-@ citizen , because many citizens dressed no better . It astonished other Greeks that Athenians tolerated back @-@ chat from slaves . Athenian slaves fought together with Athenian freemen at the battle of Marathon , and the monuments memorialize them . It was formally decreed before the battle of Salamis that the citizens should " save themselves , their women , children , and slaves " .
Slaves had special sexual restrictions and obligations . For example , a slave could not engage free boys in pederastic relationships ( " A slave shall not be the lover of a free boy nor follow after him , or else he shall receive fifty blows of the public lash . " ) , and they were forbidden from the palaestrae ( " A slave shall not take exercise or anoint himself in the wrestling @-@ schools . " ) . Both laws are attributed to Solon . Fathers wanting to protect their sons from unwanted advances provided them with a slave guard , called a paidagogos , to escort the boy in his travels .
The sons of vanquished foes would be enslaved and often forced to work in male brothels , as in the case of Phaedo of Elis , who at the request of Socrates was bought and freed from such an enterprise by the philosopher 's rich friends . On the other hand , it is attested in sources that the rape of slaves was persecuted , at least occasionally .
= = = Slaves in Gortyn = = =
In Gortyn , in Crete , according to a code engraved in stone dating to the 6th century BC , slaves ( doulos or oikeus ) found themselves in a state of great dependence . Their children belonged to the master . The master was responsible for all their offences , and , inversely , he received amends for crimes committed against his slaves by others . In the Gortyn code , where all punishment was monetary , fines were doubled for slaves committing a misdemeanour or felony . Conversely , an offence committed against a slave was much less expensive than an offence committed against a free person . As an example , the rape of a free woman by a slave was punishable by a fine of 200 staters ( 400 drachms ) , while the rape of a non @-@ virgin slave by another slave brought a fine of only one obolus ( a sixth of a drachm ) .
Slaves did have the right to possess a house and livestock , which could be transmitted to descendants , as could clothing and household furnishings . Their family was recognized by law : they could marry , divorce , write a testament and inherit just like free men .
= = = A specific case : debt slavery = = =
Prior to its interdiction by Solon , Athenians practiced debt enslavement : a citizen incapable of paying his debts became " enslaved " to the creditor . The exact nature of this dependency is a much controversial issue among modern historians : was it truly slavery or another form of bondage ? However , this issue primarily concerned those peasants known as " hektēmoroi " working leased land belonging to rich landowners and unable to pay their rents . In theory , those so enslaved would be liberated when their original debts were repaid . The system was developed with variants throughout the Near East and is cited in the Bible .
Solon put an end to it with the σεισάχθεια / seisachtheia , liberation of debts , which prevented all claim to the person by the debtor and forbade the sale of free Athenians , including by themselves . Aristotle in his Constitution of the Athenians quotes one of Solon 's poems :
And many a man whom fraud or law had sold
Far from his god @-@ built land , an outcast slave ,
I brought again to Athens ; yea , and some ,
Exiles from home through debt ’ s oppressive load ,
Speaking no more the dear Athenian tongue ,
But wandering far and wide , I brought again ;
And those that here in vilest slavery ( douleia )
Crouched ‘ neath a master ’ s ( despōtes ) frown , I set them free .
Though much of Solon 's vocabulary is that of " traditional " slavery , servitude for debt was at least different in that the enslaved Athenian remained an Athenian , dependent on another Athenian , in his place of birth . It is this aspect which explains the great wave of discontent with slavery of the 6th century BC , which was not intended to free all slaves but only those enslaved by debt . The reforms of Solon left two exceptions : the guardian of an unmarried woman who had lost her virginity had the right to sell her as a slave , and a citizen could " expose " ( abandon ) unwanted newborn children .
= = = Manumission = = =
The practice of manumission is confirmed to have existed in Chios from the 6th century BC . It probably dates back to an earlier period , as it was an oral procedure . Informal emancipations are also confirmed in the classical period . It was sufficient to have witnesses , who would escort the citizen to a public emancipation of his slave , either at the theatre or before a public tribunal . This practice was outlawed in Athens in the middle of the 6th century BC to avoid public disorder .
The practice became more common in the 4th century BC and gave rise to inscriptions in stone which have been recovered from shrines such as Delphi and Dodona . They primarily date to the 2nd and 1st centuries BC , and the 1st century AD . Collective manumission was possible ; an example is known from the 2nd century BC in the island of Thasos . It probably took place during a period of war as a reward for the slaves ' loyalty , but in most cases the documentation deals with a voluntary act on the part of the master ( predominantly male , but in the Hellenistic period also female ) .
The slave was often required to pay for himself an amount at least equivalent to his street value . To this end they could use their savings or take a so @-@ called " friendly " loan ( ἔρανος / eranos ) from their master , a friend or a client like the hetaera Neaira did .
Emancipation was often of a religious nature , where the slave was considered to be " sold " to a deity , often Delphian Apollo , or was consecrated after his emancipation . The temple would receive a portion of the monetary transaction and would guarantee the contract . The manumission could also be entirely civil , in which case the magistrate played the role of the deity .
The slave 's freedom could be either total or partial , at the master 's whim . In the former , the emancipated slave was legally protected against all attempts at re @-@ enslavement — for instance , on the part of the former master 's inheritors . In the latter case , the emancipated slave could be liable to a number of obligations to the former master . The most restrictive contract was the paramone , a type of enslavement of limited duration during which time the master retained practically absolute rights .
In regard to the city , the emancipated slave was far from equal to a citizen by birth . He was liable to all types of obligations , as one can see from the proposals of Plato in The Laws : presentation three times monthly at the home of the former master , forbidden to become richer than him , etc . In fact , the status of emancipated slaves was similar to that of metics , the residing foreigners , who were free but did not enjoy a citizen 's rights .
= = = Spartan slaves = = =
Spartan citizens used helots , a dependent group collectively owned by the state . It is uncertain whether they had chattel slaves as well . There are mentions of people manumitted by Spartans , which was supposedly forbidden for helots , or sold outside of Lakonia : the poet Alcman ; a Philoxenos from Cytherea , reputedly enslaved with all his fellow citizens when his city was conquered , later sold to an Athenian ; a Spartan cook bought by Dionysius the Elder or by a king of Pontus , both versions being mentioned by Plutarch ; and the famous Spartan nurses , much appreciated by Athenian parents .
Some texts mention both slaves and helots , which seems to indicate that they were not the same thing . Plato in Alcibiades I cites " the ownership of slaves , and notably helots " among the Spartan riches , and Plutarch writes about " slaves and helots " . Finally , according to Thucydides , the agreement that ended the 464 BC revolt of helots stated that any Messenian rebel who might hereafter be found within the Peloponnese was " to be the slave of his captor " , which means that the ownership of chattel slaves was not illegal at that time .
Most historians thus concur that chattel slaves were indeed used in the Greek city @-@ state of Sparta , at least after the Lacedemonian victory of 404 BC against Athens , but not in great numbers and only among the upper classes . As was in the other Greek cities , chattel slaves could be purchased at the market or taken in war .
= = Slavery conditions = =
It is difficult to appreciate the condition of Greek slaves . According to Aristotle , the daily routine of slaves could be summed up in three words : " work , discipline , and feeding " . Xenophon 's advice is to treat slaves as domestic animals , that is to say punish disobedience and reward good behaviour . For his part , Aristotle prefers to see slaves treated as children and to use not only orders but also recommendations , as the slave is capable of understanding reasons when they are explained .
Greek literature abounds with scenes of slaves being flogged ; it was a means of forcing them to work , as were control of rations , clothing , and rest . This violence could be meted out by the master or the supervisor , who was possibly also a slave . Thus , at the beginning of Aristophanes ' The Knights ( 4 – 5 ) , two slaves complain of being " bruised and thrashed without respite " by their new supervisor . However , Aristophanes himself cites what is a typical old saw in ancient Greek comedy :
" He also dismissed those slaves who kept on running off , or deceiving someone , or getting whipped . They were always led out crying , so one of their fellow slaves could mock the bruises and ask then : ' Oh you poor miserable fellow , what 's happened to your skin ? Surely a huge army of lashes from a whip has fallen down on you and laid waste your back ? ' "
The condition of slaves varied very much according to their status ; the mine slaves of Laureion and the pornai ( brothel prostitutes ) lived a particularly brutal existence , while public slaves , craftsmen , tradesmen and bankers enjoyed relative independence . In return for a fee ( ἀποφορά / apophora ) paid to their master , they could live and work alone . They could thus earn some money on the side , sometimes enough to purchase their freedom . Potential emancipation was indeed a powerful motivator , though the real scale of this is difficult to estimate .
Ancient writers considered that Attic slaves enjoyed a " peculiarly happy lot " : Pseudo @-@ Xenophon deplores the liberties taken by Athenian slaves : " as for the slaves and Metics of Athens , they take the greatest licence ; you cannot just strike them , and they do not step aside to give you free passage " . This alleged good treatment did not prevent 20 @,@ 000 Athenian slaves from running away at the end of the Peloponnesian War at the incitement of the Spartan garrison at Attica in Decelea . These were principally skilled artisans ( kheirotekhnai ) , probably among the better @-@ treated slaves . The title of a 4th @-@ century comedy by Antiphanes , The Runaway @-@ catcher ( Δραπεταγωγός ) , suggests that slave flight was not uncommon .
Conversely , there are no records of a large @-@ scale Greek slave revolt comparable to that of Spartacus in Rome . It can probably be explained by the relative dispersion of Greek slaves , which would have prevented any large @-@ scale planning . Slave revolts were rare , even in Rome . Individual acts of rebellion of slaves against their master , though scarce , are not unheard of ; a judicial speech mentions the attempted murder of his master by a boy slave , not 12 years old .
= = Views of Greek slavery = =
= = = Historical views = = =
Very few authors of antiquity call slavery into question . To Homer and the pre @-@ classical authors , slavery was an inevitable consequence of war . Heraclitus states that " War is the father of all , the king of all ... he turns some into slaves and sets others free " .
During the classical period , the main justification for slavery was economic . From a philosophical point of view , the idea of " natural " slavery emerged at the same time ; thus , as Aeschylus states in The Persians , the Greeks " [ o ] f no man are they called the slaves or vassals " , while the Persians , as Euripides states in Helen , " are all slaves , except one " — the Great King . Hippocrates theorizes about this latent idea at the end of the 5th century BC . According to him , the temperate climate of Anatolia produced a placid and submissive people . This explanation is reprised by Plato , then Aristotle in Politics , where he develops the concept of " natural slavery " : " for he that can foresee with his mind is naturally ruler and naturally master , and he that can do these things with his body is subject and naturally a slave . " As opposed to an animal , a slave can comprehend reason but " … has not got the deliberative part at all . "
Alcidamas , at the same time as Aristotle , took the view : " nature has made nobody a slave " .
In parallel , the concept that all men , whether Greek or barbarian , belonged to the same race was being developed by the Sophists and thus that certain men were slaves although they had the soul of a freeman and vice versa . Aristotle himself recognized this possibility and argued that slavery could not be imposed unless the master was better than the slave , in keeping with his theory of " natural " slavery . The Sophists concluded that true servitude was not a matter of status but a matter of spirit ; thus , as Menander stated , " be free in the mind , although you are slave : and thus you will no longer be a slave " . This idea , repeated by the Stoics and the Epicurians , was not so much an opposition to slavery as a trivialisation of it .
The Greeks could not comprehend an absence of slaves . Slaves exist even in the " Cloudcuckooland " of Aristophanes ' The Birds as well as in the ideal cities of Plato 's Laws or Republic . The utopian cities of Phaleas of Chalcedon and Hippodamus of Miletus are based on the equal distribution of property , but public slaves are used respectively as craftsmen and land workers . The " reversed cities " placed women in power or even saw the end of private property , as in Lysistrata or Assemblywomen , but could not picture slaves in charge of masters . The only societies without slaves were those of the Golden Age , where all needs were met without anyone having to work . In this type of society , as explained by Plato , one reaped generously without sowing . In Telekleides ' Amphictyons barley loaves fight with wheat loaves for the honour of being eaten by men . Moreover , objects move themselves — dough kneads itself , and the jug pours itself . Similarly , Aristotle said that slaves would not be necessary " if every instrument could accomplish its own work ... the shuttle would weave and the plectrum touch the lyre without a hand to guide them " , like the legendary constructs of Daedalus and Hephaestus . Society without slaves is thus relegated to a different time and space . In a " normal " society , one needs slaves .
= = = Modern views = = =
Slavery in Greek antiquity has long been an object of apologetic discourse among Christians , who are typically awarded the merit of its collapse . From the 16th century the discourse became moralizing in nature . The existence of colonial slavery had significant impact on the debate , with some authors lending it civilizing merits and others denouncing its misdeeds . Thus Henri @-@ Alexandre Wallon in 1847 published a History of Slavery in Antiquity among his works for the abolition of slavery in the French colonies .
In the 19th century , a politico @-@ economic discourse emerged . It concerned itself with distinguishing the phases in the organisation of human societies and correctly identifying the place of Greek slavery . The influence of Marx is decisive ; for him the ancient society was characterized by development of private ownership and the dominant ( and not secondary as in other pre @-@ capitalist societies ) character of slavery as a mode of production . The Positivists represented by the historian Eduard Meyer ( Slavery in Antiquity , 1898 ) were soon to oppose the Marxist theory . According to him slavery was the foundation of Greek democracy . It was thus a legal and social phenomenon , and not economic .
Current historiography developed in the 20th century ; led by authors such as Joseph Vogt , it saw in slavery the conditions for the development of elites . Conversely , the theory also demonstrates an opportunity for slaves to join the elite . Finally , Vogt estimates that modern society , founded on humanist values , has surpassed this level of development .
In 2011 , Greek slavery remains the subject of historiographical debate , on two questions in particular : can it be said that ancient Greece was a " slave society " , and did Greek slaves comprise a social class ?
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= María del Luján Telpuk =
Lorena Telpuk , formerly María del Luján Telpuk , ( sometimes María de Luján Telpuk ) or the Suitcase Girl ( c . 1981 ) is a former airport police officer at Aeroparque Jorge Newbery in Buenos Aires , Argentina , who noticed a suitcase with US $ 800 @,@ 000 as it went through an X @-@ ray machine in August 2007 . In December 2007 , the money became a very public part of an international election suitcase scandal , known as Maletinazo . When the suitcase scandal became public , she became an international celebrity and appeared on the cover of several magazines , including those of the February 2008 issue of the Argentine edition of Playboy magazine and the March 2008 issue of the Venezuelan edition of Playboy magazine .
In 2008 , according to foreign language sources , she changed her name from María del Luján Telpuk to Lorena Telpuk ; she posed for additional adult modeling photographs ; and continued her pursuit of stardom . She also testified in court regarding her involvement in the case .
= = Personal = =
Telpuk is a former nursery school teacher . She was raised in a small town in the Santa Fe Province where she taught nursery school , but she moved to Buenos Aires after passing an entrance exam for the Airport Security Police about three years prior to the Maletinazo incident . In the short time since Telpuk has transformed from night shift policewoman to pinup girl almost overnight . She has left the police force , joined a charter airline , begun taking English classes and begun to prepare for a role on Skating for a Dream , an Argentine variety show .
Telpuk 's mother Yolanda lives in a middle @-@ class suburb of Buenos Aires . She is widowed and used to work for a pasta factory .
= = Maletinazo = =
On August 4 , 2007 , at 2 : 45 a.m. , she discovered the money that became part of a political scandal in the electoral campaign of President of Argentina Cristina Fernández de Kirchner . It was in the possession of a Key Biscayne , Florida , associate of President of Venezuela Hugo Chávez . The carrier , Guido Antonini Wilson ( who is referred to in the press by both Antonini and Wilson and who is sometimes referred to by the nicknames " El Gordo " or " The Fat Man " ) , is an interpreter and was part of a delegation of executives that traveled to Argentina in advance of Chávez ' energy deal signing . He opened the bag at the insistence of Telpuk , who noticed the six dense and perfectly rectangular blocks in the luggage scans . At first , Wilson had explained the items as books and papers . When forced to open it , he began to stammer and show signs of nervousness , and he said the suitcase only contained about $ 60 @,@ 000 . The blocks turned out to be US $ 790 @,@ 550 . The delegation , which arrived on a Cessna Citation jet from Caracas , Venezuela , chartered by Energía Argentina , SA , carried five Venezuelans and three Argentines who represented their respective governments ' energy companies . In a country known for its corruption , Telpuk did not have an interest in a bribe although she felt Wilson may have expected her to be willing to take one . Instead of pursuing a bribe , she reported the finding .
Although the local media of both Argentina and Venezuela gave the story immediate front page coverage , the case faded away until after Kirchner was elected . The United States prosecutors believe that the money represented a contribution from Venezuelan President Chávez to the presidential campaign of Argentina 's leftist leader , Kirchner . Two days after the December 10 , 2007 inauguration , several arrests were announced by prosecutors working for the United States Attorney General . The arrests were for activities related to having offered Wilson $ 2 million to keep quiet about the contributions from Venezuela to support Kirchner 's campaign . In addition to Maletinazo , the case is known in Latin America as " Valijagate " or " Suitcasegate " , and Telpuk is known as the Suitcase Girl in her homeland , Argentina .
For her part , Telpuk felt she was caught in the " middle of a rivalry of nations " . She has been vilified as a mercenary fortune @-@ seeker and CIA lackey . She has received a variety of threats by telephone and email , and had police protection starting when the incident became a public scandal in December . She has even received a bouquet with an ominous note .
= = Media appearances = =
Her first magazine cover appearance was on the December issue of an irreverent political magazine , Veintitrés where Telpuk appeared under the headline " The Bombshell Behind the Suitcase " standing behind a suitcase . She wore little other than a police cap , and another headline on the cover read , " Is She the Key Piece of a Plot Designed by Washington ? " She then appeared on the February issue of the Argentine edition of Playboy magazine next to the headline " Corrupción Al Desnudo " ( translated as " Corruption Laid Bare " ) . Subsequently , she appeared on the March 2008 issue of the Venezuelan edition of Playboy magazine . She posed with a red suitcase decorated with both the Argentine and Venezuelan flags while wearing a scarf , black leather gloves and black @-@ and @-@ white boots for her Playboy cover appearance . Within the magazine in her pictorial , she posed with fewer clothes and with various props : the ubiquitous suitcase , dollar bills , including the propeller blades of a single @-@ engine airplane . She decided to pursue an appearance on the Argentine variety show " Bailando por un sueño " , after Marcelo Tinelli visited her at the airport to congratulate her .
Telpuk has appeared on various talk shows since the scandal . In 2008 , according to foreign language sources , she changed her name from María del Luján Telpuk to Lorena Telpuk ; she was mysteriously dismissed from Skating for a Dream ; and she posed for additional adult modeling photographs in Premium , an Argentine magazine . Telpuk had breast augmentation surgery prior to her late 2008 court appearances .
= = Courtroom = =
Telpuk testified in court in October 2008 on various days spanning the weekend of October 5 , 2008 , regarding her knowledge in the famous suitcase scandal . Her October 3 testimony , wherein she contradicted the testimony of Antonini , in which he had stated that he was carrying the suitcase as a courtesy to his companions , was considered a highlight of the trial . On that day , her presence prompted a media frenzy . For her part , Telpuk took the stand to testify that she had been offered political asylum by the Federal Bureau of Investigation as well as employment in the United States in exchange for modifying her witness statement that Mr. Antonini Wilson was the owner of the suitcase that contained the $ 800 @,@ 000 . On November 3 , 2008 , part of the case was decided in a Miami courtroom when Franklin Durán , a wealthy businessman who allegedly conspired to cover up both the origin and the destination of the suitcase , was convicted of acting as an " unregistered agent " of Venezuela on American soil . On March 17 , 2009 Franklin Durán , who was facing up to 15 years in prison , was sentenced to 4 .
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= Super Mario Galaxy 2 =
Super Mario Galaxy 2 ( Japanese : スーパーマリオギャラクシー2 , Hepburn : Sūpā Mario Gyarakushī Tsū ) is a platforming video game developed and published by Nintendo for the Wii . It was first announced at E3 2009 and is the sequel to Super Mario Galaxy . It was released in North America on May 23 , 2010 ; in Japan on May 27 , 2010 ; in Europe on June 11 , 2010 ; and in Australia on July 1 , 2010 . It is the fourth original 3D platformer in the Super Mario series , after Super Mario 64 , Super Mario Sunshine , and Super Mario Galaxy .
The story follows Mario as he pursues the Koopa King , Bowser , into outer space , where he has imprisoned Princess Peach and taken control of the universe using Power Stars . Mario must travel across various galaxies to recover the Power Stars in order to travel to the center of the universe and rescue the princess . The game was originally planned as an updated version of Super Mario Galaxy with some modifications and a projected development time of a year ; this version would have been called Super Mario Galaxy More . It was later decided that the game was to be developed as a fleshed @-@ out sequel when the development staff continued to build upon the game with dozens of new ideas , and so development time expanded to two and a half years . Among the additions are dynamic environments , new power @-@ ups , and , most notably , the ability to ride Yoshi .
Upon its release , Super Mario Galaxy 2 was met with as much widespread critical acclaim as its predecessor , and is regarded by many to be one of the greatest video games of all time , as well as one of the highest rated video games on the aggregation sites Metacritic and GameRankings . It is one of the best @-@ selling games on the Wii with 6 @.@ 72 million copies sold worldwide . In 2015 , it became the first disc @-@ based Wii game to get a re @-@ release on the Wii U eShop .
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay of Super Mario Galaxy 2 is similar to Super Mario Galaxy , with a focus on platforming based on and around 3D planets ( referred to collectively as galaxies ) with varying themes , sizes , landscapes , and climates . The player controls Mario ( or later in the game , his brother Luigi , though using him is optional ) , who has special abilities such as the " Spin " attack , long jump , wall jumps , and a variety of somersaults . As in the original , the objective of the game is to travel to the various galaxies and collect Power Stars , which are awarded by completing levels and accomplishing tasks and are used to gain access to later levels . The game retains some gameplay mechanics introduced in the original , such as the blue Star Pointer that allows the player to pick up Star Bits and shoot them at enemies , levels that restrict movement to a 2D plane , balance ball levels , and gravity @-@ reversing background arrows .
= = = Setting and level design = = =
Super Mario Galaxy 2 provides the player access to the game 's galaxies through means of a map system similar to that in previous Mario games such as Super Mario World and New Super Mario Bros. Wii . This is navigated via a mobile planet called Starship Mario ( named as such because it is shaped exactly like Mario 's head ) that serves as a hub world , which can be visited anytime and is expanded when new abilities or levels are unlocked . The game contains forty @-@ nine galaxies allotted among seven different regions in the universe ( called " worlds " ) , the general difficulty progressively increasing in each world . The first six worlds end with a boss level in which the object is to conquer Bowser or Bowser Jr . ( the former being in even @-@ numbered worlds , and the latter being in odd @-@ numbered worlds ) , which then allows the player to access the next world . When the player collects all 120 Power Stars , 120 Green Star levels are unlocked . These levels , containing Green Stars that are hidden or are placed in hard @-@ to @-@ reach areas , require intense exploration and precision and may cause instant death if the player fails . Acquiring all 120 Green Stars awards the player with the final , forty @-@ ninth galaxy with two new challenges that are considered exceptionally difficult . Super Mario Galaxy 2 contains 242 unique Power Stars to collect overall .
Most of the levels in Super Mario Galaxy 2 offer a unique task based around its theme , and many focus on dynamic environments that change or alternate between various states . For example , some environments change to the beat of the background music , such as sudden shifts in the direction of gravity or the appearance or disappearance of platforms ; and others feature a special switch that temporarily slows down time . Prankster Comets , which were featured in the original game and cause variation and tougher challenges in levels , no longer appear randomly in visited galaxies but instead require the collection of a Comet Medal in that galaxy in order for it to appear . In addition , Prankster Comets have become more general and offer any number of variations : while Super Mario Galaxy offered only five mutually exclusive variations , the Prankster Comets in Super Mario Galaxy 2 range to any number of challenges that often mix or overlap . These include : destroying all the enemies , collecting 100 Purple Coins , and completing the level within a time limit , with Mario 's maximum health reduced to one unit , or while avoiding Cosmic Clones ( doppelgängers of Mario that pursue and imitate all the player 's actions ) . As a result , both the dynamic environments and the Prankster Comets often create challenges with puzzle elements , requiring precision and strategy in order to overcome them .
= = = Power @-@ ups = = =
All the original transformations in Super Mario Galaxy return except for Ice Mario and Flying Mario , along with some new power @-@ ups and items . These include the Spin Drill , which allows the player to burrow through some planets and emerge out the other side ; Rock Mario , which allows the player to smash through obstacles , such as boulders and enemies ; and Cloud Mario , which allows the player to create temporary platforms in midair .
Mario is able to ride the dinosaur Yoshi , who is available in certain levels . When riding Yoshi , the player 's blue Star Pointer is replaced by a red dot , which allows the player to point at various objects and manipulate them with Yoshi 's tongue . Yoshi can also use his tongue to swing across gaps , pull levers , and swallow enemies ( with the option to spit them back out as projectiles ) . In addition , Yoshi allows the player to double jump . There are also three different power @-@ up fruits available for Yoshi to eat that grant him temporary abilities . These are the Dash Pepper , the Blimp Fruit and the Bulb Berry . The Dash Pepper allows Yoshi to run quickly , giving him the ability to run up walls and run on water ; the Blimp Fruit allows Yoshi to float into the air ; and the Bulb Berry allows Yoshi to reveal secret pathways . If the player takes damage while riding Yoshi , the player will fall off and Yoshi will run away until the player gets back on him . If the player does not get back on , Yoshi will retreat into his egg .
= = = Guides and multiplayer = = =
Because of the game 's increased difficulty over the original , Super Mario Galaxy 2 offers some features that assist inexperienced or frustrated players . The most notable is the Cosmic Guide , similar to New Super Mario Bros. Wii 's " Super Guide " feature , who takes the form of Rosalina . The Cosmic Guide appears if the player has failed during a particular level a certain number of times , and allows the player to give computer control over Mario in order to complete the level if necessary . The drawback is that the player is awarded a Bronze Star , requiring the player to complete the level without using the Cosmic Guide in order to earn a Golden Power Star . There are also monitors called " Hint TVs " that will demonstrate how to perform a specific move or optimal ways of using a power @-@ up .
Multiplayer gameplay has also been expanded upon over the original . In Super Mario Galaxy , another player could use a second Wii Remote to control a second Star Pointer and assist Mario by grabbing onto enemies or collecting and shooting Star Bits . In Super Mario Galaxy 2 , the second player now controls an orange Luma who retains all the original abilities , but can also physically attack enemies and collect items , power @-@ ups and 1 @-@ ups , making the player 's involvement more useful .
= = Story = =
Princess Peach invites Mario to share some cake at the Star Festival , a time when Star Bits rain down from the skies over the Mushroom Kingdom . On his way , Mario finds a Luma , who immediately befriends him and grants him the ability to spin . Shortly thereafter , Mario 's nemesis Bowser , who has grown to an immense size ( after swallowing Grand Stars , unbeknownst to Mario at this point ) , appears and attacks Princess Peach 's Castle . Kidnapping the princess , Bowser escapes into outer space to recreate his empire at the center of the universe . After launching into outer space , Mario is given control of Starship Mario , a mobile planetoid in the shape of his head , made by a crafty Luma mechanic called Lubba , powered by Power Stars , and piloted by other Lumas ; his mission is to fly across the universe in pursuit of Bowser and the Princess and to help Lubba find the lost Lumas that were part of Bowser 's plot . Along the way Mario meets new Lumas and joins up with his companion Yoshi , the Toad Brigade from the original Super Mario Galaxy , and his brother Luigi .
Upon collecting enough Power Stars , fighting Bowser twice and blowing up Bowser Jr . ' s machine sending him flying into space along the way , Mario reaches Bowser 's main fortification , draining energy from what appears to be a comet . Mario infiltrates the castle and defeats Bowser , retrieving the last Grand Star . Rosalina and her Comet Observatory from the first Super Mario Galaxy appear before Mario and Peach . Rosalina thanks Mario for watching over the Luma that he had found , and the Luma returns to the Comet Observatory , taking Mario 's hat with him . Mario and his friends return to the Mushroom Kingdom and celebrate their victory . The game ends with Starship Mario sitting above Princess Peach 's Castle , with the Comet Observatory streaking across the sky .
= = Development = =
After Nintendo finished making the first Super Mario Galaxy , Shigeru Miyamoto approached the development team and suggested that a follow @-@ up be produced . The game was originally planned to just do variations on the original game 's planets and call the game " Super Mario Galaxy More , " ( it was dubbed " Super Mario Galaxy 1 @.@ 5 " during early development ) , with a projected development time of approximately a year . The first elements that were implemented were anything that was scrapped from the original game , either to ensure game balance or simply because of time constraints , such as Yoshi and the concept of a planet shaped like Mario 's head . Over time , more and more new elements and ideas were brought into the game , and it was decided that the game would be a fleshed @-@ out sequel rather than a slightly modified follow @-@ up . Thus , development took two and a half years . Takeshi Hayakawa , the lead programmer for Super Mario Galaxy 2 , created a development tool that allowed different staff members , including visual and sound designers , to easily design and create stages without waiting for programmers , many of which were incorporated into the final game .
In order to help distinguish Super Mario Galaxy 2 from its predecessor , the staff originally wanted the whole game to revolve around the concept of " switching , " in which the game 's environments would dramatically change under certain conditions . This concept ended up being particularly difficult to implement full @-@ scale , so was relegated to only certain levels . Another idea that came up early on were cameo inclusions by other Nintendo characters ( specifically Donkey Kong and Pikmin ) . The idea however was nixed by Miyamoto who stated that Pikmin characters wouldn 't work within the Mario universe , and that there was no reason for other such cameos . Game tutorials were confined to an optional system called the " Tip Network " in order to benefit players already familiar with the original game . Miyamoto compared Super Mario Galaxy 2 to The Legend of Zelda : Majora 's Mask , in that both games use the same engines as their predecessors , yet build upon their foundations .
The game was revealed at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2009 on June 2 . In Miyamoto 's private conference , it was stated that the game was very far along in development , but its release was held back to mid @-@ 2010 because of New Super Mario Bros. Wii 's release in late 2009 . Miyamoto also stated that the game has 95 – 99 % new features , with the rest being previous features introduced in Super Mario Galaxy . With regard to the original game , Nintendo of America President and CEO Reggie Fils @-@ Aime stated in an interview that the sequel would be more challenging , and Miyamoto said in a Wired interview that the game would have less focus on plot . Miyamoto initially hinted that the game might utilize the " Super Guide " feature , introduced in New Super Mario Bros. Wii , into the game , and this was confirmed by Nintendo 's Senior Manager of Product Managing , Bill Trinen , who claimed that the feature was implemented differently compared to what New Super Mario Bros. Wii offered . The feature is called Cosmic Guide , where the Cosmic Spirit ( Rosalina ) takes control of Mario .
The game made its playable debut at the Nintendo Media Summit 2010 on February 24 , 2010 , when a second trailer for the game was released , and its North American release date on May 23 , 2010 was finally announced . The Japanese , European and Australian versions of the game came packaged with an instructional DVD manual , explaining the basic controls , as well as showing advanced play . The voice actors from Super Mario Galaxy reprise their roles for its sequel including additional voices by Dex Manley who played Lubba .
= = = Music = = =
As with the original Super Mario Galaxy , Super Mario Galaxy 2 features a musical score written for and performed by a symphony orchestra ( known as the Mario Galaxy Orchestra in the credits ) . Early in the development process , when the concept of " Super Mario Galaxy 1 @.@ 5 " was being considered , there were no plans to use different music from the first Super Mario Galaxy . However , as the game evolved , the sound team , headed by Mahito Yokota , realized they needed new music that fit with the new gameplay mechanics that were being added . Although they were hesitant to use a symphony orchestra again because of recording difficulties , general producer Shigeru Miyamoto gave permission immediately – according to Yokota , Miyamoto felt that players would be expecting an orchestral soundtrack . Miyamoto also apparently suggested that players would want to hear arrangements from Super Mario Galaxy , which is why the soundtrack is a mixture of brand new pieces and arrangements of themes from the original Galaxy as well as many past installments in the Mario series , such as Super Mario World and Super Mario 64 . Ryo Nagamatsu , who worked previously on Mario Kart Wii , Wii Sports Resort , and New Super Mario Bros. Wii , contributed nine pieces to the soundtrack .
Koji Kondo recruited sixty musicians for the orchestra , ten more than the number of musicians used for the original game 's score , with an additional ten musicians providing a big band style of music with trumpets , trombones , saxophones and drums for a grand total of seventy players . The orchestral performances were conducted by Taizo Takemoto , renowned for his work with the Super Smash Bros. Concert in 2002 , while Kondo served as a supervisor , while also contributing five pieces to the soundtrack . The soundtrack was available as a 2 @-@ disc set to Japanese Club Nintendo members .
= = Reception and legacy = =
= = = Reviews = = =
Super Mario Galaxy 2 received critical acclaim from major video game critics with numerous reviews praising the game for its creativity and technical improvements over the original . It has an average critic score of 97 % at GameRankings and 97 / 100 at Metacritic , making it one of the highest rated games on the sites .
Tom McShea from GameSpot called it a " new standard for platformers , " giving it a perfect 10 @.@ 0 , making it the seventh game in the site 's history to earn that score . Other perfect scores came from Edge , stating " this isn 't a game that redefines the genre : this is one that rolls it up and locks it away , " and IGN 's Craig Harris , who felt that the game " perfectly captures that classic videogame charm , the reason why most of us got into gaming from the start . " IGN later placed Super Mario Galaxy 2 4th on their " Top Modern Games " list . IGN also listed Super Mario Galaxy 2 as the greatest Wii game of all time . The Escapist editor Susan Arendt echoed this view by stating it " doesn 't tinker with the established formula very much , but we didn 't really want it to , " while GameTrailers commented that " there 's something tremendous for just about everyone and games that we can truly recommend to almost everyone are rare . " Ryan Scott at GameSpy regards it a much better game than the first Super Mario Galaxy , stating " for a series that 's explored every conceivable angle of its genre , the Mario games keep coming up with ways to challenge our notions of what a platformer can and should do . "
Giant Bomb 's Ryan Davis particularly praised the improved level designs , commenting that the designers were " bolder " and " more willing to take some weird risks with the planetoids and abstract platforming that set the tone in the original Galaxy , " while Chris Kohler from Wired commented that the level concepts alone " could be made into full games on their own . " Additionally 1UP.com 's Justin Haywald noted the expanded soundtrack as " sweeping . " GamesRadar praised the graphics , saying that despite the Wii 's technical limitations , Galaxy 2 " understands how to get the most out of aging technology that nearly all graphical flaws are smoothed over or covered up , leaving you with Wii 's best @-@ looking title to date . " X @-@ Play editor Andrew Pfister awarded Super Mario Galaxy 2 a 5 / 5 , calling it " the culmination of 20 years of Mario gaming into one fantastically @-@ designed and creative platformer . "
Despite this praise , some critics raised complaints over increased difficulty and the game 's similarity to the original Super Mario Galaxy . Chris Scullion from Official Nintendo Magazine called it the " new best game on Wii , " but said it lacked the original 's impact ( though they admitted the extreme difficulty of this , due to the quality of the original ) . Game Informer editor Matt Helgeson was concerned with some of the challenges being potentially " frustrating , " particularly towards the end of the game ; similarly , Ben PerLee from GamePro remarked that the " increased difficulty and high proficiency requirement may turn new fans off . " However , Worthplaying editor Chris DeAngelus praised the game 's difficulty , stating " perhaps most positively of all , there are very few sequences where death will feel like a result of bad design instead of player error , which helps keep the frustration down . "
= = = Sales = = =
In Japan , Super Mario Galaxy 2 sold 143 @,@ 000 copies on its first day of release and 340 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , about 90 @,@ 000 more than the first Super Mario Galaxy sold in the same amount of time . In North America , the game sold 650 @,@ 000 copies during the month of May 2010 . In the United Kingdom , Super Mario Galaxy 2 was the third best @-@ selling game among multiplatform releases and the best @-@ selling single platform release for the week ending June 26 , 2010 . As of July 16 , 2010 , the game has sold 1 million copies within the USA . As of April 2011 , Super Mario Galaxy 2 has sold 6 @.@ 36 million copies worldwide .
= = = Awards = = =
Super Mario Galaxy 2 received Game of the Year 2010 awards from Nintendo Power , GamesMaster , Official Nintendo Magazine , Edge , GamesTM , Destructoid and Metacritic . It was named best " Wii Game of the Year " by IGN , GameTrailers , GameSpot , 1UP.com , and many other media outlets . As of December 2010 , IGN awarded Super Mario Galaxy 2 the number 1 Wii game , overtaking its predecessor . In 2012 , Official Nintendo Magazine had named Super Mario Galaxy 2 the ' Greatest Nintendo Game Ever Made ' ranking at # 1 .
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= Cyclone John =
Severe Tropical Cyclone John was an intense tropical cyclone that rapidly deepened offshore before devastating areas of Western Australia . The system was the second cyclone and first severe tropical cyclone of the active 1999 – 00 Australian region cyclone season . Cyclone John developed from a monsoon trough positioned northwest of Australia on 9 December 1999 . As it moved to the west and later south as the result of a subtropical ridge under favourable conditions , the cyclone was able to rapidly intensify . John reached peak intensity on 14 December as a Category 5 cyclone on the Australian cyclone scale , the highest rating possible . Cyclone John later began interacting with a mid – latitude trough , which slightly weakened the cyclone prior to making landfall near Whim Creek early on 15 December . Increasingly unfavourable conditions further inland resulted in the cyclone 's rapid weakening , before it dissipated during the next day .
Cyclone John extensively affected areas of Western Australia , but damage was not as bad as expected . Widespread power outages across the Pilbara region were caused by John . Strong winds caused minor damage to infrastructure across the coast , as well as tree damage . 140 windmills were destroyed by the cyclone on the coast . Further inland , rainfall associated with the cyclone and its remnants brought flooding , which flooded 25 houses and caused rivers to overflow . The system was responsible for no deaths and a limited amount of damage . After the season , the name John was retired from the Australian tropical cyclone naming list .
= = Meteorological history = =
In early December , a monsoon trough north of Australia intensified due to a strong northwest cross – equatorial surge in the South China Sea . This resulted in the formation of a tropical low southwest of Timor on 9 December . At 0600 UTC on 10 December , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began to monitor the system , designating it as 02S . As it moved towards the west and subsequently southwards , improving upper – air divergence allowed the system to intensify , reaching tropical cyclone intensity on the evening of 11 December and thus attaining the name John . At the time , a Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission ( TRMM ) pass of the system revealed a compact system , with a convective rainband tightly surrounding a central cloud – filled eye . A developed anticyclone positioned over the system provided favorable conditions for development . Due to the presence of a subtropical ridge to the east over Australia , Cyclone John was forecast to generally move in a south @-@ southwestward direction .
Steadily intensifying , the cyclone attained Category 3 cyclone intensity on the Australian cyclone scale at 1600 UTC on 12 December . TRMM imagery indicated that the cyclone had developed a banding eye feature , and had good outflow and a symmetric structure . Cyclone John continued to intensify under favorable atmospheric conditions , before reaching its peak intensity as a Category 5 cyclone on the Australian cyclone scale at 0800 UTC on 14 December , while located 170 km ( 105 mi ) northwest of Port Hedland , Western Australia . At peak intensity , the storm had maximum 10 – minute sustained wind speeds of 200 km / h ( 125 mph ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 915 mbar ( 27 @.@ 0 inHg ) .
However , after peak intensity , dry air began to become wrapped into the northwestern quadrant of the system . Moving towards the Australian coastline , radar imagery from Dampier , Western Australia showed a strong eyewall associated with John . Cyclone John began to become elongated along a northwest – southeast axis as it neared the coast . The cyclone also began interacting with a mid – latitude trough the southwest . This generated some vertical wind shear , which weakened John slightly and caused it to curve towards the southeast . Cyclone John made landfall near Whim Creek , Western Australia as a Category 5 cyclone at 0000 UTC on 15 December with a minimum central pressure between 930 – 940 mbar ( 27 @.@ 46 – 27 @.@ 46 inHg ) , with maximum 10 – minute sustained winds of 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) , gusting to 285 km / h ( 175 mph ) . The entirety of the cyclone 's eye crossed the coast by 0200 UTC as the storm moved further inland into an area of wind shear and dry air , which caused it to rapidly weaken . The cyclone was last noted by TCWC Perth and the JTWC on 16 December as it dissipated overland .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Prior to Cyclone John 's landfall , hundreds of people were evacuated from homes , primarily in Karratha , where two shelters were set up . In Point Samson , 500 people evacuated to shelters in Wickham , Western Australia . TCWC Perth began issuing hourly warnings for potentially affected areas beginning at 1400 UTC on 14 December . As the storm made landfall , some residents of Whim Creek took refuge in a shipping container .
Strong winds from the cyclone caused widespread power outages to areas in Pilbara . At Cape Lambert , winds averaged 150 km / h ( 95 mph ) for five hours , with a peak wind gust of 210 km / h ( 130 mph ) . Karratha suffered minor damage from John , primarily in the form of wind damage . Various trees were uprooted by strong winds , and some homes suffered minor roof damage . Palm fronds in Karratha were blown off palm trees due to strong winds . In Whim Creek , where the cyclone had made landfall , the top floor of a 113 @-@ year @-@ old pub and hotel was destroyed . A temporary roof made up of tarpaulins later collapsed in a flood event the following month . 140 windmills between Whim Creek and Newman were destroyed by the cyclone .
Offshore , 220 cattle aboard a ship died after the ship was battered by rough seas associated with Cyclone John . Production from an oil field off the coast of northwest Australia were down 38 % , partly due to being shut down in preparation for Cyclone John . Rough seas from John also caused a maximum storm surge height of 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) , recorded in Port Hedland by the Port Hedland Authority on 15 December . Further inland , Cyclone John brought widespread rainfall and flooding . In Newman , Western Australia , 240 mm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) of rain was recorded early on 16 December . As a result , some roads and 25 houses were flooded by the rains . By the evening of that day , the rainfall total had increased to 500 mm ( 20 in ) . Todd River was flooded after 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) of rain fell as a result of the cyclone . Overall John was responsible for no deaths and a limited amount of damage . After the season had ended the name John was retired from the Australian tropical cyclone naming list .
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= Utah State Route 68 =
State Route 68 ( SR @-@ 68 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Utah . It is a major thoroughfare throughout the Wasatch Front as it runs north – south for 70 @.@ 832 miles ( 113 @.@ 993 km ) , linking US @-@ 6 near Elberta to US @-@ 89 in Woods Cross . The route intersects several major freeways and highways in the Salt Lake City metropolitan area including I @-@ 215 , I @-@ 80 , and I @-@ 15 . The route is more commonly referred to as Redwood Road , after the street it is routed along throughout Salt Lake County . The highway is also routed for a short distance along 500 South and 200 West in Bountiful and Camp Williams Road in Utah County . The route is a surface street for its entire length .
SR @-@ 68 became a state highway in 1931 , at which time the route ran from then – US @-@ 40 ( North Temple Street ) in Salt Lake City to present @-@ day US @-@ 89 in Lehi . In 1933 , the route was extended north to US @-@ 89 at Beck 's Hot Springs . SR @-@ 68 was routed onto Redwood Road in 1943 , taking over what had been designated SR @-@ 153 . In 1960 , SR @-@ 68 switched alignments with SR @-@ 249 to follow Redwood Road and 2300 North to Bountiful ; the route was extended south to Elberta at this time also . SR @-@ 249 was extended west along a proposed roadway to 2200 West and 2200 North in 1961 before being removed in 1969 . In 2001 , SR @-@ 68 was extended south on a former piece of SR @-@ 106 in Bountiful .
= = Route description = =
On average , the most driven @-@ on portion of SR @-@ 68 is between I @-@ 215 and 5400 South , with 66 @,@ 635 cars @-@ per @-@ day traveling between these two points in 2007 . The lowest traffic is recorded at the beginning point of the route through Elberta , with an average of 1 @,@ 120 cars per day . Traffic along SR @-@ 68 in Elberta has increased 135 percent , and the segment between I @-@ 215 and 5400 West has increased 13 percent since 1998 .
= = = Utah County = = =
A four @-@ way intersection in Elberta with US @-@ 6 marks the southern terminus of the route as it starts north on a two @-@ lane undivided highway . The highway exits Elberta and continues north along the sparsely @-@ populated portion of western Utah County . The southwestern shore of Utah Lake appears as the road briefly turns northeast . The route passes the failed planned community of Mosida before turning north again . Once more turning northeast , the highway approaches the western shore of the lake and runs parallel to it before once more turning north . After turning northwest , the highway enters Saratoga Springs . The route turns north near Utah Lake 's northern shore , widening to two lanes each direction at the intersection with 400 South . The route then intersects Pony Express Parkway , which connects to Eagle Mountain , then the route continues north to intersections with Pioneer Crossing and SR @-@ 73 . Past the SR @-@ 73 intersection , the route turns northwest and intersects the east spur of the Mountain View Corridor ( SR @-@ 85 ) , then passes slightly east of Camp Williams .
= = = Salt Lake County = = =
The highway then enters Salt Lake County and the Salt Lake City metropolitan area . SR @-@ 68 is one of two roads that connect Utah and Salt Lake Counties through a bottleneck in the Wasatch Front called Point of the Mountain , referring to the Traverse Mountains . The low @-@ lying area through this neck is occupied by the former Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad . SR @-@ 68 is routed on the western slope of the canyon , The other highway , I @-@ 15 / US @-@ 89 , is routed higher up Point of the Mountain . As the route enters Bluffdale on Redwood Road , it turns northeast and intersects with Mountain View Corridor again , then with SR @-@ 140 ; the Utah State Prison is located on this road east of the junction . SR @-@ 68 then turns north before crossing SR @-@ 154 , commonly known as the Bangerter Highway . Soon reverting to two lanes , the route exits Bluffdale and enters Riverton , gaining two lanes in each direction as it passes SR @-@ 71 . Continuing north , it enters South Jordan . It intersects with SR @-@ 175 , SR @-@ 151 , and SR @-@ 209 , gaining one more lane in each direction beyond the latter intersection , and enters West Jordan and central Salt Lake County .
Soon reaching Taylorsville , the highway intersects I @-@ 215 . Shortly thereafter , the road passes Salt Lake Community College and enters West Valley City . It soon reaches a single @-@ point urban interchange at SR @-@ 201 that lies on the border of West Valley City and Salt Lake City . The highway loses one lane in each direction past the frontage road of SR @-@ 201 . West of Salt Lake City , the highway passes over the surplus canal of the Jordan River as it goes through the neighborhoods of Glendale and Poplar Grove . It arrives at an interchange with I @-@ 80 east of Salt Lake City International Airport . The road loses one lane northbound beyond 1000 North as it proceeds through the neighborhood of Rose Park in the northwestern portion of the city ; the second southbound lane is lost north of 1300 North . The highway crosses the Jordan River before exiting the county .
= = = Davis County = = =
Entering Davis County and North Salt Lake , SR @-@ 68 reaches a second interchange with I @-@ 215 at its Exit 28 . The road briefly turns northeast before drifting north again and gaining one lane in each direction . Before passing Skypark Airport , the highway loses one lane in each direction . Redwood Road turns east onto 500 South and enters Bountiful . Past an interchange at I @-@ 15 , the route gains one passing lane and turns south onto 200 West , a two @-@ lane undivided road . The highway turns southwest and defaults onto southbound US @-@ 89 within the city of Woods Cross .
= = History = =
In 1931 , the state legislature added State Route 68 to the state highway system . It followed Redwood Road from US @-@ 40 ( North Temple Street ) south to the present SR @-@ 73 and then used SR @-@ 73 east to US @-@ 50 / US @-@ 89 / US @-@ 91 ( now solely US @-@ 89 ) in Lehi . The state added 900 West and Warm Springs Road from US @-@ 40 north to US @-@ 89 / US @-@ 91 at Becks as SR @-@ 153 in 1933 . Becks is the name of a rail siding , 4 miles ( 6 km ) north of downtown Salt Lake , that briefly served as the terminus of a commuter rail line to Beck 's Hot Springs . In 1943 SR @-@ 153 was moved west to Redwood Road , returning to Becks via 2300 North . This brought the north end of SR @-@ 68 and the south end of SR @-@ 153 together , and two years later SR @-@ 68 was extended north to absorb SR @-@ 153 . In 1953 , Redwood Road north of 2300 North became SR @-@ 249 , which turned east at 500 South in Davis County to end at US @-@ 89 / US @-@ 91 ( 500 West ) in Bountiful .
To provide for route continuity on a truck bypass route of Salt Lake City , SR @-@ 68 and SR @-@ 249 were swapped in 1960 , bringing the north end of SR @-@ 68 to Bountiful and making SR @-@ 249 a short connection on 2300 North . At the same time , SR @-@ 68 was extended south from the intersection with SR @-@ 73 around the west side of Utah Lake to US @-@ 6 at Elberta , with the portion east to Lehi becoming an extension of SR @-@ 73 . SR @-@ 249 was extended west along a proposed roadway to 2200 West and 2200 North in 1961 , " in order to provide an adequate road from the north to the Salt Lake City municipal airport " , but in 1969 the entire route was removed from the state highway system . SR @-@ 68 was extended slightly east at its north end , from 500 West ( US @-@ 89 ) to 200 West ( SR @-@ 106 ) , in 1975 , and , in 2001 , with the removal of SR @-@ 106 through downtown Bountiful from the state highway system , SR @-@ 68 was extended south along 200 West , formerly SR @-@ 106 , to Parkin Junction on US @-@ 89 .
When the highway was established in 1931 , it ran from Lehi to Salt Lake City . The state subsequently extended it south into Elberta and north into Bountiful . The road was routed along its current alignment of Redwood Road in 1943 . The road has been moved and extended multiple times , with the most recent change being in 2001 when SR @-@ 106 was deleted from the state highway system .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Hair ( musical ) =
Hair : The American Tribal Love @-@ Rock Musical is a rock musical with a book and lyrics by James Rado and Gerome Ragni and music by Galt MacDermot . A product of the hippie counterculture and sexual revolution of the 1960s , several of its songs became anthems of the anti @-@ Vietnam War peace movement . The musical 's profanity , its depiction of the use of illegal drugs , its treatment of sexuality , its irreverence for the American flag , and its nude scene caused much comment and controversy . The musical broke new ground in musical theatre by defining the genre of " rock musical " , using a racially integrated cast , and inviting the audience onstage for a " Be @-@ In " finale .
Hair tells the story of the " tribe " , a group of politically active , long @-@ haired hippies of the " Age of Aquarius " living a bohemian life in New York City and fighting against conscription into the Vietnam War . Claude , his good friend Berger , their roommate Sheila and their friends struggle to balance their young lives , loves , and the sexual revolution with their rebellion against the war and their conservative parents and society . Ultimately , Claude must decide whether to resist the draft as his friends have done , or to succumb to the pressures of his parents ( and conservative America ) to serve in Vietnam , compromising his pacifistic principles and risking his life .
After an off @-@ Broadway debut in October 1967 at Joseph Papp 's Public Theater and a subsequent run at the Cheetah nightclub from December 1967 through January 1968 , the show opened on Broadway in April 1968 and ran for 1 @,@ 750 performances . Simultaneous productions in cities across the United States and Europe followed shortly thereafter , including a successful London production that ran for 1 @,@ 997 performances . Since then , numerous productions have been staged around the world , spawning dozens of recordings of the musical , including the 3 million @-@ selling original Broadway cast recording . Some of the songs from its score became Top 10 hits , and a feature film adaptation was released in 1979 . A Broadway revival opened on March 31 , 2009 , earning strong reviews and winning the Tony Award and Drama Desk Award for best revival of a musical . In 2008 , Time magazine wrote , " Today Hair seems , if anything , more daring than ever . "
= = History = =
Hair was conceived by actors James Rado and Gerome Ragni . The two met in 1964 when they performed together in the Off @-@ Broadway flop Hang Down Your Head and Die , and they began writing Hair together in late 1964 . The main characters were autobiographical , with Rado 's Claude being a pensive romantic and Ragni 's Berger an extrovert . Their close relationship , including its volatility , was reflected in the musical . Rado explained , " We were great friends . It was a passionate kind of relationship that we directed into creativity , into writing , into creating this piece . We put the drama between us on stage . "
Rado described the inspiration for Hair as " a combination of some characters we met in the streets , people we knew and our own imaginations . We knew this group of kids in the East Village who were dropping out and dodging the draft , and there were also lots of articles in the press about how kids were being kicked out of school for growing their hair long " . He recalled , " There was so much excitement in the streets and the parks and the hippie areas , and we thought if we could transmit this excitement to the stage it would be wonderful .... We hung out with them and went to their Be @-@ Ins [ and ] let our hair grow . " Many cast members ( Shelley Plimpton in particular ) were recruited right off the street . Rado said , " It was very important historically , and if we hadn 't written it , there 'd not be any examples . You could read about it and see film clips , but you 'd never experience it . We thought , ' This is happening in the streets , ' and we wanted to bring it to the stage . "
Rado and Ragni came from different artistic backgrounds . In college , Rado wrote musical revues and aspired to be a Broadway composer in the Rodgers and Hammerstein tradition . He went on to study acting with Lee Strasberg . Ragni , on the other hand , was an active member of The Open Theater , one of several groups , mostly Off @-@ off Broadway , that were developing experimental theatre techniques . He introduced Rado to the modern theatre styles and methods being developed at The Open Theater . In 1966 , while the two were developing Hair , Ragni performed in The Open Theater 's production of Megan Terry 's play , Viet Rock , a story about young men being deployed to the Vietnam War . In addition to the war theme , Viet Rock employed the improvisational exercises being used in the experimental theatre scene and later used in the development of Hair .
Rado and Ragni brought their drafts of the show to producer Eric Blau who , through common friend Nat Shapiro , connected the two with Canadian composer Galt MacDermot . MacDermot had won a Grammy Award in 1961 for his composition " African Waltz " ( recorded by Cannonball Adderley ) . The composer 's lifestyle was in marked contrast to his co @-@ creators : " I had short hair , a wife , and , at that point , four children , and I lived on Staten Island . " " I never even heard of a hippie when I met Rado and Ragni . " But he shared their enthusiasm to do a rock and roll show . " We work independently , " explained MacDermot in May 1968 . " I prefer it that way . They hand me the material . I set it to music . " MacDermot wrote the first score in three weeks , starting with the songs " I Got Life " , " Ain 't Got No " , " Where Do I Go " and the title song . He first wrote " Aquarius " as an unconventional art piece , but later rewrote it into an uplifting anthem .
= = = Off @-@ Broadway productions = = =
The creators pitched the show to Broadway producers and received many rejections . Eventually Joe Papp , who ran the New York Shakespeare Festival , decided he wanted Hair to open the new Public Theater ( still under construction ) in New York City 's East Village . The musical was Papp 's first non @-@ Shakespeare offering . The production did not go smoothly : " The rehearsal and casting process was confused , the material itself incomprehensible to many of the theater ’ s staff . The director , Gerald Freedman , the theater 's associate artistic director , withdrew in frustration during the final week of rehearsals and offered his resignation . Papp accepted it , and the choreographer Anna Sokolow took over the show .... After a disastrous final dress rehearsal , Papp wired Mr. Freedman in Washington , where he 'd fled : ' Please come back . ' Mr. Freedman did . "
Hair premiered off @-@ Broadway at the Public on October 17 , 1967 and ran for a limited engagement of six weeks . The lead roles were played by Walker Daniels as Claude , Ragni as Berger , Jill O 'Hara as Sheila , Steve Dean as Woof , Arnold Wilkerson as Hud , Sally Eaton as Jeanie and Shelley Plimpton as Crissy . Set design was by Ming Cho Lee , costume design by Theoni Aldredge , and although Anna Sokolow began rehearsals as choreographer , Freedman received choreographer credit . Although the production had a " tepid critical reception " , it was popular with audiences . A cast album was released in 1967 .
Chicago businessman Michael Butler was planning to run for the U.S. Senate on an anti @-@ war platform . After seeing an ad for Hair in The New York Times that led him to believe the show was about Native Americans , he watched the Public 's production several times and joined forces with Joe Papp to reproduce the show at another New York venue after the close of its run at the Public . Papp and Butler first moved the show to The Cheetah , a discothèque at 53rd Street and Broadway . It opened there on December 22 , 1967 and ran for 45 performances . There was no nudity in either the Public Theater or Cheetah production .
= = = Revision for Broadway = = =
Hair underwent a thorough overhaul between its closing at the Cheetah in January 1968 and its Broadway opening three months later . The off @-@ Broadway book , already light on plot , was loosened even further and made more realistic . For example , Claude had been written as a space alien who aspires to be a cinematic director ; he became human for the Broadway version . Moreover , 13 new songs were added . The song " Let the Sun Shine In " was added so that the ending would be more uplifting .
Before the move to Broadway , the creative team hired director Tom O 'Horgan , who had built a reputation directing experimental theater at the La MaMa Experimental Theatre Club . He had been the authors ' first choice to direct the Public Theater production , but he was in Europe at the time . Newsweek described O 'Horgan 's directing style as " sensual , savage , and thoroughly musical ... [ he ] disintegrates verbal structure and often breaks up and distributes narrative and even character among different actors .... He enjoys sensory bombardment . " In rehearsals , O 'Horgan used techniques passed down by Viola Spolin and Paul Sills involving role playing and improvisational " games " . Many of the improvisations tried during this process were incorporated into the Broadway script . O 'Horgan and new choreographer Julie Arenal encouraged freedom and spontaneity in their actors , introducing " an organic , expansive style of staging " that had never been seen before on Broadway . The inspiration to include nudity came when the authors saw an anti @-@ war demonstration in Central Park where two men stripped naked as an expression of defiance and freedom , and they decided to incorporate the idea into the show . O 'Horgan had used nudity in many of the plays he directed , and he helped integrate the idea into the fabric of the show .
Papp declined to pursue a Broadway production , and so Butler produced the show himself . For a time it seemed that Butler would be unable to secure a Broadway theater , as the Shuberts , Nederlanders and other theater owners deemed the material too controversial . However , Butler had family connections and knew important people ; he persuaded Biltmore Theatre owner David Cogan to make his venue available .
= = Synopsis = =
Act I
Claude , the nominal leader of the " tribe " , sits center stage as the tribe mingles with the audience . Tribe members Sheila , a New York University student who is a determined political activist , and Berger , an irreverent free spirit , cut a lock of Claude 's hair and burn it in a receptacle . After the tribe converges in slow @-@ motion toward the stage , through the audience , they begin their celebration as children of the Age of Aquarius ( " Aquarius " ) . Berger removes his trousers to reveal a loincloth . Interacting with the audience , he introduces himself as a " psychedelic teddy bear " and reveals that he is " looking for my Donna " ( " Donna " ) .
The tribe recites a list of pharmaceuticals , legal and illegal ( " Hashish " ) . Woof , a gentle soul , extols several sexual practices ( " Sodomy " ) and says , " I grow things . " He loves plants , his family and the audience , telling the audience , " We are all one . " Hud , a militant African @-@ American , is carried in upside down on a pole . He declares himself " president of the United States of Love " ( " Colored Spade " ) . In a fake English accent , Claude says that he is " the most beautiful beast in the forest " from " Manchester , England " . A tribe member reminds him that he 's really from Flushing , New York . Hud , Woof and Berger declare what color they are ( " I 'm Black " ) , while Claude says that he 's " invisible " . The tribe recites a list of things they lack ( " Ain 't Got No " ) . Four African @-@ American tribe members recite street signs in symbolic sequence ( " Dead End " ) .
Sheila is carried onstage ( " I Believe in Love " ) and leads the tribe in a protest chant . The tribe reprises " Ain 't Got No ( Grass ) " . Jeanie , an eccentric young woman , appears wearing a gas mask , satirizing pollution ( " Air " ) . She is pregnant and in love with Claude . Although she wishes it was Claude 's baby , she was " knocked up by some crazy speed freak " . The tribe link together LBJ ( President Lyndon B. Johnson ) , FBI ( the Federal Bureau of Investigation ) , CIA ( the Central Intelligence Agency ) and LSD ( " Initials " ) . Six members of the tribe appear dressed as Claude 's parents , berating him for his various transgressions – he does not have a job , and he collects " mountains of paper " clippings and notes . They say that they will not give him any more money , and " the army 'll make a man out of you " . In defiance , Claude leads the tribe in celebrating their vitality ( " I Got Life " ) .
After handing out imaginary pills to the tribe members , saying the pills are for high @-@ profile people such as Richard Nixon , the Pope , and " Alabama Wallace " , Berger relates how he was expelled from high school ( " Goin ' Down " ) . Claude returns from his draft board physical , which he passed . He pretends to burn his Vietnam War draft card , which Berger reveals as a library card . Claude agonizes about what to do about being drafted .
Two tribe members dressed as tourists come down the aisle to ask the tribe why they have such long hair . In answer , Claude and Berger lead the tribe in explaining the significance of their " Hair " . The tourist lady states that kids should " be free , no guilt " and should " do whatever you want , just so long as you don 't hurt anyone . " She observes that long hair is natural , like the " elegant plumage " of male birds ( " My Conviction " ) . She opens her coat to reveal that she 's a man in drag . As the couple leaves , the tribe calls her Margaret Mead .
Sheila gives Berger a yellow shirt . He goofs around and ends up tearing it in two . Sheila voices her distress that Berger seems to care more about the " bleeding crowd " than about her ( " Easy to Be Hard " ) . Jeanie summarizes everyone 's romantic entanglements : " I 'm hung up on Claude , Sheila 's hung up on Berger , Berger is hung up everywhere . Claude is hung up on a cross over Sheila and Berger . " The tribe runs out to the audience with fliers inviting them to a Be @-@ In . Berger , Woof and another tribe member pay satiric tribute to the American flag as they fold it ( " Don 't Put it Down " ) . After young and innocent Crissy describes " Frank Mills " , a boy she 's looking for , the tribe participates in the " Be @-@ In " . The men of the tribe burn their draft cards . Claude puts his card in the fire , then changes his mind and pulls it out . He asks , " where is the something , where is the someone , that tells me why I live and die ? " ( " Where Do I Go " ) . The tribe emerges naked , intoning " beads , flowers , freedom , happiness . "
Act II
Four tribe members have the " Electric Blues " . After a black @-@ out , the tribe enters worshiping " Oh Great God of Power . " Claude returns from the induction center , and tribe members act out an imagined conversation from Claude 's draft interview , with Hud saying " the draft is white people sending black people to make war on the yellow people to defend the land they stole from the red people " . Claude gives Woof a Mick Jagger poster , and Woof is excited about the gift , as he has said he 's hung up on Jagger . Three white women of the tribe tell why they like " Black Boys " ( " black boys are delicious ... " ) , and three black women of the tribe , dressed like The Supremes , explain why they like " White Boys " ( " white boys are so pretty ... " ) .
Berger gives a joint to Claude that is laced with a hallucinogen . Claude starts to trip as the tribe acts out his visions ( " Walking in Space " ) . He hallucinates that he is skydiving from a plane into the jungles of Vietnam . Berger appears as General George Washington and is told to retreat because of an Indian attack . The Indians shoot all of Washington 's men . General Ulysses S. Grant appears and begins a roll call : Abraham Lincoln ( played by a black female tribe member ) , John Wilkes Booth , Calvin Coolidge , Clark Gable , Scarlett O 'Hara , Aretha Franklin , Colonel George Custer . Claude Bukowski is called in the roll call , but Clark Gable says " he couldn 't make it " . They all dance a minuet until three African witch doctors kill them – all except for Abraham Lincoln who says , " I 'm one of you " . Lincoln , after the three Africans sing his praises , recites an alternate version of the Gettysburg Address ( " Abie Baby " ) . Booth shoots Lincoln , but Lincoln says to him , " I ain 't dying for no white man " .
As the visions continue , four Buddhist monks enter . One monk pours a can of gasoline over another monk , who is set afire ( reminiscent of the self @-@ immolation of Thích Quảng Đức ) and runs off screaming . Three Catholic nuns strangle the three remaining Buddhist monks . Three astronauts shoot the nuns with ray guns . Three Chinese people stab the astronauts with knives . Three Native Americans kill the Chinese with bows and tomahawks . Three green berets kill the Native Americans with machine guns and then kill each other . A Sergeant and two parents appear holding up a suit on a hanger . The parents talk to the suit as if it is their son and they are very proud of him . The bodies rise and play like children . The play escalates to violence until they are all dead again . They rise again ( " Three @-@ Five @-@ Zero @-@ Zero " ) and , at the end of the trip sequence , two tribe members sing , over the dead bodies , a melody set to a Shakespeare lyric about the nobility of Man ( " What A Piece of Work Is Man " ) .
After the trip , Claude says " I can 't take this moment to moment living on the streets .... I know what I want to be ... invisible " . As they " look at the moon , " Sheila and the others enjoy a light moment ( " Good Morning Starshine " ) . The tribe pays tribute to an old mattress ( " The Bed " ) . Claude is left alone with his doubts . He leaves as the tribe enters wrapped in blankets in the midst of a snow storm . They start a protest chant and then wonder where Claude has gone . Berger calls out " Claude ! Claude ! " Claude enters dressed in a military uniform , his hair short , but they do not see him because he is an invisible spirit . Claude says , " like it or not , they got me . "
Claude and everyone sing " Flesh Failures " . The tribe moves in front of Claude as Sheila and Dionne take up the lyric . The whole tribe launches into " Let the Sun Shine In " , and as they exit , they reveal Claude lying down center stage on a black cloth . During the curtain call , the tribe reprises " Let the Sun Shine In " and brings audience members up on stage to dance .
( Note : This plot summary is based on the original Broadway script . The script has varied in subsequent productions . )
= = Principal roles ; original Off @-@ Broadway and Broadway casts = =
Claude Hooper Bukowski – Walker Daniels / James Rado
George Berger – Gerome Ragni
Sheila Franklin – Jill O 'Hara / Lynn Kellogg
Jeanie – Sally Eaton
Neil " Woof " Donovan – Steve Dean / Steve Curry
Hud – Arnold Wilkerson / Lamont Washington
Crissy – Shelley Plimpton
The original Broadway production also included Melba Moore as Dionne , Ronnie Dyson , who sang " Aquarius " , Paul Jabara and Diane Keaton .
= = Early productions = =
= = = Broadway = = =
Hair opened on Broadway at the Biltmore Theatre on April 29 , 1968 . The production was directed by Tom O 'Horgan and choreographed by Julie Arenal , with set design by Robin Wagner , costume design by Nancy Potts , and lighting design by Jules Fisher . The original Broadway " tribe " ( i.e. , cast ) included authors Rado and Ragni , who played the lead roles of Claude and Berger , respectively , and Lynn Kellogg as Sheila , Lamont Washington as Hud , Sally Eaton and Shelley Plimpton reprising their off @-@ Broadway roles as Jeanie and Crissy , Melba Moore as Dionne , Steve Curry as Woof , Ronnie Dyson ( who sang " Aquarius " ) , Paul Jabara and Diane Keaton ( both Moore and Keaton later played Sheila ) . Among the performers who appeared in Hair during its original Broadway run were Ben Vereen , Keith Carradine , Barry McGuire , Ted Lange , Meat Loaf , Kenny Seymour ( of Little Anthony and The Imperials ) , Joe Butler ( of the Lovin ' Spoonful ) , Peppy Castro ( of the Blues Magoos ) , Robin McNamara , Heather MacRae ( daughter of Gordon MacRae and Sheila MacRae ) , Eddie Rambeau , Vicki Sue Robinson , Beverly Bremers and Kim Milford .
The Hair team soon became embroiled in a lawsuit with the organizers of the Tony Awards . After assuring producer Michael Butler that commencing previews by April 3 , 1968 would assure eligibility for consideration for the 1968 Tonys , the New York Theatre League ruled Hair ineligible , moving the cutoff date to March 19 . The producers brought suit but were unable to force the League to reconsider . At the 1969 Tonys , Hair was nominated for Best Musical and Best Director but lost out to 1776 in both categories . The production ran for four years and 1 @,@ 750 performances , closing on July 1 , 1972 .
= = = Early regional productions = = =
The West Coast version played at the Aquarius Theater in Los Angeles beginning about six months after the Broadway opening and running for an unprecedented two years . The Los Angeles tribe included Rado , Ragni , Robert Rothman , Ben Vereen ( who replaced Ragni ) , Red Shepard , Ted Neeley ( who replaced Rado ) , Meat Loaf , Gloria Jones , Táta Vega , Jobriath , Jennifer Warnes , and Dobie Gray .
There were soon nine simultaneous productions in U.S. cities , followed by national tours . Among the performers in these were Joe Mantegna , André DeShields , and Alaina Reed ( Chicago ) , David Lasley , David Patrick Kelly , Meat Loaf , and Shaun Murphy ( Detroit ) , Arnold McCuller ( tour ) , Bob Bingham ( Seattle ) and Philip Michael Thomas ( San Francisco ) . The creative team from Broadway worked on Hair in Los Angeles , Chicago and San Francisco , as the Broadway staging served as a rough template for these and other early regional productions . A notable addition to the team in Los Angeles was Tom Smothers , who served as co @-@ producer . Regional casts consisted mostly of local actors , although a few Broadway cast members reprised their roles in other cities . O 'Horgan or the authors sometimes took new ideas and improvisations from a regional show and brought them back to New York , such as when live chickens were tossed onto the stage in Los Angeles .
It was rare for so many productions to run simultaneously during an initial Broadway run . Producer Michael Butler , who had declared that Hair is " the strongest anti @-@ war statement ever written " , said the reason that he opened so many productions was to influence public opinion against the Vietnam War and end it as soon as possible .
= = = West End = = =
Hair opened at the Shaftesbury Theatre in London on September 27 , 1968 , led by the same creative team as the Broadway production . The opening night was delayed until the abolition of theatre censorship in England under the Theatres Act 1968 so that the show could include nudity and profanity . As with other early productions , the London show added a sprinkling of local allusions and other minor departures from the Broadway version .
The original London tribe included Sonja Kristina , Peter Straker , Paul Nicholas , Melba Moore , Elaine Paige , Paul Korda , Marsha Hunt , Floella Benjamin , Alex Harvey , Oliver Tobias , Richard O 'Brien and Tim Curry . This was Curry 's first full @-@ time theatrical acting role , where he met future Rocky Horror Show collaborator O 'Brien . Hair 's engagement in London surpassed the Broadway production , running for 1 @,@ 997 performances until its closure was forced by the roof of the theatre collapsing in July 1973 .
= = = Early international productions = = =
The job of leading the foreign language productions of Hair was given to Bertrand Castelli , Butler 's partner and executive producer of the Broadway show . Castelli was a writer / producer who traveled in Paris art circles and rubbed elbows with Pablo Picasso and Jean Cocteau . Butler described him as a " crazy showman ... the guy with the business suit and beads " . Castelli decided to do the show in the local language of each country at a time when Broadway shows were always done in English . The translations followed the original script closely , and the Broadway stagings were used . Each script contained local references , such as street names and the names or depictions of local politicians and celebrities . Castelli produced companies in France , Germany , Mexico and other countries , sometimes also directing the productions .
A German production , directed by Castelli , opened in 1968 in Munich ; the tribe included Donna Summer , Liz Mitchell and Donna Wyant . A successful Parisian production of Hair opened on June 1 , 1969 . The original Australian production premiered in Sydney on June 6 , 1969 , produced by Harry M. Miller and directed by Jim Sharman , who also designed the production . The tribe included Keith Glass and then Reg Livermore as Berger , John Waters as Claude and Sharon Redd as The Magician . Redd was one of six African @-@ Americans brought to Australia to provide a racially integrated tribe . The production broke local box @-@ office records and ran for two years , but because of some of the language in the show , the cast album was banned in Queensland and New Zealand . The production transferred to Melbourne in 1971 and then had a national tour . It marked the stage debut of Boston @-@ born Australian vocalist Marcia Hines . In Mexico the production was banned by the government after one night in Acapulco . An 18 @-@ year @-@ old Sônia Braga appeared in the 1969 Brazilian production .
Another notable production was in Belgrade , in the former Yugoslavia , in 1969 . It was the first Hair to be produced in a communist country . The show , translated into Serbian , was directed by female producer @-@ director Mira Trailović at the Atelje 212 theatre . It featured Dragan Nikolić , Branko Milićević , Seka Sablić and Dušan Prelević . Over four years , the production received 250 performances and was attended by president Tito . Local references in the script included barbs aimed at Mao Zedong as well as Albania , Yugoslavia 's traditional rival .
By 1970 , Hair was a huge financial success , and nineteen productions had been staged outside of North America . In addition to those named above , these included productions in Scandinavia , South America , Italy , Israel , Japan , Canada , the Netherlands , Switzerland and Austria . According to Billboard , the various productions of the show were raking in almost $ 1 million every ten days , and royalties were being collected for 300 different recordings of the show 's songs , making it " the most successful score in history as well as the most performed score ever written for the Broadway stage . "
= = Themes = =
Hair explores many of the themes of the hippie movement of the 1960s . Theatre writer Scott Miller described these as follows :
[ T ] he youth of America , especially those on college campuses , started protesting all the things that they saw wrong with America : racism , environmental destruction , poverty , sexism and sexual repression , violence at home and the war in Vietnam , depersonalization from new technologies , and corruption in politics . ... Contrary to popular opinion , the hippies had great respect for America and believed that they were the true patriots , the only ones who genuinely wanted to save our country and make it the best it could be once again . ... [ Long ] hair was the hippies ' flag – their ... symbol not only of rebellion but also of new possibilities , a symbol of the rejection of discrimination and restrictive gender roles ( a philosophy celebrated in the song " My Conviction " ) . It symbolized equality between men and women . ... [ T ] he hippies ' chosen clothing also made statements . Drab work clothes ( jeans , work shirts , pea coats ) were a rejection of materialism . Clothing from other cultures , particularly the Third World and native Americans , represented their awareness of the global community and their rejection of U.S. imperialism and selfishness . Simple cotton dresses and other natural fabrics were a rejection of synthetics , a return to natural things and simpler times . Some hippies wore old World War II or Civil War jackets as way of co @-@ opting the symbols of war into their newfound philosophy of nonviolence .
= = = Race and the tribe = = =
Extending the precedents set by Show Boat ( 1927 ) and Porgy and Bess ( 1935 ) , Hair opened the Broadway musical to racial integration ; fully one @-@ third of the cast was African American . Except for satirically in skits , the roles for the black members of the tribe portrayed them as equals , breaking away from the traditional roles for blacks in entertainment as slaves or servants . An Ebony magazine article declared that the show was the biggest outlet for black actors in the history of the U.S. stage .
Several songs and scenes from the show address racial issues . " Colored Spade " , which introduces the character Hud , a militant black male , is a long list of racial slurs ( " jungle bunny ... little black sambo " ) topped off with the declaration that Hud is the " president of the United States of love " . At the end of his song , he tells the tribe that the " boogie man " will get them , as the tribe pretends to be frightened . " Dead End " , sung by black tribe members , is a list of street signs that symbolize black frustration and alienation . One of the tribe 's protest chants is " What do we think is really great ? To bomb , lynch and segregate ! " " Black Boys / White Boys " is an exuberant acknowledgement of miscegenation ; the U.S. Supreme Court had struck down laws against the practice in 1967 . Another of the tribe 's protest chants is " Black , white , yellow , red . Copulate in a king @-@ sized bed . "
" Abie Baby " is part of the Act 2 " trip " sequence : four African witch doctors , who have just killed various American historical , cultural and fictional characters , sing the praises of Abraham Lincoln , portrayed by a black female tribe member , whom they decide not to kill . The first part of the song contains stereotypical language that black characters used in old movies , like " I 's finished ... pluckin ' y 'all 's chickens " and " I 's free now thanks to y 'all , Master Lincoln " . The Lincoln character then recites a modernized version of the Gettysburg Address , while a white female tribe member polishes Lincoln 's shoes with her blond hair .
The many references to Native Americans throughout the script are part of the anti @-@ consumerism , naturalism focus of the hippie movement and of Hair . The characters in the show are referred to as the " tribe " , borrowing the term for Native American communities . The cast of each production chooses a tribal name : " The practice is not just cosmetic ... the entire cast must work together , must like each other , and often within the show , must work as a single organism . All the sense of family , of belonging , of responsibility and loyalty inherent in the word " tribe " has to be felt by the cast . " To enhance this feeling , O 'Horgan put the cast through sensitivity exercises based on trust , touching , listening and intensive examination that broke down barriers between the cast and crew and encouraged bonding . These exercises were based on techniques developed at the Esalen Institute and Polish Lab Theater . The idea of Claude , Berger and Sheila living together is another facet of the 1960s concept of tribe .
= = = Nudity , sexual freedom and drug use = = =
The brief nude scene at the end of Act I was a subject of controversy and notoriety . Miller writes that " nudity was a big part of the hippie culture , both as a rejection of the sexual repression of their parents and also as a statement about naturalism , spirituality , honesty , openness , and freedom . The naked body was beautiful , something to be celebrated and appreciated , not scorned and hidden . They saw their bodies and their sexuality as gifts , not as ' dirty ' things . "
Hair glorifies sexual freedom in a variety of ways . In addition to acceptance of miscegenation , mentioned above , the characters ' lifestyle acts as a sexually and politically charged updating of La bohème ; as Rado explained , " The love element of the peace movement was palpable . " In the song " Sodomy " , Woof exhorts everyone to " join the holy orgy Kama Sutra " . Toward the end of Act 2 , the tribe members reveal their free love tendencies when they banter back and forth about who will sleep with whom that night . Woof has a crush on Mick Jagger , and a three @-@ way embrace between Claude , Berger and Sheila turns into a Claude – Berger kiss .
Various illegal drugs are taken by the characters during the course of the show , most notably a hallucinogen during the trip sequence . The song " Walking in Space " begins the sequence , and the lyrics celebrate the experience declaring " how dare they try to end this beauty ... in this dive we rediscover sensation ... our eyes are open , wide , wide , wide " . Similarly , in the song " Donna " , Berger sings that " I 'm evolving through the drugs that you put down . " At another point , Jeanie smokes marijuana and dismisses the critics of " pot " . Generally , the tribe favors hallucinogenic or " mind expanding " drugs , such as LSD and marijuana , while disapproving of other drugs such as speed and depressants . For example , Jeanie , after revealing that she is pregnant by a " speed freak " , says that " methedrine is a bad scene " . The song " Hashish " provides a list of pharmaceuticals , both illegal and legal , including cocaine , alcohol , LSD , opium and Thorazine , which is used as an antipsychotic .
= = = Pacifism and environmentalism = = =
The theme of opposition to the war that pervades the show is unified by the plot thread that progresses through the book – Claude 's moral dilemma over whether to burn his draft card . Pacifism is explored throughout the extended trip sequence in Act 2 . The lyrics to " Three @-@ Five @-@ Zero @-@ Zero " , which is sung during that sequence , evoke the horrors of war ( " ripped open by metal explosion " ) . The song is based on Allen Ginsberg 's 1966 poem , " Wichita Vortex Sutra " . In the poem , General Maxwell Taylor proudly reports to the press the number of enemy soldiers killed in one month , repeating it digit by digit , for effect : " Three @-@ Five @-@ Zero @-@ Zero . " The song begins with images of death and dying and turns into a manic dance number , echoing Maxwell 's glee at reporting the enemy casualties , as the tribe chants " Take weapons up and begin to kill " . The song also includes the repeated phrase " Prisoners in niggertown / It 's a dirty little war " .
" Don 't Put It Down " satirizes the unexamined patriotism of people who are literally " crazy " for the American flag . " Be In ( Hare Krishna ) " praises the peace movement and events like the San Francisco and Central Park Be @-@ Ins . Throughout the show , the tribe chants popular protest slogans like " What do we want ? Peace ! – When do we want it ? Now ! " and " Do not enter the induction center " . The upbeat song , " Let the Sun Shine In " , is a call to action , to reject the darkness of war and change the world for the better .
Hair also aims its satire at the pollution caused by our civilization . Jeanie appears from a trap door in the stage wearing a gas mask and then sings the song " Air " : " Welcome , sulfur dioxide . Hello carbon monoxide . The air ... is everywhere " . She suggests that pollution will eventually kill her , " vapor and fume at the stone of my tomb , breathing like a sullen perfume " . In a comic , pro @-@ green vein , when Woof introduces himself , he explains that he " grows things " like " beets , and corn ... and sweet peas " and that he " loves the flowers and the fuzz and the trees " .
= = = Religion and astrology = = =
Religion , particularly Catholicism , appears both overtly and symbolically throughout the piece , and it is often made the brunt of a joke . Berger sings of looking for " my Donna " , giving it the double meaning of the woman he 's searching for and the Madonna . During " Sodomy " , a hymn @-@ like paean to all that is " dirty " about sex , the cast strikes evocative religious positions : the Pietà and Christ on the cross . Before the song , Woof recites a modified rosary . In Act II , when Berger gives imaginary pills to various famous figures , he offers " a pill for the Pope " . In " Going Down " , after being kicked out of school , Berger compares himself to Lucifer : " Just like the angel that fell / Banished forever to hell / Today have I been expelled / From high school heaven . " Claude becomes a classic Christ figure at various points in the script . In Act I , Claude enters , saying , " I am the Son of God . I shall vanish and be forgotten , " then gives benediction to the tribe and the audience . Claude suffers from indecision , and , in his Gethsemane at the end of Act I , he asks " Where Do I Go ? " . There are textual allusions to Claude being on a cross , and , in the end , he is chosen to give his life for the others . Berger has been seen as a John the Baptist figure , preparing the way for Claude .
Songs like " Good Morning , Starshine " and " Aquarius " reflect the 1960s cultural interest in astrological and cosmic concepts . " Aquarius " was the result of Rado 's research into his own astrological sign . The company 's astrologer , Maria Crummere , was consulted about casting : Sheila was usually played by a Libra or Capricorn and Berger by a Leo , although Ragni , the original Berger , was a Virgo . Crummere was also consulted when deciding when the show would open on Broadway and in other cities . The 1971 Broadway Playbill reported that she chose April 29 , 1968 for the Broadway premiere . " The 29th was auspicious ... because the moon was high , indicating that people would attend in masses . The position of the ' history makers ' ( Pluto , Uranus , Jupiter ) in the 10th house made the show unique , powerful and a money @-@ maker . And the fact that Neptune was on the ascendancy foretold that Hair would develop a reputation involving sex . "
In Mexico , where Crummere did not pick the opening date , the show was closed down by the government after one night . She was not pleased with the date of the Boston opening ( where the producers were sued over the show 's content ) saying , " Jupiter will be in opposition to naughty Saturn , and the show opens the very day of the sun 's eclipse . Terrible . " But there was no astrologically safe time in the near future .
= = = Literary themes and symbolism = = =
Hair makes many references to Shakespeare 's plays , especially Romeo and Juliet and Hamlet , and , at times , takes lyrical material directly from Shakespeare . For example , the lyrics to the song " What a Piece of Work Is Man " are from Hamlet ( II : scene 2 ) and portions of " Flesh Failures " ( " the rest is silence " ) are from Hamlet 's final lines . In " Flesh Failures / Let The Sun Shine In " , the lyrics " Eyes , look your last ! / Arms , take your last embrace ! And lips , O you / The doors of breath , seal with a righteous kiss " are from Romeo and Juliet ( V : iii , 111 – 14 ) . According to Miller , the Romeo suicide imagery makes the point that , with our complicity in war , we are killing ourselves .
Symbolically , the running plot of Claude 's indecision , especially his resistance to burning his draft card , which ultimately causes his demise , has been seen as a parallel to Hamlet : " the melancholy hippie " . The symbolism is carried into the last scene , where Claude appears as a ghostly spirit among his friends wearing an army uniform in an ironic echo of an earlier scene , where he says , " I know what I want to be ... invisible " . According to Public Theater Artistic Director Oskar Eustis , " Both [ Hair and Hamlet ] center on idealistic brilliant men as they struggle to find their place in a world marred by war , violence , and venal politics . They see both the luminous possibilities and the harshest realities of being human . In the end , unable to effectively combat the evil around them , they tragically succumb . "
Other literary references include the song " Three @-@ Five @-@ Zero @-@ Zero " , based on Ginsberg 's poem " Wichita Vortex Sutra " , and , in the psychedelic drug trip sequence , the portrayal of Scarlett O 'Hara , from Gone with the Wind , and activist African @-@ American poet LeRoi Jones .
= = Dramatics = =
In his introduction to the published script of Viet Rock , Richard Schechner says , " performance , action , and event are the key terms of our theatre – and these terms are not literary . " In the 1950s , Off @-@ off Broadway theaters began experimenting with non @-@ traditional theater roles , blurring the lines between playwright , director , and actor . The playwright 's job was not just to put words on a page , but to create a theatrical experience based on a central idea . By 1967 , theaters such as The Living Theatre , La MaMa E.T.C. and The Open Theatre were actively devising plays from improvisational scenes crafted in the rehearsal space , rather than following a traditional script .
= = = Viet Rock and Hair = = =
Megan Terry 's Viet Rock was created using this improvisational process . Scenes in Viet Rock were connected in " prelogical ways " : a scene could be built from a tangent from the scene before , it could be connected psychologically , or it could be in counterpoint to the previous scene . Actors were asked to switch roles in the middle of a show , and frequently in mid @-@ scene . In her stage directions for a Senate hearing scene in Viet Rock , Terry wrote , " The actors should take turns being senators and witnesses ; the transformations should be abrupt and total . When the actor is finished with one character he becomes another , or just an actor . "
Hair was designed in much the same way . Tom O 'Horgan , the show 's Broadway director , was intimately involved in the experimental theatre movement . In the transition to Broadway , O 'Horgan and the writers rearranged scenes to increase the experimental aspects of the show . Hair asks its actors to assume several different characters throughout the course of the piece , and , as in Claude 's psychedelic trip in Act 2 , sometimes during the same scene . Both Hair and Viet Rock include rock music , borrowed heavily from mass media , and frequently break down the invisible " fourth wall " to interact with the audience . For example , in the opening number , the tribe mingles with audience members , and at the end of the show , the audience is invited on stage .
= = = Production design = = =
In the original Broadway production , the stage was completely open , with no curtain and the fly area and grid exposed to the audience . The proscenium arch was outlined with climb @-@ ready scaffolding . Wagner 's spare set was painted in shades of grey with street graffiti stenciled on the stage . The stage was raked , and a tower of abstract scaffolding upstage at the rear merged a Native American totem pole and a modern sculpture of a crucifix @-@ shaped tree . This scaffolding was decorated with found objects that the cast had gathered from the streets of New York . These included a life @-@ size papier @-@ mâché bus driver , the head of Jesus , and a neon marquee of the Waverly movie theater in Greenwich Village . Potts ' costumes were based on hippie street clothes , made more theatrical with enhanced color and texture . Some of these included mixed parts of military uniforms , bell bottom jeans with Ukrainian embroidery , tie dyed T @-@ shirts and a red white and blue fringed coat . Early productions were primarily reproductions of this basic design .
= = = Nude scene = = =
" Much has been written about that scene ... most of it silly , " wrote Gene Lees in High Fidelity . The scene was inspired by two men who took off their clothes to antagonize the police during an informal anti @-@ war gathering . During " Where Do I Go ? " , the stage was covered in a giant scrim , beneath which those choosing to participate in the scene removed their clothes . At the musical cue , " they [ stood ] naked and motionless , their bodies bathed in Fisher 's light projection of floral patterns . They chant [ ed ] of ' beads , flowers , freedom , and happiness . ' " It lasted only twenty seconds . Indeed , the scene happened so quickly and was so dimly lit that it prompted Jack Benny , during the interval at a London preview , to quip , " Did you happen to notice if any of them were Jewish ? " Nevertheless , the scene prompted threats of censorship and even violent reactions in some places . It also became fodder for pop @-@ cultural jokes . Groucho Marx quipped , " I was gonna go see it , and then I called up the theater . ... They said the tickets were $ 11 apiece . I told them I 'd call back , went into my bathroom , took off all my clothes , and looked at myself in the full @-@ length mirror . Then I called the theater and said , ' Forget it . ' "
The nudity was optional for the performers . The French cast was " the nudest " of the foreign groups , while the London cast " found nudity the hardest to achieve . " The Swedish cast was reluctant to disrobe , but in Copenhagen , the tribe thought the nudity too tame and decided to walk naked up and down the aisle during the show 's prelude . In some early performances , the Germans played their scene behind a big sheet labeled " CENSORED " . Original Broadway cast member Natalie Mosco said , " I was dead set against the nude scene at first , but I remembered my acting teacher having said that part of acting is being private in public . So I did it . " According to Melba Moore , " It doesn 't mean anything except what you want it to mean . We put so much value on clothing . .... It 's like so much else people get uptight about . " Donna Summer , who was in the German production , said that " it was not meant to be sexual . ... We stood naked to comment on the fact that society makes more of nudity than killing . " Rado said that " being naked in front of an audience , you 're baring your soul . Not only the soul but the whole body was being exposed . It was very apt , very honest and almost necessary . "
= = Music = =
After studying the music of the Bantu at Cape Town University , MacDermot incorporated African rhythms into the score of Hair . He listened to " what [ the Bantu ] called quaylas ... [ which have a ] very characteristic beat , very similar to rock . Much deeper though .... Hair is very African – a lot of [ the ] rhythms , not the tunes so much . " Quaylas stress beats on unexpected syllables , and this influence can be heard in songs like " What a Piece of Work Is Man " and " Ain 't Got No Grass " . MacDermot said , " My idea was to make a total funk show . They said they wanted rock & roll – but to me that translated to ' funk . ' " That funk is evident throughout the score , notably in songs like " Colored Spade " and " Walking in Space " .
MacDermot has claimed that the songs " can 't all be the same . You 've got to get different styles .... I like to think they 're all a little different . " As such , the music in Hair runs the gamut of rock : from the rockabilly sensibilities of " Don 't Put it Down " to the folk rock rhythms of " Frank Mills " and " What a Piece of Work is Man " . " Easy to Be Hard " is pure rhythm and blues , and protest rock anthems abound : " Ain 't Got No " and " The Flesh Failures " . The acid rock of " Walking in Space " and " Aquarius " are balanced by the mainstream pop of " Good Morning Starshine " . Scott Miller ties the music of Hair to the hippies ' political themes : " The hippies ... were determined to create art of the people and their chosen art form , rock / folk music was by its definition , populist . ... [ T ] he hippies ' music was often very angry , its anger directed at those who would prostitute the Constitution , who would sell America out , who would betray what America stood for ; in other words , directed at their parents and the government . " Theatre historian John Kenrick explains the application of rock music to the medium of the stage :
The same hard rock sound that had conquered the world of popular music made its way to the musical stage with two simultaneous hits – Your Own Thing [ and ] Hair .... This explosion of revolutionary proclamations , profanity and hard rock shook the musical theatre to its roots .... Most people in the theatre business were unwilling to look on Hair as anything more than a noisy accident . Tony voters tried to ignore Hair 's importance , shutting it out from any honors . However , some now insisted it was time for a change . New York Times critic Clive Barnes gushed that Hair was " the first Broadway musical in some time to have the authentic voice of today rather than the day before yesterday . "
The music did not resonate with everyone . Leonard Bernstein remarked " the songs are just laundry lists " and walked out of the production . Richard Rodgers could only hear the beat and called it " one @-@ third music " . John Fogerty said , " Hair is such a watered down version of what is really going on that I can ’ t get behind it at all . " Gene Lees , writing for High Fidelity , claimed that John Lennon found it " dull " , and he wrote , " I do not know any musician who thinks it 's good . "
= = = Songs = = =
The score had many more songs than were typical of Broadway shows of the day . Most Broadway shows had about six to ten songs per act ; Hair 's total is in the thirties . This list reflects the most common Broadway lineup .
The show was under almost perpetual re @-@ write . Thirteen songs were added between the production at the Public Theater and Broadway , including " I Believe in Love " . " The Climax " and " Dead End " were cut between the productions , and " Exanaplanetooch " and " You Are Standing on My Bed " were present in previews but cut before Broadway . The Shakespearean speech " What a piece of work is a man " was originally spoken by Claude and musicalized by MacDermot for Broadway , and " Hashish " was formed from an early speech of Berger 's . Subsequent productions have included " Hello There " , " Dead End " , and " Hippie Life " – a song originally written for the film that Rado included in several productions in Europe in the 1990s . The 2009 Broadway revival included the ten @-@ second " Sheila Franklin " and " O Great God of Power " , two songs that were cut from the original production .
= = = Recordings = = =
The first recording of Hair was made in 1967 featuring the off @-@ Broadway cast . The original Broadway cast recording received a Grammy Award in 1968 for Best Score from an Original Cast Show Album and sold nearly 3 million copies in the U.S. by December 1969 . The New York Times noted in 2007 that " The cast album of Hair was ... a must @-@ have for the middle classes . Its exotic orange @-@ and @-@ green cover art imprinted itself instantly and indelibly on the psyche .... [ It ] became a pop @-@ rock classic that , like all good pop , has an appeal that transcends particular tastes for genre or period . " The 1993 London revival cast album contains new music that has been incorporated into the standard rental version .
RCA Victor also released DisinHAIRited ( RCA Victor LSO @-@ 1163 ) : an album of songs that had been written for the show , but saw varying amounts of stage time . Some of the songs were cut between the Public and Broadway , some had been left off the original cast album due to space , and a few were never performed onstage .
Songs from Hair have been recorded by numerous artists , including Shirley Bassey , Barbra Streisand and Diana Ross . " Good Morning Starshine " was sung on a 1969 episode of Sesame Street by cast member Bob McGrath , and versions by artists such as Sarah Brightman , Petula Clark , and Strawberry Alarm Clock have been recorded . Artists as varied as Liza Minnelli and The Lemonheads have recorded " Frank Mills " , and Andrea McArdle , Jennifer Warnes , and Sérgio Mendes have each contributed versions of " Easy to Be Hard " . Hair also helped launch recording careers for performers Meat Loaf , Dobie Gray , Jennifer Warnes , Jobriath , Bert Sommer , Ronnie Dyson , Donna Summer and Melba Moore , among others .
The score of Hair saw chart successes , as well . The 5th Dimension released " Aquarius / Let the Sunshine In " in 1969 , which won Record of the Year in 1970 and topped the charts for six weeks . The Cowsills ' recording of the title song " Hair " climbed to # 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 @.@ while Oliver 's rendition of " Good Morning Starshine " reached # 3 . Three Dog Night 's version of " Easy to Be Hard " went to # 4 . Nina Simone 's 1968 medley of " Ain 't Got No / I Got Life " reached the top 5 on the British charts . In 1970 , ASCAP announced that " Aquarius " was played more frequently on U.S. radio and television than any other song that year .
Productions in England , Germany , France , Sweden , Japan , Israel , the Netherlands , Australia and elsewhere released cast albums , and over 1 @,@ 000 vocal and / or instrumental performances of individual songs from Hair have been recorded . Such broad attention was paid to the recordings of Hair that , after an unprecedented bidding war , ABC Records was willing to pay a record amount for MacDermot 's next Broadway adaptation Two Gentlemen of Verona . The 2009 revival recording , released on June 23 , debuted at # 1 on Billboard 's " Top Cast Album " chart and at # 63 in the Top 200 , qualifying it as the highest debuting album in Ghostlight Records history .
= = Critical reception = =
Reception to Hair upon its Broadway premiere was , with exceptions , overwhelmingly positive . Clive Barnes wrote in the New York Times : " What is so likable about Hair ... ? I think it is simply that it is so likable . So new , so fresh , and so unassuming , even in its pretensions . " John J. O 'Connor of The Wall Street Journal said the show was " exuberantly defiant and the production explodes into every nook and cranny of the Biltmore Theater " . Richard Watts Jr. of the New York Post wrote that " it has a surprising if perhaps unintentional charm , its high spirits are contagious , and its young zestfulness makes it difficult to resist . "
Television reviews were even more enthusiastic . Allan Jeffreys of ABC said the actors were " the most talented hippies you 'll ever see ... directed in a wonderfully wild fashion by Tom O 'Horgan . " Leonard Probst of NBC said " Hair is the only new concept in musicals on Broadway in years and it 's more fun than any other this season " . John Wingate of WOR TV praised MacDermot 's " dynamic score " that " blasts and soars " , and Len Harris of CBS said " I 've finally found the best musical of the Broadway season ... it 's that sloppy , vulgar , terrific tribal love rock musical Hair . "
A reviewer from Variety , on the other hand , called the show " loony " and " without a story , form , music , dancing , beauty or artistry .... It 's impossible to tell whether [ the cast has ] talent . Maybe talent is irrelevant in this new kind of show business . " Reviews in the news weeklies were mixed ; Jack Kroll in Newsweek wrote , " There is no denying the sheer kinetic drive of this new Hair ... there is something hard , grabby , slightly corrupt about O 'Horgan 's virtuosity , like Busby Berkeley gone bitchy . " But a reviewer from Time wrote that although the show " thrums with vitality [ it is ] crippled by being a bookless musical and , like a boneless fish , it drifts when it should swim . "
Reviews were mixed when Hair opened in London . Irving Wardle in The Times wrote , " Its honesty and passion give it the quality of a true theatrical celebration – the joyous sound of a group of people telling the world exactly what they feel . " In The Financial Times , B. A. Young agreed that Hair was " not only a wildly enjoyable evening , but a thoroughly moral one . " However , in his final review before retiring after 48 years , 78 @-@ year @-@ old W. A. Darlington of The Daily Telegraph wrote that he had " tried hard " , but found the evening " a complete bore – noisy , ugly and quite desperately funny . "
Acknowledging the show 's critics , Scott Miller wrote in 2001 that " some people can 't see past the appearance of chaos and randomness to the brilliant construction and sophisticated imagery underneath . " Miller notes , " Not only did many of the lyrics not rhyme , but many of the songs didn 't really have endings , just a slowing down and stopping , so the audience didn 't know when to applaud .... The show rejected every convention of Broadway , of traditional theatre in general , and of the American musical in specific . And it was brilliant . "
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
= = Social change = =
Hair challenged many of the norms held by Western society in 1968 . The name itself , inspired by the name of a Jim Dine painting depicting a comb and a few strands of hair , was a reaction to the restrictions of civilization and consumerism and a preference for naturalism . Rado remembers that long hair " was a visible form of awareness in the consciousness expansion . The longer the hair got , the more expansive the mind was . Long hair was shocking , and it was a revolutionary act to grow long hair . It was kind of a flag , really . "
The musical caused controversy when it was first staged . The Act I finale was the first time a Broadway show had seen totally naked actors and actresses , and the show was charged with the desecration of the American flag and the use of obscene language . These controversies , in addition to the anti – Vietnam War theme , attracted occasional threats and acts of violence during the show 's early years and became the basis for legal actions both when the show opened in other cities and on tour . Two cases eventually reached the U.S. Supreme Court .
= = = Legal challenges and violent reactions = = =
The touring company of Hair met with resistance throughout the United States . In South Bend , Indiana , the Morris Civic Auditorium refused booking , and in Evansville , Indiana , the production was picketed by several church groups . In Indianapolis , Indiana , the producers had difficulty securing a theater , and city authorities suggested that the cast wear body stockings as a compromise to the city 's ordinance prohibiting publicly displayed nudity . Productions were frequently confronted with the closure of theaters by the fire marshal , as in Gladewater , Texas . Chattanooga 's 1972 refusal to allow the play to be shown at the city @-@ owned Memorial Auditorium was later found by the U.S. Supreme Court to be an unlawful prior restraint .
The legal challenges against the Boston production were appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court . The Chief of the Licensing Bureau took exception to the portrayal of the American flag in the piece , saying , " anyone who desecrates the flag should be whipped on Boston Common . " Although the scene was removed before opening , the District Attorney 's office began plans to stop the show , claiming that " lewd and lascivious " actions were taking place onstage . The Hair legal team obtained an injunction against criminal prosecution from the Superior Court , and the D.A. appealed to the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court . At the request of both parties , several of the justices viewed the production and handed down a ruling that " each member of the cast [ must ] be clothed to a reasonable extent . " The cast defiantly played the scene nude later that night , stating that the ruling was vague as to when it would take effect . The next day , April 10 , 1970 , the production closed , and movie houses , fearing the ruling on nudity , began excising scenes from films in their exhibition . After the Federal appellate bench reversed the Massachusetts court 's ruling , the D.A. appealed the case to the U.S. Supreme Court . In a 4 – 4 decision , the Court upheld the lower court 's decision , allowing Hair to re @-@ open on May 22 .
In April 1971 , a bomb was thrown at the exterior of a theater in Cleveland , Ohio that had been housing a production , bouncing off the marquee and shattering windows in the building and in nearby storefronts . That same month , the families of cast member Jonathon Johnson and stage manager Rusty Carlson died in a fire in the Cleveland hotel where 33 members of the show 's troupe had been staying . The Sydney , Australia production 's opening night was interrupted by a bomb scare in June 1969 .
= = = Worldwide reactions = = =
Local reactions to the controversial material varied greatly . San Francisco 's large hippie population considered the show an extension of the street activities there , often blurring the barrier between art and life by meditating with the cast and frequently finding themselves onstage during the show . An 18 @-@ year @-@ old Princess Anne was seen dancing onstage in London , and in Washington DC , Henry Kissinger attended . In St. Paul , Minnesota , a protesting clergyman released 18 white mice into the lobby hoping to frighten the audience . Capt. Jim Lovell and Jack Swigert , after dubbing Apollo 13 's lunar module " Aquarius " after the song , walked out of the production at the Biltmore in protest of perceived anti @-@ Americanism and disrespect of the flag .
An Acapulco , Mexico production of Hair , directed by Castelli , played in 1969 for one night . After the performance , the theater , located across the street from a popular local bordello , was padlocked by the government , which said the production was " detrimental to the morals of youth . " The cast was arrested soon after the performance and taken to Immigration , where they agreed to leave the country , but because of legal complications they were forced to go into hiding . They were expelled from Mexico days later .
Hair effectively marked the end of stage censorship in the United Kingdom . London 's stage censor , the Lord Chamberlain , originally refused to license the musical , and the opening was delayed until Parliament passed a bill stripping him of his licensing power . In Munich , authorities threatened to close the production if the nude scene remained ; however , after a local Hair spokesman declared that his relatives had been marched nude into Auschwitz , the authorities relented . In Bergen , Norway , local citizens formed a human barricade to try to prevent the performance .
The Parisian production encountered little controversy , and the cast disrobed for the nude scene " almost religiously " according to Castelli , nudity being common on stage in Paris . Even in Paris there was nevertheless occasional opposition , however , such as when a member of the local Salvation Army used a portable loud speaker to exhort the audience to halt the presentation .
= = Beyond the 1960s = =
= = = 1970s = = =
A Broadway revival of Hair opened in 1977 for a run of 43 performances . It was produced by Butler , directed by O 'Horgan and performed in the Biltmore Theater , where the original Broadway production had played . The cast included Ellen Foley , Annie Golden , Cleavant Derricks and Kristen Vigard . Newcomer Peter Gallagher left the ensemble during previews to take the role of Danny Zuko in a tour of Grease . Reviews were generally negative , and critics accused the production of " showing its gray " . Few major revivals of Hair followed until the early 1990s .
A movie version of Hair , with a screenplay by Michael Weller , was directed by Miloš Forman and released in 1979 . Filmed primarily in New York City 's Central Park and Washington Square Park , the cast includes Treat Williams , Beverly D 'Angelo , John Savage , Foley and Golden . Several of the songs were deleted , and the film 's storyline departs significantly from the musical . The character of Claude is rewritten as an innocent draftee from Oklahoma , newly arrived in New York to join the military , and Sheila is a high @-@ society debutante who catches his eye . In perhaps the greatest diversion from the stage version , a mistake leads Berger to go to Vietnam in Claude 's place , where he is killed .
Rado and Ragni were unhappy with the film , feeling that Forman portrayed the hippies as " oddballs " and " some sort of aberration " without any connection to the peace movement , failing to capture the essence of the original stage production . They stated : " Any resemblance between the 1979 film and the original Biltmore version , other than some of the songs , the names of the characters , and a common title , eludes us . " In their view , the screen version of Hair has not yet been produced .
However , the film received generally favorable reviews . Writing in The New York Times , Vincent Canby called it " a rollicking musical memoir .... Weller 's inventions make this Hair seem much funnier than I remember the show 's having been . They also provide time and space for the development of characters who , on the stage , had to express themselves almost entirely in song .... [ T ] he entire cast is superb .... Mostly ... the film is a delight . "
= = = 1980s and 1990s = = =
A 20th anniversary concert event was held in May 1988 at the United Nations General Assembly to benefit children with AIDS . The event was sponsored by First Lady Nancy Reagan with Barbara Walters giving the night 's opening introduction . Rado , Ragni and MacDermot reunited to write nine new songs for the concert . The cast of 163 actors included former stars from various productions around the globe : Melba Moore , Ben Vereen , Treat Williams and Donna Summer , as well as guest performers Bea Arthur , Frank Stallone and Dr. Ruth Westheimer . Ticket prices ranged from $ 250 to $ 5 @,@ 000 and the proceeds went to the United States Committee for UNICEF and the Creo Society 's Fund for Children with AIDS .
A 1985 production of Hair mounted in Montreal was reportedly the 70th professional production of the musical . In November 1988 , Michael Butler produced Hair at Chicago 's Vic Theater to celebrate the shows ' 20th anniversary . The production was well received and ran until February 1989 . From 1990 to 1991 , Pink Lace Productions ran a U.S. national tour of Hair that included stops in South Carolina , Georgia , Tennessee and Kentucky . After Ragni died in 1991 , MacDermot and Rado continued to write new songs for revivals through the 1990s . Hair Sarajevo , AD 1992 was staged during the Siege of Sarajevo as an appeal for peace . Rado directed a $ 1 million , 11 city national tour in 1994 that featured actor Luther Creek . With MacDermot returning to oversee the music , Rado 's tour celebrated the show 's 25th anniversary . A small 1990 " bus and truck " production of Hair toured Europe for over 3 years , and Rado directed various European productions from 1995 to 1999 .
A production opened in Australia in 1992 and a short @-@ lived London revival starring John Barrowman and Paul Hipp opened at the Old Vic in London in 1993 , directed by Michael Bogdanov . While the London production was faithful to the original , a member of the production staff said the reason it " flopped " was because the tribe consisted of " Thatcher 's children who didn 't really get it " . Other productions were mounted around the world , including South Africa , where the show had been banned until the eradication of Apartheid . In 1996 , Butler brought a month @-@ long production to Chicago , employing the Pacific Musical Theater , a professional troupe in residence at California State University , Fullerton . Butler ran the show concurrently with the 1996 Democratic National Convention , echoing the last time the DNC was in Chicago : 1968 . A 30th Anniversary Off @-@ Off Broadway production was staged at Third Eye Repertory . It was directed by Shawn Rozsa .
= = = 2000s and 2010s = = =
In 2001 , the Reprise ! theatre company in Los Angeles performed Hair at the Wadsworth Theatre , starring Steven Weber as Berger , Sam Harris as Claude and Jennifer Leigh Warren as Sheila . That same year , Encores ! Great American Musicals in Concert ended its 2001 City Center season with a production of Hair starring Luther Creek , Idina Menzel and Tom Plotkin , and featuring Hair composer Galt MacDermot on stage playing the keyboards . An Actors ' Fund benefit of the show was performed for one night at the New Amsterdam Theater in New York City in 2004 . The Tribe included Shoshana Bean , Raul Esparza , Jim J. Bullock , Liz Callaway , Gavin Creel , Eden Espinosa , Harvey Fierstein , Ana Gasteyer , Annie Golden , Jennifer Hudson , Julia Murney , Jai Rodriguez , RuPaul , Michael McKean , Laura Benanti and Adam Pascal .
In 2005 , a London production opened at the Gate Theatre , directed by Daniel Kramer . James Rado approved an updating of the musical 's script to place it in the context of the Iraq War instead of the Vietnam War . Kramer 's modernized interpretation included " Aquarius " sung over a megaphone in Times Square , and nudity that called to mind images from Abu Ghraib . In March 2006 , Rado collaborated with director Robert Prior for a CanStage production of Hair in Toronto , and a revival produced by Pieter Toerien toured South Africa in 2007 . Directed by Paul Warwick Griffin , with choreography by Timothy Le Roux , the show ran at the Montecasino Theatre in Johannesburg and at Theatre on the Bay in Cape Town . A two @-@ week run played at the Teatro Tapia in Old San Juan , Puerto Rico , in March 2010 , directed by Yinoelle Colón .
Michael Butler produced Hair at the MET Theatre in Los Angeles from September 14 through December 30 , 2007 . The show was directed and choreographed by Bo Crowell , with musical direction from Christian Nesmith ( son of Michael Nesmith ) . Butler 's production of Hair won the LA Weekly Theater Award for Musical of the Year .
For three nights in September 2007 , Joe 's Pub and the Public Theater presented a 40th anniversary production of Hair at the Delacorte Theater in Central Park . This concert version , directed by Diane Paulus , featured Jonathan Groff as Claude and Galt MacDermot on stage on the keyboards . The cast also included Karen Olivo as Sheila and Will Swenson as Berger . Actors from the original Broadway production joined the cast on stage during the encore of " Let the Sun Shine In . " Demand for the show was overwhelming , as long lines and overnight waits for tickets far exceeded that for other Delacorte productions such as Mother Courage and Her Children starring Meryl Streep and Kevin Kline .
Nine months later , The Public Theater presented a fully staged production of Hair at the Delacorte in a limited run from July 22 , 2008 to September 14 , 2008 . Paulus again directed , with choreography by Karole Armitage . Groff and Swenson returned as Claude and Berger , together with others from the concert cast . Caren Lyn Manuel played Sheila , and Christopher J. Hanke replaced Groff as Claude on August 17 . Reviews were generally positive , with Ben Brantley of The New York Times writing that " this production establishes the show as more than a vivacious period piece . Hair , it seems , has deeper roots than anyone remembered " . Time magazine wrote : " Hair ... has been reinvigorated and reclaimed as one of the great milestones in musical @-@ theatre history . ... Today Hair seems , if anything , more daring than ever . "
= = = = 2009 Broadway revival and 2010 U.S. National Tour = = = =
The Public Theater production transferred to Broadway at the Al Hirschfeld Theatre , beginning previews on March 6 , 2009 , with an official opening on March 31 , 2009 . Paulus and Armitage again directed and choreographed , and most of the cast returned from the production in the park . A pre @-@ performance ticket lottery was held nightly for $ 25 box @-@ seat tickets . The opening cast included Gavin Creel as Claude , Will Swenson as Berger , Caissie Levy as Sheila , Megan Lawrence as Mom and Sasha Allen as Dionne . Designers included Scott Pask ( sets ) , Michael McDonald ( costumes ) and Kevin Adams ( lighting ) .
Critical response was almost uniformly positive . The New York Daily News headline proclaimed " Hair Revival 's High Fun " . The review praised the daring direction , " colorfully kinetic " choreography and technical accomplishments of the show , especially the lighting , commening that " as a smile @-@ inducing celebration of life and freedom , [ Hair is ] highly communicable " ; but warning : " If you 're seated on the aisle , count on [ the cast ] to be in your face or your lap or ... braiding your tresses . " The New York Post wrote that the production " has emerged triumphant .... These days , the nation is fixated less on war and more on the economy . As a result , the scenes that resonate most are the ones in which the kids exultantly reject the rat race . " Variety enthused , " Director Diane Paulus and her prodigiously talented cast connect with the material in ways that cut right to the 1967 rock musical 's heart , generating tremendous energy that radiates to the rafters . ... What could have been mere nostalgia instead becomes a full @-@ immersion happening . ... If this explosive production doesn 't stir something in you , it may be time to check your pulse . " The Boston Globe dissented , saying that the production " felt canned " and " overblown " and that the revival " feels unbearably naive and unforgivably glib " . Ben Brantley , writing for The New York Times , reflected the majority , however , delivering a glowing review :
Having moved indoors to Broadway from the Delacorte Theater ... the young cast members ... show no signs of becoming domesticated . On the contrary , they ’ re tearing down the house . ... This emotionally rich revival ... delivers what Broadway otherwise hasn 't felt this season : the intense , unadulterated joy and anguish of that bi @-@ polar state called youth . ... Karole Armitage 's happy hippie choreography , with its group gropes and mass writhing , looks as if it 's being invented on the spot . But there 's intelligent form within the seeming formlessness . ... [ Paulus finds ] depths of character and feeling in [ the 1968 show about kids ] frightened of how the future is going to change them and of not knowing what comes next . ... Every single ensemble member emerges as an individual . ... After the show I couldn ’ t stop thinking about what would happen to [ the characters ] . Mr. MacDermot 's music , which always had more pop than acid , holds up beautifully , given infectious life by the onstage band and the flavorfully blended voices of the cast .
The Public Theater struggled to raise the $ 5 @.@ 5 million budgeted for the Broadway transfer , because of the severity of the economic recession in late 2008 , but it reached its goal by adding new producing partners . Director Diane Paulus helped keep costs low by using an inexpensive set . The show grossed a healthy $ 822 @,@ 889 in its second week . On April 30 , 2009 on the Late Show with David Letterman , the cast recreated a performance on the same stage at the Ed Sullivan Theater by the original tribe . The production won the Tony Award for Best Revival of a Musical , the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival of a Musical and the Drama League Award for Distinguished Revival of a Musical . Its cast album won the Grammy Award for Best Musical Show Album . By August 2009 , the revival had recouped its entire $ 5 @,@ 760 @,@ 000 investment , becoming one of the fastest @-@ recouping musicals in Broadway history .
When the Broadway cast transferred to London for the 2010 West @-@ End revival , a mostly new tribe took over on Broadway on March 9 , 2010 , including former American Idol finalists Ace Young as Berger and Diana DeGarmo as Sheila . Kyle Riabko assumed the role of Claude , and Annaleigh Ashford played Jeanie . Sales decreased after the original cast transferred to London , and the revival closed on June 27 , 2010 after 29 previews and 519 regular performances .
A U.S. National Tour of the production began on October 21 , 2010 . Principals included Steel Burkhardt as Berger , Paris Remillard as Claude and Caren Lyn Tackett as Sheila . The tour received mostly positive reviews . The show returned to Broadway for an engagement at the St. James Theatre from July 5 through September 10 , 2011 . After that stop , the tour resumed . The tour ended on January 29 , 2012 .
= = = = 2010 West End revival = = = =
The 2009 Broadway production was duplicated at the Gielgud Theatre in London 's West End . Previews began on April 1 , 2010 with an official opening on April 14 . The producers were the Public Theater , together with Cameron Mackintosh and Broadway Across America . Nearly all of the New York cast relocated to London . A new addition to the London cast was Luther Creek as Woof . The London revival closed on September 4 , 2010 .
The production received mostly enthusiastic reviews . Michael Billington of The Guardian described it as " a vibrant , joyous piece of living theatre " , writing , " it celebrates a period when the joy of life was pitted against the forces of intolerance and the death @-@ dealing might of the military @-@ industrial complex . As Shakespeare once said : ' There 's sap in 't yet . ' " Charles Spencer in The Daily Telegraph agreed : " This is a timely and irresistibly vital revival of the greatest of all rock musicals . ... The verve and energy of the company ... is irresistible . " Michael Coveney of The Independent wrote that Hair is " one of the great musicals of all time , and a phenomenon that , I 'm relieved to discover , stands up as a period piece " . In The Times , Benedict Nightingale commented that " it 's exhilarating , as well as oddly poignant , when a multihued cast dressed in everything from billowing kaftans to Ruritanian army jackets race downstage while delivering that tuneful salute to an age of Aquarius that still refuses to dawn . " Quentin Letts was a dissenting voice in the Daily Mail . Though praising the performances and the production , he wrote : " by the end the fraudulence of the gaiety becomes sickening . There is a lack of truthfulness in Hair which may not have been apparent when it was first performed in New York City in 1967 but which , today , is unavoidable . "
= = = = 2014 Hollywood Bowl = = = =
In August 2014 , the musical was given a three @-@ night engagement at the Hollywood Bowl . Directed by Adam Shankman , the all @-@ star cast included Kristen Bell as Sheila , Hunter Parrish as Claude , Benjamin Walker as Berger , Amber Riley as Dionne , Jenna Ushkowitz as Jeanie , Sarah Hyland as Crissy , Mario as Hud , and Beverly D 'Angelo and Kevin Chamberlin as Claude 's parents .
= = = International success = = =
Hair has been performed in most of the countries of the world . After the Berlin Wall fell , the show traveled for the first time to Poland , Lebanon , the Czech Republic and Sarajevo ( featured on ABC 's Nightline with Ted Koppel , when Phil Alden Robinson visited that city in 1996 and discovered a production of Hair there in the midst of the war ) . In 1999 , Michael Butler and director Bo Crowell helped produce Hair in Russia at the Stas Namin Theatre located in Moscow 's Gorky Park . The Moscow production caused a similar reaction as the original did 30 years earlier because Russian soldiers were fighting in Chechnya at the time .
Rado wrote in 2003 that the only places where the show had not been performed were " China , India , Vietnam , the Arctic and Antarctic continents as well as most African countries . " Since then , an Indian production has been mounted .
= = Cultural impact = =
= = = Popular culture = = =
The New York Times noted , in 2007 , that " Hair was one of the last Broadway musicals to saturate the culture as shows from the golden age once regularly did . " Songs from the show continue to be recorded by major artists . In the 1990s , Evan Dando 's group The Lemonheads recorded " Frank Mills " for their 1992 record It 's A Shame About Ray , and Run DMC sampled " Where Do I Go " for their 1993 single " Down With the King " which went to # 1 on the Billboard rap charts and reached the top 25 in the Billboard Hot 100 chart . In 2004 , " Aquarius " was honored at number 33 on AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Songs .
Songs from the musical have been featured in films and television episodes . For example , in the 2005 movie Charlie and the Chocolate Factory , the character Willy Wonka welcomed the children with lyrics from " Good Morning Starshine " . " Aquarius " was performed in the final episode of Laverne and Shirley in 1983 , where the character Carmine moves to New York City to become an actor , and auditions for Hair . " Aquarius / Let the Sunshine In " was also performed in the final scene in the film The 40 @-@ Year @-@ Old Virgin , and Three Dog Night 's recording of " Easy to Be Hard " was featured in the first part of David Fincher 's film Zodiac . On the Simpsons episode " The Springfield Files " , the townspeople , Leonard Nimoy , Chewbacca , Dana Scully and Fox Mulder all sing " Good Morning Starshine . " The episode " Hairography " of the show Glee includes a much @-@ criticized mash @-@ up of the songs " Hair " and " Crazy in Love " by Beyoncé . In addition , Head of the Class featured a two @-@ part episode in 1990 where the head of the English department is determined to disrupt the school 's performance of Hair . The continued popularity of Hair is seen in its number ten ranking in a 2006 BBC Radio 2 listener poll of the " [ United Kingdom ] ' s Number One Essential Musicals . "
Because of the universality of its pacifist theme , Hair continues to be a popular choice for high @-@ school and university productions . Amateur productions of Hair are also popular worldwide . In 2002 , Peter Jennings featured a Boulder , Colorado , high school production of Hair for his ABC documentary series " In Search of America " . A September 2006 community theater production at the 2 @,@ 000 @-@ seat Count Basie Theater in Red Bank , New Jersey , was praised by original producer Michael Butler , who said it was " one of the best Hairs I have seen in a long time . " Another example of a recent large @-@ scale amateur production is the Mountain Play production at the 4 @,@ 000 @-@ seat Cushing Memorial Amphitheatre in Mount Tamalpais State Park in Mill Valley , California in the spring of 2007 .
= = = Legacy = = =
Hair was Broadway 's first concept musical , a form that dominated the musical theatre of the seventies , including shows like Company , Follies , Pacific Overtures and A Chorus Line . While the development of the concept musical was an unexpected consequence of Hair 's tenure on Broadway , the expected rock music revolution on Broadway turned out to be less than complete .
MacDermot followed Hair with three successive rock scores : Two Gentlemen of Verona ( 1971 ) ; Dude ( 1972 ) , a second collaboration with Ragni ; and Via Galactica ( 1972 ) . While Two Gentlemen of Verona found receptive audiences and a Tony for Best Musical , Dude failed after just sixteen performances , and Via Galactica flopped after a month . According to Horn , these and other such " failures may have been the result of producers simply relying on the label ' rock musical ' to attract audiences without regard to the quality of the material presented . " Jesus Christ Superstar ( 1970 ) and Godspell ( 1971 ) were two religiously themed successes of the genre . Grease ( 1971 ) reverted to the rock sounds of the 1950s , and black @-@ themed musicals like The Wiz ( 1975 ) were heavily influenced by gospel , R & B and soul music . By the late 1970s , the genre had played itself out . Except for a few outposts of rock , like Dreamgirls ( 1981 ) and Little Shop of Horrors ( 1982 ) , audience tastes in the 1980s turned to megamusicals with pop scores , like Les Misérables ( 1985 ) and The Phantom of the Opera ( 1986 ) . Some later rock musicals , such as Rent ( 1996 ) and Spring Awakening ( 2006 ) , as well as jukebox musicals featuring rock music , like We Will Rock You ( 2002 ) and Rock of Ages ( 2009 ) , have found success . But the rock musical did not quickly come to dominate the musical theatre stage after Hair . Critic Clive Barnes commented , " There really weren 't any rock musicals . No major rock musician ever did a rock score for Broadway . ... You might think of the musical Tommy , but it was never conceived as a Broadway show . ... And one can see why . There 's so much more money in records and rock concerts . I mean , why bother going through the pain of a musical which may close in Philadelphia ? "
On the other hand , Hair had a profound effect not only on what was acceptable on Broadway , but as part of the very social movements that it celebrated . For example , in 1970 , Butler , Castelli and the various Hair casts contributed to fundraising for the World Youth Assembly , a United Nations @-@ sponsored organization formed in connection with the celebration of the 25th anniversary of the United Nations . The Assembly enabled 750 young representatives from around the world to meet in New York in July 1970 to discuss social issues . For about a week , cast members worldwide collected donations at every show for the fund . Hair raised around $ 250 @,@ 000 and ended up being the principal financier of the Assembly . Tribe members and Hair crews also contributed a days ' pay , and Butler contributed a days ' profits from these productions . Moreover , as Ellen Stewart , La MaMa 's founder , noted :
Hair came with blue jeans , comfortable clothing , colors , beautiful colors , sounds , movement . ... And you can go to AT & T and see a secretary today , and she 's got on blue jeans . ... You can go anywhere you want , and what Hair did , it is still doing twenty years later .... A kind of emancipation , a spiritual emancipation that came from [ O 'Horgan 's ] staging . ... Hair until this date has influenced every single thing that you see on Broadway , off @-@ Broadway , off @-@ off @-@ Broadway , anywhere in the world , you will see elements of the experimental techniques that Hair brought not just to Broadway , but to the entire world .
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= The Trial of Elizabeth Gadge =
" The Trial of Elizabeth Gadge " is the third episode of the second series of the British dark comedy anthology television programme Inside No. 9 . It was written by Reece Shearsmith and Steve Pemberton , and directed by Dan Zeff . It first aired on 9 April 2015 on BBC Two . The story follows a 17th @-@ century witch trial . Elizabeth Gadge , played by Ruth Sheen , stands accused of witchcraft by inhabitants of the village of Little Happens , including characters played by Sinead Matthews , Jim Howick , Paul Kaye and Trevor Cooper . Magistrate Sir Andrew Pike , played by David Warner , has summoned famed witch @-@ finders Mr Warren and Mr Clarke , played by Shearsmith and Pemberton , to try Elizabeth , but is more concerned with bringing people to the village than finding the truth .
The episode was not intended to be a parody of period dramas , but instead to reflect the absurdity of real witch trials . To that end , the characters take the events of the episode seriously , which leads to much of the humour . The writers ' influences included Witchfinder General , The Crucible , Monty Python and Hammer Horror films , while the names of the witch @-@ finders were a tribute to actor Warren Clarke . Many critics responded positively to the episode , praising the humour — especially that deriving from the use of archaic language — the writing and the performances . Some , however , considered " The Trial of Elizabeth Gadge " of lower quality than the previous two episodes .
= = Production = =
The second series of Inside No. 9 was written in 2014 , and then filmed from the end of 2014 into early 2015 . The writing process for " The Trial of Elizabeth Gadge " began with Shearsmith 's suggestion of a witch trial as a plot idea , and the writers then worked out the details of the setting . The episode was filmed , mostly in story order , on location in a barn at the Chiltern Open Air Museum . The same location had previously been used for Doctor Who and Horrible Histories . In addition , concurrent with the filming of " The Trial of Elizabeth Gadge " , a Drunk History sketch starring Luke Pasqualino — a previous Inside No. 9 guest star — was being filmed nearby . Shot in December , " The Trial of Elizabeth Gadge " was the first episode of the second series to be filmed . The barn was extremely cold during filming ; Pemberton joked that , unlike on Titanic , they would not be digitally adding breath in the production process .
" The Trial of Elizabeth Gadge " was written to mimic genuine witch trials , some transcripts of which Pemberton and Shearsmith had read as part of the writing process . The fixation of the characters on " teats " and " suckling " , for instance , was something Shearsmith had seen in authentic trials . One writing challenge concerned the need for new information to be revealed with each of the trial 's witnesses ; this is what shaped the structure of the script . For Shearsmith , given that the trials were already absurd , they cannot be parodied . The humour of the episode , for him , comes precisely from the fact that the characters take the events so seriously , and do not see this absurdity . Pemberton said that the pair aimed for authenticity , and did not seek to produce a spoof of a period piece . To that end , he was complimentary of Yves Barr , a costume designer with whom the writers had worked for a number of years , who did " a fantastic job creating this period on a shoestring " . Given that , in his view , " people don 't do this period " , Shearsmith was excited to film something set in the 17th century . The episode was the only period piece in the first two series , but the writers expressed willingness to do another ; they felt that the setting showed that they really could go anywhere with the programme .
As each episode of Inside No. 9 features new characters , the writers were able to attract actors who might have been unwilling to commit to an entire series . " The Trial of Elizabeth Gadge " starred Pemberton and Shearsmith as Mr Warren and Mr Clarke respectively , along with David Warner as Sir Andrew Pike and Ruth Sheen as Elizabeth Gadge . Warner had previously worked with Pemberton and Shearsmith on The League of Gentlemen 's Apocalypse , and the writers thought him very well @-@ suited to the role as Sir Andrew Pike . Shearsmith considered Sheen a very capable actress , and complimented the way she played Gadge as a serious character ; Pemberton felt she added " gravitas " to the role . Sinead Matthews starred as Sarah Nutter , Jim Howick as Thomas Nutter , Paul Kaye as Richard Two @-@ Shoes , and Trevor Cooper as George Waterhouse . Shearsmith was particularly pleased to have Howick appearing in the episode . As he had appeared in Horrible Histories , he added , for Shearsmith , " a weight of royalty " . The " comic coupling " of Howick and Matthews had characters who were originally , mistakenly , named " Gadge " , but this did not fit with the characters ' relationship with the titular Elizabeth . The couple were renamed " Nutter " , a reference to Alice Nutter of the real @-@ world Pendle witch trials .
In addition to the credited actors , the crew had a crowd of extras for one day of filming . Around 12 extras were used ; budget constraints allowed this number for a day , or five extras for two days . This constraint led to a change in the script , seeing the crowd removed from the trial . Although uncredited , Goody Two @-@ Shoes was played by an actress who had appeared in Psychoville , one of Pemberton and Shearsmith 's previous productions , as Joanne Dunderdale , an understudy . The writers were complimentary of Cooper 's performance ; they said that he was almost " conducting " the crowd of extras , in that they were noisy when he was shouting , and quiet when he stopped .
In addition to the use of visual effects , the closing sequence required ADR due to the sound of rain on the original filming . The visual effects were the director Dan Zeff 's idea , and the writers were pleased that they were within budget . They also serve to tie the final shot to the opening shot of the episode , as both feature a raven . Scenes that were cut down in the editing process included the initial meeting between the witchfinders — Warren and Clarke — and Sir Andrew Pike , and a private discussion between Warren and Clarke after the first day of the trial . The extended versions of the scenes featured an explanation about the Devil being found in everyday objects and a discussion about the stages of torture respectively . Shearsmith expressed frustration that these extra scenes could not be included on the DVD release .
= = Plot = =
In 17th century England , the magistrate Sir Andrew Pike ( Warner ) summons the witch @-@ finders Mr Warren ( Shearsmith ) and Mr Clarke ( Pemberton ) to the village of Little Happens . Elizabeth Gadge ( Sheen ) has been accused of witchcraft , and Pike is excited that the news has attracted the attention of outsiders . Pike and Warren already seem convinced of Gadge 's guilt , but Clarke remains sceptical .
Elizabeth 's case is brought to trial the following morning , with the assistance of the cobbler Richard Two @-@ Shoes ( Kaye ) . Elizabeth 's daughter Sarah ( Matthews ) and son @-@ in @-@ law Thomas Nutter ( Howick ) testify that they have witnessed Elizabeh sucking from the teat of a furry creature , and speaking to a mouse ( believed to be a demon ) . Elizabeth claims that Sarah and Thomas have falsely accused her , and want to be rid of her to make room in their house . George Waterhouse ( Cooper ) testifies against Elizabeth , and the accused is questioned . When others in the courtroom begin laughing at her responses , Warren declares that the next person to laugh will be executed as a witch . After an argument breaks out , the witch @-@ finders and Pike decide that the rest of the trial should be conducted in private . Elizabeth is pricked with a needle to test her for the devil 's mark . A remorseful Sarah tries to profess her mother 's innocence , but Warren does not believe her . Elizabeth confesses that she has been prostituting herself to Two @-@ Shoes , who wears a fur coat , but Two @-@ Shoes denies this , and the trial is adjourned . Throughout proceedings , Warren is accusatory while Clarke is more cautious ; Pike , meanwhile , is fascinated both by the lewd acts in which Elizabeth has supposedly engaged and by the witch @-@ finders ' torturous implements .
Clarke privately tells Warren that he thinks Elizabeth is innocent and that he is not sure that the pair are doing God 's work . Warren threatens that Clarke himself will be tried and convicted if he objects further . The trial resumes — Elizabeth having been tortured overnight — and Elizabeth 's mouse , Snowflake , is released , so that it might lead them to the witch . Warren has sprinkled crumbs in front of Elizabeth . When Snowflake approaches Elizabeth , Pike declares her a witch , and sentences her to be burned . Thomas and Sarah later say goodbye to a hooded and bound Elizabeth , who awaits execution . Clarke dismisses them . He removes the hood from the figure to reveal that he has bound Warren in Elizabeth 's place ; Clarke believes Warren has been tainted with evil , and that the latter is no longer doing God 's work . Clarke puts back the hood , and Pike enters , happy that the trial has seen a revival of trade and visitors to the village . Warren is taken away to be burnt . Clarke releases the real Elizabeth , but she reveals that she truly is a witch ; she breaks Clarke 's neck , killing him . There are sounds of excitement from outside as flames light Elizabeth 's face . She tells Snowflake that she will go to her master , then transforms into a raven and leaves .
= = Analysis = =
" The Trial of Elizabeth Gadge " is a period piece tribute to Witchfinder General , The Blood on Satan 's Claw and The Crucible , while the names " Warren " and " Clarke " are a homage to British actor Warren Clarke , who , at time of production and airing , had recently died . The names were selected prior to Clarke 's death — specifically because they were amusing but period appropriate , and not because the actor had any link to the episode 's themes — but the writers chose to keep them as a tribute upon the death of Clarke , with whom Shearsmith had previously worked . The style and humour is reminiscent of Horrible Histories and Monty Python . For instance , one scene was directly inspired by the " laughing guard " scene in Monty Python 's Life of Brian . Pemberton and Shearsmith themselves , however , did not consider the episode to be particularly reminiscent of Monty Python . The humour is childish , but many of the jokes are " bawdy " and " adult " .
Though one critic said that the episode was " the first straight @-@ up comedic episode of the second series " , another said that the episode 's humour was balanced with tragedy and poignancy , arguing that the whole episode has an element of horror . This was especially true given that the story reflects actual happenings ; the depiction of torture was described as " genuinely upsetting " . Despite the sole setting of the barn , the episode evokes a degree of folk horror . " The Trial of Elizabeth Gadge " was described by Jonathan Wright ( The Guardian ) and Phoebe Jane @-@ Boyd ( Den of Geek ) as like a Hammer Horror film with added humour , and writers for the Irish Examiner said that the episode should appeal to both horror and comedy fans .
Given that Gadge is revealed to actually be a witch , Howick asked Shearsmith whether the former 's character , Thomas , truly had witnessed Gadge engaging in some kind of supernatural activity . Shearsmith suggested that Thomas was motivated by greed . However , he begins to regret his choice when he witnesses Gadge being tortured . Pemberton , though , noted that the real @-@ life accusations of witchcraft must have been based on some level of belief .
= = Reception = =
Critics generally responded warmly to the episode , but some felt it compared poorly to others in the series . David Chater , writing for The Times , felt that " The Trial of Elizabeth Gadge " was dissimilar from any previous episode of Inside No. 9 , but that it was " equally accomplished " , while in sister publication The Sunday Times , critics suggested that the change in style showed the writers ' versatility . Neela Debnath , writing for The Independent , called " The Trial of Elizabeth Gadge " a " hilariously dark little half @-@ hour of quintessentially British comedy " . Rupert Hawksley , writing for The Daily Telegraph , was more critical . He awarded " The Trial of Elizabeth Gadge " three out of five stars , saying that " despite a starry cast and a delightful twist and counter @-@ twist , [ the episode ] was nothing like as effective " as " La Couchette " and " The 12 Days of Christine " , the previous two episodes of the series . The episode , he claimed , was indicative of a " mid @-@ series lull " . The freelance journalist Dan Owen felt the episode was " entertaining fare , but too predictable and clichéd to prove genuinely memorable " , awarding it two out of four stars . He , too , said the episode felt like " a mid @-@ series misstep " . Shearsmith was unhappy with those who thought the episode a " dud " or a " misfire " , confessing that it was his favourite episode of the second series . Pemberton felt it was going to be difficult to follow " The 12 Days of Christine " , but Shearsmith was of the view that the episodes should not be in competition with each other .
The episode 's humour was praised by the majority of commentators . Julia Raeside , writing for The Guardian , said the writers " managed to pull together a loving tribute to [ their ] cult horror source material with an all @-@ out gag rate that most sitcoms would fail to keep up with " , claiming that " they get the look and tone just right and then inject it with the kind of comedy that is perfectly tailored to puncture the fictional world without deflating it " . Similarly , Debnath felt that the jokes , including " anachronistic references " and " dark punnery " , were " bang on " . By contrast , Hawksley claimed that the episode had several " inspired moments " , including a " perfectly pitched " joke about selfies , but that the writers had failed to properly exploit the 17th @-@ century setting . Overall , though finding it " occasionally funny " , Hawksley thought the episode " fell some way short of what we have come to expect from Pemberton and Shearsmith " . For the comedy critic Bruce Dessau , the episode was " all the more hauntingly funny because it is played pretty straight " , but he noted that the character of Sir Andrew Pike allowed " some offbeat humour " . Chater called the episode " very , very funny " , and Philip Cunnington , of the Lancashire Evening Post , called it " one of the funniest half @-@ hours of TV so far this year " after the conclusion of the series .
Television critics praised the writing and acting of " The Trial of Elizabeth Gadge " . Though Owen felt that the ending " held little surprise " , Paddy Shennan , of the Liverpool Echo , said he " loved the fact that , for the third week running , [ he ] couldn 't work out the twist " . For Debnath , " the best was saved till last " , but the whole episode was " tightly written " . Patrick Mulkern ( Radio Times ) , too , said that " this dark tale soon works a devilish spell " . Christine Brandel , writing for entertainment website PopMatters , particularly praised the episode 's " beautifully done " dialogue , saying that " it feels authentic in its phrasing , even during the more bizarre ( and hilarious ) court scenes " . Owen , similarly , said " the dialogue was also frequently hilarious , with Shearsmith and Pemberton having a fine ear for the rhythms of Olde English and how best to have characters deadpan their way through some ridiculous sentences . " Hawksley praised Warner 's " effortlessly batty " performance as Sir Andrew Pike , and claimed that Sheen " brought an unsettling complexity " to the title character . Gerard Gilbert , of The Independent , claimed Warner was clearly " having a ball " as Pike , and Wright ( The Guardian ) said " Warner quite brilliantly makes the most of every line he 's given " . Brandel considered Warner one of the best guest stars of the series .
= = = Cited sources = = =
Pemberton , Steve ; Shearsmith , Reece ( 2015 ) . The Trial of Elizabeth Gadge ( episode commentary ) . Steve & Reece IN9 ( via SoundCloud ) . Retrieved 4 August 2015 .
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= History of the Australian Capital Territory =
The history of the Australian Capital Territory ( ACT ) as an administrative division of Australia began after the Federation of Australia in 1901 , when it was created in law as the site for Canberra , Australia 's capital city . The region has a long prior history of human habitation before the Territory 's creation , with evidence of Indigenous Australian settlement dating back at least 21 @,@ 000 years . The area formed the traditional lands associated with the Ngambri People and several other linguistic groups , an association known through both early European settler accounts and the oral histories of the peoples themselves .
Following the colonisation of Australia by the British , the 19th century saw the initial European exploration and settlement of the area and their encounters with the local indigenous peoples , beginning with the first explorations in 1820 and shortly followed by the first European settlements in 1824 . At the outset the region was dominated by large properties used for sheep and cattle grazing , which had been granted to free settlers that had arrived in Australia from the United Kingdom and other European countries . These large properties were later broken up and subdivided in accordance with changes to land tenure arrangements , smaller farms and urban developments becoming more common .
In 1908 , the region was selected as the site of the nation 's future capital city . In 1909 , New South Wales formally ceded to the federal government the territory and additional land at Jervis Bay for the establishment of a sea port for the capital . The territory officially came under government control as the Federal Capital Territory on 1 January 1911 . The planning and construction of Canberra followed , with the Parliament of Australia moving there in 1927 .
The Territory officially became the Australian Capital Territory in 1938 . Canberra was built to accommodate the government , while the surrounding area was developed to support the city , including the construction of dams , the establishment of plantation forests and the creation of protected areas . An advisory council was established in 1930 , with some elected representation .
Initially , the growth of Canberra and the ACT was slow . The American architect Walter Burley Griffin won the competition to design Australia 's new capital and was appointed to oversee its construction . He was frequently dogged by disputes with Australian authorities and the onset of World War I , which hindered progress . In 1921 , Burley Griffin was fired , and multiple planning bodies were established , but achieved little , in part due to the Great Depression .
In the period after World War II , Prime Minister Robert Menzies regarded the state of Canberra as an embarrassment , and took it upon himself to champion its development . Under his leadership — which lasted more than a decade — the development of the capital was rapid . The National Capital Development Commission was created in 1957 with more power than its predecessors , and ended four decades of disputes over the shape and design of Lake Burley Griffin , the centrepiece of Canberra , and construction was completed in 1964 after four years of work .
This prompted the development of the Parliamentary Triangle , a core part of Griffin 's design , and since then various buildings of national importance were constructed on the lakefront . The Australian National University was built , and sculptures and monuments were built . On average , the population of Canberra increased by more than 50 % every five years between 1955 and 1975 as the development of the capital became more concerted , and new residential land was released through the creation of new town centres in the 1960s and 1970s .
In 1949 , the territory gained its first representative in the Parliament , although at first with limited speaking and voting rights . In 1974 it gained a fully elected , but still advisory House of Assembly . In 1988 it gained the trappings of self @-@ government with a Legislative Assembly with most of the powers and responsibilities of an Australian state , although subject to a federal right of veto , similar to the arrangements adopted for the Northern Territory in 1978 . The Legislative Assembly legalised some things that were prohibited in other parts of Australia , such as prostitution and X @-@ rated pornography ; in 2006 , an attempt to allow civil unions for same @-@ sex couples was overruled by the federal government .
= = Pre @-@ European history = =
Indigenous Australian peoples have long inhabited what is now the ACT . Anthropologist Norman Tindale has suggested the principal group occupying the region were the Ngunnawal people , while the Ngarigo and Walgalu lived immediately to the south , the Wandandian to the east , the Gandangara to the north , and the Wiradjuri to the north @-@ west .
Archæological evidence from the Birrigai rock shelter in Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve indicates habitation dating back at least 21 @,@ 000 years . It is possible that the area was inhabited for considerably longer , with evidence of an Aboriginal presence in south @-@ western New South Wales dating back around 40 @,@ 000 – 62 @,@ 000 years . Another site of significance in the reserve is the Bogong Rocks shelter , which contains the oldest evidence of Aboriginal occupation at a bogong moth resting site . These insects were an important source of food for the Aboriginal peoples of the Southern Alps and would accumulate by the thousands in caves and rock crevices , where they were collected and later roasted in sand or ashes , and then eaten whole .
Numerous other culturally significant and archæologically notable sites are known across the territory , including shelters , rock art sites , stone artefact scatters , scarred trees and chert quarries . Tidbinbilla Mountain is believed to have long been used for Aboriginal initiation ceremonies .
= = 19th century exploration = =
Following European settlement , the growth of the new colony of New South Wales led to an increasing demand for arable land . Governor Lachlan Macquarie supported expeditions to open up new lands to the south of the capital Sydney , including one to find an overland route to Jervis Bay , an area which would later be incorporated into the ACT as its only coastal possession . In 1818 Charles Throsby , Hamilton Hume , James Meehan and William Kearns set out to find the route , a task accomplished that same year by Throsby and Kearns .
The 1820s saw further exploration in the Canberra area associated with the construction of a road from Sydney to the Goulburn plains , supervised by Throsby and his overseer , Joseph Wild . While working on the project , Throsby learned of a nearby lake and river from the local Aborigines , and he accordingly sent Wild to lead a small party to investigate the site . On 19 August 1820 , Wild ventured off from his two companions , and later that day arrived at the north shore of what is now known as Lake George . In October 1820 Governor Macquarie visited the site , and while he was in attendance Throsby decided to push on to reach the river that he had been informed of . Accompanied by Wild and James Vaughan , he journeyed south in search of the Murrumbidgee . The search was unsuccessful , but they did discover the Yass River , and it is surmised that they would have set foot on part of the future ACT .
A second expedition was mounted shortly thereafter , and Throsby 's nephew Charles Throsby Smith , Wild and Vaughan further explored the Molonglo ( Ngambri ) and Queanbeyan ( Jullergung ) Rivers , becoming the first Europeans to camp at the site . However , they failed to find the Murrumbidgee , and Smith declared that the river did not exist . The issue of the Murrumbidgee was solved in 1821 , when Charles Throsby mounted a third expedition and successfully reached the watercourse , on the way providing the first detailed account of the land where Canberra now resides .
The next significant expedition to the region came in 1823 , when Wild was employed by Brigade Major John Ovens and Captain Mark Currie to guide them to the Murrumbidgee . They travelled south along the river and named the area now known as Tuggeranong Isabella 's Plain , after Isabella Maria Brisbane ( 1821 – 1849 ) , the two @-@ year @-@ old daughter of Thomas Brisbane , the then Governor of New South Wales . Unable to cross the river near the current site of Tharwa , they continued on to the Monaro Plains . The last expedition in the region prior to settlement was undertaken by Allan Cunningham in 1824 . He reported that the region was suitable for grazing , and the settlement of the Limestone Plains followed immediately thereafter .
= = Early settlement = =
When the boundaries for settlement of New South Wales were determined , the Limestone Plains were opened up to settlers . The first land grant in the region was made to Joshua John Moore in 1823 , and settlement in the area began in 1824 with the construction of a homestead by his stockmen on what is now the Acton Peninsula . Moore formally purchased the site in 1826 and named the property Canberry , or Canberra , although he never visited it . His 4 km2 ( 1 @.@ 5 sq mi ) claim covered much of the future North Canberra .
Adjacent to the eastern boundary on Moore 's claim was the settlement of Duntroon , occupied by James Ainslie on behalf of Robert Campbell . John Palmer was granted land in the region , which was taken up by his son George in 1826 . He established Palmerville near Ginninderra Creek in 1829 , and the " Squire " at Gungahlin was completed in 1861 . Palmerville in the Ginninderra district was the site of first school in the region , and operated from 1844 to 1848 . The first school in the future Canberra opened on the Duntroon Estate , next door to St John 's Church in what would become the suburb of Reid in the 20th century . Canberra 's first church , St John 's , was consecrated and opened for use in 1845 .
The Tuggeranong Plains , situated 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) south of the Molonglo River , were first settled in 1827 by Peter Murdoch . The Waniassa Homestead ( also known as Tuggeranong Homestead ) was established in 1836 by Thomas McQuoid , and the first buildings of the Lanyon estate , owned by John Lanyon and James Wright , were built in 1838 . Tharwa was settled in 1834 ; the homestead in this area was Cuppacumbalong , established by James Wright in 1839 . Tharwa is the oldest official settlement in the ACT , having been proclaimed in 1862 .
Settlers moved further south into what is now the Namadgi National Park . William Herbert made a claim over part of the Orroral Valley at some point between 1826 and 1836 , while during the 1830s Garrett Cotter inhabited what would later be named the Cotter River Valley , in his honour . From the late 1830s , the Boboyan Homestead and station were established . Gudgenby was settled in the early 1840s and the Gudgenby Homestead was erected around this time . By 1848 most of the major valleys of the Namadgi area had been settled .
Convict labour was widely used in the region , and the first bushrangers in the area were runaway convicts . John Tennant , the earliest and best @-@ known bushranger of the region , lived in a hideout on what is now known as Mount Tennant , behind Tharwa . From 1827 he raided the local homesteads , stealing stock , food and possessions until his arrest in 1828 ; He was later hung in Sydney for his crimes . The lawlessness of the region led to the appointment of the first resident magistrate on 28 November 1837 – Allured Tasker Faunce , who was also known as " Ironman Faunce " since his time as a magistrate at Brisbane Water . The magistrate oversaw legal matters and issued liquor licences to several establishments , the first being the Elmsall Inn on the Duntroon estate in 1841 .
A significant influx of population and economic activity occurred around the 1850s goldrushes , particularly the Kiandra rush of 1859 – 60 . The goldrushes prompted the establishment of communication between Sydney and the region by way of the Cobb & Co coaches , which transported mail and passengers . The first post offices opened in Ginninderra in 1859 and at Lanyon the following year . Bushranger activity continued with the goldrushes : Australian @-@ born bandits Ben Hall and the Clarke brothers were active in the area , targeting mail coaches and gold transportation .
Terence Aubrey Murray was born in Ireland in 1810 and came to Sydney with his father , a retired redcoat army officer , and siblings in 1827 . In 1837 , he acquired the Yarralumla sheep station , taking up residence in Yarralumla 's Georgian @-@ style homestead , which he extended . He was elected unopposed to represent the surrounding Counties of Murray , King and Georgiana in the first partially elective Legislative Council in 1843 . With the establishment of responsible government in 1856 , Murray became a member of the first Legislative Assembly , representing the electorate of Southern Boroughs – which included nearby Queanbeyan – and in 1859 he was elected to represent Argyle – which included another of his pastoral properties , Winderradeen , in the Collector area , north of Canberra .
The Robertson Land Acts and the Closer Settlement Acts altered the mechanism for granting land tenure and precipitated the break @-@ up of large properties in New South Wales . During the 1860s , in the wake of the new government legislation , small farmers nicknamed " selectors " moved into what would become the ACT , taking up parcels of ( usually inferior ) land which existed between the estates of the wealthy , established landholders .
During colonial times , prior to the establishment of the ACT , the European communities of Ginninderra , Molonglo and Tuggeranong settled in and farmed the surrounding land , raising sheep in the main but also breeding horses and growing grain . The region was also called the Queanbeyan / Yass district , after the two largest towns in the area . The villages of Ginninderra and Tharwa developed to service the local agrarian communities . In 1882 , the first allotments in the village of Hall – named after early pastoralist Henry Hall – were sold . By 1901 , it was an established town with a hotel , coachbuilder , blacksmith , butcher , shoemaker , saddler , dairy and two stores .
In 1886 , the agronomist William Farrer , established the research farm ' Lambrigg ' on the banks of the Murrumbidgee south of present @-@ day Tuggeranong . Farrer experimented with rust and drought @-@ resistant wheat ; the varieties he bred were widely used by Australian growers , and he was later credited with establishing Australia as a major producer . Tharwa Bridge , the oldest surviving bridge in the region , was opened in 1895 and was the first crossing over the Murrumbidgee River . By 1911 , when the region came under federal control , the population had grown to 1 @,@ 714 settlers .
= = Relations with indigenous people = =
During the first 20 years of settlement , there was only limited contact between the settlers and Aborigines . Joseph Franklin purchased land in the Brindabellas in 1849 and attempted to set up a cattle farm . His livestock was slaughtered by the local Aborigines and he was driven back out of the mountains . The rush of prospectors into the Kiandra area through the Brindabellas and the mountains to the west of the ACT as a result of the Kiandra goldrush led to conflict with the Aboriginal people . By the time Franklin returned to the Brindabellas in 1863 , the indigenous population had been significantly reduced .
Over the succeeding years , the Ngunnawal and other local Indigenous people effectively ceased to exist as cohesive and independent communities adhering to their traditional ways of life . Those who had not succumbed to disease and other predations either dispersed to the local settlements or were relocated to more distant Aboriginal reserves set up by the NSW government in the latter part of the 19th century . The children of mixed European @-@ Aboriginal families were generally expected to assimilate into the settlement communities . The Ngunnawal people were subsequently often considered to be " extinct " ; however , in a situation parallel to that of the Tasmanian Aborigines , people with claims to Ngunnawal ancestry continue to identify themselves as such . However , there have been contemporary instances of dispute within the community itself over who is properly considered to be a member of the Ngunnawal people .
= = Search for a capital city location = =
The district 's change from a New South Wales rural area to the national capital began with the debates over Federation during the 19th century . Prior to 1840 Sydney was the administrative centre for the colony , and thus it could be presupposed that any potential federal government would be seated there . However , this started to change when , buoyed by the Victorian Gold Rush , Melbourne grew rapidly , and by 1860 its population had overtaken that of Sydney . The discovery of gold also helped to increase Melbourne 's financial base , to the point where at one stage " nearly 5 % of all British imperial government revenue ... passed through [ Melbourne 's ] port " . Thus Melbourne soon possessed both the size and the economic clout to rival Sydney and to command additional administrative powers .
When Federation was first being discussed , views differed about the location of the capital . Early advocate for Australian federation , John Dunmore Lang , backed Sydney , but Henry Parkes , a prominent New South Wales politician and Premier , proposed the capital be founded on " neutral ground " , nominating the town of Albury as a location . ( Albury was located in New South Wales , yet its position on the Murray River placed it on the border between New South Wales and Victoria ) .
In 1898 , a referendum on a proposed Constitution was held in four of the colonies – New South Wales , Victoria , South Australia and Tasmania . Although the referendum achieved a majority in all four colonies , the New South Wales referendum failed to gain the minimum number of votes needed for the bill to pass . Following this result , a meeting of the four Premiers in 1898 heard from George Reid , the Premier of New South Wales , who argued that locating the future capital in New South Wales would be sufficient to ensure the passage of the Bill . This was accepted by the other three Premiers , and the proposed Australian Constitution was modified so that Section 125 specified that the national capital must be " within the state of New South Wales " . However , they also added the condition that it must be situated no less than 100 mi ( 160 @.@ 9 km ) from Sydney . In addition , if the bill passed , Melbourne would be the interim seat of government ( but not referred to as the " capital " ) until a location for the new capital had been determined . The 1899 referendum on this revised bill was successful , passing with sufficient numbers .
Nevertheless , this left open the question of where to locate the capital . Initially the Bombala district in the far south of NSW was proposed , to which southern Monaro , ( which incorporated Bombala ) , Orange and Yass were soon added . The NSW Premier , John See , offered to provide any of the three recommended sites as a future capital territory . Edmund Barton , the first Prime Minister of the new Federal Government , added another four sites to this list : Albury , Tamworth , Armidale and Tumut , and members of the new government toured the various sites in 1902 . The tour proved inconclusive , and upon their return the members decided to refer the problem to a Royal Commission , with the Minister for Home Affairs , William Lyne , pushing for Tumut or Albury as he preferred a site in his electorate . Subsequently , the Commission presented its report to Parliament in 1903 , recommending the sites of Albury , Tumut and Orange , in that order . However , there continued to be problems , as the House of Representatives backed the Tumut option , while the Senate preferred the town of Bombala . As a result of this disagreement the bill lapsed , and it was left to the second Parliament to choose a location for the capital .
The new Parliament met in 1904 and reached a compromise , choosing Dalgety , which , like Bombala , was located in the Monaro region . Thus , with the passage of the Seat of Government Act 1904 , it appeared that the matter had been settled . However , while the Federal Parliament supported Dalgety , the New South Wales government did not , and they proved unwilling to cede the amount of territory the Federal Government demanded .
Finally , in 1906 , New South Wales agreed to cede sufficient land , but on the condition that it was in the Yass @-@ Canberra region , this site being closer to Sydney . Following a tour of the region by several Senators and Members of the Commonwealth Parliament , in 1908 a new ballot was called in the Federal Parliament with eleven sites nominated . Initially , Dalgety remained at the forefront , but by the eighth round Yass @-@ Canberra had emerged as a new leader , and the site was confirmed in the ninth round of voting . Thus was passed the new Seat of Government Act 1908 , which repealed the 1904 Act and specified a capital in the Yass @-@ Canberra region .
Government Surveyor Charles Scrivener was deployed to the region in the same year in order to map out a specific site and , after an extensive search , settled upon the present location , about 300 km ( 186 @.@ 4 mi ) south @-@ west of Sydney in the foothills of the Australian Alps .
= = Establishment of the Territory in law ( 1910 ) = =
In 1909 , New South Wales transferred the land for the creation of the Federal Capital Territory to federal control through two pieces of legislation , the Seat of Government Acceptance Act 1909 and the Seat of Government Surrender Act 1909 . The Act transferred Crown land in the counties of Murray and Cowley to the Commonwealth , which amounted to an area about 2 @,@ 330 square kilometres ( 900 sq mi ) and eight parcels of land near Jervis Bay . All private land in the surrendered area had to be bought by the Commonwealth . The Seat of Government Acceptance Act also gave the Commonwealth rights to use and control the waters of the Queanbeyan and Molonglo Rivers .
In 1910 , the Seat of Government ( Administration ) Act 1910 created the legal framework for the Territory . The act specified that laws in the Territory could be made by the Commonwealth and that Ordinances could be made by the Governor @-@ General , and placed the ACT under the jurisdiction of the New South Wales Supreme Court . When the Act came into force on 1 January 1911 , control of the Territory was officially assumed by the Commonwealth . This Act remained the constitutional basis for law @-@ making in the ACT until the granting of self @-@ government in 1989 .
The Minister for Home Affairs , King O 'Malley , who was responsible for the legislation creating the ACT , also introduced a bill in 1910 making the ACT an alcohol @-@ free area ; this bill was passed by the Federal parliament and the law was not repealed until 1928 . Until that time local residents travelled to Queanbeyan , just across the New South Wales border , to drink on Saturday . In 1938 the Territory was formally renamed the Australian Capital Territory .
The Jervis Bay Territory Acceptance Act 1915 and the New South Wales Seat of Government Surrender Act 1915 created a Territory of Jervis Bay , which was administered as part of the Federal Capital Territory and with all laws of the Territory applicable .
= = = Resumption and disenfranchisement = = =
Prior to the final decision on the location of the new capital territory , the local landowners and residents of Queanbeyan looked favourably on the possibility of having the territory located nearby . Such a result , it was hoped , would bring improvements to local infrastructure , increase the demand for local goods and services , and raise land values . It was assumed that the existing freehold arrangements would remain , and that those whose land was not required for the city itself would be in a position to capitalise on the new circumstances .
Such was not the case . Legislation restricted land holdings in the new territory to leasehold , rather than freehold . This was intended to avoid land speculation and give the national government , as the lessor , greater control over development . Landowners were concerned that the legislation had a number of shortcomings : land valuations were fixed to the date when the Act passed ( 8 October 1908 ) , there was no compensation for improvements made to the land , and owners were not given first right of refusal when their old land was offered for lease .
Along with the loss of their land , local residents discovered that they had been disenfranchised . Now a part of the ACT , they had lost their vote in the New South Wales government , and their numbers were too small to warrant a seat in the new federal parliament . As a result , they had no representation in parliament through which to argue against the provisions of the legislation .
In response the residents formed the Vigilance Association with the intent of protecting their interests during the establishment of the new capital territory . Legal challenges to the resumption of the land were unsuccessful , but the Vigilance Association did win some concessions : the government agreed to pay for the improvements to the land , and did so at the value when the land was acquired ; and the landowners gained the right of first refusal on their old properties when they were put up for lease . As of 2010 all residential land in the ACT is held on a 99 @-@ year crown lease .
= = 20th century development of Canberra = =
One of the first federal facilities established in the Territory was the Royal Military College , established on the Campbells ' property Duntroon , which opened in 1911 . Prior to this , Australia 's military lacked formally trained officers , who were needed due to changes to the Australian military model that had emerged after Federation .
In the same year , an international competition to design the future capital was held , which was won by the Chicago architect Walter Burley Griffin in 1912 . Griffin 's proposal , rendered by his architect wife Marion Mahony Griffin , had an abundance of geometric patterns , incorporated concentric hexagonal and octagonal streets emanating from several centres . It had as its centrepiece an elaborate lake composed of smaller bodies of water , with extensive natural vegetation around it . Griffin 's proposal was " the grandest scheme submitted , yet it had an appealing simplicity and clarity " . The lakes and geometry were deliberately designed so that their orientation was related to various natural topographical landmarks . It was further intended that buildings of national significance and natural landmarks would align with these geometric axes . Later , Scrivener , as part of a government committee , was responsible for modifying Griffin 's winning design . He recommended a less elaborate and geometric shape , which Griffin opposed , saying that geometry was " one of the raison d 'etre of the ornamental waters " , but he was overruled . The new design was widely criticised as being ugly .
The official naming of Canberra occurred on 12 March 1913 , and construction began immediately . After official indecision over the plan , revisions and their implementation , Griffin was invited to Canberra to discuss the matter . He arrived in August 1913 and was appointed Federal Capital Director of Design and Construction for three years . Bureaucratic wrangling delayed Griffin 's work ; a Royal Commission in 1916 ruled his authority for executing the plan had been usurped by certain officials . Griffin had a strained working relationship with the Australian authorities , and a lack of federal government funding meant that by the time he left in 1920 , little significant work had been done on the city . Prime Minister Billy Hughes removed Griffin from his position . At the time of his removal , Griffin had revised his plan , overseen the earthworks of the major avenues , and established the Glenloch Cork Plantation .
After Griffin 's departure , the Federal Capital Advisory Committee was established to advise the government of the construction efforts . The Committee had limited success meeting its goals ; however , the chairman , John Sulman , was instrumental in applying the ideas of the garden city movement to Griffin 's plan . The Committee was replaced in 1925 by the Federal Capital Commission . The role of the FCC was to prepare Canberra for the transfer of the Commonwealth Parliament and the public service from Melbourne to Canberra . The Federal Government officially relocated to the ACT from Melbourne on the formal opening of the Provisional Parliament House on 9 May 1927 . Among the new Parliament 's first acts was the repeal of the prohibition laws . At first the public service remained based in Melbourne , the various departments ' headquarters only gradually moving to Canberra over the space of several years . From 1938 to 1957 the National Capital Planning and Development Committee continued to plan the further expansion of Canberra ; however , the NCPDC did not have executive power , and decisions were made on the development of Canberra without the Committee 's consultation . A few major buildings were constructed during this period of NCPDC responsibility , such as the Australian War Memorial , which opened in 1941 . With the onset of the Great Depression , followed by World War II , development of the new capital was slow , and in the decade after the end of the war , Canberra was criticised for resembling a village , and its disorganised collection of buildings was deemed ugly . Canberra was often derisively described as " several suburbs in search of a city " . The Prime Minister , Robert Menzies , regarded the state of the national capital as an embarrassment . Over time his attitude changed from one of contempt to that of championing its development . He fired two ministers charged with the development of the city , feeling that their performance lacked intensity . Menzies ruled for over a decade and in that time the development of the capital sped up rapidly .
After World War II there was a shortage of housing and office space in Canberra , so a Senate Select Committee hearing was held in 1954 to address its development requirements . This Committee recommended the creation of a single planning body with executive power . Consequently , the NCPDC was replaced by the National Capital Development Commission in 1957 . The NCDC ended four decades of disputes over the shape and design of Lake Burley Griffin , and construction was completed in 1964 after four years of work . The completion of the centrepiece of Griffin 's design finally the laid the platform for the development of Griffin 's Parliamentary Triangle . In the four decades since the initial construction of the lake , various buildings of national importance were constructed on the lakefront . According to the policy plan of the government , " The lake is not only one of the centrepieces of Canberra 's plan in its own right , but forms the immediate foreground of the National Parliamentary Area . " The newly built Australian National University , on the northern shores of the lake was expanded , and sculptures and monuments were built .
The completion of the central basin placed a waterway between Parliament House and the War Memorial and a landscaped boulevard was built along the land axis . A new National Library was constructed within the Parliamentary Triangle , followed by the High Court of Australia , the National Gallery and finally a new Parliament House in 1988 . In 2001 , the National Museum was built on the former lakeside site of the Royal Canberra Hospital .
On average , the population of Canberra increased by more than 50 % every five years between 1955 and 1975 as the development of the capital became more concerted . To accommodate the influx of residents , the NCDC oversaw the release of new residential land though the creation of new town centres : Woden opened in 1964 , followed by Belconnen in 1966 , Weston Creek in 1969 and Tuggeranong in 1973 . The NCDC was disbanded in 1988 , its planning authority transferred to the newly created ACT government and the new National Capital Authority , which was established to oversee Commonwealth interests in development of the national capital . Canberra has continued to grow with the further release of residential land in Gungahlin in the 1990s .
= = 20th century development outside of Canberra = =
A significant priority for the establishment of Canberra was the construction of water storage facilities . Cotter Dam was the first dam built on the Cotter River ; construction on this 18 @.@ 5 m ( 60 @.@ 7 ft ) concrete gravity dam started in 1912 and finished in 1915 . Its height was raised to 31 m ( 101 @.@ 7 ft ) in 1951 . Chlorination of Canberra 's water began at Cotter Dam in 1955 ; operations were moved to the Mount Stromlo Water Treatment Plant in June 1967 .
Two additional dams were built on the Cotter : the Bendora Dam , a double @-@ curvature , concrete @-@ arch structure , was completed in 1961 ; and the Corin Dam , an earth and rock @-@ fill embankment dam , was built in 1968 . In 1979 Googong Dam was built on the Queanbeyan River in New South Wales .
Transport into and out of the ACT was an early development priority . In 1931 the Federal Highway linking the ACT to Goulburn was completed , and in 1936 an airfield was constructed at Duntroon . On 13 August 1940 Australia 's chief military officer and three senior ministers in the Menzies Government , James Fairbairn , Geoffrey Street and Henry Somer Gullett , were killed when their plane crashed on the southern approach to Canberra .
A 6 @.@ 5 km ( 4 @.@ 0 mi ) branch from the Bombala railway line was built from Queanbeyan to Canberra station in 1914 and extended to Civic in June 1921 , but the bridge over the Molonglo River was washed away in 1922 and never rebuilt . Plans to build a railway to Yass were abandoned . A 1067 mm gauge construction railway was built in 1923 between the Yarralumla brickworks and the provisional Parliament House . It was later extended to Civic , but the whole line was closed in May 1927 . A railway connecting Canberra to Jervis Bay was planned , but never constructed . Several facilities were built in Jervis Bay including the Royal Australian Naval College ( HMAS Creswell ) erected in 1913 , the Jervis Bay Air Base Range , and a Botanic Gardens .
The native forest of the ACT was composed almost wholly of eucalypt species and provided a resource for fuel and domestic purposes , especially during the economic boom following World War II . By the early 1960s , logging had depleted the eucalypt , and concern about water quality in the Cotter River catchment led to the forests being closed . Interest in forestry had begun in 1915 , when T. C. G. Weston had commenced trials of a number of species including Pinus radiata on the slopes of Mount Stromlo . Plantation forestry began in earnest in 1926 with 2 km2 ( 0 @.@ 8 sq mi ) planted annually around Uriarra and Pierce 's Creek .
By 1938 the area planted yearly was 4 km2 ( 1 @.@ 5 sq mi ) , with the favourable benefit of reducing erosion in the Cotter catchment . In 1967 the Australian Government approved a plan for a total 160 km2 ( 61 @.@ 8 sq mi ) of plantation in the ACT , which was achieved in 1970 . The ease of access to the plantations has made them popular recreation areas for Canberrans . Throughout the 20th century , significant areas of plantation forest were periodically lost to bushfires , with major fires occurring in 1939 , 1952 , 1979 , 1983 , 2001 and 2003 .
In 1936 about 8 @.@ 1 km2 ( 3 @.@ 1 sq mi ) of forest was set aside to create the Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve , and in 1939 a koala enclose was built by the Institute of Anatomy . The government acquired land to establish a national park and fauna reserve in 1962 , expanding it to 36 @.@ 3 km2 ( 14 @.@ 0 sq mi ) and later , to its current size of 54 @.@ 5 km2 ( 21 @.@ 0 sq mi ) . In 1969 the first wildlife displays were created , and the park was officially gazetted in 1971 . In 1984 the Namadgi National Park was declared . It is 1 @,@ 061 km2 ( 409 @.@ 7 sq mi ) and takes up approximately 46 % of the ACT 's land .
In 1911 , Mount Stromlo was assessed as a possible site for a Commonwealth Solar Observatory , and it became the location of the facility in 1924 . It was operated as a Commonwealth government facility until 1957 , when it was transferred to the Australian National University ( ANU ) . From 1944 to 1968 it was also the site of the national time @-@ keeping service . By the early 1980s , Mount Stromlo , together with the ANU 's Siding Spring observatory , was producing Australia 's greatest astronomical research output .
The Australian Government signed an agreement with the United States in 1960 for the establishment of satellite @-@ tracking stations in the ACT . As a result of the agreement , three tracking stations were built in the ACT by NASA . The Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex was officially opened on 19 March 1965 by Prime Minister Menzies , and is the only station still in operation in the ACT , communicating with interplanetary spacecraft .
The Orroral Valley Tracking Station , which was for orbiting satellite support , opened in May 1965 in what is now part of Namadgi National Park , was closed down in 1985 . Honeysuckle Creek Tracking Station , completed in December 1966 , was a communications relay station for Project Apollo , Skylab and interplanetary spacecraft from 1967 until 1981 , when its 26 m ( 85 @.@ 3 ft ) antenna was moved to the Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex . It was closed in July 2009 and is now being dismantled .
= = Government and the ACT = =
The Australian Capital Territory Police was created in 1927 , the same year the federal government moved to the ACT , with eleven officers . The size of the force grew over subsequent decades with the development of Canberra , and oversaw law and order in the territory until 1979 . In that year , the ACT Police merged with the Commonwealth Police and the Federal Narcotics Bureau to form the Australian Federal Police ( AFP ) , which then took responsibility for law and order in Canberra . Since self @-@ government was granted in 1988 , the AFP has performed this under contract to the ACT government .
The ACT was given its first federal representation in 1949 , when it gained a seat in the House of Representatives , the Division of Australian Capital Territory , under the 1948 Representation Act which increased the size of the House of Representatives . The ACT member could only vote on matters directly affecting the Territory . In 1974 , the ACT and the Northern Territory were each allocated two Senate seats . In 1974 , the House of Representatives seat was divided into two , the Division of Canberra and Division of Fraser . A third , the Division of Namadgi , was created in 1996 , but was abolished in 1998 after an updated assessment of changes to the regional demographic distribution . Both House of Representatives seats have mostly been held by the Australian Labor Party , while ALP and the Liberal Party of Australia have always each held one Senate seat .
In 1930 , the ACT Advisory Council was established to advise the Minister for Territories on the community 's concerns and from 1934 the territory had its own Supreme Court . In 1974 the Council became a fully elected Legislative Assembly , advising the Minister of the Capital Territory , and in 1979 this renamed the House of Assembly .
= = = Movements towards self @-@ governance = = =
Although there was a push by residents of the ACT for a greater say in the management of the territory , this did not necessarily equate to a desire for self @-@ governance . John Overall , who served as the head of the NCDC from 1957 to 1972 , summarised the distinction in " Canberra : Yesterday , Today and Tomorrow " :
Canberra residents may have been demanding a greater say in their destiny , but they rejected attempts by the Federal Government to have them take control of their own affairs through self @-@ government . They appeared reluctant to accept the responsibility of governing themselves , or perhaps , the increased costs which they feared would inevitably follow the handover of power from the Federal Government to a local body . ... [ M ] ost realised that the end of direct control by the Federal Government would inevitably lead to higher taxes or a cut in services , as indeed was the case when self @-@ government finally occurred in the late 1980s .
Nevertheless , there were many residents in Canberra who wanted self @-@ government , and there were a number of forces pushing the territory in that direction .
The formation of the Legislative Assembly in 1974 was intended as the significant step towards self @-@ government , but the Whitlam Government , under whose auspices the Assembly was formed , tended to " override or ignore its wishes . " Similarly , the subsequent 1975 Fraser Government seemed uninterested in the Assembly . However , in February 1975 , Tony Staley accepted the post of Minister for the Capital Territory . Staley had been a supporter of self @-@ government for the ACT , and he proposed a model whereby Canberrans would rapidly gain control of much of the territory 's administration . The model found opposition , though , in part because it failed to adequately address the funding arrangements .
Although Staley 's plan did not eventuate , the next person to run the Ministry , Robert Ellicott , chose to hold a referendum on the issue . The 1978 referendum provided the residents of the territory with three options :
That self @-@ government be granted to the Territory by delegating functions to a locally elected legislative body .
That a locally elected legislative body be established in the Territory with local government @-@ type legislative and executive functions .
That the present arrangements for governing the Territory should continue for the time being .
A clear majority voted for continuing with the status quo – 63 @.@ 75 % , as opposed to 5 @.@ 72 % in favour of the local government model and 30 @.@ 54 % supporting the " state style " self @-@ government approach .
Overall identified a number of reasons why residents opposed self @-@ government . Along with the previously mentioned fear of increases in taxation or decreases in services , he argued that those living in the ACT would have felt that they already had a voice in the governance of the territory , through federal electoral representation . Canberra also had a high proportion of public servants who felt that they were already a part of the government , and knew how to work with the system .
In spite of the result , the referendum failed to end the debate . There were a number of pressures that continued to push the ACT towards self @-@ government , including :
National consistency of governance . In 1978 the Northern Territory achieved self @-@ government . The ACT was the only other mainland territory , with a population greater than that of the Northern Territory that was growing faster , so it was suggested that if self @-@ government was appropriate for the Northern Territory , then it must also be appropriate for the ACT .
The re @-@ enfranchisement of the community . Two inquiries had recommended that the ACT needed to provide the community with " the same sort of representative institutions that have been established in other parts of Australia " .
Financial pressures . The ACT had enjoyed high quality services through Federal Government funding , to the extent that the Federal Grants Commission report that Australia was subsiding the residents " to the tune of over $ 200 for every man , woman and child in the Territory . " Self @-@ government would allow the ACT to be placed on the same financial footing as that of the other states and the Northern Territory . This was identified by Bill Harris , the head of the ACT Administration just prior to self @-@ government , as the " fundamental reason " for the eventual realisation of self @-@ government in the Territory .
In 1988 , the new minister for the ACT , Gary Punch , received a report recommending the abolition of the NCDC and the formation of a locally elected government . Punch recommended that the Hawke government accept the report 's recommendations , and subsequently Clyde Holding introduced legislation to grant self @-@ government to the Territory in October 1988 .
= = = Self @-@ government = = =
The enactment on 6 December 1988 of the Australian Capital Territory ( Self @-@ Government ) Act 1988 @.@ established the framework for ACT Self @-@ government . The first election for the 17 @-@ member Australian Capital Territory Legislative Assembly was held on 4 March 1989 . The provisions of the Act establishing the ACT as a self @-@ governing territory within the Commonwealth of Australia commenced operation on 11 May 1989 , coinciding with the first sitting of the Legislative Assembly at 1 Constitution Avenue , Civic . The Australian Labor Party formed the ACT 's first government , led by Chief Minister Rosemary Follett , who made history as Australia 's first female head of government . Although since the commencement of self @-@ government , ACT law has continued to apply in general to the Jervis Bay Territory under section 4A of the Jervis Bay Territory Acceptance Act 1915 , the ACT as defined under the Self @-@ Government Act 1988 does not include Jervis Bay , which continues to be administered by the Commonwealth . Since 1992 , members of the Assembly have been elected by the Hare @-@ Clark proportional representation system from three multi @-@ member electorates , which replaced the modified D 'Hondt method used in the inaugural election , in which the 17 representatives were elected from a territory @-@ wide electorate .
Whereas the ACT 's federal electorates have been mainly held by Labor , the Liberal Party has been able to gain some footing in the ACT Assembly , and were in government for just over eight of the Assembly 's 21 @-@ year history . Most of this was during a period of six and half years from 1995 and 2001 , which ended when Labor gained a 14 @.@ 1 % swing at the polls . In contrast to the state elections , Labor has polled at least seven percentage points more than the Liberals at every federal election since 1990 , and their average lead since then has been 15 percentage points .
The initial years of self @-@ government were difficult and unstable . A majority of ACT residents had opposed self @-@ government and had it imposed upon them by the federal parliament , and at the first election , 4 of the 17 seats were won by anti @-@ self @-@ government single @-@ issue parties due to a protest vote by disgruntled territorians , and a total of 8 were won by minor parties and independents . Follett and Labor won only four seats and had to form a minority government , as seven groups were represented in total . Some of the anti @-@ self @-@ government representatives sought to disrupt the territory 's legislature from the inside , and a no @-@ confidence motion toppled Labor after only seven months . Trevor Kaine and the Liberals ruled for 18 months before being deposed , and Follett 's Labor returned , the third government in 25 months . In 1992 , Labor won eight seats , and the minor parties and independents won only three . Stability increased , and in 1995 , Kate Carnell became the first elected Liberal chief minister . In 1998 Carnell became the first chief minister to be re @-@ elected . She was regarded as a proactive leader but resigned in 2000 after two independents who had supported her minority government withdrew their support . At the time , she had been embroiled in controversy over the funding of the Canberra Stadium and an accidental fatality caused by the Royal Canberra Hospital implosion . Labor have won the three elections since 2001 , and in 2004 formed the first majority government in the territory , but after the 2008 election were forced into minority government with the Greens .
In 2006 , the majority Labor government made sweeping changes to the education system , shutting down 23 schools across the territory . These were made in the face of sustained public opposition , and since then , there have been campaigns from opposition parties and the community to re @-@ open some of them . This included the 2008 election , where it was a major topic .
Since the 1993 creation of the National Native Title Tribunal , there have been four separate claims to Native Title lodged over alienated lands in the ACT by representatives of the Ngunnawal communities , in 1996 , 1997 , 1998 and 2002 . The first two of these were discontinued after reaching a Federal Court hearing , and the third was rejected as not meeting applicable provisions . The fourth claim was dismissed .
In 2001 , the ACT government entered into a cooperative agreement with the Aboriginal community over the management of Namadgi National Park . The deal no longer exists .
In the 1990s , a number of activities which are or were illegal in other Australian states were legalised in the ACT . These include the sale of X @-@ rated pornographic materials ( 1989 ) and prostitution in brothels ( 1992 ) , although brothels are only permitted to operate in the suburbs of Hume , Mitchell and Fyshwick . The personal use of cannabis was decriminalised in 1992 and abortion was decriminalised in 2002 . In 2006 , the ACT Government attempted to introduce a law recognising civil unions , but it was overturned by the federal government .
= = 2000s = =
The first years of the 21st century saw a period of extended drought in the ACT region , accompanied by several bushfires that caused widespread devastation . Over the 2001 Christmas period , five separate bushfires burnt over 16 km2 ( 6 @.@ 2 sq mi ) of forest in the ACT , including millions of dollars ' worth of plantation pine forest .
The drought conditions continued during the following years , and in 2003 the ACT burned again . The 2003 bushfires damaged around 70 % of the ACT 's area , including 99 % of the Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve and significant areas of government @-@ owned pine plantation . Four people were killed and 67 rural houses were destroyed , including 16 houses at Uriarra , 12 at Pierces Creek ; 414 houses in the outer suburbs of Canberra were razed .
More than 200 other houses were damaged , and numerous buildings of historical significance were lost , including the Mount Franklin Chalet , which was built in 1937 – 38 for the Canberra Alpine Club and was the first club @-@ built ski lodge in mainland Australia , and many others in the Namadgi National Park . Nil Desperandum and Rock Valley Homestead , the two historic houses at Tidbinbilla , were destroyed . Most buildings of the Mount Stromlo Observatory , operated by the Australian National University , were destroyed , including the observatory 's Oddie telescope and its dome , which had been built in 1911 and was the first federal building in the ACT .
On 7 December 2013 , the ACT same @-@ sex marriage act came into effect , making the ACT the first legislature in Australia to allow same @-@ sex marriages . On 12 December 2013 , the High Court of Australia unanimously held this law to be invalid for inconsistency with the federal Marriage Act 1961 . However , all parties to the case had agreed and the Court accepted that the federal parliament 's power to make laws with respect to " marriage " , Constitution s 51 ( 21 ) , extends to same @-@ sex marriage . There can now be uniform federal law for marriages of any kind .
= = = Cited references = = =
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= Mary Young Pickersgill =
Mary Pickersgill ( born Mary Young ; February 12 , 1776 – October 4 , 1857 ) , was the maker of the Star Spangled Banner Flag hoisted over Fort McHenry during the Battle of Baltimore in the War of 1812 . The daughter of another noted flag maker , Rebecca Young , Pickersgill learned her craft from her mother , and , in 1813 , was commissioned by Major George Armistead to make a flag for Baltimore 's Fort McHenry that was so large that the British would have no difficulty seeing it from a great distance . The flag was installed in August 1813 , and , a year later , during the Battle of Baltimore , Francis Scott Key could see the flag while negotiating a prisoner exchange aboard a British vessel , and was inspired to pen the words that became the United States National Anthem .
Pickersgill , widowed at the age of 29 , became successful enough in her flag making business , that , in 1820 , she was able to buy the house that she had been renting in Baltimore , and later became active in addressing social issues , such as housing and employment for disadvantaged women . From 1828 to 1851 , she was president of the Impartial Female Humane Society which had been founded in 1802 , incorporated in 1811 , and helped impoverished families with school vouchers for children and employment for women . Under Pickersgill 's leadership , this organization built a home for aged women and later added an Aged Men 's Home which was built adjacent to it . These , more than a century later , evolved into the Pickersgill Retirement Community of Towson , Maryland which opened in 1959 .
Pickersgill died in 1857 and was buried in the Loudon Park Cemetery in southwest Baltimore , where her daughter erected a monument for her , and where some civic @-@ minded organizations later erected a bronze plaque . The house where Pickersgill lived for 50 years , at the northwest corner of Albemarle and East Pratt Streets in downtown Baltimore , became known as the Star @-@ Spangled Banner Flag House in 1927 . The house was saved through the efforts of many preservation @-@ minded citizens who were motivated by the Centennial Celebrations of 1914 .
= = Early life = =
Born in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania on February 12 , 1776 , Mary Young was the youngest of six children born to William Young and Rebecca Flower . Her mother , who became widowed when Mary was two years old , had a flag shop on Walnut Street in Philadelphia where she made ensigns , garrison flags and " Continental Colors " for the Continental Army . Her 1781 advertisement in the " Pennsylvania Packet " read , " All kinds of colours , for the Army and Navy , made and sold on the most reasonable Terms , By Rebecca Young . " Young moved her family to Baltimore , Maryland when Mary was a child , and it was from her mother that Mary learned the craft of flag making .
On October 2 , 1795 , at the age of 19 , Mary married John Pickersgill , a merchant , and moved back to Philadelphia with her husband . Of Mary 's four children , only one survived childhood , a daughter named Caroline . Mary 's husband traveled to London to work for the United States Government in the British Claims Office , but died in London on June 14 , 1805 , leaving Mary widowed at the age of 29 . In 1807 Mary then moved back to Baltimore with her daughter Caroline and her 67 @-@ year @-@ old mother Rebecca .
The small family rented a house at 44 Queen Street ( later 844 East Pratt Street , which became the Star Spangled Banner Flag House and 1812 Museum ) , where Pickersgill took in boarders and opened a flag @-@ making business , selling " silk standards , cavalry and division colours of every description . " Her customers included the United States Army , United States Navy , and visiting merchant ships .
= = The Fort McHenry flag = =
In 1813 the United States was at war with Great Britain , and Baltimore was preparing for an eventual attack as the fleet of the British Royal Navy had complete maritime control of the Chesapeake Bay . Major George Armistead , the U.S. Army commander of the Infantry and Artillery units that defended Fort McHenry in Baltimore , felt that the fort was prepared for an attack , except it lacked a flag . In a letter to the head of the Maryland Militia and military commander for Baltimore , Major General Samuel Smith , he wrote , " We , sir , are ready at Fort McHenry to defend Baltimore against invading by the enemy . That is to say , we are ready except that we have no suitable ensign to display over the Star Fort and it is my desire to have a flag so large that the British will have no difficulty seeing it from a distance . " A delegation consisting of Armistead , Smith , Brig. General John Stricker , and Commodore Joshua Barney , Pickersgill 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , visited with Pickersgill , and discussed the particulars of the desired flag . They commissioned Pickersgill to make two flags , " one American ensign , 30 X 42 feet , first quality bunting " and another flag 17 by 25 feet . " A task as large as the making of these flags was beyond the capability of one person to complete , and Pickersgill not only drew on members of her own household for help , but also contracted labor from the immediate neighborhood . In early summer 1813 , she began the job with the assistance of her daughter , Caroline , her two nieces , Eliza Young and Margaret Young , a free African American apprentice , Grace Wisher , and likely her elderly mother , Rebecca Young . An additional unnamed African American who boarded in the house is also listed as helping in some sources , as were additional local seamstresses who were hired during the summer . Often working late into the evening , until midnight at times , Pickersgill 's team was able to complete the job in six weeks . Pickersgill 's daughter , in an 1876 letter to Georgiana Armistead Appleton , the daughter of Major Armistead ( later breveted a lieutenant colonel ) , wrote these particulars about the flag :
The flag being so very large , mother was obliged to obtain permission from the proprietors of Claggetts [ sic ] brewery which was in our neighborhood , to spread it out in their malt house ; and I remember seeing my mother down on the floor , placing the stars : after the completion of the flag , she superintended the topping of it , having it fastened in the most secure manner to prevent its being torn away by ( cannon ) balls : the wisdom of her precaution was shown during the engagement : many shots piercing it , but it still remained firm to the staff . Your father ( Col. Armistead ) declared that no one but the maker of the flag should mend it , and requested that the rents should merely be bound around .
The large flag contained over 400 yards ( 366 meters ) of fabric , and included 15 stripes and 15 stars , one for each of the 15 states of the union . The stars were made of cotton and the stripes and blue canton were of English wool bunting . Each stripe was two feet ( 60 cm ) wide and each of the stars measured 24 inches ( 60 cm ) across from tip to tip . The women did much of the work in the evening after the brewery closed , sometimes working until midnight , and Pickersgill delivered the flags to Fort McHenry on August 19 , 1813 , a full year before the Battle of Baltimore .
The main flag weighed about 50 pounds ( 23 kg ) , and it took 11 men to raise it onto a 90 @-@ foot ( 27 @-@ meter ) flagpole . The result was an enormous American flag that could be seen for several miles from the Fort . On October 27 , 1813 a receipt was given to Pickersgill and her niece Eliza Young in the amount of $ 405 @.@ 90 for the larger flag , and $ 168 @.@ 54 for the smaller one ( which was also used at Fort McHenry as a storm flag ) . The small flag may have been flying when the British initially attacked Fort McHenry during the Battle of Baltimore on September 13 , because of the inclement weather that night with the driving rainstorm ( which would have made the woolen bunting material soggy and too heavy to blow out in any breeze ) . However , it was Pickersgill 's large flag that was flying over the fort at daybreak on September 14 , 1814 , after the British had ceased firing on the fort . A diary entry from a British sub @-@ altern on board ship and recently returned from the North Point battlefield , George Glebe , described that sunny morning when the Americans at the distant fort " fired their ( " wake @-@ up " ) morning gun salute and raised a splendid ensign " over the battlements . While negotiating a prisoner exchange aboard a British ship , Francis Scott Key saw the flag , and this inspired him to pen the words to the poem " The Defence of Fort McHenry " that later became the National Anthem of the United States in 1931 .
After the 1814 battle , George Armistead took possession of the large flag , and after his death in 1818 his widow , Louisa Hughes Armistead , kept it . During her four decades of ownership , she allowed it to be displayed on a few occasions , and also removed pieces of it to be given as gifts , a common practice of the day . Following her death in 1861 the flag went to her daughter , Georgiana Armistead Appleton , and then later to her grandson , Eben Appleton . The flag was moved to various locations over a 40 @-@ year period until 1907 when Eben Appleton loaned it to the Smithsonian . In 1912 the loan became permanent , and the flag underwent a variety of restorations . Beginning in December 1998 , the flag began an $ 18 million conservation treatment ( not a restoration ) and now this flag that was hand crafted by Pickersgill and her helpers in 1813 is one of the most important artifacts , and the centerpiece of the redesigned National Museum of American History .
= = Later life = =
By 1820 Pickersgill had become sufficiently successful in her business to purchase the house she had been renting , and lived there for the remainder of her life . Her business success allowed her to become active in addressing social issues such as housing , job placement , and financial aid for disadvantaged women , decades before these issues became prominent concerns in society . The Impartial Female Humane Society had been established to help needy Baltimore families with educating their children , and to help destitute women find employment . Pickersgill served as the president of this society from 1828 to 1851 , and under her presidency a home for aged women was finally opened in West Baltimore in 1851 after a long planning and construction process . Following her tenure as president , a home for aged men was then established adjacent to the women 's home in 1869 . In 1959 the two homes were combined and moved from west Baltimore to Towson , Maryland , and in 1962 the new facility was named the " Pickersgill Retirement Community " in honor of the woman who had been instrumental in its creation .
Pickersgill died on October 4 , 1857 , and is buried in Loudon Park Cemetery in southwest Baltimore . Her daughter Caroline erected a monument for her , and later the genealogical heritage organization United States Daughters of 1812 and the Star Spangled Banner Flag House Association , which had organized to save and preserve the Flag House in 1927 , placed a bronze plaque at the foot of her grave .
= = Legacy = =
Besides making the flag that inspired Francis Scott Key to compose the words to the United States National Anthem , Pickersgill is also remembered for her humanitarian contributions to society , evident in her decades @-@ long presidency of the Impartial Female Humane Society , which eventually evolved into the Pickersgill Retirement Community of Towson , Maryland . She is also remembered for her house , known as the Star @-@ Spangled Banner Flag House and later renamed the Flag House and Star @-@ Spangled Banner Museum , which stands at the corner of East Pratt Street and Albemarle Street in eastern downtown Baltimore and is a National Historic Landmark .
About the time of the American Bicentennial , noted artist Robert McGill Mackall created a painting depicting Mary Pickersgill and her helpers in the malt house of a brewery , sewing the " Star @-@ Spangled Banner " . A copy of the painting is maintained by the Maryland Historical Society .
Mary Pickersgill was the namesake of a World War II Liberty ship , the SS " Mary Pickersgill " , launched in 1944 . In addition , a type of flower is known as the Mary Pickersgill Rose .
Concerning Pickersgill 's famous flag , In 1998 , I. Michael Heyman , Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution wrote :
= = Family = =
Pickersgill 's uncle , Colonel Benjamin Flower , fought during the American Revolutionary War , and was presented a sword by General George Washington , commander of the Continental Army . The presentation was made for Flower 's masterful evacuation of Philadelphia during the British occupation of that city , the first American capital , in late 1776 .
Of Pickersgill 's five siblings , her oldest brother , William Young , was also a flag maker , and it is likely that his two daughters were Pickersgill 's nieces that assisted in making the Star Spangled Banner flag . Her sister , Hannah Young , married Captain Jesse Fearson , a privateer ship commander during the War of 1812 who was captured by the British , imprisoned in Havana , Cuba , and later escaped .
Pickersgill 's one surviving child , Caroline ( 1800 @-@ 1884 ) , married John Purdy ( 1795 @-@ 1837 ) . The couple apparently had no surviving children , because in a letter written late in her life to the daughter of George Armistead , Purdy called herself " widowed and childless . " She had become somewhat destitute late in life , and in the same letter requested some financial assistance , but also provided some history about her mother and the making of the Star @-@ Spangled Banner flag .
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= Lady Gaga Live at Roseland Ballroom =
Lady Gaga Live at Roseland Ballroom was the first residency show by American singer Lady Gaga . Performed at the Roseland Ballroom in Manhattan , New York , the residency show began on March 28 and concluded on April 7 , 2014 , after completing seven shows . It was the final event hosted by the venue after it was announced that it was being closed down and being replaced with a 42 @-@ story skyscraper . Gaga revealed that Roseland was the only venue in New York City that she had never played , although she had visited there previously to watch shows . A poster announcing the event was released , showing an old image of Gaga taken before the time she became successful as a recording artist .
As an homage to the venue , the stage was decorated with roses . The multi @-@ leveled set @-@ up consisted of New York City fire escape routes . Other parts of the stage had a ladder reaching the mezzanine floors and a replica of an F train carriage . Gaga 's wardrobe was also rose themed , with leotards , hats and jackets , and instruments adorned with red roses . The main set list for the show encompassed songs from The Fame , The Fame Monster , Born This Way , and Artpop . Some tracks were performed in acoustic versions .
The shows received positive reviews from music critics . Reviewers were impressed by Gaga 's vocals , the choreography , and the overall presentation of the show . The shows were sold out with ticket prices being above the average costs of tickets at the venue . Billboard revealed that the seven dates had sold a total of 24 @,@ 532 tickets while grossing a total of $ 1 @.@ 5 million . Two performances from the show were transmitted on the Late Show with David Letterman , while MTV and Logo TV collaborated to show the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes logistics for the residency . The final show on April 7 , 2014 was live @-@ streamed by Verizon Communications .
= = Background and announcement = =
The Roseland Ballroom opened in its first Manhattan location at 51st Street in 1919 , after moving from Philadelphia . It moved to its current location at 52nd Street in 1956 , as a converted skating rink . The venue began as a hall for ballroom dancing and orchestra groups , but later shifted its focus through various eras of popular music , including disco , grunge , and EDM . While the Roseland Ballroom has seen performances from a both up @-@ and @-@ coming bands and established acts , rumors have been circulating since 1996 about the venue 's demise , after Ginsberg filed plans to tear down its low @-@ rise , three @-@ story structure and replace it with a 59 @-@ story high @-@ rise . It was announced on October 19 , 2013 that the Roseland Ballroom would be closing in April 2014 , after over 50 years of operation at its current location .
On November 19 , 2013 , it was revealed that Gaga would perform the final shows at the venue with an intimate , four @-@ night residency on March 28 , March 30 , March 31 , and April 2 , 2014 . Tickets went on sale through Ticketmaster on November 25 ; tickets were priced at $ 50 for the floor and $ 200 for the mezzanine . Members of Gaga 's fan club were able to register for first access to tickets starting on November 19 . Users were selected at random to receive invitations and codes to purchase tickets on November 21 . Citi card members also had access to the pre @-@ sale starting November 22 .
According to Gaga , playing at the Roseland Ballroom was always a dream of hers . She explained to John Seabrook of The New Yorker that " It 's basically the only room in the city I haven 't played . " As a young girl , she could not afford tickets , but she did manage to win free tickets to a Franz Ferdinand show during her senior year of high school . Gaga recalled that she fell down during the show and got her nose broken , making her parents forbid her from visiting Roseland . After the singer 's career took off with the release of debut album , The Fame ( 2008 ) , she bypassed playing at the venue until its closure . Gaga revealed the official poster for the residency show on March 18 , 2014 . The poster features an image of Gaga that was taken in 2008 at the Lower East Side of New York City . According to Gaga : " We found him and used that same photo for my Roseland poster . " The poster also includes a quote from Gaga taken when the photograph was taken , that reads : " I 'm Lady Gaga . A singer / songwriter . You 're going to know me one day . "
= = Development and inspiration = =
Thematically , both the stage set up and the wardrobe consisted of lots of roses and was an homage to the venue and the name " Roseland " . Starting from arriving at Roseland in a nude bodysuit and mask , embellished with red roses , the outfits worn on the stage included characteristic attire worn by Gaga in her previous live performances . One of the dresses consisted of purple colored hot pants , fishnets , and a mask , all covered with purple roses , along with a metallic purple jacket to top it off . Photographer Terry Richardson took photos of the backstage activities which revealed that a second purple jacket was also worn by Gaga and it was bejeweled and emblazoned with the word " Gaga " on the rear side . The instruments used by the singer , such as a keyboard , was also decked similarly with red roses . Another dress included shoulder spikes reminiscent of the singer 's attire during her first studio album era , coupled with a hat made of black roses . A green colored wig was also worn by Gaga which she had introduced during the Artpop era . Gaga 's vocal coach Don Lawrence , who began working with her when she was 13 , assisted her before each show , either by being present there or through phone . One hour prior to the start of the show , Gaga practiced her vocal warm @-@ ups .
The stage was created to embody the New York City fire escape routes making it multi @-@ leveled and comparable to the self @-@ titled album cover by rock band Grateful Dead . It had a large red curtain to hide it from the audience and was similarly decked with roses . A rose draped ladder was placed at the left side of the stage which helped Gaga climb the mezzanine floors . A catwalk was constructed behind the stage , which was lined with more roses , and enabled her dancers to perform on them . A piano was placed in front of a window representing Gaga 's old apartment in New York City . The Lower East Side of New York was represented by the replica of a F train carriage on the auxiliary platform of Roseland named as the " Artpop Zone " , decked with neon lights and spelling out " 176 Stanton Street " , Gaga 's old address . A confetti cannon was also kept for the performance of " Applause " and the giant disco ball of the venue was used .
= = Concert synopsis = =
The main set list for the show included songs from The Fame , The Fame Monster , Born This Way , and Artpop . The show began with Gaga appearing on top of the platforms and danced towards her piano to perform an acoustic version of " Born This Way " , before proceeding to dance on the rafters with her backup troupe to " Black Jesus + Amen Fashion " in her purple leotard and jacket . A costume change ensued and Gaga performed " Monster " wearing a crimson leather body suit and roses atop her head . She played the rose @-@ adorned keytar and gradually segued into " Bad Romance " . Middle of the performance , she ran to the left of the stage to climb a ladder to the mezannine floors , where she sang the final chorus and " Sexxx Dreams " followed with energetic dance moves .
Gaga moved towards the F train stage on the right , and sang the piano ballads " Dope " and " You and I " , interspersed with monologues about the venue , her beginnings as a singer in New York and addictions . The third costume change took place with the performance of " Just Dance " , where she wore yellow hot pants and metallic chest plates , while being accompanied by her full troupe of nine dancers . An intermediate break was introduced with Gaga playing another keytar . " Poker Face " followed , being played by Gaga on the piano . The song was rearranged to include lyrics about the venue and New York . " Artpop " was then played as an interlude .
The final song of the set was " Applause " , where Gaga wore another costume , this time the purple bikini and jacket . Towards the end of the performance , confetti rained on the audience and after a brief interlude Gaga appeared in a white jumpsuit for an encore of " G.U.Y. " The singer showed provocative dance moves while straddling her backup performers , and executed choreography similar to the song 's music video . The show ended with Gaga and her troupe taking a bow to the audience and thanking Roseland .
= = Critical reception = =
Andrew Hammp of Billboard called the show " electrifying " though he felt that " If SXSW served as a statement about how brands should fund artists ' creative expression , Gaga 's Roseland residency was about giving the people what they wanted ..... [ The ] night ended rather abruptly after almost exactly 60 minutes " . A writer for The Courier called the show " short but sweet " and praised her for never showing " signs of slowing down " throughout the show . James Montgomery of MTV News praised the overall show , calling it " heavy on the hits , sublimely sexual , suitably sentimental — both for her glory days and the iconic venue she 's closing with this seven @-@ night stand — and ridiculous in all the right ways " . He noted that the abrupt ending of the show was compensated by Gaga 's dancing and singing , which inturn helped counteract the negative press she had been receiving since the release of Artpop . Glenn Gamboa from Newsday called the show " fierce " and " brainy " , saying that the singer " fired up " from the moment she took the stage , displaying an avant @-@ garde artistic sensibility . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times called the show part of the " Supernova " phase of her career and explained ,
Gaga grounds this sort of spectacle with her voice . She is still a fearsome singer when she chooses to be , which is to say rarely on records but often in concert ... What she gave the faithful was easy to digest : largely bulletproof pop , swinging back and forth between brooding , panting torch songs delivered at top volume and grand @-@ scale 1980s @-@ style digital rock with a nightclub twist .
Adam Markovitz from Entertainment Weekly declared that if the " Roseland show is any indication , Gaga 's not going anywhere anytime soon " , in spite of the overall negative reception towards her campaigns for Artpop . He welcomed the absence of any art @-@ related things in the show and commended the focus on music , Gaga 's vocals and abilities as an entertainer . Markovitz also complimented Gaga 's rapport with the audience members and rated the performances of " Just Dance " and " Bad Romance " as highlights . Markos Papadatos from Digital Journal website declared Gaga as a " pop muse " for the performances . He complimented the choice of songs in the set list calling them " eclectic " and felt they " displayed different sides to her craft " . He noticed that the singer 's vocal abilities were particularly prominent during the acoustic performances on piano . Caryn Ganz from Rolling Stone observed that the compact space of Roseland did not allow for much choreography , but felt Gaga 's performance was " magical " , especially during " You and I " .
Hilary Hughes from USA Today also noticed Gaga 's vocal range , especially during the acoustic interpretation of " Dope " and " Just Dance " . Hughes concluded by saying that the simplest moments of the performances were the ones featuring toned down versions of her singles like " Born This Way " and " Poker Face " , rather than the extravagant choreography during " Bad Romance " and " G.U.Y. " Hardeep Phull from New York Post appreciated the stage setup and the homage to old New York industrial setting and gave positive feedback for Gaga 's choice to be an entertainer with the performances of " You and I " , " Just Dance " , and " Applause " . Jordan Runtagh from VH1 applauded Gaga 's camaraderie with her fans , also noting that " the abundance of movie cameras reminded us that this was a special moment , one that will go down in history . And not just because these are the last performances at this storied venue . It 's something more . " Runtagh believed that the performances solidified Gaga as a respectable entertainer and would generate further interest for the upcoming ArtRave : The Artpop Ball tour . Amanda Holpuch from The Guardian complimented Gaga 's vocals and her outfits , but felt that the show lacked " something outrageous " from the singer . She added that the most surprising incident of the night was when Gaga climbed a ladder to reach the mezzanine floors and sing from there .
= = Commercial reception and broadcasts = =
Jesse Lawrence from Forbes reported that the first and last shows at the venue were completely sold out , making it the two most expensive shows for Gaga 's economically secondary market . The average ticket price for the secondary market ( $ 375 @.@ 89 ) as well as the final show ( $ 195 @.@ 80 ) were all above the average cost of $ 186 @.@ 40 , with the price dropping as the shows drew nearer . Since Roseland was an admission only venue , costlier tickets were kept for the " Artpop Zone " since it had better views and seating arrangement , as well as a post @-@ show meet and greet with Gaga . In April 2014 , Jesse Lawrence from Forbes reported that following Gaga 's performance at Roseland Ballroom , the tour ticket prices for her ArtRave : The Artpop Ball tour in the secondary markets went up by 5 @.@ 3 % , with major increase being visible at Philips Arena of Atlanta . Tickets at Madison Square Garden rose up to $ 338 @.@ 81 , which was 42 @.@ 6 % higher than the average price . Other locations were ticket prices saw an increase were MGM Grand Garden Arena in Las Vegas , TD Garden Arena in Boston and United Center in Chicago . In June 2014 , Billboard revealed that the seven dates had sold a total of 24 @,@ 532 tickets while grossing a total of $ 1 @.@ 5 million . It ranked at number 41 on the list .
On April 2 , 2014 , Gaga appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman along with guest Bill Murray . After the interview , the singer invited the whole audience to come and watch the show with her ; the performances of " G.U.Y. " and " Dope " was broadcast in the show . MTV and Logo TV collaborated to air various aspects of the preparation for the Roseland shows on April 4 . The behind @-@ the @-@ scenes program would air throughout the day on both channels , including the regular programming on partner channels like MTV Hits . Sway Calloway , an interviewer working with MTV News , had access to the background logistics of the show including rehearsals . They also visited Gaga 's old apartment , and looked at some of the art collection sent to the singer by her fans . The programs were streamed on MTV 's website as well as Gaga 's artist page , and the various social media channels owned by Logo . The final performance at Roseland on April 7 , 2014 , was live streamed for those not able to see the show . Verizon Communications had announced that the event would be streamed from 9 pm EST at the website GetMoreGaga.com. Gaga herself announced the news in a video posted on her Twitter account .
= = Set list = =
The following set list is representative of the show 's opening night on March 28 , 2014 .
" Born This Way " ( Piano Version )
" Black Jesus + Amen Fashion "
" Monster "
" Bad Romance "
" Sexxx Dreams "
" Dope "
" You and I "
" Just Dance "
" Poker Face " ( Piano Version )
" Artpop " ( Interlude )
" Applause "
" G.U.Y. "
= = Shows = =
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= Campbell 's Soup Cans =
Campbell 's Soup Cans , which is sometimes referred to as 32 Campbell 's Soup Cans , is a work of art produced in 1962 by Andy Warhol . It consists of thirty @-@ two canvases , each measuring 20 inches ( 51 cm ) in height × 16 inches ( 41 cm ) in width and each consisting of a painting of a Campbell 's Soup can — one of each of the canned soup varieties the company offered at the time . The individual paintings were produced by a printmaking method — the semi @-@ mechanized screen printing process , using a non @-@ painterly style . Campbell 's Soup Cans ' reliance on themes from popular culture helped to usher in pop art as a major art movement in the United States .
Warhol , a commercial illustrator who became a successful author , publisher , painter , and film director , showed the work on July 9 , 1962 , in his first one @-@ man gallery exhibition as a fine artist in the Ferus Gallery of Los Angeles , California . The exhibition marked the West Coast debut of pop art . The combination of the semi @-@ mechanized process , the non @-@ painterly style , and the commercial subject initially caused offense , as the work 's blatantly mundane commercialism represented a direct affront to the technique and philosophy of abstract expressionism . In the United States the abstract expressionism art movement was dominant during the post @-@ war period , and it held not only to " fine art " values and aesthetics but also to a mystical inclination . This controversy led to a great deal of debate about the merits and ethics of such work . Warhol 's motives as an artist were questioned , and they continue to be topical to this day . The large public commotion helped transform Warhol from being an accomplished 1950s commercial illustrator to a notable fine artist , and it helped distinguish him from other rising pop artists . Although commercial demand for his paintings was not immediate , Warhol 's association with the subject led to his name becoming synonymous with the Campbell 's Soup Can paintings .
Warhol subsequently produced a wide variety of art works depicting Campbell 's Soup cans during three distinct phases of his career , and he produced other works using a variety of images from the world of commerce and mass media . Today , the Campbell 's Soup cans theme is generally used in reference to the original set of paintings as well as the later Warhol drawings and paintings depicting Campbell 's Soup cans . Because of the eventual popularity of the entire series of similarly themed works , Warhol 's reputation grew to the point where he was not only the most @-@ renowned American pop art artist , but also the highest @-@ priced living American artist .
= = Early career = =
= = = New York art scene = = =
Warhol arrived in New York City in 1949 , directly from the School of Fine Arts at Carnegie Institute of Technology . He quickly achieved success as a commercial illustrator , and his first published drawing appeared in the Summer 1949 issue of Glamour Magazine . In 1952 , he had his first art gallery show at the Bodley Gallery with a display of Truman Capote @-@ inspired works . By 1955 , he was tracing photographs borrowed from the New York Public Library 's photo collection with the hired assistance of Nathan Gluck , and reproducing them with a process he had developed earlier as a collegian at Carnegie Tech . His process , which foreshadowed his later work , involved pressing wet ink illustrations against adjoining paper . During the 1950s , he had regular showings of his drawings , and exhibited at the Museum of Modern Art ( Recent Drawings , 1956 ) .
= = = Pop art = = =
In 1960 , Warhol began producing his first canvases , which he based on comic strip subjects . In late 1961 , he learned the process of silkscreening from Floriano Vecchi , who had run the Tiber Press since 1953 . Though the process generally begins with a stencil drawing , it often evolves from a blown up photograph which is then transferred with glue onto silk . In either case , one needs to produce a glue @-@ based version of a positive two @-@ dimensional image ( positive means that open spaces are left where the paint will appear ) . Usually , the ink is rolled across the medium so that it passes through the silk and not the glue . Campbell 's Soup cans were among Warhol 's first silkscreen productions ; the first were U.S. dollar bills . The pieces were made from stencils ; one for each color . Warhol did not begin to convert photographs to silkscreens until after the original series of Campbell 's Soup cans had been produced .
Although Warhol had produced silkscreens of comic strips and of other pop art subjects , he supposedly relegated himself to soup cans as a subject at the time to avoid competing with the more finished style of comics by Roy Lichtenstein . He once said " I 've got to do something that really will have a lot of impact that will be different enough from Lichtenstein and James Rosenquist , that will be very personal , that won 't look like I 'm doing exactly what they 're doing . " In February 1962 , Lichtenstein displayed at a sold @-@ out exhibition of cartoon pictures at Leo Castelli 's eponymous Leo Castelli Gallery , ending the possibility of Warhol exhibiting his own cartoon paintings . Castelli had visited Warhol 's gallery in 1961 and said that the work he saw there was too similar to Lichtenstein 's , although Warhol 's and Lichtenstein 's comic artwork differed in subject and techniques ( e.g. , Warhol 's comic @-@ strip figures were humorous pop culture caricatures such as Popeye , while Lichtenstein 's were generally of stereotypical hero and heroines , inspired by comic strips devoted to adventure and romance ) . Castelli chose not to represent both artists at that time , but he would , in 1964 , exhibit Warhol works such as reproductions of Campbell 's Tomato Juice Box , 1964 ( pictured above , left ) , and Brillo Soap Boxes . He would again exhibit Warhol 's work in 1966 . Lichtenstein 's 1962 show was quickly followed by Wayne Thiebaud 's April 17 , 1962 one @-@ man show at the Allan Stone Gallery featuring all @-@ American foods , which agitated Warhol as he felt it jeopardized his own food @-@ related soup can works . Warhol was considering returning to the Bodley gallery , but the Bodley 's director did not like his pop art works . In 1961 , Warhol was offered a three @-@ man show by Allan Stone at the latter 's 18 East 82nd Street Gallery with Rosenquist and Robert Indiana , but all three were insulted by this proposition .
Irving Blum was the first dealer to show Warhol 's soup can paintings . Blum happened to be visiting Warhol in May 1962 , at a time when Warhol was being featured in a May 11 , 1962 Time magazine article " The Slice @-@ of @-@ Cake School " ( that included a portion of Warhol 's silkscreened 200 One Dollar Bills ) , along with Lichtenstein , Rosenquist , and Wayne Thiebaud . Warhol was the only artist whose photograph actually appeared in the article , which is indicative of his knack for manipulating the mass media . Blum saw dozens of Campbell 's Soup can variations , including a grid of One @-@ Hundred Soup Cans that day . Blum was shocked that Warhol had no gallery arrangement and offered him a July show at the Ferus Gallery in Los Angeles . This would be Warhol 's first one @-@ man show of his pop art . Warhol was assured by Blum that the newly founded Artforum magazine , which had an office above the gallery , would cover the show . Not only was the show Warhol 's first solo gallery exhibit , but it was considered to be the West Coast premiere of pop art . Andy Warhol 's first New York solo Pop exhibit was hosted at Eleanor Ward 's Stable Gallery November 6 – 24 , 1962 . The exhibit included the works Marilyn Diptych , Green Coca @-@ Cola Bottles , and Campbell 's Soup Cans .
= = The premiere = =
Warhol sent Blum thirty @-@ two 20 @-@ by @-@ 16 @-@ inch ( 510 mm × 410 mm ) canvases of Campbell 's Soup can portraits , each representing a particular variety of the Campbell 's Soup flavors available at the time . The thirty @-@ two canvases are very similar : each is a realistic depiction of the iconic , mostly red and white Campbell 's Soup can silkscreened onto a white background . The canvases have minor variation in the lettering of the variety names . Most of the letterings are painted in red letters . Four varieties have black lettering : Clam Chowder has parenthetical black lettering below the variety name that said ( Manhattan Style ) , which means that the soup is tomato- and broth @-@ based instead of the cream @-@ based New England style ; Beef has parenthetical black lettering below the variety name that says ( With Vegetables and Barley ) ; Scotch Broth has parenthetical black lettering below the variety name that said ( A Hearty Soup ) ; and Minestrone had black parenthetical lettering saying ( Italian @-@ Style Vegetable Soup ) . There are two varieties with red lettered parenthetical labels : Beef Broth ( Bouillon ) and Consommé ( Beef ) . The font sizes only vary slightly in the variety names . However , there are a few notable stylistic font differences . Old @-@ fashioned Tomato Rice is the only variety with lower case script . This lower case script appears to be from a slightly different font than the other variety name letters . There are other stylistic differences . Old @-@ fashioned Tomato Rice has the word Soup depicted lower on the can , in place of a portion of ornamental starlike symbols at the bottom that the other 31 varieties have . Also , Cheddar Cheese has two banner @-@ like addenda . In the middle @-@ left , a small golden banner says New ! , and a middle center golden banner says Great As A Sauce Too ! .
The exhibition opened on July 9 , 1962 , with Warhol absent . The thirty @-@ two single soup can canvases were placed in a single line , much like products on shelves , each displayed on narrow individual ledges . The contemporary impact was uneventful , but the historical impact is considered today to have been a watershed . The gallery audience was unsure what to make of the exhibit . A John Coplans Artform article , which was in part spurred on by the responding display of dozens of soup cans by a nearby gallery with a display advertising them at three for 60 cents , encouraged people to take a stand on Warhol . Few actually saw the paintings at the Los Angeles exhibit or at Warhol 's studio , but word spread in the form of controversy and scandal due to the work 's seeming attempt to replicate the appearance of manufactured objects . Extended debate on the merits and ethics of focusing one 's efforts on such a mundane commercial inanimate model kept Warhol 's work in art world conversations . The pundits could not believe an artist would reduce the art form to the equivalent of a trip to the local grocery store . Talk did not translate into monetary success for Warhol . Dennis Hopper was the first of only a half dozen to pay $ 100 for a canvas . Blum decided to try to keep the thirty @-@ two canvases as an intact set and bought back the few sales . This pleased Warhol who had conceived of them as a set , and he agreed to sell the set for ten monthly $ 100 installments to Blum . Warhol had passed the milestone of his first serious art show . While this exhibition was on view in Los Angeles , Martha Jackson canceled another planned December 1962 New York exhibition .
The Ferus show closed on August 4 , 1962 , the day before Marilyn Monroe 's death . Warhol went on to purchase a Monroe publicity still from the film Niagara , which he later cropped and used to create one of his most well @-@ known works : his painting of Marilyn . Although Warhol continued painting other pop art , including Martinson 's coffee cans , Coca @-@ Cola bottles , S & H Green Stamps , and Campbell 's Soup cans , he soon became known to many as the artist who painted celebrities . He returned to Blum 's gallery to exhibit Elvis and Liz in October 1963 . His fans Dennis Hopper and Brooke Hayward ( Hopper 's wife at the time ) held a welcoming party for the event .
Since Warhol gave no indication of a definitive ordering of the collection , the sequence chosen by MoMA ( in the picture at the upper right of this article ) in the display from their permanent collection reflects the chronological order in which the varieties were introduced by the Campbell Soup Company , beginning with Tomato in the upper left , which debuted in 1897 . By April 2011 , the curators at the MoMA had reordered the varieties , moving Clam Chowder to the upper left and tomato to the bottom of the four rows .
= = Motivation = =
Several anecdotal stories supposedly explain why Warhol chose Campbell 's Soup cans as the focal point of his pop art . One reason is that he needed a new subject after he abandoned comic strips , a move taken in part due to his respect for the refined work of Roy Lichtenstein . According to Ted Carey — one of Warhol 's commercial art assistants in the late 1950s — it was Muriel Latow who suggested the idea for both the soup cans and Warhol 's early U.S. dollar paintings .
Muriel Latow was then an aspiring interior decorator , and owner of the Latow Art Gallery in the East 60s in Manhattan . She told Warhol that he should paint " Something you see every day and something that everybody would recognize . Something like a can of Campbell 's Soup . " Ted Carey , who was there at the time , said that Warhol responded by exclaiming : " Oh that sounds fabulous . " According to Carey , Warhol went to a supermarket the following day and bought a case of " all the soups " , which Carey said he saw when he stopped by Warhol 's apartment the next day . When the art critic G. R. Swenson asked Warhol in 1963 why he painted soup cans , the artist replied , " I used to drink it , I used to have the same lunch every day , for twenty years . "
Another account of Latow 's influence on Warhol holds that she asked him what he loved most , and because he replied " money " she suggested that he paint U.S. dollar bills . According to this story , Latow later advised that in addition to painting money he should paint something else very simple , such as Campbell 's Soup cans .
In an interview for London 's The Face in 1985 , David Yarritu asked Warhol about flowers that Warhol 's mother made from tin cans . In his response , Warhol mentioned them as one of the reasons behind his first tin can paintings :
David Yarritu : I heard that your mother used to make these little tin flowers and sell them to help support you in the early days .
Andy Warhol : Oh God , yes , it 's true , the tin flowers were made out of those fruit cans , that 's the reason why I did my first tin @-@ can paintings ... You take a tin @-@ can , the bigger the tin @-@ can the better , like the family size ones that peach halves come in , and I think you cut them with scissors . It 's very easy and you just make flowers out of them . My mother always had lots of cans around , including the soup cans .
Several stories mention that Warhol 's choice of soup cans reflected his own avid devotion to Campbell 's soup as a consumer . Robert Indiana once said : " I knew Andy very well . The reason he painted soup cans is that he liked soup . " He was thought to have focused on them because they composed a daily dietary staple . Others observed that Warhol merely painted things he held close at heart . He enjoyed eating Campbell 's soup , had a taste for Coca @-@ Cola , loved money , and admired movie stars . Thus , they all became subjects of his work . Yet another account says that his daily lunches in his studio consisted of Campbell 's Soup and Coca @-@ Cola , and thus , his inspiration came from seeing the empty cans and bottles accumulate on his desk .
Warhol did not choose the cans because of business relationships with the Campbell Soup Company . Even though the company at the time sold four out of every five cans of prepared soup in the United States , Warhol preferred that the company not be involved " because the whole point would be lost with any kind of commercial tie @-@ in . " However , by 1965 , the company knew him well enough that he was able to coax actual can labels from them to use as invitations for an exhibit . They even commissioned a canvas .
= = Message = =
Warhol had a positive view of ordinary culture and felt the abstract expressionists had taken great pains to ignore the splendor of modernity . The Campbell 's Soup Can series , along with his other series , provided him with a chance to express his positive view of modern culture . However , his deadpan manner endeavored to be devoid of emotional and social commentary . The work was intended to be without personality or individual expression . Warhol 's view is encapsulated in the Time magazine description of the ' Slice of Cake School , ' that " ... a group of painters have come to the common conclusion that the most banal and even vulgar trappings of modern civilization can , when transposed to canvas , become Art . "
His pop art work differed from serial works by artists such as Monet , who used series to represent discriminating perception and show that a painter could recreate shifts in time , light , season , and weather with hand and eye . Warhol is now understood to represent the modern era of commercialization and indiscriminate " sameness . " When Warhol eventually showed variation it was not " realistic . " His later variations in color were almost a mockery of discriminating perception . His adoption of the pseudo @-@ industrial silkscreen process spoke against the use of a series to demonstrate subtlety . Warhol sought to reject invention and nuance by creating the appearance that his work had been printed , and he systematically recreated imperfections . His series work helped him escape Lichtenstein 's lengthening shadow . Although his soup cans were not as shocking and vulgar as some of his other early pop art , they still offended the art world 's sensibilities that had developed so as to partake in the intimate emotions of artistic expression .
Contrasting against Caravaggio 's sensual baskets of fruit , Chardin 's plush peaches , or Cézanne 's vibrant arrangements of apples , the mundane Campbell 's Soup Cans gave the art world a chill . Furthermore , the idea of isolating eminently recognizable pop culture items was ridiculous enough to the art world that both the merits and ethics of the work were perfectly reasonable debate topics for those who had not even seen the piece . Warhol 's pop art can be seen as a relation to Minimal art in the sense that it attempts to portray objects in their most simple , immediately recognizable form . Pop art eliminates overtones and undertones that would otherwise be associated with representations .
Warhol clearly changed the concept of art appreciation . Instead of harmonious three @-@ dimensional arrangements of objects , he chose mechanical derivatives of commercial illustration with an emphasis on the packaging . His variations of multiple soup cans , for example , made the process of repetition an appreciated technique : " If you take a Campbell 's Soup can and repeat it fifty times , you are not interested in the retinal image . According to Marcel Duchamp , what interests you is the concept that wants to put fifty Campbell 's Soup cans on a canvas . " The regimented multiple can depictions almost become an abstraction whose details are less important than the panorama . In a sense , the representation was more important than that which was represented . Warhol 's interest in machinelike creation during his early pop art days was misunderstood by those in the art world , whose value system was threatened by mechanization .
In Europe , audiences had a very different take on his work . Many perceived it as a subversive and Marxist satire on American capitalism . If not subversive , it was at least considered a Marxist critique of pop culture . Given Warhol 's apolitical outlook in general this is not likely the true message . It is likely that his pop art was nothing more than an attempt to attract attention to his work .
In an effort to complement the message of his art , Warhol developed a pop persona after the mass media took note of his pop art . He began to manifest a teenage @-@ like image , immersing himself in pop culture such as Rock & Roll shows and fan magazines . Whereas previous artists used repetition to demonstrate their skill at depicting variation , Warhol coupled " repetition " with " monotony " as he professed his love of artwork themes .
= = Variations = =
Warhol followed the success of his original series with several related works incorporating the same theme of Campbell 's Soup cans subjects . These subsequent works along with the original are collectively referred to as the Campbell 's Soup cans series and often simply as the Campbell 's Soup cans . The subsequent Campbell 's Soup can works were very diverse . The heights ranged from 20 inches ( 510 mm ) to 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) . Generally , the cans were portrayed as if they were freshly produced cans without flaws . Occasionally , he chose to depict cans with torn labels , peeling labels , crushed bodies , or opened lids like those in the images in this section . Sometimes he added related items like a bowl of soup or a can opener , such as the one in the image on the right . Sometimes he produced images of related items without any soup cans such as Campbell 's Tomato Juice Box ( above right ) , which are not strictly a part of the series although a part of the theme . Many of these works were produced at his famous studio " The Factory . "
Irving Blum made the original thirty @-@ two canvases available to the public through an arrangement with the National Gallery of Art in Washington , DC by placing them on permanent loan two days before Warhol 's death . However , the original Campbell 's Soup Cans is now a part of the Museum of Modern Art permanent collection . A print called Campbell 's Soup Cans II is part of the permanent collection of the Museum of Contemporary Art in Chicago . 200 Campbell 's Soup Cans , 1962 ( Acrylic on canvas , 72 inches x 100 inches ) , in the private collection of John and Kimiko Powers is the largest single canvas of the Campbell 's Soup can paintings . It is composed of ten rows and twenty columns of numerous flavors of soups . Experts point to it as one of the most significant works of pop art both as a pop representation and as conjunction with immediate predecessors such as Jasper Johns and the successors movements of Minimal and Conceptual art . The very similar 100 Cans from the Albright @-@ Knox Art Gallery collection is shown above on the left . The earliest soup can painting seems to be Campbell 's Soup Can ( Tomato Rice ) , a 1960 ink , tempera , crayon , and oil canvas .
In many of the works , including the original series , Warhol drastically simplified the gold medallion that appears on Campbell 's Soup cans by replacing the paired allegorical figures with a flat yellow disk . In most variations , the only hint of three @-@ dimensionality came from the shading on the tin lid . Otherwise the image was flat . The works with torn labels are perceived as metaphors of life in the sense that even packaged food must meet its end . They are often described as expressionistic .
By 1970 , Warhol established the record auction price for a painting by a living American artist with a $ 60 @,@ 000 sale of Big Campbell 's Soup Can with Torn Label ( Vegetable Beef ) ( 1962 ) in a sale at Parke @-@ Bernet , the preeminent American auction house of the day ( later acquired by Sotheby 's ) . This record was broken a few months later by his rival for the artworld 's attention and approval , Lichtenstein , who sold a depiction of a giant brush stroke , Big Painting No. 6 ( 1965 ) for $ 75 @,@ 000 .
In May 2006 , Warhol 's Small Torn Campbell Soup Can ( Pepper Pot ) ( 1962 ) sold for $ 11 @,@ 776 @,@ 000 and set the current auction world record for a painting from the Campbell Soup can series . The painting was purchased for the collection of Eli Broad , a man who once set the record for the largest credit card transaction when he purchased Lichtenstein 's " I ... I 'm Sorry " for $ 2 @.@ 5 million with an American Express card . The $ 11 @.@ 8 million Warhol sale was part of the Christie 's Sales of Impressionist , Modern , Post @-@ War and Contemporary Art for the Spring Season of 2006 that totaled $ 438 @,@ 768 @,@ 924 .
The broad variety of work produced using a semi @-@ mechanized process with many collaborators , Warhol 's popularity , the value of his works , and the diversity of works across various media and genre have created a need for the Andy Warhol Art Authentication Board to certify the authenticity of works by Warhol .
On April 7 , 2016 , seven Campbell 's Soup Cans prints were stolen from the Springfield Art Museum . The FBI announced a $ 25 @,@ 000 reward for information about the stolen art pieces .
= = Conclusion = =
Warhol 's production of Campbell 's Soup can works underwent three distinct phases . The first took place in 1962 , during which he created realistic images , and produced numerous pencil drawings of the subject . In 1965 , Warhol revisited the theme while arbitrarily replacing the original red and white colors with a wider variety of hues . In the late 1970s , he again returned to the soup cans while inverting and reversing the images . Some in the art world consider Warhol 's work completed after his 1968 shooting — which occurred the day before the Bobby Kennedy assassination — to be less significant than that done before it .
Today , the most well @-@ remembered Warhol Campbell 's Soup can works are from the first phase . Warhol is further regarded for his iconic serial celebrity silkscreens of such people as Elvis Presley , Marilyn Monroe and Liz Taylor , produced during his 1962 – 1964 silkscreening phase . His most commonly repeated painting subjects are Taylor , Monroe , Presley , Jackie Kennedy and similar celebrities . In addition to being a notable fine artist , Warhol was a renowned cinematographer , author , and commercial illustrator . Posthumously , he became the subject of the largest single @-@ artist art museum in the United States in 1994 . Many Warhol art exhibits include footage of his cinematic directorial efforts ( e.g. , The Museum of Contemporary Art 's ANDY WARHOL / SUPERNOVA : Stars , Deaths , Disasters , 1962 – 1964 that ran from March 18 , 2006 – June 18 , 2006 ) . Some say his contributions as an artist pale in comparison to his contributions as a film @-@ maker . Others make it clear that he was not the most conventionally skilled artist of his day . Nonetheless , his techniques were emulated by other highly respected artists and his works continue to command high prices .
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= Jeannette Piccard =
Jeannette Ridlon Piccard ( January 5 , 1895 – May 17 , 1981 ) was an American high @-@ altitude balloonist , and in later life an Episcopal priest . She held the women 's altitude record for nearly three decades , and according to several contemporaneous accounts was regarded as the first woman in space .
Piccard was the first licensed female balloon pilot in the U.S. , and the first woman to fly to the stratosphere . Accompanied by her husband , Jean — a member of the Piccard family of balloonists and the twin brother of Auguste Piccard — she reached a height of 10 @.@ 9 miles ( 17 @.@ 5 km ) during a record @-@ breaking flight over Lake Erie on October 23 , 1934 , retaining control of the balloon for the entire flight . After her husband 's death in 1963 , she worked as a consultant to the director of NASA 's Johnson Space Center for several years , talking to the public about NASA 's work , and was posthumously inducted into the International Space Hall of Fame in 1998 .
From the late 1960s onwards , Piccard returned to her childhood interest in religion . She was ordained a deacon of the Episcopal Church in 1971 , and on July 29 , 1974 , became one of the Philadelphia Eleven , the first women to be ordained priests — though the ordinations were regarded as irregular , performed by bishops who had retired or resigned . Piccard was the first of the women to be ordained that day , because at 79 she was the oldest , and because she was fulfilling an ambition she had had since she was 11 years old . When asked by Bishop John Allin , the head of the church , not to proceed with the ceremony , she is said to have told him , " Sonny , I 'm old enough to have changed your nappies . " In September 1976 , the church voted to allow women into the priesthood , and Piccard served as a priest in Saint Paul , Minnesota , until she died at the age of 86 . One of her granddaughters , the Rev. Kathryn Piccard , also an Episcopal priest , said of her : " She wanted to expand the idea of what a respectable lady could do . She had the image of the street @-@ wise old lady . "
= = Family and education = =
Born in Chicago , Illinois , Piccard was one of nine children born to Emily Ridlon and John Ridlon , who was president of the American Orthopaedic Association . She had a lifelong interest in science and religion . When she was 11 , her mother asked her what she wanted to be when she grew up . Piccard 's reply — " a priest " — sent her mother running out of the room in tears .
Piccard studied philosophy and psychology at Bryn Mawr College , where in 1916 she wrote an essay titled " Should Women Be Admitted to the Priesthood of the Anglican Church ? " She received her bachelor 's degree in 1918 , and went on to study organic chemistry at the University of Chicago , receiving her master 's degree in 1919 . That same year she met and married Jean Felix Piccard , who was teaching at the university .
Piccard was the mother of a house full of boys . Robert R. Gilruth , one of her students and collaborators , said later in his oral history that he remembered a breakfast he had with the Piccards in a St. Cloud , Minnesota hotel before a balloon launching , " I don 't know how many there were . It seems like there was a dozen .... I remember the youngest one took the corn flake box and dumped it on his father 's head . Of course , Piccard just brushed it off his head and said , ' No , no . ' " " He was very gentle . He loved his boys , and he thought boys would be boys , I guess . " The Piccards had three sons of their own , John , Paul , and Donald ( who would become a famous balloonist and ballooning innovator in his own right ) , as well as foster children . The Piccard family archive in the Library of Congress mentions correspondence from foster children whom the Piccards took in , although nothing else seems to be known about them .
The Piccards taught at the University of Lausanne from 1919 – 26 . In 1926 they returned to the United States , where Jean Piccard taught organic chemistry at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . The couple lived in Massachusetts , New Jersey , Delaware , and Pennsylvania before settling in Minneapolis in 1936 when Jean Piccard joined the faculty of the University of Minnesota . She received a doctorate in education from the University of Minnesota in 1942 , and a certificate of study from the General Theological Seminary in 1973 .
Gilruth made a point of describing Piccard in his oral history . He said , " She was very bright , had her own doctor 's degree , and was at least half of the brains of that family , technical as well as otherwise . … She was always in the room when he was lecturing or otherwise , almost always . She was something . She was good . " David DeVorkin , curator of the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum , wrote a history of manned scientific ballooning . In DeVorkin 's view , the Piccards " entrepreneurship and subsequent success " in ballooning was due to " their enormous persistence … and considerable confidence , pluck , and luck " .
= = Stratosphere flight = =
= = = Auguste and Jean Piccard = = =
When he visited the United States for a lecture tour , Auguste Piccard was already a Belgian national celebrity for his 1931 and 1932 stratosphere flights that set off what a United Press correspondent called a " race for supremacy in the stratosphere " , and he became a celebrity in America . He entertained the idea of flying in the U.S. until at least mid @-@ February 1933 , but he received generous funding for a flight in Belgium , and instead turned the project and his power of attorney over to his twin brother Jean . DeVorkin wrote that Jean Piccard lived his whole life in the shadow of his brother , whose success in ballooning he wanted to emulate . Jean had lost his job developing explosives at the Hercules Powder Company , and had no prospects for employment — let alone during the Great Depression — so he was happy to take on the project .
= = = Balloon and Thomas Settle flights = = =
The Century of Progress hydrogen gas balloon was the largest in the world , conceived for the 1933 Century of Progress International Exposition , a world 's fair held in Chicago to celebrate the city 's centennial . The fair 's organizers planned a balloon flight to the stratosphere and hoped to lure Auguste as pilot — the Piccard name certainly had high publicity value . Dow Chemical constructed the magnesium @-@ alloy gondola . Goodyear @-@ Zeppelin built the balloon of rubberized cloth . Union Carbide provided the hydrogen for lifting and liquid oxygen for pressurizing the gondola 's interior . The National Broadcasting Company and the Chicago Daily News were sponsors , and newspapers publicized the event . At 105 feet ( 32 m ) wide and 600 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 17 @,@ 000 m3 ) , the balloon 's envelope took 700 hydrogen cylinders to fill .
Jean Piccard , however , became an annoyance . When he tried independently to find funding from DuPont , he told them the conditions for the balloon 's takeoff in Chicago could be dangerous , and was turned down . When he tried to go over the flight organizers heads by contacting the president of the fair ( who was a friend of Jeannette Piccard 's father ) over what he considered a slight , the president refused to see him . He battled with an associate of the fair 's director of concessions who wanted Jean out of the picture and then wanted Auguste to return to the U.S. to fly . Eventually , Jean was demoted from inflight science observer to not flying at all .
During the negotiations , the organizers agreed to give Jean and Jeannette the balloon and gondola after its initial flight , in exchange for Jean remaining on the ground . Goodyear and Arthur Compton , who served as the flight 's director of science , decided to use a U.S. Navy pilot , although Jean , who had served as a balloonist during World War I in the Swiss Army but did not have a U.S. license , thought he would be co @-@ pilot until two months before flight day . The Piccard name ( which bore considerable publicity value ) was kept prominently when the flight was named " The Piccard @-@ Compton Stratosphere Ascension from Soldier Field " .
Gradually , the idea of a Navy pilot won , and Jean signed a memorandum of understanding with the organizers that said he would remain on the ground , " permitting Commander Settle to go alone . The reduction in weight thereby produced will most assuredly enable Commander Settle to reach a higher altitude " . On the night of August 4 , 1933 , in front of forty thousand spectators in Soldier Field , as the balloon was being inflated , the fair 's general manager said :
The sportsmanship and unselfishness displayed by Dr. Jean Piccard in surrendering his place in the balloon so that a greater altitude may be achieved through the lessened weight of himself and his equipment — is a note of sacrifice that will not be forgotten .
Lt. Cmdr. Thomas ( Tex ) G. W. Settle of the U.S. Navy made the first flight solo in the balloon at 3 : 00 a.m. on August 5 , but his ascent was aborted shortly after takeoff because a gas release valve malfunctioned . The balloon then belonged to the Piccards but the armed forces again decided to use it ( Jean , who at the time disliked the military , wrote to Auguste in December 1933 , " The Navy and the Army are very stupid … " ) . Jean wrote to the gondola manufacturer in September 1933 :
Mrs. Piccard and I cannot see that our lives are so very valuable .... Without a job , without a laboratory on the ground we are not in a position to render any service to humanity
On November 20 , 1933 , with only a few hundred onlookers this time , Settle and Maj. Chester L. Fordney of the U.S. Marine Corps flew the Century of Progress balloon from Akron , Ohio , reaching 61 @,@ 237 feet ( 18 @,@ 665 m ) , a new Fédération Aéronautique Internationale ( FAI ) altitude record . It was the first successful flight from U.S. soil to the stratosphere , and Settle and Fordney became the first Americans to reach the stratosphere . They landed in a marsh near Bridgeton , New Jersey , only a few miles from the Piccards ' home .
= = = Planning and pilot 's license = = =
After Settle 's record flight , the balloon was again returned to the Piccards , who decided to fly it to the stratosphere on their own . Jean would concentrate on the science , while Jeannette would pilot the balloon . DeVorkin wrote that , " Energetic and forceful , she seemed to have a better chance of obtaining a pilot 's license than Jean , who was preoccupied with restoring the gondola and balloon and convincing scientists to provide instruments to fly " . She studied at Ford Airport in Dearborn , Michigan under Edward J. Hill , a balloonist and Gordon Bennett Cup winner , who agreed to serve as flight director for the Piccards ' planned stratospheric flight . Henry Ford offered the use of his hangar and brought Orville Wright ( with his brother Wilbur , inventor of the airplane and first human to fly a heavier @-@ than @-@ air powered aircraft ) to observe a flight of Jeannette 's in 1933 . Her son Don was a crew member that day and shook hands with Wright , " I was a little kid and he [ paid ] attention to me . " On June 16 , 1934 , Jeannette flew her first solo flight . Later that year , the National Aeronautic Association made her the first woman licensed balloon pilot in the U.S. Auguste wrote to Jean in June 1934 , " Hopefully you will make your flight ahead of other competitors . It would be nice , if the name of Piccard through Jeannette , would once more be placed on the record list of the F.A.I. "
When she was interviewed near the end of her life , and asked why she hadn 't hired a pilot and why she had decided to become a pilot herself , Jeannette replied , " How much loyalty can you count on from someone you hire ? " When she was asked if she had parachute training , Jeannette said , " No … if , on the first time you jump , you don 't succeed , there 's no use trying again . "
= = = Search for funding = = =
High altitude ballooning was a dangerous undertaking , partly because human lungs cannot function unaided over 40 @,@ 000 – 50 @,@ 000 feet ( 12 @,@ 000 – 15 @,@ 000 m ) , and partly because the lifting gas used , hydrogen , is flammable . Jeannette said later that , " The National Geographic Society would have nothing to do with sending a woman — a mother — in a balloon into danger " . Longtime Piccard family backer Goodyear were reluctant to support their flight . Dow Chemical asked that their trade names and logo be removed from publicity and from the Century of Progress balloon .
Gilruth said , " I remember that Piccard was very , very hurt by the National Geographic that would not give them a dime .... Both he and Jeanette said that they were discriminated against by the National Geographic . That 's not a good word . They were not aided in any way by the National Geographic , and they felt it was not really warranted . They felt they should have gotten some help from them .... [ He ] didn 't say why , but they certainly didn 't feel they 'd been handled fairly . " The Piccards struggled to gain financial support until the Grigsby @-@ Grunow Radio Company advanced them several thousand dollars . The Detroit Aero Club and People 's Outfitting Company also backed them . To supplement their sponsorship , Jeannette designed and sold commemorative stamps and souvenir programs and folders . She also raised a good deal of money by selling their story in press releases to the North American Newspaper Alliance .
= = = Flight = = =
Forty @-@ five thousand spectators came to see the Piccards off on October 23 , 1934 , at 6 : 51 am , about two hours behind schedule . Jeannette piloted the reconditioned Century of Progress , and the couple took along their pet turtle , Fleur de Lys . After a brief pre @-@ launch ceremony , during which the Piccards received a bouquet from their sons and a small band played The Star @-@ Spangled Banner , they lifted off from Ford Airport , assisted by airmen on the ground who pushed the gondola . Jean changed the flight path and shortened the flight time because of cloudy skies , which reduced the amount of scientific work they were able to do . Jeannette made " unplanned and impulsive maneuvres " and the Piccards failed to make complete records of their actions during the flight . The newspaper alliance had offered to pay them US $ 1 @,@ 000 if they broke the altitude record , so they jettisoned all of their sandbags , attempting to go higher . They reached 57 @,@ 579 feet ( 17 @,@ 550 m ) or about 10 @.@ 9 miles ( 17 @.@ 5 km ) up , travelled for eight hours on a journey over Lake Erie , and landed about 300 miles ( 480 km ) away from Dearborn , near Cadiz , Ohio . She had to choose a landing on elm trees , realizing that meant the Century of Progress would never fly again . The balloon separated from the gondola and was ripped . Jean sustained small fractures to his ribs , left foot , and ankle . According to Jeannette 's description in Time magazine : " What a mess ! I wanted to land on the White House lawn . "
= = = Legacy = = =
Her flight set the women 's altitude record , and held it for 29 years , until Valentina Tereshkova in 1963 became the first woman in space , orbiting the Earth 48 times solo in the Soviet Union 's Vostok 6 . According to the editors of Flying magazine , in their book Sport Flying , published by Ziff @-@ Davis in 1976 , Jeannette was " the first woman in space , a claim allowed even by Valentina Tereshkova . " She was also the first woman to pilot a flight to the stratosphere , and according to her obituary in The New York Times , the first person to do so through a layer of clouds . Jean created the liquid oxygen converter and frost @-@ resistant window which he thought was later used in Boeing 's B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress , and used blasting caps and TNT for releasing the balloon at launch and for remote release of external ballast from inside the sealed cabin . This was the first use of pyrotechnics for remote @-@ controlled actuating devices in aircraft , a revolutionary and unpopular idea at the time . Later , Gilruth – who became the director of the NASA Manned Spacecraft Center – approved and used them in spacecraft . Also aboard the balloon , where every pound counts , were two instruments for studying cosmic radiation – one designed by Jean 's friend and mentor William Francis Gray Swann , and Robert Millikan 's 540 lb ( 240 kg ) ionization chamber . Neither Swann nor Millikan were satisfied with the flight 's scientific results , a lesson for manned flights that repeated for decades .
= = Later life , death of Jean Piccard = =
Jean and Jeannette felt they had succeeded by reaching the stratosphere , and they became popular lecturers . They prepared brochures and souvenirs to attract attention to the flight , one titled " Who Said We Couldn 't Do It . " But they had developed perhaps unreasonable expectations that lucrative university positions would come to them . Both wrote to dozens of colleges and universities , aiming high — even at college presidencies , trying to secure positions , but they received only rejections . In December 1934 , Jeannette wrote to Swann to ask if Jean might become a member of the chemistry staff of Bartol Research at the Franklin Institute , and also offered her services , but was turned down . Luckily , they met a new advocate while on lecture tour to Minneapolis . Thanks to John Akerman of the department of aeronautical engineering at the University of Minnesota , Jean became an untenured professor in Minnesota by 1936 , teaching and doing aeronautical studies until 1946 when he received tenure . During 1943 , Jeannette was briefly an executive secretary at the housing section of the Minnesota Office of Civil Defense .
In 1946 until mid @-@ 1947 , the Piccards were consultants to General Mills ( the cereal company and dominant industry in Minneapolis ) working under Otto Winzen , who Jean had met through the university . Winzen and Jean proposed a stratosphere flight with 100 cluster balloons and secured a government contract with the Navy . Featured in Navy press releases , Jean was named a project scientist responsible for gondola design and for testing the balloon film materials . But he balked , both at making weekly status reports that made him feel like a lower @-@ level employee , and at the prospect of General Mills owning the patents to his ideas . Working as a consultant , Jeannette threatened to break off ties with the Navy and General Mills unless she was allowed to fly with Jean . Unfortunately this began a rift between General Mills and the Piccards . They were both were fired in 1947 , for they were too critical of Winzen and General Mills staff .
Jean retired from the University of Minnesota when he was 68 , never giving up his dream of returning to the stratosphere . DeVorkin quoted a newspaper in 1952 , " to Adventurer Piccard , no gondola probing the unexplored purple twilight of the stratosphere would be complete without him and his wife in it " . Jean died in 1963 .
Gilruth asked Jeannette to work as a consultant at NASA . She accepted and lived in a house in Houston she shared with another woman . Jeannette spoke to the scientific community and to the public at NASA about the space program from 1964 to 1970 , when Project Apollo was created and Apollo 11 made the first manned Moon landing in 1969 . Gilruth then noticed a shift in her interests , away from space and towards religion .
= = Episcopal priest = =
= = = Ordination = = =
In 1971 , one year after the Episcopal Church admitted female deacons , Piccard was ordained a deacon and , on July 29 , 1974 at age 79 , under controversial circumstances , she was ordained a priest . In Philadelphia , at the Church of the Advocate , three retired bishops – Daniel Corrigan , former church head of domestic missions , Robert L. De Witt of the diocese of Pennsylvania , and Edward Randolph Welles II of the diocese of West Missouri – ordained eleven women priests , cheered by a large congregation . A fourth bishop , José Antonio Ramos of Costa Rica , was there but was out of his jurisdiction . All eleven women risked suspension as deacons , and the four bishops " could be suspended or deposed by a church trial court " for ignoring a church canon prohibiting retired bishops from performing " episcopal acts " unless asked by a local bishop . Five Episcopal priests objected at the point in the service when Corrigan asked if there was " any impediment " to the ordinations , one calling the ordinations a " perversion " and another calling them " unlawful and schismatical " .
Piccard was the first of the eleven women ordained because she was the oldest and she was fulfilling a lifelong dream . Carter Heyward – another of the group who were known as " irregulars " and sometimes called the " Philadelphia Eleven " – became the 1974 Ms. magazine Woman of the Year . Suzanne Hiatt later said " In retrospect , to have been ordained ' irregularly ' is the only way for women to have done it . " Alison Cheek , Heyward , and Piccard joined in the consecration , and Piccard gave the absolution , in a celebration of the Eucharist at Riverside Church in Manhattan in November 1974 . Philip McNairy of the Diocese of Minnesota , who wanted women in the priesthood , was concerned that the eleven were hurting the cause of the other women deacons , who numbered over one hundred at the time .
= = = Fallout , women recognized = = =
A proposal to recognize women priests had been narrowly defeated at the triennial general convention of 1973 held in Louisville , Kentucky . John M. Allin of Mississippi , the new ( as of June ) presiding bishop of the Episcopal Church , which had 3 @.@ 1 million members at the time , called an emergency meeting of the House of Bishops in Chicago in August 1974 . Jeannette told Allin , " Sonny , I 'm old enough to have changed your nappies . "
Harold B. Robinson , a bishop in the diocese of Western New York , and two colleagues set in motion charges accusing the three bishops of breaking their vows and violating church laws . They withdrew charges when the House of Bishops , in a carefully worded resolution that passed 129 to 9 with 8 abstensions , challenged the ordinations and decried the bishops ' actions , calling them understandable but " wrong " . But the church was moving in this direction already , and the general convention of 1976 held in Minneapolis voted to open the priesthood to women .
= = = Life as a priest = = =
Jeannette served as a deacon or irregular at St. Philip 's Episcopal Church in Saint Paul , Minnesota from 1975 – 1977 . In 1977 the Episcopal Church recognized her ordination . Kathryn Piccard , her granddaughter , who also became an Episcopal priest , was later quoted in The New York Times as saying , " She wanted to expand the idea of what a respectable lady could do . She had the image of the street @-@ wise old lady . " Jeannette became a volunteer chaplain at St. Luke 's Hospital , now United Hospital , and assistant pastor to Denzil Carty at Episcopal Church on Maccubin , both in Saint Paul . From 1968 until 1981 she was an honorary member of the Seabury @-@ Western Theological Seminary board of trustees .
Jeannette died of cancer on May 17 , 1981 at the Masonic Memorial Hospital in Minneapolis , Minnesota , aged 86 .
= = Honors = =
Jeannette received the Harmon Trophy in 1934 . The National Aeronautic Association gave her a Certificate of Reward & Performance in 1935 . In 1965 she received the first William Randolph Lovelace II Award from the American Astronautical Society ( AAS ) . The University of Minnesota Alumni Association gave her an Outstanding Achievement Award in 1968 and engraved her name on their wall of honor . Graduate Women in Science , also known as Sigma Delta Epsilon , made her an honorary member " For Excellence In Scientific Research " in 1971 . Hobart and William Smith Colleges gave her an honorary doctorate . She received the Robert R. Gilruth Award in 1970 from the North Galveston County Chamber of Commerce .
She was posthumously inducted into the International Space Hall of Fame in 1998 , and she and her husband were nominated to the FAI Ballooning Commission Hall of Fame . The Balloon Federation of America renamed its award the Piccard Memorial Trophy . Pat Donohue wrote Solo Flight , a one @-@ woman play about Jeannette 's life . The Bryn Mawr College Library has the Jeanette Ridlon Piccard Book Fund , which provides funds for the purchase of books on the history of religion .
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= City Lights =
City Lights is a 1931 American pre @-@ Code silent romantic comedy film written , directed by , and starring Charlie Chaplin . The story follows the misadventures of Chaplin 's Tramp as he falls in love with a blind girl ( Virginia Cherrill ) and develops a turbulent friendship with an alcoholic millionaire ( Harry Myers ) .
Although sound films were on the rise when Chaplin started developing the script in 1928 , he decided to continue working with silent productions . Filming started in December 1928 , and ended in September 1930 . City Lights marked the first time Chaplin composed the film score to one of his productions and it was written in six weeks with Arthur Johnston . The main theme used as a leitmotif for the blind flower girl is the song " La Violetera " ( " Who ’ ll Buy my Violets " ) from Spanish composer José Padilla . Chaplin lost a lawsuit to Padilla for not crediting him .
City Lights was immediately successful upon release on January 30 , 1931 with positive reviews and box office receipts of $ 5 million . Today , critics consider it not only the highest accomplishment of Chaplin 's career , but one of the greatest films ever made . In 1991 , the Library of Congress selected City Lights for preservation in the United States National Film Registry as being " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " . In 2007 , the American Film Institute 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ranked City Lights as the 11th greatest American film of all time . In 1949 , the critic James Agee referred to the final scene in the film as the " greatest single piece of acting ever committed to celluloid " .
= = Plot = =
The officials of a city unveil a new statue , only to find The Tramp sleeping on it . They shoo him away and he wanders the streets , destitute and homeless , and is soon tormented by two newsboys . He happens upon a beautiful Flower Girl ( Virginia Cherrill ) , not realizing at first that she is blind , and buys a flower . Just when she is about to give him his change , a man gets into a nearby luxury car and is driven away , making her think that the Tramp has departed . The Tramp tiptoes away .
That evening , the Tramp runs into a drunken millionaire ( Harry Myers ) who is attempting suicide on the waterfront . ( It is later mentioned that his wife has sent for her bags . ) The Tramp eventually convinces The Millionaire he should live . He takes the Tramp back to his mansion and gives him a change of clothes . They go out for a night on the town , where the Tramp inadvertently causes much havoc . Early the next morning , they return to the mansion and encounter the Flower Girl en route to her vending spot . The Tramp asks The Millionaire for some money , which he uses to buy all the girl 's flowers and then drives her home in the Millionaire 's Rolls @-@ Royce .
After he leaves , the Flower Girl tells her grandmother ( Florence Lee ) about her wealthy acquaintance . When the Tramp returns to the mansion , the Millionaire has sobered @-@ up and does not remember him , so he has the butler order him out . Later that day , the Millionaire meets the Tramp again while intoxicated and invites him home for a lavish party . The next morning , having sobered again and planning to leave for a cruise , the Millionaire again has the Tramp tossed out .
Returning to the Flower Girl 's apartment , the Tramp spies her being attended by a doctor . Deciding to take a job to earn money for her , he becomes a street sweeper . Meanwhile , the grandmother receives a notice that she and the girl will be evicted if they cannot pay their back rent by the next day , but she hides it . The Tramp visits the girl on his lunch break and sees a newspaper story about a Viennese doctor who has devised an operation that cures blindness . He then finds the eviction notice and reads it aloud at the girl 's request . He reassures her that he will pay the rent . But he returns to work late and is fired .
As he is walking away , a boxer persuades him to stage a fake fight , promising to split the $ 50 prize money . Just before the bout , however , the man receives a telegram warning him that the police are after him . He flees , leaving the Tramp a no @-@ nonsense replacement opponent . Despite a valiant effort , the Tramp is knocked out .
Some time later , he meets the drunken millionaire who has just returned from Europe . The Millionaire takes him to the mansion , and after he hears the girl 's plight , he gives the Tramp $ 1 @,@ 000 to give to the girl for her operation . Unbeknownst to the Millionaire and the Tramp , two burglars were hiding in the house when they entered . Upon hearing about the cash , they knock out the millionaire and take the rest of his money . The Tramp telephones for the police , but the robbers flee before they arrive , and the butler assumes he stole the money . The Millionaire cannot remember the Tramp or giving him the $ 1 @,@ 000 . The Tramp narrowly escapes and gives the money to the girl , saying he will be going away for a while . Later , he is arrested in front of the newsboys who taunted him earlier , and he is then jailed .
Months later , the Tramp is released . Searching for the girl , he returns to her customary street corner but does not find her . With her sight restored , the girl has opened up a flourishing flower shop with her grandmother . When a rich customer comes into the shop , the girl briefly wonders if he is her mysterious benefactor . But when he leaves with no acknowledgement , she realizes again she is wrong . While retrieving a flower from the gutter outside the shop , the Tramp is again tormented by the two newsboys . As he turns to leave , he finds himself staring at the girl through the window . His despair turns to elation and he forgets about the flower . Seeing that he has crushed the flower he retrieved , the girl kindly offers him a fresh one and a coin . Embarrassed , the Tramp tries to shuffle away , but the girl stops him and hands him the flower , which he shyly takes . When the girl takes hold of his hand to place the coin in it , she recognizes the touch of his hand and realizes he is no stranger . " You ? " she says , and he nods , asking , " You can see now ? " She tearfully replies , " Yes , I can see now " , and holds the Tramp 's hand close to her chest . Tearful and elated , the Tramp smiles at the girl shyly as the film fades to black .
= = Cast = =
Virginia Cherrill as A Blind Girl
Florence Lee as Her Grandmother
Harry Myers as An Eccentric Millionaire
Al Ernest Garcia as His Butler ( credited as Allan Garcia )
Hank Mann as A Prizefighter
Charlie Chaplin as A Tramp
Uncredited :
Robert Parrish as Newsboy
Henry Bergman as Mayor and Blind Girl 's Downstairs Neighbor
Albert Austin as Street Sweeper / Burglar
Jean Harlow Extra , nightclub scene ( cut from film )
= = Production = =
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
Chaplin 's feature The Circus , released in 1928 , was his last film before the motion picture industry embraced sound recording and brought the silent movie era to a close . As his own producer and distributor ( part owner of United Artists ) , Chaplin could still conceive City Lights as a silent film . Technically the film was a crossover , as its soundtrack had synchronized music , sound effects , and some unintelligible sounds that copied speech pattern films . The dialogue was presented on intertitles . Chaplin was first contacted by inventor Eugene Augustin Lauste in 1918 about making a sound film , but he never ended up meeting with Lauste . Chaplin was dismissive about " talkies " and told a reporter that he would " give the talkies three years , that 's all . " He was also concerned about how to adjust the Little Tramp to sound films .
In early 1928 , Chaplin began writing the script with Harry Carr . The plot gradually grew from an initial concept Chaplin had considered after the success of The Circus , where a circus clown goes blind and has to conceal his handicap from his young daughter by pretending that his inability to see are pratfalls . This inspired the Blind Girl . The first scenes Chaplin thought up were of the ending , where the newly cured blind girl sees the Little Tramp for the first time . A highly detailed description of the scene was written , as Chaplin considered it to be the center of the entire film .
For a subplot , Chaplin first considered a character even lower on the social scale , a black newsboy . Eventually he opted for a drunken millionaire , a character previously used in the 1921 short The Idle Class . The millionaire plot was based on an old idea Chaplin had for a short in which two millionaires pick up the Little Tramp from the city dump and show him a good time in expensive clubs before dropping him back off at the dump , so when he woke up , the Tramp would not know if it was real or a dream . This was rewritten into a millionaire who is a friend of the Tramp when drunk but does not recognize him when sober .
Chaplin officially began pre @-@ production of the film in May 1928 and hired Australian art director Henry Clive to design the sets that summer . Chaplin eventually cast Clive in the role of the millionaire . Although the film was originally set in Paris , the art direction is inspired by a mix of several cities . Robert Sherwood said that " it is a weird city , with confusing resemblances to London , Los Angeles , Naples , Paris , Tangiers and Council Bluffs . It is no city on earth and it is all cities . "
On August 28 , 1928 , Chaplin 's mother Hannah Chaplin died at the age of 63 . Chaplin was distraught for several weeks and pre @-@ production did not resume until mid fall of 1928 . Psychologist Stephen Weissman has hypothesized that City Lights is highly autobiographical , with the blind girl representing Chaplin 's mother , while the drunken millionaire represents Chaplin 's father . Weissman also compared many of the film 's sets with locations from Chaplin 's real childhood , such as the statue in the opening scene resembling St. Mark 's Church on Kennington Park Road and Chaplin referring to the waterfront set as the Thames Embankment .
Chaplin had interviewed several actresses to play the blind flower girl but was unimpressed with them all . While seeing a film shoot with bathing women in a Santa Monica beach , he found a casual acquaintance , Virginia Cherrill . Cherrill waved and asked if she would ever get the chance to work with him . After a series of poor auditions from other actresses , Chaplin eventually invited her to do a screen test . She was the first actress to subtly and convincingly act blind on camera due to her near @-@ sightedness , and Cherrill signed a contract on November 1 , 1928 .
= = = Principal photography = = =
Filming for City Lights officially began on December 27 , 1928 , after Chaplin and Carr had worked on the script for almost an entire year . As a filmmaker , Chaplin was known for being a perfectionist ; he was noted for doing many more " takes " than other directors at the time . Production began with the first scene at the flower stand where the Little Tramp first meets the Blind Flower Girl . The scene took weeks to shoot , and Chaplin first began to have second thoughts about casting Cherrill . Years later , Cherrill said , " I never liked Charlie and he never liked me . " In his autobiography , Chaplin took responsibility for his on @-@ set tensions with Cherrill , blaming the stress of making the film for the conflict . Filming the scene continued until February 1929 and again for ten days in early April before Chaplin put the scene aside to be filmed later . He then shot the opening scene of the Little Tramp waking up in a newly unveiled public statue . This scene involved up to 380 extras and was especially stressful for Chaplin to shoot . During this part of shooting , construction was being done at Chaplin Studios because the city of Los Angeles had decided to widen La Brea Avenue and Chaplin was forced to move several buildings away from the road .
Chaplin then shot the sequence where the Little Tramp first meets the millionaire and prevents him from committing suicide . During filming , Henry Clive suddenly decided that he did not want to jump into the tank of cold water in the scene , causing Chaplin to storm off the set and fire Clive . He was quickly replaced by Harry Myers , who Chaplin had known while under contract at Keystone Studios . Chaplin finished shooting the sequence on July 29 , 1929 with exteriors at Pasadena Bridge . Chaplin then shot a sequence that was eventually cut from the film involving the Little Tramp attempting to retrieve a stick that was stuck in a wall . The scene included a young Charles Lederer ; Chaplin later praised the scene , but insisted that it needed to be cut . He then continued filming the scenes with the millionaire until September 29 , 1929 .
In November , Chaplin began working with Cherrill again in some of the Flower Girl 's less dramatic scenes . While waiting for her scenes for several months , Cherrill had become bored and openly complained to Chaplin . During the filming of one scene , Cherrill asked Chaplin if she could leave early so that she could go to a hair appointment . Chaplin fired Virginia Cherrill and replaced her with Georgia Hale , Chaplin 's co @-@ star in The Gold Rush . However , Hale 's screen tests proved that she was unsuitable for the role . Chaplin also briefly considered sixteen @-@ year @-@ old actress Violet Krauth , but he was talked out of this idea by his collaborators . Chaplin finally re @-@ hired Cherrill to finish City Lights . She demanded and got a raise to $ 75 per week . Approximately seven minutes of test footage of Hale survives and is included on the DVD release ; excerpts were first seen in the documentary Unknown Chaplin along with an unused opening sequence .
Chaplin then cast Florence D. Lee as the Blind Girl 's grandmother and shot scenes with Cherrill and Lee for five weeks . In late 1929 , Chaplin re @-@ shot the first Flower Shop scene with Cherrill . This time , the scene was completed in six days and Chaplin was happy with Cherrill 's performance . Chaplin had been shooting the film for a year and was only a little more than half way finished . From March to April 1930 , Chaplin shot the scenes inside of the millionaire 's house at the Town House on Wilshire Boulevard . He hired Joe Van Meter and Albert Austin , whom he had known since his days working for Fred Karno , as the burglars . In the late spring of 1930 , Chaplin shot the last major comedy sequence : the boxing match . Chaplin hired Keystone actor Hank Mann to play the Tramp 's opponent . The scene required 100 extras and Chaplin took four days to rehearse and six to shoot the scene and was shot between June 23 and 30 . Chaplin was initially nervous over the attendance for this scene so he invited his friends to be extras . Over 100 extras were present . Chaplin ’ s performance in the scene was so humorous that more people arrived daily to be an extra .
In July and August , Chaplin finished up six weeks of smaller scenes , including the two scenes of the Tramp being harassed by newsboys , one of whom was played by a young Robert Parrish .
In September 1930 , Chaplin finished the shooting of the final scene which took six days . Chaplin said that he was happy with Cherrill 's performance in the scene , and that she had eventually understood the role . When talking about his directing style on set , Chaplin stated that " everything I do is a dance . I think in terms of dance . I think more so in City Lights . "
From October to December 1930 , Chaplin edited the film and created the title cards . When he completed the film , silent films had become generally unpopular . But City Lights was one of the great financial and artistic successes of Chaplin 's career , and it was his personal favorite of his films . Especially fond of the final scene , he said , " [ I ] n City Lights just the last scene ... I ’ m not acting .... Almost apologetic , standing outside myself and looking ... It ’ s a beautiful scene , beautiful , and because it isn ’ t over @-@ acted . "
The amount of film used for the picture was uncharacteristic for the time and was a sign of the long production process . Chaplin shot 314 @,@ 256 feet of film , and the completed film ran 8 @,@ 093 feet . This made a shooting ratio of over 38 feet of film for each foot of film that made it in the final version .
= = = Music = = =
City Lights marked the first time Chaplin composed the film score to one of his productions . While Chaplin preferred his films to have live sound by the 1930s most theaters had gotten rid of their orchestras . Many of his critics claimed he was doing it to grab more credit . Chaplin , whose parents and many members of the Chaplin family were both musicians , was struggling with the professional musicians he hired and took it upon himself to compose the score himself . It was written in six weeks with Arthur Johnston and included over one hundred musical cues . Chaplin told a reporter that " I really didn 't write it down . I la @-@ laed and Arthur Johnson wrote it down , and I wish you would give him credit because he did a very good job . It is all simple music , you know , in keeping with my character . " The intention was to have a score that would translate the characters ' emotions through its melodies . The score was recorded in five days with musical arranger Alfred Newman .
The main theme used as a leitmotif for the blind flower girl is the song " La Violetera " ( " Who ’ ll Buy my Violets " ) from Spanish composer José Padilla . Chaplin was unable to secure the original song performer , Raquel Meller , in the lead role , but used her song anyway as a major theme . Chaplin lost a lawsuit to Padilla ( which took place in Paris , where Padilla lived ) for not crediting him . Some modern editions released for video include a new recording by Carl Davis .
= = Release , reception , and legacy = =
Two weeks prior to the premiere , Chaplin decided to have an unpublicized preview at Los Angeles ' Tower Theatre . It went poorly , attracting a small and unenthusiastic crowd . Better results were seen at the gala premiere on January 30 , 1931 at the Los Angeles Theater . Albert Einstein and his wife were the guests of honor , and the film received a standing ovation . It next premiered at the George M. Cohan Theater in New York where Chaplin closely supervised the release , spending the day doing interviews , and previously spending $ 60 @,@ 000 on the advertising , as he was frustrated with what UA 's publicists had come up with . Chaplin demanded half of the total gross , and considering audiences would be more attracted by the film itself than its technology , he demanded higher ticket prices compared to talkies .
Chaplin was nervous about the film 's reception because , by this time , silent films were becoming obsolete , and the preview had undermined his confidence . Nevertheless , City Lights became one of Chaplin 's most financially successful and critically acclaimed works . Following the good reception by American audiences , with earnings of $ 2 million , a quarter of which came from its 12 @-@ week run at the Cohan , Chaplin went on a sixteen @-@ date world tour between February and March 1932 , starting with a premiere at London 's Dominion Theatre on February 27 . The film was enthusiastically received by Depression @-@ era audiences , earning $ 5 million during its initial release .
Reviews were mostly positive . A film critic for the Los Angeles Examiner said that " not since I reviewed the first Chaplin comedies way back in the two @-@ reel days has Charlie given us such an orgy of laughs . " The New York Times reviewer Mordaunt Hall considered it " a film worked out with admirable artistry " . Variety declared it was " not Chaplin 's best picture " but that certain sequences were " hilarious . " The New Yorker wrote that it was " on the order of his other [ films ] , perhaps a little better than any of them " and that it gave an impression " not often - oh , very seldom - found in the movies ; an indefinable impression perhaps best described as a quality of charm . " On the other hand , Alexander Bakshy of The Nation was highly critical of City Lights , objecting to the silent format and over @-@ sentimentality and describing it as " Chaplin 's feeblest " .
The popularity of City Lights endured , with the film 's re @-@ release in 1950 again positively received by audiences and critics . In 1949 , the critic James Agee wrote in Life magazine , that the final scene was the " greatest single piece of acting ever committed to celluloid . " Richard Meryman called the final scene one of the greatest moments in film history . Charles Silver , Curator of Film at the Museum of Modern Art , stated that the film is so highly regarded because it brought forth a new level of lyrical romanticism that had not appeared in Chaplin 's earlier works . He adds that like all romanticism , it is based in the denial of the real world around it . When the film premiered , Chaplin was much older , he was in the midst of another round of legal battles with former spouse Lita Grey , and the economic and political climate of the world had changed . Chaplin uses the Girl 's blindness to remind the Tramp of the precarious nature of romanticism in the real world , as she unknowingly assaults him multiple times . Film.com critic Eric D. Snider said that by 1931 , most Hollywood filmmakers either embraced talking pictures , resigned themselves to their inevitability , or just gave up making movies , yet Chaplin held firm with his vision in this project . He also noted that few in Hollywood had the clout to make a silent film at that late date , let alone do it well . One reason was that Chaplin knew the Tramp could not be adapted to talking movies and still work .
Several well @-@ known directors have praised City Lights . Orson Welles said it was his favorite film . In a 1963 interview in the American magazine Cinema , Stanley Kubrick rated City Lights as fifth among his top ten films . In 1972 , the renowned Russian director Andrei Tarkovsky placed City Lights as fifth among his top ten and said of Chaplin , " He is the only person to have gone down into cinematic history without any shadow of a doubt . The films he left behind can never grow old . " George Bernard Shaw called Chaplin " the only genius to come out of the movie industry " . Celebrated Italian director Federico Fellini often praised this film , and his Nights of Cabiria refers to it . In the 2003 documentary Charlie : The Life and Art of Charles Chaplin , Woody Allen said it was Chaplin 's best picture . Allen is said to have based the final scene of his 1979 film Manhattan on its final scene . Chaplin biographer Jeffrey Vance has summarized all the best criticism and all the notable filmmakers who have singled out City Lights as their favorite Chaplin film throughout the decades in the Criterion Collection audio commentary track for the film . Vance has written that among all the praise afforded the film can be added that " City Lights also holds the distinction of being Chaplin 's own favorite of all his films . "
French experimental musician and film critic Michel Chion has written an analysis of City Lights , published as Les Lumières de la ville . Slavoj Žižek used the film as a primary example in his essay " Why Does a Letter Always Arrive at Its Destination ? " . Chaplin 's original " Tramp " suit from the film was donated by him to the Museum of Natural History of Los Angeles County .
City Lights was released as a dual format Blu @-@ ray and DVD by the Criterion Collection in 2013 with an audio commentary track by Chaplin biographer and scholar Jeffrey Vance
= = = Accolades = = =
In 1952 , Sight and Sound magazine revealed the results of its first poll for " The Best Films of All Time " ; City Lights was voted # 2 , after Vittorio DeSica 's Bicycle Thieves . In 2002 , City Lights ranked 45th on the critics ' list . That same year , directors were polled separately and ranked the film as 19th overall . In 1992 , the Library of Congress selected City Lights for preservation in the United States National Film Registry as being " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant . " In 2007 , the American Film Institute 's tenth anniversary edition of 100 Years ... 100 Movies ranked City Lights as the 11th greatest American film of all time , an improvement over the 76th position on the original list . AFI also chose the film as the best romantic comedy of American cinema in 2008 's " 10 Top 10 " . The Tramp was number 38 on AFI 's list of the 50 Best Heroes , and the film ranked at 38th among the funniest films , 10th among the greatest love stories , and 33rd on the most inspiring films .
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= 2000 UEFA Cup Final riots =
The 2000 UEFA Cup Final Riots , also known as the Battle of Copenhagen , were a series of riots in City Hall Square in Copenhagen , Denmark , between fans of English football team Arsenal and Turkish side Galatasaray around the 2000 UEFA Cup Final on 17 May 2000 . The scuffles , in which four people were stabbed , also involved fans from other clubs and were viewed by the media as part of a retaliation for the killing of two Leeds United fans by Galatasaray supporters the month before .
The events of the day started early in the morning when skirmishes broke out in a bar , which led to an Arsenal fan being stabbed . Later in the day , Galatasaray fans occupied City Hall Square before heading towards Arsenal fans in bars nearby . The Galatasaray fans were later attacked from behind by members of British hooligan firms seeking revenge for the Istanbul stabbings . Despite deploying 2 @,@ 000 officers to the area and having prior warning of potential trouble , the police were unable to control the riot until they fired tear gas at the rioters . This led to 19 injuries , including 4 stabbings , and 60 arrests with similar events occurring in England and Turkey in the aftermath of the riots .
The riots were condemned by football authorities with threats of expulsion of national football teams from European competition being given out if similar events happened again . The Danish police also were criticized for their handling of the riots .
= = History = =
Arsenal qualified for the final by defeating French club Lens in their semi @-@ final . Galatasaray beat English team Leeds United but their matches were marred by violence : two Leeds United fans were stabbed to death before their semi @-@ final first leg at Galatasaray 's Ali Sami Yen Stadium in Istanbul on 6 April 2000 . The events happened at 22 : 00 in Istanbul 's Taksim Square during a fight between Leeds fans and Galatasaray fans . Leeds fans had been drinking in bars reportedly taunting local people and Turkish police intervened to stop fights breaking out . There were reports that a Galatasaray fan had run to a telephone to call for support when he saw Leeds fans arriving . Galatasaray fans entered the area shortly afterwards which precipitated a fight between the two sets of supporters . This led to the two Leeds fans being stabbed .
It was not clear how the fight started , with reports of it either being started by Leeds fans throwing beer glasses and insulting the Turkish flag , or being started by Galatasaray fans throwing chairs . Police arrested Ali Umit Demir and three other men for the stabbings . Demir was later found guilty of murder and was sentenced to 15 years imprisonment . As a result of the stabbings , Leeds United banned Galatasaray fans from attending the second leg at Elland Road , claiming that the safety of fans could not be guaranteed . The ban was supported by UEFA and only 80 tickets were issued to Galatasaray for officials and representatives of the Turkish government .
The stabbings caused anger throughout the United Kingdom , and subsequently members of Arsenal 's hooligan firms The Herd and The Gooners , wanted to avenge the deaths of the Leeds fans , and telephoned other British hooligan firms , inviting them to join them in Copenhagen to attack Galatasaray fans . It was reported that members of Leeds United 's Leeds United Service Crew and Chelsea 's Chelsea Headhunters , along with hooligans supporting Rangers , Cardiff City and Swansea City all travelled to Denmark to join Arsenal fans in attacks on Galatasaray fans . This led to the final being considered " high risk " ; 2 @,@ 000 members of the Danish police were assigned to the game , with assistance from members of British and Turkish police forces .
= = Events = =
On the Wednesday at 1 : 00 , Galatasaray fans attacked a bar in Strøget in Copenhagen , where some Arsenal fans were located . The Arsenal fans left the club to confront the Galatasaray fans , which led to a fight lasting for an hour before riot police managed to control it and arrested 4 Britons and 4 Turks . In the fight , Paul Dineen , an Arsenal fan , was stabbed , leading to Arsenal offering fans refunds if they did not want to fly to the game . Dineen was released from hospital later in the day and attended the match as a guest of the Arsenal directors .
Throughout the day large numbers of fans , both English and Turkish , were seen throughout the city and at the airport . Later , large numbers of Galatasaray fans congregated in Copenhagen 's City Hall Square , raising the Turkish flag in the square . Arsenal fans congregated in nearby bars . Galatasaray fans attempted to provoke the Arsenal fans in the bars , and the two sides began chanting at each other until bottles were thrown from both sides around 16 : 00 . The Danish police then moved in to separate the fans , and moved the Galatasaray fans back towards the square .
Then , in a calculated attack , approximately 500 Arsenal fans attacked from the main road behind the Galatasaray fans . This caused a severe riot in the city square , with several restaurant facilities used by fans to fight each other , with iron bars and knives also being used . This lasted 20 minutes before the Danish police attempted to break up the melee with dogs and tear gas . The violence , which included fans from other English clubs and Turks living in Denmark , lasted for 45 minutes . There were further clashes at the airport the day after the game .
At Parken Stadium , where the final was to be played , the police erected iron fencing outside to separate the Arsenal and Galatasaray fans as a precaution . UEFA also requested that fences be put up around the perimeter of the pitch . The riots did not spread to the stadium , although there was an attempt to pull down the fences by fans heading towards the Arsenal area of the stadium before police stopped them .
After the match , which Galatasaray won 4 – 1 on penalties , approximately 300 Arsenal fans in the Finsbury Park area of Islington in London attacked Turkish restaurants and businesses , with bottles being used to break windows . They then broke into an apartment building to threaten Kosovan refugees with a knife , mistakenly believing them to be Turkish . Six people were arrested and three Metropolitan Police officers were injured . In Turkey , nine people were accidentally shot and injured by Galatasaray fans firing guns in celebration despite police warning them not to .
= = Injuries and arrests = =
In all , four people were stabbed during the riots : two English , one Turkish and one Dutch fan . A Danish police officer and a Turkish cameraman were also injured in the riots . In total , nineteen people were injured and sixty people were arrested , with 15 of the arrested being subsequently banned from attending Euro 2000 . Nineteen of the arrested were British , thirty @-@ six were Turkish and the rest of the arrested included people from Sweden , Germany and the Netherlands . The British fans were later released without charge but were forbidden from returning to Denmark . The rest were fined an equivalent of $ 500 and banned from Denmark for a year .
= = Aftermath = =
The day after the riots , the executive director of the Football Association , David Davies , issued an apology for the violence . The Copenhagen riots followed a long line of similar events involving English football fans , and in June , UEFA 's executive committee listed the Heysel Stadium disaster , disorders in Charleroi and Brussels , the killing of the two Leeds fans in Istanbul , and the Copenhagen riots and warned the British government that if there was any more rioting then England would be expelled from Euro 2000 . In response , Prime Minister Tony Blair stated , " Hopefully this threat will bring to their senses anyone tempted to continue the mindless thuggery that had brought such shame to the country . " The Prime Minister of Turkey , Bulent Ecevit also made a call for fans to avoid violence after the riots , stating " Sports should be an initiative for friendship , not for fighting " . In August 2000 , Arsenal banned thirty @-@ seven people involved in the Copenhagen riot from Arsenal 's Highbury stadium . Leeds United also banned three of their fans from Elland Road after they had been identified in pictures of the riots .
In the United Kingdom , Arsenal fans were originally blamed for the violence as the police had fixed blame on them . In Turkey , the media portrayed Galatasaray fans as acting in self @-@ defence , with criticism directed at the British fans for allegedly attacking members of the press . However , there were conflicting reports , with claims that some Galatasaray fans were instigating some of the violence . Later on , British media blame also transferred towards Galatasaray fans .
The Danish police were also criticised for their handling of the riots . Their policing of City Hall Square in the days running up to the final was described as " non @-@ existent " by Dineen . It was noted by Turkish newspaper , Radikal that cannabis was being freely traded in the city square during the time before the riots , and the police did nothing about it . Arsenal fans also criticised the police , claiming that they had been slow to intervene and were " too soft " on the hooligans . It was claimed that the police failed to control the riots , and that they had been undermanned and outmanoeuvered , to which Mogens Laurisden , the police chief in Copenhagen admitted that the police had been " under @-@ prepared " . This came after Arsenal had warned the police before the final that there could be hooligans travelling to Copenhagen .
In the United Kingdom , the Daily Mirror newspaper printed pictures of Arsenal fans alleged to have been part of the violence . It later arose that the majority of the people in the photos were either not involved or had been acting in self @-@ defence . The photos led to some postmen working for Royal Mail losing their jobs because they had been seen in the photos and in television coverage , even though they had not been arrested . Michael Doherty , the chairman of the Communication Workers Union , and his brother Tom took Royal Mail to an Employment Tribunal for unfair dismissal claiming they had been acting in self @-@ defence . In 2001 , the tribunal ruled in their favour , and ordered Royal Mail to reinstate them . In 2012 , the editor of the Daily Mirror at the time , Piers Morgan apologised for printing the pictures .
In 2013 , Arsenal invited Galatasaray to compete at their annual Emirates Cup tournament . Some Arsenal fans reacted negatively to the news , claiming that there was still bad blood between the two sets of supporters and were concerned that there would be a resumption of hostilities between them .
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= Hypopituitarism =
Hypopituitarism is the decreased ( hypo ) secretion of one or more of the eight hormones normally produced by the pituitary gland at the base of the brain . If there is decreased secretion of most pituitary hormones , the term panhypopituitarism ( pan meaning " all " ) is used .
The signs and symptoms of hypopituitarism vary , depending on which hormones are undersecreted and on the underlying cause of the abnormality . The diagnosis of hypopituitarism is made by blood tests , but often specific scans and other investigations are needed to find the underlying cause , such as tumors of the pituitary , and the ideal treatment . Most hormones controlled by the secretions of the pituitary can be replaced by tablets or injections . Hypopituitarism is a rare disease , but may be significantly underdiagnosed in people with previous traumatic brain injury . The first description of the condition was made in 1914 by the German physician Dr Morris Simmonds .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
The hormones of the pituitary have different actions in the body , and the symptoms of hypopituitarism therefore depend on which hormone is deficient . The symptoms may be subtle and are often initially attributed to other causes . In most of the cases , three or more hormones are deficient . The most common problem is insufficiency of follicle @-@ stimulating hormone ( FSH ) and / or luteinizing hormone ( LH ) leading to sex hormone abnormalities . Growth hormone deficiency is more common in people with an underlying tumor than those with other causes .
Sometimes , there are additional symptoms that arise from the underlying cause ; for instance , if the hypopituitarism is due to a growth hormone @-@ producing tumor , there may be symptoms of acromegaly ( enlargement of the hands and feet , coarse facial features ) , and if the tumor extends to the optic nerve or optic chiasm , there may be visual field defects . Headaches may also accompany pituitary tumors , as well as pituitary apoplexy ( infarction or hemorrhage of a pituitary tumor ) and lymphocytic hypophysitis ( autoimmune inflammation of the pituitary ) . Apoplexy , in addition to sudden headaches and rapidly worsening visual loss , may also be associated with double vision that results from compression of the nerves in the adjacent cavernous sinus that control the eye muscles .
Pituitary failure results in many changes in the skin , hair and nails as a result of the absence of pituitary hormone action on these sites .
= = = Anterior pituitary = = =
Deficiency of all anterior pituitary hormones is more common than individual hormone deficiency .
Deficiency of luteinizing hormone ( LH ) and follicle @-@ stimulating hormone ( FSH ) , together referred to as the gonadotropins , leads to different symptoms in men and women . Women experience oligo- or amenorrhea ( infrequent / light or absent menstrual periods respectively ) and infertility . Men lose facial , scrotal and trunk hair , as well as suffering decreased muscle mass and anemia . Both sexes may experience a decrease in libido and loss of sexual function , and have an increased risk of osteoporosis ( bone fragility ) . Lack of LH / FSH in children is associated with delayed puberty .
Growth hormone ( GH ) deficiency leads to a decrease in muscle mass , central obesity ( increase in body fat around the waist ) and impaired attention and memory . Children experience growth retardation and short stature .
Adrenocorticotropic hormone ( ACTH ) deficiency leads to adrenal insufficiency , a lack of production of glucocorticoids such as cortisol by the adrenal gland . If the problem is chronic , symptoms consist of fatigue , weight loss , failure to thrive ( in children ) , delayed puberty ( in adolescents ) , hypoglycemia ( low blood sugar levels ) , anemia and hyponatremia ( low sodium levels ) . If the onset is abrupt , collapse , shock and vomiting may occur . ACTH deficiency is highly similar to primary Addison 's disease , which is cortisol deficiency as the result of direct damage to the adrenal glands ; the latter form , however , often leads to hyperpigmentation of the skin , which does not occur in ACTH deficiency .
Thyroid @-@ stimulating hormone ( TSH ) deficiency leads to hypothyroidism ( lack of production of thyroxine ( T4 ) and triiodothyronine ( T3 ) in the thyroid ) . Typical symptoms are tiredness , intolerance to cold , constipation , weight gain , hair loss and slowed thinking , as well as a slowed heart rate and low blood pressure . In children , hypothyroidism leads to delayed growth and in extreme inborn forms to a syndrome called cretinism .
Prolactin ( PRL ) plays a role in breastfeeding , and inability to breastfeed may point at abnormally low prolactin levels .
= = = Posterior pituitary = = =
Antidiuretic hormone ( ADH ) deficiency leads to the syndrome of diabetes insipidus ( unrelated to diabetes mellitus ) : inability to concentrate the urine , leading to polyuria ( production of large amounts of clear urine ) that is low in solutes , dehydration and — in compensation — extreme thirst and constant need to drink ( polydipsia ) , as well as hypernatremia ( high sodium levels in the blood ) . ADH deficiency may be masked if there is ACTH deficiency , with symptoms only appearing when cortisol has been replaced .
Oxytocin ( OXT ) deficiency generally causes few symptoms , as it is only required at the time of childbirth and breastfeeding .
= = Causes = =
= = Pathophysiology = =
The pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain , and intimately connected with the hypothalamus . It consists of two lobes : the posterior pituitary , which consists of nervous tissue branching out of the hypothalamus , and the anterior pituitary , which consists of hormone @-@ producing epithelium . The posterior pituitary secretes antidiuretic hormone , which regulates osmolarity of the blood , and oxytocin , which causes contractions of the uterus in childbirth and participates in breastfeeding .
The pituitary develops in the third week of embryogenesis from interactions between the diencephalon part of the brain and the nasal cavity . The brain cells secrete FGF @-@ 8 , Wnt5a and BMP @-@ 4 , and the oral cavity BMP @-@ 2 . Together , these cellular signals stimulate a group of cells from the oral cavity to form Rathke 's pouch , which becomes independent of the nasal cavity and develops into the anterior pituitary ; this process includes the suppression of production of a protein called Sonic hedgehog by the cells of Rathke 's pouch . The cells then differentiate further into the various hormone @-@ producing cells of the pituitary . This requires particular transcription factors that induce the expression of particular genes . Some of these transcription factors have been found to be deficient in some forms of rare combined pituitary hormone deficiencies ( CPHD ) in childhood . These are HESX1 , PROP1 , POU1F1 , LHX3 , LHX4 , TBX19 , SOX2 and SOX3 . Each transcription factor acts in particular groups of cells . Therefore , various genetic mutations are associated with specific hormone deficiencies . For instance , POU1F1 ( also known as Pit @-@ 1 ) mutations cause specific deficiencies in growth hormone , prolactin and TSH . In addition to the pituitary , some of the transcription factors are also required for the development of other organs ; some of these mutations are therefore also associated with specific birth defects .
Most of the hormones in the anterior pituitary are each part of an axis that is regulated by the hypothalamus . The hypothalamus secretes a number of releasing hormones , often according to a circadian rhythm , into blood vessels that supply the anterior pituitary ; most of these are stimulatory ( thyrotropin @-@ releasing hormone , corticotropin @-@ releasing hormone , gonadotropin @-@ releasing hormone and growth hormone @-@ releasing hormone ) , apart from dopamine , which suppresses prolactin production . In response to the releasing hormone rate , the anterior pituitary produces its hormones ( TSH , ACTH , LH , FSH , GH ) which in turn stimulate effector hormone glands in the body , while prolactin ( PRL ) acts directly on the breast gland . Once the effector glands produce sufficient hormones ( thyroxine , cortisol , estradiol or testosterone and IGF @-@ 1 ) , both the hypothalamus and the pituitary cells sense their abundance and reduce their secretion of stimulating hormones . The hormones of the posterior pituitary are produced in the hypothalamus and are carried by nerve endings to the posterior lobe ; their feedback system is therefore located in the hypothalamus , but damage to the nerve endings would still lead to a deficiency in hormone release .
Unless the pituitary damage is being caused by a tumor that overproduces a particular hormone , it is the lack of pituitary hormones that leads to the symptoms described above , and an excess of a particular hormone would indicate the presence of a tumor . The exception to this rule is prolactin : if a tumor compresses the pituitary stalk , a decreased blood supply means that the lactotrope cells , which produce prolactin , are not receiving dopamine and therefore produce excess prolactin . Hence , mild elevations in prolactin are attributed to stalk compression . Very high prolactin levels , though , point more strongly towards a prolactinoma ( prolactin @-@ secreting tumor ) .
= = Diagnosis = =
The diagnosis of hypopituitarism is made on blood tests . Two types of blood tests are used to confirm the presence of a hormone deficiency : basal levels , where blood samples are taken – usually in the morning – without any form of stimulation , and dynamic tests , where blood tests are taken after the injection of a stimulating substance . Measurement of ACTH and growth hormone usually requires dynamic testing , whereas the other hormones ( LH / FSH , prolactin , TSH ) can typically be tested with basal levels . There is no adequate direct test for ADH levels , but ADH deficiency can be confirmed indirectly ; oxytocin levels are not routinely measured .
Generally , the finding of a combination of a low pituitary hormone together with a low hormone from the effector gland is indicative of hypopituitarism . Occasionally , the pituitary hormone may be normal but the effector gland hormone decreased ; in this case , the pituitary is not responding appropriately to effector hormone changes , and the combination of findings is still suggestive of hypopituitarism .
= = = Basal tests = = =
Levels of LH / FSH may be suppressed by a raised prolactin level , and are therefore not interpretable unless prolactin is low or normal . In men , the combination of low LH and FSH in combination with a low testosterone confirms LH / FSH deficiency ; a high testosterone would indicate a source elsewhere in the body ( such as a testosterone @-@ secreting tumor ) . In women , the diagnosis of LH / FSH deficiency depends on whether the woman has been through the menopause . Before the menopause , abnormal menstrual periods together with low estradiol and LH / FSH levels confirm a pituitary problem ; after the menopause ( when LH / FSH levels are normally elevated and the ovaries produce less estradiol ) , inappropriately low LH / FSH alone is sufficient . Stimulation tests with GnRH are possible , but their use is not encouraged .
For TSH , basal measurements are usually sufficient , as well as measurements of thyroxine to ensure that the pituitary is not simply suppressing TSH production in response to hyperthyroidism ( an overactive thyroid gland ) . A stimulation test with thyrotropin @-@ releasing hormone ( TRH ) is not regarded as useful . Prolactin can be measured by basal level , and is required for the interpretation of LH and FSH results in addition to the confirmation of hypopituitarism or diagnosis of a prolactin @-@ secreting tumor .
= = = Stimulation tests = = =
Growth hormone deficiency is almost certain if all other pituitary tests are also abnormal , and insulin @-@ like growth factor 1 ( IGF @-@ 1 ) levels are decreased . If this is not the case , IGF @-@ 1 levels are poorly predictive of the presence of GH deficiency ; stimulation testing with the insulin tolerance test is then required . This is performed by administering insulin to lower the blood sugar to a level below 2 @.@ 2 mmol / l . Once this occurs , growth hormone levels are measured . If they are low despite the stimulatory effect of the low blood sugars , growth hormone deficiency is confirmed . The test is not without risks , especially in those prone to seizures or are known to have heart disease , and causes the unpleasant symptoms of hypoglycemia . Alternative tests ( such as the growth hormone releasing hormone stimulation test ) are less useful , although a stimulation test with arginine may be used for diagnosis , especially in situations where an insulin tolerance test is thought to be too dangerous . If GH deficiency is suspected , and all other pituitary hormones are normal , two different stimulation tests are needed for confirmation .
If morning cortisol levels are over 500 nmol / l , ACTH deficiency is unlikely , whereas a level less than 100 is indicative . Levels between 100 @-@ 500 require a stimulation test . This , too , is done with the insulin tolerance test . A cortisol level above 500 after achieving a low blood sugar rules out ACTH deficiency , while lower levels confirm the diagnosis . A similar stimulation test using corticotropin @-@ releasing hormone ( CRH ) is not sensitive enough for the purposes of the investigation . If the insulin tolerance test yields an abnormal result , a further test measuring the response of the adrenal glands to synthetic ACTH ( the ACTH stimulation test ) can be performed to confirm the diagnosis . Stimulation testing with metyrapone is an alternative . Some suggest that an ACTH stimulation test is sufficient as first @-@ line investigation , and that an insulin tolerance test is only needed if the ACTH test is equivocal . The insulin tolerance test is discouraged in children . None of the tests for ACTH deficiency are perfect , and further tests after a period of time may be needed if initial results are not conclusive .
Symptoms of diabetes insipidus should prompt a formal fluid deprivation test to assess the body 's response to dehydration , which normally causes concentration of the urine and increasing osmolarity of the blood . If these parameters are unchanged , desmopressin ( an ADH analogue ) is administered . If the urine then becomes concentrated and the blood osmolarity falls , there is a lack of ADH due to lack of pituitary function ( " cranial diabetes insipidus " ) . In contrast , there is no change if the kidneys are unresponsive to ADH due to a different problem ( " nephrogenic diabetes insipidus " ) .
= = = Further investigations = = =
If one of these tests shows a deficiency of hormones produced by the pituitary , magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) scan of the pituitary is the first step in identifying an underlying cause . MRI may show various tumors and may assist in delineating other causes . Tumors smaller than 1 cm are referred to as microadenomas , and larger lesions are called macroadenomas . Computed tomography with radiocontrast may be used if MRI is not available . Formal visual field testing by perimetry is recommended , as this would show evidence of optic nerve compression by a tumor .
Other tests that may assist in the diagnosis of hypopituitarism , especially if no tumor is found on the MRI scan , are ferritin ( elevated in hemochromatosis ) , angiotensin converting enzyme ( ACE ) levels ( often elevated in sarcoidosis ) , and human chorionic gonadotropin ( often elevated in tumor of germ cell origin ) . If a genetic cause is suspected , genetic testing may be performed .
= = Treatment = =
Treatment of hypopituitarism is threefold : removing the underlying cause , treating the hormone deficiencies , and addressing any other repercussions that arise from the hormone deficiencies .
= = = Underlying cause = = =
Pituitary tumors require treatment when they are causing specific symptoms , such as headaches , visual field defects or excessive hormone secretion . Transsphenoidal surgery ( removal of the tumor by an operation through the nose and the sphenoidal sinuses ) may , apart from addressing symptoms related to the tumor , also improve pituitary function , although the gland is sometimes damaged further as a result of the surgery . When the tumor is removed by craniotomy ( opening the skull ) , recovery is less likely – but sometimes this is the only suitable way to approach the tumor . After surgery , it may take some time for hormone levels to change significantly . Retesting the pituitary hormone levels is therefore performed 2 to 3 months later .
Prolactinomas may respond to dopamine agonist treatment – medication that mimics the action of dopamine on the lactrotrope cells , usually bromocriptine or cabergoline . This approach may improve pituitary hormone secretion in more than half the cases , and make supplementary treatment unnecessary .
Other specific underlying causes are treated as normally . For example , hemochromatosis is treated by venesection , the regular removal of a fixed amount of blood . Eventually , this decreases the iron levels in the body and improves the function of the organs in which iron has accumulated .
= = = Hormone replacement = = =
Most pituitary hormones can be replaced indirectly by administering the products of the effector glands : hydrocortisone ( cortisol ) for adrenal insufficiency , levothyroxine for hypothyroidism , testosterone for male hypogonadism , and estradiol for female hypogonadism ( usually with a progestogen to inhibit unwanted effects on the uterus ) . Growth hormone is available in synthetic form , but needs to be administered parenterally ( by injection ) . Antidiuretic hormone can be replaced by desmopressin ( DDAVP ) tablets or nose spray . Generally , the lowest dose of the replacement medication is used to restore wellbeing and correct the deranged results , as excessive doses would cause side @-@ effects or complications . Those requiring hydrocortisone are usually instructed to increase their dose in physically stressful events such as injury , hospitalization and dental work as these are times when the normal supplementary dose may be inadequate , putting the patient at risk of adrenal crisis .
Long @-@ term follow up by specialists in endocrinology is generally needed for people with known hypopituitarism . Apart from ensuring the right treatment is being used and at the right doses , this also provides an opportunity to deal with new symptoms and to address complications of treatment .
Difficult situations arise in deficiencies of the hypothalamus @-@ pituitary @-@ gonadal axis in people ( both men and women ) who experience infertility ; infertility in hypopituitarism may be treated with subcutaneous infusions of FSH , human chorionic gonadotropin – which mimics the action of LH – and occasionally GnRH .
= = = Complications = = =
Several hormone deficiencies associated with hypopituitarism may lead to secondary diseases . For instance , growth hormone deficiency is associated with obesity , raised cholesterol and the metabolic syndrome , and estradiol deficiency may lead to osteoporosis . While effective treatment of the underlying hormone deficiencies may improve these risks , it is often necessary to treat them directly .
= = Prognosis = =
Several studies have shown that hypopituitarism is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease and some also an increased risk of death of about 50 % to 150 % the normal population . It has been difficult to establish which hormone deficiency is responsible for this risk , as almost all patients studied had growth hormone deficiency . The studies also do not answer the question as to whether the hypopituitarism itself causes the increased mortality , or whether some of the risk is to be attributed to the treatments , some of which ( such as sex hormone supplementation ) have a recognized adverse effect on cardiovascular risk .
The largest study to date followed over a thousand people for eight years ; it showed an 87 % increased risk of death compared to the normal population . Predictors of higher risk were : female sex , absence of treatment for sex hormone deficiency , younger age at the time of diagnosis , and a diagnosis of craniopharyngioma . Apart from cardiovascular disease , this study also showed an increased risk of death from lung disease .
Quality of life may be significantly reduced , even in those people on optimum medical therapy . Many report both physical and psychological problems . It is likely that the commonly used replacement therapies still do not completely mimic the natural hormone levels in the body . Health costs remain about double those of the normal population .
Hypopituitarism is usually permanent . It requires lifelong treatment with one or more medicines . But you can expect a normal life span .
= = Epidemiology = =
There is only one study that has measured the prevalence ( total number of cases in a population ) and incidence ( annual number of new cases ) of hypopituitarism . This study was conducted in Northern Spain and used hospital records in a well @-@ defined population . The study showed that 45 @.@ 5 people out of 100 @,@ 000 had been diagnosed with hypopituitarism , with 4 @.@ 2 new cases per year . 61 % were due to tumors of the pituitary gland , 9 % due to other types of lesions , and 19 % due to other causes ; in 11 % no cause could be identified .
Recent studies have shown that people with a previous traumatic brain injury , spontaneous subarachnoid hemorrhage ( a type of stroke ) or radiation therapy involving the head have a higher risk of hypopituitarism . After traumatic brain injury , as much as a quarter have persistent pituitary hormone deficiencies . Many of these people may have subtle or non @-@ specific symptoms that are not linked to pituitary problems but attributed to their previous condition . It is therefore possible that many cases of hypopituitarism remain undiagnosed , and that the annual incidence would rise to 31 per 100 @,@ 000 annually if people from these risk groups were to be tested .
= = History = =
The pituitary was known to the ancients , such as Galen , and various theories were proposed about its role in the body , but major clues as to the actual function of the gland were not advanced until the late 19th century , when acromegaly due to pituitary tumors was described . The first known report of hypopituitarism was made by the German physician and pathologist Dr Morris Simmonds . He described the condition on autopsy in a 46 @-@ year @-@ old woman who had suffered severe puerperal fever eleven years earlier , and subsequently suffered amenorrhea , weakness , signs of rapid aging and anemia . The pituitary gland was very small and there were few remnants of both the anterior and the posterior pituitary . The eponym Simmonds ' syndrome is used infrequently for acquired hypopituitarism , especially when cachexia ( general ill health and malnutrition ) predominates . Most of the classic causes of hypopituitarism were described in the 20th century ; the early 21st century saw the recognition of how common hypopituitarism could be in previous head injury victims .
Until the 1950s , the diagnosis of pituitary disease remained based on clinical features and visual field examination , sometimes aided by pneumoencephalography and X @-@ ray tomography . Nevertheless , the field of pituitary surgery developed during this time . The major breakthrough in diagnosis came with the discovery of the radioimmunoassay by Rosalyn Yalow and Solomon Berson in the late 1950s . This allowed the direct measurement of the hormones of the pituitary , which as a result of their low concentrations in blood had previously been hard to measure . Stimulation tests were developed in the 1960s , and in 1973 the triple bolus test was introduced , a test that combined stimulation testing with insulin , GnRH and TRH . Imaging of the pituitary , and therefore identification of tumors and other structural causes , improved radically with the introduction of computed tomography in the late 1970s and magnetic resonance imaging in the 1980s .
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= 2012 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 2012 Atlantic hurricane season was extremely active , tied with 1887 , 1995 , 2010 , and 2011 for having the third @-@ most named storms on record . The season officially began on June 1 and ended on November 30 , dates that conventionally delimit the period during each year in which most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic Ocean . However , Alberto , the first system of the year , developed on May 19 – the earliest date of formation since Tropical Storm Ana in 2003 . A second tropical cyclone , Beryl , developed later that month . This was the first occurrence of two pre @-@ season named storms in the Atlantic basin since 1951 . It moved ashore in North Florida on May 29 with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) , making it the strongest pre @-@ season storm to make landfall in the Atlantic basin . This season marked the first time since 2009 where no tropical cyclones formed in July . Another record was set by Hurricane Nadine later in the season ; the system became the fourth @-@ longest @-@ lived tropical cyclone ever recorded in the Atlantic , with a total duration of 22 @.@ 25 days . The final storm to form , Tony , dissipated on October 25 – however , Hurricane Sandy , which formed before Tony , became extratropical on October 29 .
Pre @-@ season forecasts by the Colorado State University ( CSU ) called for a below average season , with 10 named storms , 4 hurricanes , and 2 major hurricanes . The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) issued its first outlook on May 24 , predicting a total of 9 – 15 named storms , 4 – 8 hurricanes , and 1 – 3 major hurricanes ; both agencies noted the possibility of an El Niño , which limits tropical cyclone activity . Following two pre @-@ season storms , the CSU updated their forecast to 13 named storms , 5 hurricanes , and 2 major hurricanes , while the NOAA upped their forecast numbers to 12 – 17 named storms , 5 – 8 hurricanes , and 2 – 3 major hurricanes on August 9 . Despite this , activity far surpassed the predictions .
Impact during the 2012 season was widespread and significant . In mid @-@ May , Beryl moved ashore the coastline of Florida , causing 3 deaths . In late June and early August , Tropical Storm Debby and Hurricane Ernesto caused 10 and 13 deaths after striking Florida and the Yucatán , respectively . In mid @-@ August , the remnants of Tropical Storm Helene killed two people after making landfall in Mexico . At least 41 deaths and $ 2 @.@ 39 billion were attributed to Hurricane Isaac , which struck Louisiana on two separate occasions in late August . However , by far the costliest and deadliest cyclone of the season was Hurricane Sandy , which formed on October 22 . After striking Cuba at Category 3 intensity on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale , the hurricane moved ashore the southern coastline of New Jersey . Sandy left 286 dead and $ 75 billion worth of damage in its wake , making it the second @-@ costliest Atlantic hurricane on record , behind only Hurricane Katrina in 2005 . Collectively , the season 's storms caused at least 355 fatalities and about $ 79 @.@ 2 billion in damage , making 2012 the deadliest season since 2008 and the costliest since 2005 .
= = Seasonal forecasts = =
In advance of , and during , each hurricane season , several forecasts of hurricane activity are issued by national meteorological services , scientific agencies , and noted hurricane experts . These include forecasters from the United States NOAA 's National Hurricane and Climate Prediction Center 's , Philip J. Klotzbach , William M. Gray and their associates at CSU , Tropical Storm Risk , and the United Kingdom 's Met Office . The forecasts include weekly and monthly changes in significant factors that help determine the number of tropical storms , hurricanes , and major hurricanes within a particular year . As stated by NOAA and CSU , an average Atlantic hurricane season between 1981 and 2010 contained roughly 12 tropical storms , 6 hurricanes , 3 major hurricanes , and an Accumulated Cyclone Energy ( ACE ) Index of 66 – 103 units . NOAA typically categorizes a season as either above @-@ average , average , or below @-@ average based on the cumulative ACE Index ; however , the number of tropical storms , hurricanes , and major hurricanes within a hurricane season is considered occasionally as well .
= = = Pre @-@ season forecasts = = =
On December 7 , 2011 , Tropical Storm Risk ( TSR ) , a public consortium consisting of experts on insurance , risk management , and seasonal climate forecasting at University College London , issued an extended @-@ range forecast predicting an above @-@ average hurricane season . In its report , TSR noted that tropical cyclone activity could be about 49 % above the 1950 – 2010 average , with 14 @.@ 1 ( ± 4 @.@ 2 ) tropical storms , 6 @.@ 7 ( ± 3 @.@ 0 ) hurricanes , and 3 @.@ 3 ( ± 1 @.@ 6 ) major hurricanes anticipated , and a cumulative ACE index of 117 ( ± 58 ) . Later that month on December 21 , Weather Services International ( WSI ) issued an extended @-@ range forecast predicting a near average hurricane season . In its forecast , WSI noted that a cooler North Atlantic Oscillation not seen in a decade , combined with weakening La Niña , would result in a near @-@ average season with 12 named storms , 7 hurricanes , and 3 major hurricanes . They also predicted a near @-@ average probability of a hurricane landfall , with a slightly elevated chance on the Gulf Coast of the United States and a slightly reduced chance along the East Coast of the United States . On April 4 , 2012 , Colorado State University ( CSU ) issued their updated forecast for the season , calling for a below @-@ normal season due to an increased chance for the development of an El Niño during the season . In April 2012 , TSR issued their update forecast for the season , slightly revising down their predictions as well .
On May 24 , 2012 , NOAA released their forecast for the season , predicting a near @-@ normal season , with nine to fifteen named storms , four to eight hurricanes , and one to three major hurricanes . NOAA based its forecast on higher wind shear , cooler temperatures in the Main Development Region of the Eastern Atlantic , and the continuance of the " high activity " era – known as the Atlantic multidecadal oscillation warm phase – which began in 1995 . Gerry Bell , lead seasonal forecaster at NOAA 's Climate Prediction Center , added the main uncertainty in the outlook was how much below or above the 2012 season would be , and whether the high end of the predicted range is reached dependent on whether El Niño develops or stays in its current Neutral phase . That same day , the United Kingdom Met Office ( UKMO ) issued a forecast of a below @-@ average season . They predicted 10 named storms with a 70 % chance that the number would be between 7 and 13 . However , they do not issue forecasts on the number of hurricanes and major hurricanes . They also predicted an ACE index of 90 with a 70 % chance that the index would be in the range 28 to 152 . On May 30 , 2012 , the Florida State University for Ocean @-@ Atmospheric Prediction Studies ( FSU COAPS ) issued its annual Atlantic hurricane season forecast . The organization predicted 13 named storms , including 7 hurricanes , and an ACE index of 122 .
= = = Mid @-@ season outlooks = = =
On June 1 , Klotzbach 's team issued their updated forecast for the 2012 season , predicting thirteen named storms and five hurricanes , of which two of those five would further intensify into major hurricanes . The university stated that there was a high amount of uncertainty concerning whether or not an El Niño would develop in time to hinder tropical development in the Atlantic basin . They also stated there was a lower than average chance of a major hurricane impacting the United States coastline in 2012 . On June 6 , Tropical Storm Risk released their second updated forecast for the season , predicting fourteen named storms , six hurricanes , and three major hurricanes . In addition , the agency called for an Accumulated Cyclone Energy index of 100 . Near @-@ average sea surface temperatures and slightly elevated trade winds for cited for lower activity compared to the 2010 and 2011 hurricane seasons . Tropical Storm Risk continued with their forecast of a near @-@ average probability of a United States impact during the season using the 1950 – 2011 long @-@ term normal , but a slightly below @-@ average chance of a United States landfall by the recent 2002 – 2011 normal .
On August 9 , 2012 , the NOAA issued their mid @-@ season outlook for the remainder of the 2012 season , upping their final numbers . The agency predicted between twelve and seventeen named storms , five to eight hurricanes , and two to three major hurricanes . Gerry Bell cited warmer @-@ than @-@ normal sea surface temperatures and the continuation of the high activity era across the Atlantic basin since 1995 .
= = Season summary = =
The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1 , 2012 . It was an above average season in which 19 tropical cyclones formed . All nineteen depressions attained tropical storm status , and ten of these became hurricanes . Two hurricanes further intensified into major hurricanes . The season was above average most likely because of neutral conditions in the Pacific Ocean . Three hurricanes and three tropical storms made landfall during the season and caused 354 deaths and 68 billion in damage . Additionally , Hurricanes Leslie and Rafael also caused losses and fatalities , though neither struck land . The last storm of the season , dissipated on October 29 , over a month before the official end of hurricane season on November 30 .
Tropical cyclogenesis began in the month of May , with Tropical Storms Alberto and Beryl . This was the first occurrence of two pre @-@ season tropical storms in the Atlantic since 1951 . Additionally , Beryl is regarded as the strongest pre @-@ season tropical cyclone landfall in the United States on record . In June , there were also two systems , Hurricane Chris and Tropical Storm Debby . However , no tropical cyclones developed in the month of July , the first phenomenon since 2009 . Activity resumed on August 1 , with the development of Hurricane Ernesto . With a total of eight tropical storms in August , this ties the record set in 2004 .
There were only two tropical cyclones that formed in September , though three systems that existed in that month originated in August . Michael became the first major hurricane of the season on September 6 , when it peaked as a Category 3 hurricane . Hurricane Nadine developed September 10 and became extratropical on September 21 . However , Nadine re @-@ developed on September 23 and subsequently lasted until October 3 . With a total duration of 24 days , Nadine was the fourth @-@ longest lasting Atlantic tropical cyclone on record , behind the 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane , Hurricane Ginger in 1971 , and Hurricane Inga in 1969 . In October , there were five tropical cyclones – Tropical Storms Oscar , Patty , and Tony – as well as Hurricanes Rafael and Sandy . This was well average , yet not record activity for the month of October . Hurricane Sandy outlived the final named storm , Tony , and became extratropical on October 29 , ending cyclonic activity in the 2012 season .
= = = Accumulated Cyclone Energy ( ACE ) = = =
The season 's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 133 , which was well above the 1981 – 2010 average of 92 . Broadly speaking , ACE is a measure of the power of a tropical or subtropical storm multiplied by the length of time it existed . Therefore , a storm was a long duration , such as Nadine , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , such as Michael , will have high values of ACE . It is only calculated for full advisories on specific tropical and subtropical systems reaching or exceeding wind speeds of 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) . Accordingly , tropical depressions are not included here . After the storm has dissipated , typically after the end of the season , the NHC reexamines the data , and produces a final report on each storm . These revisions can lead to a revised ACE total either upward or downward compared to the operational value . Until the final reports are issued , ACEs are , therefore , provisional .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm Alberto = = =
On May 18 , a non @-@ tropical area of low pressure formed from a stationary front offshore the Carolinas , becoming stationary just offshore of South Carolina while producing organized convective activity over the next day . It quickly gained tropical characteristics over the warm waters of the Gulf Stream , and by 1200 UTC on May 19 , the system became Tropical Storm Alberto . Alberto was the first named storm to form during May in the Atlantic basin since Arthur in 2008 . Combined with Aletta , this was the first such occurrence where more than one tropical cyclone in both the Atlantic and East Pacific – located east of 140 ° W – attained tropical storm intensity prior to the start of their respective hurricane seasons .
At 2250 UTC on May 19 , a ship near Alberto reported winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) , indicating the storm was stronger than previously assessed . Early on May 20 , a minimum barometric pressure of 995 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) was reported . Little strengthening occurred over the next few hours , and in fact , slight weakening occurred that night as southeasterly shear and dry air began to impact the system , leaving the center exposed to the east of the circulation . After remaining a minimal tropical storm for about 24 hours , the storm weakened to a tropical depression early on May 22 as it moved northeastward out to sea . Early on May 22 , Alberto degenerated into a remnant area of low pressure after failing to maintain convection . At the time , it was located about 170 miles ( 270 km ) south @-@ southeast of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . While the storm was active , Alberto produced 3 to 5 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 to 1 @.@ 52 m ) waves , prompting several ocean rescues .
= = = Tropical Storm Beryl = = =
On May 22 , a weak disturbance formed southwest of Cuba . The disturbance moved north as it became a low @-@ pressure system on May 25 . It was located offshore of North Carolina and it developed into Subtropical Storm Beryl on May 26 . The storm slowly acquired tropical characteristics as it tracked across warmer waters and an environment of decreasing vertical wind shear . Late on May 27 , Beryl transitioned into a tropical cyclone less than 120 miles ( 190 km ) from North Florida . Around that time , the storm attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 992 mbar ( 29 @.@ 3 inHg ) . Early on May 28 , it made landfall near Jacksonville Beach , Florida , with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . The storm was the strongest pre @-@ season tropical cyclone to make landfall on record . It quickly weakened to a tropical depression , dropping heavy rainfall while moving slowly across the Southeastern United States . A cold front turned Beryl to the northeast , and the storm became extratropical on May 30 , while located near the southeast coast of North Carolina .
The precursor to Beryl produced heavy rainfall in Cuba , causing flooding and mudslides which damaged or destroyed 1 @,@ 156 homes and resulted in two deaths . Torrential rain affected South Florida and the Bahamas . After forming , Beryl produced rough surf along the US southeastern coast , leaving one person from Folly Beach , South Carolina missing . Upon making landfall in Florida , the storm produced strong winds that left 38 @,@ 000 people without power . High rains alleviated drought conditions and put out wildfires along the storm 's path . A fallen tree killed a man driving in Orangeburg County , South Carolina . In northeast North Carolina , Beryl spawned an EF1 tornado that snapped trees and damaged dozens of homes near the city of Peletier . Overall damage was minor , estimated at $ 148 @,@ 000 .
= = = Hurricane Chris = = =
On June 17 , a low pressure area cut off from a stationary frontal boundary near Bermuda . Due to warm seas and light wind shear , the system became Subtropical Storm Chris on June 19 . After deep convection became persistent , the National Hurricane Center reclassified it as Tropical Storm Chris on June 19 . Despite being over ocean temperatures of 72 ° F ( 22 ° C ) , it strengthened into a hurricane on June 21 . Later that day , Chris peaked with maximum sustained winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 974 mbar ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) . After encountering colder waters , it weakened back to a tropical storm on June 22 . Chris transitioned into an extratropical cyclone at 1200 UTC , after interacting with another extratropical low pressure area to its south .
The precursor of Chris produced several days of rainfall in Bermuda from June 14 to 17 , totaling 3 @.@ 41 in ( 87 mm ) at the L.F. Wade International Airport . On June 15 , the system produced heavy precipitation , reaching 2 @.@ 59 in ( 66 mm ) at the same location , a daily record . Combined with high tides , localized flooding occurred in poor drainage areas , especially in Mills Creek . Sustained winds peaked at 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) and gusts reached 64 mph ( 103 km / h ) . On June 17 , as the system was rapidly organizing , gale warnings were issued for the island of Bermuda . After transitioning into an extratropical cyclone , the pressure gradient associated with Chris and a nearby non @-@ tropical low produced gale @-@ force winds over the Grand Banks of Newfoundland . Additionally , swells in the area reached 10 to 13 ft ( 3 to 4 m ) .
Until 2016 , Chris was the earliest named " C " storm in recorded history , however , when Tropical Storm Colin formed on June 5 , 2016 , that record was broken .
= = = Tropical Storm Debby = = =
A trough of low pressure in the central Gulf of Mexico developed into Tropical Storm Debby at 1200 UTC on June 23 , while located about 290 miles ( 470 km ) south @-@ southeast of the mouth of the Mississippi River . Despite a projected track toward landfall in Louisiana or Texas , the storm headed the opposite direction , moving slowly north @-@ northeast or northeastward . It steadily strengthened , and at 1800 UTC on June 25 , the storm attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 990 mbar ( 29 inHg ) . Dry air , westerly wind shear , and upwelling prevented further intensification . Instead , Debby weakened , and late on June 26 , it was a minimal tropical storm . At 2100 UTC , the storm made landfall near Steinhatchee , Florida with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . Debby continued to weaken while crossing Florida and became extratropical on June 27 . Its remnants shortly after emerge into the Atlantic and finally dissipated on June 30 .
Tropical Storm Debby dropped immense amounts of precipitation near its path . Rainfall peaked at 28 @.@ 78 inches ( 731 mm ) in Curtis Mill , Florida , located in southwestern Wakulla County . The Sopchoppy River , which reached its record height , flooded at least 400 structures in Wakulla County . Additionally , the Suwannee River reached its highest level since Hurricane Dora in 1964 . Further south in Pasco County , the Anclote River and Pithlachascotee River overflowed , flooding communities with " head deep " water and causing damage to 106 homes . An additional 587 homes were inundated after the Black Creek overflowed in Clay County . Several roads and highways in North Florida were left impassable , Interstate 10 and U.S. Route 90 . Coastal flooding also inundated U.S. Routes 19 and 98 . In Central and South Florida , damage was primarily caused by tornadoes , one of which caused a fatality . Overall , Debby resulted in at least $ 210 million in losses and 10 deaths , 8 in Florida and one each in Alabama and South Carolina .
= = = Hurricane Ernesto = = =
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Five on August 1 , while located about 810 miles ( 1 @,@ 305 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles . Wind shear initially caused the depression to remain weak , though by August 2 , it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Ernesto . The next day , Ernesto entered the Caribbean Sea . As the storm approached the western Caribbean on August 5 , wind shear and dry air briefly halted strengthening ; convection diminished , exposing the low @-@ level circulation , which had become somewhat less defined . After the wind shear and dry air decreased , Ernesto regained deep convection and became a hurricane on August 6 . Early on August 8 , it made landfall in Costa Maya , Quintana Roo as with winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . A few hours later , a minimum barometric pressure of 973 mbar ( 28 @.@ 7 inHg ) was recorded . After weakening to a tropical storm and moving into the Bay of Campeche , the storm struck Coatzacoalcos , Veracruz on August 9 . It weakened over Mexico and dissipated on August 10 . The remnants contributed to the development of Tropical Storm Hector in the eastern Pacific .
Despite light rainfall and gusty winds on islands such as Barbados , Martinique , and Puerto Rico , impact from Ernesto in the Lesser Antilles was negligible . Rip currents along the coast of the Florida Panhandle resulted in at least 10 lifeguard rescues at Pensacola Beach , while a portion of a store in the same city was washed away . In Mexico , officials reported that 85 @,@ 000 people in Majahual lost power ; roads were damaged elsewhere in state of Quintana Roo . Freshwater flooding occurred along the coast of the Bay of Campeche , including in Coatzacoalcos , Veracruz . Flooding and several landslides lashed mountainous areas of Veracruz , Puebla , and Oaxaca . Officials indicated that 10 @,@ 000 houses were partially damaged by flooding in Veracruz . Flooding occurred well inland in association with the remnants of Ernesto . In Guerrero , at least 81 municipalities were impacted and 5 fatalities were reported . Overall , Ernesto was responsible for 12 deaths and about $ 174 million in damage .
= = = Tropical Storm Florence = = =
Early on August 2 , a well @-@ defined tropical wave , although accompanied with disorganized convection , exited the west coast of Africa . Located in a region of low wind shear and warm waters of 79 – 81 ° F ( 26 – 27 ° C ) , a low pressure area developed and became increasingly better defined as it drifted west @-@ northwest . Due to a further organized appearance on microwave and geostationary satellite imagery , it is estimated Tropical Depression Six formed at 1800 UTC on August 3 , while located about 130 miles ( 210 km ) south @-@ southwest of the southernmost islands of Cape Verde . After formation , a subsequent increase in wind shear led to slow organization ; despite this , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Florence at 0600 UTC the following day .
A central dense overcast pattern and prominent spiral banding developed later on August 4 , indicating that the storm was strengthening . At 0000 UTC on August 5 , Florence attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 002 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) . However , weakening soon occurred as dry air diminished the coverage and intensity of convection . Early on August 6 , Florence was downgraded to a tropical depression . The low @-@ level circulation subsequently became exposed and the cyclone degenerated into a non @-@ convective remnant area of low pressure at 1200 UTC , while located about midway between Cape Verde and the Lesser Antilles .
= = = Tropical Storm Helene = = =
A well @-@ defined tropical wave crossed the west coast of Africa on August 5 . It fluctuated in convective organization over the next four days . Late on August 9 , the National Hurricane Center initiated advisories on Tropical Depression Seven , while located about midway between Cape Verde and the Lesser Antilles . While moving rapidly westward , the depression began disorganizing due to southwesterly wind shear . The depression degenerated into an open tropical wave on August 10 , after a Hurricane Hunters flight failed to locate a closed circulation . Thus , the depression degenerated into an open tropical wave . The remnant tropical wave produced heavy rainfall in Trinidad and Tobago , causing flooding and mudslides in Diego Martin on island of Trinidad . Two fatalities , as well as widespread damage resulted from the flooding and mudslides , with losses exceeding TT $ 109 million ( US $ 17 million ) .
The remnants were monitored for possible redevelopment over the following days ; however , on August 14 , the system moved inland over Central America and was no longer expected to regenerate . Despite earlier predictions , the remnants of the storm moved over the Bay of Campeche and began to consolidate on August 16 . A Hurricane Hunter aircraft into the system indicated that it regenerated into a tropical depression at 1200 UTC on August 17 , just six hours before strengthening into Tropical Storm Helene . Shortly thereafter , it peaked with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 004 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) . Early on August 18 , Helene weakened back to a tropical depression while moving northwestward . At 1200 UTC it made landfall near Tampico , Tamaulipas , Mexico . Helene quickly weakened and dissipated at 0000 UTC on August 19 . In Mexico , Helene brought moderate rains to areas previously affected by Hurricane Ernesto . Two communities within the city of Veracruz reported street flooding .
= = = Hurricane Gordon = = =
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on August 10 . After passing over Cape Verde , it moved generally west @-@ northwestward and crossed a region of colder seas . As a result , tropical cyclogenesis was impeded and convective activity remained minimal . As the low pressure system turned to a more northerly direction , it reentered warmer waters . The environment was favorable for further organization , and the system attained deeper convection and a better @-@ defined circulation . It is estimated that Tropical Depression Eight developed at 1200 UTC on August 15 , while located about 690 miles ( 1 @,@ 110 km ) east @-@ southeast of Bermuda . The depression strengthened , and approximately twelve hours later , became Tropical Storm Gordon .
After becoming a tropical storm on August 15 , Gordon turned eastward and continued to intensify due to relatively light wind shear . By August 18 , it was upgraded to a hurricane . The storm peaked with winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 965 mbar ( 28 @.@ 5 inHg ) on the following day , before weakening from colder ocean temperatures and increasing shear . At 0530 UTC August 20 , Gordon struck Santa Maria Island in the Azores , about six and a half hours before weakening to a tropical storm . Later that day , it transitioned into an extratropical low pressure area . Several homes sustained broken doors and windows , and streets were covered with fallen trees . Some areas temporarily lost power when the storm moved over , though electricity was restored hours later . Torrential rains triggered localized flooding , as well as a few landslides .
= = = Hurricane Isaac = = =
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Nine at 0600 UTC on August 21 , while located about 720 miles ( 1 @,@ 160 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles . The depression headed just north of due west and twelve hours later , strengthened into Tropical Storm Isaac . After intensifying somewhat further , Isaac passed through the Leeward Islands on August 22 . A few islands reported tropical storm force winds and light rainfall , but no damage occurred . Unfavorable conditions , primarily dry air , as well as a reformation of the center caused Isaac to remain disorganized in the eastern Caribbean Sea . Early on August 25 , it made landfall near Jacmel , Haiti as a strong tropical storm . Strong winds and heavy rain impacted numerous camps set up after the 2010 Haiti earthquake , with about 6 @,@ 000 people losing shelter . Approximately 1 @,@ 000 houses were destroyed , resulting in about $ 8 million in damage ; there were 24 deaths confirmed . In neighboring Dominican Republic , 864 houses were damaged and cross loses reached approximately $ 30 million ; five deaths were reported . Isaac became slightly disorganized over Haiti and re @-@ emerged into the Caribbean Sea later on August 25 , hours before striking Guantánamo Province , Cuba with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . There , 6 homes were destroyed and 91 sustained damage .
Later on August 25 , Isaac emerged into the southwestern Atlantic Ocean over the Bahama Banks . Initially , the storm posed a threat to Florida and the 2012 Republican National Convention , but passed to the southwest late on August 26 . However , its outerbands spawned tornadoes and dropped isolated areas of heavy rainfall , causing severe local flooding , especially in Palm Beach County . Neighborhoods in The Acreage , Loxahatchee , Royal Palm Beach , and Wellington were left stranded for up to several days . Tornadoes in the state destroyed 1 structure and caused damage to at least 102 others . Isaac reached the Gulf of Mexico and began a strengthening trend , reaching hurricane status on August 28 . At 0000 UTC on the following day , the storm made landfall near the mouth of the Mississippi River in Louisiana with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Three hours later , a dropsonde reported a barometric pressure of 965 mbar ( 28 @.@ 5 inHg ) . Isaac briefly moved offshore , but made another landfall near Port Fourchon with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) at 0800 UTC on August 29 . A combination of storm surge , strong winds , and heavy rainfall left 901 @,@ 000 homes without electricity , caused damage to 59 @,@ 000 houses , and resulted in losses to about 90 % of sugarcane crops . Thousands of people required rescuing from their homes and vehicles due to flooding . The New Orleans area was relatively unscathed , due to levees built after hurricanes Katrina and Rita in 2005 . Isaac slowly weakened while moving inland , and dissipated over Missouri on September 1 . The remnants of Isaac continued generally eastward over southern Illinois before moving southward over Kentucky . On September 3 , the mid @-@ level circulation of the storm split into two parts , with one portion continuing southward into the Gulf of Mexico and the other eastward over Ohio . The remnants brought rainfall to some areas impacted by an ongoing drought . Throughout the United States , damage reached about $ 2 @.@ 35 billion and there were 9 fatalities , most of which was incurred within the state of Louisiana .
= = = Tropical Storm Joyce = = =
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on August 19 . The system produced sporadic and disorganized convection for a few days while it moved westward across the eastern tropical Atlantic . Late on August 21 , a well @-@ defined surface low developed in association with the tropical wave , though the associated deep convection was not sufficiently organized . However , by 0600 UTC on August 22 , the system organized enough to be designated Tropical Depression Ten , while located about 690 miles ( 1 @,@ 110 km ) west @-@ southwest of Cape Verde . The depression was steered toward the west @-@ northwest along the southern periphery of a deep @-@ layer subtropical ridge .
Initially , the depression was within a region of with light southwesterly shear , 81 – 82 ° F ( 27 – 28 ° C ) seas , and modestly moist mid @-@ level air . Under these conditions , the depression intensified slowly , becoming Tropical Storm Joyce at 1200 UTC on August 23 . Later that day , Joyce peaked with maximum sustained winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 006 mbar ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) . However , deep convection soon began to diminish around 0000 UTC on August 24 , when the system weakened to a tropical depression . An environment of dry air , coupled with an increase of southwesterly vertical shear induced primarily by an upper @-@ level low to the northwest of Joyce , continued to adversely affect the storm on August 24 . Joyce degenerated into a remnant low pressure area around 1200 UTC that day and dissipated shortly thereafter .
= = = Hurricane Kirk = = =
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic from the coast of Africa on August 22 , accompanied by a broad area of low pressure . The system moved slowly westward , and the associated convective activity began organizing on August 24 near Cape Verde . However , little additional development occurred during the next three days as the circulation of the low was elongated and poorly defined . The system turned northwestward late on August 25 and continued in that direction until August 27 . Despite the presence of vertical wind shear , convection became more concentrated . The circulation became better @-@ defined , indicating that Tropical Depression Eleven developed at 1800 UTC on August 28 , while located about 1 @,@ 290 miles ( 2 @,@ 080 km ) southwest of the western Azores .
The depression initially moved westward before turning northwestward on August 29 in response to a weakness in the subtropical ridge . Minimal intensification was predicted , due to dry air and wind shear . It strengthened into Tropical Storm Kirk on the following day , but persistent wind shear slowed intensification . After a decrease in shear , Kirk quickly strengthened into a hurricane on August 30 . A small eye appeared in satellite imagery on August 31 as the storm peaked with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 970 mbar ( 29 inHg ) . Kirk weakened later that day while moving northward through a break in the subtropical ridge . On September 1 , it fell to tropical storm intensity while recurving into the westerlies . Accelerating northeastward , Kirk weakened further due to increasing shear and decreasing sea surface temperatures . At 0000 UTC September 3 , it merged with a frontal system located about 1 @,@ 035 miles ( 1 @,@ 665 km ) north of the Azores .
= = = Hurricane Leslie = = =
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Twelve while located nearly 1 @,@ 500 miles ( 2 @,@ 400 km ) east of the Leeward Islands on August 30 . About six hours later , it strengthened into Tropical Storm Leslie . Tracking steadily west @-@ northwestward , it slowly intensified due to only marginally favorable conditions . By September 2 , the storm curved north @-@ northwestward while located north of the Leeward Islands . Thereafter , a blocking pattern over Atlantic Canada caused Leslie to drift for four days . Late on September 5 , Leslie was upgraded to a hurricane , shortly before strengthening to its peaking intensity with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 968 mbar ( 28 @.@ 6 inHg ) . However , due to its slow movement , the storm caused upwelling , which decreased ocean temperatures , weakening Leslie to a tropical storm on September 7 .
The storm drifted until September 9 , when it accelerated while passing east of Bermuda . Relatively strong winds on the island caused hundreds of power outages and knocked down tree branches , electrical poles , and other debris . Re @-@ intensification occurred , with Leslie becoming a hurricane again , before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone near Newfoundland on September 11 . In Atlantic Canada , heavy rains fell in both Nova Scotia and Newfoundland . In the latter , localized flooding occurred , especially in the western portions of the province . Also in Newfoundland , strong winds ripped off roofs , downed trees , and left 45 @,@ 000 homes without power . Additionally , a partially built house was destroyed and several incomplete homes were damaged in Pouch Cove . Overall , Leslie caused about $ 10 @.@ 1 million in damage and no fatalities .
= = = Hurricane Michael = = =
A shortwave disturbance spawned a well @-@ defined low pressure area on September 2 while located about 840 miles ( 1 @,@ 350 km ) southwest of the Azores . The low moved southwestward and developed into Tropical Depression Thirteen at 0600 UTC on September 3 . It moved westward and then northwestward and strengthened into Tropical Storm Michael at 0600 UTC on September 4 , while located about 1 @,@ 235 miles ( 1 @,@ 990 km ) southwest of the Azores . Initially , it was predicted by the National Hurricane Center that the depression would only strengthened slightly and then become extratropical by September 6 , due to an anticipated increase in wind shear . Later on September 6 , the system entered a region of weak steering currents , causing it to drift northeastward . In the 24 hours proceeding 1200 UTC on September 5 , the storm rapidly intensified . Late on September 5 , it was upgraded to a hurricane , before becoming a Category 2 hurricane early on the following day .
At 1200 UTC on September 6 , the storm reached Category 3 hurricane strength and attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 964 mbar ( 28 @.@ 5 inHg ) . Michael was thus the first major hurricane of the season . Thereafter , it weakened back to a Category 2 hurricane later on September 6 . The storm curved back to the northwest and briefly weakened to a Category 1 hurricane on September 8 . The cyclone turned westward on September 9 and resumed weakening later that day , due to encountering wind shear generated by the outflow of nearby Hurricane Leslie . Michael weakened to a tropical storm while accelerating northward on September 11 , several hours before degenerated into remnant low pressure area , while located well west of the Azores .
= = = Hurricane Nadine = = =
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Fourteen on September 10 , while located about 885 miles ( 1 @,@ 425 km ) west of Cape Verde . Initially , it moved west @-@ northwest , intensifying into Tropical Storm Nadine early on September 12 . During the next 24 hours , the storm intensified quickly , reaching winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) by early on September 13 ; Nadine maintained this intensity for the next 36 hours . A break in the subtropical ridge caused the storm to curved northwestward , followed by a turn to the north on September 14 . Later that day , the storm was upgraded to a hurricane . On September 15 , it turned eastward to the north of the ridge . By the following day , Nadine began weakening and was downgraded to a tropical storm early on September 17 . The storm then curved east @-@ northeastward and eventually northeastward , posing a threat to the Azores . Although Nadine veered east @-@ southeastward , it did cause relatively strong winds on the islands .
Late on September 21 , Nadine curved southward , shortly before degenerating into non @-@ tropical low @-@ pressure area . After moving into an area of more favorable conditions , it regenerated into Tropical Storm Nadine early on September 23 . The storm then drifted and moved aimlessly in the northeastern Atlantic , turning west @-@ northwestward on September 23 and southwestward on September 25 . Thereafter , Nadine curved westward on September 27 and northwestward on September 28 . During that five @-@ day period , minimal change in intensity occurred , with Nadine remaining a weak to moderate tropical storm . However , by 1200 UTC on September 28 , the storm re @-@ strengthened into a hurricane . Slow intensification continued , with Nadine peaking with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 978 mbar ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) on September 30 . Thereafter , Nadine began weakened after turning southward , and was downgraded to a tropical storm on October 1 . The storm then curved southeastward and then east @-@ northeastward ahead of a deep @-@ layer trough . After strong wind shear and cold waters left Nadine devoid of nearly all deep convection , the storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone at 0000 UTC on October 4 , while located about 195 miles ( 315 km ) southwest of the central Azores . The low rapidly moved northeastward , degenerated into a trough of low pressure , and was absorbed by a cold front later that day .
= = = Tropical Storm Oscar = = =
A tropical wave and an accompanying low pressure area emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on September 28 . Minimal organization occurred until October 2 , when deep convection developed and began organizing . At 0600 UTC on October 3 , the system became Tropical Depression Fifteen , while located about 1 @,@ 035 miles ( 1 @,@ 665 km ) west of Cape Verde . A mid @-@ level ridge near Cape Verde and a mid to upper @-@ level low pressure northeast of the Leeward Islands forced the depression to move north @-@ northwestward at roughly 17 mph ( 27 km / h ) . After further consolidation of convection near its low @-@ level center , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Oscar later on October 3 .
Although strong wind shear began exposing the low @-@ level center of circulation to the west of deep convection , Oscar continued to intensify . Oscar curved northeastward and accelerated on October 4 , in advance of an approaching cold front . At 0600 UTC on October 5 , the storm attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 994 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) . Six hours later , ASCAT Scatterometer and satellite data indicated that Oscar degenerated into a trough while located well northwest of Cape Verde , which was absorbed by the cold front early on October 6 .
= = = Tropical Storm Patty = = =
A weak surface trough detached from a quasi @-@ stationary frontal system on October 6 , while located between 345 and 460 miles ( 555 and 740 km ) north of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands . The trough approached the southern Bahamas and acquired a closed circulation late on October 10 , developing into Tropical Depression Sixteen early on the following day . Initially , the National Hurricane Center predicted no further intensification , citing strong vertical wind shear . However , the depression strengthened and by 0600 UTC on October 11 , it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Patty , while centered about 175 miles ( 282 km ) east @-@ northeast of San Salvador Island in The Bahamas .
Although it reached tropical storm status , the National Hurricane Center noted that Patty was " on borrowed time " , as the storm was predicted to eventually succumb to unfavorable conditions . At 0000 UTC on October 12 , Patty attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 005 mbar ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) . Later that day , increasing vertical wind shear caused the storm to weaken . Early on October 13 , Patty was downgraded to a tropical depression , about six hours before degenerating into a trough of low pressure .
= = = Hurricane Rafael = = =
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on October 5 . It slowly organized while moving westward and crossed the Lesser Antilles between October 11 and October 12 . The system was classified as Tropical Storm Rafael at 1800 UTC on October 12 , while located about 200 miles ( 320 km ) south @-@ southeast of St. Croix . Though initially disorganized due to wind shear , a subsequent decrease allowed for significant convective activity to develop by October 14 . While moving north @-@ northwestward the following day , Rafael intensified into a hurricane . A cold front moving off the East Coast of the United States caused the system to turn northward and eventually northeastward by October 16 , at which time it peaked with maximum sustained winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 969 mbar ( 28 @.@ 6 inHg ) . As the cyclone entered a more stable atmosphere and into increasingly cooler seas , Rafael became extratropical by late on October 17 .
Although a disorganized tropical cyclone , Rafael produced flooding across the northeastern Caribbean islands . As much as 12 inches ( 300 mm ) of rain fell across portions of the Lesser Antilles , causing mudslides and landslides , as well river flooding . In addition , the heavy rains led to significant crop loss . Near @-@ hurricane @-@ force winds were recorded on Saint Martin , while tropical storm @-@ force gusts occurred widespread . Lightning activity as a result of heavy thunderstorms caused many fires and power outages . One fatality occurred when a woman in Guadeloupe unsuccessfully attempted to drive her car across a flooded roadway . As Rafael passed just to the east of Bermuda as a hurricane , light rainfall was recorded . Gusts over 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) left hundreds of houses without electricity . Large swells from the system caused significant damage to the coastline of Nova Scotia , while many roads were washed away or obscured with debris . However , damage was minimal overall , reaching about $ 2 million .
= = = Hurricane Sandy = = =
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Eighteen at 1200 UTC on October 22 , while located about 350 miles ( 560 km ) south @-@ southwest of Kingston , Jamaica . Six hours later , it strengthened into Tropical Storm Sandy . Initially , the storm headed southwestward , but re @-@ curved to the north @-@ northeast due to mid to upper @-@ level trough in the northwestern Caribbean Sea . A gradual increase in organization and deepening occurred , with Sandy becoming a hurricane on October 24 . Several hours later , it made landfall near Bull Bay , Jamaica as a moderate Category 1 hurricane . In that country , there was 1 fatality and damage to thousands of homes , resulting in about $ 100 million in losses . After clearing Jamaica , Sandy began to strengthen significantly . At 0525 UTC on October 25 , it struck near Santiago de Cuba in Cuba , with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) ; this made Sandy the second major hurricane of the season . In the province of Santiago de Cuba alone , 132 @,@ 733 homes were damaged , of which 15 @,@ 322 were destroyed and 43 @,@ 426 lost their roofs . The storm resulted in 11 deaths and $ 2 billion in damage in Cuba . It also produced widespread devastation in Haiti , where over 27 @,@ 000 homes were flooded , damaged , or destroyed , and 40 % of the corn , beans , rice , banana , and coffee crops were lost . The storm left $ 750 million in damage , 54 deaths , and 21 people missing .
The storm weakened slightly while crossing Cuba and emerged into the southwestern Atlantic Ocean as a Category 2 hurricane late on October 25 . Shortly thereafter , it moved through the central Bahamas , where three fatalities and $ 300 million in damage was reported . Early on October 27 , it briefly weakened to a tropical storm , before re @-@ acquiring hurricane intensity later that day . In the Southeastern United States , impact was limited to gusty winds , light rainfall , and rough surf . The outerbands of Sandy impacted the island of Bermuda , with a tornado in Sandys Parish damaging a few homes and businesses . Movement over the Gulf Stream and baroclinic processes caused the storm to deepen , with the storm becoming a Category 2 hurricane again at 1200 UTC on October 29 . Although it soon weakened to a Category 1 hurricane , the barometric pressure decreased to 940 mbar ( 28 inHg ) . At 2100 UTC , Sandy became extratropical , while located just offshore New Jersey . The center of the now extratropical storm moved inland near Brigantine late on October 29 . In the Northeastern United States , damage was most severe in New Jersey and New York . Within the former , 346 @,@ 000 houses were damaged or destroyed , while nearly 19 @,@ 000 businesses suffered severe losses . In New York , an estimated 305 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed . Severe coastal flooding occurred in New York City , with the hardest hit areas being New Dorp Beach , Red Hook , and the Rockaways ; eight tunnels of the subway system were inundated . Heavy snowfall was also reported , peaking at 36 inches ( 910 mm ) in West Virginia . Additionally , the remnants of Sandy left 2 deaths and $ 100 million in damage in Canada , with Ontario and Quebec being the worst impacted . Overall , 286 fatalities were attributed to Sandy . Damages totaled $ 71 @.@ 4 billion in the United States and $ 75 billion overall , making Sandy the second @-@ costliest Atlantic hurricane in recorded history , behind only Hurricane Katrina in 2005 .
= = = Tropical Storm Tony = = =
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on October 11 . The wave split , with a portion later developing into Hurricane Sandy , while the other drifted slowly in the eastern Atlantic . The latter portion interacted with an upper @-@ level trough , which developed into a surface low pressure area on October 21 . After acquiring deeper convection , the system was as Tropical Depression Nineteen at 1800 UTC on October 22 . The depression headed northward along the eastern periphery of a cutoff low pressure area . Although wind shear was not very strong , the depression initially failed to strengthen . Nonetheless , the depression organized further and intensified into Tropical Storm Tony at 0000 UTC on October 24 .
A mid @-@ level trough to the northwest and a ridge to the east caused the storm to curve northeastward on October 24 . Tony strengthened further , and by 1200 UTC on October 24 , attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 000 mbar ( 30 inHg ) . The storm maintained this intensity for about 24 hours while moving east @-@ northeastward and accelerating . On October 25 , Tony began to weaken due to a combination of increasing vertical wind shear and decreasing sea surface temperatures . Later that day , the circulation of Tony began to entrain cooler and drier air , while shear displaced the deep convection well away from the center . By 1800 UTC on October 25 , the storm was declared extratropical after it took on a frontal cyclone appearance on satellite imagery .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms in the North Atlantic in 2012 . The names not retired from this list will be used again in the 2018 season . This is the same list used in the 2006 season . The names Kirk , Oscar , Patty , Rafael , Sandy , and Tony were used for Atlantic storms for the first time in 2012 . The name Kirk replaced Keith after 2000 , but was not used in 2006 . Two names , Valerie and William , were not used during the course of the year .
= = = Retirement = = =
On April 11 , 2013 , at the 35th session of the RA IV hurricane committee , the name " Sandy " was retired due to the damage and deaths it caused , and will not be used for another Atlantic hurricane . Sandy was replaced with Sara for the 2018 Atlantic hurricane season .
= = Season effects = =
The following table lists all of the storms that formed in the 2012 Atlantic hurricane season . It includes their duration , names , landfall ( s ) – denoted by bold location names – damages , and death totals . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but were still related to that storm . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical , a wave , or a low , and all of the damage figures are in 2012 USD .
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= Eppur Si Muove ( The West Wing ) =
" Eppur Si Muove " is the sixteenth episode of The West Wing 's fifth season , and episode 104 from the start . It originally aired on NBC March 3 , 2004 . Events centre on a controversy relating to the National Institutes of Health , involving President Bartlet ’ s middle daughter Ellie . Written by Alexa Junge and directed by Llewellyn Wells , the episode contains guest appearances by Michael Gaston and Deirdre Lovejoy , as well as characters from Sesame Street .
= = Plot = =
Republican Congresswoman Barbara Layton ( Lovejoy ) starts a campaign against publicly funded NIH projects into sexual diseases . The attack is based on a list of seemingly useless projects , but by association , her real target becomes the president 's daughter Ellie , who is working on a study into the Human papillomavirus that researched conditions for prostitutes in Puerto Rico . The President is infuriated at having a family member dragged into political battles , and Toby tries to discredit the attack by finding its source . At first the list seems to originate from a far @-@ right group called the " Traditional Values Alliance " , but Toby 's assistant Rena uncovers an updated list that shows it came from within the administration . Toby immediately suspects the Vice President 's office . When confronted , Will takes full responsibility , and assures that the list was compiled purely for internal use and not leaked on purpose . Will suspects that his boss might have leaked the material on purpose , however , and Russell in private agrees he has ties to the Republicans on health issues and notes that having some distance from the President isn 't a bad thing for him . Will is left utterly disgusted with the VP .
Meanwhile , President Bartlet tries to persuade Ellie to speak to the press to contain the incidence , but Ellie insists she is not as comfortable with the spotlight as the other members of the family . She later watches her mother do a light @-@ hearted appearance on Sesame Street , to defend her right to practice medicine even after voluntarily giving up her licence . This inspires her to follow her father 's advice , and give a passionate public statement about the necessity of a politically independent scientific community .
In parallel storylines , Josh tries to end a deadlock on the appointment of a 6th Circuit federal court judge . His old friend Eric Hayden ( Gaston ) has been waiting for a year for confirmation from the Republican @-@ led Congress , and is offered the position of dean of Georgetown 's law school . But Josh suggests making a temporary recess appointment that will at least put the issue on the agenda and Hayden agrees . When Josh goes to suggest this to Leo he is told that the issue will have to wait for one of the Supreme Court justices has died . Assuming it is the ailing Chief Justice Roy Ashland that has passed , Josh is surprised to learn that it is 52 @-@ year old Justice Owen Brady , taken by a heart attack . C.J. , meanwhile , tries to make things right with resurfaced college boyfriend Ben , whom she has been forced to ignore due to her workload . Based on Ben 's reaction at the end of their very brief conversation , C.J. regrets her approach and fears that she may have caused things with Ben to end before they could even begin . Upon voicing this concern to Toby he advices her to go to Ben and fix it . Ryan Pierce , the intern working for Josh , ( uncharacteristically ) fails to show up for work . Josh had failed to even notice until Donna voices her concern as she tries , unsuccessfully , to get a hold of Ryan .
= = Social and cultural references = =
The title of the episode refers to the president quoting Galileo Galilei , leaving the Roman Inquisition after having recanted his heliocentric theory of the universe . " Eppur si muove " – " And yet it moves " . The story – as Ellie points out – is probably apocryphal , but evidence shows that it was current as early as a decade after Galileo ’ s trial .
The advocacy group " Traditional Values Alliance " is a thinly veiled version of the real @-@ life " Traditional Values Coalition " ( TVC ) . TVC sent a letter of protest to NBC producers , reacting to their portrayal on the show . In particular it was the association with a group stating that " The Lord Hates Homosexuals " that provoked the coalition , reading in this an allusion to the controversial anti @-@ gay pastor Fred Phelps . TVC , the group pointed out in its letter , had clearly distanced itself from Phelps and his methods .
The restaurant , " 1789 " , that Ben and C.J. planned lunch at is a real restaurant in Washington .
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