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= Gandingan =
The gandingan is a Philippine set of four large , hanging gongs used by the Maguindanao as part of their kulintang ensemble . When integrated into the ensemble , it functions as a secondary melodic instrument after the main melodic instrument , the kulintang . When played solo , the gandingan allows fellow Maguindanao to communicate with each other , allowing them to send messages or warnings via long distances . This ability to imitate tones of the Maguindanao language using this instrument has given the gandingan connotation : the “ talking gongs . ”
= = Description = =
The instrument is usually described as four , large , shallow @-@ bossed , thin @-@ rimmed gongs , vertically hung , either from a strong support such as a tree limb or housed in a strong wooden framed stand . The gongs are arranged in graduated fashion in pairs with knobs of the lower @-@ pitched gongs facing each other and the higher @-@ pitched gongs doing the same . Normally , the lower @-@ pitched gongs would be situated on the left side and the higher pitched gongs on the right side of the player if he / she were right @-@ handed . This arrangement in fact is similar to the arrangement of gongs on the horizontally laid kulintang – so much so , in fact that master musicians say it duplicates the pattern of intervals used on the four lower @-@ pitched gongs of the kulintang .
The gongs , themselves , although variable in pitch , are relatively similar in size . Diameters range from 1 @.@ 8 to 2 feet and 5 to 8 inches ( including the boss ) in width for the smallest to largest gongs respectively . Because of their slight differences , smaller gongs could be placed into larger gongs , making transport of these gongs more portable than an agung ’ s , whose turned @-@ in @-@ rim eliminates that possibility .
Traditionally , the metal used for the gandingan was bronze but due to its scarcity , gandingans are more commonly made of less valuable metals such as brass and even iron . Recently , galvanized iron sheets have been used where different parts of the gong ( the knob , body and rim ) would be made from separate sheets and welded together , then grinded out to produce a finished product . Comparatively , these newer gongs have a higher pitch and are smaller in size than those made in older times .
= = Technique = =
The gandingan is usually played while standing behind the instrument with the gandingan player holding two wooden mallets . The mallets , called balu , are wrapped tightly with strips of rubber at one end and are considered lighter and smaller than those balu used for the agung . The rubber ends of the balu are held between the opposing knobs of the gandingan and the player would use them to strike the knobs to achieve a sound .
Gandingan players can demonstrate different techniques dependent on the occasion . In formal kulintang performances , players would use all four gongs , but during some informal occasions , such as a playing style called apad and kulndet , players would use only three of the highest pitched gongs of the gandingan . And in instances such as gandingan contest , gandingan players may be assisted by two mulits ( kulintang assistants ) who would hold the gongs steadily in place as players ferociously demonstrate their virtuosity on the instrument .
= = Uses = =
= = = Ensemble = = =
Traditionally among the Maguindanao , the main function of the gandingan was its use as a secondary melodic instrument after the kulintang in the kulintang ensemble . In olden style of play , strictly done by women , the patterns used function to feature / highlight / reinforce the rhythmic modes already established by the singular babendil and dabakan . Women players would use a limited number of patterns that were repeated to provide a sonorous foundation to the entire ensemble .
= = = Contest = = =
Newer styles of play have recently emerged , pushing the bounds of what the gandingan was traditionally used for . One type of play called kulndet requires players to perform highly dense , complicated rhythmic patterns upon the gandingan . This type of play unlike the olden ( kamamatuan ) style of gandingan playing requires assistants to hold the gongs to avoid long suspensions of sound . Because of the strenuous type of play , male musicians usually perform this style during contests held at weddings where players would demonstrate their virtuosity , considered a sign of masculinity , on the gandingan . During a gandingan contest , two expert gandingan players ( pagagandings ) would play a particular piece several times in rotation with each other . This type of play is said to have evolved from the spread of virtousic style on the agung .
= = = Communication = = =
Another type of play , called apad , is used for conveying linguistic messages from one player to another . This ability to mimic the intonations of the Maguindanao language on the three highest @-@ tuned gongs has dubbed the gandingan as the talking gongs .
Traditionally , because of strict rules forbidding direct conversational interactions between the sexes , the gandingan presented a means for teenagers to interact with one another . Using the gandingan , young men and women would spend hours teasing , flirting , gossiping , playing guessing games , trading friendly insults and simply conversing with one another . For instance , if friends were telling a boy that a girl liked him but the boy didn ’ t like her back , the boy wouldn ’ t resort to telling his friends literally he didn ’ t like her . Instead , he could use the gandingan to express his reasons and his friends would be able to pick up the message by translating his song .
In fact , during the 1950s , many families would intentionally hang gandingans outside their houses so other neighbors could easily hear them play . Young men would gather around the gandingan and gossip about people they dislike , usually “ chatting ” with other gandingan players further away . Locals says much of this jovial talk even contained sexual innuendoes , where all kinds of dirty words could be heard penetrating the night air .
Gandingans were also used by a young man and woman who were having strong feelings for one another and if the feelings were just right , the couple would elope with one another . For instance , if the young man wanted to ask the young women “ to come here , ” the man would play on the gandingan , “ Singkaden Ka Singkaden . ” Another common message couples would play is , “ Pagngapan ko seka , ” literally meaning , “ I am waiting for you . ”
Along with those trivial messages , gandingans were also used in more seriously matters when signaling to others of imminent danger . During martial law , gandingans were used to warn villagers of incoming Marcos ’ soldiers . Every time the villagers received the signal , they would disappear leaving the soldiers aloof until the soldiers themselves brought in a translator who told them , the gandingan was responsible for the scurry . So they arrested the gandingan player . A similar story talks about a brother of a man who stole someone ’ s carabao . In order to keep his brother from getting arrested , the brother set up a gandingan up in a tree and would clang it every time the police arrived to warn his brother to leave their house . But like Marcos ’ soldiers , the police bought a translator and so they were finally able to arrest the theft for stealing and the brother on the gandingan for obstruction of justice .
= = Origin = =
The etymology of the term , “ gandingan , ” is unknown but it appears in many Maguindanao folk tales and epics . For instance , one folk tale states the Malailai Gandingan is a place known for a powerful sultan and his beautiful daughter while in another epic , Raja sa Madaya , Gandingan is the proper name of a place where hostile datus ( who attempted to abduct a princess from the prince of Madaya ) live . Perhaps the most significant mention of the gandingan in an epic tale is in the Maguindanao epic Diwatakasalipan , where word “ gandingan ” actually refers to the instrument itself . In the epic , a young princess , Tintingan na Bulawan , uses the gandingan to inform her sister , Initulon na Gambal , about a hero prince , Diwatakasalipan , who was looking for a wife . Thanks to that message , Initulon na Gambal was able to entertain the hero prince using a kulintang into her heart . This use of the gandingan in this epic exemplifies that its use as a form of communication was pre @-@ Islamic in origin .
The origins of the gongs themselves are still disputed by scholars . It is likely , as observed by Thomas Forrest , a British explorer , that gongs without knobs on them ( like the gandingan ) came from China . However , other sources suggest the gandingan came to the Philippines via Indonesia or Malaysian Sarawak due to similar gandingan @-@ type instruments found among the Tausug of Sulu .
= = Similar instruments = =
The set of four , large hanging gongs is confined mainly to the Maguindanao . Scholars says the Maranao used to use the gandingan but the instrument has disappeared from usage in Maranao ensembles of today . The Tausug have a gandingan @-@ type gong with a narrow @-@ rim called a buahan or huhagan. one of the three agungs used in the Tausug kulintang ensemble . The Samal have something similar called a bua . Other gongs similar to the gandingan are the handheld gongs of the Subanon ( gagung sua ) and Tiruray ( karatung ) used in their agung ensembles , the latter group sometimes substituting Maguindanao gandingan gongs for their karatungs .
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= Nemertea =
Nemertea is a phylum of invertebrate animals also known as " ribbon worms " or " proboscis worms " . Alternative names for the phylum have included Nemertini , Nemertinea and Rhynchocoela . Although most are less than 20 centimetres ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) long , one specimen has been estimated at 54 metres ( 177 ft ) . Most are very slim , usually only a few millimeters wide , although a few have relatively short but wide bodies . Many have patterns of yellow , orange , red and green coloration .
The foregut , stomach and intestine run a little below the midline of the body , the anus is at the tip of the tail , and the mouth is under the front . A little above the gut is the rhynchocoel , a cavity which mostly runs above the midline and ends a little short of the rear of the body . All species have a proboscis which lies in the rhynchocoel when inactive but everts ( turns inside @-@ out ) to emerge just above the mouth and capture the animal 's prey with venom . A very stretchy muscle in the back of the rhynchocoel pulls the proboscis in when an attack ends . A few species with stubby bodies filter feed and have suckers at the front and back ends , with which they attach to a host .
The brain is a ring of four ganglia , positioned around the rhynchocoel near its front end . At least a pair of ventral nerve cords connect to the brain and run along the length of the body . Most nemerteans have various chemoreceptors , and on their heads some species have a number of pigment @-@ cup ocelli . These ocelli can detect light but can not form an image . Nemerteans respire through the skin . They have at least two lateral vessels which are joined at the ends to form a loop , and these and the rhynchocoel are filled with fluid . There is no heart , and the flow of fluid depends on contraction of muscles in the vessels and the body wall . To filter out soluble waste products , flame cells are embedded in the front part of the two lateral fluid vessels , and remove the wastes through a network of pipes to the outside .
All nemerteans move slowly , using their external cilia to glide on surfaces on a trail of slime , while larger species use muscular waves to crawl , and some swim by dorso @-@ ventral undulations . A few live in the open ocean while the rest find or make hiding places on the bottom . About a dozen species inhabit freshwater , mainly in the tropics and subtropics , and another dozen species live on land in cool , damp places . Most nemerteans are carnivores , feeding on annelids , clams and crustaceans . A few species are scavengers , and a few species live commensally inside the mantle cavity of molluscs . Some species have devastated commercial fishing of clams and crabs . Nemerteans have few predators . Two species are sold as fish bait .
In most species the sexes are separate , but all the freshwater species are hermaphroditic . Nemerteans often have numerous temporary gonads ( ovaries or testes ) , and build temporary gonoducts ( ducts from which the ova or sperm are emitted ) , one per gonad , when the ova and sperm are ready . The eggs are generally fertilised externally . Some species shed them into the water , and others protect their eggs in various ways . The fertilized egg divides by spiral cleavage and grows by determinate development , in which the fate of a cell can usually be predicted from its predecessors in the process of division . The embryos of most taxa develop either directly to form juveniles ( like the adult but smaller ) or to form planuliform larvae , in which the larva 's long axis is the same as the juvenile 's . However , some form a pilidium larva , in which the developing juvenile has a gut which lies across the larva 's body , and usually eats the remains of the larva when it emerges . The bodies of some species fragment readily , and even parts near the tail can grow full bodies .
It has been suggested that three fossil species may be nemerteans , but none is confirmed . Traditional taxonomy divides the phylum in two classes , Anopla ( " unarmed " – their proboscises do not have a little dagger ) with two orders , and Enopla ( " armed " with a dagger ) with two orders . However , it is now accepted that Anopla are paraphyletic ( have given rise to another group ) , as one order is more closely related to Enopla than to the other order of Anopla . The phylum Nemertea is monophyletic , whose synapomorphies include the rhynchocoel and eversible proboscis . Traditional taxonomy says that nemerteans are closely related to flatworms and that both are relatively " primitive " acoelomates . Now both phyla are regarded as members of the Lophotrochozoa , a very large " super @-@ phylum " that also includes molluscs , annelids , brachiopods , bryozoa and many other protostomes .
= = History = =
In 1555 Olaus Magnus wrote of a marine worm which was apparently 17 @.@ 76 metres ( 58 @.@ 3 ft ) long ( " 40 cubits " ) , about the width of a child 's arm , and whose touch made a hand swell . William Borlase wrote in 1758 of a " sea long worm " , and in 1770 Gunnerus wrote a formal description of this animal , which he called Ascaris longissima . Its current name , Lineus longissimus , was first used in 1806 by Sowerby . In 1995 , a total of 1 @,@ 149 species had been described and grouped into 250 genera .
Nemertea are named after the Greek sea @-@ nymph Nemertes , one of the daughters of Nereus and Doris . Alternative names for the phylum have included Nemertini , Nemertinea , and Rhynchocoela . The Nemertodermatida are a separate phylum , whose closest relatives appear to be the Acoela .
= = Description = =
= = = Body structure and major cavities = = =
Nemerteans are very unusual animals .
The typical nemertean body is very slim in proportion to its length . The smallest are a few millimeters long , most are less than 20 centimetres ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) , and several exceed 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) . The longest animal ever found , at 54 metres ( 177 ft ) long , may be a specimen of Lineus longissimus , although L. longissimus is usually only a few millimeters wide . The bodies of most nemerteans can stretch a lot , up to 10 times their resting length in some species , but reduce their length to 50 % and increase their width to 300 % when disturbed . A few have relatively short but wide bodies , for example Malacobdella grossa is up to 3 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) long and 1 centimetre ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) wide , and some of these are much less stretchy . Smaller nemerteans are approximately cylindrical , but larger species are flattened dorso @-@ ventrally . Many have visible patterns in various combinations of yellow , orange , red and green .
The outermost layer of the body has no cuticle but consists of a ciliated and glandular epithelium containing rhabdites , which form the mucus in which the cilia glide . Each ciliated cell has many cilia and microvilli . The outermost layer rests on a thickened basement membrane , the dermis . Next to the dermis are at least three layers of muscles , some circular and some longitudinal . The combinations of muscle types vary between the different classes , but these are not associated with differences in movement . Nemerteans also have dorso @-@ ventral muscles , which flatten the animals , especially in the larger species . Inside the concentric tubes of these layers is mesenchyme , a kind of connective tissue . In pelagic species this tissue is gelatinous and buoyant .
The mouth is ventral and a little behind the front of the body . The foregut , stomach and intestine run a little below the midline of the body and the anus is at the tip of the tail . Above the gut and separated from the gut by mesenchyme is the rhynchocoel , a cavity which mostly runs above the midline and ends a little short of the rear of the body . The rhynchocoel of class Anopla has an orifice a little to the front of the mouth , but still under the front of the body . In the other class , Enopla , the mouth and the front of the rhynchocoel share an orifice . The rhynchocoel is a coelom , as it is lined by epithelium .
= = = Proboscis and feeding = = =
The proboscis is an infolding of the body wall , and sits in the rhynchocoel when inactive . When muscles in the wall of the rhynchocoel compress the fluid in the rhynchocoel , the pressure makes the proboscis jump inside @-@ out to attack the animal 's prey along a canal called the rhynchodeum and through an orifice , the proboscis pore . The proboscis has a muscle which attaches to the back of the rhynchocoel , and which can stretch up to 30 times its inactive length and then retract the proboscis .
The proboscis of the class Anopla ( " unarmed " ) exits from an orifice which is separate from the mouth , coils around the prey and immobilizes it by sticky , toxic secretions . The Anopla can attack as soon as they move into the range of the proboscis . Some Anopla have branched proboscises which can be described as " a mass of sticky spaghetti " . The animal then draws its prey into its mouth .
In most of the class Enopla ( " armed " ) , the proboscis exits from a common orifice of the rhynchocoel and mouth . A typical member of this class has a stylet , a calcareous barb , with which the animal stabs the prey many times to inject toxins and digestive secretions . The prey is then swallowed whole or , after partial digestion , its tissues are sucked into the mouth . The stylet is attached about one @-@ third of distance from the end of the everted proboscis , which extends only enough to expose the stylet . On either side of the active stylet are sacs containing back @-@ up stylets to replace the active one as the animal grows or an active one is lost . Instead of one stylet , the Polystilifera have a pad that bears many tiny stylets , and these animals have separate orifices for the proboscis and mouth , unlike other Enopla . The Enopla can only attack after contacting the prey .
Some nemerteans , such as L. longissimus , absorb organic food in solution through their skins , which may make the long , slim bodies an advantage . Suspension feeding is found only among the specialized symbiotic bdellonemerteans , which have a proboscis but no stylet , and use suckers to attach themselves to bivalves .
= = = Respiration and circulatory system = = =
Nemerteans lack specialized gills , and respiration occurs over the surface of the body , which is long and sometimes flattened . Like other animals with thick body walls , they use fluid circulation rather than diffusion to move substances through their bodies . The circulatory system consists of the rhynchocoel and peripheral vessels , while blood of other invertebrates is contained in the main body cavity . The fluid in the rhynchocoel moves substances to and from the proboscis , and functions as a fluid skeleton in everting the proboscis and in burrowing . The vessels circulate fluid round the whole body and the rhynchocoel provides its own local circulation . The circulatory vessels are a system of coeloms .
In the simplest type of circulatory system , two lateral vessels are joined at the ends to form a loop . However , many species have additional long @-@ wise and cross @-@ wise vessels . There is no heart nor pumping vessels , and the flow of fluid depends on contraction of both the vessels and the body wall 's muscles . In some species , circulation is intermittent , and fluid ebbs and flows in the long @-@ wise vessels . The fluid in the vessels is usually colorless , but in some species it contains cells that are yellow , orange , green or red . The red type contain hemoglobin and carry oxygen , but the function of the other pigments is unknown .
= = = Excretion = = =
Nemertea use organs called protonephridia to excrete soluble waste products , especially nitrogenous by @-@ products of cellular metabolism . In nemertean protonephridia , flame cells which filter out the wastes are embedded in the front part of the two lateral fluid vessels . The flame cells remove the wastes into two collecting ducts , one on either side , and each duct has one or more nephridiopores through which the wastes exit . Semiterrestrial and freshwater nemerteans have many more flame cells than marines , sometimes thousands . The reason may be that osmoregulation is more difficult in non @-@ marine environments .
= = = Nervous system and senses = = =
The central nervous system consists of a brain and paired ventral nerve cords that connect to the brain and run along the length of the body . The brain is a ring of four ganglia , masses of nerve cells , positioned round the rhynchocoel near its front end – while the brains of most protostome invertebrates encircle the foregut . Most nemertean species have just one pair of nerve cords , many species have additional paired cords , and some species also have a dorsal cord . In some species the cords lie within the skin , but in most they are deeper , inside the muscle layers . The central nervous system is often red or pink because it contains hemoglobin . This stores oxygen for peak activity or when the animal experiences anoxia , for example while burrowing in oxygen @-@ free sediments .
Some species have paired cerebral organs , sacs whose only openings are to the outside . Others species have unpaired evertible organs on the front of their heads . Some have slits along the side of the head or grooves obliquely across the head , and these may be associated with paired cerebral organs . All of these are thought to be chemoreceptors , and the cerebral organs may also aiding osmoregulation . Small pits in the epidermis appear to be sensors . On their head some species have a number of pigment @-@ cup ocelli , which can detect light but not form an image . Most nemerteans have two to six ocelli , although some have hundreds . A few tiny species that live between grains of sand have statocysts , which sense balance .
Paranemertes peregrina , which feeds on polychaetes , can follow the prey 's trails of mucus , and find its burrow by backtracking along its own trail of mucus .
= = = Movement = = =
All nemerteans move slowly . Most nemerteans use their external cilia to glide on surfaces on a trail of slime , some of which is produced by glands in the head . Larger species use muscular waves to crawl , and some aquatic species swim by dorso @-@ ventral undulations . Some species burrow by means of muscular peristalsis , and have powerful muscles . Some species of the suborder Monostilifera , whose proboscis have one active stylet , move by extending the proboscis , sticking it to an object and pulling the animal towards the object .
= = = Reproduction and life cycle = = =
Larger species often break up when stimulated , and the fragments often grow into full individuals . Some species fragment routinely and even parts near the tail can grow full bodies . All reproduce sexually , and most species are gonochoric ( the sexes are separate ) , but all the freshwater forms are hermaphroditic .
Nemerteans often have numerous temporary gonads ( ovaries or testes ) , forming a row down each side of the body in the mesenchyme . Temporary gonoducts ( ducts from which the ova or sperm are emitted ) , one per gonad , are built when the ova and sperm are ready . The eggs are generally fertilised externally . Some species shed them into the water , some lay them in a burrow or tube , and some protect them by cocoons or gelatinous strings . Some bathypelagic ( deep sea ) species have internal fertilization , and some of these are viviparous , growing their embryos in the female 's body .
The zygote ( fertilised egg ) divides by spiral cleavage and grows by determinate development , in which the fate of a cell can usually be predicted from its predecessors in the process of division . The embryos of most taxa develop either directly to form juveniles ( like the adult but smaller ) or to form planuliform larvae , in which the larva 's long axis is the same as the juvenile 's . The planuliform larva stage may be short @-@ lived and lecithotrophic ( " yolky " ) before becoming a juvenile , or may be planktotrophic , swimming for some time and eating prey larger than microscopic particles . However , many members of the order Heteronemertea and the palaeonemertean family Hubrechtidae form a pilidium larva , which can capture unicellular algae and which Maslakova describes as like a deerstalker cap with the ear flaps pulled down . It has a gut which lies across the body , a mouth between the " ear flaps " , but no anus . A small number of imaginal discs form , encircling the archenteron ( developing gut ) and coalesce to form the juvenile . When it is fully formed , the juvenile bursts out of the larva body and usually eats it during this catastrophic metamorphosis .
The species Paranemertes peregrina has been reported as having a life span of around 18 months .
= = Ecological significance = =
Most nemerteans are marine animals that burrow in sediments , lurk in crevices between shells , stones or the holdfasts of algae or sessile animals . Some live deep in the open oceans , and have gelatinous bodies . Others build semi @-@ permanent burrows lined with mucus or produce cellophane @-@ like tubes . Mainly in the tropics and subtropics , about 12 species appear in freshwater , and about a dozen species live on land in cool , damp places , for example under rotting logs .
The terrestrial Argonemertes dendyi is a native of Australia but has been found in the British Isles , in Sao Miguel in the Azores , in Gran Canaria , and in a lava tube cave at Kaumana on the Island of Hawaii . It can build a cocoon , which allows it to avoid desiccation while being transported , and it may be able to build populations quickly in new areas as it is a protandrous hermaphrodite . Another terrestrial genus , Geonemertes , is mostly found in Australasia but has species in the Seychelles , widely across the Indo @-@ Pacific , in Tristan da Cunha in the South Atlantic , in Frankfurt , in the Canary Islands , in Madeira and in the Azores .
Most are carnivores , feeding on annelids , clams and crustaceans , and may kill annelids of about their own size . They sometimes take fish , both living and dead . Insects and myriapods are the only known prey of the two terrestrial species of Argonemertes . A few nemerteans are scavengers , and these generally have good distance chemoreception ( " smell " ) and are not selective about their prey . A few species live commensally inside the mantle cavity of molluscs and feed on micro @-@ organisms filtered out by the host .
Near San Francisco the nemertean Carcinonemertes errans has consumed about 55 % of the total egg production of its host , the Dungeness crab Metacarcinus magister . C. errans is considered a significant factor in the collapse of the dungeness crab fishery . Other coastal nemerteans have devastated clam beds .
The few predators on nemerteans include bottom @-@ feeding fish , some sea birds , a few invertebrates including horseshoe crabs , and other nemerteans . Nemerteans ' skins secrete toxins that deter many predators , but some crabs may clean nemerteans with one claw before eating them . The American Cerbratulus lacteus and the South African Polybrachiorhynchus dayi , both called " tapeworms " in their respective localities , are sold as fish bait .
= = Taxonomy = =
Class Anopla ( " unarmed " ) . Includes animals with proboscis without stylet , and a mouth underneath and behind the brain.Order Paleonemertea . Comprises 100 marine species . Their body wall has outer circular and inner length @-@ wise muscles . In addition , Carinoma tremaphoros has circular and inner length @-@ wise muscles in the epidermis ; the extra muscle layers seem to be needed for burrowing by peristalsis .
Order Heteronemertea . Comprises about 400 species . The majority are marine , but three are freshwater . Their body @-@ wall muscles are disposed in four layers , alternately circular and length @-@ wise starting from the outermost layer . The order includes the strongest swimmers . Two genera have branched proboscises .
Class Enopla ( " armed " ) . All have stylets except order Bdellonemertea . Their mouth is located underneath and ahead of the brain . Their main nerve cords run inside body @-@ wall muscles.Order Bdellonemertea . Includes seven species , of which six live as commensals in the mantle of large clams and one in that of a freshwater snail . The hosts filter feed and all the hosts steal food from them . These nemerteans have short , wide bodies and have no stylets but have a sucking pharynx and a posterior stucker , with which they move like inchworms .
Order Hoplonemertea . Comprises 650 species . They live in benthic and pelagic sea water , in freshwater and on land . They feed by commensalism and parasitism , and are armed with stylet ( s ) Suborder Monostilifera . Includes 500 species with a single central stylet . Some use the stylet for locomotion as well as for capturing prey .
Suborder Polystilifera . Includes about 100 pelagic and 50 benthic species . Their pads bear many tiny stylets .
= = Evolutionary history = =
= = = Fossil record = = =
Although one might expect stylets to be fossilized since they are made of the mineral calcium phosphate , none have been found . As nemertea are otherwise completely soft @-@ bodied , one would expect fossils of them to be extremely rare .
The Middle Cambrian fossil Amiskwia from the Burgess Shale has been classed as a nemertean , based on a resemblance to some unusual deep @-@ sea swimming nemerteans , but few paleontologists accept this classification as the Burgess Shale fossils show no evidence of rhynchocoel nor intestinal caeca .
It has been suggested that Archisymplectes , one of the Pennsylvanian @-@ age animals from Mazon Creek in northern and central Illinois , may be a nemertean . This fossil , however , only preserves the outline of the " worm " , and there is no evidence of a proboscis , so there is no certainty that it represents a nemertean .
= = = = Within Nemertea = = = =
There is no doubt that the phylum Nemertea is monophyletic ( meaning that the phylum includes all and only descendants of one ancestor that was also a member of the phylum ) . The synapomorphies ( trait shared by an ancestor and all its descendants , but not by other groups ) include the eversible proboscis located in the rhynchocoel .
While Ruppert , Fox and Barnes ( 2004 ) treat the Palaeonemertea as monophyletic , Thollesson and Norenburg ( 2003 ) regard them as paraphyletic and basal ( contains the ancestors of the more recent clades ) . The Anopla ( " unarmed " ) represent an evolutionary grade of nemerteans without stylets ( comprising the Heteronemertea and the Palaeonemerteans ) , while Enopla ( " armed " ) are monophyletic , but find that Palaeonemertea is doubly paraphyletic , haven given rise to both the Heteronemertea and the Enopla . Ruppert , Fox and Barnes ( 2004 ) treat the Bdellonemertea as a clade separate from the Hoplonemertea , while Thollesson and Norenburg ( 2003 ) believe the Bdellonemertea are a part of the Monostilifera ( with one active stylet ) , which are within the Hoplonemertea – which implies that " Enopla " and " Hoplonemertea " are synonyms for the same branch of the tree . The Polystilifera ( with many tiny stylets ) are monophyletic .
= = = = Relationships with other phyla = = = =
English @-@ language writings have conventionally treated nemertean as " primitive " acoelomate bilaterians that are most closely related to flatworms ( Platyhelminthes ) . These pre @-@ cladistics analyses emphasised as shared features : multiciliated ( with multiple cilia per cell ) , glandular epidermis ; rod @-@ shaped secretory bodies or rhabdites ; frontal glands or organs ; protonephridia ; and acoelomate body organization . However , multiciliated epidermal cells and epidermal gland cells are also found in Ctenophora , Echiura , Sipuncula , Annelida , Mollusca and other taxa . The rhabdites of nemertea have a different structure from those of flatworms at the microscopic scale . The frontal glands or organs of flatworms vary a lot in structure , and similar structures appear in small marine annelids and entoproct larvae . The protonephridia of nemertea and flatworms are different in structure , and in position – the flame cells of nemertea are usually in the walls of the fluid vessels and are served by " drains " from which the wastes exit by a small number of tubes through the skin , while the flame cells of flatworms are scattered throughout the body . Rigorous comparisons show no synapomorphies of nemertean and platyhelminth nephridia .
According to more recent analyses , in the development of nemertean embryos , ectomesoderm ( outer part of the mesoderm , which is the layer in which most of the internal organs are built ) is derived from cells labelled 3a and 3b , and endomesoderm ( inner part of the mesoderm ) is derived from the 4d cell . Some of the ectomesoderm in annelids , echiurans and molluscs is derived from cells 3a and 3b , while the ectomesoderm of polyclad flatworms is derived from the 2b cell and acoel flatworms produce no ectomesoderm . In nemerteans the space between the epidermis and the gut is mainly primarily by well @-@ developed muscles embedded in noncellular connective tissue . This structure is similar to that found in larger flatworms such as polyclads and triclads , but a similar structure of body @-@ wall muscles embedded in noncellular connective tissue is widespread among the Spiralia ( animals in which the early cell divisions make a spiral pattern ) such as sipunculans , echiurans and many annelids .
Nemerteans ' affinities with Annelida ( including Echiura , Pogonophora , Vestimentifera and perhaps Sipuncula ) and Mollusca make the ribbon @-@ worms members of Lophotrochozoa , which include about half of the extant animal phyla . Lophotrochozoa groups : those animals that feed using a lophophore ( Brachiopoda , Bryozoa , Phoronida , Entoprocta ) ; phyla in which most members ' embryos develop into trochophore larvae ( for example Annelida and Mollusca ) ; and some other phyla ( such as Platyhelminthes , Sipuncula , Gastrotricha , Gnathostomulida , Micrognathozoa , Nemertea , Phoronida , Platyhelminthes and Rotifera ) . These groupings are based on molecular phylogeny , which compares sections of organisms DNA and RNA . While analyses by molecular phylogeny are confident that members of Lophotrochozoa are more closely related to each other than of non @-@ members , the relationships between members are mostly unclear .
Most protostome phyla outside the Lophotrochozoa are members of Ecdysozoa ( " animals that molt " ) , which include Arthropoda , Nematoda and Priapulida . Most other bilaterian phyla are in the Deuterostomia , which include Echinodermata and Chordata . The Acoelomorpha , which are neither protostomes nor deuterostomes , are regarded as basal bilaterians .
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= Haapsalu Castle =
Haapsalu Castle ( also Haapsalu Episcopal Castle , Estonian : Haapsalu piiskopilinnus ) is a castle with cathedral in Haapsalu , Estonia , founded in the thirteenth century as the seat of the Bishopric of Ösel @-@ Wiek . According to legend , during full moons in August , an image of a maiden , The White Lady , appears on the inner wall of the chapel .
= = History = =
In 1228 , the Archbishop of Riga , Albert of Riga formed a new diocese consisting of Läänemaa , Saaremaa and Hiiumaa and designated Gottfried , an abbot of Dünamünde Cistercian monastery , as the bishop . The bishopric was created as a state of the Holy Roman Empire on 1 October 1228 , by Henry , King of the Romans . Papal legate Wilhelm of Modena fixed these borders permanently in 1234 . The first residence of the Bishopric of Ösel @-@ Wiek was located in Lihula Castle , where with the help of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword , a stronghold was built of stone . In an attempt to avoid conflicts with the influential Order , the Bishop transferred the diocese 's residence to Perona , where it was burned by Lithuanians ten years later . A new center for the diocese was chosen in Haapsalu , where an Episcopal stronghold and cathedral were started . Building of the castle went on for three centuries .
= = Castle = =
Construction , widening and reconstruction of the stronghold went on throughout several centuries , with the architecture changing according to the development of weapons . The stronghold achieved its final dimensions – area of more than 30 @,@ 000 square metres , thickness of the wall between 1 @.@ 2 and 1 @.@ 8 meters ( 3 @.@ 9 and 5 @.@ 9 ft ) , and maximum height over 10 metres ( 33 ft ) – under the reign of Bishop Johannes IV Kievel ( 1515 – 1527 ) . The western side of the castle houses a 29 @-@ metre ( 95 ft ) watchtower dating from the 13th century , later used as a bell tower . The walls were later raised to 15 metres ( 49 ft ) .
The inner trenches and blindages , which were built for cannons and as a shelter from bombing , date back to the Livonian War ( 1558 – 1582 ) , but it was during this war that the stronghold was severely damaged . The walls of the small castle and the outer fortification were left partly destroyed .
In the 17th century , the castle was no longer used as a defensive building by the Swedes who now ruled the Swedish Estonian Province . In the course of the Great Northern War in 1710 , Estonia fell under Russian rule and the walls were partially demolished at the command of the Peter I of Russia , turning the castle in effect into ruins .
= = St. Nicolas Cathedral = =
The Cathedral of Haapsalu was a cathedral ( i.e. the main church ) of the Bishopric of Ösel @-@ Wiek , where the throne , the official chair of the Bishop , was situated and where the Chapter of the Bishopric worked . It is the biggest single @-@ naved church in the Baltic countries , with its 15 @.@ 5 @-@ metre ( 51 ft ) -high domical vaults and an area of 425 m2 ( 4 @,@ 575 sq ft ) .
The first written record of the church is the charter of Haapsalu where Bishop Hermann I , the founder of the town wrote : " ... we , the ones having established the cathedral in Haapsalu and having provided our canons with the appropriate dwellings and income , determined a certain site to be a town , where everybody who has chosen it as their place of living together with us , could gather and find shelter there ; and if needed would be able to defend the church with all the means at their disposal . "
Built in 1260 , the church belongs to the transition period from Romanesque to Gothic architecture . The first is characterized by the plant ornament of the capital of the pilasters and the second by thee star ( asteroid ) vaults . The portal was also originally Romanesque – the vimperg on the round arch had a niche with the figure of the patron saint . The inner walls were covered with paintings , the floor consisting of the gravestones of clergymen and distinguished noblemen . A unique round baptismal chapel was built in the second half of the 14th century .
During the Livonian War , Estonia became part of the Lutheran Swedish kingdom . The Catholic Dome Church became a church with a Lutheran congregation and was then called the Castle Church . In 1625 , the Swedish King Gustav II Adolf sold the town of Haapsalu , the castle and the nearby land property to Count Jacob De la Gardie , who planned to turn the dilapidated stronghold into a modern castle . Arent Passer , a well @-@ known sculptor and master builder , was invited as a consultant .
On March 23 , 1688 , the sheet @-@ copper roof of the church was destroyed in a fire , but the church was restored relatively quickly . The storm in 1726 destroyed the roof again . The decreased congregation could not afford the renovation and moved to the town church . In the 19th century , the reconstruction of the ruins into a romantic castle park was started .
In 1886 – 1889 , the church was renovated and rebuilt . The ruined Romanesque @-@ style portal was replaced by the pseudo @-@ Gothic " stepped portal " , the extant fragments of the wall paintings were covered over , and the tombstones were taken out of the church . On October 15 , 1889 the first service dedicated to Saint Nicholas was held .
The Soviet occupation in 1940 led to the closing of the church . During World War II , services were continued , but in the spring of 1944 hooligans broke into the church and destroyed the altar with the altarpiece , the organ , the chairs and the windows . In 1946 , the congregation asked the Soviet government to list the Cathedral as a protected historical monument , but it failed to raise their interest . The church was empty for years ; for some time it was used for storing grain , even plans for turning it into a swimming @-@ pool were made .
On Mother 's Day of 1992 , a Mother ’ s Altar to commemorate Estonian mothers killed during the Soviet occupation was consecrated . The statue of the Virgin and the Child was made by the sculptor Hille Palm .
= = Legend of the White Lady = =
On full moon nights in August an image of a maiden , The White Lady , is said to appear on the inner wall of the chapel .
During the reign of Ösel @-@ Wiek Bishop , every canon was supposed to lead a chaste and virtuous life according to the rules of the monastery . Access of women to the Episcopal Castle was forbidden by threat of death . A legend tells that a canon fell in love with an Estonian girl and brought secretly the maiden into the castle . She hid by dressing as a choirboy and remained a secret for a long time , but when the bishop visited Haapsalu again , the young singer caught his attention and he ordered an investigation of the singer 's gender .
Upon finding the girl , the bishop summoned his council and it decided that the girl should be immured in the wall of the chapel and the canon was to be put in prison where he was starved to death . The builders left a cavity into the wall and the poor girl with a piece of bread and a mug of water was walled in . For some time her cries for help were heard . Yet her soul could not find the peace and , as a result , she appears on the Baptistery ’ s window to grieve for her beloved man already for centuries , and also to prove the immortality of love .
The White Lady Days music festival is held at the time of the August full moon .
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= The Cottage ( video game ) =
The Cottage ( Swedish : Stugan ) is an adventure video game that was initially made available in 1978 for the mainframe computer Oden in Stockholm , and later published by Scandinavian PC Systems for IBM PCs in 1986 in Swedish , Danish , Norwegian and English . It was the first publicly available Swedish adventure game and one of the first commercial Swedish video games .
The game is set in a cottage in Småland ; the player explores the cottage and its surroundings by typing simple commands to indicate what they want to do or where they want to go . They aim to find items and perform certain actions to raise their score and rank , while avoiding traps and enemy characters , with the ultimate goal of getting inducted into the " cottage council " .
The game was developed in the 1970s and 1980s by Viggo Kann , Kimmo Eriksson and Olle Johansson , three children who had played the game Adventure and wanted to create a similar game in Swedish . The Cottage began as a collection of smaller games the three had previously developed on their own , with the player moving through an amusement arcade to choose what to play ; as they found it more fun to move through the arcade than to play the games , they ended up expanding the area to explore and removing most of the smaller games . Several thousand copies of the IBM PC release were sold ; despite this , the developers did not receive much money from it outside of pre @-@ paid royalties . The game had a cult @-@ like status among Oden users at the time , and was commercially important to the computer center in Stockholm .
= = Gameplay = =
The Cottage is set in a surreal environment in the Småland province in Sweden , and begins on the pier of a lake , outside a cottage surrounded by a deep forest and waterfalls . The cottage is larger on the inside than the outside , and has nine underground levels . The player is able to move in four cardinal directions and perform actions by typing simple commands , such as " North " , " Left " and " Take ball " . Their aim is to explore the cottage and its surroundings to find and collect items . The inside of the cottage includes obstacles such as trapdoors the player can fall through and robbers who can steal the player 's valuables , while the cottage 's surroundings include " mysterious creatures " that the player can encounter .
At the start of the game , the player 's score is set to the value of 50 ; their goal is to increase it as much as possible , for the maximum score of 307 . This is done by performing certain actions , finding new areas , solving puzzles , and by finding and keeping treasures and valuable items . In exchange for some of their score , the player can receive hints or get resurrected following an in @-@ game death . The player is ranked in accordance with their score : they start as a " clumsy rookie " ( " klantig nybörjare " ) , and eventually become an " expert on Småland houses " ( " expert på hus i Småland " ) . If the player finishes the game , they get inducted into the cottage council ( " stugrådet " ) .
= = Development = =
The Cottage was originally developed in 1977 – 1978 by three children : brothers Viggo Kann ( then Eriksson ) and Kimmo Eriksson , and their friend Olle Johansson , who at the time of the project 's start were ten , twelve and fourteen years old , respectively . As Viggo and Kimmo 's parents worked at Stockholms Datamaskincentral ( " Stockholm 's Computer Center " , QZ ) and the Royal Institute of Technology ( KTH ) , and Johansson 's father worked at an office that was a client for QZ , they had access to QZ 's mainframe computer Oden . Using Oden and the book What to Do After You Hit Return ( 1975 ) , the Eriksson brothers and Johansson learned programming .
With the help from system developers at QZ , the three set up their game – at the time just titled Stuga ( " Cottage " ) – on Oden in 1978 , and created the message board Thorvalds stugråd ( " Thorvald 's cottage council " ) for it ; scientists working at QZ played the game , and were able to discuss it on the message board . The Eriksson brothers and Johansson used a single Texas Silent Writer computer terminal in the Erikssons ' parents ' bedroom to program the game , through which they could log in to Oden . Connecting to Oden was expensive , so they sometimes visited KTH during the evening to work on the game , as Oden only cost money to use during the day . At KTH , they had access to one terminal each , which used actual monitors to display text , as opposed to their writer terminal at home which printed the text on " enormous amounts of paper " .
All three had previously programmed their own video games : Johansson had made a Mastermind game featuring an opponent character named Thorvald ; Kimmo had made a slot machine game and a tic @-@ tac @-@ toe game ; and Kann had made a guessing game similar to hangman . They thought about how they wanted to combine their games into one single amusement arcade @-@ themed game , where the player could pick which of the games they wanted to play , but due to difficulties in unifying the three developers ' different programming methods , the game 's code became " messy " ; Kann eventually decided to make a " final push " and managed to finish and unify the program .
When they had finished programming and connecting the arcade , they realized that it was more fun to walk around in the arcade than to actually play the games . They ended up creating more and more rooms in the arcade , with characters to play games with , but as the arcade area and its surroundings grew , they eventually decided to remove the arcade games . Instead , they added new elements , including " shady characters " , animals and items ; the elements that remained were the slot machine and the character Thorvald . Having played Adventure ( 1976 ) on Oden and finding its cave exploration exciting , they wondered if they would be able to create a similar game in Swedish . As they worked on the game , they grew into different roles : Kimmo mostly came up with " wacky ideas " , Johansson was a driven visionary who " made things happen " , and Kann fixed things and made sure that everything worked . According to Kimmo and Johansson , they cared about the game 's content , not just the technical aspects , and made a game that they found fun themselves . They created two reoccurring characters based on themselves , who appear throughout the game : Kimmo , based on the real Kimmo , and the " cottage council chairman " Thorvald , who represents Johansson . As Kann was interested in language , and had specific ideas of how to spell certain words , they used consistently correct grammar , while consistently using non @-@ standard spelling for words such as " sig " ( " oneself " ) and " dem " ( " them " ) , rendering them as " sej " and " dom " .
The Eriksson brothers and Johansson used the programming language BASIC to create the game , which Kimmo called noteworthy : it was considered impossible to write big programs in BASIC , and The Cottage was " gigantic " . The reason for their choice in programming language was that it was the only one all three knew beforehand ; Kimmo said that they would no longer have chosen BASIC if they had programmed The Cottage in 1986 , as they had access to many more programming languages by that time . According to Johansson , another reason was " pure defiance " towards the Eriksson brothers ' father , who had told them they would never be able to get the game running if they programmed it in BASIC . According to Johansson , the most challenging aspect of the development was getting the game to understand the Swedish language ; to keep the size of the game 's command interpreter " reasonable " , they decided to limit it to two @-@ word commands only . Acknowledging that different people use different words for things , they play @-@ tested it with friends and family , writing down all attempted commands and deciding what the game should be expected to understand . During a short period of the game 's development , the developers also logged all actions players at QZ had taken that the command interpreter had not understood ; based on this data , they improved the interpreter and changed the outcomes to certain actions . At one point , the Eriksson brothers and Johansson took a two @-@ year break from the game , but eventually returned to it and finished it in 1979 .
= = = Home release = = =
The Eriksson brothers and Johansson did not work much more on the game until 1984 , when the journalist Erik Fichtelius conducted an interview about the game for the Swedish airline Linjeflyg 's magazine Upp & Ner , which was distributed to all their airplanes in 1985 . In the article , Fichtelius asked Johansson why they had not made the game commercially available for home computers ; Johansson said that it had been considered but that they had only developed the game because it was a fun challenge for them , and that they would have to find a distributor of computer programs if they wanted to create a PC version .
The business software publisher Scandinavian PC Systems found out about the game through Upp & Ner ; they were expanding at the time and wanted to add a video game to their catalogue , so they contacted the game 's developers . The Eriksson brothers and Johansson developed a version for home computers , but had problems with compiling it for the PC , as it was a much larger BASIC program than most compilers could handle . Due to copyright issues , a scene in the mainframe version of the game where the player guest stars in The Muppet Show had to be cut for the commercial release , but all other materials remained intact ; additionally , some visuals and audio were created and added for this release . The game was published by Scandinavian PC Systems for IBM PCs in Swedish , Danish , Norwegian and English in 1986 . The developers negotiated with Scandinavian PC Systems , and were given 5 SEK per sold copy of the Swedish version and 2 SEK per sold foreign copy as royalties ; 30 @,@ 000 SEK of the royalties were pre @-@ paid .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The Cottage was the first publicly available Swedish adventure video game , as well as one of the first commercially available Swedish video games . Through the late 1970s and early 1980s , the game had a cult @-@ like status among people with access to Oden . As people had to pay for the time they spent using Oden , the game was commercially important to QZ , leading to all three developers getting free Oden accounts . Almost all IBM PCs in Sweden following the game 's release for that platform had a copy of The Cottage , and several thousand copies of it were sold ; Kann reasoned that the success came because the IBM PC was still new , and that almost no computer programs were available in Swedish at the time . Despite this , the developers did not receive a lot of money outside of the pre @-@ paid royalties ; according to Johansson , they only got 500 SEK " every once in a while " .
In his book Video Games Around the World , author Mark J.P. Wolf called the game an " impressive achievement " considering the developers ' young age . Sigrid Nurbo at Jönköpings @-@ Posten noted the game 's absence from the 2013 video game exhibit at the Swedish National Museum of Science and Technology as odd considering its popularity and cult status . An eight week long video game development camp , named Stugan after The Cottage 's Swedish title , was held in Sweden in 2015 , with a follow @-@ up planned for 2016 .
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= Perfection ( Dannii Minogue song ) =
" Perfection " is a song performed by Australian singer Dannii Minogue and the Soul Seekerz . It served as the second single from Minogue 's fifth album , Club Disco ( 2007 ) . The song was written by Minogue , Peter Jackson Jr . , Gerald Jackson , Rob Davis , Therese Grankvist , Simon Langford , and Julian Napolitano . The song was based on " Turn Me Upside Down " by The Soul Seekerz which sampled " Turn the Beat Around " originally performed by disco singer Vicki Sue Robinson .
It was released as a single on 17 October 2005 in the United Kingdom . It entered the top twenty in the UK and became Minogue 's ninth consecutive Upfront Club Chart number one . In Australia , " Perfection " was released on 30 January 2006 . The track peaked within the top twenty and became Minogue 's eighth top twenty single .
= = Background and reception = =
" Perfection " began as an instrumental track by the Soul Seekerz that samples " Turn The Beat Around ( Love to Hear Percussions ) " , which was originally performed by disco singer Vicki Sue Robinson . Simon Langford decided to sample the song after watching the end credits for the film The Specialist . Langford excited by his song idea phoned his writing partner Julian Napolitano . Two days later , Napolitano had completed close to seventy percent of the song , much to the surprise of Langford , who had been preoccupied with paper work . After completing the instrumental track , the group were approached by All Around the World Records , who wanted to use the track for a song by Minogue . Minogue , Rob Davis and Therese Grankvist then wrote lyrics to accompany the music composed by the Soul Seekerz .
In a review for Allmusic , John Lucas called the song a " painfully generic attempt at recapturing former glories " and " beneath someone of Minogue 's calibre " . He also criticized Minogue 's vocals , calling them " uninspired " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Perfection " was officially released in the United Kingdom and Ireland on 17 October 2005 . The song debuted on the UK Singles Chart on 25 October 2005 at number eleven , selling 7 @,@ 717 copies in its first week of release . The track became Minogue 's ninth consecutive Upfront Club Chart number one in the UK . In Ireland , the song reached number thirty @-@ eight , remaining on the singles chart for one week . The song was also successful in Europe . It reached number seven in Finland and number sixteen in the Netherlands .
The track was released in Australia on 30 January 2006 . It debuted on 7 February 2006 at number thirteen and became Minogue 's seventh top twenty single . The song remained on the singles chart for four weeks , exiting on 7 March 2006 . It was the 49th highest selling single for 2006 in Australia by an Australian artist and the 26th highest selling dance single .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Perfection " was directed by Rob Kaplan . The video features Minogue dancing on a yacht and a rocky cliff top . It begins with Minogue dressed in a black outfit and pink umbrella dancing on the bow of the yacht . She is then shown on the cliff top dressed in a red hooded outfit . The scenes featuring Minogue are intercut with scenes of male dancers and waves crashing up against the yacht . It was released commercially on The Hits & Beyond special edition companion DVD , released in June 2006 .
= = Formats and track listings = =
These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of " Perfection " .
= = Charts = =
= = Personnel = =
The following people contributed to " Perfection " :
Dannii Minogue – lead vocals
Therese Grankvist – backing vocals
Soul Seekerz – production
Philip Larsen , Rob Davis – vocal production
Cody Burridge – photography
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= Panchakanya =
Panchakanya ( पञ ् चकन ् या , pañcakanyā ) is a group of five iconic heroines of Hindu epics , extolled in a hymn and whose names are believed to dispel sin when recited . They are Ahalya , Draupadi , Sita or Kunti , Tara and Mandodari . Ahalya , Tara , Mandodari and Sita are from the epic Ramayana ; while Draupadi and Kunti are from the Mahabharata .
The panchakanya are venerated as ideal women and chaste wives in one view . Their association with more than one man and breaking of traditions in some cases are prescribed as not to be followed by others .
= = Hymn = =
The well @-@ known Sanskrit hymn that defines the Panchakanys runs :
A variant replaces Sita with Kunti :
Differences are underlined .
Practicing Hindus , especially Hindu wives , remember the Panchakanya in this daily morning prayer . Their names are extolled and the prayer is pratah smaraniya , prescribed to be recited in the early hours of the morning .
The panchakanya literally means five kanyas . Kanya may be translated as girl , daughter , maiden or virgin . Though all being married , the choice of the word kanya , not nari ( woman ) or sati ( chaste wife ) , seems interesting to Mr Pradip Bhattacharya .
= = From the Ramayana = =
The kanyas , Ahalya , Tara and Mandodari appear in the Hindu epic Ramayana . Sita , its heroine , is sometimes included in the panchakanya list .
= = = Ahalya = = =
Ahalya , also known as Ahilya , is the wife of the sage Gautama . Ahalya is often regarded as the leader of the panchkanya due to the " nobility of her character , her extraordinary beauty and the fact of her being chronologically the first kanya " . Ahalya is often described to be created by the god Brahma as the most beautiful woman in the entire universe , but also sometimes as an earthy princess of the Lunar Dynasty . Ahalya was placed in the care of Gautama , until she gained puberty and was finally married to the elderly sage . The king of the gods , Indra , was infatuated with her beauty and comes disguised as Gautama , when the sage was away , and requests or orders sexual intercourse . In the Ramayana ( the earliest full narrative of the tale ) , Ahalya falls prey to Indra 's trickery and does not recognize him or is raped . In all narratives , Ahalya and her lover ( or rapist ) Indra are cursed by Gautama . Although early texts describe how Ahalya must atone by undergoing severe penance while remaining invisible to the world and how she is purified by offering Rama - an avatar of the god Vishnu and hero of the Ramayana - hospitality , in the popular retelling developed over time , Ahalya is cursed to become a stone and regains her human form after she is brushed by Rama 's foot . Some versions also mention that she was turned into a dry stream and that she would be condoned of her guilt when eventually the stream starts flowing and joins the river Gautami ( Godavari ) . Indra was cursed to be castrated or be covered by a thousand vulvae that ultimately turn into a thousand eyes .
= = = Tara = = =
Tara is the Queen of Kishkindha and wife of the monkey ( vanara ) King Vali . After being widowed , she becomes the Queen of Sugriva , Vali 's brother . Tara is described as the daughter of the monkey physician Sushena in the Ramayana , and in later sources , as an apsara ( celestial nymph ) who rises from the churning of the milky ocean . She marries Vali and bears him a son named Angada . After Vali is presumed dead in a battle with a demon , his brother Sugriva becomes king and appropriates Tara ; however , Vali returns and regains Tara and exiles his brother , accusing him of treachery and also appropriates Sugriva 's wife Ruma . When Sugriva challenges Vali to a duel , Tara wisely advises Vali not to accept because of the former 's alliance with Rama , but Vali does not heed her , and deceptively dies from Rama 's arrow , shot at the behest of Sugriva . In his dying breath , Vali reconciles with Sugriva and instructs him to follow Tara 's wise counsel in all matters . Tara 's lamentation forms an important part in most versions of the tale . While in most vernacular versions , Tara casts a curse on Rama by the power of her chastity , in some versions , Rama enlightens Tara . Sugriva returns to the throne , but spends his time carousing often with now his current chief queen Tara and fails to act on his promise to assist Rama in recovering his kidnapped wife , Sita . Tara — now Sugriva 's queen and chief diplomat — is then instrumental in tactfully reconciling Rama with Sugriva after pacifying Lakshmana , Rama 's brother , who was about to destroy Kishkinda in retribution for Sugriva 's perceived treachery .
= = = Mandodari = = =
Mandodari is the queen consort of Ravana , the Rakshasa ( demon ) king of Lanka . The Hindu epics describe her as beautiful , pious , and righteous . Mandodari is the daughter of Mayasura , the King of the Asuras ( demons ) , and the apsara ( celestial nymph ) Hema . Some tales narrate how an apsara called Madhura was cursed to become a frog and imprisoned in a well for 12 years , after which regains her beauty or a frog , blessed to a beautiful maiden ; in both cases , she is adopted by Mayasura as his daughter Mandodari . Ravana comes to the house of Mayasura and falls in love with Mandodari and then marries her . Mandodari bears him three sons : Meghanada ( Indrajit ) , Atikaya , and Akshayakumara . According to some Ramayana adaptations , Mandodari is also the mother of Rama 's wife Sita , who is infamously kidnapped by Ravana . Despite her husband 's faults , Mandodari loves him and advises him to follow the path of righteousness . Mandodari repeatedly advises Ravana to return Sita to Rama , but her advice falls on deaf ears . Her love and loyalty to Ravana are praised in the Ramayana . Different versions of the Ramayana record her ill @-@ treatment at the hands of Rama 's monkey generals . Some versions say they humiliate her , while disturbing a sacrifice by Ravana , while others narrate how they destroy her chastity , which protects Ravana 's life . Hanuman tricks her into disclosing the location of a magical arrow which Rama uses to kill Ravana . After Ravana 's death , Vibhishana — Ravana 's younger brother who joins forces with Rama and is responsible for Ravana 's death — marries Mandodari on the advice of Rama . In some versions , Mandodari curses Sita that Rama would abandon her .
= = = Sita = = =
Sita is the heroine of the Ramayana and the consort of the Hindu god Rama ( avatar of Vishnu ) and is an avatar of Lakshmi , goddess of wealth and wife of Vishnu . She is esteemed as a standard @-@ setter for wifely and womanly virtues for all Hindu women . Sita is the adopted daughter of Janaka , king of Videha , found while he was furrowing the earth . The prince of Ayodhya , Rama wins Sita in her svayamvara . Years later , when Rama is sentenced to a fourteen @-@ year exile , Sita joins Rama and his brother Lakshmana in exile , despite Rama 's wish for her to remain in Ayodhya . While in exile in Dandaka forest , she falls prey to Ravana 's scheme and sends Rama away in quest of a golden deer , while she is kidnapped by Ravana . Sita is imprisoned in the Ashoka Vatika grove of Lanka , until she is rescued by Rama , who slays Ravana in war . Sita proves her chastity by undergoing a trial by fire . Rama and Sita return to Ayodhya , where Rama is coronated as king . When a washerman casts doubts about her chastity , Rama abandons a pregnant Sita in the forest . Sita gives birth to twins Lava and Kusha in the hermitage of sage Valmiki , who protects her . Her sons grow and reunite with Rama and again Sita is asked to prove her chastity before Rama can take her back . However , Sita chooses to return to the womb of her mother , Earth .
= = From the Mahabharata = =
The Hindu epic Mahabharata features the kanya Draupadi and Kunti , sometimes included in the panchakanya .
= = = Draupadi = = =
Draupadi is the heroine of the Mahabharata . She is the common wife of the five Pandava brothers and queen of Hastinapur , in their reign . Born from a fire @-@ sacrifice of king of Panchala - Drupada , Draupadi was prophesied to lead to the end of Drona and the Kauravas . Though the middle Pandava Arjuna - disguised as a brahmin - wins her in her swayamvara , Draupadi is compelled to marry all the five brothers on command of her mother @-@ in @-@ law Kunti . The pandavas agree to the plan that draupadi will always be the chief consort of all brothers and always the empress . She will be in personal union with one brother every year and may bear him a child . Anyone of the other 4 , who interrupts them during a private time within that one year , must go on a 11 @-@ month prilgrimage . She insults the Kaurava general Karna in the swayamvara and laughs at Duryodhana - the leader of the Kauravas - when he falls in her Pandava palace at Indraprastha . She mothers five sons from each of the Pandavas , regaining her virginity after every year . The Kauravas take their revenge when the eldest Pandava Yudhishthira loses her to Kauravas in a game of dice . The Kaurava Dushasana tries to disrobe her in the royal court , however divine intervention saves her dignity by making her wrapped cloth infinite in length . Draupadi pledges to keep her hair untied till they were drenched by Dushasana 's blood and mocks her husbands and all present in the court . The Pandavas and Draupadi finally accept 13 @-@ year exile for losing the game . While in exile in the forest , her second husband Bhima rescued her from various demons and Jayadratha , who abducted her . She also instructed Krishna 's queen Satyabhama on the duties of a wife . In the 13th year of exile , Draupadi and her husbands spent life incognito in Virata 's court . She served as the maid of the queen and is harassed by the queen 's brother Kichaka , who she desires to be killed by Bhima . After life in exile , a war breaks between the Kauravas and Pandavas , in which the Kauravas are slain and her insult avenged , but Draupadi also loses her father , brothers and sons . Yudhishthira became the emperor of Hastinapur with Draupadi as the chief consort . At the end of their lives , Draupadi and her husbands set off to the Himalayas to walk to heaven ; but Draupadi falls in the middle , as she loved Arjuna more than her other husbands . She is venerated as a village goddess and described at times an avatar of the fierce goddess Kali or the goddess of wealth , Lakshmi .
= = = Kunti = = =
Kunti is the queen of Pandu , the king of Hastinapur and mother of the three eldest Pandavas . Kunti was daughter of the Yadava king Shurasena and was adopted by the childless Kuntibhoja , king of Kunti Kingdom . By her service , she propitiated the sage Durvasa , who granted her a mantra by which she could summon a god and have a child by him . She recklessly tests the boon and invites the Sun @-@ god Surya , who grants a son named Karna , whom she abandons . In due course of time , Kunti chooses Pandu in her swayamvara . Pandu abdicates after being cursed by a sage that union with a woman will result in his death . At Pandu 's behest , Kunti uses Durvasa 's boon to mother Yudhishthira , from the god Dharma , then Bhima from the god Vayu , and thirdly Arjuna , from the god Indra . Her co @-@ wife Madri bears the twins Nakula and Sahadeva , from the Asvins . After the death of Pandu , Madri being cause of Pandu 's death commits sati on same pyre while Kunti returns to Hastinapur and takes care of the five Pandavas . Kunti befriends Vidura , the stepbrother of Pandu and the advisor of the king . When Kauravas , the princes of Hastinapur and the cousins of the Pandavas , try to kill Kunti and her sons , however they escape . She prevents Bhima from killing the demoness Hidimbi and advices him to marry her and beget a son , Ghatotkacha . She instructs her children to take care of the common people and orders Bhima to kill the demon Bakasura . When Arjuna wins Draupadi , Kunti instructs the brothers to share the prize . Kunti and the Pandavas return to Hastinapur . When Pandavas are sent to 12 @-@ year exile when defeated in a game of dice by the Kauravas , Kunti stays in Vidura 's refuge . When an epic war between the Pandavas and Kauaravas is to ensue , Kunti reveals to Karna - now a Kaurava general - about being his mother and gets him to promise her that he will not kill any other Pandava , except Arjuna . After the war , in which the Kauravas and Karna were killed , Kunti with the parents of the Kauravas left for the forest and spent rest of her life in prayer . She was killed in a forest fire and attained heaven .
= = Common features = =
All kanyas lack mothers in their life . Ahalya , Tara , Mandodari , Sita and Draupadi have supernatural births , while Kunti is adopted at birth and separated from a mother . Though all of the kanyas are described as mothers , except Kunti , no kanya 's motherhood is emphasized in their tales . Another common element is the theme of loss in their legends . Ahalya is cursed and abandoned by her family . Tara loses her husband , Draupadi her sons and Mandodari her husband , sons and kin in war . Each of them suffers a tragedy and used by men , but battles on with life and society . They are considered by Mr Pradip Bhattacharya as victims of patriarchal myth @-@ making , however orthodox Hindus usually oppose such theoretical speculation and consider such speculation distorting the message . A free @-@ spirited Ahalya is punished for her adultery . Druapadi , who challenges and mocks even her husbands , has her dignity repeatedly violated by men .
The Mahari dance tradition equates the panchakanya with the five elements . Ahalya , Draupadi , Kunti , Tara and Mandodari represent water , fire , earth , wind and ether respectively . In similar analogy , writer Vimla Patil associates Ahalya , Draupadi , Sita , Tara and Mandodari with wind , fire , earth , ether and water respectively .
= = Assessment and remembrance = =
Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore wrote a collection of poems titled " Pancha Kanya " with themes of episodes from mythology of the panchakanya . The tales of the panchakanya remain popular motifs in the Mahari dance tradition of Odisha .
The panchakanya are regarded by one view as ideal women . George M. Williams remarks , " They are not perfect but they fulfil their dharma ( duty ) as mothers , sisters , wives and occasionally leaders in their own right . " Another view considers them exemplary chaste women or mahasatis ( " great chaste women " ) as per the Mahari dance tradition , and worthy as an ideal for " displaying some outstanding quality " .
Another view does not regard the panchakanya as ideal women who should be emulated . Bhattacharya , author of Panch @-@ Kanya : The Five Virgins of Indian Epics contrasts the panchakanya with the five satis enlisted in another traditional prayer : Sati , Sita , Savitri , Damayanti and Arundhati . He rhetorically asks , " Are then Ahalya , Draupadi , Kunti , Tara , and Mandodari not chaste wives because each has ' known ' a man , or more than one , other than her husband ? "
Women who suffered most in their lives and who had followed the dictate and regulations prescribed in the scriptures for women were considered . They , as prescribed in the Manu Smirti , the Ramayana and Mahabharata epics , were considered as the Five ideal Woman , all married .
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= Hedonic hunger =
Hedonic hunger or hedonic hyperphagia is " the drive to eat to obtain pleasure in the absence of an energy deficit . " Particular foods may have a high " hedonic rating " or individuals may have increased susceptibility to environmental food cues . Weight loss programs may aim to control or to compensate for hedonic hunger . Therapeutic interventions may influence hedonic eating behavior .
= = Background = =
Although hunger may arise from energy or nutrient deficits , as would be expected in the set @-@ point theories of hunger and eating , hunger may arise more commonly from anticipated pleasure of eating , consistent with the positive @-@ incentive perspective . Gramlich distinguished the overeating responses to these stimuli as homeostatic hyperphagia and hedonic hyperphagia respectively . Accordingly , hunger and eating are subject to feedback control from homeostatic , hedonic , and cognitive processes . Although these mechanisms interplay and overlap to some extent , they can nonetheless be individually separated . Thus , the positive @-@ incentive perspective suggests that eating is similar to sexual behavior : humans engage in sexual behavior , not because of an internal deficit , but because they have evolved in a way that makes them crave it . High calorie foods have had intrinsic reward value throughout evolution . The presence of desirable ( or " hedonic " ) food , or the mere anticipation of it , makes one hungry . The psychological effects of hedonic hunger may be the appetitive equivalent of hedonically @-@ driven activities such as recreational drug use and compulsive gambling . Susceptibility to food cues can lead to overeating in a society of readily available calorie dense , inexpensive foods . Such hedonistic eating overrides the body 's ability to regulate consumption with satiety .
A related phenomenon , specific appetite , also known as specific hunger , is conceptually related to , but distinct from , hedonic hunger . Specific appetite is a drive to eat foods with specific flavors or other characteristics : in usage , specific appetite has put greater emphasis on an individual who adaptationally learns a particular appetite behavior rather than an evolutionarily innate , hedonic appetite preference .
hedonic apetite preference may lead to increased weight gain due to eating when not hungry .
= = Food variability = =
A " hedonic rating " of foods reflects those which are more likely to be eaten even though the individual is not hungry . For example , functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI ) scanning suggests that fed rats show a high preference for a mixture of fat and carbohydrate in the form of potato chips compared to their standard chow or single macronutrient foods . When binge eating occurs without the presence of energy deprivation , it is thought to be due to frequent exposure to palatable food . Another study evaluated how hedonic ratings of individual foods aggregate into the food components of particular types of meals , and related preferences to overall dietary intake .
= = Interpersonal variability = =
Individuals may have increased hedonic hunger susceptibility to environmental food cues . Genetic variability may influence hedonic hyperphagia . Variation in hedonic hunger levels from person to person may be key in determining success in weight loss tactics and a person 's ability to cope with tempting foods that are readily available . To assess this , a Power of Food Scale ( PFS ) has been developed that quantifies a person 's appetitive anticipation ( not consumption ) . Binge @-@ eaters , obese individuals and those with eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa scored higher than restrictive type and normal weight college students . A decrease in PFS score leads to better success in weight loss .
= = Food reinforcement = =
The reinforcing value of food refers to how hard someone is willing to work to obtain food . Food reinforcement is influenced by several factors including food palatability , food deprivation , and food variety . It is also motivated by concerns about fullness ( expected satiation ) and the hunger that might be experienced in the intervening period between meals ( expected satiety ) . The effector mechanisms of food reinforcement depend on dopaminergic activity in the brain .
= = Treatment = =
Conceptually , weight loss programs might target control of hedonic hunger . Specific research to determine what diet techniques would be most beneficial for those with an increased hedonic hunger would help people modify their immediate availability of food or its palatability . For example , whole grain popcorn may be a better choice than potato chips due to a lower calorie load and an increased sense of satiety . Adding dietary fiber to foods and beverages increases satiety and reduces energy intake at the next meal . Low @-@ energy @-@ density foods with high satiating power may be useful tools for weight management . Satiety has been found to be greater with yogurt beverages than fruit juice , and was equal with low @-@ energy @-@ density yogurt with inulin and high @-@ energy @-@ density yogurt . People with high PFS scores may do better with meal replacement products .
Medications may affect hedonic eating behavior . Glucagon @-@ like peptide @-@ 1 ( GLP1 ) agonists , such as exenatide and liraglutide which are used for diabetes , may help suppress food reward behavior . Inhibition of dopamine transport within the brain increases dopamine concentrations , which can reduce energy intake . Despite theoretical underpinnings , opiate antagonists as single agents have generally not shown substantial clinical benefit . However , preliminary data has suggested synergistic effects with concurrent targeted therapy of opiate receptors and either dopamine or cannabinoid receptors .
Bariatric surgery of various types may influence hedonic hunger particularly if accompanied by counseling interventions that reduce automatic hedonic impulses . These surgeries may work in part by modifying the production of gastrointestinal hormones , particularly by increasing glucagon @-@ like peptide @-@ 1 and peptide YY ( PYY ) ; reduction of ghrelin has been inconsistent .
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= Helen C. White =
Helen C. White ( November 26 , 1896 – June 7 , 1967 ) was a professor of English at the University of Wisconsin – Madison . White twice served as the English department chair and was the first woman to become a full professor in the university 's College of Letters and Science . She was also the first woman elected president of the American Association of University Professors , and a president of the American Association of University Women ( AAUW ) , University of Wisconsin Teachers ' Union , and University Club . White wrote six novels and numerous nonfiction books and articles .
White was raised in Boston in a Roman Catholic household , and kept the faith for the rest of her life . She graduated from the Girls ' High School and Radcliffe College . After completing her master 's degree , she taught at Smith College for two years before moving West to study for her doctorate in Madison . White loved the city and became an assistant professor there upon completing her Ph.D. in 1924 with a dissertation on William Blake . She taught courses including freshman English and metaphysical poetry graduate seminars . White 's students included writers such as August Derleth , Herbert Kubly , and Mark Schorer . Graduate students called her " the Purple Goddess " partly due to her predominantly purple wardrobe and exceptional height .
In her 48 @-@ year career , White received 23 honorary doctorates , a Laetare Medal , a Siena Medal , an AAUW achievement award , and two Guggenheim Fellowships . She became an Honorary Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire in 1958 for her scholarship . White was a United States delegate at two UNESCO events and was on the boards of several organizations . Upon her death , the university built Helen C. White Hall in her name . The building houses the university 's English department and undergraduate library , which contains 4 @,@ 000 books from White 's collection .
= = Early life and career = =
Helen Constance White was born November 26 , 1896 , in New Haven , Connecticut . Her parents , Mary ( née King ) and John White , had three other children ( one female , two male ) and ran a Roman Catholic household , a faith White maintained passionately for the rest of her life . In 1901 , her parents chose to settle in the new Boston suburb Roslindale for the city 's cultural opportunities . White 's father left his job as a New York , New Haven and Hartford Railroad clerk to become a civil servant . White described her mother as matriarchal and her father as secretive .
Beginning in 1909 , White attended the Boston Girls ' High School , where she was studious and performed well in school . She participated in the Debating Club and became the editor @-@ in @-@ chief of her school paper , Distaff , in her senior year . She graduated in 1913 and received a Margaret A. Badger Scholarship and an Old South Historical Society prize . During this time , she was a member of the Massachusetts suffrage movement .
White started at Radcliffe College later that year and graduated summa cum laude in three years with a bachelor 's degree in English . White was awarded a Phi Beta Kappa key and the George B. Sohier bachelor 's thesis prize at her 1916 graduation . She continued at Radcliffe and completed her master 's degree in 1917 , whereupon she sought teaching posts . In September , White became an Assistant in Smith College 's English department , where she taught English for two years . Her friends suggested that she pursue her doctoral study " out West " in Madison , Wisconsin — a proposition White accepted .
= = Madison = =
White arrived for the 1919 fall semester . She was not familiar with Wisconsin , but quickly came to love Madison and its university , particularly for its people 's open spirit and school pride . Her new apartment would become her longtime home . White worked as an Instructor in the English department and university library while she worked on her doctorate . As a graduate student , she held office hours on Saturday mornings for anyone interested in her tutoring , often at the expense of her own work . White graduated in 1924 and became an assistant professor the next year . By 1936 , she had become a full professor , the first woman to do so in Letters and Science at the university .
She taught several classes , including freshman English , 17th century English literature , metaphysical poetry , and a graduate course in John Donne , George Herbert , Andrew Marvell , Richard Crashaw , and Henry Vaughan . Margaret Thoma of Demcourier described White 's English 5 writing seminar as " now famous " in 1942 . White taught two classes when the Wisconsin Writers ' Institute opened in 1945 . White 's classes emphasized unambiguous writing and constructive , honest feedback . She was known to amiably reply to all of her mail . White used a four desk system in her apartment , where each desk served a specific function : personal letters , low @-@ priority book notes , high @-@ priority work , or typing . Some of her most notable students , such as August Derleth , Herbert Kubly , and Mark Schorer , continued to rely on White 's editorial opinion after their own careers were established . Mark Schorer wrote that White 's " patience " , " tact " , " humor " , and " sympathy " were the fundaments of her successful style . White considered teaching " not only stimulating but ... the most worthwhile thing a person can do . "
White had little time to write due to her other academic obligations , and once said , " belonging to things is an occupational disease of my profession " . White became the English department chair in 1955 and once again in 1961 . As chair , White recruited faculty members from established universities , fought for the recognition of her staff , and worked with the faculty members individually , as she would with her students . She wrote in the summers , often while she traveled . Aided by Guggenheim Fellowships , White visited most of Europe . On her first fellowship , she traveled in Italy and studied at Oxford University and the British Museum between 1928 and 1929 for a year . While abroad , White wrote English Devotional Literature , 1600 – 1640 and was inspired to start her first novel , A Watch in the Night . In mid @-@ 1930 , she received her second fellowship to verify her work in England . She received a grant from the university to finish her 1935 The Metaphysical Poets in London . White was a visiting scholar at the California Huntington Library between 1939 and 1940 , where she worked on Social Criticism in Popular Religious Literature of the Sixteenth Century . She returned to the library in mid @-@ 1941 . White was a visiting professor at Barnard College between 1943 and 1944 , and a visiting professor at Columbia University during the summer of 1948 . She also had a strong interest in poetry , though she didn 't think highly of her own .
White developed a reputation for frequently wearing purple clothes , a choice made for convenience . White referred to herself as " the large woman in purple " , and the English department grad students called her " the Purple Goddess " . Toni McNaron wrote that the " Goddess " appellation was partly due to her exceptional height : over six feet .
White retired in 1965 after 48 years of teaching and administration . In her retirement , White was appointed to the university 's Institute for Research in the Humanities . She suffered a heart attack in 1966 , whereupon her health declined , though she continued to work at the university 's Memorial Library . In the next spring , White became sick and died on June 7 , 1967 . Neither she nor her three siblings had married . A memorial service was held in Madison 's St. Paul 's University Chapel on May 19 , 1968 .
= = Work and recognition = =
White published her first short story when she was 13 . Her first major project was The Mysticism of William Blake , a modified version of her dissertation . It was published in 1927 by the University of Wisconsin Press . She later wrote six novels , including A Watch in the Night ( 1933 ) , Not Built with Hands , To the End of the World , and Dust on a King 's Highway . The Wisconsin State Journal wrote that her novels were highly praised for their historical settings , views towards religion , and contemplative psychology . White also authored Tudor Books of Private Devotion , English Devotional Literature , 1600 – 1640 , Victorian Prose , The Metaphysical Poets ( 1935 ) , Social Criticism in Popular Religious Literature of the Sixteenth Century , and numerous articles . Her religious works stemmed from her Roman Catholic reverence . White described her publishers as kind for publishing her unpopular scholarly works in @-@ between her profitable novels .
White was the first female elected president of the American Association of University Professors and thrice served as president of the American Association of University Women ( AAUW ) , including from 1941 to 1947 . White received an AAUW achievement award in 1949 for her scholarly work and international service in the humanities . She also served as the vice president of the International Federation of University Women , president of the University of Wisconsin Teachers ' Union , and the first woman president of the University Club . White was awarded two Guggenheim Fellowships , the 1942 Laetare Medal , the 1944 Siena Medal , the 1947 Radcliffe Alumni Association 's Distinguished Achievement Award for Education , and 23 honorary degrees from places such as Miami University , Mount Mary College , Mount Saint Scholastica College , Rockford College , Smith College , and Wilson College . She became an Honorary Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire in 1958 for her renown as a scholar of 16th and 17th century English literature . In 1959 she was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . White was on the United States National commission for UNESCO and represented the United States twice at UNESCO meetings : the 1946 Preparatory Commission for UNESCO and the 1947 second UNESCO General Conference held in Mexico City . White was also on the 1946 U.S. Education Mission to Germany . Additionally , she sat on the boards of the National Conference of Christians and Jews , the American Council on Education , and the Phi Beta Kappa Senate , and was appointed by the U.S. President to the Fulbright Board of Foreign Scholarships .
Upon her death , the University of Wisconsin named a new building after her . It houses the undergraduate library , known as College Library . Helen C. White Hall sits on the edge of campus near Lake Mendota and is seven stories tall . The English department moved from Bascom Hall to the new building when it opened in September 1971 . The library holds White 's donation of over 4 @,@ 000 books . The building also houses the philosophy department , library school , and Cooperative Children 's Book Center . Hazel McGrath wrote that " no more fitting monument to one of its most eminent scholars could have been built by the University of Wisconsin " .
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= Hurricane Carol ( 1953 ) =
Hurricane Carol in 1953 was the strongest storm of the 1953 Atlantic hurricane season and the first Category 5 hurricane in the Atlantic basin since the 1938 New England hurricane . Carol developed on August 28 off the west coast of Africa , although the Weather Bureau did not initiate advisories until five days later . On September 2 , Carol attained hurricane status , based on a ship report . It moved northwestward , attaining peak winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) , based on reports from the Hurricane Hunters . After weakening , it brushed Bermuda and turned northeastward near New England , passing west of Nova Scotia before making landfall near Saint John , New Brunswick on September 7 . While crossing Atlantic Canada , Carol became an extratropical cyclone , which dissipated on September 9 southwest of Greenland .
When Carol initially threatened to strike Bermuda , several planes were evacuated from the island . Later , the hurricane produced high waves along the New England coastline which , in combination with foggy conditions , caused several boating accidents . At least 40 people required rescue , and four people were killed . Although winds in the region were minor , fishing damage totaled about $ 1 million ( 1953 USD , $ 8 @.@ 84 million 2016 USD ) . In Nova Scotia , hurricane @-@ force wind gusts downed trees and power lines , as well as heavy damage to the apple crop totaling $ 1 million ( 1950 CAD , $ 9 @.@ 15 million 2016 USD ) . High waves washed several boats ashore , and also killed one person . Ferry travel was halted across Atlantic Canada , although impact was less severe outside of Nova Scotia . In Prince Edward Island , gusty winds caused isolated power outages , and minor flooding occurred in New Brunswick .
= = Meteorological history = =
In late August , a tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa , developing into a tropical depression developed near Cape Verde on August 28 . It moved west @-@ southwestward for two days before turning to the west . The depression is estimated to have intensified into a tropical storm on August 31 , and subsequently it turned to the west @-@ northwest . On September 2 , the S.S. Umatilla reported winds up to force 12 on the Beaufort scale , or hurricane strength ; the ship also reported very high seas and a rapidly decreasing pressure . Based on the report , the Miami Weather Bureau office initiated advisories on Hurricane Carol about 750 miles ( 1200 km ) east @-@ northeast of Barbados .
After reaching hurricane status , Carol embarked a steady intensification trend as it moved northwestward . On September 3 , the Hurricane Hunters flew into the storm and reported winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) , along with a minimum pressure of 929 mbar . This was its peak intensity , attained about 30 hours after reaching hurricane strength , and making Carol the strongest storm of the season . At its peak , the maximum winds were in an area 3 mi ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) in diameter across the center . The hurricane maintained peak winds for about a day before beginning to weaken . Early on September 6 , Carol passed about 225 mi ( 362 km ) southwest of Bermuda with winds of about 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) . The next day the hurricane turned to the north @-@ northeast , bypassing Cape Cod by about 140 mi ( 230 km ) . Late on September 7 , Carol brushed western Nova Scotia before making landfall near Saint John , New Brunswick with winds of around 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) . Shortly after making landfall , Carol transitioned into an extratropical cyclone , which crossed the Gulf of Saint Lawrence , eastern Quebec , and Labrador before dissipating southwest of Greenland on September 9 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
As Carol was threatening Bermuda , planes flew away from the island and ships returned to harbor for safety . Although hurricane @-@ force winds were initially predicted , Carol only brushed the island with high waves and gale force winds . The winds toppled a few trees and power lines , and also injured two motorcyclists after they lost control of their vehicles .
Along the East Coast of the United States , the Weather Bureau issued storm warnings from New Jersey through Maine due to the approaching hurricane . The combination of high waves and foggy conditions caused several boating accidents in New England , killing four people and left at least 40 people in need of Coast Guard rescue . Winds across much of the region were not significant , reaching only 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) on Nantucket . Across southeast Maine , Carol produced at least 1 in ( 25 mm ) of rainfall , which was beneficial due to gardeners and trees due to previously dry conditions . Effects were generally minimal in the state , although the rainfall prompted the cancellation of a few Northeast Airlines flights . The hurricane caused moderate damage to the fishing industry in New England , totaling around $ 1 million ( 1953 USD , $ 8 @.@ 84 million 2016 USD ) .
In the Grand Banks of Canada , the threat of the hurricane prompted fishing boats to venture back to port . In the Bay of Fundy , foggy conditions drove an ocean liner aground . Across Nova Scotia , rough seas washed a boat near Dartmouth , a schooner near Halifax , four yachts in Chester , and another three boats in Shelburne ashore . In addition , eleven yachts in Chester sank during the storm . The seas flooded a coastal road and nearby field in Prospect , destroying a garage . In Cow Bay , a man drowned after falling off of a yacht . Rough seas halted ferry service between Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia , as well as between Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick ; other ferry service across the region were delayed .
As Carol moved through eastern Canada , it dropped light to moderate rainfall along its path , peaking at 4 @.@ 33 inches ( 110 mm ) in the Côte @-@ Nord region of eastern Quebec , along the northern coast of the Gulf of St. Lawrence . Strong winds affected much of the region , primarily Nova Scotia , including an 80 mph ( 129 km / h ) gust in Halifax . Across the province , the combination of winds and rain downed the equivalent of about 500 @,@ 000 ft3 ( 14 @,@ 000 m3 ) of trees , most of which in areas where some trees were already cut . The winds blew trees onto power lines , leaving widespread areas without telephone , telegraph , or power . In Annapolis Valley , strong winds heavily damaged the apple and grain crop , with farms experiencing losses up to 50 % . Losses from the apple crop was estimated around $ 1 million ( 1950 CAD , $ 9 @.@ 15 million 2016 USD ) . Strong winds left some property damage , including broken windows and at least one instance of a blown @-@ off roof . Across the province , Carol left several people injured .
Outside of Nova Scotia , the winds from Carol were strong enough to knock down trees and power lines in New Brunswick . Light rainfall , peaking at 2 @.@ 44 inches ( 62 mm ) in the province , caused street flooding in Moncton . The rainfall reached as far west as Ontario , and as far east as Prince Edward Island , where rainfall reached 1 @.@ 73 inches ( 44 mm ) . Winds in the latter province damaged roofs and downed some trees , resulting in minor power outages . Further north in Quebec , adverse conditions from the storm delayed a search party after a plane crash .
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= Neil Harvey with the Australian cricket team in England in 1948 =
Neil Harvey was a member of Donald Bradman 's famous Australian cricket team , which toured England in 1948 and was undefeated in their 34 matches . This unprecedented feat by a Test side touring England earned them the sobriquet The Invincibles .
Aged 19 , Harvey was the youngest player of the touring party . An attacking left @-@ handed middle @-@ order batsman , he had become the youngest Australian to score a Test century by compiling 153 in the Fifth Test against India in the preceding Australian summer of 1947 – 48 . However , Harvey struggled early on in the tour , having difficulty adapting to English conditions . After being omitted from the first @-@ choice team in the first half of the tour , Harvey 's performances improved with his increasing familiarity with local conditions and he was called into the team for the Fourth Test at Headingley after an injury to Sid Barnes . Harvey scored 112 in a first innings counter @-@ attack to keep Australia in contention after they had suffered a top @-@ order collapse . Harvey hit the winning boundary in the second innings as Australia won the match with a Test world record successful run @-@ chase of 3 / 404 . He retained his place for the Fifth Test , ending the series with 133 runs at a batting average of 66 @.@ 50 .
Overall , Harvey ended with 1 @,@ 129 runs at 53 @.@ 76 in the first @-@ class matches with four centuries , placing him sixth on the run @-@ scoring aggregates and seventh in the batting averages for Australia . Harvey was an acrobatic fielder , regarded as the best in the Australian team . He was twelfth man in the Tests before he broke into the playing XI , and took several acclaimed catches throughout the tour , finishing with 17 catches as well as a solitary wicket with his occasional off spin .
= = Background = =
A somewhat diminutive left @-@ handed middle @-@ order batsman who was the second @-@ youngest of six cricketing brothers , Harvey made his debut in first @-@ class cricket for his state , Victoria , during the 1946 – 47 Australian season . The following year , at the age of 19 , Harvey made his national debut in the Fourth Test against India in Australia in 1947 – 48 after a series of impressive performances at domestic level . In the Fifth Test at the Melbourne Cricket Ground , he hit 153 to break Archie Jackson 's record for the youngest Australian to make a Test century . The innings ensured him a place on the 1948 Invincibles tour of England as the youngest member of the 17 @-@ man squad . He was more than six and a half years younger than the next youngest players of the team , Arthur Morris and Bill Johnston . Speaking about Harvey 's selection , his captain ( and one of three team selectors ) , Donald Bradman , opined : " He has the brilliance and daring of youth , and the likelihood of rapid improvement " .
= = Early tour = =
Australia traditionally fielded its first @-@ choice team in the tour opener , which was customarily against Worcestershire . Despite scoring a century in Australia 's most recent Test , Harvey was made 12th man and it appeared that he was not initially in Bradman 's Test plans . Australia promptly crushed the hosts by an innings .
Harvey made his debut on English soil in the second tour match against Leicestershire . Batting at No. 5 , he came in at 3 / 316 and made 12 , struggling against the local spinners , as Australia collapsed to end on 448 before winning by an innings . Harvey played a key role in Australia 's victory in the next match against Yorkshire in Bradford , on a damp pitch that suited slower bowling . Harvey took two catches in the home side 's first innings of 71 . He made seven in the first innings as Australia replied with 101 . After the hosts were bowled out for 89 in their second innings , Australia collapsed to 4 / 20 in pursuit of 60 for victory . No sooner had Harvey walked out to bat at No. 6 , stand @-@ in captain Lindsay Hassett — Bradman rested himself for the match — top @-@ edged a pull shot and was caught to leave Australia at 5 / 20 . To make matters worse , Sam Loxton was injured and could not bat , so Australia were effectively six wickets down and faced their first loss to an English county since 1912 . Harvey had scored a solitary run when he hit a ball to Len Hutton at short leg , who dived forwards and grabbed it with both hands before dropping it . Harvey then swept the next ball for a boundary . Colin McCool was out at 6 / 31 before Harvey and wicket @-@ keeper Don Tallon steadied Australia . Harvey was reprieved on 12 ; he took several steps down the pitch to the bowling of Frank Smailes and missed , but the wicketkeeper fumbled the stumping opportunity . Harvey then hit the winning runs by lifting Smailes for a six over the sightscreen , ending unbeaten on 18 not out .
The Australians travelled to London to play Surrey at The Oval . Harvey scored seven and struggled in contrast to the rest of the Australians , who prospered to total 632 , laying the foundation for an innings victory . Harvey took three catches in the match , including two leaping catches in the second innings with his hands above his head . His feats prompted the local spectators to say that such acrobatic catches had never been seen at The Oval . The home team 's captain Stuart Surridge lofted a drive down the ground , and Harvey ran 25 m from wide long @-@ on and leapt in the air to catch the ball , which would have cleared the boundary . Harvey managed only 16 before being run out while batting with Bill Brown as Australia piled on 4 / 414 declared and defeated Cambridge University by an innings in the following match .
Harvey was then rested as Australia crushed Essex by an innings and 451 runs , its largest winning margin for the summer . During this match , the other batsmen set a world record for the most first @-@ class runs scored in one day ’ s play , adding 721 on the opening day . Harvey returned for the innings victory against Oxford University , but scored only 23 as Australia amassed 431 in their only opportunity at the batting crease .
The next match was against the Marylebone Cricket Club at Lord 's . The MCC fielded seven players who would represent England in the Tests , and were basically a full strength Test team , while Australia fielded their first @-@ choice team . It was a chance to gain a psychological advantage , and given Harvey 's early struggles in English conditions and his failure to pass 25 in his first six innings , he was overlooked as Australia amassed 552 and won by an innings .
After asking Bradman about the reason for his difficulties with the bat , Harvey was told that these were caused by rash shot selection and a tendency to hit the ball in the air . Bradman said " He was technically perfect in his shot production . He was batting well enough and simply getting out early . " Harvey adapted his style and improved his performance . In the next match , he scored 36 and 76 not out on a turning pitch against Lancashire at Old Trafford in Manchester , putting on an unbroken century partnership with Ron Hamence in the second innings as the match ended in a draw . Harvey was rested for the following match against Nottinghamshire , which was also drawn .
Harvey returned in the next fixture against Hampshire and made one as Australia were dismissed for 117 in reply to the home side 's 195 . It was the first time the tourists had conceded a first innings lead on the tour . However , Harvey did not get another chance with the bat as Australia recovered to win by eight wickets .
= = Test omission = =
Harvey had one last chance to make his case for Test selection in the match at Hove against Sussex . It was the final county fixture before the First Test at Trent Bridge . He came to the crease at 3 / 360 and put on stands of 93 and 97 with Ray Lindwall and Hamence respectively to finish unbeaten on 100 in only 115 minutes . Australia declared at 5 / 549 when Harvey reached three figures and went on to complete an innings victory . Former Australian Test batsman Jack Fingleton described Harvey 's innings as " a superb century , rich in youthful daring and stroke production " . Harvey later rated it his best innings of the tour excluding the Test matches .
Up to this point , the reserve opener Brown had scored 800 runs on tour at an average of 72 @.@ 72 , with a double century , three other centuries and 81 not out , and was on his third tour of England . In contrast , Harvey had totalled only 296 runs at 42 @.@ 29 despite his unbeaten 100 against Sussex .
Brown thus gained selection for the First Test , batting out of position in the middle order while Sid Barnes and Morris opened , whereas Harvey was dropped despite making a century in Australia 's most recent Test against India . This was the exact situation that had unfolded in the Worcestershire and MCC matches when Australia fielded their first @-@ choice team ; Harvey did not play and Brown batted out of position in the middle order . There was a chance of Harvey receiving a last @-@ minute call @-@ up when Barnes was ill with food poisoning in the week leading up to the Test , but the opener recovered .
Despite his omission , Harvey spent a large amount of the Test substituting as twelfth man for paceman Ray Lindwall , who succumbed to a hamstring injury in the first innings . Lindwall was nevertheless able to jog between the wickets when Australia batted , without needing a runner , but he did not take the field in the second innings . Fingleton said that Harvey was " by far the most brilliant fieldsman of both sides " and that Australia gained a substantial advantage through his presence on the ground . England captain Norman Yardley was sceptical as to whether Lindwall was sufficiently injured to be unable to field , but he did not formally object to the presence of Harvey . Former Australian Test cricket Bill O 'Reilly said that Lindwall was demonstrably not " incapacitated " and that Yardley " must be condemned for carrying his concepts of sportsmanship too far " . O 'Reilly decried the benefit that Australia derived through the substitution , agreeing with Fingleton that Harvey was the tourists ' best fielder by far . English commentator John Arlott went further , calling Harvey the best fielder in the world . Australia went on to defeat England by eight wickets although Brown made only 17 .
Between Tests , Harvey was called in for the match against Northamptonshire , scoring only 14 , while Brown was rested as Australia won by an innings . In the second match before the next Test , which was against Yorkshire , Harvey made 49 and 56 while Brown made 19 and 113 as an opener . Harvey hit the ball to all parts of the ground and Fingleton opined that " [ Harvey ] probably gained the respect of this most discerning crowd more quickly than any other cricketer in recent years " . However , Brown retained his middle @-@ order position for the Second Test at Lord 's ahead of Harvey ; Australia fielded an unchanged team . O 'Reilly criticised the retention of Brown , who had appeared to be noticeably uncomfortable in the unfamiliar role . He said that despite the fact that Brown had made an unbeaten double century on his previous Test at Lord 's in 1938 , Loxton and Harvey had better claims to selection . Bradman ’ s men went on to a crushing win by 409 runs , although Brown made only 24 and 32 in the middle order .
The next match was against Surrey and started the day after the Second Test . Brown injured a finger while fielding in the first innings , so he was not able to bat in Australia 's first innings , in which Harvey made 43 before being run out . In the second innings , Harvey caught Surrey captain Errol Holmes from a leaping catch , snaffling the ball as it flew through a flock of pigeons . On the final day , Australia wanted to finish the run @-@ chase quickly so they could watch the Australian John Bromwich play in the Wimbledon tennis final . Harvey volunteered to play as a makeshift opener alongside Sam Loxton and promised Bradman that he would reach the target quickly . Australia chased down the 122 runs needed for victory in just 58 minutes to complete a 10 @-@ wicket win in just 20 @.@ 1 overs . Harvey ended unbeaten on 73 and the Australians arrived at Wimbledon in time for the championship @-@ deciding match .
For the following match against Gloucestershire before the Third Test , Brown did not play . Harvey came to the crease at 3 / 304 and put on 164 for the fourth wicket before his partner Morris was out for 294 . He put on another 63 with Loxton before falling for 95 . During his innings , Harvey repeatedly advanced out of the crease to attack the spinners . Loxton ended on 159 not out as Australia reached 7 / 774 declared , their highest score of the tour , which underpinned a dominant innings victory . Harvey and the other Australian batsmen repeatedly left their crease to charge and attack the off spin of Tom Goddard , who ended with 0 / 186 . Goddard had been touted as a possible England selection because the bowlers used in the first two Tests had failed to challenge the supremacy of Australia ’ s batsmen , but the tourists ’ attack ended his prospects . Loxton 's innings earned him Brown 's middle @-@ order position for the Third Test at Old Trafford , which was a rain @-@ affected draw .
= = Fourth Test = =
During the drawn Third Test , Barnes was injured and Ian Johnson was used as a makeshift opener because Morris was the only specialist opener left in the team after the omission of Brown . In the meantime , Barnes 's injury had opened up a vacancy for the Fourth Test . Harvey managed only ten and Brown only eight as Australia defeated Middlesex by ten wickets in their only county match between Tests .
Despite his low score in the preceding match against Middlesex , Harvey was called into the team for the Fourth Test at Headingley at the expense of Barnes . The selectors had overlooked Brown as a replacement for Barnes 's opening position . Instead , vice @-@ captain Hassett would move from the middle @-@ order to accompany Morris at the top of the innings , while Harvey would slot into the middle @-@ order .
England batted first and amassed 496 . Australia began their reply on the second afternoon and Bradman and Hassett saw the tourists to stumps at 1 / 63 . The next morning , Hassett and Bradman fell in one Dick Pollard over to leave Australia at 3 / 68 with two new batsmen at the crease . Harvey came in bareheaded at No. 5 to join cavalier all @-@ rounder Keith Miller . Australia were more than 400 behind and if England were to remove the pair , they would expose Australia 's lower order and give themselves an opportunity to take a large first innings lead . Upon arriving in the middle Harvey told his senior partner " What 's going on out here , eh ? Let 's get stuck into ' em " . Harvey got off the mark by forcing the ball behind point for a single .
The pair launched a counterattack , with Miller taking the lead . He hoisted off spinner Jim Laker 's first ball over square leg for six . Miller shielded Harvey from Laker , as the young batsman was struggling against the off breaks that were turning away from him , especially one ball that spun and bounced , beating his outside edge . Miller drilled an off @-@ drive from Laker for four , and then hit another flat over his head , almost for six into the sightscreen . This allowed Australia to seize the initiative , and Harvey joined the fightback during the next over , hitting consecutive boundaries against Laker , the second of which almost cleared the playing area . He then took another boundary to reach 44 , with Miller on 42 . Miller then lifted Laker for a six over long off , and a four over long on from Yardley to reach 54 . Miller drove the next ball through cover for four . Yardley responded by stacking the on side with outfielders and bowling outside leg stump , challenging Miller to another hit for six . The batsman obliged , but edged the ball and was caught at short fine leg for 58 . The partnership yielded 121 runs in 90 minutes , and was likened by Wisden to a " hurricane " . Fingleton said that he had never " known a more enjoyable hour " of " delectable cricket " . O 'Reilly said that Miller and Harvey had counter @-@ attacked with " such joyful abandon that it would have been difficult , if not absolutely impossible , to gather from their methods of going about it that they were actually retrieving a tremendously difficult situation " . Arlott said that " two of the greatest innings of all Test cricket were being played " during the partnership .
At 4 / 189 Loxton came in to join Harvey , who continued to attack the bowling , unperturbed by Miller 's demise . Ken Cranston came on to bowl and Harvey square drove and then hooked to deep square leg for consecutive boundaries . Yardley then moved a man from fine leg to where the hook had gone ; Harvey responded by glancing a ball to the fielder 's former position , collecting three more runs . Australia thus went to lunch at 4 / 204 , with Harvey on 70 .
After lunch , Australia scored slowly as Loxton struggled . Yardley took the new ball in an attempt to trouble the batsmen with livelier bowling , but instead , Loxton began to settle in . He lofted Pollard to the leg side , almost for six , and then hit three boundaries off another over . Harvey accelerated as well , and 80 minutes into the middle session , reached his century to a loud reception as Australia passed 250 . Harvey ’ s knock had taken 177 minutes and included 14 fours . Loxton then dominated the scoring and brought up his 50 with a six . The partnership yielded 105 in only 95 minutes . Harvey was eventually out for 112 from 183 balls , bowled by Laker while playing a cross @-@ batted sweep . His shot selection prompted Bradman to throw his head back in disappointment . Nevertheless , it was an innings noted for powerful driving on both sides of the wicket and the high rate of scoring helped to swing the match back from England 's firm control . Harvey fell at 5 / 294 , and Australia slumped to 8 / 355 before a counterattack by Ray Lindwall saw them to 458 , restricting England 's lead to 38 . O 'Reilly said that Harvey 's innings was one of " no inhibitions " and that it was " completely unspoiled by any preconceived plan to eliminate any particular shot " . He added that it was " the very mirror of truth in the batting art " , " delightfully untrammeled by the scourage of good advice or any other handicapping influence " , and that Harvey 's innings was the most pleasing he had seen since Stan McCabe 's 232 at Trent Bridge in 1938 .
England then progressed to 0 / 129 in their second innings before Harvey intervened . On 65 , Cyril Washbrook attempted a hook from Bill Johnston . Connecting with the middle of the bat , he imparted much power on the ball , which flew flat and never went more than six metres above the ground , but Harvey quickly ran across the ground and bent over to catch the ball at ankle height while still on the run . Jack Fingleton said that it " was the catch of the season — or , indeed , would have been had Harvey not turned on several magnificent aerial performances down at The Oval [ against Surrey ] " . O ’ Reilly doubted " whether any other player on either side could have made the distance to get to the ball , let alone make a neat catch of it " . He added that the " hook was a beauty and the catch was a classic " . Later in the day , captain Yardley was caught by a leaping Harvey while attempting a lofted shot from Johnston .
After five minutes on the final morning , Yardley declared at 8 / 365 . Batting into the final day allowed Yardley to ask the groundsman to use a heavy roller , which would help to break up the wicket , thereby causing more uneven bounce and making the surface more likely to spin . The declaration left Australia to chase 404 runs for victory . At the time , this would have been the highest ever fourth innings score to result in a Test victory for the batting side . Australia had only 345 minutes to reach the target , and the local press wrote them off , predicting that they would be dismissed by lunchtime on a deteriorating wicket expected to favour the spin bowlers . However , Morris partnered Bradman in a stand of 301 in 217 minutes to set up the win , although they were helped by England ’ s fielders , who missed several catching and stumping chances . Harvey came to the crease at 3 / 396 and got off the mark by hitting the winning boundary .
Immediately after the Headingley Test , Harvey made 32 in a fleet @-@ footed cameo attack against the local spinners as Australia amassed 456 and defeated Derbyshire by an innings . In the next match against Glamorgan , he came to the crease at the fall of third wicket and made nine runs before rain ended the match in the second innings . Harvey then made a duck , bowled by a big @-@ turning leg break from Eric Hollies in the first innings as Australia defeated Warwickshire by nine wickets ; he was not required to bat in the second innings . Harvey was then rested as Australia faced and drew with Lancashire for the second time on the tour . He returned for the non @-@ first @-@ class match against Durham , scoring two out of Australia 's 282 in a rain @-@ affected draw , which ended after the first day without reaching the second innings .
= = Fifth Test = =
Although he had only scored 41 runs in four innings between Tests , Harvey was retained for the Fifth and final Test at The Oval . England elected to bat on a rain @-@ affected pitch . Precipitation in the week leading up to the match had delayed the start , and Yardley ’ s decision to bat was regarded as a surprise , as the weather suggested that bowlers would enjoy the conditions . This proved to be correct as Australia cut England down for 52 on the first day , with Lindwall ( 6 / 20 ) in particular managing to make the ball bounce at variable heights . Australia had already passed England by the close of play , reaching 2 / 153 . The next day , Harvey came to the crease at 4 / 243 and quickly displayed the exuberance of youth . He hit Jack Young for a straight @-@ driven four and then pulled him for another . Harvey then succumbed to Eric Hollies for 17 , hitting a catch to Young , leaving Australia at 5 / 265 . The Warwickshire spinner noticed this , and delivered a topspinner that dipped more than usual , and the batsman mistimed his off @-@ drive , which went in the air towards mid @-@ off . Australia finished at 389 and then bowled England out for 188 to complete victory by an innings and 149 runs and seal the series 4 – 0 .
= = Later tour matches = =
Seven matches remained on Bradman 's quest to go through a tour of England without defeat . Australia batted first against Kent and Harvey made 60 , including a 104 @-@ run stand with Brown before falling at 4 / 283 , part of a collapse in which Australia lost their last seven wickets for 89 to end at 361 . Despite stumbling with the bat , the tourists completed an innings victory . In the next match against the Gentlemen of England , Harvey was rested as Australia amassed 5 / 610 and won by an innings . He returned for the match against Somerset , putting on 187 for the second wicket with Hassett in 110 minutes . Harvey hit 14 fours and 2 sixes , both of which came in one over , in top @-@ scoring with a " glorious " 126 as Australia compiled 5 / 560 declared and won by an innings and 374 runs . Harvey performed a similar feat in the following match against the South of England , coming in at 3 / 237 and scoring 110 , adding 175 in 110 minutes in conjunction with Hassett , who also made a second successive century as Australia declared at 7 / 522 . Harvey reached his century in just 90 minutes . The match was washed out , but not before Harvey bowled for the first time during the tour and took his only first @-@ class wicket for the season , that of Trevor Bailey . He ended with 1 / 15 .
Australia 's biggest challenge in the post @-@ Test tour matches was against the Leveson @-@ Gower 's XI . During the last Australian tour in 1938 , Leveson @-@ Gower ’ s team was effectively a full @-@ strength England outfit , but this time Bradman insisted that only six current England Test players be allowed to play . Bradman then fielded a full @-@ strength team , with the only difference from the Fifth Test team being the inclusion of Ian Johnson at the expense of Doug Ring . Harvey made 23 before being bowled by Freddie Brown as the match ended in a draw after multiple rain delays . For the entire first @-@ class tour , Harvey scored four centuries and aggregated 1 @,@ 129 runs at 53 @.@ 76 .
The tour ended with two non @-@ first @-@ class matches against Scotland . In the first match , Harvey was rested as the Australians took an innings victory . In the second match , Harvey scored four and then took 2 / 13 in the second innings as Australia ended their campaign with another innings victory .
= = Role = =
At the age of 19 , Harvey was the youngest player of the touring party — more than six and half years younger than all the other members of the squad . An attacking left @-@ handed middle @-@ order batsman , Harvey had become the youngest Australian to score a Test century , by making 153 in the Fifth Test against India in the preceding Australian summer . However , Harvey struggled early in the tour and had difficulty adapting to English conditions . After being omitted from the first @-@ choice team in the early part of the tour , Harvey 's performances improved with increasing familiarity with local conditions , and he was called into the team for the Fourth Test , where he batted at No. 5 behind Miller and in front of Loxton due to the injury to Barnes . Upon Barnes ’ return for the Fifth Test , the trio were each pushed down one position .
Overall , Harvey ended with 1 @,@ 129 runs at 53 @.@ 76 in the first @-@ class matches with four centuries , placing him sixth on the aggregates and seventh in the batting averages . He played the bulk of his 27 first @-@ class innings between No. 4 and No. 6 in the batting order . Only three times did he bat elsewhere . He scored an unbeaten 73 in less than an hour in the second innings of the second match against Surrey as a makeshift opener , setting up a ten @-@ wicket victory . He made 23 batting at No. 3 against Oxford University and one against Hampshire while batting at No. 7.N-
Harvey was an acrobatic fielder , regarded as the best in the Australian team . Fingleton said that Harvey was " by far the most brilliant fieldsman of both sides , who was to save many runs in the field " . O 'Reilly agreed Fingleton that Harvey was Australia 's best fielder by far , Arlott went further , calling Harvey the best fielder in the world . He was twelfth man in the early Tests because of his fielding ability , before breaking into the playing XI and taking several acclaimed catches throughout the tour . He took 17 catches for the tour and claimed a solitary wicket with his occasional off spin , bowling only ten overs for the entire summer .
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= Sue Bailey Thurman =
Sue Bailey Thurman ( née , Sue Elvie Bailey ; August 26 , 1903 – December 25 , 1996 ) was an American author , lecturer , historian and civil rights activist . She was the first non @-@ white student to earn a bachelor 's degree in music from Oberlin College , Ohio . She briefly taught at the Hampton Institute in Virginia , before becoming involved in international work with the YWCA in 1930 . During a six @-@ month trip through Asia in the mid 1930s , Thurman became the first African @-@ American woman to have an audience with Mahatma Gandhi . The meeting with Gandhi inspired Thurman and her husband , theologian Howard Thurman , to promote non @-@ violent resistance as a means of creating social change , bringing it to the attention of a young preacher , Martin Luther King , Jr . While they did not actively protest during the Civil Rights Movement , they served as spiritual counselors to many on the front lines , and helped establish the first interracial , non @-@ denominational church in the United States .
Thurman played an active role in establishing international student organizations to help prevent foreign students feeling isolated while studying abroad . She organized one of the first international scholarship programs for African @-@ American women . She studied racism and the effects of prejudice on various people throughout the world , making two round @-@ the @-@ world trips in her lifetime . She wrote books and newspaper articles to preserve black heritage , and initiated the publishing efforts of the National Council of Negro Women ( NCNW ) by founding the Aframerican Women ’ s Journal . In addition to writing the second ever history of black Californians , in 1958 Thurman published a cookbook laced with historical information about black professional women at a time when African Americans had few civil rights . Recognizing that there was little academic interest in black women 's history at the time , Thurman used the marketing ploy of food to report on the lives of black women who were not domestics . She participated in international peace and feminist conferences , and in 1945 attended the San Francisco Conference for the founding of the United Nations as part of an unofficial delegation . Thurman also established museums such as the Museum of Afro @-@ American History in Boston in 1963 .
Thurman and her husband retired in San Francisco in 1965 . She worked with the San Francisco Public Library in 1969 to develop resources for black history of the American West . In 1979 she was honored with a Centennial Award at Spelman College , sharing the recognition with UNESCO director Herschelle Sullivan Challenor . After her husband 's death in 1981 , Thurman took over the management of the Howard Thurman Educational Trust , which funded research for literary , religious and scientific purposes and assisted in scholarships for black students . On her death in 1996 , she left the couple 's vast archives to numerous universities .
= = Early years = =
Sue Elvie Bailey was born on August 26 , 1903 , in Pine Bluff , Arkansas , to Reverend Isaac and Susie ( née Ford ) Bailey . She attended primary school at Nannie Burroughs ' School for Girls in Washington , D.C. In 1920 , she graduated from the college preparatory school , Spelman Seminary ( now Spelman College ) in Atlanta , Georgia . She continued her education at Oberlin College in Oberlin , Ohio , graduating in 1926 with bachelor 's degrees in music and liberal arts , making her the first black student to earn a music degree from Oberlin . While there , Bailey developed a friendship with Louise Thompson , who would become a central figure in the Harlem Renaissance movement , and encouraged Langston Hughes , inventor of jazz poetry , to read poetry there . She traveled with a quintet giving concerts in Cleveland , New York , and Philadelphia , as well as London and Paris .
= = Early career = =
After graduating , Thurman took a post as a music teacher at the Hampton Institute in Virginia , but did not enjoy the work . One of the issues at Hampton was that her friend , Louise Thompson , also a teacher there , had written anonymously to W. E. B. Du Bois , co @-@ founder of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) , complaining about conditions at the college under the predominantly white administration . Although Bailey was suspected of writing the letter after Du Bois published it in the NAACP 's journal The Crisis , she did not betray Thompson but instead invited Langston Hughes to Hampton for a poetry reading and moral support . Nevertheless , she left Hampton in 1930 to become a traveling National Secretary for the Student Division of the YWCA . She lectured throughout Europe and established the first World Fellowship Committee of the YWCA . On June 12 , 1932 , in the dining hall at Lincoln Academy , Kings Mountain , North Carolina , Bailey married Howard W. Thurman ( 1900 – 1981 ) , a minister , who would become a social critic , writer and dean of several prominent US universities . At the time of their marriage , he was serving as Dean of Rankin Chapel and Professor of Systematic Theology at Howard University in Washington , D.C.
= = Asia = =
In 1935 , the couple embarked upon a six @-@ month trip through southern Asia , visiting Burma , Ceylon and India , culminating in a “ Pilgrimage of Friendship ” to the International Student Conference in India . Her husband led the American delegation , lecturing at more than forty universities , while Thurman herself was asked to meet with journalists and students , to discuss race relations and evaluate the parallels between the situation with Indians and the British and the African Americans and white Americans . Initially , Howard had turned down the opportunity and his wife was not included in the offer , but when the trip was finally agreed , both were participants . Thurman was not chosen simply as the wife of Howard Thurman but , in the words of the committee , because she was one of " four persons best able to do this particular job " . This decision was remarkable for the period given that black women were often invisible members of society and generally prohibited from authoritative roles in social welfare programs . Thurman lectured during the trip on negro women and the organizations to which they belonged , as well as internationalism and culture . During their meeting with Rabindranath Tagore in Santiniketan she presented a paper " The History of Negro Music " , though initially she had been reluctant to discuss slave music . She finally agreed only after Tagore and Gandhi explained that to Asian Christians , negro spirituals were deemed to express the profound faith of people even in bondage and seemed more authentic than western hymns . Thurman both sang and taught songs to local choirs . She also commented on art , having acquired knowledge on the subject during an earlier trip to Mexico .
The couple met with Mahatma Gandhi , becoming the first African Americans to have an audience with him . When Thurman asked him to take his message to the United States , he demurred as his work in India and his personal quest there were not finished . One important aspect of the meeting was a discussion of how non @-@ violent resistance could be used as a means of creating social change . The meeting had a profound effect on the couple , changing the direction of their lives . Though they would remain Christians , the meeting with Gandhi led them to consider establishing a church free of prejudice , transcending racial , social , economic and spiritual boundaries . After they returned to the United States , Howard received a letter from A. J. Muste on behalf of Alfred Fisk who was looking for someone to establish a church in San Francisco which crossed the racial and spiritual divides . Muste was hopeful that Rev. Thurman might know of a divinity student interested in the position . Instead , Howard decided to take up the challenge himself , securing a leave of absence in order to found the church . Thurman went with him bringing their two daughters , as she strongly believed in the cause .
= = Mid @-@ career = =
= = = Scholarly work and San Francisco = = =
Thurman established the Juliette Derricotte Scholarship in the late 1930s , which allowed African @-@ American undergraduate women of high academic achievement to study and travel abroad . The first two recipients of the scholarship were Marian Banfield of Howard University and Anna V. Brown of Oberlin College . Banfield was a goddaughter of Howard Thurman . The following year the recipients of her scholarship were Elizabeth McCree from Boston , who attended Fisk University , and Margaret Bush Wilson of Talladega College .
In 1940 , Thurman founded the Aframerican Women ’ s Journal , the first publishing vehicle of the National Council of Negro Women ( NCNW ) , which she edited from 1940 until 1944 . In 1941 , an archive committee was formed to design a plan for collecting works about the achievements of African @-@ American women . Though their plans focused primarily on written records and professional accomplishment and would thus reflect middle @-@ class life , the committee initiated work on collecting historical records of black women . In 1944 , Thurman became the committee 's chair and her mother donated $ 1 @,@ 000 toward creating the National Council of Negro Women 's National Library , Archives , and Museum . On June 30 , 1946 , they held an archive drive , printing notices in newsletters and asking ministers , organizations , librarians and others to help them acquire photographs , books and mementos . They opened the first facility of the library at what is now the Mary McLeod Bethune Council House National Historic Site .
In 1943 , Thurman and her husband moved to San Francisco . She wrote several articles about their Asian trip , analyzing information , discussing their meeting with Gandhi and pressing for scholarship exchanges for negro students at Indian universities . It was from the Thurmans and their talks and writings that Martin Luther King Jr. learned of non @-@ violent resistance as a means of social protest . By 1944 , the church which they had envisioned after their meeting with Gandhi became a reality when they , along with Fisk , opened the Church for the Fellowship of All Peoples . It was the first interracial , non @-@ denominational church in the United States . While her husband assumed the pastoral duties , Thurman organized forums and lectures for the members to learn about other peoples such as Native Americans , Africans , Asians and their cultures , covering everything from the Jews to the Navajos .
In 1945 , Thurman attended the San Francisco Conference for the founding of the United Nations as part of an unofficial delegation . The official African @-@ American delegation included W. E. B. Du Bois , founder of the NAACP ; Walter Francis White , Executive Secretary of the NAACP ; and Mary McLeod Bethune founder of the National Council of Negro Women , but Bethune insisted on sending three additional observers from the NCNW , which included Thurman . After the event , Thurman published a report in the Chicago Defender on April 16 , 1945 , in which she questioned the limited role that people of color played in the proceedings and pointed out that the large populations of developing countries would become a force to be reckoned with . Thurman , as a representative for the NCNW , attended the Primer Congreso Interamericano de Mujeres held in Guatemala City , Guatemala , in 1947 . The congress addressed many of the issues she supported such as women 's rights , internationalism , and peace initiatives . In 1949 , she led a delegation of members from the Church for the Fellowship of All Peoples to Paris for the Fourth Plenary Session of UNESCO .
After researching black history in California , Thurman wrote eight articles for the San Francisco Sun Reporter as part of a series entitled " Pioneers of Negro Origin in California " . Using the same title , she published the articles in book form in 1952 . It was the second history of black Californians published — the first being The Negro Trail Blazers of California by Delilah L. Beasley in 1919 — and filled a gap caused by a lack of academic interest . History in America , at the time , was written about men and almost exclusively about white men . Neither of the women who wrote about the history of blacks in California was a native Californian .
= = = Boston = = =
In 1953 , Howard Thurman became the Dean of the Boston University School of Theology and , after ten years in California , the couple moved to Boston . The move was prompted by the desire to share their ideas of outreach and inclusion in a university setting , though they were aware that the arrival of the first black pastor in a white university would lead to difficulties . From the beginning , Thurman tried to create an inclusive environment , organizing monthly dinners for the Marsh Chapel Choir members and their friends . Shortly after they arrived , a Japanese student committed suicide leaving a note that she had no friends . Not only was she not known well at the university , finding her family to notify them was difficult . In response , Thurman organized the International Student Hostess Committee to keep international students from feeling isolated . By 1965 , the committee was serving 500 international students at Boston University . The Thurmans were at times criticized by those who felt they should be visibly active in the Civil Rights Movement , but they believed their commitment was to addressing the spiritual needs of those who were visible , rather than participating in marches , protests and demonstrations . Among the papers of MLK were many letters from people such as Homer A. Jack , who co @-@ founded the Congress of Racial Equality ; Lillian Smith , author of the novel Strange Fruit ; Glenn E. Smiley , national field secretary of Fellowship of Reconciliation , as well as King 's own acknowledgement , which credited their spiritual guidance .
Thurman continued her writing work in Boston . In 1958 , she published the The Historical Cookbook of the American Negro , which not only gave recipes but included black history . It retold stories of professional women and history to counter the belief that all black women were maids and domestics at a time when African Americans were excluded from basic civil rights . She recognized that in order to tell their history , a new approach was needed as there was no market for histories of the African Americans . In the preface to her book , she explained she was creating " palatable history " , testifying to her shrewd marketing ability .
During the 1960s , the Thurmans traveled widely , making various trips to study racial barriers that prohibited creation of community . A two @-@ year sabbatical granted from Boston University made their travels possible . In 1962 , they journeyed to Saskatchewan , Canada , to meet with tribal leaders about discrimination and in 1963 , they embarked on a trip that included Nigeria , Israel , Hawaii , and California . In Nigeria , Howard Thurman lectured at the University of Ibadan . The couple 's second round @-@ the @-@ world tour took them to Japan , the Philippines and Egypt .
In 1963 , Thurman founded the Museum of Afro @-@ American History in Boston . Interested in history , she had discovered a settlement where free blacks had lived prior to the Civil War and their 1808 African Meeting House , which housed both Boston 's first black church and the first segregated public school in the United States . The museum was created to save the site and provide a means to purchase other significant properties for preservation of African @-@ American heritage in the area . Thurman also created a map of important African American historical sites in Boston with the help of her daughter , Anne Chiarenza , which she called " Negro Freedom Trails of Boston " . The map highlighted twenty @-@ two points of interest to black history within the city of Boston and was in part created to give black school children a sense that they were part of the history of the city . What is today known as the Black Heritage Trail was adapted from Thurman 's original idea .
While in Boston , in 1962 , Thurman arranged for the sculptor Meta Warrick Fuller to create a commissioned " freedom plaque " for Livingstone College , of Salisbury , North Carolina . Bailey was an invited speaker at Livingstone in 1963 and at that time , in honor of United Nations Day , she donated a collection of dolls representing the member nations to the college . As far back as the 1930s , Thurman had collected ethnic dolls and given them to universities to promote understanding of cultural differences . In 1967 , Livingstone awarded her with an honorary doctorate .
= = San Francisco return = =
Howard Thurman took retirement from Boston University in 1965 and the couple moved back to San Francisco . Thurman continued to pursue historic preservation . She worked with the San Francisco Public Library in 1969 to develop resources for black history of the American West . In the 1970s , the couple took a trip to the Pacific basin . In 1979 she was honored with a Centennial Award at Spelman College , sharing the recognition with UNESCO director Herschelle Sullivan Challenor .
After her husband 's death , in 1981 , Thurman took over the management of the Howard Thurman Educational Trust , which funded research for literary , religious and scientific purposes , endowed scholarships for black students and assisted charitable projects . Thurman was the mother of Anne Spencer Thurman and stepmother to Olive Thurman , her husband 's daughter with his first wife . Olive was the first wife of actor Victor Wong .
Thurman died on Christmas Day , 1996 , at the San Francisco Zen Buddhist Hospice Center .
= = Legacy = =
After her death in 1996 , she and Howard 's vast archives were donated per their wishes to numerous universities . The largest collection of their documents is housed at Boston University . There are additional collections of their writings and works at Oberlin , Emory University and several other institutions like the National Council of Negro Women 's archives in Washington , D.C and libraries in Arkansas named for her mother , Mrs. Susie Ford Bailey . The collection at Emory University includes the correspondence between the Thurmans and Mrs. Bailey , their personal libraries , and nearly one thousand photographs .
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= Gehenna ( Millennium ) =
" ' Gehenna " is the second episode of the first season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on November 1 , 1996 . The episode was written by series creator Chris Carter , and directed by David Nutter . " Gehenna " featured guest appearances by Robin Gammel and Chris Ellis .
Offender profiler Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) , a member of the private investigative organisation Millennium Group , is sent to San Francisco to track down a doomsday cult which murders its brainwashed members when they disobey it .
" Gehenna " sees both Carter and Nutter continue their roles from " Pilot " , although it also necessitated changes in filming locations . The episode opens with a quote by W. H. Auden — the first of the series ' opening quotations — and makes references to the Hebrew Bible 's Gehenna .
= = Plot = =
In San Francisco , a group of young men drive to an abandoned factory , and drug one of their members with LSD , leaving him to be torn apart by what he perceives to be a monster . Later , a large quantity of suspicious ash found in a nearby park is proven to be from human remains . A private investigative organisation , the Millennium Group , dispatches offender profiler Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) and colleague Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) to investigate the multiple homicide that led to this . Black believes that the victims were burnt alive ; while chemical analysis of the ash leads the Group to the same factory .
In Black 's home in Seattle , his wife Catherine ( Megan Gallagher ) confides in policeman Bob Bletcher ( Bill Smitrovich ) her worry about Black 's overprotective nature , fearing he may quit his job if he believes his family to be in danger . Catherine does not yet know that a stalker from their past has resurfaced and has been posting polaroids of the family to Black . Black has meanwhile been persuaded by his fellow Group member Mike Atkins ( Robin Gammell ) that his family is in no immediate risk .
Back in San Francisco , dental records matched to teeth found in the ashes lead to a young immigrant who vanished six months prior , having joined a doomsday cult . Elsewhere , this cult is seen operating as telemarketers , working in a large assembly hall as propaganda slogans are projected onto the walls around them . One of the members is apprehended by Black , and during his interrogation it becomes clear that the cult , fronting as Gehenna Industries , is brainwashing its terrified members , incinerating those who disobey .
Black returns to Seattle , researching Gehenna Industries from his home . He uncovers a warehouse address belonging to the cult , which Atkins investigates . The warehouse is full of cached weaponry , stockpiled for the cult 's doomsday predictions . The cult 's leader lures Atkins into the industrial microwave which has been used to immolate the victims , but the police arrive in time to save him , having been tipped off by Black that Atkins may be in danger . The weapons stockpile allows the police to bring down the cult , but Black is certain that their influence is still a threat .
= = Production = =
" Gehenna " is the second episode of the series directed by David Nutter , who had previously helmed " Pilot " . Nutter would also direct " 522666 " and " Loin Like a Hunting Flame " later in the first season . The episode was written by series creator Chris Carter . Beyond creating the concept for Millennium , Carter would write a total of six other episodes for the series in addition to " Gehenna " — three in the first season , and a further three in the third season . " Gehenna " marked the first appearance by Chris Ellis as Group member Jim Penseyres ; Ellis would go on to reprise the role in " Dead Letters " and " The Judge " .
The episode opens with a quote from the Anglo @-@ American poet W. H. Auden , taken from the 1939 poem " Blessed Event " — " I smell blood and an era of prominent madmen " , the final line of the poem 's third stanza . Poetry by William Butler Yeats , a contemporary of Auden 's , formed a plot point in " Pilot " , while the title of " Loin Like a Hunting Flame " was taken from the work of yet another contemporary , Dylan Thomas . As " Pilot " did not open with a quotation , " Gehenna " is the first episode of Millennium to do so . The episode 's title , Gehenna , is the Hellenised form of the Hebrew Gehinnom , the " Valley of the Son of Hinnom " . Gehinnom was a location referred to in the Hebrew Bible where children were sacrificed by burning to the Canaanite god Moloch ; this ritual sacrifice echoes the cremation of the victims in the episode .
The building used for exterior shots of the Black family 's home is different from the one seen in " Pilot " ; the earlier house was located in an expensive neighbourhood whose residents had decided not to allow filming to continue there . The new location chosen was one which had already been used in Millennium 's sister show The X @-@ Files , appearing in that series ' second episode " Deep Throat " . The house 's owner was an air stewardess who would frequently meet members of the cast and crew as they travelled in and out of Vancouver .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Gehenna " was first broadcast on the Fox Network on November 1 , 1996 ; and earned a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 1 , meaning that roughly 8 @.@ 1 percent of all television @-@ equipped households were tuned in to the episode . The episode was watched by approximately 7 @.@ 9 million households .
" Gehenna " received mixed reviews from critics . Writing for The A.V. Club , Todd VanDerWerff rated the episode a C + , finding that it was " almost completely crippled by ... self @-@ seriousness " . VanDerWerff felt that the episode reflected Millennium seeming simultaneously both " intrinsically of the 1990s " and " ahead of its time " , find that its treatment of " the dread and shadowy fear and sense that the world held several cloaked and mysterious evils for well @-@ to @-@ do Americans " was a symptom of 1990s preoccupation with " the end of the world " while foreshadowing the mood of the United States following the September 11 attacks in New York in 2001 . As a result , VanDerWerff described the episode , and the series , as being " the first post @-@ Sept . 11 show " . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 , noting that there is " more here than just your standard serial killer show " . Gibron praised the episode 's " atypical storyline " , which he felt was achieved through " some suggestive effects and wonderful crosscutting " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , calling it " a somewhat humdrum story " . Shearman and Pearson felt that the episode 's core premise — that of " a telemarking company being a front for a terrorist cult " — was intriguing , but that the " millennial flavour " that accompanies this resulted in the episode seeming " a little confused " .
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= Yarmouth Castle =
Yarmouth Castle is an artillery fort built by Henry VIII in 1547 to protect Yarmouth Harbour on the Isle of Wight from the threat of French attack . Just under 100 feet ( 30 m ) across , the square castle was initially equipped with 15 artillery guns and a garrison of 20 men . It featured an Italianate " arrow @-@ head " bastion on its landward side ; this was very different in style from the earlier circular bastions used in the Device Forts built by Henry and was the first of its kind to be constructed in England .
During the 16th and 17th centuries the castle continued to be maintained and modified ; the seaward half of the castle was turned into a solid gun platform and additional accommodation was built for the fort 's gunners . A bulwark was built on the east side of the castle and an additional gun battery was placed on the town 's quay , just to the west . For most of the English Civil War of the 1640s it was held by Parliament ; following the Restoration , it was refortified by Charles II in the 1670s .
The fortification remained in use through the 18th and 19th centuries , albeit with a smaller garrison and fewer guns , until in 1885 these were finally withdrawn . After a short period as a coast guard signalling post , the castle was brought back into military use during the First and Second World Wars . In the 21st century , the heritage organisation English Heritage operates the castle as a tourist attraction .
= = History = =
= = = 16th century = = =
= = = = Construction = = = =
Yarmouth Castle was built as a consequence of international tensions between England , France and the Holy Roman Empire in the final years of the reign of King Henry VIII . Traditionally the Crown had left coastal defences to the local lords and communities , only taking a small role in building and maintaining fortifications , and while France and the Empire remained in conflict with one another , maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely . Modest defences , based around simple blockhouses and towers , existed in the south @-@ west and along the Sussex coast , with a few more impressive works in the north of England , but in general the fortifications were very limited in scale .
In 1533 , Henry broke with Pope Paul III to annul the long @-@ standing marriage to his wife , Catherine of Aragon , and remarry . This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538 , and the Pope encouraged the two countries to attack England . Henry responded in 1539 by ordering the construction of fortifications along the most vulnerable parts of the coast , through an instruction called a " device " . The immediate threat passed , but resurfaced in 1544 , with France threatening an invasion across the Channel , backed by her allies in Scotland . Henry therefore issued another device in 1544 to further improve the country 's defences , particularly along the south coast .
The town of Yarmouth on the Isle of Wight may have been attacked by the French in 1543 ; if so , this raid probably encouraged the construction of a castle there as part of the second wave of Device Forts . The fort functioned alongside the existing defences in the Solent and protected the main crossing from the west side of the island to the mainland . Yarmouth Castle was a square artillery fort built around a central courtyard with an angular , " arrow @-@ head " bastion protecting the landward side . It was initially equipped with three cannons and culverins , and twelve smaller guns , firing from a line of embrasures along the seaward side of the castle . It was garrisoned by a small team of soldiers , consisting of a master gunner , a porter and 17 soldiers , commanded by Richard Udall , the castle 's first captain . Udall lived in the castle , but the soldiers resided in the local town .
The castle was constructed by George Mills under the direction of Richard Worsley , the Captain of the Island , on land belonging to the Crown , possibly on the site of a church destroyed during the events of 1543 . Henry had dissolved the monasteries in England a few years before , and stone from the local Quarr Abbey was probably reused in the construction of the castle . It was finished by 1547 , when Mills was paid £ 1 @,@ 000 for his work and to discharge the soldiers who had been guarding the site during the project .
= = = = Initial use = = = =
When the Roman Catholic Queen Mary I succeeded to the throne there were changes in the leadership on the Isle of Wight and the castle . Worsley was dismissed in favour of a Roman Catholic appointee in 1553 and Udall was executed in 1555 for his role in the Dudley conspiracy to overthrow the Queen . When the Protestant Elizabeth I came to the throne in 1558 , however , peace was made with France and military attention shifted towards the Spanish threat to England . Elizabeth reappointed Worsley to his post and he carried out an extensive redevelopment of the castle . Worsley filled in half of the castle 's courtyard to produce a solid artillery platform able to hold eight heavy guns with an uninterrupted field of fire over the sea , and he probably also constructed the Master Gunner 's House on the other side of the castle . Nonetheless , an inspection in 1586 showed that the fortification was in poor condition . Work costing £ 50 was done in 1587 , including the erection of an earth bulwark alongside the castle to mount additional guns . The next year saw the attempted invasion of England by the Spanish Armada , after which further repairs were carried out on the castle . By 1599 the Crown was informed that the castle , which was still considered an important defence for the Solent , needed expensive repairs .
= = = 17th century = = =
Yarmouth Castle continued to be an important military fortification , used both as a fortress but also as a transport hub and a stores depot . The repairs recommended in 1599 were carried out in the first years of the 17th century and a further £ 300 was invested in Yarmouth Castle and nearby Sandown Castle in 1609 , including adding two angular buttresses along the walls facing the sea .
A survey in 1623 by the castle 's captain , John Burley , reported that the garrison comprised only four gunners and the captain , with the buildings in a " ruinous " state and the defences in need of repair ; similar concerns were raised in 1625 and 1629 . Suggestions that a half @-@ moon battery should be added to the defences were not progressed , but in 1632 the parapets were raised in height and further lodgings and a long room for stores were constructed within the castle . Some of the stone used for this may have been reused from nearby Sandown , whose walls had been destroyed by the sea ; before it was used at Sandown , the stone appears to have been taken from the local monasteries .
Civil war broke out in 1642 between the followers of King Charles I and those of Parliament . Initially , Captain Barnaby Burley , a relative of John , and an ardent Royalist , held the castle on behalf of the King with a tiny garrison . Burley negotiated surrender terms , including that he initially be allowed to remain in the castle with armed protection , and the castle remained in the control of Parliament for the rest of the war . Early during the Interregnum it was decided to increase the size of the garrison at the castle from 30 to 70 soldiers , due to concerns about a potential Royalist attack from the island of Jersey . Most of the soldiers lived outside the castle itself . The annual cost of this force was around £ 78 and in 1655 the garrison was made smaller again to reduce costs .
When Charles II returned to the throne in 1660 , he demobilised most of the existing army and the following year the garrison at Yarmouth was given four days notice to leave the castle . The King announced that the castle 's artillery would be sent to Cowes , unless the town of Yarmouth agreed to take over the financial responsibility of running the site themselves . The town declined to do so , but Charles repeated the offer in 1666 ; this time Yarmouth seems to have taken action , appointing four soldiers for a garrison , although the town did not assign an officer to command them , or apparently make any repairs to the now dilapidated castle .
The Crown took over the castle again in 1670 , and Robert Holmes , the new Captain of the Isle of Wight , had some of the guns brought back from Cowes to the castle . The site was refortified and a new battery placed on the adjacent quay , but the older earthworks were demolished and the moat was filled in . Holmes built a mansion for himself alongside the castle , where on three occasions he hosted the King .
In 1688 , Charles ' brother , James II , faced widespread revolt and a potential invasion of England by William of Orange . Holmes was a supporter of James , but although he intended to control Yarmouth Castle on the monarch 's behalf , the local inhabitants and the garrison at Yarmouth sided with William , preventing him from openly siding with the King .
= = = 18th – 21st centuries = = =
Yarmouth Castle continued to be used , and records from 1718 and 1760 show it was equipped with eight 6 @-@ pound ( 2 @.@ 7 kg ) and five 9 @-@ pound ( 4 @.@ 1 kg ) guns along the castle and the quay platforms , respectively . Throughout this period it was probably staffed by a captain and six gunners , supported by the local militia . In the early 18th century , Holmes ' mansion was rebuilt , forming its current appearance . By the 18th century , however , Yarmouth Harbour had gradually silted up and been destroyed by industrial developments , reducing the value of the anchorage , and the design of the castle had become outdated .
In 1813 , during the Napoleonic Wars , work was carried out to alter the design of the parapet . The Crimean War sparked a fresh invasion scare and in 1855 the south coast of England was refortified . Yarmouth Castle underwent considerable repairs that year ; four naval guns and traversing rails were installed on the castle platform , and a regular county army unit was put in place to garrison the fort . In 1881 a proposal was put forward to modernise the entire fortification , but this was rejected and in 1885 the garrison and the guns were withdrawn .
The coastguard began using the castle as a signalling station in 1898 . In 1901 , the War Department passed the castle to the Commissioners of Woods and Forests and in 1912 parts of the castle were leased to the Pier Hotel , which incorporated Robert Holmes 's former mansion ; the Pier Hotel eventually became the George Hotel and still occupies part of the old castle moat . The Office of Works took control of the castle in 1913 , carrying out a programme of repairs , and it was used by the military in both the First and Second World Wars . It was finally retired from military use in the 1950s .
In the 21st century , Yarmouth Castle is run by the heritage organisation English Heritage as a tourist attraction , receiving 9 @,@ 007 visitors in 2010 . It is protected under UK law as a Grade I listed building and as a scheduled monument .
= = Architecture = =
Yarmouth Castle is a square fortification , nearly 100 feet ( 30 m ) across , with an arrow @-@ head bastion protecting the landward side . The north and west walls face the sea , protected by angular buttresses , and a 10 @-@ metre ( 33 ft ) wide moat originally protected the south and east side , although this has since been filled in . The castle 's 16th @-@ century bulwark , which originally covered the area to the west of Pier Street and the north of Quay Street , and its quay battery have also been destroyed .
The walls of the castle are mainly built from ashlar stone , with some red brick used on the south side . The walls are pierced by a small number of gunloops , including in the " ears " of the bastion , which would have overlooked the moat . When first built the interior of the castle formed a sequence of buildings around a courtyard , but the southern half of the castle was filled in shortly afterwards to produce a solid gun platform able to support heavy guns . It was later raised again in the 17th century to its current height . The parapet is now covered with turf , with 19th @-@ century rounded corners , and the platform still has the rails on which the four naval guns would have traversed , dating from 1855 . A small lodging room , built on the platform at the top of the stairs , has since been destroyed .
The arrow @-@ head design of the castle 's bastion reflected new ideas about defensive fortifications spreading out from Italy in the 16th century . Earlier Henrician castles had used the older European style of semi @-@ circular bastions to avoid presenting any weak spots in the stonework , but an arrow @-@ headed design enabled defenders to provide much more effective supporting fire against an attacking force . Yarmouth was among the first fortifications in Europe , and the first in England , to adopt this design .
The accommodation and other facilities are on the south side of the castle . On the ground floor , the entrance to the castle leads through to a courtyard , linked to four barrel @-@ vaulted rooms in the south @-@ west corner , originally 17th @-@ century lodgings for the garrison . Two of these chambers were converted for use as magazines and the fittings of one of these still remains in place . In the south @-@ east corner is the Master Gunner 's House , comprising a parlour , hall and kitchen on the ground floor , and a chamber and attic on the floors above . The parlour and hall would have originally been separated by a screen ; the chamber would also have been subdivided . On the first floor is a small chamber , supported on arches above the courtyard , which was used as a lodging . On the second floor , the Long Room runs on top of the barrel @-@ vaulted chambers , its massive , original roof still intact .
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= Church architecture in Scotland =
Church architecture in Scotland incorporates all church building within the modern borders of Scotland , from the earliest Christian structures in the sixth century until the present day . The early Christian churches for which there is evidence are basic masonry @-@ built constructions on the west coast and islands . As Christianity spread , local churches tended to remain much simpler than their English counterparts . By the eighth century more sophisticated ashlar block @-@ built buildings began to be constructed . From the eleventh century , there were larger and more ornate Romanesque buildings , as with Dunfermline Abbey and St Magnus Cathedral in Orkney . From the twelfth century the introduction of new monastic orders led to a boom in ecclesiastical building , often using English and Continental forms . From the thirteenth century elements of the European Gothic style began to appear in Scotland , cumulating in buildings such as Glasgow Cathedral and the rebuilt Melrose Abbey . Renaissance influences can be seen in a move to a low @-@ massive style that was probably influenced by contacts with Italy and the Netherlands .
From the mid @-@ sixteenth century the Reformation revolutionised church architecture in Scotland . It resulted in a rejection of the elaborate ornamentation of existing churches . New churches were produced in a plain style , often with a T @-@ plan that emphasised the pulpit and preaching . This style was adopted by both Presbyterian and Episcopalian wings of the Scottish Kirk , but there were some attempts to introduce Baroque elements into church building after the Restoration . In the eighteenth century the influence of James Gibbs led to churches that employed classical elements , with a pedimented rectangular plan and often with a steeple . This classicism continued into the early nineteenth century , but became increasingly controversial and began to be rejected for a version of the Gothic revival , which flourished into the early twentieth century . Between the world wars , a form of neo @-@ Romanesque became the norm for new churches . In the second half of the twentieth century new churches were highly influenced by modernism , resulting in rectangular and irregularly shaped buildings , built in new materials , although many of these were later demolished . As the level of new building reduced from the 1970s there was a move to functional and unambitious new churches , but in the 1980s there was a move back to more striking and original designs .
= = Middle Ages = =
= = = Early churches = = =
The introduction of Christianity into Scotland from Ireland from the sixth century led to the construction of the first churches . These may originally have been wooden , like that excavated at Whithorn , but most of those for which evidence survives from this era are basic masonry @-@ built churches , beginning on the west coast and islands and spreading south and east . Early chapels tended to have square @-@ ended converging walls , similar to Irish chapels of this period . Medieval parish church architecture in Scotland was typically much less elaborate than in England , with many churches remaining simple oblongs , without transepts and aisles , and often without towers . In the Highlands they were often even simpler , many built of rubble masonry and sometimes indistinguishable from the outside from houses or farm buildings .
Monasteries also differed significantly from those on the continent , and were often an isolated collection of wooden huts surrounded by a wall . At Eileach an Naoimh in the Inner Hebrides there are huts , a chapel , refectory , guest house , barns and other buildings . Most of these were made of timber and wattle construction and probably thatched with heather and turves . They were later rebuilt in stone , with underground cells and circular " beehive " huts like those used in Ireland . Similar sites have been excavated on Bute , Orkney and Shetland . From the eighth century more sophisticated buildings emerged . The development of early ashlar masonry produced block @-@ built stone buildings , like the eleventh century round tower at Brechin Cathedral and the square towers of Dunblane Cathedral and The Church of St Rule .
= = = Romanesque = = =
After the eleventh century , as masonry techniques advanced , ashlar blocks became more rectangular , resulting in more stable walls that could incorporate refined architectural moulding and detailing that can be seen in corbelling , buttressing , lintels and arching . At the same time there was increasing influence from English and continental European designs , known as Romanesque . The Romanesque style had its origins in Roman building techniques and early churches in the Byzantine Empire and Italy and was characterised by massive reinforced walls and round arches that could bear the weight of rounded barrel vault roofs . The introduction of this style to Scotland is associated with the ecclesiastical reforms that began in the reign of Máel Coluim III ( r . 1058 – 93 ) , bringing continental ideas of monasticism and church organisation to the country . The oldest Romanesque church in Scotland is probably the small chapel built for Máel Coluim 's wife Margaret on Castle Rock , Edinburgh , with a vaulted semi @-@ circular apse . In the twelfth century a number of new parish churches were built by lords on their land . They were often small aisless buildings with two or three connected cells , each of diminishing size , ending in a rounded apse . One of the best preserved is at Dalmeny in Lothian .
St. Regulus Chapel at St. Andrews dates from around 1150 and was probably built as a reliquary church . Only the aisless choir and tall square tower survive . Its detailing derives from work on a church at Wharram @-@ le @-@ Street in England and it may have been carried out by the same Yorkshire masons . The first monastic establishment built in the Romanesque style was Dunfermline Abbey , begun at the behest of Queen Margaret about 1074 . An existing small chapel was expanded with a square choir and rounded apse . About fifty years later it was replaced by a grander cruciform church of which only the nave now survives . The chevron pattern in the detailing on the piers was modelled on that at Durham Cathedral . Similarly , St Magnus Cathedral in Orkney , begun in 1137 , may have employed masons that had worked at Durham , with which it shares a similar pattern of great round arches based on thick cylindrical pillars . The arrival of the new monastic orders in Scotland from the twelfth century led to a boom in ecclesiastical building using English and continental forms , including abbeys at Kelso , Holyrood , St Andrews and Jedburgh , one of the most complete Romanesque buildings to survive .
= = = Gothic = = =
The style that developed from the Romanesque , originating in twelfth @-@ century France , is now known as Gothic . It was characterised by pointed arches , ribbed vaults and flying buttresses . It was brought to Britain by the Cistercians , whose abbeys retained thick walls , but pierced them with lancet arches with slender pointed arches . This style became characteristic of the early Gothic in Britain and can be seen at Dundrennan Abbey , begun around 1142 , which resembles religious foundations in northern England . The style can also be seen in the East end of Elgin Cathedral , which incorporated typical European Gothic mouldings and tracery .
A more elaborate style known as decorated Gothic , applying ornamentation to vaults and pillars , particularly using curved motifs , began to be adopted in the thirteenth century and was characteristic of Scottish church building in the fourteenth century . It was used at Dunblane Cathedral , built in the thirteenth century , particularly to decorate the nave and East end . At Fortrose in the Highlands the elaborate decoration of this style is still visible in the south aisle . One of the finest examples is Sweetheart Abbey near Dumfries , a Cistercian monastery , named after the burial of John de Balliol 's heart alongside the body of his wife . The period of the Wars of Independence ( 1296 – 1357 ) saw a large number of ecclesiastical buildings ruined , including Melrose and Jedburgh Abbeys . Church building was largely confined to the parish churches in the relatively secure areas like Fife , as at St. Monans , originally a church of the Dominican friars .
In the fifteenth century continental builders are known to have been working in Scotland . French master @-@ mason John Morrow was employed at the building of Glasgow Cathedral and the rebuilding of Melrose Abbey , both considered fine examples of Gothic architecture . Compared with after the Reformation , the interiors of churches were often elaborate , with highly decorated sacrament houses , like the ones surviving at Deskford and Kinkell . The carvings at Rosslyn Chapel , depicting the progression of the seven deadly sins , were created in the mid @-@ fifteenth century . They are considered some of the finest in the Gothic style . Late Medieval Scottish churches also often contained elaborate burial monuments , like the Douglas tombs in the town of Douglas .
= = = Renaissance = = =
The impact of the Renaissance on ecclesiastical architecture can be seen in the re @-@ adoption of low @-@ massive church building with round arches and pillars , in contrast to the perpendicular Gothic style that was particularly dominant in England in the late Medieval era . The adoption of the low @-@ massive style may have been influenced by close contacts with Rome and the Netherlands , and was perhaps a conscious reaction against English forms in favour of continental ones . It can be seen in the nave of Dunkeld Cathedral , begun in 1406 , the facade of St Mary 's , Haddington from the 1460s and in the chapel of Bishop Elphinstone 's Kings College , Aberdeen ( 1500 – 09 ) . About forty collegiate churches were established in Scotland in late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries . Many , like Trinity College , Edinburgh , showed a combination of Gothic and Renaissance styles . The early sixteenth century saw crown steeples built on churches with royal connections , symbolising imperial monarchy , as at St. Giles Cathedral , Edinburgh .
= = Early modern era = =
= = = Reformation = = =
From about 1560 , the Reformation revolutionised church architecture in Scotland . Calvinists rejected ornamentation in places of worship . With no need for elaborate buildings divided up by ritual there was widespread destruction of Medieval church furnishings , ornaments and decoration . There was a need to adapt old buildings and build new churches suitable for reformed services , particularly by putting the pulpit and preaching at the centre of worship .
Many of the earliest buildings were simple gabled rectangles , a style that continued to be built into the seventeenth century . Examples include Dunnottar Castle in the 1580s , Greenock ( 1591 ) and Durness ( 1619 ) , These new buildings often had windows on the south wall and none on the north , which became a unique feature of Reformation kirks . There were continuities with pre @-@ Reformation materials , with some churches using rubble , as at Kemback in Fife ( 1582 ) . Others employed stone and a few added wooden steeples , as at Burntisland ( 1592 ) . The church of Greyfriars , Edinburgh , built between 1602 and 1620 , used a rectangular layout with a largely Gothic form , but that at Dirleton ( 1612 ) , had a more sophisticated classical style .
A variation of the rectangular church that developed in post @-@ Reformation Scotland was the " T " -shaped plan , often used when adapting existing churches , which allowed the maximum number of parishioners to be near the pulpit . They can be seen at Kemback and Prestonpans after 1595 . It continued to be used into the seventeenth century as at Weem ( 1600 ) , Anstruther Easter , Fife ( 1634 – 44 ) and New Cumnock ( 1657 ) . In the seventeenth century a Greek cross plan was used for churches such as Cawdor ( 1619 ) and Fenwick ( 1643 ) . In most of these cases one arm of the cross would have been closed off as a laird 's aisle , meaning that they were in effect " T " -plan churches . Larger churches often had a steeple , as at Tron Kirk , Edinburgh ( 1636 – 47 ) .
= = = Restoration = = =
By the later seventeenth century both the Presbyterian and episcopalian wings of the church had adopted the modestly sized and plain form of churches that had emerged after the Reformation . Most had a centralised plan with two or three arms , in a rectangular or T @-@ planned arrangement . Steeples continued to be a major feature , either centrally on the long axis , or on an end gable , in as had been the case in pre @-@ Reformation churches . As a result , there was little of the baroque extravagance in church building seen on the Continent and England . Some minor innovations may indicate a move back toward episcopacy in the Restoration era . Lauder Church was built by Sir William Bruce in 1673 for the Duke of Lauderdale , who championed the bishops in the reign of Charles II and the Gothic windows of which may have emphasised antiquity , but its basic Greek cross plan remained within the common framework of new churches . The drive to episcopalian forms of worship may have resulted in more linear patterns , including rectangular plans with the pulpit on the end opposite the entrance . The major exceptions to the standard pattern are in the work of James Smith , who had become a Jesuit in his youth . These included the rebuilding of Holyrood Abbey undertaken for James VII in 1687 , which was outfitted in an elaborate style . In 1691 Smith designed the mausoleum of Sir George Mackenzie of Rosehaugh , in Greyfriars Kirkyard , a circular structure modelled on the Tempietto di San Pietro , designed by Donato Bramante ( 1444 – 1514 ) . The Latin Cross form , increasingly popular in Counter Reformation Catholicism , was also used , as in Smith 's Canongate Kirk ( 1688 – 90 ) , but here it never saw episcopal service as the Presbyterian revolution of 1689 – 90 occurred before it was completed and the chancel was blocked up , making it , in effect , a T @-@ plan .
= = = Eighteenth @-@ century Neo @-@ Classicism = = =
In the eighteenth century established patterns continued , with T @-@ shaped churches with steeples on the long side , as at New Church , Dumfries ( 1724 – 27 ) , and Newbattle Parish Church ( 1727 – 29 ) . William Adam 's Hamilton Parish Church ( 1729 – 32 ) , was a Greek cross plan inscribed in a circle , while John Douglas 's Killin Church ( 1744 ) was octagonal . Scots @-@ born architect James Gibbs was highly influential on British ecclesiastical architecture . He introduced a consciously antique style in his rebuilding of St Martin @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Fields , London , with a massive , steepled portico and rectangular , side @-@ aisled plan . Similar patterns in Scotland can be seen at St Andrew 's in the Square ( 1737 – 59 ) , designed by Allan Dreghorn and built by the master mason Mungo Nasmyth , and at the smaller Donibristle Chapel ( completed 1731 ) , designed by Alexander McGill . Gibbs ' own design for St. Nicholas West , Aberdeen ( 1752 – 55 ) , had the same rectangular plan , with a nave @-@ and @-@ aisles , barrel @-@ vaulted layout with superimposed pedimented front . After the Toleration Act of 1712 , episcopalians began building a limited number of new chapels including Alexander Jaffray 's St Paul 's chapel in Aberdeen ( 1721 ) , the meeting house designed by McGill in Montrose , an Edinburgh chapel opened in 1722 and St Andrew 's @-@ by @-@ the @-@ Green in Glasgow ( 1750 – 52 ) , which adopted a simpler version of Gibbs ' pedimented rectangular plan .
In the second half of the eighteenth century , Scotland 's rapidly expanding economy and population resulted in the laying out of numerous new towns and remodelled settlements , resulting in a need for new churches to support the local residents . These included St Andrew 's and St George 's West Church , George Street , in the New Town of Edinburgh , designed by Andrew Frazer ( 1782 – 87 ) , followed in the tradition of Gibbs , with an oval plan , tetrastyle Corinthian portico and a tall steeple . The builder , Alexander Stevens , probably also designed the steeple of St Cuthbert 's Church ( 1789 – 90 ) . At Fochabers , from 1776 John Baxter redesigned the village on a grid plan , with a central square focused on Bellie Church ( 1795 – 97 ) , still following in the tradition of Gibbs , with a tetrastyle portico and steeple .
= = Nineteenth century = =
= = = Neo @-@ Classicial decline = = =
In the early nineteenth century the Gibbs @-@ influenced steepled tradition continued , as can be seen in Robert Nisbet 's Inveresk Church ( 1803 – 10 ) . A Grecian form was developed at William Burn 's North Leith Church ( 1813 ) and St John 's Episcopal Church , Edinburgh ( 1816 ) . The controversy over the style of the Scottish National Monument in 1816 led to the labelling of Greek temple motifs as " pagan " and relatively few columnar Greek churches were built after that in the capital . An exception was Archibald Elliot 's Broughton Church ( 1820 – 21 ) , which had a Doric temple front . More common in Edinburgh were churches that combined classical elements with other features , like the domed St George 's , Charlotte Square ( 1811 – 14 ) , executed by Robert Reid , or the Gracco @-@ Baroque of William Playfair 's St Stephen 's ( 1827 – 28 ) . In Glasgow there was a tradition of grafting porticoes on to existing meeting @-@ houses , which continued in Gillespie Graham 's West George Street Independent Church ( 1818 ) , which was criticised as " popish " , and John Baird I 's Greyfriars United Secession Church ( 1821 ) , which was fronted by a Roman Doric portico . Classical designs for the established Church included the redevelopment by William Stark of St George 's @-@ Tron Church ( 1807 – 08 ) , David Hamilton 's St Enoch 's Parish Church ( 1827 ) and St Paul 's Parish Church ( 1835 ) .
= = = Gothic revival = = =
As elsewhere in Western Europe , in the nineteenth century there was a return to Medieval styles , grouped together into a Gothic revival . Early examples included Adams ' St George 's Episcopal Chapel in Edinburgh ( 1792 ) , which included octagonal lantern on ogival arches . Other examples included James Playfair 's chapel @-@ like Farnell Church ( c . 1789 ) and Richard Crichton 's towered Craig Parish Church ( 1799 ) . In the early nineteenth century examples influenced by the English Perpendicular included Glenorchy Church ( 1810 – 11 ) , built by the Earl of Breadalbane , John Paterson 's octagonal reconstruction of St Paul 's Church , Perth ( c . 1800 – 07 ) and Fetteresso Church , Stonehaven ( 1810 – 12 ) . Examples of a more explicitly perpendicular form can be seen in Gillespie Graham 's Collace ( 1813 ) , or David Hamilton 's Old Erskine ( 1813 – 14 ) .
As urban populations grew , major neo @-@ Gothic churches were built to accommodate them . After the passing of the Catholic Relief Act , James Gillespie Graham designed St Andrew 's Roman Catholic Chapel in Glasgow ( 1814 – 17 ) . There was also growth in the Episcopal Church , which benefited from the mainly Anglican migrant English workers . In Edinburgh these were modelled on the English Perpendicular , as at St Paul 's York Place ( 1816 – 18 ) , the towered St John 's Chapel ( 1816 – 18 ) and St David 's ( Ramshorn ) ( 1824 – 26 ) . In Glasgow , the Ramshorn Kirk 's has a T @-@ plan and symmetrical front with tall tower .
The Kirk began to concern itself with providing churches in the new towns and relatively thinly supplied Highlands , establishing a church extension committee in 1828 . Led by Thomas Chalmers , by the early 1840s it had added 222 churches , largely through public subscription . When the Great Disruption occurred in 1843 , and roughly a third of ministers and their congregations left the established church and its buildings to form the Free Church of Scotland , Chalmers ' organisational skills helped the Free Church build over 700 new places of worship by 1847 . The established church took time to recover , but embarked on a rival programme of church building , increasing its number of parishes from 924 in 1843 to 1 @,@ 437 by 1909 . The intense competition between different denominations led to the creation of grand churches with tall steeples and ultimately resulted in an oversupply of churches , which would be a financial burden to future generations .
The intense competition for congregations also led to changes to make worship more attractive that were reflected in architecture . The Church of Scotland was among the first European Protestant churches to engage in liturgical innovation reflected in seating arrangements , abandoning box pews for open benches . From the middle of the nineteenth century some of its churches , like Greyfriars in Edinburgh , began installing organs and stained glass windows , reflecting an attempt to return to forms of worship largely excluded since the late seventeenth century . At Duns the church was rebuilt ( opened 1888 ) in a plan used in the Middle Ages , with a separate chancel , communion table at the far end , and the pulpit under the chancel arch . The influence of the ecclesiological movement can be seen in churches built at Crathie ( opened 1893 ) , which had an apsidal chancel raised above the level of the nave , a stone pulpit and a brass lectern , and St. Cuthbert 's , Edinburgh ( rebuilt 1894 ) , with a marble communion table in a chancel decorated with marble and mosaic .
A sub @-@ set of the Medieval revival were Neo @-@ romanesque churches , often called " Norman " at the time , built in a style that incorporated Romanesque , Byzantine and Anglo @-@ Saxon features within a low @-@ massive framework . These were utilised by all the major denominations . Examples include the Church of Scotland buildings at Errol ( 1831 – 33 ) ; the Catholic St. Anthony 's Chapel , Murthly ( 1845 ) ; McBridge Free Church , Rothsay ( 1845 ) ; and the Episcopalian St. Thomas , Rutland Place , Edinburgh ( 1842 – 43 ) . Later nineteenth @-@ century examples included the church at Strathbungo ( 1873 ) , and St. Ninian 's , Cathcart Road ( 1888 ) , Glasgow , both designed by W. G. Rowan .
The Gothic style developed fully in the later nineteenth century . Important figures included Frederick Thomas Pilkington ( 1832 – 98 ) , who adapted the Gothic style for the needs of the Free Church of Scotland , as at Barclay Viewforth Church , Edinburgh ( 1862 – 64 ) . Robert Rowand Anderson ( 1834 – 1921 ) , trained in the office of leading Gothic Architect George Gilbert Scott in London before returning to Edinburgh , where he worked on many small churches , including St James the Less in Leith , Christ Church , Falkirk ( 1862 ) and the Catholic Apostolic Church in Edinburgh ( 1876 ) . He also supervised the renovation of Dunblane ( 1890 – 93 ) and Paisley Abbey ( 1898 – 1907 ) . Alexander ' Greek ' Thomson ( 1817 – 75 ) , working mainly in Glasgow , began in the Gothic style , but soon turned toward the ancient Greeks and Egyptians for inspiration , as can be seen in the temple and columns that were part of the Caledonia Road Church ( 1856 ) . Scotland 's most influential architect of the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century , Charles Rennie MacKintosh , designed a number of churches , but only one , Queen 's Cross Free Church , Glasgow ( 1898 – 99 ) was built . It avoided the characteristic steeple of Glasgow churches in favour of a wide tower , and has a simple , elegant , rectangular structure with a single aisle .
= = Twentieth century = =
= = = Neo @-@ Romanesque = = =
In the first half of the twentieth century , there continued to be isolated examples of Gothic church building , including L. G. Thomson 's Reid Memorial Church , Edinburgh ( 1929 – 33 ) and J. Taylor Thomson 's St John Renfield Church , Glasgow ( 1927 – 31 ) . The most common forms in this period were plain and massive Neo @-@ Romanesque buildings . Protestant examples included H. O. Tarbolton 's Bangour Village Church ( 1924 – 30 ) and L. G. Thomson 's Fairmilehead Church ( 1937 ) . Roman Catholic examples included Reginald Fairlie 's Immaculate Conception Church , Fort William ( 1933 – 34 ) , and Archibald Macpherson 's St Matthew , Rosewell ( completed 1926 ) .
The reunification of the Church of Scotland in 1929 removed much of the need for new Presbyterian church @-@ building , which was replaced by a tendency towards renovating nineteenth @-@ century churches , toning @-@ down ritualistic furnishings ; replacing dark varnish by white or neutral colour schemes . The main tendency in church design in the 1930s was a move towards classicism . There were isolated large classical Protestant commissions , such as Bristo Baptist Church , Edinburgh ( 1933 – 35 ) , but the major buildings in this form were in the Catholic Church where there was a movement towards worshipper @-@ centred basilican plans , after the pontificate of Pius X ( 1903 – 14 ) . This movement reached its peak in the 1960s after the Second Vatican Council . The leading figure in pursuing this style was Giacomo Antonio ( Jack ) Coia , who after the deaths of his partners , was the sole heir to the Glasgow @-@ based practice of Gillespie , Kidd & Coia . From the later 1920s he pursued a brick style of Catholic architecture , pioneered by Macpherson in Edinburgh and combined with the classical tendencies of Fairlie 's refacing of St Patrick 's , Cowgate ( 1928 – 29 ) . Coia 's first church , St Anne 's , Dennistoun ( 1931 ) , utilised the engineering techniques of Beaux @-@ Arts architecture , resulting in a broad , centralised space , with narrow arcades rather than aisles , with a monumental facade of red @-@ brick . He used a more linear plan in subsequent designs , including St Patrick , Greenock ( 1934 – 35 ) , St Columba , Maryhill ( 1937 ) , and St Columbkille , Rutherglen ( 1934 – 40 ) . The early Christian and Byzantine character of the most striking of these , St Patrick 's , was enhanced by carvings by Archibald Dawson . Coia 's use of selective details was probably indebted to Mackintosh . Later in the decade Coia took into partnership T. Warnett Kennedy . Kennedy 's temporary , open @-@ roofed Catholic chapel at the Empire Exhibition ( 1938 ) was fronted by a Mackintosh @-@ like grid of metalwork , and with his St Peter in Chains Church , Ardrossan ( 1938 ) , with austere walls and towers , showed the influence of the " abstract compositions " of contemporary Swedish architecture and pointed to the future influence of modernism .
= = = Modernism and Post @-@ Modernism = = =
After the Second World War , there was another period of rapid church building , as the creation of new towns and council house estates necessitated the rapid supply of new churches . The austerity , shortage of materials and need for rapid building , discouraged the development of innovative design . This was accompanied by the rejection by most architects of traditional forms in favour of " international modernism " , characterised by simple outlines , uncluttered internal spaces , absence of colour , and flat roofs .
The Catholic Church , whose traditional membership was most affected by the changes in housing , was the first to react to this situation , creating 76 new parishes between 1845 and 1960 in the west of the country alone . The Baptist and Episcopalian churches followed close behind , particularly in the new towns . Within the Church of Scotland , the closeness of congregation and clergy was expressed in the domestic plainness of 1950s duel @-@ use hall churches , as at Reiach 's Kildrum Parish Church , Cumbernauld ( completed 1962 ) , a steel framed building , clad in timber and brick with a flat roof . Of 129 buildings erected by the Church of Scotland between 1948 and 1959 , 108 were on this basic pattern .
The influence of more radical Expressionism and Modernism can be seen in buildings such as Basil Spence 's Mortonhall Crematorium , Edinburgh ( 1964 – 67 ) , with a series of irregular chapels , with smooth @-@ faced blockwork and Wheeler & Sproson 's Boghall Church , Bathgate ( 1965 ) , influenced by Beaux @-@ Arts architecture . The pioneering contribution from the Church of Scotland was St. Columbia 's , Glenrothes ( 1960 ) , which had seating for the congregation on three sides of a central platform , with the choir and elders on the fourth side behind the pulpit .
In the Roman Catholic Church , the most important steps towards an expressionist design were under taken by Gillespie , Kidd & Coia . This began with St Paul 's Church in the new town of Glenrothes ( 1956 – 57 ) . This was a wedge @-@ shaped construction of white @-@ painted common brick focused on a dramatic , jagged metal cross by the sculptor Benno Schotz . From about 1960 , all Gillespie , Kidd & Coia 's churches were designed in this Late Modernist style , as at St Bride 's , East Kilbride ( 1963 – 64 ) , which had a rectangular plan . From the mid @-@ 1960s , they adopted a centralised , non @-@ rectangular plan , with seating ranged round the altar , reflecting liturgical change . Sacred Heart Church , Cumbernauld ( 1964 ) , was rectangular , of load @-@ bearing brick , dramatically lit through dark coloured windows . Our Lady of Good Counsel , Dennistoun ( 1965 ) had a splayed plan and slanted ceiling . St Benedict Drumchapel ( 1965 – 67 ) had a prow @-@ like roof on curved , laminated timbers . These innovative designs inspired others to experiment , including J. McCarron 's Our Lady of Sorrows , South Uist ( 1964 – 65 ) . However , many of these designs proved too radical and were later demolished by the Catholic Church , citing structural or maintenance problems .
The end of this phase of church @-@ building , as the production of new housing subsided in the 1970s , saw a return to conservatism in church design , which may have reflected a loss of confidence in the churches as attendances rapidly declined . M. Glendinning , R. MacInnes and A. MacKechnie have identified a " post @-@ Coia " style emerging in this period . The limited building , some replacing existing churches , tended to be by building companies using laminated timber beams , exposed brickwork and pyramidal roofs to produce utilitarian , if aesthetically unadventurous , constructions . From the late 1980s there were some original designs , including St Mary the Virgin , in Port Glasgow ( 1984 ) by Frank Burnet , Bell and Partners ; St Anthony 's Catholic church in Kirriemuir ( 1987 ) , by James F. Stephen Architects ; and the replacement church at St Joseph 's Catholic Church , Faifley ( 1997 ) by Jacobsen and French . There was also the postmodern design of St John Ogalvy Catholic Church , Irvine ( 1982 ) , and the nearby Girdle Toll parish church , converted from a farmhouse ( 1992 ) .
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= Arbroath =
Arbroath or Aberbrothock / ɑːrˈbroʊθ / ( Scottish Gaelic : Obar Bhrothaig , [ opəɾˈvɾo.ɪkʲ ] ) is a former royal burgh and the largest town in the council area of Angus in Scotland , and has a population of 23 @,@ 902 . It lies on the North Sea coast , around 16 miles ( 25 @.@ 7 km ) ENE of Dundee and 45 miles ( 72 @.@ 4 km ) SSW of Aberdeen .
While there is evidence for settlement of the area now occupied by the town that dates back to the Iron Age , Arbroath 's history as a town begins in the High Middle Ages with the founding of Arbroath Abbey in 1178 . Arbroath grew considerably during the Industrial Revolution owing to the expansion of firstly the flax and secondly the jute industries and the engineering sector . A new harbour was built in 1839 and by the 20th century , Arbroath had become one of the larger fishing ports in Scotland .
The town is notable as the home of the Declaration of Arbroath , as well as the Arbroath smokie . The town 's football team , Arbroath F.C. , hold the world record for the highest number of goals scored in a professional football match . They won 36 @-@ 0 against Aberdeen Bon Accord in the Scottish Cup in 1885 .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
The earliest recorded name for the town was ' Aberbrothock ' , a reference to the Brothock Burn which runs through the town , the prefix ' Aber ' coming either from the Gaelic ' Obair ' , or the earlier term ' Aber ' which could be either Goidelic or Brythonic for ' river mouth ' . The name ' Aberbrothock ' can be found in numerous spelling variations . In the earliest manuscripts available , it is seen as ' Abirbrothoke ' ( in the letter to Edward I confirming the Treaty of Salisbury , which agreed that the Queen regnant , Margaret , Maid of Norway would marry Edward I ) and ' Aberbrothok ' ( in the subsequent letter giving consent for the marriage ) . In the Declaration of Arbroath , it is seen as ' Abirbrothoc ' . Early maps show a number of variants including Aberbrothock , Aberbrothik , Aberbrothick , and Aberbrothwick .
The modern name ' Arbroath ' became more common in the mid @-@ 19th century , with the older name being largely dispensed with by the time of the first edition of the Ordnance Survey Maps . However , variants of ' Arbroath ' had been used since the 17th century , including ' Arbroth ' and Aberbreth .
= = = Early history = = =
The area around Arbroath has been occupied since at least the Neolithic period . Material taken from postholes from an enclosure at Douglasmuir , near Friockheim , about five miles north of Arbroath have been radiocarbon dated to around 3500 BC The function of the enclosure is unknown , but may have been for agriculture or for ceremonial purposes .
Bronze age archaeology is to be found in abundance in the surrounding area . Examples include the short @-@ cist burials found near West Newbigging , about a mile to the North of the town . These burials included pottery urns , a pair of silver discs and a gold armlet . Iron Age archaeology is also well represented , for example in the souterrain nearby Warddykes cemetery and at West Grange of Conan , as well as the better @-@ known examples at Carlungie and Ardestie .
The area appears to have been of some importance in the early Christian period , as evidenced by the Pictish stone carvings found during the restoration of St Vigeans church , and now housed in the small museum there . The stones had been used in the building of the old church and , unfortunately , many been badly damaged . One of the stones , the 9th century Drosten Stone , has the distinction of being one of the few Pictish artefacts to have an inscription in Latin text : ' DROSTEN : IREUORET [ E ] TTFOR CUS ' , which has been interpreted in various ways , but it is thought that the second line refers to the Pictish King Uurad , who reigned between 839 and 842 AD .
= = = Medieval history = = =
The first modern development in Arbroath was the Abbey , founded by King William the Lion in 1178 for monks of the Tironensian order from Kelso Abbey . It received consecration in 1197 with a dedication to Saint Thomas Becket . It was the King 's only personal foundation , and he was buried within its precincts in 1214 . The Abbey was not finally completed until 1233 .
Arbroath was the location of the Battle of Arbroath in 1446 . A series of disagreements between the Chief Justiciary of Arbroath , Alexander Lindsay , third Earl of Crawford , and Bishop James Kennedy of St Andrews resulted in Lindsay sacking the bishop 's lands and burning his properties . Lindsay was excommunicated for his troubles and it was felt that this was incompatible with his role as Chief Justiciary . The monks of Arbroath Abbey selected Alexander Ogilvy of Inverquharity as his replacement and the insult led to pitched battle in the town , leaving 500 dead , including Lindsay and Ogilvy . Large parts of the town were destroyed in the aftermath by the Lindsay family .
The Abbey relatively quickly fell into disuse and eventual disrepair after its dissolution at the Reformation , the lead from the roof rumoured to have been used in the 16th century civil wars and the stonework plundered for housebuilding throughout the town . The ruins were a popular site for travellers during the 17th and 18th centuries , and finally in 1815 the remains were taken into the care of the State for preservation . The remains are now administered by Historic Scotland .
On 6 April 1320 the Scottish Parliament met at Arbroath Abbey and addressed to the Pope the Declaration of Arbroath , drafted by the Abbot of the time , Bernard . This document detailed the services which their " lord and sovereign " Robert the Bruce had rendered to Scotland , and affirmed in eloquent terms the independence of the Scots .
Arbroath was created a royal burgh in 1599 by James VI .
In the 17th century , at the church of St Vigeans , near Arbroath , communion was not held for several years because the villagers believed there was a curse on the church . The curse said that if communion were held then the church would fall in to a large subterranean lake .
= = = Modern history = = =
During the Jacobite rising known as the Forty @-@ Five , Arbroath was a Jacobite town . A large portion of its able bodied men joined the Jacobite army . It was one of the principal ports where men and supplies could be landed from France . It and other Jacobite ports along the north @-@ east coast collectively formed ‘ an asset of almost incalculable value ’ to the Jacobite cause .
During the industrial revolution , Arbroath 's economy expanded and the population of the town expanded , with new housing having to be constructed to house the influx of workers . Arbroath became moderately well known for jute and sailcloth production , with 34 mills employing 1400 looms and producing over one million yards of osnaburg cloth and 450 @,@ 000 yards of sailcloth in 1875 . Arbroath is believed to be the source of the sails used on the Cutty Sark . In 1867 , the mills in Arbroath employed 4620 people . Arbroath was also prominent in the manufacture of shoes and lawnmowers ; local firm Alexander Shanks supplied mowers to the Old Course at St Andrews and the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club .
Arbroath today is mostly known for its connection with the Scottish fishing industry . After the original harbours , dating from the 14th and 18th centuries , were replaced in 1839 with a larger harbour , the local council tried to find fishermen who would be interested in migrating to Arbroath in order to take advantage of the new facilities offered . The town council contacted fishermen in nearby Auchmithie and further afield , including Shetland . The fishing industry grew and at its peak years between 1900 and 1980 , around 40 whitefish and pelagic vessels worked from Arbroath , with hundreds of men employed directly as fishermen , hundreds more employed ashore to service the fishing vessels and to process the fish . Quota cuts and decommissioning took its toll on the fishing industry throughout Scotland from the 1980s to present . Today , Arbroath remains a designated whitefish landing port , and although no fish auction takes place , the fishmarket remains open and is used for landing shellfish . There is now only one large fishing vessel operating regularly from Arbroath , and a further three Arbroath owned vessels operating from Aberdeen and ports further north . The fish processing sector remains one of the largest employers in the town however , but fish for processing now comes from Aberdeen , Peterhead and occasionally from Iceland , Norway and Ireland .
= = Governance = =
Arbroath was made a royal burgh in 1178 by King William the Lion at the same time as the Abbey was established . The burgh of regality permitted the monks to hold a weekly market , dispense basic justice and to establish a harbour . In 1559 , the town 's burgh of regality was reconfirmed in 1559 by King James VI of Scotland . A provost and a town council were appointed and it was at this point Aberbrothock became a fully fledged royal burgh .
In 1922 , Lord Inchcape became burgess of the town . To commemorate the occasion he was presented with his ticket to the office in a silver casket engraved with the burgh coat @-@ of @-@ arms and views of the locality .
Arbroath was controlled by Arbroath Town Council from the time of King James VI through to 1975 , when Arbroath ( and the county of Angus ) were amalgamated with the counties of Perthshire and Dundee City into Tayside , under the control of Tayside Regional Council . Angus , together with Dundee City and Perth & Kinross were re @-@ established following reorganisation under the Local Government etc . ( Scotland ) Act 1994 .
= = = Local government = = =
Arbroath is represented within Angus Council by two wards : Arbroath West & Letham ; and Arbroath East & Lunan . Four councillors are elected . The members elected from each ward . At the 2012 local elections , the councillors elected from Arbroath West & Letham were Alex King ( Scottish National Party ) , David Lumgair ( Scottish Conservative and Unionist ) , David Fairweather ( Independent ) and Ewan Smith ( Scottish National Party ) . Those elected from the Arbroath East & Lunan ward were Donald Morrison ( Scottish National Party ) , Bob Spink ( Independent ) , Sheena Welsh ( Scottish National Party ) and Martyn Geddes ( Scottish Conservative and Unionist ) .
= = = Parliamentary representation = = =
For elections to the House of Commons , Arbroath forms part of the Angus constituency and since 2001 has been represented by Michael Weir ( SNP ) who held the seat again , with an increased majority of 3800 votes at the 2010 General Election . Arbroath is also part of the Angus South constituency of the Scottish Parliament ( having been part of the Angus constituency until its abolition in 2011 ) , which has significantly different boundaries to the Westminster constituency . The constituency returns a Member of the Scottish Parliament ( MSP ) to Holyrood directly , and is part of the North East Scotland electoral region with regards to additional Members of the Scottish Parliament . The constituency 's MSP is currently Graeme Dey of the Scottish National Party .
= = Geography = =
At 56 ° 33 ′ 31 ″ N 02 ° 34 ′ 58 ″ W , Arbroath is located on the North Sea coast in eastern Scotland 17 miles ( 27 km ) northeast of Dundee , within the Angus region . Geologically , Arbroath sits predominantly on Old Red Sandstone . Lower @-@ lying parts of the town were below sea level during and immediately after the last ice age .
Arbroath is located 98 miles ( 158 km ) northeast of Glasgow , 50 miles ( 80 km ) southwest of Aberdeen and 77 miles ( 124 km ) from Edinburgh . The neighbouring villages of St Vigeans , Carmyllie , Friockheim , Colliston and Inverkeilor are considered part of Arbroath for the purposes of council representation , and together with Carnoustie , share the 01241 telephone area code with Arbroath .
= = Climate = =
Arbroath has a typical British marine climate , that is heavily influenced by its position by the sea . There are narrow differences in temperature between seasons . January has an average high of 6 @.@ 4 ° C ( 43 @.@ 5 ° F ) and July has 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) . The climate is somewhat dry and sunny compared to Scottish standards with 628 @.@ 6 millimetres ( 24 @.@ 75 in ) of precipitation and 1538 @.@ 4 hours of sunshine . All data is sourced from the 1981 @-@ 2010 averages from the Met Office weather station in Arbroath .
= = Demography = =
Residents of Arbroath are called Arbroathians but often refer to themselves as Red Lichties after the red lamp that shone from the harbour light and foghorn tower at the entrance to the harbour as an aid to shipping entering aforementioned harbour .
At the 2001 census , the population of Arbroath was 22 @,@ 785 . Approximately 88 @.@ 9 % were born in Scotland , while 97 @.@ 7 % were born in the United Kingdom as a whole . Most Arbroath residents are between 16 and 65 , with 19 @.@ 8 % under 16 , 59 @.@ 5 % between 16 and 65 with those over 65 making up 20 @.@ 7 % of the population . There are 47 @.@ 1 % males to 52 @.@ 9 % females .
Arbroath has a moderate rate of unemployment – around 2 @.@ 7 % of the population are claiming unemployment @-@ related social welfare benefits .
= = Economy = =
Arbroath has no sizeable employers outside of the public sector , with most workers commuting to Dundee . Arbroath itself has an economically active population of 9 @,@ 192 people , with the public sector ( 21 @.@ 8 % ) the largest employer of Arbroath residents closely followed by the manufacturing ( 16 % ) and retail sector ( 15 @.@ 4 % ) . The fishing industry accounts for 0 @.@ 4 % ( fewer than 50 people ) although the processing sector is considered separately under manufacturing and the figure of 50 people relates directly to the catching and support sectors .
= = = History = = =
Arbroath 's prospects originally revolved around the harbour . The original harbour was constructed and maintained by the abbot within the terms of an agreement between the burgesses and John Gedy , the abbot in 1394 AD . This gave way to a more commodious port in 1725 , which in turn was enlarged and improved in 1839 , when the sea wall , quay walls and breakwater were added to the old inner harbour , at a cost of £ 58 @,@ 000 . Arbroath became a major port for the coastal shipping trade and in 1846 , there were 89 Arbroath registered vessels , totalling 9100 gross tons . In the same year , 599 vessels docked at Arbroath , 56 from foreign ports ( mainly Baltic ports ) with the remaining 543 employed on the coastal trade . Bark , flax , hemp , hides , oak , and fir timber , and guano for manure , groceries from London , and numerous articles of Baltic produce were imported via Arbroath , with manufactured goods ( mainly sailcloth ) exported via Arbroath .
Driven by the needs of the fishing and commercial sailing industry , in 1795 Arbroath @-@ based sail maker Francis Webster Ltd had perfected the art of adding Linseed oil to flax sails , creating an oiled flax . This developed in the late @-@ 19th century into waxed cotton , which drove Arbroath as a manufacturing centre , until the early 1970s manufacturing began to decline . A major employer , Keith & Blackman , closed in 1985 and Giddings and Lewis @-@ Fraser wound down its operations at about the same time , with the entire plant eventually demolished to make way for a Safeway ( now Morrisons ) supermarket . Alps Electric Co. was a large employer in Arbroath from 1990 to 2001 , employing 180 staff . Following the closure of the plant , all 180 staff were made redundant
= = = Military = = =
Arbroath is home to 45 Commando of the Royal Marines , who have been based at RM Condor since 1971 . The barracks were originally built in 1940 and commissioned as RNAS Arbroath / HMS Condor , a Royal Naval Air Station ( RNAS ) until 1971 . The Royal Marines moved to Arbroath in 1971 and remain a major contributor to the local economy , in addition to the Marines stationed at Arbroath , around 600 residents are employed by the Ministry of Defence . The Royal Marines from 45 Commando were recently engaged on operations in Afghanistan and have deployed in support of operations in Iraq and the Falklands War . In 2004 , there was speculation that RM Condor would be transferred to the Army as a replacement for Fort George and that the barracks would become a permanent base for a battalion of The Royal Regiment of Scotland . These plans never went beyond the planning stage and in 2005 it was confirmed the Royal Marines would remain based at the site .
= = = Housing = = =
House prices in Arbroath are very close to the national average and in April – June 2006 were £ 99 below the national average , local prices averaging £ 113 @,@ 646 compared to the national average of £ 113 @,@ 745 . The average house price across Angus has risen by 14 @.@ 9 % in the past year ( to November 2006 ) and now stands at £ 124 @,@ 451 . Angus Council suggests the recent upgrading of the A92 between Arbroath and Dundee to dual carriageway has lured Dundonians to Arbroath and this may be driving up house prices .
= = = Tourism = = =
Tourism plays some part in the Arbroath economy , with Arbroath Abbey attracting over 14 @,@ 000 visitors each year . Attractions during the summer months include the Seafront Spectacular , which includes an airshow , and the Seafest which is themed around Arbroath 's maritime heritage . There is also a re @-@ enactment of the signing of the Declaration of Arbroath ( the declaration of Scottish independence ) and in past years there has been a mock Viking invasion culminating in the burning of a longship .
Arbroath is home to Kerr 's Miniature Railway , the oldest miniature railway in Scotland , which has been operating since 1935 and which at its height , in 1955 , saw 60 @,@ 000 visitors . Today , the railway is operated as a hobby by a group of volunteers and remains popular with locals , tourists and railway enthusiasts .
The town also features a multimillion @-@ pound Harbour Visitor Centre , located close to the Town Quay . The centre features a multimedia experience for its visitors , and is maintained by the Scottish tourist company VisitScotland and explains the town 's fishing history , as well as hosting a restaurant and gift shop .
= = Transport = =
The A92 road connects Arbroath to Dundee and Fife to the south west , and Stonehaven in the north east . The A92 joins the A90 north of Stonehaven and leads to Aberdeen further north . The A92 is dual carriageway from the southern outskirts of Arbroath to the northern outskirts of Dundee , the A92 proceeds through Dundee before crossing the Tay estuary into Fife via the Tay Road Bridge . The A90 can also be reached at Dundee heading both north ( to Aberdeen ) and south ( to Perth and Edinburgh ) .
Arbroath has a modest public bus transport system , with the Arbroath Bus Station serving as the town 's main terminus . Stagecoach Strathtay and Travel Wishart ( part of National Express ) operate most of the local services , with most rural services operated by Stagecoach Strathtay . Arbroath has one railway station , a short walk from the bus station , with regional train services to the east coast of Scotland , Edinburgh , Perth and Glasgow whilst intercity services operate to destinations in England such as Newcastle , Birmingham , York and London . Passenger services at Arbroath are provided by Abellio ScotRail , CrossCountry Trains , Caledonian Sleeper and Virgin Trains East Coast . Dundee has a regional airport which offers commercial flights to London City Airport five times a week . The airport has a 1 @,@ 400 @-@ metre runway capable of serving small aircraft and is located 3 kilometres west of the city centre , adjacent to the Tay river . The nearest major international airports are in Edinburgh and Aberdeen . Arbroath has a sizeable airfield at the Royal Marines military base on the western outskirts of the town , but this remains a dedicated military airfield .
= = Education = =
Arbroath has one further education college , Angus College which is based in the former Arbroath High School buildings . There are two secondary schools and 11 primary schools . One primary school is Roman Catholic , the remaining schools are non @-@ denominational . There are 2260 pupils in primary school education in Arbroath with a further 1 @,@ 720 pupils in secondary education .
= = = Secondary schools = = =
Arbroath has two secondary schools , Arbroath High School and Arbroath Academy . The High School ( the older of the two ) , was originally a grammar school and the Academy a comprehensive . The Academy is located near the Mayfield area and the High School near Keptie Pond . Both schools are well regarded with exam results along reading and writing performance indicators above the national average . Arbroath High is the larger of the two with around 1 @,@ 200 pupils , and the Academy being smaller with around 600 pupils .
Noted former pupils of Arbroath High School include Michael Forsyth , former Scottish Secretary and Andrew Webster , a professional footballer who plays for St. Mirren
= = = Further education = = =
Angus College , a further education college , has around 8 @,@ 500 students , with 80 % passing the course for which they enrol . There are around 1 @,@ 700 full @-@ time students with part @-@ time students making up the majority of the student population . Arbroath is not a student town and there are no student residences in the town . The student population is made up solely of local students living within commuting distance of the college . Angus College offers courses up to Higher National Diploma ( HND ) level in a variety of trade related and academic disciplines from construction to Social Sciences , as well as a sizeable number of programs relating to computing , information technology and office administration . A large number of the student body are mature students taking evening classes related to computing , digital photography and various software packages .
School leavers going on to study at university have the choice of several local institutions – the University of Dundee , the University of Abertay Dundee , the University of St Andrews and the University of Aberdeen all within around one hour 's travel from Arbroath .
= = Places of worship = =
The neighbouring villages of St Vigeans , Carmyllie , Friockheim , Colliston and Inverkeilor are considered part of Arbroath for the purposes of council representation
The Church of Scotland has a number of congregations that meet in Arbroath . The Old and Abbey Church is located in the centre of town at West Abbey Street , and will shortly welcome Rev. Dolly Purnell as its minister . St Andrews Church , Arbroath is located in Hamilton Green , and the minister is Rev. Dr. Martin Fair with associate minister Rev. Stuart Irvin . Knox 's Church is located in Howard Street and the minister is Rev Dr Nelu Balaj . The West Kirk is located in Keptie Street and the minister is Rev. Alasdair Graham .
There are also a number of Church of Scotland kirks in the surrounding villages . St Vigeans Church , St Vigeans is linked with Knox 's Church in Arbroath and services are led by Rev Dr Nelu Balaj . Arbirlot Church is linked with Carmyllie Church . Colliston Church is linked with Friockheim and Kinnell Church and Inverkeilor and Lunan Church . The minister of these three churches is Rev. Peter Phillips .
There is an Episcopalian congregation based at St Mary the Virgin Church in Springfield Terrace . The Minister is Rev. Dr. John Cuthbert . St Mary 's Church evolved from a meeting house set up in 1694 by Episcopalians forced out of Arbroath Parish Church . The present church building dates from 1854 . The Scottish Episcopal Church in Arbroath is part of the Diocese of Brechin . There is also a Scottish Episcopal Church in Auchmithie ; King David of Scotland Church .
The Roman Catholic Church meets at St Thomas of Canterbury Church in Dishlandtown Street . The priest is Rev Kevin J Golden . The church is part of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Dunkeld . The parish includes a primary school and celebrated its 150th anniversary in 1998 .
The Methodist Church have one of their earliest established churches in Arbroath , St John 's in Ponderlaw , which was opened in 1772 . Services are led by David Nicoll .
Other groups that worship in Arbroath include : The Arbroath Corps of the Salvation Army , who meet in Marketgate ; The Elim Pentecostal Church , led by Alan Herd , who meet in Ogilvy Place ; The Baptists who meet at the New Life Church in James Street ; The Jehovah 's Witnesses , who meet at the Kingdom Hall in Lindsay Street ; The Springfield Christian Assembly , who meet in the Gospel Hall in Ponderlaw Lane ; and the Arbroath Town Mission , an interdenominational group led by Dr Robert Clapham , who meet in Grant Road .
Followers of other faiths and denominations travel further afield to worship .
= = Culture = =
Arbroath 's Webster Theatre has featured among others Harry Lauder , Jimmy Tarbuck , Charlie Landsborough , The Illegal Eagles , and the Drifters , The Chuckle Brothers and was the first venue the Alexander Brothers , a Scottish easy listening act , performed in as a professional duo . The Webster Theatre recently went through a multi @-@ million pounds refurbishment and opened in February 2008 .
There are several amateur theatre and musical companies based in and around Arbroath , the best known being the Angus Minstrels group , the last group in Britain to regularly perform blackface . In 2005 , following pressure from Angus Council , who feared legal action , the show began performing with normal stage makeup , and the group changed its name from ' The Angus Black and White Minstrels ' to simply ' The Angus Minstrels ' . The decision to stop performing the show in blackface received widespread press coverage in the UK .
Beginning in 1947 , a pageant commemorating the signing of the Declaration has been held within the roofless remains of the abbey ( last full @-@ scale event 2005 ) . This was run by the local Arbroath Abbey Pageant Society , now Arbroath Abbey Timethemes , a registered charity , and re @-@ enacts the story and history of the signing . The group also spearhead Scotland 's Tartan Day celebrations on 6 April in association with Angus Council as well as educational visits to local schools .
The Arbroath Male Voice Choir was established in 1934 and is now one of only a few male voice choirs left in Scotland . At 2012 the Choir has over 45 members drawn not just from Arbroath but also Angus and Dundee . The Choir 's Musical Director is Sheena Guthrie . They sing a mix of songs from classical , through Scottish , showtunes to pop . The ensemble perform two main concerts each year ( one at Christmas and another in Spring ) and several smaller events for good causes . The Choir are notable for attracting well known , often international singers to their annual Spring concert as guests . In recent years these have included , Jamie McDougall , Karen Cargill , Gordon Cree , Cheryl Forbes and Colette Ruddy . March 2012 saw international diva Lesley Garrett as the Choir 's special guest .
The author Sir Walter Scott is famous for the Waverley series of novels , including Rob Roy and Ivanhoe . Scott is known to have visited Arbroath three times , and his personal favourite in the series , The Antiquary ( 1816 ) features affectionately fictionalised versions of both Arbroath ( " Fairport " ) and Auchmithie ( " Musselcrag " ) .
Arbroath has one museum , the former Bell Rock Lighthouse Signal Tower . In 1807 Arbroath became the base of operations for the building of the Bell Rock Lighthouse . The shore station for the lighthouse – the Bell Rock Signal Tower – was completed in 1813 and acted as a lifeline for the keepers offshore . The Signal Tower Museum was opened in 1974 as a visitor centre detailing the history of the lighthouse and the town of Arbroath .
= = = Arbroath smokies = = =
Arbroath smokies , for which Arbroath is well @-@ known nationally and internationally , are made solely in Arbroath following the award of Protected Geographical Indication in 2004 , which limits Arbroath smokie production to within 4 km of Arbroath . Smokies are made from haddock using traditional methods dating back to the late 19th century where the fish are first salted overnight to preserve them , before being left tied in pairs to dry . Next , the dried fish are hung in a special barrel containing a hardwood fire and covered with a lid . After around an hour of smoking , the fish are golden brown and ready to eat . The preparation of smokies remains a cottage industry in Arbroath , centred almost exclusively at the harbour area . However , one larger processor , RR Spink , supplied Arbroath smokies to several UK supermarket chains . It appears that , nowadays , the firm concentrates on smoking other fish such as salmon or trout and no longer supplies the Arbroath Smokie .. They have a royal warrant as a fishmonger to HM Queen Elizabeth II for which the company holds the Royal Warrant .
= = Sport = =
Arbroath has one professional football team , Arbroath , who play in the Second Division of the Scottish Football League after promotion from the Third Division in the 2010 / 11 season . Arbroath play their home matches at Gayfield Park , which holds the record for being the closest stadium to the sea in European football ( around five metres from the high tide line ) . Arbroath F.C. holds the world record for the largest winning margin in a senior football match , 36 @-@ 0 , in their Scottish Cup match against Bon Accord ( a scratch team from Aberdeen ) on 12 September 1885 . Further goals were disallowed either for offside , or because it was not clear whether the ball had gone into the goal . For this reason the AFC supporters ' club is called the 36 @-@ 0 club in memory of this event . Arbroath F.C. are nicknamed The Red Lichties , owing to the red light that used to guide fishing boats back from the North Sea to the harbour ( Lichtie being a Scots word for light ) . Arbroath and the surrounding areas are home to several amateur senior and junior teams competing in the various amateur leagues , such as Arbroath Victoria F.C. and Arbroath SC .
Arbroath has a rugby union club and several bowls clubs , with former World and British singles champion Darren Burnett a native of Arbroath .
Arbroath also has a successful cricket club , having won the CSL Eastern Premiership in 2013 and The Scottish Cup in 2015 .
Arbroath is also a popular location for Angling .
= = Public services = =
Arbroath and the surrounding area is supplied with water by Scottish Water . Along with Dundee and parts of Perthshire , Angus is supplied from Lintrathen and Backwater reservoirs in Glen Isla . Electricity distribution is by Scottish Hydro Electric plc , part of the Scottish and Southern Energy group .
Waste management is handled by Angus Council . There is a kerbside recycling scheme that has been in operation since May 2004 . Cans , glass , paper and plastic bottles are collected on a weekly basis . Compostable material and non @-@ recyclable material are collected on alternate weeks . Roughly two thirds of non @-@ recyclable material is sent to landfill at Angus Council 's site at Lochhead , Forfar and the remainder sent for incineration ( with energy recovery ) outside the council area .
A recycling centre is located at Cairnie Loan . Items accepted include , steel and aluminium cans , cardboard , paper , electrical equipment , engine oil , fridges and freezers , garden waste , gas bottles , glass , liquid food and drinks cartons , plastic bottles , plastic carrier bags , rubble , scrap metal , shoes and handbags , spectacles , textiles , tin foil , wood and yellow pages . Angus council publishes details of where and how each product is processed . There are also glass banks at Timmergreens Shopping Centre , the Abbeygate Car Park , Morrisons Car Park and East Muirlands Road . The Angus Council area had a recycling rate of 34 @.@ 7 % in 2007 / 08 .
Healthcare is supplied in the area by NHS Tayside . Arbroath Infirmary can be found at Rosemount Road , at the top of the hill and Ninewells Hospital , Dundee . Primary Health Care in Arbroath is supplied by Abbey Health Centre in East Abbey Street and Springfield Medical Centre in Ponderlaw Street . Arbroath , along with the rest of Scotland is served by the Scottish Ambulance Service .
Law enforcement is provided by Police Scotland , with the police station located in Gravesend , and Arbroath is served by Scottish Fire and Rescue Service .
Arbroath has had its own Lifeboat since 1803 and is currently the last remaining slipway launched Lifeboat in Scotland .
Located at the harbour the lifeboat station houses two RNLI Lifeboats , an inshore D @-@ Class IB1 lifeboat the " Duncan Ferguson " and an All Weather Mersey Class Lifeboat the " Inchcape " named after the infamous rock that the Bell Rock lighthouse sits on . Photos and information on the Arbroath Lifeboats along with their history and callout statistics can be found at the stations website. www.arbroath @-@ lifeboat.org.uk
= = Notable people = =
Gus Alexander ( 1934 – 2010 ) , footballer
Marion Angus ( 1865 – 1946 ) , poet
Dr Neil Arnott , inventor of the Waterbed and hot air stove and a Fellow of the Royal Society .
David Dunbar Buick , founder of the Buick Motor Company , and inventor of the enamelled bathtub and the overhead valve engine
James Chalmers , inventor of the adhesive postage stamp and promoter of the uniform postal rate
Bernard de Linton ( died c.1331 ) , Abbot of Arbroath , Chancellor of Scotland and Bishop of the Isles ( also known as Bernard of Kilwinning ) widely credited , since the 18th @-@ century , as the author of the Declaration of Arbroath . Abbot at Arbroath Abbey from 1309 and immortalised in the town in a statue with Robert the Bruce holding aloft the Declaration sited at the West ( or Cricket ) Common .
Dominik Diamond , TV presenter
Ned Doig ( 1866 – 1919 ) , Scottish footballer
John Ritchie Findlay , ( 1824 – 1898 ) proprietor of The Scotsman newspaper and philanthropist , born in Arbroath
James Glen Sivewright Gibson , architect
George Gordon ( engineer ) civil engineer working in the Netherlands , India and Australia
Sir Harry Lauder , lived in Arbroath until the age of 14
Durward Lely , opera singer , especially Gilbert and Sullivan
James Lyle Mackay , later first Earl of Inchcape , ( 1852 – 1932 ) , Chairman of the P & O Line and the British India Company , born and educated in Arbroath
Morris Pert , percussionist who has recorded with many major musical artists , including Phil Collins .
Andy Stewart , ( 1933 – 1993 ) , musician and entertainer , lived in Arbroath as a boy , and retired to Arbroath
George Scott Railton , ( 1849 @-@ 1913 ) first commissioner of The Salvation Army and 2nd in Command to William Booth
Gavin Swankie ( b . 1983 ) , footballer
Paul Tosh ( b . 1973 ) , footballer
Andy Webster ( b . 1982 ) , footballer & Scotland international ( 22 caps to date ) – grew up and was educated in Arbroath , prior to his departing for clubs further afield , and his parents still reside in the town . He captained Dundee United to Scottish Cup victory in May 2010 .
Graham Gano ( b . 1987 ) is an American football placekicker for the Carolina Panthers of the NFL
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= SMS Schlesien =
SMS Schlesien was one of the five Deutschland @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Kaiserliche Marine between 1904 and 1906 . Named after the German province of Schlesien , she was built at the Schichau @-@ Werke shipyard in Danzig , where she was launched on 28 May 1906 . She was commissioned into the navy on 5 May 1908 . The ships of her class were already outdated by the time they entered service , being inferior in size , armor , firepower and speed to the revolutionary new battleship HMS Dreadnought .
After commissioning , Schlesien was assigned to the I Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet . She served with the fleet throughout the first two years of World War I ; by this time she had been transferred to the II Battle Squadron alongside her four sister ships . Schlesien was present at the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 , where she was actively engaged only briefly . After Jutland , she was relegated to guard duties before being withdrawn altogether in 1917 , when she became a training ship . The Treaty of Versailles permitted the German navy to retain eight obsolete battleships , which included Schlesien , to defend the German coast . She saw extensive service with the reorganized Reichsmarine ; in the 1920s and 1930s the ship was rebuilt and eventually converted back into a training ship .
Schlesien saw limited combat during World War II , including the invasion of Norway in 1940 . After the conclusion of the operation , the ship was again given secondary duties . She ended her career as an anti @-@ aircraft ship in the Baltic ; in April 1945 Schlesien steamed to Swinemünde to restock her ammunition and evacuate wounded soldiers when she struck a mine on 3 May . She sank in shallow water , though much of her superstructure , including her main battery , remained above water . In the remaining days of the war , Schlesien used her heavy artillery to provide support for retreating German ground troops . After the end of the war , she was broken up , though some parts of the ship remained until the 1970s .
= = Construction = =
Schlesien was intended to fight in the line of battle with the other battleships of the High Seas Fleet . She was laid down on 19 November 1904 at the Schichau dockyard in Danzig . She was launched on 28 May 1906 , and in March 1908 was sent to Kiel , where her fitting out work was completed . She was commissioned for trials on 5 May , though these were interrupted from 6 July to 5 September when the ship was temporarily used as a torpedo trials vessel . Schlesien joined the fleet after the torpedo trials were completed in September . The British battleship HMS Dreadnought — armed with ten 12 inch ( 30 @.@ 5 cm ) guns — had already been commissioned nearly two years prior , in December 1906 . Dreadnought 's revolutionary design rendered obsolete every ship of the German navy , including the newer Schlesien .
Schlesien was 127 @.@ 60 m ( 418 @.@ 6 ft ) long , had a beam of 22 @.@ 20 m ( 72 @.@ 8 ft ) , and a draft of 8 @.@ 21 m ( 26 @.@ 9 ft ) . She had a full @-@ load displacement of 14 @,@ 218 metric tons ( 13 @,@ 993 long tons ; 15 @,@ 673 short tons ) . She was equipped with three @-@ shaft triple expansion engines and twelve coal @-@ fired water @-@ tube boilers that produced a rated 18 @,@ 664 indicated horsepower ( 13 @,@ 918 kW ) and a top speed of 18 @.@ 5 knots ( 34 @.@ 3 km / h ; 21 @.@ 3 mph ) . In addition to being the fastest ship of her class , Schlesien was the most fuel efficient . At a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) , she could steam for 4 @,@ 770 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 830 km ; 5 @,@ 490 mi ) . She had a standard crew of 35 officers and 708 enlisted men .
The ship 's primary armament consisted of four 28 cm SK L / 40 guns in two twin turrets ; one turret was placed forward and the other aft . She was also equipped with fourteen 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) guns mounted in casemates and twenty 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) guns in pivot mounts . The ship was fitted with six 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , all submerged in the hull . One was in the bow , one in the stern , and four on the broadside . Her armored belt was 240 mm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships and she had a 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick armored deck . The main battery turrets had 280 mm ( 11 in ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
After commissioning , Schlesien was assigned to the I Battle Squadron . Her first year of service , 1909 , saw a pattern of fleet maneuvers in the North and Baltic Seas as well as the Atlantic Ocean . Her first cruise into the Atlantic was conducted from 7 July to 1 August . Another round of exercises followed in the autumn . The I Battle Squadron was transferred from Kiel to Wilhelmshaven in April 1910 . The following month , in May 1910 , the fleet conducted training maneuvers in the Kattegat , between Norway and Denmark . For the first time , the annual summer cruise went to Norway . Fleet training followed , and a training cruise into the Baltic took place at the end of the year .
On 3 November 1911 , Schlesien was transferred to the II Battle Squadron with the rest of her sister ships . Training maneuvers in 1911 and 1912 followed the same pattern as in 1910 , with the exception of the summer cruise in 1912 ; owing to the Agadir Crisis that year , the cruise only went into the Baltic , rather than to Norway .
= = = World War I = = =
Schlesien remained with the High Seas Fleet throughout the first two years of the war . At the outbreak of war , the ship was deployed to guard the German Bight . She then rejoined the High Seas Fleet as part of the battleship support for the battlecruisers that bombarded Scarborough , Hartlepool , and Whitby on 15 – 16 December 1914 . During the operation , the German battle fleet of some 12 dreadnoughts and 8 pre @-@ dreadnoughts came to within 10 nmi ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) of an isolated squadron of six British battleships . However , skirmishes between the rival destroyer screens convinced Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl that he was confronted with the entire Grand Fleet , and so he broke off the engagement and turned for home . Two resultless fleet advances followed on 17 – 18 and 21 – 23 April 1915 . Another followed on 17 – 18 May , and another on 23 – 24 October .
On 24 – 25 April 1916 , Schlesien and her sisters joined the dreadnoughts of the High Seas Fleet to support the battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group on a raid of the English coast . While en route to the target , the battlecruiser Seydlitz was damaged by a mine . The battlecruisers conducted a short bombardment of the ports of Yarmouth and Lowestoft . Visibility was poor , so the operation was soon called off before the British fleet could intervene .
= = = = Battle of Jutland = = = =
Admiral Scheer immediately planned another foray into the North Sea , but the damage to Seydlitz delayed the operation until the end of May . Schlesien was the second ship in the IV Division of the II Battle Squadron under the command of Rear Admiral Franz Mauve , positioned at the rear of the German line . Schlesien was the second to last ship in the German line , followed only by Schleswig @-@ Holstein . During the " Run to the North , " Admiral Reinhard Scheer , the commander of the fleet , ordered the fleet to pursue the British V Battle Squadron at top speed . The slower Deutschland @-@ class ships could not keep up with the faster dreadnoughts and quickly fell behind .
Later on the first day of the battle , the hard @-@ pressed battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group were being pursued by their British opponents . Schlesien and the other so @-@ called " five @-@ minute ships " came to their aid by steaming in between the opposing battlecruiser squadrons . Schlesien and her sisters could barely make out a target in the darkness . Due to the poor visibility their shooting was ineffective . The British battlecruisers scored several hits on the German ships ; in the brief melee a near miss from a large @-@ caliber gun sprayed shell splinters onto Schlesien 's decks , killing one man and wounding another . Admiral Mauve ordered an 8 @-@ point turn to the south , and the British did not follow .
Late on the 31st , the fleet organized for the night march back to Germany ; Schlesien and Schleswig @-@ Holstein fell in behind the mauled battlecruisers Von der Tann and Derfflinger at the rear of the line . British destroyers conducted a series of attacks against the fleet , some of which targeted Schlesien . Regardless , the High Seas Fleet punched through the British destroyer forces and reached Horns Reef by 4 : 00 on 1 June . The German fleet reached Wilhelmshaven a few hours later , where the undamaged dreadnoughts of the Nassau and Helgoland classes took up defensive positions .
= = = Inter @-@ war years = = =
Following the German defeat in World War I , the German navy , reorganized as the Reichsmarine , was permitted to retain three of the Deutschland @-@ class battleships : Hannover , Schleswig @-@ Holstein and Schlesien , along with several of the Braunschweig @-@ class battleships . Deutschland , the oldest and least advanced ship of the class , was instead scrapped in 1922 . Schlesien and Schleswig @-@ Holstein were modernized in the 1920s , a process that included replacement of the ships ' 17 cm guns with 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) pieces . Schlesien and Schleswig @-@ Holstein continued in their battleship configuration with the active fleet , while Hannover was intended to be rebuilt as a target ship , although this never occurred .
Schleswig @-@ Holstein was the flagship of the fleet until 1932 when she was taken in for another reconstruction that converted her into a training vessel . As a result , Schlesien held the position of fleet flagship afterward . In 1932 , Wilhelm Canaris took command of the ship , a post he held for two years . In May 1935 , the Reichsmarine was again reorganized as the Kriegsmarine . Shortly after , Schlesien took part in extensive fleet maneuvers with the new heavy cruiser Deutschland . Later that year , Schlesien was converted into a training ship . Among the modifications were the installation of additional anti @-@ aircraft guns and replacement of the ship 's boilers . The newer boilers were more efficient , which allowed fewer of them to be used ; the additional space this created was used as crew compartments for the cadets and an instruction room . The crew was also altered ; the standard crew had been 35 officers and 708 enlisted men ; after the conversion , this was reduced to 29 officers and 559 sailors , supplemented by 214 cadets . The following year , Schlesien toured the Americas ; in March 1937 the ship stopped in Halifax , Nova Scotia . Later that year in December , she stopped in Mar del Plata , Argentina . In 1938 , the ship visited Samaná Bay in the Dominican Republic .
= = = World War II = = =
During the invasion of Poland in September 1939 , Schlesien initially remained in her training ship role , though she briefly acted as an icebreaker for U @-@ boats . Later in the month , Schlesien joined her sister Schleswig @-@ Holstein to bombard Polish positions along the Baltic coast ; the bombardments lasted from 25 – 27 September . After the operation , Schlesien had six of her 15 cm guns removed to arm the new surface raider Pinguin . In 1940 , Schlesien took part in Operation Weserübung , the German invasion of Denmark and Norway . Schlesien operated in Danish waters throughout the operation . After the occupations were complete , Schlesien resumed her ice @-@ breaking duties . In March 1941 , Schlesien escorted mine @-@ layers in the Baltic . After returning from this operation , she was to be converted into a barracks ship in Gotenhafen . On 4 April 1942 , Schlesien departed for Gotenhafen in company with the battleship Gneisenau and the icebreaker Castor .
In mid 1944 , Schlesien 's and Schleswig @-@ Holstein 's anti @-@ aircraft armaments were considerably strengthened so they could used as air defense ships in the port of Gotenhafen . In April 1945 , Schlesien was moved to Swinemünde to restock her ammunition supply as well as evacuate 1 @,@ 000 wounded soldiers from the front . On 3 May she struck a mine at Zinnowitz outside Swinemünde and beached in shallow water . Much of the ship remained above water , including her main armament ; she was able to provide artillery support for retreating German units . Between 1949 and 1956 , the wreck was demolished and then scrapped in situ by an East German company . However , some remains from the ship were still visible in 1970 .
= = Online links = =
SMS Schlesien in MaritimeQuest – Schlesien 's gallery , including a photograph in the role of icebreaker
Schlesien visit to Argentina – Schlesien 's commander pays respect to Mar del Plata 's mayor , December 1937
Schlesien visit to Argentina – A Mar del Plata 's girl makes the military salute with the German naval ensign in the background
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= 16th Sustainment Brigade =
The 16th Sustainment Brigade is a sustainment brigade of the United States Army based at Smith Barracks in Baumholder , Germany . It is a subordinate unit of the 21st Theater Sustainment Command of the Seventh Army .
Activated in the summer of 2007 , the brigade traces its lineage to the 7th and 16th Corps Support Groups which combined to form it . As the only sustainment brigade active in US Army Europe , the brigade provides sustainment for all of the forces of US Army 's commands for Europe and Africa . It saw two deployments to Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom as the 16th Corps Support Group . It deployed to Iraq for its first tour as a Sustainment brigade from July 2008 to October 2009 .
= = Organization = =
The 16th Sustainment Brigade is directly subordinate to the 21st Theater Sustainment Command , which in turn is subordinate to the Seventh Army , United States Army Europe .
The Brigade Headquarters is located at US Army Garrison , Baumholder and has three subordinate battalions currently supporting sustainment operations also located at Baumholder , is the 16th Special Troops Battalion . The 18th Combat Sustainment Support Battalion is located at Grafenwöhr , Germany , and the 39th Transportation Battalion is in Kaiserlautern , Germany .
= = History = =
= = = Origin = = =
The unit was first constituted on 29 October 1965 in the Regular Army as the 16th General Support Group . It was then activated on 10 December 1965 in the Dominican Republic . The group returned to the continental United States and was subsequently inactivated on 19 September 1968 at Fort Benning , Georgia .
The group was redesignated on 16 September 1987 as the 16th Support Group and activated in Germany . Through the 1990s , the 16th CSG also participated in operations in Kuwait , Saudi Arabia and Kosovo . It received its distinctive unit insignia on 14 April 1988 .
On 1 May 2002 , the group was re @-@ aligned to include the 181st Transportation Battalion located at Turley Barracks in Manheim , Germany , and the 485th Corps Support Battalion , located on Hutier Kaserne , to increase their combat service support capabilities . In March 2003 , the 16th Corps Support Group and its battalions deployed to Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom . The group provided logistical support to include direct support maintenance , transportation and supply support to all units in the operation .
The group saw a second deployment to Iraq in October 2005 . During this deployment , soldiers of the group executed over 1 @,@ 500 sustainment convoys which provided over 250 million US gallons ( 950 @,@ 000 m3 ) of fuel , 1 million cases of bottled water and 60 million US gallons ( 230 @,@ 000 m3 ) of purified water to allied forces . On 19 September 2006 , the group rotated out of Iraq and back to Germany , replaced by the 82nd Sustainment Brigade .
= = = Activation = = =
In January 2007 , the lineage and honors were designated to be transferred to the 16th Sustainment Brigade . On 16 July 2007 the group was reorganized as part of an effort to reform support groups into larger , more versatile sustainment brigades . It became the 16th Sustainment Brigade and was subsequently activated at Warner Barracks in Bamberg , Germany . The 16th Corps Support Group and the 7th Corps Support Group had been deactivated and combined to form the new formation . Their subordinate units had been moved and redesignated as well . This move made the 16th Sustainment Brigade the only brigade @-@ sized logistics unit supporting United States Army Europe . It was put under the command of the 21st Theater Sustainment Command . The move was part of an overall streamlining of the Command 's logistics element , as all major logistics formations were redesigned to be modular and more efficient . The sustainment brigade not only retained all previous logistics functions and responsibilities , but also assumed additional services , like finance , medical and signal capabilities . The brigade was composed of the 16th Special Troops Battalion headquartered at Bamberg , the 391st Combat Sustainment Support Battalion at Bamberg , and the 18th Combat Sustainment Support Battalion in Grafenwoehr . It also received its shoulder sleeve insignia .
On 29 November 2007 , it was announced that the 16th Sustainment Brigade would be deployed to Iraq in summer of 2008 . It would be part of a force of 8 @,@ 000 soldiers from US Army Europe to deploy . The brigade was just one of over 20 major units from Europe to deploy to the Middle East in 2008 ; most of these units came from the 21st Theater Sustainment Command and V Corps . Throughout the Spring of 2008 , the unit prepared for the deployment by conducting training exercises in Germany .
In July 2008 , the brigade deployed to Iraq for its first tour in Operation Iraqi Freedom as a sustainment brigade . Its mission in the country was to provide sustainment and force protection operations in support of Multi @-@ National Division North with life support and logistical operations . On 22 July 2008 , the brigade 's soldiers underwent final preparations before departing Rammstein Air Base for northern Iraq . The brigade operated out of Contingency Operating Base Q @-@ West , which was supported by a dozen Iraqi small businesses .
In October 2008 , the brigade 's leaders attended a conference at Joint Base Balad . Hosted by the 3rd Sustainment Command ( Expeditionary ) , the conference was attended by the 1st , 7th , 16th , 55th , and 371st Sustainment Brigades , as well as the 76th Infantry Brigade Combat Team . They discussed streamlining and coordinating sustainment throughout the region . Among the brigade 's operations was a water project in the Ninewa province . The brigade operated with US Air Force and Iraqi Army engineers to repair infrastructure that brought water from the Tigris River to the entire province , including the base . The brigade has also undertaken several other support duties for units operating throughout northern Iraq .
The brigade participated in joint exercises with the 18th Military Police Brigade and other elements of the 21st Theater Support Command in Spring of 2009 . The exercises involved extensive battle simulations and role play missions to test the overall effectiveness of the units .
In October 2010 , the brigade served as the command and control element for Saber Strike 11 , a cooperative training effort aimed at improving interoperability and preparing Latvian , Estonian , Lithuanian and U.S. troops for upcoming deployments in support of the International Security Assistance Forces in Afghanistan .
= = Honors = =
= = = Unit Decorations = = =
= = = Campaign Streamers = = =
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= 2010 Irwin Tools Night Race =
The 2010 Irwin Tools Night Race was a NASCAR Sprint Cup Series stock car race that was held on August 21 , 2010 at Bristol Motor Speedway in Bristol , Tennessee . Contested over 500 laps , it was the twenty @-@ fourth race of the 2010 Sprint Cup Series season . Kyle Busch of Joe Gibbs Racing won the race , while David Reutimann finished second , and Jamie McMurray clinched third .
Pole position driver Jimmie Johnson maintained his lead on the first lap to begin the race , as Carl Edwards , who started in the second position on the grid , remained behind him . Afterward , Kyle Busch became the leader , and would eventually lead to the race high of 282 laps . On lap 163 , early race leader , Johnson had collided with Juan Pablo Montoya ; when he returned to the track he was seventy @-@ seven laps behind the leader . David Reutimann led after the final pit stops , ahead of Kyle Busch and Jamie McMurray . With seventy @-@ one laps remaining , Kyle Busch passed Reutimann . He remained the leader to make history , by winning in all three divisions at a single track .
There were seven cautions and seventeen lead changes among nine different drivers throughout the course of the race . It was Kyle Busch 's third win of the season and the nineteenth of his career . The result moved him up five spots to third in the Drivers ' Championship , 351 points behind of leader Kevin Harvick and fifty @-@ seven ahead of Carl Edwards . Chevrolet maintained its lead in the Manufacturers ' Championship , twenty @-@ seven ahead of Toyota , sixty @-@ three ahead of Ford and seventy @-@ four ahead of Dodge with twelve races remaining in the season . A total of 155 @,@ 000 people attended the race , while 5 @.@ 842 million watched it on television .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Bristol Motor Speedway is one of five short tracks to hold NASCAR races ; the others are Dover International Speedway , Phoenix International Raceway , Richmond International Raceway , and Martinsville Speedway . The standard track at Bristol Motor Speedway is a four @-@ turn short track oval that is 0 @.@ 533 miles ( 0 @.@ 858 km ) long . The track 's turns are banked from twenty @-@ four to thirty degrees , while the front stretch , the location of the finish line , is banked from six to ten degrees . The back stretch also has banking from six to ten degrees .
Before the race , Kevin Harvick led the Drivers ' Championship with 3 @,@ 400 points , and Jeff Gordon stood in second with 3 @,@ 107 points . Denny Hamlin was third in the Drivers ' Championship with 3 @,@ 047 points ; Tony Stewart was fourth with 3 @,@ 020 while Jimmie Johnson was in fifth with 3 @,@ 014 . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet was leading with 167 points , thirty points ahead of their rival Toyota . Ford , with 106 points , was ten points ahead of Dodge in the battle for third .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Two practice sessions was held before the Saturday race — both on Friday . The first session lasted 120 minutes , while the second session lasted 45 minutes . During the first practice session , David Gilliland was fastest , ahead of Robby Gordon and Dale Earnhardt , Jr. in second and third respectively . Jeff Gordon was scored fourth , while A. J. Allmendinger was placed fifth , even though the latter had spun sideways twice in the session . In the second and final practice session , Ryan Newman was scored quickest , as Carl Edwards and Gilliland followed in the second and third positions . Jimmie Johnson was scored in the fourth position , while his teammate Jeff Gordon followed in fifth .
50 cars were entered for qualifying , due NASCAR 's qualifying procedure , only 43 could race . Johnson clinched his twenty @-@ fourth career pole position , with a time of 15 @.@ 540 seconds . He was joined on the front row of the grid by Edwards . Joey Logano qualified third , Tony Stewart took fourth , and David Reutimann started fifth . Six drivers did not qualify because one team , the second car for Tommy Baldwin Racing , withdrew from qualifying . They were Dave Blaney , Joe Nemechek , Kevin Lepage , J. J. Yeley , Brian Keselowski , and Mike Bliss . Also during qualifying , Jeff Gordon spun sideways and flattened his tires , but after changing tires , he qualified twenty @-@ sixth .
= = = Race summary = = =
The race , the twenty @-@ fourth out of a total of thirty @-@ six in the season , began at 7 : 30 p.m. EDT and was televised live in the United States on ABC . The race was preempted in Southeast Michigan due to that year 's Woodward Dream Cruise , broadcast on Scripps @-@ owned WXYZ @-@ TV in Southfield , Michigan . Before the race. conditions were with light rain showers and temperature of 75 ° F ( 24 ° C ) . Ruth Graham daughter of evangelist Billy Graham , began pre @-@ race ceremonies by giving the invocation . Next , children of the drivers and pit crews from Motor Racing Outreach performed the national anthem , and Irwin Tools Ultimate Tradesman Challenge winner Delwyn Thorton gave the command for drivers to start their engines .
Jimmie Johnson held the lead going through the first corner with Carl Edwards behind him . After starting fourth , Tony Stewart passed Edwards for the second position . David Reutimann 's fourth position was filled by Ryan Newman on lap 4 . By lap seventeen , Johnson and Stewart were ahead of Edwards by 1 @.@ 8 seconds . On lap 22 , Paul Menard moved into the tenth position , after passing Matt Kenseth . Juan Pablo Montoya moved into the sixth position by lap 27 . After twenty @-@ nine laps , Robby Gordon and Michael McDowell had driven to the garage as start @-@ and @-@ parks . Two laps later , Menard had moved into the ninth position . On lap 38 , Montoya moved into the fifth position , after passing Reutimann .
After starting twentieth , Kurt Busch had moved up to the twelfth position by lap 51 . Seven laps later , the first caution came out because David Gilliland collided with the wall . After the drivers had finished their pit stops , Johnson led to the green flag . Stewart moved into the first position one lap later , but he couldn 't maintain it for the second consecutive lap . On lap 65 , Kasey Kahne received a drive @-@ through penalty after driving too fast on pit lane . Nine laps later , Kyle Busch moved into the eighth position , as his brother Kurt followed . Afterward , Montoya moved into the sixth position . By lap 81 , Johnson had a 0 @.@ 60 second lead over Stewart . Two laps later , Jamie McMurray passed Kenseth for the tenth position .
On lap 96 , Kyle Busch passed Montoya for sixth , as Stewart was gaining ground on Johnson . Two laps later , Edwards caught Stewart for the second position . After 107 laps , Johnson had a 0 @.@ 65 second lead over Stewart . On lap 127 , David Ragan had spun sideways , which prompted the second caution to come out . During the accident , Tony Raines collided in the back of Stewart 's race car . Following the caution , Johnson led to the green flag on lap 130 . One lap later , the third caution was given because Regan Smith collided with the wall . On lap 140 , Johnson led the drivers to the green flag . After starting twenty @-@ first , Greg Biffle had moved into the eleventh position by lap 142 . On lap 153 , Kevin Harvick said , " We don 't know what we 're doing . Leave the air alone . " , after being frustrated that his crew could not fix the car handling .
On lap 161 , there were twenty @-@ eight cars on the lead lap ( not a lap down ) . Eleven laps later , Kyle Busch emerged in the first position , after passing Johnson . By lap 187 , Kyle Busch had a 0 @.@ 96 second lead over Johnson . On lap 192 , one of Scott Speed 's tires deflated , prompting the fourth caution . Johnson became the leader after pit stops , and led the drivers back to the green flag . On lap 202 , Busch reclaimed the lead , as Reutimann passed Johnson for second . Eleven laps later , Stewart collided with the wall , but was able to continue racing . On lap 215 , Johnson reclaimed second , after passing Reutimann . Twenty @-@ one laps later , Clint Bowyer passed Kurt Busch for the ninth position . By lap 239 , Kyle Busch had a 2 @.@ 5 second lead over Johnson .
On lap 253 , the fifth caution came out because Bobby Labonte collided with the wall . On lap 161 , Kyle Busch led the drivers to the green flag . One lap later , Johnson spun sideways and collided with the wall , after making contact with Montoya . Johnson and Denny Hamlin drove to garage during the caution , both with repairs . Kyle Busch , once again , led the drivers to the restart on lap 267 . By lap 279 , Kyle Busch had a 1 @.@ 48 second lead over Reutimann . Ten laps later , Hamlin returned to the track , as Kyle Busch had a 1 @.@ 75 second lead over the second position . On lap 302 , Gordon passed A. J. Allmendinger for the tenth position . Eight laps later , Matt Kenseth passed Dale Earnhardt , Jr. for the seventh position . On lap 339 , McMurray moved into the third position . Four laps later , McMurray passed Reutimann for second . Kyle Busch maintained a 1 @.@ 57 lead over McMurray , as Kenseth , who was running eighth , drove to pit lane because of tire issues .
On lap 350 , Kahne moved into the sixth position . Eight laps later , McMurray had closed on Kyle Busch . By lap 380 , Kyle Busch had claimed the most laps led . Three laps later , Kahne came to pit lane because of a flat tire . On lap 388 , McMurray became the leader , after passing Kyle Busch . On lap 399 , green flag pit stops began , as McMurray and Kyle Busch came to pit lane for fuel and tires . Afterwards , Jeff Gordon became the leader , but one lap later he was passed by Mark Martin . On lap 404 , Reutimann became the leader , as Joey Logano was given a drive @-@ through penalty for speeding on pit lane . Four laps later , the seventh caution came out because of debris on the track . Reutimann led on the restart during lap 414 .
Four laps later , Kahne reclaimed the sixth position , as Kyle Busch caught Reutimann . On lap 429 , Kyle Busch became the leader , after bumping Reutimann . Kahne moved into the fourth position , after passing Bowyer two laps later . By lap 434 , Kyle Busch had a 1 @.@ 5 second lead over Reutimann . Fifteen laps later , Kurt Busch passed Jeff Gordon for the tenth position . After 467 laps , there were only fourteen cars on the same lap as the leader . By lap 490 , Kyle Busch had a 2 @.@ 49 second lead over the rest of the drivers . Kyle Busch crossed the finish line in first to make history by becoming the first to win in all three major NASCAR divisions in the same weekend : the Camping World Truck Series , the Nationwide Series , and the Sprint Cup Series . David Reutimann followed in second , ahead McMurray in third , Bowyer in fourth , and Kahne in fifth . The race had a total of seven cautions and seventeen lead changes among nine different drivers .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
Busch appeared in victory lane after his victory lap to start celebrating making history , and his third win of the season , in front of a crowd of 155 @,@ 000 people . Busch also earned $ 331 @,@ 731 in race winnings . " It 's great . We knew we 'd run well here and were really looking forward to capitalizing and getting jumped in front of the bubble spot ( for the Chase ) , " said Busch .
Although Reutimann was leading near the end , Busch passed him with seventy @-@ one laps remaining . McMurray , who finished third , said , The balance was too tight at the end . It was a really good night for us . I know most of these fans don 't like Kyle Busch , but it 's remarkable what he 's been able to do this weekend . " In the subsequent press conference , Reutimann stated , " My team did a good job , because I was only in the second half of practice , and they had to work with two different drivers , so the credit all goes to my team . " " At one point , I thought we were going to have the car to beat , but at the end , we just didn 't have the speed we needed , " McMurray added . Johnson , who was involved in an accident on lap 263 , said , " I thought I left [ Montoya ] enough room on the outside lane there . We 're on the straightaway for a little bit , and then all of the sudden , I got hooked with force . It 's not like we bumped and banged , and I squeezed him . I thought we were on the straightaway and everything was fine , and then around I went . " Following the race , Busch would add , " This [ car ] was awesome today . What a great race car . It 's the second time I 've run it this year . "
The race result left Harvick leading the Driver 's Championship with 3 @,@ 521 points . Jeff Gordon , who finished eleventh , was second with 3 @,@ 242 points , which assured him a position in the Chase for the Sprint Cup . He was seventy @-@ two points ahead of race winner Kyle Busch and 129 ahead of Edwards . Hamlin was fifth with 3 @,@ 108 points . Chevrolet maintained their lead in the Manufacturers ' Championship with 173 points . Toyota placed second with 146 points , and Ford followed with 110 points , eleven ahead of Dodge in fourth . 5 @.@ 842 million people watched the race on television . The race took two hours , forty @-@ one minutes and twenty @-@ four seconds to complete , and the margin of victory was 0 @.@ 677 seconds .
= = Results = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race results = = =
= = Standings after the race = =
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= Madras Presidency =
The Madras Presidency ( Tamil : மெட ் ராஸ ் மாகாணம ் ) ( Telugu : మద ్ రాస ్ రాష ్ ట ్ రభాగము ) , officially ) ( Malayalam : മദ ് രാസ ് പ ് രവിശ ് യ ) ( Kannada : ಮದ ್ ರಾಸ ್ ಪ ್ ರಾಂತ ್ ಯ ) , or the Presidency of Fort St. George and also known as Madras Province , was an administrative subdivision ( presidency ) of British India . At its greatest extent , the presidency included most of southern India , including the whole of the Indian states of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh and parts of Odisha , Kerala , Karnataka , Telangana , and the union territory of Lakshadweep . The city of Madras was the winter capital of the Presidency and Ootacamund or Ooty , the summer capital . The island of Ceylon was a part of Madras Presidency from 1793 to 1798 when it was created a Crown colony .
In 1639 , the English East India Company purchased the village of Madraspatnam and one year later it established the Agency of Fort St George , precursor of the Madras Presidency , although there had been Company factories at Machilipatnam and Armagon since the very early 1600s . The agency was upgraded to a Presidency in 1652 before once more reverting to its previous status in 1655 . In 1684 , it was re @-@ elevated to a Presidency and Elihu Yale was appointed as president . In 1785 , under the provisions of Pitt 's India Act , Madras became one of three provinces established by the East India Company . Thereafter , the head of the area was styled " Governor " rather than " President " and became subordinate to the Governor @-@ General in Calcutta , a title that would persist until 1947 . Judicial , legislative and executive powers rested with the Governor who was assisted by a Council whose constitution was modified by reforms enacted in 1861 , 1909 , 1919 and 1935 . Regular elections were conducted in Madras up to the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 . By 1908 , the province comprised twenty @-@ two districts , each under a District Collector , and it was further sub @-@ divided into taluks and firqas with villages making up the smallest unit of administration .
Following the Montague @-@ Chelmsford reforms of 1919 , Madras was the first province of British India to implement a system of dyarchy , and thereafter its Governor ruled alongside a prime minister . In the early decades of the 20th century , many significant contributors to the Indian independence movement came from Madras . With the advent of Indian independence on 15 August 1947 , the Presidency became the Madras Province . Madras was later admitted as Madras State , a state of the Indian Union at the inauguration of the Republic of India on 26 January 1950 , and was reorganised in 1956 .
= = Origins = =
= = = Before the arrival of the English = = =
The discovery of dolmens from this portion of the subcontinent shows inhabitation as early as the Stone Age . The first prominent rulers of the northern part of the future Presidency were The Telugu Satavahana dynasty ( 230 BC - AD 102 ) . Following the decline of the Satavahanas of Andhra and the Cholas in Tamil Nadu , the country was conquered by a little known race of people called the Kalabhras . The country recovered under the subsequent Pallava dynasty and its civilisation attained a peak under the later Cholas and the Pandyas . Following the conquest of Madurai by Malik Kafur in 1311 , there was a brief lull when both culture and civilisation began to deteriorate . The Tamil and Telugu territories recovered under the Vijayanagar Empire , founded in 1336 . Following the empire 's demise , the country was split amongst numerous sultans , polygars and European trading companies . Between 1685 and 1947 , a number of kings ruled the areas that became part of the Madras Presidency .
= = = Early English trading posts = = =
On 31 December 1600 , Queen Elizabeth I of England ( 1533 – 1603 ) granted a group of English merchants a charter to establish a joint @-@ stock company which became known as the East India Company . Subsequently , during the reign of King James I ( 1567 – 1625 ) , Sir William Hawkins and Sir Thomas Roe were sent to negotiate with the Mughal Emperor Jahangir ( 1569 – 1627 ) to permit the establishment of trading factories in India on behalf of the Company . The first of these were built at Surat on the west coast and at Masulipatam on the country 's eastern seaboard . Masulipatam is thus the oldest English trading post on India 's east coast , dating back to 1611 . In 1625 , another factory was established at Armagon , a few miles to the south , whereupon both the factories came under the supervision of an agency based at Machilipatam . The English authorities decided to relocate these factories farther south , due to a shortage of cotton cloth , the main trade item of the east coast at the time . The problem was compounded when the Sultan of Golconda started harassing the local officers . The East India Company 's administrator Francis Day ( 1605 – 73 ) was sent south , and after negotiations with the Raja of Chandragiri he obtained a land grant to set up a factory in the village of Madraspatnam , where the new Fort St George was built . An agency was created to govern the new settlement , and the factor Andrew Cogan of Masulipatnam was appointed as its first Agent . All the agencies along India 's east coast were subordinated to the East India Company presidency of Bantam in Java . By 1641 , Fort St George became the Company 's headquarters on the Coromandel Coast .
= = = Agency of Fort St George = = =
Andrew Cogan was succeeded by Francis Day ( 1643 – 1644 ) , Thomas Ivie ( 1644 – 1648 ) and Thomas Greenhill ( 1648 – 52 and 1655 – 58 ) . At the end of Greenhill 's term in 1652 , Fort St George was elevated to a Presidency , independent of Bantam and under the leadership of the first president , Aaron Baker ( 1652 – 1655 ) . However , in 1655 the status of the fort was downgraded to an Agency and made subject to the factory at Surat , until 1684 . In 1658 , control of all the factories in Bengal was given to Madras , when the English occupied the nearby village of Triplicane .
= = History = =
= = = Expansion = = =
In 1684 , Fort St George was again elevated in rank to become the Madras Presidency , with William Gyfford as its first president . During this period , the Presidency was significantly expanded and reached an extent which continued into the early 19th century . During the early years of the Madras Presidency , the English were repeatedly attacked by the Mughals , the Marathas and the Nawabs of Golkonda and the Carnatic region . In September 1774 , by Pitt 's India Act , passed by the Parliament of Great Britain to unify and regulate the administration of the territories of the East India Company , the President of Madras was made subordinate to the Governor @-@ General of India based in Calcutta . In September 1746 , Fort St George was captured by the French , who ruled Madras as a part of French India until 1749 , when Madras was handed back to the British under the terms of the Treaty of Aix @-@ la @-@ Chappelle of the previous year .
= = = During the Company Raj = = =
From 1774 until 1858 , Madras was a part of British India and was ruled by the British East India Company . The last quarter of the 18th century was a period of rapid expansion . Successful wars against Tipu Sultan ( 1782 – 99 ) , Velu Thambi , Polygars and Ceylon added vast areas of land and contributed to the exponential growth of the Presidency . Newly conquered Ceylon formed part of the Madras Presidency between 1793 and 1798 . The system of subsidiary alliances originated by Lord Wellesley as Governor @-@ General of India ( 1798 – 1805 ) also brought many princely states into the area militarily subordinate to the Governor of Fort St George . The hill tracts of Ganjam and Visakhapatnam were the last places to be annexed by the British .
The period also witnessed a number of rebellions starting with the 1806 Vellore Mutiny . The rebellion of Velu Thambi and Paliath Achan and the Poligar Wars were other notable insurrections against the British rule , but the Madras Presidency remained relatively undisturbed by the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 .
The Madras Presidency annexed the kingdom of Mysore in 1831 on allegations of maladministration and restored it to Chamaraja Wodeyar ( 1881 – 94 ) , the grandson and heir of the deposed Mummadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar ( 1799 – 1868 ) in 1881 . Thanjavur was annexed in 1855 , following the death of Shivaji II ( 1832 – 1855 ) who left no male heir .
= = = The Victorian era = = =
In 1858 , under the terms of Queen 's Proclamation issued by Queen Victoria , the Madras Presidency , along with the rest of British India , came under the direct rule of the British crown . During the period of governor Lord Harris ( 1854 – 1859 ) , measures were taken to improve education and increase representation of Indians in the administration . Legislative powers were given to the Governor 's council under the Indian Councils Act 1861 . The council was reformed and expanded under the Indian Councils Act 1892 , the Indian Councils Act 1909 , the Government of India Act 1919 , and the Government of India Act 1935 . V. Sadagopacharlu ( 1861 – 63 ) was the first Indian to be appointed to the council . The legal profession was specially prized by the newly emerging corpus of educated Indians . In 1877 , T. Muthuswamy Iyer became the first Indian judge of the Madras High Court despite strong opposition from the Anglo @-@ Indian media . He also acted as the Chief Justice of the Madras High Court for a few months in 1893 , thereby becoming the first Indian to hold the post . In 1906 , C. Sankaran Nair became the first Indian to be appointed Advocate @-@ General of the Madras Presidency . A number of roads , railways , dams and canals were constructed during this period .
Two large famines occurred in Madras during this period , the Great Famine of 1876 – 78 and the Indian famine of 1896 – 97 . As a result , the population of the Presidency fell for the first time from 31 @.@ 2 million in 1871 to 30 @.@ 8 million in 1881 . These famines and alleged partiality shown by the government in handling the Chingleput Ryots ' Case and the Salem riots trial caused discontent among the population .
= = = Indian Independence Movement = = =
A strong sense of national awakening emerged in the Madras Presidency in the later half of the 19th century . The first political organisation in the province , the Madras Native Association , was established by Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty on 26 February 1852 . However , the organisation did not last long . The Madras Native Association was followed by the Madras Mahajana Sabha which was started on 16 May 1884 . Of the 72 delegates who participated in the first session of the Indian National Congress at Bombay in December 1885 , 22 hailed from the Madras Presidency . Most of the delegates were members of the Madras Mahajana Sabha . The third session of the Indian National Congress was held in Madras in December 1887 and was a huge success attended by 362 delegates from the province . Subsequent sessions of the Indian National Congress took place in Madras in 1894 , 1898 , 1903 1908 , 1914 and 1927 .
Madam Blavatsky and Colonel H. S. Olcott moved the headquarters of the Theosophical Society to Adyar in 1882 . The society 's most prominent figure was Annie Besant , who founded the Home Rule League in 1916 . The Home Rule Movement was organised from Madras and found extensive support in the Province . Nationalistic newspapers such as The Hindu , the Swadesamitran and the Mathrubhumi actively endorsed the campaign for independence . India 's first trade union was established in Madras in 1918 by V. Kalyanasundaram and B. P. Wadia .
= = = Dyarchy ( 1920 – 37 ) = = =
A dyarchy was created in Madras Presidency in 1920 as per the Montagu @-@ Chelmsford reforms with provisions made for elections in the presidency . Democratically elected governments would henceforth share power with the Governor 's autocratic establishment . Following the first elections held in November 1920 , the Justice Party , an organisation established in 1916 to campaign for increased representation of non @-@ Brahmins in the administration , came to power . A. Subbarayalu Reddiar became the first Chief Minister of the Madras Presidency but resigned soon after due to declining health and was replaced by P. Ramarayaningar , Minister of Local Self @-@ Government and Public Health , popularly known as the Raja of Panagal . The party split in late 1923 when C. R. Reddy resigned from primary membership and formed a splinter group allied with the opposition Swarajists . A motion of no @-@ confidence was proposed against Ramarayaningar 's government on 27 November 1923 , but was defeated 65 – 44 . Ramarayaningar remained in power until November 1926 . The enactment in August 1921 of the first communal Government Order ( G.O. No. 613 ) , which introduced caste @-@ based communal reservations in government jobs , remains one of the high points of his rule . In the following elections of 1926 the Justice Party lost . However , as no party was able to obtain a clear majority , the Governor , Lord Goschen , set up a cross @-@ party government under the leadership of P. Subbarayan and nominated its supporting members . In the election of 1930 , the Justice Party was victorious , and P. Munuswamy Naidu became Chief Minister . The exclusion of Zamindars from the Ministry split the Justice Party once again . Fearing a no @-@ confidence motion against him , Munuswamy Naidu resigned in November 1932 and the Raja of Bobbili was appointed Chief Minister in his place . The Justice Party eventually lost the 1937 elections to the Indian National Congress , and Chakravarti Rajagopalachari became Chief Minister of Madras Presidency .
During the 1920s and 1930s , an Anti @-@ Brahmin movement emerged in the Madras Presidency . It was launched by E. V. Ramaswamy Naicker who , unhappy with the principles and policies of the Brahmin leadership of the provincial Congress , left the party to form the Self @-@ Respect Movement . Periyar , as he was alternatively known , criticised Brahmins , Hinduism , and Hindu superstitions in periodicals and newspapers such as Viduthalai and Justice . He also participated in the Vaikom satyagraha , which campaigned for the right of untouchables in Travancore to enter temples .
= = = Last days of British rule = = =
In 1937 , the Indian National Congress was elected to power in the Presidency of Madras for the first time . Chakravarti Rajagopalachari was the first Chief Minister of the Presidency to come from the Congress party . He successfully enacted the Temple Entry Authorization and Indemnity Act and introduced both prohibition and sales taxes in the Madras Presidency . His rule is largely remembered for the use of Hindi being made compulsory in educational institutions , a measure which made him highly unpopular as a politician and sparked widespread Anti @-@ Hindi agitations , which led to violence in some places . Over 1 @,@ 200 men , women , and children were jailed for their participation in such Anti @-@ Hindi agitations while Thalamuthu and Natarasan died during the protests . In 1940 , Congressional ministers resigned in protest over the Government of India 's declaration of war on Germany without their consent . The Governor of Madras , Sir Arthur Hope , took over the administration and the unpopular law was eventually repealed by him on 21 February 1940 .
Most Congressional leadership and erstwhile ministers were arrested in 1942 , as a result of their participation in the Quit India movement . In 1944 , Periyar renamed the Justice Party as Dravidar Kazhagam and withdrew it from electoral politics . After the end of the Second World War , the Indian National Congress re @-@ entered politics , and in the absence of any serious opposition it easily won the 1946 election . Tanguturi Prakasam was then elected as Chief Minister with the support of Kamaraj and served for eleven months . He was succeeded by O. P. Ramaswamy Reddiyar , who became the first Chief Minister of Madras state when India gained independence on 15 August 1947 . The Madras Presidency became the Madras State in independent India .
= = Geography = =
At its greatest extent , the Madras Presidency included much of southern India . It included the present @-@ day Indian State of Tamil Nadu , the Malabar region of North Kerala , the Lakshadweep Islands , the Coastal Andhra and Rayalaseema regions of Andhra Pradesh , the Ganjam , Malkangiri , Koraput , Rayagada , Nabarangapur and Gajapati districts of southern Odisha and the Bellary , Dakshina Kannada , and Udupi districts of Karnataka . The presidency had its winter capital at Madras and summer capital at Ootacamund .
= = Demographics = =
In 1822 , the Madras Presidency underwent its first census , which returned a population of 13 @,@ 476 @,@ 923 . A second census conducted between 1836 and 1837 recorded a population of 13 @,@ 967 @,@ 395 , an increase of only 490 @,@ 472 over 15 years . The first quinquennial population enumeration took place from 1851 until 1852 . It returned a population of 22 @,@ 031 @,@ 697 . Subsequent enumerations were made in 1851 – 52 , 1856 – 57 , 1861 – 62 and 1866 – 67 . The population of Madras Presidency was tallied at 22 @,@ 857 @,@ 855 , 24 @,@ 656 @,@ 509 in 1861 – 62 and 26 @,@ 539 @,@ 052 in 1866 – 67 . The first organised census of India was conducted in 1871 and returned a population of 31 @,@ 220 @,@ 973 for the Madras Presidency . Since then , a census has been conducted once every ten years . The last census of British India held in 1941 counted a population of 49 @,@ 341 @,@ 810 for the Madras Presidency .
= = = Languages = = =
The Tamil , Telugu , Malayalam , Kannada , Odia , Tulu and English languages were all spoken in the Madras Presidency . Tamil was spoken in the southern districts of the Presidency from a few miles north of Madras city as far west as the Nilgiri hills and Western Ghats . Telugu was spoken in the districts to the north of Madras city and to the east of Bellary and Anantapur districts . In the district of South Kanara , the western part of Bellary and Anantapur districts and parts of Malabar , Kannada was spoken . Malayalam was spoken in the districts of Malabar and South Kanara and the princely states of Travancore and Cochin , while Tulu was spoken in South Canara . Oriya was spoken in the district of Ganjam and parts of Vizagapatam district . English was spoken by Anglo @-@ Indians and Eurasians . It was also the link language for the Presidency and the official language of British India in which all government proceedings and court hearings were conducted .
According to the 1871 census , there were 14 @,@ 715 @,@ 000 people who spoke Tamil , 11 @,@ 610 @,@ 000 people who spoke Telugu , 2 @,@ 324 @,@ 000 people who spoke Malayalam , 1 @,@ 699 @,@ 000 spoke Canarese or Kannada , 640 @,@ 000 people spoke Oriya and 29 @,@ 400 people spoke Tulu . The 1901 census returned 15 @,@ 182 @,@ 957 speakers of Tamil , 14 @,@ 276 @,@ 509 Telugu @-@ speakers , 2 @,@ 861 @,@ 297 speakers of Malayalam , 1 @,@ 518 @,@ 579 were speakers of Kannada , 1 @,@ 809 @,@ 314 spoke Oriya , 880 @,@ 145 spoke Hindusthani and 1 @,@ 680 @,@ 635 spoke other languages . At the time of Indian independence , Tamil and Telugu speakers made up over 78 % of the total population of the presidency , with Kannada , Malayalam and Tulu speakers making up the rest .
= = = Religion = = =
In 1901 , the population breakdown was : Hindus ( 37 @,@ 026 @,@ 471 ) , Muslims ( 2 @,@ 732 @,@ 931 ) , and Christians ( 1 @,@ 934 @,@ 480 ) . By the time of India 's independence in 1947 , Madras had an estimated population of 49 @,@ 799 @,@ 822 Hindus , 3 @,@ 896 @,@ 452 Muslims and 2 @,@ 047 @,@ 478 Christians
Hinduism was the predominant religion in the presidency and practised by around 88 % of the population . The main Hindu denominations were Saivite , Vaishnavite and Lingayat . Among the Brahmins , the Smartha doctrine was quite popular . Worship of village gods was strong in the southern districts of the presidency while the mathas at Kanchi , Sringeri and Ahobilam were regarded as the centres of the Hindu faith . Of the Hindu temples , the largest and most important were the Venkateswara temple at Thirupathi , the Brihadeeswarar temple at Tanjore , the Meenakshi Amman temple at Madurai , the Ranganathaswamy temple at Srirangam , the Krishna temple at Udupi and the Padmanabhaswamy temple in the princely state of Travancore . Islam was brought to the southern part of India by Arab traders although most converts were made from the 14th century onwards , when Malik Kafur conquered Madurai . Nagore was the holiest city for the Muslims of the Madras Presidency . The presidency also had one of the oldest Christian populations in India . Branches of the Syrian church , contrary to historical evidence , are popularly believed to have been instituted by St. Thomas , an apostle of Jesus Christ who visited the Malabar coast in 52 AD Christians were mainly concentrated in the Tinnevely and Malabar districts of Madras Presidency with native Christians forming over one – quarter of the total population of the princely state of Travancore . Hill tribes of the Nilgiris , Palani and Ganjam regions such as the Todas , Badagas , Kotas , Yerukalas and the Khonds , worshipped tribal gods and were often classified as Hindus . Until the early years of the 20th century , the Pallar , Paraiyar , Sakkiliar , Pulayar , Madiga , Izhava and Holeya Hindu communities were regarded as untouchable and were not allowed inside Hindu temples . However , along with the emancipation of Indian women and removal of social evils , untouchability was slowly eradicated through legislation and social reform . The Raja of Bobbili who served the Premier from 1932 to 1936 , appointed untouchables to temple administration boards all over the presidency . In 1939 , the Congress government of C. Rajagopalachari introduced the Temple Entry Authorization and Indemnity Act which removed all restrictions on untouchables entering Hindu temples . Chithira Thirunal of Travancore had issued a similar had earlier introduced similar legislation , the Temple Entry Proclamation at the advice of his Diwan , Sir C. P. Ramaswamy Ayyar , in 1937 .
In 1921 the Raja of Panagal 's government passed the Hindu Religious Endowments Bill that established government @-@ controlled trusts in the Madras Presidency to manage Hindu temples and prevent potential misuse of their funds . The Raja of Bobbili also introduced reforms in the administration of the Tirumala Tirupathi Devasthanams , the trust which manages the Hindu temple at Tirupathi .
= = Administration = =
The Pitt 's India Act of 1784 created an executive council with legislative powers to assist the Governor . The council initially consisted of four members , two of whom were from the Indian civil service or covenanted civil service and the third , an Indian of distinction . The fourth was the Commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Madras Army . The council was reduced to three members when the Madras Army was abolished in 1895 . The legislative powers of this council were withdrawn as per the Government of India Act 1833 and it was reduced to the status of a mere advisory body . However , these powers were restored as per Indian Councils Act 1861 . The council was expanded from time to time through the inclusion of official and non @-@ official members and served as the main legislative body till 1935 , when a legislative assembly of a more representative nature was created and legislative powers were transferred to the assembly . On India 's independence on 15 August 1947 , the three @-@ member Governor 's executive council was abolished .
The origins of Madras Presidency lay in the village of Madraspatnam which was obtained in 1640 . This was followed by Fort St David which was acquired in 1690 . Chingleput district , known as the " jaghire " of Chingleput , obtained in 1763 , was the first district in the Madras Presidency . Salem and Malabar districts were obtained from Tipu Sultan in 1792 as per the Treaty of Seringapatam and Coimbatore and Kanara districts after the Fourth Mysore War in 1799 . The territories of the Thanjavur Maratha kingdom were constituted as a separate district in 1799 . In 1800 , the districts of Bellary and Cuddapah were created out of the territory ceded by the Nizam of Hyderabad . In 1801 , the districts of North Arcot , South Arcot , Nellore , Trichinopoly , Madura and Tinnevely were created out of the territories of the erstwhile Carnatic kingdom . Trichinopoly district was made a sub @-@ division of Tanjore district in June 1805 and remained so till August 1808 when its status as a separate district was restored . The districts of Rajahmundry ( Rajamahendravaram ) , Masulipatnam and Guntur were created in 1823 . These three districts were reorganised in 1859 into two – the Godavari and Kistna districts . Godavari district was further bifurcated into East and West Godavari districts in 1925 . The Kurnool kingdom was annexed in 1839 and was constituted as a separate district of the Madras Presidency . For administrative convenience , the district of Kanara was split into North and South Kanara in 1859 . North Kanara was transferred to Bombay Presidency in 1862 . Between 1859 – 60 and 1870 , the districts of Madras and Chingleput were put together into a single district . A separate Nilgiris district was carved out of Coimbatore district in 1868 . As of 1908 , Madras Presidency was made up of 24 districts each administered by a District Collector who was from the Indian Civil Service . The districts were sometimes sub @-@ divided into divisions each under a Deputy Collector . The divisions were further sub @-@ divided into taluks and union panchayats or village committees . Agencies were sometimes created in British India out of volatile , rebellion @-@ prone areas of the Presidency . The two important agencies in the Madras Presidency were the Vizagapatam Hill Tracts Agency which was subject to the District Collector of Vizagapatam and the Ganjam Hill Tracts Agency subject to the District Collector of Ganjam . In 1936 , the districts of Ganjam and Vizagapatam ( including the Vizagapatam and the Ganjam agencies ) were partitioned between Madras and the newly created province of Orissa .
There were five princely states subordinate to the Madras government . They were Banganapalle , Cochin , Pudukkottai , Sandur , and Travancore . All these states had a considerable degree of internal autonomy . However , their foreign policy was completely controlled by a Resident who represented the Governor of Fort St George . In case of Banganapalle , the Resident was the District Collector of Kurnool , while the District Collector of Bellary was the Resident of Sandur . The Resident of Pudukkottai from 1800 to 1840 and 1865 to 1873 , was the District Collector of Tanjore , from 1840 to 1865 , the District Collector of Madura and from 1873 to 1947 , the District Collector of Trichinopoly .
= = Army = =
The English East India Company was first permitted to set up its own garrison in 1665 to guard its settlements . Notable amongst the early operations of the Company 's forces were the defence of the city from Mughal and Maratha invaders and from the incursions of the Nawab of Carnatic . In 1713 , the Madras forces under Lieutenant John de Morgan distinguished themselves in the siege of Fort St David and in putting down Richard Raworth 's Rebellion .
When Joseph François Dupleix , the Governor of French India , began to raise native battalions in 1748 , the British of Madras followed suit and established the Madras Regiment . Though native regiments were subsequently established by the British in other parts of India , the distances that separated the three presidencies resulted in each force developing divergent principles and organisations . The first reorganisation of the army took place in 1795 , when the Madras army was reconstituted into the following units :
European Infantry – Two battalions of ten companies
Artillery – Two European battalions of five companies each , with fifteen companies of lascars
Native Cavalry – Four regiments
Native Infantry – Eleven regiments of two battalions
In 1824 , a second reorganisation took place , whereupon the double battalions were abolished and the existing battalions were renumbered . The Madras Army at the time consisted of one European and one native brigade of horse artillery , three battalions of foot artillery of four companies each , with four companies of lascars attached , three regiments of light cavalry , two corps of pioneers , two battalions of European infantry , 52 battalions of native infantry and three local battalions .
Between 1748 and 1895 , as with the Bengal and Bombay armies , the Madras Army had its own Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief who was subordinate to the president , and later to the Governor of Madras . By custom the Commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Madras Army was a member of the Governor 's Executive Council . The army 's troops participated in the conquest of Manila in 1762 , the 1795 expeditions against Ceylon and the Dutch as well as the conquest of the Spice Islands in the same year . They also took part in expeditions against Mauritius ( 1810 ) , Java ( 1811 ) , the wars against Tipu Sultan and the Carnatic Wars of the 18th century , the British attack on Cuttack dring the Second Anglo @-@ Maratha War , the Siege of Lucknow during the Indian Mutiny , and the invasion of Upper Burma during the Third Anglo @-@ Burmese War .
The 1857 Mutiny , which quickly led to drastic changes in the Bengal and Bombay armies , had no effect on the Madras Army . In 1895 , the presidency armies were finally merged and the Madras regiments came under the direct control of the Commander @-@ in @-@ chief of British India .
The Madras Army relied heavily on the Moplahs of Malabar and on soldiers from Kodagu , at that time known as Coorg .
= = Land tenure = =
Revenue from land rental as well as an income tax based on the tenant 's net profits from their land was the presidency 's main source of income .
In ancient times , land appears to have been held in common with an individual unable to sell it without the consent of the other owners , who in most cases were members of the same community . Prior to the arrival of the British , the concept of individual proprietorship of land had already emerged along India 's west coast such that the new administration 's land revenue system was not markedly different from that of its predecessor . Nevertheless , landlords never sold land without the consent of other members of the community . This communistic property rights system was known as kaniachi among the Vellalars , swastium among the Brahmins and mirasi among Muslims and Christians . In the Tanjore district , all mirasi in the village were vested in a single individual who was called the Ekabhogam . The mirasidars were required to donate a certain amount of money known as mirei to the village administration . They also paid a specified sum to the Government . In return , the mirasidars demanded non @-@ interference by the government in the internal affairs of the villages .
The proprietary system was entirely different in the district of Malabar and the states of Cochin and Travancore where communal ownership of land did not exist . Instead , land was individual property mostly owned by the landowning gentry , to wit the Namboodiri and Nair people , who did not have to pay land @-@ tax and held extensive freeholds of land rented to tenants for agricultural puroposes . In return the Nairs supplied the king with fighting men in times of war while the Namboodhiris managed the upkeep of Hindu temples . These landlords were somewhat self @-@ sufficient and had their own police and judicial systems such that the personal expenses of the Raja were minimal . However , landlords lost their exemption from the taxes on land if they disposed of it meaning that mortgage of land was more common than sale . Individual propreitorship of land was also common in the Telugu @-@ speaking areas of the Presidency . The chieftains of the Telugu @-@ speaking districts had more or less maintained an independent existence for a long time , furnishing the sovereign with armies and equipment in times of war . In return , their right to revenues from land remained unmolested . During the time of the British , most of land in the northern districts of the Presidency were parcelled out among these petty " Rajahs " .
Islamic invasions caused minor changes in the land proprietorship system when taxes on Hindu land owners were raised and private ownership of property came down .
When the British took over administration , the centuries @-@ old system of land proprietorship was left intact . The new rulers appointed middlemen to collect revenue for lands which were not under the control of local zamindars . In most cases , these go @-@ betweens ignored the welfare of the farmers and exploited them to the full . A Board of Revenue was established in 1786 to solve the issue but to no avail . At the same time , the zamindari settlement established in Bengal by Lord Cornwallis proved highly successful and was later implemented in the Madras Presidency from 1799 onwards .
However , the Permanent Settlement was not as successful as it had been in Bengal . When the Company did not reach the expected profit levels , a new system known as the " Village Settlement " was implemented between 1804 and 1814 in the districts of Tinnevely , Trichinopoly , Coimbatore , North Arcot and South Arcot . This involved the leasing of land to the principal cultivators , who in turn leased the land to ryots , or peasant farmers . However , as a village settlement had few differences compared to a permanent settlement , it was eventually discarded . In its place came the " Ryotwari Settlement " implemented by Sir Thomas Munro between 1820 and 1827 . According to the new system , land was handed over directly to the ryots who paid their rent directly to the government . The land was assessed and paid revenue fixed by the Government This system had a number of advantages as well as disadvantages for the ryots . In 1833 , Lord William Bentinck implemented a new system called the " Mahalwari " or village system under which landlords as well as ryots entered into a contract with the Government .
In 1911 , the greater part of the land was held by ryots who paid rent directly to the Government . Zamindari estates occupied about 26 million acres ( 110 @,@ 000 km2 ) , more than one @-@ quarter of the whole presidency . The peshkash , or tribute , payable to the government in perpetuity was about £ 330 @,@ 000 a year . Inams , revenue @-@ free or quit @-@ rent grants of lands made for religious endowments or for services rendered to the state , occupied an aggregate area of nearly 8 million acres ( 32 @,@ 000 km2 ) . In 1945 – 46 , there were 20 @,@ 945 @,@ 456 acres ( 84 @,@ 763 @.@ 25 km2 ) of Zamindari estates yielding revenues of ₹ 9 @,@ 783 @,@ 167 and 58 @,@ 904 @,@ 798 acres ( 238 @,@ 379 @.@ 26 km2 ) of ryotwari lands which produced ₹ 72 @,@ 665 @,@ 330 . Madras had forest coverage of 15 @,@ 782 square miles ( 40 @,@ 880 km2 ) .
The Land Estates Act of 1908 was passed by the Madras Government in order to protect cultivators in Zamindaris from exploitation . Under the act , ryots were made permanent occupants of the land . However , far from protecting the ryots , the legislation proved to be detrimental to the interests of the cultivators in the Oriya @-@ speaking northern districts of the presidency who were the intended beneficiaries , as it tied the cultivator to his land and landlord with the chains of eternal serfdom . In 1933 , an amendment to the Act was introduced by the Raja of Bobbili to curb the rights of Zamindars and safeguard the cultivators from exploitation . This act was passed in the legislative council despite strong opposition from the Zamindars .
= = Agriculture and irrigation = =
Almost 71 % of the population of Madras Presidency was engaged in agriculture with the agricultural year usually commencing on 1 July . Crops cultivated in the Madras Presidency included cereals such as rice , corn , kambhu ( Indian millet ) and ragi as well as vegetables including brinjal , sweet potato , ladies ' fingers , beans , onions , garlic and spices such as chilli , pepper and ginger along with vegetable oils made from castor beans and peanuts . Fruits cultivated included lime , banana jackfruit , cashew nuts , mangos , custard apples and papayas . In addition , cabbages , cauliflowers , pomelos , peaches , betel pepper , niger seed and millet were introduced from Asia , Africa or Europe , while grapes were introduced from Australia . The total cultivated area used for food crops was 80 % and for cash crops , 15 % . Of the gross area , rice occupied 26 @.@ 4 percent ; kambhu , 10 percent ; ragi , 5 @.@ 4 percent and Cholam , 13 @.@ 8 percent . Cotton occupied 1 @,@ 740 @,@ 000 acres ( 7 @,@ 000 km2 ) , oilseeds , 2 @.@ 08 million , spices , 0 @.@ 4 million and indigo , 0 @.@ 2 million . In 1898 , Madras produced 7 @.@ 47 million tons of food grains from 21 @,@ 570 @,@ 000 acres ( 87 @,@ 300 km2 ) of crops grown on 19 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 acres ( 78 @,@ 000 km2 ) of ryotwari and inam lands , which supported a population of 28 million . The rice yield was 7 to 10 cwt. per acre , the cholam yields were 3 @.@ 5 to 6 @.@ 25 cwt. per acre , khambu , 3 @.@ 25 to 5 cwt. per acre and ragi , 4 @.@ 25 to 5 cwt. per acre . The average gross turnout for food crops was 6 @.@ 93 cwt. per acre .
Irrigation along the east coast is carried out mostly by means of dams across rivers , lakes and irrigation tanks . The main source of water for agriculture in the Coimbatore district were tanks .
The Land Improvement and Agriculturists Loan Act passed in 1884 provided funds for the construction of wells and their utilisation in reclamation projects . In the early part of the 20th century , the Madras government established the Pumping and Boring Department to drill boreholes with electric pumps . The Mettur Dam , the Periyar Project , the Cudappah @-@ Kurnool canal and the Rushikulya Project were the biggest irrigation projects launched by the Madras Government . Constructed below the Hogenakkal Falls on the Madras @-@ Mysore border in 1934 , the Mettur Dam supplied water to the western districts of the Presidency . The Periyar Dam ( now known as the Mullaperiyar Dam ) was constructed across the Periyar river in Travancore , near the border . This project diverted the waters of the Periyar river to the Vaigai River basin in order to irrigate the arid lands to the east of the Western Ghats . Similarly , the Rushikulya Project was launched to utilise the waters of the Rushikulya river in Ganjam . Under the scheme over 142 @,@ 000 acres ( 570 km2 ) of land were brought under irrigation . The British also constructed a number of dams and canals for irrigation . An upper dam was constructed across the Kollidam river near Srirangam island . The Dowlaishwaram dam across the Godavari river , the Gunnavaram aqueduct across the Vaineteyam Godavari , the Kurnool @-@ Cuddapah canal and the Krishna dam are examples of major irrigation works carried out by the British . In 1946 – 47 , the total area under irrigation was 9 @,@ 736 @,@ 974 acres ( 39 @,@ 404 @.@ 14 km2 ) acres which yielded a return of 6 @.@ 94 % on capital outlay .
= = Trade , industry and commerce = =
The trade of the Madras Presidency comprised that of both the Presidency with other Provinces and its overseas trade . External trade made up 93 percent of the total with internal trade making up the remainder . Foreign trade accounted for 70 percent of the total while 23 percent was inter @-@ provincial . In 1900 – 01 , imports from other provinces of British India amounted to ₹ 13 @.@ 43 crores while exports to other provinces amounted to ₹ 11 @.@ 52 crores . During the same year , exports to other countries reached ₹ 11 @.@ 74 crores while imports were valued at ₹ 66 @.@ 2 million . At the time of India 's independence , imports of the Presidency amounted to ₹ 71 @.@ 32 crores a year while exports were valued at ₹ 645 @.@ 1 million . Trade with the United Kingdom made up 31 @.@ 54 % of the total trade of the Presidency with Madras the chief port accounting for 49 % of the total trade .
Cotton piece @-@ goods , cotton twist and yarn , metals and kerosene oil were the main items of import while animal hides and skins , raw cotton , coffee and piece @-@ goods were the chief exports . Raw cotton , animal hides , oil seeds , grains , pulses , coffee , tea and cotton manufactures were the main items of sea trade . Most of the sea trade was carried through the presidency 's principal port of Madras . Other important ports were Gopalpur , Kalingapatnam , Bimlipatnam , Visakhapatnam , Masulipatnam , Cocanada , Madras , Cuddalore , Negapatam , Pamban and Tuticorin on the east coast along with Mangalore , Cannanore , Calicut , Tellicherry , Cochin , Alleppey , Quilon ( Coulão ) and Colachel on the western seaboard . The port of Cochin was taken over by the Government of India on 1 August 1936 , and that of Madras on 1 April 1937 . There were Chambers of Commerce in Madras , Cochin and Cocanada . These chambers each nominated a member to the Madras Legislative Council .
Cotton @-@ ginning and weaving were two of the main industries in the Madras Presidency . Cotton was produced in large quantities in the Bellary district and was pressed in Georgetown , Madras . The scarcity of cotton in Lancashire caused by a decline in trade due to the American Civil War gave an impetus to cotton and textile production and led to cotton presses being established all over the Presidency . In the early years of the 20th century , Coimbatore emerged as an important centre for cotton textiles and earned the epithet " Manchester of South India " . The northern districts of Godavari , Vizagapatam and Kistna were well @-@ known cotton @-@ weaving centres . There was a sugar factory at Aska in Ganjam run by F. J. V. Minchin and another at Nellikuppam in South Arcot district run by the East India Distilleries and Sugar Factories Company . In the Telugu @-@ speaking northern districts of the presidency large quantities of tobacco were cultivated to be subsequently rolled into cheroots . Trichinopoly , Madras and Dindigul were the main cheroot @-@ producing areas . Until the discovery of artificial aniline and alizarine dyes , Madras possessed a thriving vegetable dye manufacturing industry . The city also imported large quantities of aluminium for the manufacture of aluminium utensils . In the early 20th century , the government established the Chrome Tanning Factory which manufactured high @-@ quality leather . The first brewery in the Presidency was founded in the Nilgiri Hills in 1826 . Coffee was cultivated in the region of Wynad and the kingdoms of Coorg and Mysore while tea was grown on the slopes of the Nilgiri Hills . Coffee plantations were also established in Travancore but a severe blight at the end of the 19th century destroyed coffee cultivation in the kingdom and almost wiped out coffee plantations in neighbouring Wynad . Coffee @-@ curing works were located at Calicut , Tellicherry , Mangalore and Coimbatore . In 1947 , Madras had 3 @,@ 761 factories with 276 @,@ 586 operatives .
The presidency 's fishing industry thrived , with Shark 's fins , fish maws and fish curing @-@ operations the main sources of income for fishermen . The southern port of Tuticorin was a centre of conch @-@ fishing but Madras , along with Ceylon , was mainly known for its pearl fisheries . Pearl fisheries were harvested by the Paravas and was a lucrative profession .
The total revenue of the Presidency was ₹ 57 crores in 1946 – 47 made as follows : Land revenue , ₹ 8 @.@ 53 crores ; Excise , ₹ 14 @.@ 68 crores ; Income tax , ₹ 4 @.@ 48 crores ; Stamp revenue , ₹ 4 @.@ 38 crores ; forests , ₹ 1 @.@ 61 crores ; other taxes , ₹ 8 @.@ 45 crores ; Extraordinary receipts , ₹ 2 @.@ 36 crores and revenue fund , Rs.5.02 crores . Total expenditure for 1946 – 47 was ₹ 569 @.@ 9 million . 208 @,@ 675 k.v.a of electricity was generated at the end of 1948 of which 98 % was under government ownership . The total amount of power generated was 467 million units .
The Madras Stock Exchange was established in Madras city in 1920 with a strength of 100 members but gradually faded away and membership had reduced to three by 1923 when it had to be closed down . Nevertheless , the Madras Stock Exchange was successfully revived in September 1937 and was incorporated as the Madras Stock Exchange Association Limited . EID Parry , Binny and Co. and Arbuthnot Bank were the largest private @-@ owned business corporations at the turn of the 20th century . EID Parry manufactured and sold chemical fertilizers and sugar while the Binnys marketed cotton garments and uniforms manufactured at its spinning and weaving facility , the Buckingham and Carnatic Mills in Otteri . Arbuthnot , owned by the Arbuthnot family , was the largest bank in the Presidency until its crash in 1906 . Reduced to penury , disillusioned former Indian investors established the Indian Bank with funds donated by Nattukottai Chetties .
Between 1913 and 1914 , Madras had 247 companies . In 1947 , the city led in the establishment of registered factories but employed only 62 % of the total productive capital .
The first Western @-@ style banking institution in India was the Madras Bank which was established on 21 June 1683 , with a capital of one hundred thousand pounds sterling . This was followed by the opening of the Carnatic Bank in 1788 , the Bank of Madras in 1795 and the Asiatic Bank in 1804 . In 1843 , all the banks were merged to form the Bank of Madras . The Bank of Madras had branches in all the presidency 's major cities and princely states including Coimbatore , Mangalore , Calicut , Tellicherry , Alleppy , Cocanada , Guntur , Masulipatnam , Ootacamund , Negapataam , Tuticorin , Bangalore , Cochin and Colombo in Ceylon . In 1921 , the Bank of Madras merged with the Bank of Bombay and the Bank of Bengal to form the Imperial Bank of India . In the 19th century , the Arbuthnot Bank was one of the largest privately owned banks in the Presidency . The City Union Bank , the Indian Bank , Canara Bank , Corporation Bank , Nadar Bank , Karur Vysya Bank , Catholic Syrian Bank , Karnataka Bank , Bank of Chettinad , Andhra Bank , Vysya Bank , Vijaya Bank , Indian Overseas Bank and the Bank of Madura were some of the leading banks headquartered in the Presidency .
= = Transport and communication = =
In the early days of the agency , the only means of transportation were bullock @-@ carts known as jhatkas along with palanquins . The roads connecting Madras to Calcutta in the north and the kingdom of Travancore in the south served as lines of communication during wars . From the early 20th century onwards , bullock @-@ carts and horses were gradually replaced by bicycles and motor vehicles , while motor buses were the main means of private road transportation . Presidency Transport and the City Motor Service were pioneers , operating buses manufactured by Simpson and Co. as early as 1910 . The first organised bus system in Madras city was operated by Madras Tramways Corporation between 1925 and 1928 . The 1939 Motor Vehicles Act imposed restrictions on public @-@ owned bus and motor services . Most of the early bus services were operated by private agencies .
The first organised initiative for the construction of new roads and maintenance of existing roads in the Presidency was initiated in 1845 with the appointment of a special officer for the maintenance of main roads . The principal roads under the aegis of the officer were the Madras @-@ Bangalore road , Madras @-@ Trichinopoly road , Madras @-@ Calcutta road , Madras @-@ Cuddapah road and the Sumpajee Ghaut road . A Public Works Department was initiated by Lord Dalhousie in 1852 and subsequently in 1855 an East coast canal was constructed for the purpose of easy navigation . Roadways were handled by the Public Works Secretariat which was under the control of the member of the Governor 's Executive Council . The principal highways of the Presidency were the Madras @-@ Calcutta road , the Madras @-@ Travancore road and the Madras @-@ Calicut road . By 1946 – 47 , the Madras Presidency had 26 @,@ 201 miles ( 42 @,@ 166 km ) of metalled roads and 14 @,@ 406 miles ( 23 @,@ 184 km ) of unmetalled roads , and 1 @,@ 403 miles ( 2 @,@ 258 km ) of navigable canals .
The first railway line in South India was laid between Madras and Arcot , which was opened for traffic on 1 July 1856 . The line was constructed by the Madras Railway Company formed in 1845 . The railway station at Royapuram , the first in South India , was built in 1853 and served as the headquarters of the Madras Railway Company . The Great Southern Indian Railway Company was set up in the United Kingdom in 1853 @.@ and had its headquarters at Trichinopoly where it constructed its first railway line between Trichinopoly and Negapatam in 1859 . The Madras Railway Company operated standard or broad @-@ gauge railway lines while the Great South Indian Railway Company operated metre @-@ gauge railway lines . In 1874 , The Great Southern Indian Railway Company merged with the Carnatic Railway Company ( established in 1864 ) and was renamed the Southern Indian Railway Company . The Southern Indian Railway Company merged with the Pondicherry Railway Company in 1891 while the Madras Railway Company merged with the Southern Mahratta Railway Company in 1908 to form the Madras and South Mahratta Railway Company . A new terminus was built at Egmore for the Madras and South Mahratta Railway Company . In 1927 , the South Indian Railway Company shifted its headquarters from Madurai to Chennai Central . The company operated a suburban electric train service for Madras city from May 1931 onwards . In April 1944 , the Madras and South Mahratta Railway Company was taken over by the Madras Government . In 1947 , there were 4 @,@ 961 miles ( 7 @,@ 984 km ) of railway in the Presidency , in addition to 136 miles ( 219 km ) of district board lines . Madras was well @-@ connected with other Indian cities like Bombay and Calcutta and with Ceylon . The 6 @,@ 776 @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 065 m ) Pamban railway bridge connecting Mandapam on the Indian mainland with Pamban island was opened for traffic in 1914 . The Nilgiri Mountain Railway was inaugurated between Mettupalayam and Ootacamund in 1899 .
The Madras Tramways Corporation was promoted in Madras city in 1892 by Hutchinsons and Co. and began operating in 1895 , before even London had its own tramway system . It plied six routes in Madras linking distant parts of Madras city and covered a total of 17 miles ( 27 km ) .
The chief navigable waterways in the presidency were the canals in the Godavari and the Kistna deltas . The Buckingham canal was cut in 1806 at a cost of 90 lakhs of silver to connect the city of Madras with the delta of the Kistna river at Peddaganjam . Ships of the British India Steam Navigation Company frequently docked at Madras and provided frequent services to Bombay , Calcutta , Colombo and Rangoon .
In 1917 , Simpson and Co. arranged for a test flight by the first aeroplane in Madras while a flying club was established at the Mount Golf Club grounds near St Thomas Mount by a pilot named G. Vlasto in October 1929 . This site was later used as the Madras aerodrome . One of the early members of the club , Rajah Sir Annamalai Chettiar went on to establish an aerodrome in his native Chettinad . On 15 October 1932 , Royal Air Force pilot Nevill Vintcent piloted J. R. D. Tata 's plane carrying air @-@ mail from Bombay to Madras via Bellary . This was the beginning of Tata Sons ' regular domestic passenger and airmail service from Karachi to Madras . The flight was later re @-@ routed through Hyderabad and became bi @-@ weekly . On 26 November 1935 , Tata Sons started an experimental weekly service from Bombay to Trivandrum via Goa and Cannanore . From 28 February 1938 , onwards , Tata Sons ' Aviation division , now renamed Tata Airlines , began a Karachi to Colombo airmail service via Madras and Trichinopoly . On 2 March 1938 , the Bombay @-@ Trivandrum air service was extended to Trichinopoly .
The first organised postal service was established between Madras and Calcutta by Governor Edward Harrison in 1712 . After reform and regularisation , a new postal system was started by Sir Archibald Campbell and was introduced on 1 June 1786 . The Presidency was divided into three postal divisions : Madras North up to Ganjam , Madras South @-@ West to Anjengo ( erstwhile Travancore ) and Madras West , up to Vellore . In the same year , a link with Bombay was established then in 1837 , the Madras , Bombay and Calcutta mail services were integrated to form the All @-@ India Service . On 1 October 1854 , the first stamps were issued by the Imperial Postal Service . The General Post Office ( GPO ) , Madras , was established by Sir Archibald Campbell in 1786 . In 1872 – 73 , a bimonthly sea @-@ mail service began between Madras and Rangoon . This was followed by the commencement of a fortnightly sea @-@ mail service between Madras and ports on the eastern coast .
Madras was linked to the rest of the world through telegraphs in 1853 and a civilian telegraph service was introduced on 1 February 1855 . Soon afterwards , telegraph lines linked Madras and Ootacamund with other cities in India . A Telegraph department was set up in 1854 , with a Deputy Superintendent stationed in Madras city . The Colombo @-@ Talaimannar telegraph line established in 1858 , was extended to Madras in 1882 , thereby connecting the city with Ceylon . Telephones were introduced in the presidency in 1881 and on 19 November 1881 , the first telephone exchange with 17 connections was established at Errabalu Street in Madras . A wireless telgraphy service was established between Madras and Port Blair in 1920 and in 1936 , the Indo @-@ Burma radio telephone service was established between Madras and Rangoon .
= = Education = =
The first schools offering Western @-@ style education in the presidency were established in Madras during the 18th century . In 1822 , a Board of Public Instruction was created based on the recommendations of Sir Thomas Munro , after which schools teaching students in vernacular language was established . A central training school was set up in Madras as per Munro 's scheme . However , this system appeared to be a failure and the policy was altered in 1836 in order to promote European literature and science . The Board of Public Instruction was superseded by a Committee for Native Education . In January 1840 , during the viceroyalty of Lord Ellenborough , a University Board was established with Alexander J. Arbuthnot as the Joint Director of Public Instruction . The central school was converted to a high school in April 1841 with 67 students and in 1853 became the Presidency College with the addition of a college department . On 5 September 1857 , the University of Madras was established as an examining body using the University of London as a model with the first examinations held in February 1858 . C. W. Thamotharam Pillai and Caroll V. Visvanatha Pillai of Ceylon were the first to graduate from the University . Sir S. Subramaniya Iyer was the first Indian Vice @-@ Chancellor of the University .
Similarly , Andhra University was established by the Andhra University Act of 1925 and in 1937 , the University of Travancore was established in the princely state of Travancore .
The Government Arts College , established in Kumbakonam in 1867 , was one of the first educational institutions outside Madras . The oldest engineering college in the presidency , College of Engineering , Guindy , was established as a Government Survey School in 1794 before being upgraded to an Engineering College in 1861 . Initially , only Civil Engineering was taught , with the further disciplines of Mechanical Engineering added in 1894 , Electrical Engineering in 1930 and Telecommunication and Highways in 1945 . The AC College , with its emphasis on textiles and leather technology , was founded by Alagappa Chettiar in 1944 . The Madras Institute of Technology , which introduced courses such as aeronautical and automobile engineering was established in 1949 . In 1827 , the first medical school in the Presidency was established then followed by the Madras Medical College in 1835 . The Government Teacher 's College was established at Saidapet in 1856 .
Among the private institutions , the Pachaiyappa 's College , established in 1842 , is the oldest Hindu educational institution in the presidency . The Annamalai University , established by Rajah Sir Annamalai Chettiar in Chidambaram in 1929 , was the first university in the presidency to have hostel facilities Christian missionaries were pioneers in promoting education in the region . The Madras Christian College , St. Aloysius College at Mangalore , Loyola College in Madras and the St. Peter 's College at Tanjore were some of the educational institutions established by Christian missionaries .
The Madras Presidency had the highest literacy rate of all the provinces in British India . In 1901 , Madras had a male literacy rate of 11 @.@ 9 percent and a female literacy rate of 0 @.@ 9 percent . In 1950 , when the Madras Presidency became Madras State , the literacy rate was slightly higher than the national average of 18 percent . In 1901 , there were 26 @,@ 771 public and private institutions with 923 @,@ 760 scholars of whom 784 @,@ 621 were male and 139 @,@ 139 female . By 1947 , the number of educational institutions had increased to 37 @,@ 811 and the number of scholars to 3 @,@ 989 @,@ 686 . Apart from colleges , in 1947 there were 31 @,@ 975 public and elementary schools , 720 secondary schools for boys and 4 @,@ 173 elementary and 181 secondary schools for girls . Most of the early graduates were Brahmins . The preponderance of Brahmins in the universities and in the civic administration was one of the main causes for the growth of the Anti @-@ Brahmin movement in the presidency . Madras was also the first province in British India where caste @-@ based communal reservations were introduced .
In 1923 , the Madras University Act was passed after its introduction by Education Minister A. P. Patro . Under the bill 's provisions , the governing body of Madras University was completely reorganised on democratic lines . The bill asserted that the governing body would henceforth be headed by a Chancellor who would be assisted by a pro @-@ Chancellor , usually the Minister of Education . Apart from the Chancellor and the pro @-@ Chancellor who were elected , there was to be a Vice @-@ Chancellor appointed by the Chancellor .
= = Culture and society = =
Hindus , Muslims and Christians generally followed a joint family system . The society was largely patriarchal with the eldest male member the leader of the family . Most of the presidency followed a patrilineal system of inheritance . The only exceptions were the district of Malabar and the princely states of Travancore and Cochin which practised the marumakkathayam system .
Women were expected to confine themselves to indoor activities and the maintenance of the household . Muslims and high @-@ caste Hindu women observed purdah . The daughter in the family rarely received an education and usually helped her mother with household chores . Upon marrying , she moved to the house of her in @-@ laws where she was expected to serve her husband and the elder members of his family . There have been recorded instances of torture and ill treatment of daughter @-@ in @-@ laws . A Brahmin widow was expected to shave her head and was subjected to numerous indignities .
Rural society comprised villages where people of different communities lived together . Brahmins lived in separate streets called agraharams . Untouchables lived outside village limits in small hamlets called cheris and were strictly forbidden from having houses in the village . They were also forbidden from entering important Hindu temples or approaching high @-@ caste Hindus .
Serfdom was practised in almost all castes from Brahmins to non @-@ Brahmins subjecting agricultural labourers to bondage for non @-@ payment of debt . The Law Commission report on slavery in 1841 contains the indicative figures on the number of slaves , computed based on the population of specific castes of Pallar and Paraiyar . There were proposed regulations in 1811 and 1823 to prevent child labour . In 1833 , the British Crown and the House of Commons proposed immediate abolotion of slavery in India , but East India Company decreed otherwise . All legal recognition to permit the civil status of slavery were withdrawn with the Act V of 1843 and selling of slaves became a criminal offence in 1862 under the new Indian Penal Code . In spite of these regulations , serfdom continued and the slave population formed 12 @.@ 2 % – 20 % of the total population in 1930 across various districts of the Presidency .
With the influx of Western education starting from the middle of the 19th century , social reforms were introduced to remove the problems of traditional Indian society . The Malabar Marriage Act of 1896 recognised sambandham contracts as legal marriages while the marmakkathayam system was abolished by the Marmakkathayam Law of 1933 . Numerous measures were taken to improve the lot of Dalit outcasts . The Thirumala Tirupathi Devasthanams Act ( 1933 ) , included Dalits in the devasthanams administration . The presidemcy 's Temple Entry Authorization Act ( 1939 ) and its Temple Entry Proclamation ( 1936 ) of Travancore were aimed at elevating the status of Dalit and other low castes to a position equal to that of high @-@ caste Hindus . In 1872 , T. Muthuswamy Iyer established the Widow Remarriage Association in Madras and advocated the remarriage of Brahmin widows . The devadasi system was regulated in 1927 and completely abolished on 26 November 1947 . The Widow Remarriage movement was spearheaded in the Godavari district by Kandukuri Veeresalingam . Most of the pioneers of social reform were Indian nationalists .
Traditional pastimes and forms of recreation in rural areas were cock @-@ fighting , bull @-@ fighting , village fairs and plays . Men in urban areas indulged in social and communistic activities at recreational clubs , music concerts or sabhas , dramas and welfare organisations . Carnatic music and bharatanatyam were especially patronised by the upper and upper @-@ middle class Madras society . Of the sports introduced by the British in the presidency , cricket , tennis , football and hockey were the most popular . An annual cricket tournament , known as the Madras Presidency Matches , was held between Indians and Europeans during Pongal .
The presidency 's first newspaper , the Madras Courier , was started on 12 October 1785 , by Richard Johnston , a printer employed by the British East India Company . The first Indian @-@ owned English @-@ language newspaper was The Madras Crescent which was established by freedom @-@ fighter Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty in October 1844 . Lakshminarasu Chetty is also credited with the foundation of the Madras Presidency Association which was a forerunner of the Indian National Congress . The number of newspapers and periodicals published in the presidency totalled 821 in 1948 . The two most popular English @-@ language newspapers were The Hindu established by G. Subramania Iyer in 1878 , and The Mail , established as the Madras Times by the Gantz family in 1868 .
Regular radio service in the presidency commenced in 1938 when All India Radio established a station in Madras . Cinemas became popular in the 1930s and 1940s with the first film in a South Indian language , R. Nataraja Mudaliar 's Tamil film Keechaka Vadham , released in 1916 . The first sound films in Tamil and Telugu were made in 1931 while the first Kannada talkie Sati Sulochana was made in 1934 and the first Malayalam talkie Balan in 1938 . There were film studios at Coimbatore , Salem , Madras and Karaikudi . Most early films were made in Coimbatore and Salem but from the 1940s onwards , Madras began to emerge as the principal centre of film production . Until the 1950s , most films in Telugu , Kannada and Malayalam were made in Madras .
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= IPad 2 =
The iPad 2 is a tablet designed , developed and marketed by Apple Inc . Compared to the first iPad , as the second device in the iPad line it gained a faster dual core A5 processor , a lighter build structure , and was the first iPad to feature VGA front @-@ facing and 720p rear @-@ facing cameras designed for FaceTime video calling .
The device was available initially with three storage sizes , 16 , 32 and 64 GB and two varying connectivity options , Wi @-@ Fi only or Wi @-@ Fi and cellular . Each variation of the device is available with either a black or white front glass panel . However , upon the release of the 3rd generation iPad , only the 16 GB variation with two connectivity options and two front color options was available .
Apple unveiled the device on March 2 , 2011 . Upon the announcement of the iPad 2 , the original model of the iPad was discontinued . Sales of the iPad 2 online and at retail stores began in the United States on March 11 . It was then released in 25 other Oceanian , North American and Western European countries on March 25 and released in eleven Asian countries as well as one African country on April 29 . Subsequently on May 6 and 27 , the device was released in three South American , six Eastern European and three Asian countries .
The device received mixed to positive reception from various blogs and publications . Although it was praised for its hardware improvement , such as the new Apple A5 chip , the software restriction on the iPad 2 and iOS in general drew criticism from various technology commentators . The device sold well in its first month of sales with 2 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 6 million units sold and 11 @.@ 12 million units were sold in the third quarter of 2011 .
A popular product , with a lower screen resolution and performance than the two Retina models that followed it but a lighter build and longer battery life , it remained in the Apple line @-@ up as an entry @-@ level iPad model for three years until March 2014 , latterly with a silent upgrade to a die @-@ shrunk version of the A5 processor . Its basic design formed the core of the first iPad mini , which had the same screen pixel count and similar features at a smaller size . The iPad 2 has been able to run six major versions of iOS , from 4 to 9 , the first and only iOS device to be able to do so .
= = History = =
Apple sent invitations to journalists on February 23 , 2011 , for a media event on March 2 . On March 2 , 2011 , CEO Steve Jobs unveiled the device at the Yerba Buena Center for the Arts , despite being on medical leave . Upon the announcement of the iPad 2 , the original iPad was discontinued from sales online and at Apple authorized retail stores .
Apple began selling the iPad 2 on its website on March 11 , and in its U.S. retail stores at 5 pm local time on that date . Many stores in major cities , such as New York , sold out within hours . Online shipping delays had increased to three to four weeks on Sunday and four to five weeks by Tuesday .
The iPad 2 was released internationally in 25 other countries on March 25 , 2011 . The countries included Australia , Austria , Belgium , Canada , Czech Republic , Denmark , Finland , France , Germany , Greece , Iceland , Italy , Ireland , Hungary , Luxembourg , Mexico , Netherlands , New Zealand , Norway , Poland , Portugal , Spain , Sweden , Switzerland and the United Kingdom .
The April 29 , 2011 release date for Japan was postponed due to the earthquake and tsunami which struck the nation on March 11 , 2011 . The iPads were delayed due to the NAND flash storage chip used in the iPads being created by Toshiba , which was affected by the earthquake and tsunami thus resulting in the suspension of operations for an indefinite period of time . The slowdown caused analysts to downgrade Apple 's stock .
The iPad 2 was later released in Hong Kong , South Korea , Singapore , Malaysia and other countries including Japan on April 29 , 2011 . It was then released in numerous other nations which include China , Estonia , Thailand , Brazil , Russia and Taiwan on two major release dates , May 6 and 27 .
The 32 and 64 GB models were discontinued on March 7 , 2012 , upon the introduction of the third generation iPad . The 16 GB Wi @-@ Fi and 16 GB Wi @-@ Fi + 3G models were discontinued on March 18 , 2014 .
= = Features = =
= = = Software = = =
In late March 2011 , the iPad 2 was released alongside iOS 4 @.@ 2 @.@ 1 , which primarily introduced FaceTime , Personal Hotspots and AirPlay support among other features . The iPad 2 is compatible with iOS 4 @.@ 3 , which introduced Airplay Mirroring and Home Sharing among other features . On October 12 , 2011 , upon the release of the iPhone 4S , the iPad was upgradable to the iOS 5 firmware which brought over 200 new user features to iOS compatible devices including Notification Center , iMessage , Reminders , and an updated notifications system , using a new " banner " style instead of the previously used pop @-@ up " alert " style .
The iPad 2 comes with several applications by default , including Safari , Mail , Photos , Video , Music , iTunes ( store ) , Maps , Notes , Calendar , Photo Booth , and Contacts . The App Store is also available as a default application , it enables users to download from a database of 800 @,@ 000 applications , the price of these applications is set by the developers . Like all iOS devices , the iPad 2 can sync music , videos , apps and photos with a Mac or PC using iTunes , although when using iOS 5 and later , the user does not have to connect the iPad to the computer. iCloud also allows users to backup and sync their data with other compatible iOS devices via the internet . Game Center is available as a native social gaming platform on iOS , games downloaded via the App Store that have this feature enabled are able to integrate their achievement points , high @-@ scores and bonus system across all iOS devices into a single accumulative points and social platform . Although the tablet is not designed to make phone calls over a cellular network , a user can use a wired headset or the built @-@ in speaker and microphone and place phone calls over Wi @-@ Fi or cellular using a VoIP application .
The iPad 2 also adds the capability to support GarageBand , iMovie , and the iWork apps Pages , Keynote , and Numbers . These applications do not come with the iPad but are instead official applications from Apple sold within the App Store . On March 7 , 2012 , after the unveiling of the third generation iPad , the firmware of the iPad 2 was upgradable to iOS 5 @.@ 1 . Scott Rohde , a senior Sony executive described the iPad as " a game console disguised as a device that can be appropriated in the business workplace . "
On September 19 , 2012 , almost a week after the announcement of the iPhone 5 , iOS 6 was released for numerous iOS devices , including the iPad 2 . However , on iOS 6 , not all features are available on the iPad 2 . The software upgrade was downloadable as an over the air ( OTA ) update package and contains two @-@ hundred new features , including a mapping software designed by Apple dubbed Apple Maps , a " Clock " app , which features a timer , stopwatch and alarm , and Facebook integration among other new features and tweaks .
The iPad 2 is compatible with iOS 7 , which was released on September 18 , 2013 . However , some features are not supported . For example , like the iPhone 4 , the Notification Center and the Control Center use the transparent style instead of the translucent style in later iOS models .
The iPad 2 supports iOS 8 which was released September 17 , 2014 , making it the first iOS device to support 5 major versions of iOS ( including iOS 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , and 8 ) . While the device is still supported , most of the new features of the software are not supported due to relatively aged hardware and therefore , is limited in terms of performance . Users have also reported numerous problems after receiving the update including the accessibility features and battery @-@ related issues . Many users predicted that the iPad 2 was going to be dropped from updating to iOS 8 along with the iPhone 4 , the same process that happened with the iPhone 3GS and the iPod Touch ( fourth generation ) and earlier models , considering that it has been supported for more than 3 years .
It was confirmed on June 8 , 2015 , at Apple 's WWDC that the iPad 2 would support iOS 9 . This makes the iPad 2 the first iPad and only iOS device to support six major versions of iOS . As with previous releases , though , many headline features are unavailable on the iPad 2 , including predictive Siri , translucency effects , split @-@ view , slide @-@ over and picture @-@ in @-@ picture multitasking , Low Power Mode and the Health app. iOS 9 is said to feature performance improvements that may help the aging device function more smoothly , and initial tests suggest that it did not significantly impact available space . Other A5 @-@ based devices will also support iOS 9 including the iPhone 4S ( five major iOS versions ) , the iPad Mini ( four major iOS versions ) and iPod Touch 5G ( four major iOS versions ) .
It was confirmed that iPad 2 and iPad ( 3rd Generation ) will not support iOS 10 .
= = = Hardware = = =
The iPad 2 features an Apple A5 package @-@ on @-@ package ( PoP ) System @-@ on @-@ chip ( SoC ) , which comprises a 1 GHz dual @-@ core 32 @-@ bit Cortex @-@ A9 CPU , 512 MB of RAM and a dual @-@ core PowerVR SGX543MP2 GPU . Other features include front and rear cameras , a three @-@ axis gyroscope , headset controls , proximity and ambient light sensors , microphone , magnetometer , accelerometer and a 9 @.@ 7 inch multi @-@ touch screen with a maximum resolution of 1024 × 768 hence resulting in 132 ppi . The iPad 2 has four physical switches , including a home button near the display that returns the user to the home screen , and three plastic physical switches on the sides : wake / sleep , volume up / down , and a third switch for either screen rotation lock or mute . The home button on the iPad 2 is " easier to double tap " than the previous generation of the iPad . Apple reduced the size of the iPad by eliminating the stamped sheet metal frame from the display , integrating new thinner glass technology for the touch screen overlay , and slightly reducing the space between the display and battery . The iPad 2 's screen is thinner , lighter , and yet stronger than the original iPad 's . The iPad 2 also supports screen mirroring via the digital AV adapter and through AirPlay as of iOS 5 .
The iPad 2 has a 25 W · h rechargeable lithium @-@ ion polymer battery that lasts 10 hours , like the original iPad . It is charged via USB or included 10 W , 2 A power adapter . The battery is 2 @.@ 5 mm thick , 59 % smaller than the original and has three cells instead of two . The improvements allowed the injection @-@ molded plastic support frame to be omitted . The 10 W USB power adapter provides 4x the power of a conventional USB port . The tablet has an audio frequency response of 20 Hz to 20 kHz . Without third @-@ party software it can play the following audio formats : HE @-@ AAC , AAC , Protected AAC , MP3 , MP3 VBR , Audible formats ( 2 , 3 , 4 , AEA , AAX , and AAX + ) , ALAC , AIFF , and WAV .
The revised tablet adds front- and rear @-@ facing cameras , which allow FaceTime video calls with other iPad 2s , the third generation iPad , iPhone 4 and 4S , fourth @-@ generation iPod Touch and Macintosh computers ( running Mac OS X 10 @.@ 6 @.@ 6 or later with a webcam ) . The 0 @.@ 3 MP front camera shoots VGA @-@ quality 30 frame / s video and VGA @-@ quality still photos . The 0 @.@ 7 MP back camera can shoot 720p HD video at 30 frame / s and has a 5 × times digital zoom . Both shoot photo in a 4 : 3 fullscreen aspect ratio . The rear camera shoots video in 16 : 9 widescreen to match the 720p standard , although only the central 4 : 3 part of the recording is shown on the screen during recording . The forward @-@ facing camera shoots in 4 : 3 .
The Apple A5 chip doubles processing speed and has graphics processing that is up to nine times faster than the previous iPad . However , benchtests and hardware assessments performed by various third party news sources and technology blogs indicate that those claims are exaggerated , the benchmark assessment conducted by Anandtech showed that the GPU of the iPad 2 is only 3 times faster than that of the original iPad . CPU benchmarks conducted on the iPad 2 by iOSnoops indicate a 66 % performance increase compared to the original iPad .
3G versions of the iPad 2 offer CDMA2000 support for customers using the device on a CDMA network or GSM / UMTS support for customers using the device on a GSM / UMTS network . The iPad Wi @-@ Fi + 3G model includes an A @-@ GPS receiver for tracking the user 's location given permission . Also , the iPad 2 3G model includes a plastic cap @-@ like band at the top on the back for the 3G antenna . The metallic grille for the microphone is replaced with a matching plastic black grille on the 3G model . GSM models of iPad 2 use a SIM card while CDMA models use an ESN to connect to the cellular network .
The device is 15 % lighter and 33 % thinner than the original iPad ; it is thinner than the iPhone 4 by 0 @.@ 5 mm . The Wi @-@ Fi version is 1 @.@ 33 lb ( 600 g ) . Both the GSM and CDMA versions ( known respectively as the AT & T and Verizon versions in the US ) differ in weight slightly due to the mass difference between the GSM and CDMA cellular radios , with the GSM model at 1 @.@ 35 lb ( 612 g ) and the CDMA model at 1 @.@ 34 lb ( 608 g ) . The size of the iPad 2 is also less than the original iPad at only 9 @.@ 50 × 7 @.@ 31 × 0 @.@ 34 in ( 241 @.@ 2 × 185 @.@ 7 × 8 @.@ 8 mm ) , compared to the original iPad 's size at 9 @.@ 56 × 7 @.@ 47 × 0 @.@ 5 in ( 242 @.@ 8 × 189 @.@ 7 × 13 @.@ 4 mm ) .
After the announcement and release of the third generation iPad , the iPad 2 , which continued to be available for purchase , received a hardware upgrade . The upgraded variant of the iPad 2 features a smaller version of the Apple A5 SoC , which is able to reduce battery consumption . Benchmark tests conducted by Anandtech concluded that the upgraded variant is able to last longer by at least an hour and a half , depending on the task that is conducted on the device . The maximum temperature that the device heated up to was also less than original iPad 2 , tests conducted by the same organisation revealed that the upgraded variant was able to operate at 1 degree lower when performing intensive tasks . Performance difference between the two variants , according to Anandtech is negligible .
= = = Accessories = = =
The Smart Cover , first introduced with the iPad 2 , is a screen protector that magnetically attaches to the face of the iPad . The cover has three folds which allow it to convert into a stand , which is also held together by magnets . While original iPad owners could purchase a black case that included a similarly folding cover , the Smart Cover is meant to be more minimal , easily detachable , and protects only the screen . Smart Covers have a microfiber bottom that cleans the front of the iPad , and wakes up the iPad when the cover is removed . There are five different colors of both polyurethane and leather , with leather being more expensive than the polyurethane version .
Apple offers several more accessories for the iPad 2 , most of which are adapters for the proprietary 30 @-@ pin dock connector , the iPad 's only port besides the headphone jack . A dock holds the iPad upright at an angle , and has a dock connector and audio line out port . The iPad can use Bluetooth keyboards that also work with Macs and PCs . The iPad can be charged by a standalone power adapter ( " wall charger " ) also used for iPods and iPhones , and a 10 W charger is included with the iPad .
= = Reception = =
The iPad 2 received mixed to positive reviews , praising its Apple A5 processor and 720p camera . Joshua Topolsky of Engadget said that " for those of you who haven 't yet made the leap , feel free to take a deep breath and dive in -- the iPad 2 is as good as it gets right now . And it 's really quite good . " Jason Snell of Macworld said the following :
" Though the iPad 2 is an improvement on the original iPad in numerous ways , it ’ s still an evolutionary product , not a revolutionary one . If you ’ re happy with your current iPad , there ’ s no reason to dump it just because there ’ s a shinier , newer one . ( This is not to say that millions of people won ’ t do just that . I mean : shiny ! ) If you ’ ve invested in iPad accessories such as a dock or case , keep in mind that you probably won ’ t be able to use them with the new iPad . "
TechCrunch 's MG Siegler stated : " Let me sum all of this up in a simple way : the iPad 2 , should you buy one ? Maybe — it depends on a few factors . Will you want to buy one ? Yes . Use that information wisely . "
= = = Criticism = = =
The closed and proprietary nature of iOS has garnered criticism , particularly by digital rights advocates such as the Electronic Frontier Foundation , computer engineer and activist Brewster Kahle , Internet @-@ law specialist Jonathan Zittrain , and the Free Software Foundation who protested the iPad 's introductory event and have targeted the iPad with their " Defective by Design " campaign . Competitor Microsoft , via a PR spokesman , has also criticized Apple 's control over its platform .
= = = Technical problems = = =
At issue are restrictions imposed by the design of iOS , namely DRM intended to lock purchased media to Apple 's platform , the development model ( requiring a yearly subscription to distribute apps developed for the iOS ) , the centralized approval process for apps , as well as Apple 's general control and lockdown of the platform itself . Particularly at issue is the ability for Apple to remotely disable or delete apps at will . Some in the tech community have expressed concern that the locked @-@ down iOS represents a growing trend in Apple 's approach to computing , particularly Apple 's shift away from machines that hobbyists can " tinker with " and note the potential for such restrictions to stifle software innovation .
Some iPad 2 users reported performance issues when running iOS 8 . Apple improved performance on the iPad 2 and the iPhone 4S on the iOS 8 @.@ 1 @.@ 1 update . However , those 2 devices still don 't run as fast as the later models .
= = = Commercial reception = = =
During the first weekend of sale , more than one million units were sold . Soon after the first weekend , Ashok Kumar , a technology analyst for a financial firm predicted that Apple would sell 35 million iPad 2s in 2011 . Investment banking firm , Piper Jaffray monitored the initial sales of the iPad 2 and reported that 70 % of all iPad 2 sales were to first @-@ time iPad buyers with 49 % of buyers owning a PC compared to the initial buyers of the original iPad where only 26 % of buyers owned a PC . 12 @,@ 000 units were sold on auction site eBay in its first two weeks of release . When the iPhone 4S was released , rumors about the third generation iPad caused a decline in iPad 2 sales . Official figures released in the fourth quarter of 2011 indicate that Apple sold 11 @.@ 4 million iPads in the third quarter , a 166 % increase from the third quarter of 2010 .
= = Timeline = =
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= New York State Route 8 =
New York State Route 8 ( NY 8 ) is a north @-@ south state highway in the central part of New York in the United States . It runs in a southwest @-@ to @-@ northeast direction from the Southern Tier to the northern part of Lake George . The southern terminus of the route is at an interchange with NY 17 in the town of Deposit , where it begins concurrent with NY 10 . Its northern terminus is at a junction with NY 9N in the town of Hague . Roughly midway between the two endpoints , NY 8 passes through Utica , where it overlaps NY 5 , NY 12 , and Interstate 790 ( I @-@ 790 ) along one segment of the North – South Arterial .
NY 8 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York and originally extended north to a ferry across Lake Champlain at Putnam Station , where it connected to Vermont Route F @-@ 10 ( VT F @-@ 10 ) . The route was realigned slightly on its northern end by 1933 to connect to another ferry leading to VT F @-@ 9 east of Ticonderoga . By the following year , it was altered again to use the new Champlain Bridge at Crown Point to connect to VT 17 . This was made possible by way of a long concurrency with NY 9N and NY 22 . NY 8 was truncated to its current northern terminus c . 1968 . In the 1960s and 1970s , NY 8 was moved onto new freeways around and through the city of Utica .
= = Route description = =
= = = Southern Tier = = =
NY 8 begins at an interchange with NY 17 in Deposit that also serves as the southern terminus of NY 10 . NY 8 and NY 10 form a brief concurrency north along the West Branch of the Delaware River before separating at the southeastern edge of the Cannonsville Reservoir northeast of Deposit . While NY 10 follows the southern edge of the reservoir to the east , NY 8 continues north , passing to the east of Oquaga Creek State Park ( and connecting to the park via a pair of local roads ) before meeting NY 206 in Masonville . From Masonville , NY 8 heads north to Sidney , where it meets I @-@ 88 at an interchange , crosses the Susquehanna River , and intersects NY 7 before leaving the village adjacent to the Unadilla River , a tributary of the Susquehanna .
NY 8 parallels the Unadilla River northward through Mount Upton to New Berlin , where it meets NY 80 . The routes overlap for a short distance to the north before NY 80 separates to the northwest toward Sherburne . NY 8 , however , continues along the Unadilla River through several small communities before separating from the river just south of the Madison @-@ Oneida County line .
= = = Utica area = = =
Shortly after crossing into Oneida County , NY 8 intersects U.S. Route 20 ( US 20 ) in Bridgewater . The route continues northward , passing through Cassville and Clayville before becoming a limited @-@ access highway just north of Clayville . Near Sauquoit , NY 8 has exits for Pinnacle Road and Elm Street prior to entering the Utica suburbs . In New Hartford , the route has an exit with Genesee Street prior to meeting NY 5 and NY 12 at a cloverleaf interchange southwest of downtown Utica . While the right @-@ of @-@ way of NY 8 continues to the northeast through the cloverleaf as NY 840 , NY 8 joins NY 5 and NY 12 as the three routes enter downtown on the North – South Arterial .
Near the northern edge of downtown , NY 5 , NY 8 , and NY 12 interchange with NY 5A and NY 5S on the southern bank of the Mohawk River . At the exit , the three state routes are joined on the arterial by I @-@ 790 , which follows NY 5 , NY 8 , and NY 12 across the Mohawk River and the neighboring Erie Canal to a large interchange north of the canal . Here , I @-@ 790 and NY 5 separate from the concurrency while NY 8 and NY 12 remain concurrent into Deerfield as a limited @-@ access highway . After an interchange with a former routing of NY 12 , NY 8 separates from the highway and returns to an at @-@ grade roadway as it heads northeast to Poland . Near the Oneida @-@ Herkimer County line ( here delimited by West Canada Creek ) , NY 8 merges with NY 28 and follows the route across the county line ( as well as the creek ) into Poland . In the center of the village , NY 8 splits from NY 28 and heads northeast into Adirondack Park .
= = = Adirondack Park = = =
Within Adirondack Park , NY 8 follows a northeast – southwest routing as it crosses the lower half of the park . Near Ohio , NY 8 intersects NY 365 due north of where it enters the park . Past NY 365 , NY 8 becomes signed as an east – west highway as it heads east to Higgins Bay , where it intersects the northern terminus of NY 10 . The route continues northeast to Speculator , where it meets NY 30 . NY 30 turns east onto NY 8 , forming an overlap southeast to Wells , where NY 8 separates from NY 30 and heads to the northeast into Warren County .
In Wevertown , NY 8 intersects NY 28 for the final time prior to meeting US 9 at Loon Lake . The two routes merge , forming an overlap east to Chestertown , where US 9 splits from NY 8 and continues south . NY 8 , however , heads east , meeting I @-@ 87 shortly after departing US 9 . Past I @-@ 87 , NY 8 follows the southern edge of Brant Lake to the northeast before turning to the east toward Hague , where it terminates at NY 9N .
= = History = =
= = = Origins and terminus changes = = =
In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 8 was assigned to most of its current alignment from Deposit to Hague . The route also extended eastward to Wright ( southeast of Ticonderoga ) on modern NY 9N , NY 22 , and County Route 2 ( CR 2 ) , where it connected to VT F @-@ 10 by way of a ferry across Lake Champlain . From Clayville to Utica , NY 8 was originally routed along Oneida Street before overlapping with NY 5 and NY 12 along Genesee Street in downtown Utica . After crossing the Mohawk River and the Erie Canal , the three routes separated at the intersection of Herkimer Road , Trenton Road , and Coventry Avenue northeast of downtown . NY 8 then followed Coventry Avenue and Walker Road northeast to Deerfield , where NY 8 joined its modern alignment .
Prior to 1930 , what became NY 8 in the renumbering carried multiple designations along its routing . In 1924 , the segment of Genesee Street in Utica that became NY 8 was designated as part of NY 5 and NY 12 . Additionally , the portion of NY 8 from Wevertown to Chestertown became part of NY 10 . The segment from the modern intersection of US 9 and NY 8 to Chestertown was also designated as part of NY 6 . By 1926 , what became NY 8 from Sidney to New Berlin and from Bridgewater to downtown Utica was designated as NY 44 . Between New Berlin and Bridgewater , NY 44 followed what is now NY 80 through Edmeston to West Burlington and NY 51 from West Burlington to US 20 . It continued west to Bridgewater by way of an overlap with US 20 . From Utica to Wells , the 1930 routing of NY 8 was part of NY 54 , which continued south from Wells to Fonda via modern NY 30 and NY 30A . Between Chestertown and Ticonderoga , NY 8 was designated NY 47 . Until the renumbering , what became NY 8 was unbuilt from Deposit to Masonville and unnumbered from Masonville to Sidney . Additionally , the segments from New Berlin to Bridgewater and from Wells to Wevertown were unnumbered .
NY 8 was rerouted by 1933 to exit Ticonderoga to the east , using what is now NY 74 to reach Lake Champlain instead . At the lake , NY 8 connected to VT F @-@ 9 via the Fort Ticonderoga – Larrabees Point Ferry . The route was realigned again c . 1934 to follow NY 9N and NY 22 north from Ticonderoga to south of Port Henry , where NY 8 turned northeast to follow what is now NY 185 to the Champlain Bridge . The route became VT 17 on the opposite lakeshore . NY 8 was truncated to Hague c . 1968 , eliminating its overlaps with NY 9N and NY 22 .
= = = Relocation onto expressways = = =
In the early 1950s , construction began on a new arterial highway — known as the North – South Arterial — through downtown Utica . The first portion of the highway to open was the segment between River Road and Trenton Road , which was completed by 1956 . It was extended southward to Oriskany Street ( NY 5A ) by 1961 and completed entirely by 1964 ; however , NY 8 was not initially realigned to follow the highway . In the mid @-@ 1960s , plans were made to construct a new limited @-@ access highway along the NY 8 corridor from Clayville north to New Hartford , where it would connect with the North – South Arterial .
The freeway was constructed and completed in the early 1970s . NY 8 was realigned to follow the highway to New Hartford , from where it continued through Utica on the Arterial and I @-@ 790 . It rejoined its previous alignment at I @-@ 790 's interchange with Genesee Street . During this same period , the section of NY 12 between Deerfield and South Trenton was moved onto a new freeway built adjacent to NY 12 's original alignment . A connector between NY 12 and NY 8 by way of the Miller Road corridor was built at this time . NY 8 was rerouted in the mid @-@ 1970s to follow NY 12 north to its exit with the connector . Here , NY 8 left NY 12 and continued east on the connector to rejoin its original alignment at Walker Road . Ownership and maintenance of NY 8 's former routing north of the Utica city limits was transferred to Oneida County , which designated the highway as CR 92 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Ryan Burge =
Ryan James Burge ( born 12 October 1988 ) is an English footballer who plays as a midfielder for National League club Sutton United .
In his teenage years he had trials for clubs as far apart as the Netherlands , Japan , and England . He was under contract at Birmingham City , Barnet and Japanese side Machida Zelvia . He joined the Glenn Hoddle Academy in Spain in summer 2009 . From there he was sent out to Worcester City , Jerez Industrial , Doncaster Rovers , and Oxford United to gain first team experience . In June 2011 he signed with Port Vale via Hyde ( partners of the Hoddle Academy ) . He left Port Vale in April 2013 after falling out with the club 's management , and signed with Newport County for the 2013 – 14 season . After over 18 months out of the game , he signed with Sutton United in February 2016 , helping the club to win promotion as champions of National League South at the end of the 2015 – 16 season .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Born in Cheltenham , Gloucestershire , Burge scored 60 goals in a single season for Cheltenham YMCA as a child . He later spent a year at West Bromwich Albion , before playing alongside Daniel Sturridge at Cadbury Athletic . He also had a spell with Coventry City , and trialled for Ajax in the Netherlands , before trialling with Manchester United .
= = = Birmingham City = = =
After being tracked by both Manchester United and Manchester City , he began his professional career at Birmingham City , where he signed a three @-@ year contract at the age of 17 . Following the departure of manager Steve Bruce , Burge was released by Birmingham in March 2008 . He went on trial at League Two club Hereford United and League One side Cheltenham Town . He was verbally offered a short @-@ term contract by Cheltenham manager Keith Downing , but the deal collapsed after Downing was replaced as the Cheltenham manager by Martin Allen . He instead joined up with League Two side Barnet . He made his debut for Barnet in the 4 – 0 home defeat by Notts County on 15 November 2008 . This was the only appearance he made before his time there was disrupted by appendicitis , which ruled him out for four weeks . The club released him in January 2009 .
= = = Searching for a new club = = =
In February 2009 , Burge travelled to Japan , the birthplace of his step @-@ mother , in the hope of securing a contract with a J @-@ League club . He spent a week trialling with Division Two side Avispa Fukuoka , followed by a trial period at Division One outfit Oita Trinita . Top @-@ flight sides F.C. Tokyo and Sagan Tosu also expressed an interest in Burge , as he was tested at Kokushikan University against players such as Hidetoshi Nakata . He later joined third @-@ tier side Machida Zelvia , where he made a handful of appearances . Burge said that the clubs in Japan appreciate inexperienced but technical players and " they don 't just go for big lumps that head it and kick people " .
= = = Glenn Hoddle Academy = = =
In July 2009 , Burge was forced to return to England in order to renew his visa to stay in Japan . He participated in a pre @-@ season friendly against Malmesbury Victoria for Conference Premier side Forest Green Rovers . He was offered a contract , but rejected it and joined the Glenn Hoddle Academy in Spain on a two @-@ year deal , stating he felt it would help to improve his technical skill . Burge scored the quickest goal in the academy 's history , netting against Spanish side San Fernando after just 12 seconds . In March 2010 , Burge played once for Conference South club Worcester City , by arrangement with the Academy . In the 2010 – 11 season , Burge played for Jerez Industrial , the Spanish Tercera División club connected with the Glenn Hoddle Academy . He became established in central midfield after he recovered from numerous injury problems . He was sent off twice in 13 games and won the club 's Player of the Month award for October 2010 . They were in contention for promotion to the Segunda División B when a November 2010 article on the BBC Sport website described Burge as " the current star of the side " .
= = = Doncaster Rovers = = =
Burge moved to Championship club Doncaster Rovers on a short @-@ term deal on transfer deadline day , 31 January 2011 . He made his Doncaster debut as a second @-@ half substitute in a 6 – 0 home defeat to Ipswich Town on 15 February 2011 . That was to be his only appearance for the club . On 17 March 2011 , Burge joined League Two team Oxford United on loan for the rest of the season , after impressing in a reserve game against Colchester United which Oxford won 2 – 0 . He went straight into the starting line @-@ up for the match against Crewe Alexandra two days later , and provided the assist for James Constable 's winning goal . His first performance at Oxford received praise in the local media . A week later , Steve MacLean opened the scoring against Burton Albion , but Burge reportedly claimed the goal after the ball took a deflection off his heel on its way into the net for what would have been his first Football League goal . In mid @-@ April 2011 he was recalled by Doncaster , and a few weeks later they offered him a new deal .
= = = Hyde to Port Vale = = =
In June 2011 he signed a two @-@ year deal with Micky Adams ' Port Vale . The League Two club had to pay Hyde a small undisclosed fee , as the Conference North side secured his contract from their partnership with the Glenn Hoddle Academy . He missed the start of the 2011 – 12 season with a knee injury , and in November 2011 it was revealed that he would have to undergo surgery to correct the problem . He did not feature in matchday squads for the rest of the season , and was transfer listed in May 2012 . The door to the first team remained open though , after Burge had an encouraging and injury @-@ free pre @-@ season .
He came off the bench on 14 August 2012 – his first competitive game for twelve months – and " pulled the strings to help Vale control the second half " in a League Cup defeat to Championship side Burnley . He made his long @-@ awaited league debut at Vale Park four days later , replacing Chris Shuker 79 minutes into a 3 – 0 win over Barnet . Despite some impressive cameo appearances from the bench , a streak of wins kept Burge out of the first eleven until 29 September 2012 , when he made his first league start for the club at Valley Parade , in a 1 – 0 win over Bradford City . He scored his first goal for the club in the Football League Trophy at the Bescot Stadium ; his 20 @-@ yard left @-@ footed strike helped Vale to battle to a 2 – 2 draw with Walsall , though he missed his penalty in the shoot @-@ out victory . He opened the scoring in a 2 – 2 home draw with York City on 17 November 2012 , and was selected on the League Two Team of the Week for his performance .
He established himself in central midfield over the New Year with " a string of impressive performances " . However , on 12 March 2013 he missed a pre @-@ match team meal , but claimed he made his own way for the match against Bristol Rovers , only to be informed that he was not in the matchday squad when he was just five minutes away from Bristol . He took to Twitter to put his side of the story across , and an angry Micky Adams responded by saying Burge 's tweets were " absolute nonsense and he 's going to be disciplined " . Burge was suspended for two weeks for breaking the club 's " social media guidelines " after club management claimed he refused to apologise for the incident . On 12 April 2013 , with three games left of the season , Burge left the club by mutual consent . Club chairman Paul Wildes stated that " this has been a difficult decision for both parties " . Vale secured promotion into League One at the end of the 2012 – 13 season , and users of fan site One Vale Fan voted him their Player of the Season .
" ... From the moment we told the manager this [ that he was waiting to consider other options before signing a new contract offered by chairman Paul Wildes ] , I never played for the club again . We had a game against Bristol Rovers and I , like some of the other players , had agreed to be picked up by the team bus at a service station on the way . However , I received a message from the manager saying he was refusing to pick me up , and that I should make my f * * * * * own way there . I was left stranded , however , I managed to get a lift , I was five minutes from the team hotel two hours before kick off , and got a call telling me to go home I am now playing in the reserves tomorrow . I was understandably not happy so I wrote a tweet , then after the match the manager told the media I didn 't turn up . I have wrongfully been given stick for this ever since . But hopefully this clears things up . "
= = = Newport County = = =
Burge was linked with a move to Peterborough United in May 2013 , though also stated that " I am confident I could do a job at Championship level " . He also had a trial spell with Burnley . He eventually signed a contract with League Two side Newport County on 30 August 2013 . Illness and injuries limited his contribution at the beginning of the 2013 – 14 season . He impressed in central midfield during the second half of the campaign and manager Justin Edinburgh was reported to have opened talks to extend Burge 's stay at Rodney Parade beyond the summer . Despite these reports , Burge left the club in May 2014 .
In June 2014 he was reported to have agreed terms with South African side Bidvest Wits of the Premier Soccer League , but the move was never completed . He had a trial with Cheltenham Town in March 2015 , and impressed in a reserve game against Plymouth Argyle after being out injured for the season , but the club was unable to offer him a contract .
= = = Sutton United = = =
In February 2016 , Burge signed with National League South club Sutton United on a contract running until summer 2017 . He contributed three goals in five games as the U 's won promotion into the National League as champions of the Southern Division in 2015 – 16 .
= = Style of play = =
Keith Downing described Burge as " aggressive " and that he is " technically good and has a good frame " . After arriving at Port Vale in June 2011 , Vale manager Micky Adams stated , " Ryan is a creative central midfielder and will bring plenty of quality on the ball , but he is also a very hard @-@ working individual " . Neil Duncanson , the Glenn Hoddle Academy 's commercial director said : " Ryan is very strong , powerful and suited to the front of a diamond in central midfield . He 's a creative player who can take an excellent dead ball " . Burge has said of himself that " I 'm a midfield player who likes to put my foot in , as well as to get on the ball and create things . I try to be an all @-@ round midfield player and do a bit of everything " .
= = Personal life = =
His grandfather , Rod Burge , was a member of Cheltenham Town 's board of directors for over 25 years before his death in April 2014 .
= = Career statistics = =
As of 3 May 2016 .
Notes
Machida Zelvia statistics unavailable .
= = Honours = =
Port Vale
Football League Two third @-@ place promotion : 2012 – 13
Sutton United
National League South champion : 2015 – 16
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= Moberly – Jourdain incident =
The Moberly – Jourdain incident , or the Ghosts of Petit Trianon or Versailles ( French : les fantômes du Trianon / les fantômes de Versailles ) , refers to claims of time travel and hauntings made by Charlotte Anne Moberly ( 1846 – 1937 ) and Eleanor Jourdain ( 1863 – 1924 ) .
In 1911 , Moberly and Jourdain published a book entitled An Adventure under the names of " Elizabeth Morison " and " Frances Lamont " . Their book describes a visit they made to the Petit Trianon , a small château in the grounds of the Palace of Versailles where they claimed to have seen the gardens as they had been in the late eighteenth century as well as ghosts , including Marie Antoinette and others . Their story caused a sensation and was subject to much ridicule .
= = Background = =
Moberly , born in 1846 , was the tenth of fifteen children . She came from a professional background ; her father , George Moberly , was the headmaster of Winchester College and later Bishop of Salisbury . In 1886 Moberly became the first Principal of a hall of residence for young women , St. Hugh 's College in Oxford . It became apparent that Moberly needed someone to help run the college , and Jourdain was asked to become Moberly 's assistant .
Jourdain , born in 1863 , was the eldest of ten children . Her father , the Reverend Francis Jourdain , was the vicar of Ashbourne in Derbyshire . She was the sister of art historian Margaret Jourdain and mathematician Philip Jourdain . She went to school in Manchester , unlike most girls of the time who were educated at home .
Jourdain was also the author of several textbooks , ran a school of her own , and after the incident became the vice @-@ Principal of St. Hugh 's College . Before Jourdain was appointed , it was decided that the two women should get to know one another better ; Jourdain owned an apartment in Paris where she tutored English children , and so Moberly went to stay with her .
= = Claims = =
According to Moberly and Jourdain , the two women decided to visit the Palace of Versailles as part of several trips . On 10 August 1901 , they travelled by train to Versailles . They did not think much of the palace after touring it , so they decided to walk through the gardens to the Petit Trianon . On the way , they reached the Grand Trianon and found it was closed to the public .
They travelled with a Baedeker guidebook , but the two women soon became lost after missing the turn for the main avenue , Allée des Deux Trianons . They passed this road , and entered a lane , where unknown to them they passed their destination . Moberly noticed a woman shaking a white cloth out of a window and Jourdain noticed an old deserted farmhouse , outside of which was an old plough .
At this point they claimed that a feeling of oppression and dreariness came over them . They then saw some men who looked like palace gardeners , who told them to go straight on . Moberly later described the men as " very dignified officials , dressed in long greyish green coats with small three @-@ cornered hats . " Jourdain noticed a cottage with a woman and a girl in the doorway . The woman was holding out a jug to the girl . Jourdain described it as a " tableau vivant " , a living picture , much like Madame Tussauds waxworks . Moberly did not observe the cottage , but felt the atmosphere change . She wrote : " Everything suddenly looked unnatural , therefore unpleasant ; even the trees seemed to become flat and lifeless , like wood worked in tapestry . There were no effects of light and shade , and no wind stirred the trees . "
They reached the edge of a wood , close to the Temple de l 'Amour , and came across a man seated beside a garden kiosk , wearing a cloak and large shady hat . According to Moberly , his appearance was " most repulsive ... its expression odious . His complexion was dark and rough . " Jourdain noted " The man slowly turned his face , which was marked by smallpox ; his complexion was very dark . The expression was evil and yet unseeing , and though I did not feel that he was looking particularly at us , I felt a repugnance to going past him . A man later described as " tall ... with large dark eyes , and crisp curling black hair under a large sombrero hat " came up to them , and showed them the way to the Petit Trianon .
After crossing a bridge , they reached the gardens in front of the palace , and Moberly noticed a lady sketching on the grass who looked at them . She later described what she saw in great detail : the lady was wearing a light summer dress , on her head was a shady white hat , and she had lots of fair hair . Moberly thought she was a tourist at first , but the dress appeared to be old @-@ fashioned . Moberly came to believe that the lady was Marie Antoinette . Jourdain , however , did not see the lady .
After this , they were directed round to the entrance and joined a party of other visitors . After touring the house , they had tea at the Hotel des Reservoirs before returning to Jourdain 's apartment .
= = Aftermath = =
After leaving Versailles , neither Jourdain nor Moberly mentioned the incident to one another until a week later . Moberly wrote a letter about the trip to her sister and when she got to the afternoon of the Versailles incident , she asked Jourdain if she thought the Petit Trianon was haunted . Jourdain told her that she thought it was . Three months later in Oxford , they compared their notes , then decided to write separate accounts of what happened and research the history of the Trianon . In doing so , they found that on 10 August 1792 , the Tuileries palace in Paris was besieged , the king 's Swiss guards were massacred and the monarchy itself was abolished six weeks later .
They visited the Trianon gardens again on several occasions , but were unable to trace the path they took . Various landmarks , such as the kiosk and the bridge , were missing and the grounds were full of people . Trying to come up with an explanation , they wondered if they had stumbled across a private party or an event booked that day . However , they found that nothing had been booked that afternoon . During their research , they thought they recognised the man by the kiosk as the Comte de Vaudreuil , a friend of Marie Antoinette , who herself had been thought to have been seen by Moberly .
Convinced that the grounds were haunted , they decided to publish their findings in a book An Adventure ( 1911 ) under the pseudonyms of Elizabeth Morison and Frances Lamont . The book , containing the claim that Marie Antoinette had been encountered in 1901 , caused a sensation . However , many critics did not take it seriously on the grounds of the implausibilities and inconsistencies that it was thought to contain . A review of the book in the Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research suggested that the women had misinterpreted normal events that they had experienced . In 1903 , an old map of the Trianon gardens was found and showed a bridge that the two women had claimed to have crossed that had not been on any other map . The identity of the authors of An Adventure was not made public until 1931 .
Both women are reported to have had many paranormal experiences before and after their adventure . In one of them , Moberly claimed to have seen in the Louvre in 1914 an apparition of the Roman emperor Constantine , a man of unusual height wearing a gold crown and a toga ; he was not observed by anybody else . During the First World War , Jourdain , the dominant personality of the pair who had succeeded as Principal of St. Hugh 's , became convinced that a German spy was hiding in the college . After developing increasingly autocratic behaviour , she died suddenly in 1924 in the middle of an academic scandal over her leadership of the college , her conduct having provoked mass resignations of academic staff . Moberly died in 1937 .
The story of the adventure was made into a TV movie , Miss Morison 's Ghosts , in 1981 . The BBC broadcast a 90 @-@ minute radio dramatization in 2004 and 2015 .
= = Some explanations = =
In addition to the explanation by the women that they had been caught up in what is now called a time slip and had observed ghosts from the past , a non @-@ supernatural explanation of the events was proposed by Philippe Jullian in his 1965 biography of the aristocratic decadent French poet Robert de Montesquiou . At the time of Moberly and Jourdain 's excursion to Versailles , Montesquiou lived nearby and reportedly gave parties in the grounds where his friends dressed in period costume and performed tableaux vivants as part of the party entertainments . Moberly and Jourdain may have inadvertently gatecrashed a gay fancy dress party . The Marie @-@ Antoinette figure could have been a society lady or a cross @-@ dresser , the pockmarked man Montesquiou himself . It was suggested that a gathering of the French decadent avant @-@ garde of the time could have made a sinister impression on the two middle @-@ class Edwardian spinsters who would have been little used to such company .
In a review of the history of the Moberly @-@ Jourdain adventure and the extensive public reaction to it , Terry Castle noted with skepticism the claim that a shared delusion may have arisen out of a lesbian folie à deux between the two women . Castle concludes that , when all proposed explanations have been considered , a core of mystery remains as much in relation to the psychological dynamics of the pair as to any aspects of the paranormal associated with their story .
Without fully endorsing the de Montesquiou explanation , Michael Coleman carefully examined the story and , in particular , the two published versions of the ladies ' accounts ( the earlier @-@ written of which , from November 1901 , had only previously been published in the second , small print @-@ run , edition of An Adventure in 1913 ) . Coleman concluded that the more widely available texts , as published in the 1911 and later editions , had been considerably embroidered well after the events described and after the ladies had begun their investigations , while the original accounts had little or nothing to suggest a supernatural experience . He also questioned the rigour and reliability of the ladies ' subsequent researches , pointing out that few , if any , of their informants are named and that most of their literary and historical references were taken from unreliable sources .
Brian Dunning of Skeptoid researched much of the evidence and concluded that " Moberly and Jourdain were simply human " and were mistaken . He notes that in the second edition of An Adventure , it is revealed that Moberly did not mention the sketching woman until three months after their visit to Versailles , while Jourdain did not remember such a thing , and that Moberly did not remember much of what Jourdain described . " It was only after much discussion , note @-@ sharing , and historical research that Moberly and Jourdain came up with the time period as 1789 and assigned identities to a few of the characters they saw , including Marie Antoinette herself as the lady sketching on the lawn . "
Dame Joan Evans , who owned the copyright to An Adventure , accepted the Jullian explanation and forbade any further editions . However , after the work came out of copyright , it was republished in 1988 as The Ghosts of Trianon : The Complete ' An Adventure ' by Thoth Publication and again in 2008 by CreateSpace , both times crediting Moberly and Jourdain as the authors .
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= Stephens City , Virginia =
Stephens City ( / ˈstiːvənz / STEE @-@ vənz ) is an incorporated town in the southern part of Frederick County , Virginia , United States , with a population of 1 @,@ 829 at the time of the 2010 Census . In 2014 , it was estimated that the population of Stephens City had risen to 1 @,@ 921 .
Founded by Peter Stephens in the 1730s , the colonial town was chartered and named for Lewis Stephens in October 1758 . It was originally settled by German Protestants from Heidelberg . Stephens City is the second @-@ oldest municipality in the Shenandoah Valley after nearby Winchester , which is about 5 miles ( 8 km ) to the north . " Crossroads " , the first free black community in the Valley in the pre @-@ Civil War years , was founded east of town in the 1850s . Crossroads remained until the beginning of the Civil War when the freed blacks either escaped or were recaptured . Stephens City was saved from intentional burning in 1864 by Union Major Joseph K. Stearns . The town has gone through several name changes in its history , starting as Stephensburg , then Newtown , and finally winding up as Stephens City , though it nearly became Pantops . Interstate 81 and U.S. Route 11 pass close to and through the town , respectively .
A large section of the center of the town , including buildings and homes , covering 65 acres ( 26 ha ) , is part of the Newtown @-@ Stephensburg Historic District and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1992 . Stephens City celebrated its 250th anniversary on October 12 , 2008 . The town is a part of the Winchester , Virginia @-@ West Virginia Metropolitan Statistical Area , an offshoot of the Washington – Baltimore – Northern Virginia , DC – MD – VA – WV Combined Statistical Area . It is a member of the Winchester – Frederick County Metropolitan Planning Organization .
= = History = =
= = = Founding and early days = = =
Jost Hite , a German immigrant , purchased a large land grant in the northern Shenandoah Valley in 1731 . Peter Stephens and a small party of German Protestants from Heidelberg , in the Palatinate , arrived about 1732 to buy and settle that land , including the site of what became Stephens City , named for the Stephens family . Although Hite 's title to the land was challenged by Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron , the land baron of the area , the matter was settled amicably .
Town lots were laid out beginning in 1754 , and on September 21 , 1758 , Lewis Stephens petitioned the colonial government of Virginia in Williamsburg for a town charter . The Virginia General Assembly approved the charter for the town of " Stephensburgh " on October 12 , 1758 . The mostly German @-@ speaking residents soon left off the " h " ; the town was usually spelled " Stephensburg " . By the start of the Revolutionary War , Stephensburg was often called simply " New Town " or " Newtown " , as the new settlement on the Great Wagon Road south of Winchester .
Shenandoah Valley and Newtown 's central location attracted heavy traffic through the region , and wagon @-@ making emerged as an important industry for the town ; Newtown artisans supplied wagons throughout the state . By 1830 , the town 's population had reached 800 . In the late 1850s , free blacks began a settlement about a mile east of town which became known as Crossroads or Freetown , which lasted until the time of the American Civil War . After the January 1 , 1863 , Emancipation Proclamation , most of the newly freed slaves and many of the already free blacks left the area .
When the American Civil War broke out in 1861 , the majority of Newtown 's young men joined Confederate forces . During the war , the town was " between the lines " , nominally controlled by the Union but with much Confederate partisan activity . On May 24 , 1862 , Stonewall Jackson 's Confederate forces advanced northward on the Valley Pike and attacked Union troops . At Newtown , General George Henry Gordon of the Second Massachusetts Infantry ordered his Federal troops to make a stand . The skirmishing involved heavy artillery fire , but Gordon 's men retreated without loss of the important supply wagons . When Gordon left the town to Jackson 's forces , both sides claimed a victory .
In June 1864 , Major Joseph K. Stearns of the 1st New York Cavalry arrived under orders to burn the town down to help stop Confederate ambushes on the wagon road . Because the remaining population mostly consisted of women , children and the elderly , Stearns allowed the town to stand . He required the adult residents to take the " Ironclad oath " , in which they swore that they had not voluntarily provided aid to the Confederacy . The government required the oath , effectively excluding ex @-@ Confederates from the political arena during Reconstruction Era .
In April 1867 , the Virginia General Assembly granted a charter to the Winchester and Strasburg Railroad Company . The company was authorized to construct a rail line between Winchester and Strasburg , linking Newtown to the rest of the nation by railroad for the first time . Though the railroad improved the local economy , which had lagged after the end of the war , it decimated the wagon @-@ building trade . In 1880 , the United States Post Office Department , faced with nearly a dozen Newtowns in Virginia , announced that the local post office would be renamed Pantops . Dissatisfied with the name , the townsfolk chose " Stephens City " .
= = = 20th century to present = = =
The 20th century brought improvements to energy and domestic systems : electrical service was introduced in 1915 ; and in 1941 , just before World War II , the town installed a water system . The construction of Interstate 81 ( I @-@ 81 ) during the early 1960s depressed business development in the town . The wagon road , which had been made part of U.S. Route 11 , had led traffic through the center of town , but the interstate passed less than a tenth of a mile to the east , drawing off development , retail trade and ultimately , businesses . This caused downtown to decline . Developers constructed new residential subdivisions both within and outside the town boundaries to the east for access to I @-@ 81 .
The town surveyed its older buildings to establish architectural significance and to determine those that contributed to the town 's historic center . The Newtown @-@ Stephensburg Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in August 1992 . Renovation of the town center has attracted heritage tourism . Anticipating more growth , the town annexed 360 acres ( 1 @.@ 5 km2 ) of unincorporated Frederick County in 2005 , another 100 acres ( 0 @.@ 4 km2 ) in 2006 , and 175 acres ( 0 @.@ 7 km2 ) in 2007 . The town celebrated its 250th anniversary on October 12 , 2008 .
Virginia school systems had practiced resistance following the United States Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education ( 1954 ) that segregated public schools were unconstitutional . The United States District Court for the Western District of Virginia ordered Frederick County schools desegregated ( including those serving Stephens City ) in Brown v. County School Board ( 1964 ) . In 1994 , Virgil E. Watson was elected as the first African American to serve on the Stephens City Town Council . Watson served for one term from 1994 until 1998 .
On September 17 , 2004 , remnants of Hurricane Ivan spawned an F1 tornado that touched down just south of the town along Interstate 81 . It caused approximately $ 1 million in damage and injured two people . It was one of a record 40 tornadoes to hit northern Virginia that day .
= = Geography = =
The town is located between the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Appalachian Mountains in the northern Shenandoah Valley of Virginia in close proximity to West Virginia , Maryland , and Pennsylvania . Washington , D.C. , is approximately 65 @.@ 9 miles ( 106 @.@ 1 km ) to the east and Baltimore is 84 miles ( 135 km ) to the northeast .
= = = Climate = = =
Stephens City is located in the humid subtropical climate zone ( Köppen climate classification : Cfa ) , exhibiting four distinct seasons . Its climate is typical of Mid @-@ Atlantic U.S. areas removed from bodies of water . The town is located in plant hardiness zone 7 throughout the town and surrounding Frederick County , indicating a temperate climate . Spring and fall are warm , with low humidity , while winter is cool , with annual snowfall averaging 15 @.@ 0 inches ( 38 cm ) . Average winter lows tend to be around 30 ° F ( − 1 ° C ) from mid @-@ December to mid @-@ February . Blizzards affect Stephens City on average once every four to six years . The most violent nor 'easters typically feature high winds , heavy rains , and occasional snow . These storms often affect large sections of the U.S. East Coast .
Summers are hot and humid ; during this season , highs average in the upper 80s ° F ( lower 30s ° C ) and lows average in the upper 60s ° F ( lower 20s ° C ) . The combination of heat and humidity in the summer brings very frequent thunderstorms , some of which occasionally produce tornadoes in the area . While hurricanes ( or their remnants ) occasionally track through the area in late summer and early fall , they have often weakened by the time they reach Stephens City , partly due to the city 's far inland location .
The highest recorded temperature was 107 ° F ( 42 ° C ) in 1988 , while the lowest recorded temperature was − 18 ° F ( − 28 ° C ) in 1983 .
= = Demographics = =
As of the 2010 United States Census , the population of Stephens City was 1 @,@ 829 people in 743 households , and 447 families residing in the town . The total showed an increase of 59 @.@ 6 % from 2000 . The 2014 estimate placed the population at 1 @,@ 921 . The racial makeup of the town was 85 @.@ 1 % White , 7 @.@ 1 % African American , 0 @.@ 4 % Native American , 1 @.@ 8 % Asian , and 2 @.@ 8 % from other races . Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 7 @.@ 3 % of the population .
Of the 743 households in 2010 , 28 @.@ 8 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 38 @.@ 5 % were married couples living together , 14 @.@ 4 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 39 @.@ 8 % were non @-@ families . 27 @.@ 8 % of all households were made up of individuals and 24 @.@ 1 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 46 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 06 . The age distribution was 24 @.@ 1 % under 18 , 9 @.@ 2 % from 18 to 24 , 31 @.@ 5 % from 25 to 44 , 24 @.@ 3 % from 45 to 64 , and 10 @.@ 9 % who were 65 or older . The median age was 35 @.@ 6 years . The median income for a household in the town was $ 51 @,@ 944 , and the median income for a family was $ 66 @,@ 442 . In 2009 , employed males had a median income of $ 31 @,@ 875 versus $ 35 @,@ 461 for employed females . In 2009 , the per capita income for the city was $ 20 @,@ 581 .
On the 2010 Census , residents self @-@ identified with a variety of ethnic ancestries ; the major categories reflect descendants of the settlers of the 18th and 19th centuries . People of German descent make up 20 @.@ 4 % of the population of the town , followed by Irish at 11 @.@ 2 % , English at 7 @.@ 3 % , Italian at 5 @.@ 4 % , Scotch @-@ Irish at 3 @.@ 4 % , Polish at 2 @.@ 5 % , Scottish at 2 @.@ 4 % , Dutch at 2 @.@ 2 % , Danish at 1 @.@ 2 % , French at 1 @.@ 2 % , Swedish at 1 @.@ 1 % , Austrian at 0 @.@ 9 % , Portuguese at 0 @.@ 5 % , European at 0 @.@ 4 % , Russian at 0 @.@ 4 % , Welsh at 0 @.@ 4 % , British at 0 @.@ 3 % , Canadian at 0 @.@ 3 % , Croatian at 0 @.@ 2 % , Slovak at 0 @.@ 2 % , Subsaharan African at 0 @.@ 2 % , and French Canadian rounding out at 0 @.@ 2 % . 628 persons were of " other ancestries " .
= = Economy = =
The economy of Stephens City features several industries . According to the 2000 United States Census , the industries in the town ( by percentage of employed civilian population 16 years and over ) were manufacturing at 20 @.@ 4 % , educational , health and social services with 19 @.@ 9 % , retail trade at 12 @.@ 8 % , arts , entertainment , recreation , accommodation and food services with 9 @.@ 0 % , construction at 8 @.@ 0 % , other services ( except public administration ) with 6 @.@ 8 % , transportation , warehousing , and utilities at 4 @.@ 6 % , public administration with 3 @.@ 9 % , professional , scientific , management , administrative , and waste management services at 3 @.@ 7 % , finance , insurance , real estate , and rental and leasing with 3 @.@ 4 % , wholesale trade at 3 @.@ 4 % , information with 2 @.@ 2 % and agriculture , forestry , fishing and hunting , and mining at 1 @.@ 9 % .
Of the people in the labor force in the town over the age of 16 , the majority , 597 people or 66 @.@ 1 % of the population , were in the civilian work force , while 306 people , or 33 @.@ 9 % , of the population were not in the labor force at all . At the time of the Census , only nine people , or 1 @.@ 0 % , were unemployed , with none in the Armed Forces . Of the 588 residents employed age 16 and over , private @-@ sector wage and salary workers accounted for 457 of them or 77 @.@ 7 % . Ninety @-@ five people were classified as federal government workers , or 16 @.@ 2 % of the population , with the self @-@ employed making up 5 @.@ 8 % of the population or 34 people . Two people , or 0 @.@ 3 % , of the population were classified as unpaid workers .
The median household income for the town of Stephens City was $ 35 @,@ 200 , with the majority , 126 persons , or 24 @.@ 8 % , of the population in that class of income . Eighty people , or 15 @.@ 7 % , identified themselves as retired .
= = Culture = =
Town residents have access to two parks within town limits : Newtown Commons and Bel Air Street Park . Newtown Commons , sometimes called Newtown Park , is located along Main Street , and the other is on Bel Air Street . At Newtown Commons , residents can hold outdoor events such as picnics , fundraisers or small concerts . The Bel Air Street Park is a playground for children with standard swingsets and other activities .
Just outside Stephens City is Sherando Park . The park houses several trails , ponds , a pool , sports fields and more . Sherando Park is also home of the Virginia Tech Memorial Garden , planted in memory of the 2007 Virginia Tech massacre , which took place approximately 175 miles ( 282 km ) from the park . It has " a winding sidewalk shaped in the college 's trademark ' VT ' " and " a flagpole surrounded by 32 Hokie Stones " , one for each of the 32 victims of the shooting . The Memorial Garden was dedicated and opened on April 16 , 2009 , the second anniversary of the shooting . The park was built by the Shenandoah Chapter of Virginia Tech Alumni Association , which is based in nearby Winchester , Virginia .
The Family Drive @-@ In Theatre , a two @-@ screen drive @-@ in theater , is located near the town , on U.S. Route 11 just south of Stephens City . It is one of ten drive @-@ ins in the state of Virginia . The theatre converted to all @-@ digital in 2013 . Stephens City plays host to the annual " Newtown Heritage Festival " held each Memorial Day weekend . The three @-@ day event features many crafts , carnival @-@ style food , a tractor wagon ride through town , local music at Newtown Commons , a parade on Saturday and fireworks .
Stephens City is one of the towns along the Route 11 Yard Crawl . A yearly event held during the second Saturday in August , the Yard Crawl is an almost 50 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 80 km ) yard sale that stretches from Stephens City 's Newtown Commons south along U.S. Route 11 to New Market , Virginia . The event is sponsored by the Shenandoah County Chamber Advisory Group , five chambers of commerce , and the town of Stephens City .
= = Government = =
In 2010 , the head of Stephens City 's government was Mayor Joy B. Shull , a former member of the Town Council , who was elected in an unopposed May 4 election , and served four years as mayor . Shull succeeded Ray E. Ewing , who had served since 1994 , and retired at the end of his term . The representative body of Stephens City is known as the Town Council , whose members ( as of November 2012 ) include Ronald Bowers , Linden A. Fravel , Jr . , James H. Harter , Joseph Hollis , Joseph Grayson and Martha W. Dilg . Dilg was elected in a May 4 , 2010 , election to succeed Michael Grim , who left the Town Council at the end of his term . Shull 's replacement on Town Council was originally to be decided at a May 5 , 2010 , Town Council meeting but was not announced until June 29 , 2010 , when Joseph Grayson was officially named to fill Shull 's seat . On November 6 , 2012 , Joseph Hollis , Joseph Grayson and Ronald Bowers were all reelected to the Stephens City Town Council . Council member James Harter resigned on December 31 , 2013 , as he had moved outside of the town limits .
The town council voted to appoint Jason Nauman to fill Harter 's position on February 4 , 2014 . Mayor Shull @-@ Gellner announced in late July that she would be retiring after 34 years working for and with the town . Her last day with the town is on July 31 . Town councilwoman Martha Dilg was appointed mayor on September 2 , 2014 . In the November 4 , 2014 election , Regina Swygert @-@ Smith replaced Martha Dilg on the town 's council . Councilmen Linden Fravel and Jason Nauman were reelected . Mike Grim was elected mayor of the town , replacing Shull @-@ Gellner who stepped down in July .
As of 2014 , the town is served by Police Chief Charles Bockey and Fire Chief Greg Locke , both of whom are on the town 's Public Safety Committee . The town is served by five other committees : the Administrative Committee , the Personnel Committee , the Water and Sewer Committee , the Public Works Committee , and the Finance Committee . The members of those five committees are composed of Town Council members .
Stephens City is represented by Mark Berg ( Republican ) in the Virginia House of Delegates 29th District . Jill Holtzman Vogel ( Republican ) represents the town in the Virginia Senate 's 27th District . The town is represented by Frank R. Wolf ( Republican ) in the U.S. House of Representatives from Virginia 's 10th district . Barbara Comstock ( Republican ) will replace Wolf on January 3 , 2015 , as part of the 114th United States Congress . Tim Kaine ( Democrat ) and Mark Warner ( Democrat ) represent the town in the United States Senate .
= = Education = =
Frederick County Public Schools operate the public schools that serve Stephens City , although none are located within Stephens City proper ; public schools that serve Stephens City are within a mile of the town limits . The town and surrounding area are served by Bass @-@ Hoover Elementary School , Robert E. Aylor Middle School , and Sherando High School . The latter was named for one of the historic Iroquoian @-@ speaking tribes encountered by early European settlers to the Shenandoah Valley . Local private schools are available , and are also outside the town 's corporate limits . Shenandoah Valley Christian Academy is located at the northern section of the town limits . Powhatan School is in nearby Boyce in Clarke County , Virginia . Other smaller private or Christian @-@ based schools are located throughout Frederick County and elsewhere in the area .
= = Transportation = =
Historic U.S. Route 11 traverses Stephens City proper , while Interstate 81 serves as the eastern border of the town . Stephens City serves as the western terminus of State Route 277 , which begins at U.S. Route 11 and ends only 4 @.@ 72 miles ( 7 @.@ 60 km ) away in Double Tollgate , Clarke County , Virginia , at U.S. Routes 340 and 522 .
Plans are in place to move State Route 277 to near The Family Drive @-@ In Theatre , 0 @.@ 50 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) south of its current western terminus with US Route 11 with the eastern terminus remaining at its current location . The planned construction will also move the I @-@ 81 interchange at Stephens City , where there are a number of service stations and fast food restaurants , south of the town limits to alleviate congestion on the current Route 277 bridge , which will remain after construction is completed . Planners expect expansion of Stephens City to the south .
= = Religion = =
The earliest organized religious services in Stephens City began in 1790s when a Methodist Episcopal church was created in the town . The first church structure , the " Methodist Episcopal Church in Stephensburg " , dates from 1791 . The current Stephens City United Methodist Church was constructed near that historic site .
The oldest surviving church building in the town is Orrick Chapel , built between 1866 and 1869 as the home of an African Methodist Episcopal congregation . Missionaries from this first independent black denomination came South after the war to aid freedmen and plant new congregations ; they attracted hundreds of thousands of new members . This church replaced an earlier Methodist chapel constructed in the late 1850s ; it was razed by Union troops during the winter months of 1864 – 1865 near the end of the Civil War .
As of 2010 , within the town limits are congregations of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America and United Methodist Church as well as those of the Baptist , Mennonite , Pentecostal , Charismatic Episcopal and Full Gospel denominations of Christianity . Just south of the town limits is a Unitarian Universalist church . A Roman Catholic parish affiliated with the Diocese of Arlington and a Jewish synagogue , which each function as centers for their respective members in the entire Shenandoah Valley , are located approximately 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) north in Winchester .
= = Notable people = =
Timothy T. O 'Donnell – Author and professor ( since 1992 ) and president ( since 2002 ) of Christendom College
Kelley Washington – Professional football player in the National Football League
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= Huia =
The huia ( Māori : [ ˈhʉia ] ; Heteralocha acutirostris ) was the largest species of New Zealand wattlebird , endemic to the North Island of New Zealand . Its extinction in the early 20th century had two primary causes . The first was rampant overhunting to procure huia skins for mounted specimens , which were in worldwide demand by museums and wealthy private collectors . Huia were also hunted to obtain their long , striking tail feathers for locally fashionable hat decorations . The second major cause of extinction was the widespread deforestation of the lowlands of the North Island by European settlers to create pasture for agriculture . Most of these forests were ancient , ecologically complex primary forests , and huia were unable to survive in regenerating secondary forests . The last confirmed sighting of a huia was on 28 December 1907 in the Tararua Ranges . Further credible sightings near Wellington were reported until 1922 , and in Te Urewera National Park in the early 1960s .
The huia belonged to a family found only in New Zealand . Before the arrival of Europeans it was already a rare bird , confined to the Ruahine , Tararua , Rimutaka and Kaimanawa mountain ranges in the south east of the North Island . It was remarkable for having the most pronounced sexual dimorphism in bill shape of any bird species in the world . The female 's beak was long , thin and arched downward , while the male 's was short and stout , like that of a crow . Males were 45 cm ( 18 in ) long , while females were larger at 48 cm ( 19 in ) . The sexes were otherwise similar , with orange wattles and predominantly black plumage with a green sheen . The birds lived in forests at both montane and lowland elevations – they are thought to have moved seasonally , living at higher elevation in summer and descending to lower elevation in winter . Huia were omnivorous and ate adult insects , grubs and spiders , as well as the fruits of a small number of native plants . Males and females used their beaks to feed in different ways : the male used his bill to chisel away at rotting wood , while the female 's longer , more flexible bill was able to probe deeper areas .
Even though the huia is frequently mentioned in biology and ornithology textbooks because of this striking dimorphism , not much is known about its biology ; it was little studied before it was driven to extinction . The huia is one of New Zealand 's best @-@ known extinct birds because of its bill shape , its sheer beauty and special place in Māori culture and oral tradition . The bird was regarded by Māori as tapu ( sacred ) , and the wearing of its skin or feathers was reserved for people of high status . The huia was a bird of deep metallic , bluish @-@ black plumage with a greenish iridescence on the upper surface , especially about the head . The tail feathers were unique among endemic birds in having a broad white band across the tips .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
The genus name , Heteralocha , derives from Ancient Greek ἕτερος " different " and ἄλοχος " wife " . It refers to the striking difference in bill shape between male and female . The specific name , acutirostris , derives from Latin acutus , meaning " sharp pointed " , and rostrum , meaning " beak " , and refers to the beak of the female .
John Gould described the huia in 1836 as two species : Neomorpha acutirostris based on a female specimen , and N. crassirostris based on a male specimen — the epithet crassirostris derives from the Latin crassus , meaning " thick " or " heavy " , and refers to the male 's short bill . In 1840 , George Robert Gray proposed the name N. gouldii , arguing that neither of Gould 's names was applicable to the species . In 1850 , Jean Cabanis replaced the name Neomorpha , which had been previously used for a cuckoo genus , with Heteralocha . In 1888 Sir Walter Buller wrote : " I have deemed it more in accordance with the accepted rules of zoological nomenclature to adopt the first of the two names applied to the species by Mr Gould ; and the name Neomorpha having been previously used in ornithology , it becomes necessary to adopt that of Heteralocha , proposed by Dr Cabanis for this form . "
The huia appears to be a remnant of an early expansion of passerines in the country of New Zealand , and is the largest of the three members of the family Callaeidae , the New Zealand wattlebirds ; the others are the saddleback and the kōkako . The only close relative to the family is the stitchbird ; their taxonomic relationships to other birds remain to be determined . A molecular study of the nuclear RAG @-@ 1 and c @-@ mos genes of the three species within the family proved inconclusive , the data providing most support for either a basally diverging kōkako or huia .
= = Description = =
The huia had black plumage with a green metallic tinge and distinctive rounded bright orange wattles at the gape . In both sexes , the eyes were brown ; the beak was ivory white , greyish at the base ; the legs and feet were long and bluish grey while the claws were light brown . Huia had twelve long glossy black tail feathers , each tipped for 2 @.@ 5 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 – 1 @.@ 18 in ) with a broad band of white . Immature huia had small pale wattles , duller plumage flecked with brown , and a reddish @-@ buff tinge to the white tips of the tail feathers . The beak of the young female was only slightly curved . Māori referred to certain huia as huia @-@ ariki , " chiefly huia " . The huia @-@ ariki had brownish plumage streaked with grey , and the feathers on the neck and head were darker . This variant may have been a partial albino , or perhaps such birds were simply of great age . Several true albino huia were recorded . A white specimen painted by John Gerrard Keulemans around 1900 may have been the result of progressive greying , leucism or ino , rather than albinism ; the current whereabouts of this specimen are unknown .
Although sexual dimorphism in bill shape is found in other birds , such as the riflebirds , sicklebills and other wood @-@ excavating birds including some species of woodpecker , it was most pronounced in the huia . The beak of the male was short at approximately 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) and slightly arched downwards and robust , very similar to that of the closely related saddleback , while the female 's beak was finer , longer at around 104 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) , and decurved ( curved downward ) like that of a hummingbird or honeyeater . The difference was not only in the bone ; the rhamphotheca grew way past the end of the bony maxilla and mandible to produce a pliable implement able to deeply penetrate holes made by wood @-@ boring beetle larvae . The skulls and mandibles of the huia and saddleback are very similar , the latter essentially miniatures of the former .
There are two possible explanations for the evolution of this sexual difference in bill shape . The most widely supported is that it allowed birds of different sexes to utilise different food sources . This divergence may have arisen because of a lack of competitors in these foraging niches in the North Island forest ecosystems . The other idea is that the ivory @-@ coloured bill , which contrasted sharply with the bird 's black plumage , may have been used to attract a mate . In animals that use sexually dimorphic physical traits to attract a mate , the dimorphic feature is often brightly coloured or contrasts with the rest of the body , as with the huia . It has been suggested that as the female was the main provider of food for the chicks by regurgitation , this sex evolved the longer bill to obtain the protein @-@ rich invertebrate diet required for the chicks .
Another , less obvious aspect of the huia 's sexual dimorphism was the minor size difference between the sexes . Males were 45 cm ( 18 in ) long , while females were larger at 48 cm ( 19 in ) . Additionally , the tail of the male was about 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) in length and the wingspan was between 21 and 22 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 and 8 @.@ 7 in ) , while the female 's tail was 19 @.@ 5 to 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 7 to 7 @.@ 9 in ) and the female 's wingspan was 20 to 20 @.@ 5 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 to 8 @.@ 1 in ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Subfossil deposits and midden remains suggest that the huia was once widespread in both lowland and montane native forest throughout the North Island , extending from the northernmost tip at Cape Reinga to Wellington and the Aorangi Range in the far south . Only a few huia are known from the extensive pitfall deposits in the karst of the Waitomo Caves area and they are also rare or absent in fossil deposits in the central North Island and Hawke 's Bay ; it seems to have preferred habitats that are not well sampled by the deposits known at present . Its range appears to have contracted following Māori settlement in the middle 12th century . By the time of European settlement in the 1840s , the bird was found only in the forests of the southern North Island , south of a line from the Raukumara Range in the east , across the Kaimanawa Range , to the Turakina River in the Rangitikei in the west . In the south , its range extended to the Wairarapa and the Rimutaka Range east of Wellington . Reports collected by Walter Buller and a single waiata ( Māori song ) suggest that the huia was once also found in the Marlborough and Nelson districts of the South Island ; however , it has never been identified in the rich fossil deposits south of Cook Strait , and there is no other evidence of the species ' presence .
The huia inhabited both of the two principal forest types in New Zealand . They were primarily found in broadleaf @-@ podocarp forests where there was a dense understorey , but occasionally also in southern beech ( Nothofagus ) forest . The species was observed in native vegetation including mataī ( Prumnopitys taxifolia ) , rimu ( Dacrydium cupressinum ) , kahikatea ( Dacrycarpus dacrydioides ) , northern rātā ( Metrosideros robusta ) , maire ( Nestegis ) , hinau ( Elaeocarpus dentatus ) , totara ( Podocarpus totara ) , rewarewa ( Knightia excelsa ) , mahoe ( Melicytus ramiflorus ) , and taraire ( Beilschmiedia tarairi ) , and at sea level in karaka ( Corynocarpus laevigatus ) trees at Cape Turakirae . It was never seen in burnt forest or land cleared for farming .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
= = = Movements = = =
The huia 's movements are little known , but it was most likely sedentary . The huia is thought to have undertaken seasonal movements , living in montane forests in the summer and moving down into lowland forests in the winter to avoid the harsher weather and cold temperatures of higher altitudes . Like the surviving New Zealand wattlebirds , the saddleback and the kōkako , the huia was a weak flier and could only fly for short distances , and seldom above tree height . More often it would use its powerful legs to propel it in long leaps and bounds through the canopy or across the forest floor , or it would cling vertically to tree trunks with its tail spread for balance .
= = = Feeding and ecology = = =
The huia , with the previously endangered saddleback , were the two species of classic bark and wood probers in the arboreal insectivore guild in the New Zealand avifauna . Woodpeckers do not occur east of Wallace 's line ; their ecological niche is filled by other groups of birds that feed on wood @-@ boring beetle larvae , albeit in rotting wood . The woodpecker @-@ like role was taken on by two species in two different families in the New Zealand mixed @-@ podocarp and Nothofagus forests ; one was the huia and the other was the kaka .
The huia foraged mainly on decaying wood . Although it was considered a specialist predator of the larvae of the nocturnal huhu beetle ( Prionoplus reticularis ) , it also ate other insects — including weta — insect larvae , spiders , and fruit .
Insects and spiders were taken from decaying wood , from under bark , mosses and lichens , and from the ground . Huia foraged either alone , in pairs , or in small flocks of up to five , which were probably family groups . The sexual dimorphism of the bill structure gave rise to feeding strategies that differed radically between the sexes . The male used its adze @-@ like bill to chisel and rip into the outer layers of decaying wood , while the female probed areas inaccessible to the male , such as the burrows of insect larvae in living wood . The male had well @-@ developed cranial musculature allowing rotten wood to be chiselled and pried apart by " gaping " motions . There are corresponding differences in the structure and musculature of the head and neck between males and females . Huia had very well developed depressor jaw muscles , and an occipital crest that provided extra surface for muscle attachment , allowing the jaw to be opened with considerable force . Once the bird had secured a meal , it flew to a perch with the insect in its feet . The huia stripped its meal of any hard parts , then tossed the remainder up , caught , and swallowed it .
Pairs did not cooperate in feeding , at least not in a strict sense . All such reports are based on misunderstanding of an account by ornithologist Walter Buller of a pair kept in captivity obtaining wood @-@ boring beetle larvae . According to this misunderstanding , which has become part of ecological folklore , the male would tear at the wood and open larval tunnels , thus allowing the female to probe deeply into the tunnels with her long , pliant bill . Rather , the divergent bills represent an extreme example of niche differentiation , reducing intraspecific competition between the sexes . This allowed the species to exploit a wide range of food sources in different microhabitats .
The New Zealand forest relies heavily on frugivorous birds for seed dispersal : about 70 % of the woody plants have fruits that are probably dispersed by birds , which included the huia . The range of fruits eaten by the huia is difficult to establish : hinau ( Elaeocarpus dentatus ) , pigeonwood ( Hedycarya arborea ) and various species of Coprosma are recorded by Buller , and they were also recorded as eating the fruits of kahikatea ( Dacrycarpus dacrydioides ) . The extinction of the huia and other frugivorous New Zealand bird species including the moa and piopio , and the diminishing range of many others , including the kiwi , weka , and kōkako , has left few effective seed dispersers in the New Zealand forest . For plants with fruit greater than 1 cm in diameter , kereru are the sole remaining dispersers in the ecosystem , and they are rare or extinct in some areas . This depletion of avifauna in the forest ecosystem may be having major impacts on processes such as forest regeneration and seed dispersal .
= = = Voice = = =
Like so many other aspects of its biology , the vocalisations of the huia are not well known , and present knowledge is based on very few accounts . The calls were mostly a varied array of whistles , " peculiar and strange " , but also " soft , melodious and flute @-@ like " . An imitation of the bird 's call survives as a recording of 1909 huia search team member Henare Hamana whistling the call ( see External links ) . Huia were often silent . When they did vocalise , their calls could carry considerable distances – some were audible from up to 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) away through dense forest . The calls were said to differ between sexes , though there are no details . Calls were given with the bird 's head and neck stretched outward and its bill pointing 30 to 45 degrees from the vertical . Most references describe huia calls as heard in the early morning ; one records it as the first bird to sing in the dawn chorus , and captive birds were known to " wake the household " . Like the whitehead , huia behaved unusually before the onset of wet weather , being " happy and in full song " . The bird 's name is onomatopoeic : it was named by Māori for its loud distress call , a smooth , unslurred whistle rendered as uia , uia , uia or where are you ? . This call was said to be given when the bird was excited or hungry . Chicks had a " plaintive cry , pleasant to the ear " , would feebly answer imitations by people , and were very noisy when kept in tents .
= = = Commensals and parasites = = =
A species of parasitic phtilopterid louse , Rallicola extinctus , was only known to live on the huia , and apparently became extinct with its host . In 2008 , a new species of feather mite , Coraciacarus muellermotzfeldi , was described from dried corpses found in the feathers of a huia skin held by a European museum . While the genus Coraciacarus has a wide range of hosts globally , the presence of a representative of the genus on a passerine bird was an " enigmatic phenomenon " . The discoverers suggested the mite could have been horizontally transferred from one of the two native , migratory species of cuckoo ( Cuculiformes ) .
= = Social behaviour and reproduction = =
A quiet , social bird , the huia was monogamous , and pairs probably paired for life . The bird was usually found in breeding pairs , although sometimes groups of four or more were encountered . Walter Buller records that a tame pair would always keep close to each other , constantly uttering a " low affectionate twitter " , even when in captivity . There are records of this same pair and a further , wild pair " hopping from branch to branch and fanning their tails , then meeting to caress each other with their bills " and uttering these noises . The male is said to have fed the female in courtship . It is thought that these behaviours may have been a sexual display . The claim that the male fed the female while she was incubating and on the nest " lacks evidence " . When the male of this captive pair was accidentally killed , the female " manifesting the utmost distress pined for her mate and died 10 days afterwards " . A Māori man in the 19th century recalled : " I was always told by my old people that a pair of huia lived on most affectionate terms ... If the male died first , the female died soon after of grief " . The huia had no fear of people ; females allowed themselves to be handled on the nest , and birds could easily be captured by hand .
Little is known about the huia 's reproduction , as only two eggs and four nests were ever described . The only known huia egg to still exist is in the collection of the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa . The breeding season for mating , building nests , laying eggs and raising young is thought to have been late spring ( October – November ) . It is thought they nested solitarily ; pairs are said to have been territorial and the birds would remain on their territories for life . Huia appear to have raised just one brood per season ; the number of eggs in a clutch is variously described as being 3 – 5 @,@ 4 @,@ 2 – 4 and 1 – 4 . These eggs were greyish with purple and brown speckles , and measured 45 by 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 by 1 @.@ 2 in ) . Incubation was mostly by the female , though there is evidence that the male also had a small role , as rubbed @-@ bare brooding patches that were smaller than those of females were discovered on some males in November . The incubation period is unknown . Eggshells were apparently removed from the nest by adults . The brood size was usually one or two , though there was the odd record of up to three chicks in a single nest . Nests were constructed in varying places : in dead trees , the crooks of large branches , tree hollows , on branches , or " on or near the ground " , and some nests were covered with hanging vegetation or vines . The nest itself was a large saucer @-@ shaped structure , up to 350 mm in diameter and 70 mm deep , with thick walls of dry grass , leaves and " withered stems of herbaceous plants " . A central small , shallow cup of soft materials such as grass and fine twigs cushioned and insulated the eggs . After hatching , young remained in the family group and were fed by the adults for three months , by which time they appeared adult .
= = Relationship with humans = =
= = = In culture = = =
In Māori culture , the " white heron and the Huia were not normally eaten but were rare birds treasured for their precious plumes , worn by people of high rank " . The bold and inquisitive nature of the huia made it particularly easy to capture . Māori attracted the huia by imitating its call and then captured it with a tari ( a carved pole with a noose at the end ) or snare , or killed it with clubs or long spears . Often they exploited the strong pair bond by capturing one of a pair , which would then call out , attracting its mate , which could be easily captured . Opinion on the quality of huia meat as food varied wildly ; although not usually hunted for this purpose , the huia was considered " good eating " in pies or curried stew by some , but a " tough morsel " and " unfit to eat " by others .
Although the huia 's range was restricted to the southern North Island , its tail feathers were valued highly and were exchanged among tribes for other valuable goods such as pounamu and shark teeth , or given as tokens of friendship and respect . Through this trade , the feathers reached the far north and the far south of New Zealand . They were stored in intricately carved boxes called waka huia , which were hung from the ceilings of chiefs ' houses . Huia feathers were worn at funerals and used to decorate the heads of the deceased . The marereko , described by Edward Robert Tregear as an " ancient war @-@ plume " , consisted of twelve huia feathers . The highly valued pōhoi was an ornament made from the skin of the huia : the bird was skinned with the beak , skull and wattles attached and the legs and wings removed , carefully dried , and the resulting ornament worn from the neck or ears . Dried huia heads were also worn as pendants called ngutu huia . A captured huia would be kept in a small cage so that its tail feathers could be plucked as they grew to full size .
The bird was also kept by Māori as a pet , and like the tui , it could be trained to say a few words . There is also a record of a tame huia kept by European settlers in a small village in the Forty @-@ Mile Bush in the 19th century .
New Zealand has released several postage stamps portraying the huia , and the New Zealand sixpence circulated from 1933 to 1966 featured a female huia on the reverse .
The degree to which the huia was known and admired in New Zealand is reflected in the large number of suburban and geographical features which are named after the species . There are several roads and streets named after the huia in the North Island , with several in Wellington ( including Huia Road in Days Bay – not far from where one of the last sightings of this species occurred in the early 1920s in the forests of East Harbour Regional Park ) and also in Auckland , where there is even a Huia suburb in Waitakere . A river on the west coast of the South Island and the Huiarau Ranges in the central North Island are also named after the bird . The species was once found living in great abundance in the forests of these mountains : Huiarau means " a hundred huia " . Businesses include the public swimming pool in Lower Hutt , a Marlborough winery , and Huia Publishers , which specialises in Māori writing and perspectives . The name was first given to a child in the late 19th century , to the son of members of a lower North Island iwi concerned about the bird 's rapid decline , and although uncommon , it is still used today in New Zealand as a name for girls and more rarely for boys ( e.g. Huia Edmonds ) , of both European and Māori descent .
Tail feathers of the extinct huia are very rare and they have become a collectors ' item . In June 2010 a single huia tail feather sold at auction in Auckland for NZ $ 8 @,@ 000 , much higher than the $ 500 the auctioneers had expected , making it the most expensive feather ever . The previous record price for a single feather was $ US2,800 ( NZ $ 4 @,@ 000 ) achieved by a bald eagle feather at auction in the United States .
In the 2016 New Zealand film Hunt for the Wilderpeople two of the characters encounter a huia , and eventually set out to obtain proof of their siting .
= = = Extinction = = =
The huia was found throughout the North Island before humans arrived in New Zealand . The Māori are estimated to have arrived around 800 years ago , and by the arrival of European settlers in the 1840s , habitat destruction and hunting had reduced the bird 's range to the southern North Island . However , Māori hunting pressures on the huia were limited to some extent by traditional protocols . The hunting season was from May to July when the bird 's plumage was in prime condition , while a rāhui ( hunting ban ) was enforced in spring and summer . It was not until European settlement that the huia 's numbers began to decline severely , due mainly to two well @-@ documented factors : widespread deforestation and over hunting .
Like the extinctions of other New Zealand birds such as the piopio in the 19th century , the decline of the huia was poorly studied . Massive deforestation occurred in the North Island at this time , particularly in the lowlands of southern Hawkes Bay , the Manawatu and the Wairarapa , as land was cleared by European settlers for agriculture . The huia was particularly vulnerable to this as it could only live in old @-@ growth forest where there were abundant rotting trees filled with wood @-@ boring insect larvae . It seems it could not survive in regenerating , secondary forests . Although the mountainous part of its former range was not deforested , the lowland forests of the valleys below were systematically destroyed . The destruction of this part of its habitat would have undoubtedly had a severe impact on huia populations , but its removal would have been particularly dire if they did in fact descend to the lowlands as a winter refuge to escape snow at higher altitudes as some researchers including Oliver have surmised .
It appears that predation by invasive mammalian species including ship rats , cats , and mustelids was an additional factor in the decline in huia numbers – introduction of these animals by New Zealand acclimatisation societies peaked in the 1880s and coincided with a particularly sharp decline in huia populations . Because it spent a lot of time on the ground , the huia would have been particularly vulnerable to mammalian predators . Another hypothetical cause of extinction is exotic parasites and disease introduced from Asia with the common myna .
Habitat destruction and the predations of introduced species were problems faced by all New Zealand birds , but in addition the huia faced massive pressure from hunting . Due to its pronounced sexual dimorphism and its beauty , huia were sought after as mounted specimens by wealthy collectors in Europe and by museums all over the world . These individuals and institutions were willing to pay large sums of money for good specimens , and the overseas demand created a strong financial incentive for hunters in New Zealand . This hunting was initially by naturalists . Austrian taxidermist Andreas Reischek took 212 pairs as specimens for the natural history museum in Vienna over a period of 10 years , while New Zealand ornithologist Walter Buller collected 18 on just one of several expeditions to the Rimutaka Ranges in 1883 . Others keen to profit soon joined in . Buller records that also in 1883 , a party of 11 Māori obtained 646 huia skins from the forest between the Manawatu Gorge and Akitio . Several thousand huia were exported overseas as part of this trade . Infrastructure development within lowland forest did not help the situation : hundreds of huia were shot around road and rail construction camps .
While we were looking at and admiring this little picture of bird @-@ life , a pair of Huia , without uttering a sound , appeared in a tree overhead , and as they were caressing each other with their beautiful bills , a charge of No. 6 brought them both to the ground together . The incident was rather touching and I felt almost glad that the shot was not mine , although by no means loth to appropriate 2 fine specimens .
The rampant and unsustainable hunting was not just financially motivated : it also had a more philosophical , fatalistic aspect . The conventional wisdom among New Zealand Europeans in the 19th century was that things colonial , whether they were plants , animals or people , were inferior to things European . It was widely assumed that the plants and animals of New Zealand 's forest ecosystems would be quickly replaced by more vigorous and competitive European species . This assumption of inevitable doom led to a conclusion that the conservation of native biota was pointless and futile ; Victorian collectors instead focused their efforts on acquiring a good range of specimens before the rare species disappeared altogether .
There were some attempts to conserve the huia , but they were few , poorly organised and poorly enforced legally : the conservation movement in New Zealand was still very much in its infancy . There were successive sharp declines in numbers of huia in the 1860s and in the late 1880s , prompting the chiefs of the Manawatu and the Wairarapa to place a rāhui on the Tararua Range . In February 1892 , the Wild Birds Protection Act was amended to include the huia , making it illegal to kill the bird , but enforcement was not taken seriously . Island sanctuaries were set up for endangered native birds after this act , but the new bird sanctuaries , including Kapiti Island , Little Barrier Island and Resolution Island , were never stocked with huia . Although attempts were made to capture birds for transfer , no huia were ever transferred . The Kapiti Island attempt is documented as being particularly poorly managed . A live pair destined to be transferred to the island in 1893 was instead appropriated by Buller , who bent the law to take them back to England as a present for Lord Rothschild , along with the last collected live pair of laughing owls .
The Duke and Duchess of York ( later George V and Queen Mary ) visited New Zealand in 1901 . At an official Māori welcome in Rotorua , a guide took a huia tail feather from her hair and placed it in the band of the Duke 's hat as a token of respect . Many people in England and New Zealand wanted to emulate this royal fashion and wear huia feathers in their hats . The price of tail feathers was soon pushed to £ 1 , making each bird worth £ 12 , and some feathers sold for as much as £ 5 . Female huia beaks were also set in gold as jewellery . Shooting season notices ceased listing the huia as a protected species in 1901 , and a last @-@ ditch attempt to reinforce government protection failed when the solicitor general ruled that there was no law to protect feathers .
The decline of the huia over the southern half of the North Island occurred at markedly different rates in different locations . Areas where dramatic declines were observed in the 1880s included the Puketoi Range , the Hutt Valley and Tararuas , and the Pahiatua @-@ Dannevirke area . The species was abundant in a few places in the early 20th century between Hawke 's Bay and the Wairarapa ; a flock of 100 – 150 birds was reported at the summit of the Akatarawa @-@ Waikane track in 1905 ; they were still " fairly plentiful " in the upper reaches of the Rangitikei River in 1906 – and yet , the last confirmed sighting came just one year later .
The last official , confirmed huia sighting was made on 28 December 1907 when W. W. Smith saw three birds in the forests of the Tararua Ranges . Unconfirmed , " quite credible " reports suggest that extinction for the species came a little later . A man familiar with the species reported seeing three huia in Gollans Valley behind York Bay ( between Petone and Eastbourne on Wellington Harbour ) , an area of mixed beech and podocarp forest well within the bird 's former range , on 28 December 1922 . Sightings of the huia were also reported there in 1912 and 1913 . Despite this , naturalists from the Dominion Museum in Wellington did not investigate the reports . The last credible reports of huia come from the forests of Te Urewera National Park , with one from near Mt Urutawa in 1952 and final sightings near Lake Waikareiti in 1961 and 1963 . The possibility of a small huia population still surviving in the Urewera ranges has been proposed by some researchers , but is considered highly unlikely . No recent expeditions have been mounted to find a living specimen .
Students at Hastings Boys ' High School organised a conference in 1999 to consider cloning the huia , their school emblem . The tribe Ngāti Huia agreed in principle to support the endeavour , which would be carried out at the University of Otago , and a California @-@ based Internet start @-@ up volunteered $ 100 @,@ 000 of funding . However , Sandy Bartle , curator of birds at the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa , said that the complete huia genome could not be derived from museum skins because of the poor state of the DNA , and cloning was therefore unlikely to succeed .
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= Margaret Murray =
Margaret Alice Murray ( 13 July 1863 – 13 November 1963 ) was an Anglo @-@ Indian Egyptologist , archaeologist , anthropologist , historian , and folklorist . The first woman to be appointed as a lecturer in archaeology in the United Kingdom , she worked at University College London ( UCL ) from 1898 to 1935 . She served as President of the Folklore Society from 1953 to 1955 , and published widely over the course of her career .
Born to a wealthy middle @-@ class English family in Calcutta , British India , Murray divided her youth between India , Britain , and Germany , training as both a nurse and a social worker . Moving to London , in 1894 she began studying Egyptology at UCL , developing a friendship with department head Flinders Petrie , who encouraged her early academic publications and appointed her Junior Professor in 1898 . In 1902 – 03 she took part in Petrie 's excavations at Abydos , Egypt , there discovering the Osireion temple and the following season investigated the Saqqara cemetery , both of which established her reputation in Egyptology . Supplementing her UCL wage by giving public classes and lectures at the British Museum and Manchester Museum , it was at the latter in 1908 that she led the unwrapping of Khnum @-@ nakht , one of the mummies recovered from the Tomb of the Two Brothers – the first time that a woman had publicly unwrapped a mummy . Recognising that British Egyptomania reflected the existence of a widespread public interest in Ancient Egypt , Murray wrote several books on Egyptology targeted at a general audience .
Murray also became closely involved in the first @-@ wave feminist movement , joining the Women 's Social and Political Union and devoting much time to improving women 's status at UCL . Unable to return to Egypt due to the First World War , she focused her research on the witch @-@ cult hypothesis , the theory that the witch trials of Early Modern Christendom were an attempt to extinguish a surviving pre @-@ Christian , pagan religion devoted to a Horned God . Although later academically discredited , the theory gained widespread attention and proved a significant influence on the emerging new religious movement of Wicca . From 1921 to 1931 Murray undertook excavations of prehistoric sites on Malta and Minorca and developed her interest in folkloristics . Awarded an honorary doctorate in 1927 , she was appointed assistant professor in 1928 and retired from UCL in 1935 . That year she visited Palestine to aid Petrie 's excavation of Tall al @-@ Ajjul and in 1937 she led a small excavation at Petra in Jordan . Taking on the presidency of the Folklore Society in later life , she lectured at such institutions as the University of Cambridge and City Literary Institute , and continued to publish in an independent capacity until her death .
Murray 's work in Egyptology and archaeology was widely acclaimed and earned her the moniker of " The Grand Old Woman of Egyptology " , although after her death many of her contributions to the field were overshadowed by those of Petrie . Conversely , Murray 's work in folkloristics and the history of witchcraft has been academically discredited and her methods in these areas heavily criticised . The influence of her witch @-@ cult theory in both religion and literature has been examined by various scholars , and she herself has been dubbed the " Grandmother of Wicca " .
= = Early life = =
= = = Youth : 1863 – 93 = = =
Margaret Murray was born on 13 July 1863 in Calcutta , Bengal Presidency , then a major military city in British India . A member of the wealthy British imperial elite , she lived in the city with her family : parents James and Margaret Murray , an older sister named Mary , and her paternal grandmother and great @-@ grandmother . James Murray , born in India of English descent , was a businessman and manager of the Serampore paper mills who was thrice elected President of the Calcutta Chamber of Commerce . His wife , Margaret ( née Carr ) , had moved to India from Britain in 1857 to work as a missionary , preaching Christianity and educating Indian women . She continued with this work after marrying James and giving birth to her two daughters . Although most of their lives were spent in the European area of Calcutta , which was walled off from the indigenous sectors of the city , Murray encountered members of indigenous society through her family 's employment of 10 Indian servants and through childhood holidays to Mussoorie . The historian Amara Thornton has suggested that Murray 's Indian childhood continued to exert an influence over her throughout her life , expressing the view that Murray could be seen as having a hybrid transnational identity that was both British and Indian . During her childhood , Murray never received a formal education , and in later life expressed pride in the fact that she had never had to sit an exam before entering university .
In 1870 , Margaret and her sister Mary were sent to Britain , there moving in with their uncle John , a vicar , and his wife Harriet at their home in Lambourn , Berkshire . Although John provided them with a strongly Christian education and a belief in the inferiority of women , both of which she would reject , he awakened Murray 's interest in archaeology through taking her to see local monuments . In 1873 , the girls ' mother arrived in Europe and took them with her to Bonn in Germany , where they both became fluent in German . In 1875 they returned to Calcutta , staying there till 1877 . They then moved with their parents back to England , where they settled in Sydenham , South London . There , they spent much time visiting The Crystal Palace , while their father worked at his firm 's London office . In 1880 , they returned to Calcutta , where Margaret remained for the next seven years . She became a nurse at the Calcutta General Hospital , which was run by the Sisters of the Anglican Sisterhood of Clower , and there was involved with the hospital 's attempts to deal with a cholera outbreak . In 1887 , she returned to England , moving to Rugby , Warwickshire , where her uncle John had moved , now widowed . Here she took up employment as a social worker dealing with local underprivileged people . When her father retired and moved to England , she moved into his house in Bushey Heath , Hertfordshire , living with him until his death in 1891 . In 1893 she then travelled to Madras , Tamil Nadu , where her sister had moved to with her new husband .
= = = Early years at University College London : 1894 – 1905 = = =
Encouraged by her mother and sister , Murray decided to enroll at the newly opened department of Egyptology at University College London ( UCL ) in Bloomsbury , Central London . Having been founded by an endowment from Amelia Blanford Edwards , one of the co @-@ founders of the Egypt Exploration Fund ( EEF ) , the department was run by the pioneering early archaeologist Sir William Flinders Petrie , and based in the Edwards Library of UCL 's South Cloisters . Murray began her studies at UCL at age 30 in January 1894 , as part of a class composed largely of other women and older men . There , she took courses in the Ancient Egyptian and Coptic languages which were taught by Francis Llewellyn Griffith and Walter Ewing Crum respectively .
Murray soon got to know Petrie , becoming his copyist and illustrator and producing the drawings for the published report on his excavations at Qift , Koptos . In turn , he aided and encouraged her to write her first research paper , " The Descent of Property in the Early Periods of Egyptian History " , which was published in the Proceedings of the Society for Biblical Archaeology in 1895 . Becoming Petrie 's de facto though unofficial assistant , Murray began to give some of the linguistic lessons in Griffith 's absence . In 1898 she was appointed to the position of Junior Lecturer , responsible for teaching the linguistic courses at the Egyptology department ; this made her the first female lecturer in archaeology in the United Kingdom . In this capacity , she spent two days a week at UCL , devoting the other days to caring for her ailing mother . As time went on , she came to teach courses on Ancient Egyptian history , religion , and language . Among Murray 's students — to whom she referred as " the Gang " — were several who went on to produce noted contributions to Egyptology , including Reginald Engelbach , Georgina Aitken , Guy Brunton , and Myrtle Broome . She supplemented her UCL salary by teaching evening classes in Egyptology at the British Museum .
At this point , Murray had no experience in field archaeology , and so during the 1902 – 03 field season , she travelled to Egypt to join Petrie 's excavations at Abydos . Petrie and his wife , Hilda Petrie , had been excavating at the site since 1899 , having taken over the archaeological investigation from French Coptic scholar Émile Amélineau . Murray at first joined as site nurse , but was subsequently taught how to excavate by Petrie and given a senior position . This led to some issues with some of the male excavators , who disliked the idea of taking orders from a woman . This experience , coupled with discussions with other female excavators ( some of whom were active in the feminist movement ) led Murray to adopt openly feminist viewpoints . While excavating at Abydos , Murray uncovered the Osireion , a temple devoted to the god Osiris which had been constructed by order of Pharaoh Seti I during the period of the New Kingdom . She published her site report as The Osireion at Abydos in 1904 ; in the report , she examined the inscriptions that had been discovered at the site to discern the purpose and use of the building .
During the 1903 – 04 field season , Murray returned to Egypt , and at Petrie 's instruction began her investigations at the Saqqara cemetery near to Cairo , which dated from the period of the Old Kingdom . Murray did not have legal permission to excavate the site , and instead spent her time transcribing the inscriptions from ten of the tombs that had been excavated during the 1860s by Auguste Mariette . She published her findings in 1905 as Saqqara Mastabas I , although would not publish translations of the inscriptions until 1937 as Saqqara Mastabas II . Both The Osireion at Abydos and Saqqara Mastabas I proved to be very influential in the Egyptological community , with Petrie recognising Murray 's contribution to his own career .
= = = Feminism , the First World War , and folklore : 1905 – 20 = = =
On returning to London , Murray took an active role in the feminist movement , volunteering and financially donating to the cause and taking part in feminist demonstrations , protests , and marches . Joining the Women 's Social and Political Union , she was present at large marches like the Mud March of 1907 and the Women 's Coronation Procession of June 1911 . She concealed the militancy of her actions in order to retain the image of respectability within academia . Murray also pushed the professional boundaries for women throughout her own career , and mentored other women in archaeology and throughout academia . As women could not use the men 's common room , she successfully campaigned for UCL to open a common room for women , and later ensured that a larger , better @-@ equipped room was converted for the purpose ; it was later renamed the Margaret Murray Room . At UCL , she became a friend of fellow female lecturer Winifred Smith , and together they campaigned to improve the status and recognition of women in the university , with Murray becoming particularly annoyed at female staff who were afraid of upsetting or offending the male university establishment with their demands . Feeling that students should get nutritious yet affordable lunches , for many years she sat on the UCL Refectory Committee .
Various museums around the United Kingdom invited Murray to advise them on their Egyptological collections , resulting in her cataloguing the Egyptian artefacts owned by the Dublin National Museum , the National Museum of Antiquities in Edinburgh , and the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland , being elected a Fellow of the latter in thanks . Petrie had established connections with the Egyptological wing of Manchester Museum in Manchester , and it was there that many of his finds had been housed . Murray thus often travelled to the museum to catalogue these artefacts , and during the 1906 – 07 school year regularly lectured there . In 1907 , Petrie excavated the Tomb of the Two Brothers , a Middle Kingdom burial of two Egyptian priests , Nakht @-@ ankh and Khnum @-@ nakht , and it was decided that Murray would carry out the public unwrapping of the latter 's mummified body . Taking place at the museum in May 1908 , it represented the first time that a woman had led a public mummy unwrapping and was attended by over 500 onlookers , attracting press attention . Murray was particularly keen to emphasise the importance that the unwrapping would have for the scholarly understanding of the Middle Kingdom and its burial practices , and lashed out against members of the public who saw it as immoral ; she declared that " every vestige of ancient remains must be carefully studied and recorded without sentimentality and without fear of the outcry of the ignorant " . She subsequently published a book about her analysis of the two bodies , The Tomb of the Two Brothers , which remained a key publication on Middle Kingdom mummification practices into the 21st century .
Murray was dedicated to public education , hoping to infuse Egyptomania with solid scholarship about Ancient Egypt , and to this end authored a series of books aimed at a general audience . In 1905 she published Elementary Egyptian Grammar which was followed in 1911 by Elementary Coptic ( Sahidic ) Grammar . In 1913 , she published Ancient Egyptian Legends for John Murray 's " The Wisdom of the East " series . She was particularly pleased with the increased public interest in Egyptology that followed Howard Carter 's discovery of the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamun in 1922 . From at least 1911 until his death in 1940 , Murray was a close friend of the anthropologist Charles Gabriel Seligman of the London School of Economics , and together they co @-@ authored a variety of papers on Egyptology that were aimed at an anthropological audience . Many of these dealt with subjects that Egyptological journals would not publish , such as the " Sa " sign for the uterus , and thus were published in Man , the journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute . It was at Seligman 's recommendation that she was invited to become a member of the Institute in 1916 .
In 1914 , Petrie launched the academic journal Ancient Egypt , published through his own British School of Archaeology in Egypt ( BSAE ) , which was based at UCL . Given that he was often away from London excavating in Egypt , Murray was left to operate as de facto editor much of the time . She also published many research articles in the journal and authored many of its book reviews , particularly of the German @-@ language publications which Petrie could not read .
The outbreak of the First World War in 1914 , in which the United Kingdom went to war against Germany and the Ottoman Empire , meant that Petrie and other staff members were unable to return to Egypt for excavation . Instead , Petrie and Murray spent much of the time reorganising the artefact collections that they had attained over the past decades . To aid Britain 's war effort , Murray enrolled as a volunteer nurse in the Volunteer Air Detachment of the College Women 's Union Society , and for several weeks was posted to Saint @-@ Malo in France . After being taken ill herself , she was sent to recuperate in Glastonbury , Somerset , where she became interested in Glastonbury Abbey and the folklore surrounding it which connected it to the legendary figure of King Arthur and to the idea that the Holy Grail had been brought there by Joseph of Aramathea . Pursuing this interest , she published the paper " Egyptian Elements in the Grail Romance " in the journal Ancient Egypt , although few agreed with her conclusions and it was criticised for making unsubstantiated leaps with the evidence by the likes of Jessie Weston .
= = Later life = =
= = = The witch @-@ cult , Malta , and Minorca : 1921 – 35 = = =
Murray 's interest in folklore led her to develop an interest in the witch trials of Early Modern Europe . In 1917 , she published a paper in Folklore , the journal of the Folklore Society , in which she first articulated her version of the witch @-@ cult theory , arguing that the witches persecuted in European history were actually followers of " a definite religion with beliefs , ritual , and organization as highly developed as that of any cult in the end " . She followed this up with papers on the subject in the journals Man and the Scottish Historical Review . She articulated these views more fully in her 1921 book The Witch @-@ Cult in Western Europe , published by Oxford University Press after receiving a positive peer review by Henry Balfour , and which received both criticism and support on publication . Many reviews in academic journals were critical , with historians claiming that she had distorted and misinterpreted the contemporary records that she was using , but the book was nevertheless influential .
As a result of her work in this area , she was invited to provide the entry on " witchcraft " for the fourteenth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica in 1929 . She used the opportunity to propagate her own witch @-@ cult theory , failing to mention the alternate theories proposed by other academics . Her entry would be included in the encyclopedia until 1969 , becoming readily accessible to the public , and it was for this reason that her ideas on the subject had such a significant impact . It received a particularly enthusiastic reception by occultists such as Dion Fortune , Lewis Spence , Ralph Shirley , and J. W. Brodie Innes , perhaps because its claims regarding an ancient secret society chimed with similar claims common among various occult groups . Murray joined the Folklore Society in February 1927 , and was elected to the society 's council a month later , although stood down in 1929 . Murray reiterated her witch @-@ cult theory in her 1933 book , The God of the Witches , which was aimed at a wider , non @-@ academic audience . In this book , she cut out or toned down what she saw as the more unpleasant aspects of the witch @-@ cult , such as animal and child sacrifice , and began describing the religion in more positive terms as " the Old Religion " .
From 1921 to 1927 , Murray led archaeological excavations on Malta , assisted by Edith Guest and Gertrude Caton Thompson . She excavated the Bronze Age megalithic monuments of Santa Sofia , Santa Maria tal @-@ Bakkari , Għar Dalam , and Borġ in @-@ Nadur , all of which were threatened by the construction of a new aerodrome . In this she was funded by the Percy Sladen Memorial Fund . Her resulting three @-@ volume excavation report came to be seen as an important publication within the field of Maltese archaeology . During the excavations , she had taken an interest in the island 's folklore , resulting in the 1932 publication of her book Maltese Folktales , much of which was a translation of earlier stories collected by Father Magri and her friend Liza Galea . In 1932 Murray returned to Malta to aid in the cataloguing of the Bronze Age pottery collection held in Malta Museum , resulting in another publication , Corpus of the Bronze Age Pottery of Malta .
On the basis of her work in Malta , Louis C. G. Clarke , the curator of the Cambridge Museum of Ethnology and Anthropology , invited her to lead excavations on the island of Minorca from 1930 to 1931 . With the aid of Guest , she excavated the megalithic sites of Trapucó and Sa Torrera , resulting in the publication of Cambridge Excavations in Minorca . Murray also continued to publish works on Egyptology for a general audience , such as Egyptian Sculpture ( 1930 ) and Egyptian Temples ( 1931 ) , which received largely positive reviews . In the summer of 1925 she led a team of volunteers to excavate Homestead Moat in Whomerle Wood near to Stevenage , Hertfordshire ; she did not publish an excavation report and did not mention the event in her autobiography , with her motives for carrying out the excavation remaining unclear .
In 1924 , UCL promoted Murray – then aged sixty @-@ two – to the position of assistant professor , and in 1927 she was awarded an honorary doctorate for her career in Egyptology . That year , Murray was tasked with guiding Mary of Teck , the Queen consort , around the Egyptology department during the latter 's visit to UCL . The pressures of teaching had eased by this point , allowing Murray to spend more time travelling internationally ; in 1920 she returned to Egypt and in 1929 visited South Africa , where she attended the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science , whose theme was the prehistory of southern Africa . In the early 1930s she travelled to the Soviet Union , where she visited museums in Leningrad , Moscow , Kharkov , and Kiev , and then in late 1935 she undertook a lecture tour of Norway , Sweden , Finland , and Estonia . Although having reached legal retirement age in 1927 , and thus unable to be offered another five @-@ year contract , Murray was reappointed on an annual basis each year until 1935 . At this point , she retired , expressing the opinion that she was glad to leave UCL , for reasons that she did not make clear . In 1933 , Petrie had retired from UCL and moved to Jerusalem in Mandatory Palestine with his wife ; Murray therefore took over as editor of the Ancient Egypt journal , renaming it Ancient Egypt and the East to reflect its increasing research interest in the ancient societies that surrounded and interacted with Egypt . The journal folded in 1935 , perhaps due to Murray 's retirement . Murray then spent some time in Jerusalem , where she aided the Petries in their excavation at Tall al @-@ Ajjul , a Bronze Age mound south of Gaza .
= = = Petra , Cambridge , and London : 1935 – 53 = = =
During Murray 's 1935 trip to Palestine , she had taken the opportunity to visit Petra in neighbouring Jordan . Intrigued by the site , in March and April 1937 she returned in order to carry out a small excavation in several cave dwellings at the site , subsequently writing both an excavation report and a guidebook on Petra . Back in England , from 1934 to 1940 , Murray aided the cataloguing of Egyptian antiquities at Girton College , Cambridge , and also gave lectures in Egyptology at the university until 1942 . During the Second World War , Murray evaded the Blitz of London by moving to Cambridge , where she volunteered for a group ( probably the Army Bureau of Current Affairs or The British Way and Purpose ) who educated military personnel to prepare them for post @-@ war life . Based in the city , she embarked on research into the town 's Early Modern history , examining documents stored in local parish churches , Downing College , and Ely Cathedral ; she never published her findings .
After the war ended she returned to London , settling into a bedsit room in Endsleigh Street , which was close to University College London ( UCL ) and the Institute of Archaeology ( then an independent institution , now part of UCL ) ; she continued her involvement with the former and made use of the latter 's library . On most days she visited the British Museum in order to consult their library , and twice a week she taught adult education classes on Ancient Egyptian history and religion at the City Literary Institute ; upon her retirement from this position she nominated her former pupil , Veronica Seton @-@ Williams , to replace her .
Murray 's interest in popularising Egyptology among the wider public continued ; in 1949 she published Ancient Egyptian Religious Poetry , her second work for John Murray 's " The Wisdom of the East " series . That same year she also published The Splendour That Was Egypt , in which she collated many of her UCL lectures . The book adopted a diffusionist perspective that argued that Egypt influenced Greco @-@ Roman society and thus modern Western society . This was seen as a compromise between Petrie 's belief that other societies influenced the emergence of Egyptian civilisation and Grafton Elliot Smith 's highly unorthodox and heavily criticised hyperdiffusionist view that Egypt was the source of all global civilisation . The book received a mixed reception from the archaeological community .
= = = Final years : 1953 – 63 = = =
In 1953 , Murray was appointed to the presidency of the Folklore Society following the resignation of former president Allan Gomme . The Society had initially approached John Mavrogordato for the post , but he had declined , with Murray accepting the nomination several months later . Murray remained President for two terms , until 1955 . In her 1954 presidential address , " England as a Field for Folklore Research " , she lamented what she saw as the English people 's disinterest in their own folklore in favour of that from other nations . For the autumn 1961 issue of Folklore , the society published a festschrift to Murray to commemorate her 98th birthday . The issue contained contributions from various scholars paying tribute to her – with papers dealing with archaeology , fairies , Near Eastern religious symbols , Greek folk songs – but notably not about witchcraft , potentially because no other folklorists were willing to defend her witch @-@ cult theory .
In May 1957 , Murray had championed the archaeologist Thomas Charles Lethbridge 's controversial claims that he had discovered three pre @-@ Christian chalk hill figures on Wandlebury Hill in the Gog Magog Downs , Cambridgeshire . Privately she expressed concern about the reality of the figures . Lethbridge subsequently authored a book championing her witch @-@ cult theory in which he sought the cult 's origins in pre @-@ Christian culture . In 1960 , she donated her collection of papers – including correspondences with a wide range of individuals across the country – to the Folklore Society Archive , where it is now known as " the Murray Collection " .
Crippled with arthritis , Murray had moved into a home in North Finchley , north London , where she was cared for by a retired couple who were trained nurses ; from here she occasionally took taxis into central London to visit the UCL library . Amid failing health , in 1962 Murray moved into the Queen Victoria Memorial Hospital in Welwyn , Hertfordshire , where she could receive 24 @-@ hour care ; she lived here for the final 18 months of her life . To mark her hundredth birthday , on 13 July 1963 a group of her friends , former students , and doctors gathered for a party at nearby Ayot St. Lawrence . Two days later , her doctor drove her to UCL for a second birthday party , again attended by many of her friends , colleagues , and former students ; it was the last time that she visited the university . In Man , the journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute , it was noted that Murray was " the only Fellow of the Institute to [ reach their centenary ] within living memory , if not in its whole history " . That year she published two books ; one was The Genesis of Religion , in which she argued that humanity 's first deities had been goddesses rather than male gods . The second was her autobiography , My First Hundred Years , which received predominantly positive reviews . She died on 13 November 1963 , and her body was cremated .
= = Murray 's witch @-@ cult hypotheses = =
The later folklorists Caroline Oates and Juliette Wood have suggested that Murray was best known for her witch @-@ cult theory , with biographer Margaret S. Drower expressing the view that it was her work on this subject which " perhaps more than any other , made her known to the general public " . It has been claimed that Murray 's was the " first feminist study of the witch trials " , as well as being the first to have actually " empowered the witches " by giving the ( largely female ) accused both free will and a voice distinct from that of their interrogators . The theory was faulty , in part because all of her academic training was in Egyptology , with no background knowledge in European history , but also because she exhibited a " tendency to generalize wildly on the basis of very slender evidence " . Oates and Wood , however , noted that Murray 's interpretations of the evidence fitted within wider perspectives on the past that existed at the time , stating that " Murray was far from isolated in her method of reading ancient ritual origins into later myths " . In particular , her approach was influenced by the work of the anthropologist James Frazer , who had argued for the existence of a pervasive dying @-@ and @-@ resurrecting god myth , and she was also influenced by the interpretative approaches of E. O. James , Karl Pearson , Herbert Fleure , and Harold Peake .
= = = Argument = = =
In The Witch @-@ Cult in Western Europe , Murray stated that she had restricted her research to Great Britain , although made some recourse to sources from France , Flanders , and New England . She drew a division between what she termed " Operative Witchcraft " , which referred to the performance of charms and spells with any purpose , and " Ritual Witchcraft " , by which she meant " the ancient religion of Western Europe " , a fertility @-@ based faith that she also termed " the Dianic cult " . She claimed that the cult had " very probably " once been devoted to the worship of both a male deity and a " Mother Goddess " but that " at the time when the cult is recorded the worship of the male deity appears to have superseded that of the female " . In her argument , Murray claimed that the figure referred to as the Devil in the trial accounts was the witches ' god , " manifest and incarnate " , to whom the witches ' offered their prayers . She claimed that at the witches ' meetings , the god would be personified , usually by a man or at times by a woman or an animal ; when a human personified this entity , Murray claimed that they were usually dressed plainly , though they appeared in full costume for the witches ' Sabbaths .
Members joined the cult either as children or adults through what Murray called " admission ceremonies " ; Murray asserted that applicants had to agree to join of their own free will , and agree to devote themselves to the service of their deity . She also claimed that in some cases , these individuals had to sign a covenant or were baptised into the faith . At the same time , she claimed that the religion was largely passed down hereditary lines . Murray described the religion as being divided into covens containing thirteen members , led by a coven officer who was often termed the " Devil " in the trial accounts , but who was accountable to a " Grand Master " . According to Murray , the records of the coven were kept in a secret book , with the coven also disciplining its members , to the extent of executing those deemed traitors .
Describing this witch @-@ cult as " a joyous religion " , she claimed that the two primary festivals that it celebrated were on May Eve and November Eve , although that other dates of religious observation were 1 February and 1 August , the winter and summer solstices , and Easter . She asserted that the " General Meeting of all members of the religion " were known as Sabbaths , while the more private ritual meetings were known as Esbats . The Esbats , Murray claimed , were nocturnal rites that began at midnight , and were " primarily for business , whereas the Sabbath was purely religious " . At the former , magical rites were performed both for malevolent and benevolent ends . She also asserted that the Sabbath ceremonies involved the witches paying homage to the deity , renewing their " vows of fidelity and obedience " to him , and providing him with accounts of all the magical actions that they have conducted since the previous Sabbath . Once this business had been concluded , admissions to the cult or marriages were conducted , ceremonies and fertility rites took place , and then the Sabbath ended with feasting and dancing .
Deeming Ritual Witchcraft to be " a fertility cult " , she asserted that many of its rites were designed to ensure fertility and rain @-@ making . She claimed that there were four types of sacrifice performed by the witches : blood @-@ sacrifice , in which the neophyte writes their name in blood , the sacrifice of animals , the sacrifice of a non @-@ Christian child to procure magical powers , and the sacrifice of the witches ' god by fire to ensure fertility . She interpreted accounts of witches ' shapeshifting into various animals as being representative of a rite in which the witches dressed as specific animals which they took to be sacred . She asserted that accounts of familiars were based on the witches ' use of animals , which she divided into " divining familiars " used in divination and " domestic familiars " used in other magic rites .
Murray asserted that a pre @-@ Christian fertility @-@ based religion had survived the Christianization process in Britain , although that it came to be " practised only in certain places and among certain classes of the community " . She believed that folkloric stories of fairies in Britain were based on a surviving race of dwarfs , who continued to live on the island up until the Early Modern period . She asserted that this race followed the same pagan religion as the witches , thus explaining the folkloric connection between the two . In the appendices to the book , she also alleged that Joan of Arc and Gilles de Rais were members of the witch @-@ cult and were executed for it , a claim which has been refuted by historians , especially in the case of Joan of Arc .
The later historian Ronald Hutton commented that The Witch @-@ Cult in Western Europe " rested upon a small amount of archival research , with extensive use of printed trial records in 19th @-@ century editions , plus early modern pamphlets and works of demonology " . He also noted that the book 's tone was generally " dry and clinical , and every assertion was meticulously footnoted to a source , with lavish quotation " . It was not a bestseller ; in its first thirty years , only 2 @,@ 020 copies were sold . However , it led many people to treat Murray as an authority on the subject ; in 1929 , she was invited to provide the entry on " Witchcraft " for the Encyclopædia Britannica , and used it to present her interpretation of the subject as if it were universally accepted in scholarship . It remained in the encyclopedia until being replaced in 1968 .
Murray followed The Witch @-@ Cult in Western Europe with The God of the Witches , published by the popular press Sampson Low in 1931 ; although similar in content , unlike her previous volume it was aimed at a mass market audience . The tone of the book also differed strongly from its predecessor , containing " emotionally inflated [ language ] and coloured with religious phraseology " and repeatedly referring to the witch @-@ cult as " the Old Religion " . In this book she also " cut out or toned down " many of the claims made in her previous volume which would have painted the cult in a bad light , such as those which discussed sex and the sacrifice of animals and children .
In this book she began to refer to the witches ' deity as the Horned God , and asserted that it was an entity who had been worshipped in Europe since the Palaeolithic . She further asserted that in the Bronze Age , the worship of the deity could be found throughout Europe , Asia , and parts of Africa , claiming that the depiction of various horned figures from these societies proved that . Among the evidence cited were the horned figures found at Mohenjo @-@ Daro , which are often interpreted as depictions of Pashupati , as well as the deities Osiris and Amon in Egypt and the Minotaur of Minoan Crete . Within continental Europe , she claimed that the Horned God was represented by Pan in Greece , Cernunnos in Gaul , and in various Scandinavian rock carvings . Claiming that this divinity had been declared the Devil by the Christian authorities , she nevertheless asserted that his worship was testified in officially Christian societies right through to the Modern period , citing folkloric practices such as the Dorset Ooser and the Puck Fair as evidence of his veneration .
In 1954 , she published The Divine King in England , in which she greatly extended on the theory , taking in an influence from Frazer 's The Golden Bough , an anthropological book that made the claim that societies all over the world sacrificed their kings to the deities of nature . In her book , she claimed that this practice had continued into medieval England , and that , for instance , the death of William II was really a ritual sacrifice . No academic took the book seriously , and it was ignored by many of her supporters .
= = = Academic reception = = =
= = = = Early support = = = =
Upon initial publication , Murray 's thesis gained a favourable reception from many readers , including some significant scholars , albeit none who were experts in the witch trials . Historians of Early Modern Britain like George Norman Clark and Christopher Hill incorporated her theories into their work , although the latter subsequently distanced himself from the theory . For the 1961 reprint of The Witch @-@ Cult in Western Europe , the Medieval historian Steven Runciman provided a foreword in which he accepted that some of Murray 's " minor details may be open to criticism " , but in which he was otherwise supportive of her thesis . Her theories were recapitulated by Arno Runeberg in his 1947 book Witches , Demons and Fertility Magic as well as Pennethorne Hughes in his 1952 book Witches . As a result , a commentator writing in 1962 could claim that the Murrayite interpretations of the witch trials " seem to hold , at the time of writing , an almost undisputed sway at the higher intellectual levels " , being widely accepted among " educated people " .
The Canadian historian Elliot Rose suggested that the reason that Murray 's theory gained such support was partly because of her " imposing credentials " as a member of staff at UCL , a position that lent her theory greater legitimacy in the eyes of many readers . He further suggested that the Murrayite view was attractive to many as it confirmed " the general picture of pre @-@ Christian Europe a reader of Frazer or [ Robert ] Graves would be familiar with " . Similarly , Hutton suggested that the cause of the Murrayite theory 's popularity was because it " appealed to so many of the emotional impulses of the age " , including " the notion of the English countryside as a timeless place full of ancient secrets " , the literary popularity of Pan , the widespread belief that the majority of British had remained pagan long after the process of Christianisation , and the idea that folk customs represented pagan survivals . At the same time , Hutton suggested , it seemed more plausible to many than the previously dominant rationalist idea that the witch trials were the result of mass delusion . Related to this , the folklorist Jacqueline Simpson suggested that part of the Murrayite theory 's appeal was that it appeared to give a " sensible , demystifying , liberating approach to a longstanding but sterile argument " between the rationalists who denied that there had been any witches and those , like Montague Summers , who insisted that there had been a real Satanic conspiracy against Christendom in the Early Modern period replete with witches with supernatural powers . " How refreshing " , noted the historian Hilda Ellis Davidson , " and exciting her first book was at that period . A new approach , and such a surprising one . "
= = = = Early criticism = = = =
Murray 's theories never received support from experts in the Early Modern witch trials , and from her early publications onward many of her ideas were challenged by those who highlighted her " factual errors and methodological failings " . Indeed , the majority of scholarly reviews of her work produced during the 1920s and 1930s were largely critical . George L. Burr reviewed both of her initial books on the witch @-@ cult for the American Historical Review . He stated that she was not acquainted with the " careful general histories by modern scholars " and criticised her for assuming that the trial accounts accurately reflected the accused witches ' genuine experiences of witchcraft , regardless of whether those confessions had been obtained through torture and coercion . He also charged her with selectively using the evidence to serve her interpretation , for instance by omitting any supernatural or miraculous events that appear in the trial accounts . W. R. Halliday was highly critical in his review for Folklore , as was E. M. Loeb in his review for American Anthropologist .
Soon after , one of the foremost specialists of the trial records , L 'Estrange Ewen , brought out a series of books which rejected Murray 's interpretation . Rose suggested that Murray 's books on the witch @-@ cult " contain an incredible number of minor errors of fact or of calculation and several inconsistencies of reasoning " . He accepted that her case " could , perhaps , still be proved by somebody else , though I very much doubt it " . Highlighting that there is a gap of about a thousand years between the Christianisation of Britain and the start of the witch trials there , he argues that there is no evidence for the existence of the witch @-@ cult anywhere in the intervening period . He further criticises Murray for treating pre @-@ Christian Britain as a socially and culturally monolithic entity , whereas in reality , it contained a diverse array of societies and religious beliefs . He also challenges Murray 's claim that the majority of Britons in the Middle Ages remained pagan as " a view grounded on ignorance alone " .
Murray did not respond directly to the criticisms of her work , but reacted to her critics in a hostile manner ; in later life she asserted that she eventually ceased reading reviews of her work , and believed that her critics were simply acting out of their own Christian prejudices to non @-@ Christian religion . Simpson noted that despite these critical reviews , within the field of British folkloristics Murray 's theories were permitted " to pass unapproved but unchallenged , either out of politeness or because nobody was really interested enough to research the topic " . As evidence , she noted that no substantial research articles on the subject of witchcraft were published in Folklore between Murray 's in 1917 and Rossell Hope Robbins ' in 1963 . She also highlighted that when regional studies of British folklore were published in this period by folklorists like Theo Brown , Ruth Tongue , or Enid Porter , none adopted the Murrayite framework for interpreting witchcraft beliefs , thus evidencing her claim that Murray 's theories were widely ignored by scholars of folkloristics .
= = = = Academic rejection = = = =
Murray 's work was increasingly criticised following her death in 1963 , with the definitive academic rejection of the Murrayite witch @-@ cult theory occurring during the 1970s . During these decades , a variety of scholars across Europe and North America – such as Alan Macfarlane , Erik Midelfort , William Monter , Robert Muchembled , Gerhard Schormann , Bente Alver and Bengt Ankarloo – published in @-@ depth studies of the archival records from the witch trials , leaving no doubt that those tried for witchcraft were not practitioners of a surviving pre @-@ Christian religion . In 1971 , the English historian Keith Thomas stated that on the basis of this research , there was " very little evidence to suggest that the accused witches were either devil @-@ worshippers or members of a pagan fertility cult " . He stated that Murray 's conclusions were " almost totally groundless " because she ignored the systematic study of the trial accounts provided by Ewen and instead used sources very selectively to argue her point .
In 1975 , the historian Norman Cohn commented that Murray 's " knowledge of European history , even of English history , was superficial and her grasp of historical method was non @-@ existent " , adding that her ideas were " firmly set in an exaggerated and distorted version of the Frazerian mould " . That same year , the historian of religion Mircea Eliade described Murray 's work as " hopelessly inadequate " , containing " numberless and appalling errors " . In 1996 , the feminist historian Diane Purkiss stated that although Murray 's thesis was " intrinsically improbable " and commanded " little or no allegiance within the modern academy " , she felt that male scholars like Thomas , Cohn , and Macfarlane had unfairly adopted an androcentric approach by which they contrasted their own , male and methodologically sound interpretation against Murray 's " feminised belief " about the witch @-@ cult .
Hutton stated that Murray had treated her source material with " reckless abandon " , in that she had taken " vivid details of alleged witch practices " from " sources scattered across a great extent of space and time " and then declared them to be normative of the cult as a whole . Simpson outlined how Murray had selected her use of evidence very specifically , particularly by ignoring and / or rationalising any accounts of supernatural or miraculous events in the trial records , thereby distorting the events that she was describing . Thus , Simpson pointed out , Murray rationalised claims that the cloven @-@ hoofed Devil appeared at the witches ' Sabbath by stating that he was a man with a special kind of shoe , and similarly asserted that witches ' claims to have flown through the air on broomsticks were actually based on their practice of either hopping along on broomsticks or smearing hallucinogenic salves onto themselves . Concurring with this assessment , the historian Jeffrey Burton Russell , writing with the independent author Brooks Alexander , stated that " Murray 's use of sources , in general , is appalling " . The pair went on to claim that " today , scholars are agreed that Murray was more than just wrong – she was completely and embarrassingly wrong on nearly all of her basic premises " .
The Italian historian Carlo Ginzburg has been cited as being willing to give " some slight support " to Murray 's theory . Ginzburg stated that although her thesis had been " formulated in a wholly uncritical way " and contained " serious defects " , it did contain " a kernel of truth " . He stated his opinion that she was right in claiming that European witchcraft had " roots in an ancient fertility cult " , something that he argued was vindicated by his work researching the benandanti , an agrarian visionary tradition recorded in the Friuli district of Northeastern Italy during the 16th and 17th centuries . Several historians and folklorists have pointed out that Ginzburg 's arguments are very different to Murray 's : whereas Murray argued for the existence of a pre @-@ Christian witches ' cult whose members physically met during the witches ' Sabbaths , Ginzburg argued that some of the European visionary traditions that were conflated with witchcraft in the Early Modern period had their origins in pre @-@ Christian fertility religions . Moreover , other historians have expressed criticism of Ginzburg 's interpretation of the benandanti ; Cohn stated that that there was " nothing whatsoever " in the source material to justify the idea that the benandanti were the " survival of an age @-@ old fertility cult " . Echoing these views , Hutton commented that Ginzburg 's claim that the benandanti 's visionary traditions were a survival from pre @-@ Christian practices was an idea resting on " imperfect material and conceptual foundations " . He added that Ginzburg 's " assumption " that " what was being dreamed about in the sixteenth century had in fact been acted out in religious ceremonies " dating to " pagan times " , was entire " an inference of his own " and not one supported by the documentary evidence .
= = Personal life = =
On researching the history of UCL 's Egyptology department , the historian Rosalind M. Janssen stated that Murray was " remembered with gratitude and immense affection by all her former students . A wise and witty teacher , two generations of Egyptologists have forever been in her debt . " Alongside teaching them , Murray was known to socialise with her UCL students outside of class hours . The archaeologist Ralph Merrifield , who knew Murray through the Folklore Society , described her as a " diminutive and kindly scholar , who radiated intelligence and strength of character into extreme old age " . Davidson , who also knew Murray through the Society , noted that at their meetings " she would sit near the front , a bent and seemingly guileless old lady dozing peacefully , and then in the middle of a discussion would suddenly intervene with a relevant and penetrating comment which showed that she had missed not one word of the argument " . The later folklorist Juliette Wood noted that many members of the Folklore Society " remember her fondly " , adding that Murray had been " especially keen to encourage younger researchers , even those who disagreed with her ideas " .
One of Murray 's friends in the Society , E. O. James , described her as a " mine of information and a perpetual inspiration ever ready to impart her vast and varied stores of specialised knowledge without reserve , or , be it said , much if any regard for the generally accepted opinions and conclusions of the experts ! " Davidson described her as being " not at all assertive ... [ she ] never thrust her ideas on anyone . [ In relation to her witch @-@ cult theory , ] she behaved in fact rather like someone who was a fully convinced member of some unusual religious sect , or perhaps , of the Freemasons , but never on any account got into arguments about it in public . " The archaeologist Glyn Daniel observed that Murray remained mentally alert into her old age , commenting that " her vigour and forthrightness and ruthless energy never deserted her " .
Murray never married , instead devoting her life to her work , and for this reason , Hutton drew comparisons between her and two other prominent female British scholars of the period , Jane Harrison and Jessie Weston . Murray 's biographer Kathleen L. Sheppard stated that she was deeply committed to public outreach , particularly when it came to Egyptology , and that as such she " wanted to change the means by which the public obtained knowledge about Egypt 's history : she wished to throw open the doors to the scientific laboratory and invite the public in " . She considered travel to be one of her favourite activities , although due to restraints on her time and finances she was unable to do this regularly ; her salary remained small and the revenue from her books was meagre .
Raised a devout Christian by her mother , Murray had initially become a Sunday School teacher to preach the faith , but after entering the academic profession she rejected religion , gaining a reputation among other members of the Folklore Society as a noted sceptic and a rationalist . She was openly critical of organised religion , although continued to maintain a personal belief in a God of some sort , relating in her autobiography that she believed in " an unseen over @-@ ruling Power " , " which science calls Nature and religion calls God " . She was also a believer and a practitioner of magic , performing curses against those whom she felt deserved it : in one case she cursed a fellow academic , Jaroslav Černý , when she felt that his promotion to the position of Professor of Egyptology over her friend Walter Bryan Emery was unworthy . Her curse entailed mixing up ingredients in a frying pan , and was undertaken in the presence of two colleagues . In another instance , she was claimed to have created a wax image of Kaiser Wilhelm II and then melted it during the First World War .
= = Legacy = =
= = = In academia = = =
Hutton noted that Murray was one of the earliest women to " make a serious impact upon the world of professional scholarship " , and the archaeologist Niall Finneran described her as " one of the greatest characters of post @-@ war British archaeology " . Upon her death , Daniel referred to her as " the Grand Old Woman of Egyptology " , with Hutton noting that Egyptology represented " the core of her academic career " . In 2014 , Thornton referred to her as " one of Britain 's most famous Egyptologists " . However , according to the archaeologist Ruth Whitehouse , Murray 's contributions to archaeology and Egyptology were often overlooked as her work was overshadowed by that of Petrie , to the extent that she was often thought of primarily as one of Petrie 's assistants rather than as a scholar in her own right . By her retirement she had come to be highly regarded within the discipline , although , according to Whitehouse , Murray 's reputation declined following her death , something that Whitehouse attributed to the rejection of her witch @-@ cult theory and the general erasure of women archaeologists from the discipline 's male @-@ dominated history .
In his obituary for Murray in Folklore , James noted that her death was " an event of unusual interest and importance in the annals of the Folk @-@ Lore Society in particular as well as in the wider sphere in which her influence was felt in so many directions and disciplines " . However , later academic folklorists , such as Simpson and Wood , have cited Murray and her witch @-@ cult theory as an embarrassment to their field , and to the Folklore Society specifically . Simpson suggested that Murray 's position as President of the Society was a causal factor in the mistrustful attitude that many historians held toward folkloristics as an academic discipline , as they erroneously came to believe that all folklorists endorsed Murray 's ideas . Similarly , Catherine Noble stated that " Murray caused considerable damage to the study of witchcraft " .
In 1935 , UCL introduced the Margaret Murray Prize , awarded to the student who is deemed to have produced the best dissertation in Egyptology ; it continued to be presented annually into the 21st century . In 1969 , UCL named one of their common rooms in her honour , but it was converted into an office in 1989 . In June 1983 , Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother visited the room and there was gifted a copy of Murray 's My First Hundred Years . UCL also hold two busts of Murray , one kept in the Petrie Museum and the other in the library of the UCL Institute of Archaeology . This sculpture was commissioned by one of her students , Violet MacDermot , and produced by the artist Stephen Rickard . UCL also possess a watercolour painting of Murray by Winifred Brunton ; formerly exhibited in the Petrie Gallery , it was later placed into the Art Collection stores . In 2013 , on the 150th anniversary of Murray 's birth and the 50th of her death , the UCL Institute of Archaeology 's Ruth Whitehouse described Murray as " a remarkable woman " whose life was " well worth celebrating , both in the archaeological world at large and especially in UCL " .
The historian of archaeology Rosalind M. Janssen titled her study of Egyptology at UCL The First Hundred Years " as a tribute " to Murray . Murray 's friend Margaret Stefana Drower authored a short biography of her , which was included as a chapter in the 2004 edited volume on Breaking Ground : Pioneering Women Archaeologists . In 2013 , Lexington Books published The Life of Margaret Alice Murray : A Woman 's Work in Archaeology , a biography of Murray authored by Kathleen L. Sheppard , then an assistant professor at Missouri University of Science and Technology ; the book was based upon Sheppard 's doctoral dissertation produced at the University of Oklahoma . Although characterising it as being " written in a clear and engaging manner " , one reviewer noted that Sheppard 's book focuses on Murray the " scientist " and as such neglects to discuss Murray 's involvement in magical practices and her relationship with Wicca .
= = = In Wicca = = =
Murray 's witch @-@ cult theories provided the blueprint for the contemporary Pagan religion of Wicca , with Murray being referred to as the " Grandmother of Wicca " . The Pagan studies scholar Ethan Doyle White stated that it was the theory which " formed the historical narrative around which Wicca built itself " , for on its emergence in England during the 1940s and 1950s , Wicca claimed to be the survival of this witch @-@ cult . Wicca 's theological structure , revolving around a Horned God and Mother Goddess , was adopted from Murray 's ideas about the ancient witch @-@ cult , and Wiccan groups were named covens and their meetings termed esbats , both words that Murray had popularised . As with Murray 's witch @-@ cult , Wicca 's practitioners entered via an initiation ceremony ; Murray 's claims that witches wrote down their spells in a book may have been an influence on Wicca 's Book of Shadows . Wicca 's early system of seasonal festivities were also based on Murray 's framework .
Noting that there is no evidence of Wicca existing before the publication of Murray 's books , Merrifield commented that for those in 20th century Britain who wished to form their own witches ' covens , " Murray may have seemed the ideal fairy godmother , and her theory became the pumpkin coach that could transport them into the realm of fantasy for which they longed " . The historian Philip Heselton suggested that the New Forest coven – the oldest alleged Wiccan group – was founded circa 1935 by esotericists aware of Murray 's theory and who may have believed themselves to be reincarnated witch @-@ cult members . It was Gerald Gardner , who claimed to be an initiate of the New Forest coven , who established the tradition of Gardnerian Wicca and popularised the religion ; according to Simpson , Gardner was the only member of the Folklore Society to " wholeheartedly " accept Murray 's witch @-@ cult hypothesis . The duo knew each other , with Murray writing the foreword to Gardner 's 1954 book Witchcraft Today , although in that foreword she did not explicitly specify whether she believed Gardner 's claim that he had discovered a survival of her witch @-@ cult . In 2005 , Noble suggested that " Murray 's name might be all but forgotten today if it were not for Gerald Gardner " .
Murray 's witch @-@ cult theories were likely also a core influence on the non @-@ Gardnerian Wiccan traditions that were established in Britain and Australia between 1930 and 1970 by the likes of Bob Clay @-@ Egerton , Robert Cochrane , Charles Cardell , and Rosaleen Norton . The prominent Wiccan Doreen Valiente eagerly searched for what she believed were other surviving remnants of the Murrayite witch @-@ cult around Britain . Valiente remained committed to a belief in Murray 's witch @-@ cult after its academic rejection , and she described Murray as " a remarkable woman " . In San Francisco during the late 1960s , Murray 's writings were among the sources used by Aidan A. Kelly in the creation of his Wiccan tradition , the New Reformed Orthodox Order of the Golden Dawn . In Los Angeles during the early 1970s , they were used by Zsuzsanna Budapest when she was establishing her feminist @-@ oriented tradition of Dianic Wicca . The Murrayite witch @-@ cult theory also provided the basis for the ideas espoused in Witchcraft and the Gay Counterculture , a 1978 book written by the American gay liberation activist Arthur Evans .
Members of the Wiccan community gradually became aware of academia 's rejection of the witch @-@ cult theory . Accordingly , belief in its literal truth declined during the 1980s and 1990s , with many Wiccans instead coming to view it as a myth that conveyed metaphorical or symbolic truths . Others insisted that the historical origins of the religion did not matter and that instead Wicca was legitimated by the spiritual experiences it gave to its participants . In response , Hutton authored The Triumph of the Moon , a historical study exploring Wicca 's early development ; on publication in 1999 the book exerted a strong impact on the British Pagan community , further eroding belief in the Murrayite theory among Wiccans . Conversely , other practitioners clung on to the theory , treating it as an important article of faith and rejecting post @-@ Murrayite scholarship on European witchcraft . Several prominent practitioners continued to insist that Wicca was a religion with origins stretching back to the Palaeolithic , but others rejected the validity of historical scholarship and emphasised intuition and emotion as the arbiter of truth . A few " counter @-@ revisionist " Wiccans – among them Donald H. Frew , Jani Farrell @-@ Roberts , and Ben Whitmore – published critiques in which they attacked post @-@ Murrayite scholarship on matters of detail , but none defended Murray 's original hypothesis completely .
= = = In literature = = =
Simpson noted that the publication of the Murray thesis in the Encyclopaedia Britannica made it accessible to " journalists , film @-@ makers popular novelists and thriller writers " , who adopted it " enthusiastically " . It influenced the work of Aldous Huxley and Robert Graves . It was also an influence on the American horror author H. P. Lovecraft , who cited The Witch @-@ Cult in Western Europe in his writings about the fictional cult of Cthulhu .
The author Sylvia Townsend Warner cited Murray 's work on the witch @-@ cult as an influence on her 1926 novel Lolly Willowes , and sent a copy of her book to Murray in appreciation , with the two meeting for lunch shortly after . There was nevertheless some difference in their depictions of the witch @-@ cult ; whereas Murray had depicted an organised pre @-@ Christian cult , Warner depicted a vague family tradition that was explicitly Satanic . In 1927 , Warner lectured on the subject of witchcraft , exhibiting a strong influence from Murray 's work . Analysing the relationship between Murray and Warner , the English literature scholar Mimi Winick characterised both as being " engaged in imagining new possibilities for women in modernity " .
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= David Mitchell ( comedian ) =
David James Stuart Mitchell ( born 14 July 1974 ) is a British comedian , actor and writer . He is half of the comedy duo Mitchell and Webb alongside Robert Webb . The duo starred in the Channel 4 sitcom Peep Show in which Mitchell plays Mark Corrigan . Mitchell won the British Academy Television Award for Best Comedy Performance in 2009 for his performance in the show . The duo have written and starred in several sketch shows including Bruiser , The Mitchell and Webb Situation , That Mitchell and Webb Sound and also That Mitchell and Webb Look . Mitchell and Webb also starred in the UK version of Apple 's Get a Mac advertisement campaign . Their first film Magicians was released in 2007 .
Mitchell is a frequent participant on British panel shows , being a team captain on Would I Lie to You ? , host of The Bubble , and a frequent guest on other panel shows , including QI , Mock the Week and Have I Got News for You . He also hosts the television panel game Was It Something I Said ? , the radio show The Unbelievable Truth and the comedy news programme 10 O 'Clock Live . As a writer , Mitchell regularly contributes comment articles to The Observer and The Guardian .
= = Early life = =
Mitchell 's ancestry can in part be traced back to the Highland Clearances . He was born in Salisbury , Wiltshire , England , to Ian Douglas Mitchell and Kathy Grey Mitchell ( née Hughes ) , who were then hotel managers . In 1977 , his parents gave up their jobs to lecture and to look after a then two @-@ year @-@ old Mitchell . He attended Napier House primary school . He is the elder of two boys ; when David was seven and a half years old his parents had another son , Daniel . The family moved to Oxford where Mitchell 's parents became lecturers on hotel management at Oxford Polytechnic and he attended New College School which was an independent preparatory school in the city . In a 2006 interview with The Independent , Mitchell stated his childhood dreams :
When I was at school I either wanted to be a comedian @-@ stroke @-@ actor or prime minister . But I didn 't admit that to other people , I said I wanted to be a barrister and that made my parents very happy . I didn 't admit I wanted to be a comedian until I came to university , met a lot of other people who wanted to be comedians , and realised it was an okay thing to say .
From the age of 13 Mitchell was educated at Abingdon School , a public school in Oxfordshire . Having always been top of the class at primary school and prep school , once he moved to Abingdon , he realised that there were plenty of people more intelligent than he was and so turned his attention to debating and drama , " where [ he ] had a chance of being the best " . There , Mitchell often took part in plays , " largely because you got to play cards backstage . " His roles mainly consisted of small minute @-@ long parts , until he won the role of Rabbit in Winnie @-@ the @-@ Pooh . This was the first time that he was " consciously aware I was doing a performance " and that that " was better , even , than playing cards . " Mitchell had been " obsessed " with comedy writing since his school days , as he " always felt that doing a joke was the cleverest thing " , and " would intrinsically prefer a parody of something to the actual thing itself " .
= = = Education = = =
Rejected by Merton College , University of Oxford , in 1993 , Mitchell went up to Peterhouse , Cambridge where he read History . There , he began performing with the Cambridge Footlights , of which he became president for the 1995 – 96 academic year .
Mitchell was in his first year at university when he met Robert Webb during rehearsals for a 1993 Footlights production of Cinderella , and the two men soon set up a comedy partnership . According to Mitchell these factors had a detrimental effect on his studies at university and he attained a 2 : 2 in his final exams .
= = Career = =
= = = Early work and Peep Show = = =
Before his break into comedy , Mitchell worked as an usher at the Lyric Hammersmith theatre , and in the cloakroom of TFI Friday among other jobs .
Mitchell 's first project with Webb was in January 1995 , a show about a nuclear apocalypse entitled Innocent Millions Dead or Dying : A Wry Look at the Post @-@ Apocalyptic Age . Webb later described it as being " fucking terrible " . After leaving university he and Webb began performing a number of two @-@ man shows at the Edinburgh Fringe .
As a result of their performances at the Edinburgh Fringe , the duo were given the chance to write for Alexander Armstrong and Ben Miller and for series two of Big Train . After minor work on The Jack Docherty Show and Comedy Nation , their first break into television acting was in 2000 , on the short @-@ lived BBC sketch show Bruiser , which they primarily wrote , and starred in . The show also featured three time BAFTA winner Olivia Colman , who would become a regular cast member of Mitchell and Webb projects , and Martin Freeman , later of The Office fame . Other cast members included Matthew Holness and Charlotte Hudson . Additional material for the show was provided by various people , including Ricky Gervais and James Bachman .
In 2001 the two men were commissioned for a sketch show of their own , entitled The Mitchell and Webb Situation , which ran for six episodes on the now defunct channel Play UK . Despite the show running for a mere series , it was reasonably well received . Wessex Scene 's Darren Richman said " what the series lacked in budget , it made up for in magnificent material " and went on to call it " far superior to the vastly overrated Little Britain " and " perhaps the greatest forgotten sketch show of modern times . " Eureka ! TV said that the show " gushes forth an hilarious stream of surreal and quirkily inventive sketches " , as well as calling it a " cult success " . Eureka ! TV released The Mitchell and Webb Situation on DVD in 2005 . In the interview with Wessex Scene , Mitchell stated that he was " more proud of the way it turned out than annoyed that it was only aired on a small channel . "
Mitchell and Webb 's next project came in 2003 , with starring roles in the Channel 4 sitcom Peep Show , as flatmates Mark Corrigan and Jeremy Usbourne respectively . The show originated from writers Jesse Armstrong and Sam Bain 's failed attempt to complete a team @-@ written sitcom for the BBC ; they had an old script that they wanted to revive and Mitchell and Webb helped out , with it eventually evolving into Peep Show . Despite low viewing figures ( which almost got the show cancelled after series three ) the show was received to wide critical acclaim . The British Sitcom Guide called it " without a doubt one of the best sitcoms of the decade . " Ricky Gervais has been cited as saying " the last thing I got genuinely excited about on British TV was Peep Show , which I thought was the best sitcom since Father Ted " . The BBC hailed Mitchell 's performance in the series , citing that " As Mark Corrigan , David reached out to all those middle @-@ aged men in a twentysomething 's body , who believe drugs are boring and systems are necessary if society is to function at all . " Mitchell has stated that he empathises with Mark and enjoys playing him and that he " agrees with many of [ Mark 's ] opinions . " Peep Show has aired nine series , making it the longest @-@ running sitcom in Channel 4 history .
In 2009 , Mitchell won the British Academy Television Award for Best Comedy Performance for his work on Peep Show , after having lost in the same category the year before . He was nominated again in 2010 . He won the award " Best Television Comedy Actor " at the 2007 British Comedy Awards , and the pair shared the 2007 Royal Television Society Award for " Comedy Performance " . They were also jointly nominated for " Best Television Comedy Actor " at the 2006 British Comedy Awards . Peep Show itself has also won the BAFTA for " Best situation comedy " in 2008 , and the British Comedy Award for " Best TV comedy " in 2006 , and retained it the following year . It also won " Best TV Comedy " at the South Bank Show Awards , and claimed a Golden Rose in 2004 .
= = = Other Mitchell and Webb projects = = =
After the success of Peep Show Mitchell and Webb returned to sketch comedy with their BBC Radio 4 sketch show That Mitchell and Webb Sound , which ran for four series . The show was adapted for television and became That Mitchell and Webb Look . Producer Gareth Edwards described it as " the shortest pitch [ he had ] ever written " . The show has run for four series . Towards the end of 2006 the pair made their first tour , with a show called The Two Faces of Mitchell and Webb . The tour was criticised as just " a succession of largely unrelated scenes " by The Guardian 's Brian Logan , who gave it a rating of two stars .
That Mitchell and Webb Look won them the BAFTA for Best Comedy Programme or Series at the 2007 awards , and they earned a further nomination for it in 2009 . It was nominated for two British Comedy Awards in 2006 : Britain 's Best New TV Comedy and the Highland Spring People 's Choice . Their stage tour The Two Faces of Mitchell and Webb was nominated for the British Comedy Award for Best Stage Comedy , and That Mitchell and Webb Sound won a Sony Silver Award .
Their first film , Magicians was released on 18 May 2007 . It was directed by Andrew O 'Connor and written by Jesse Armstrong and Sam Bain . Mitchell played the role of a magician named Harry . Later in 2007 , the pair recorded a pilot BBC Radio 2 sitcom entitled Daydream Believers , in which Mitchell played Ray , a science @-@ fiction writer . The show was previously a one @-@ off television pilot from Channel 4 's Comedy Lab , and also starred Mitchell and Webb .
Mitchell and Webb 's first comedy book , This Mitchell and Webb Book , was published in 2009 . A second book is in preparation . They also wrote and filmed Playing Shop , a comedy television pilot for BBC2 about two men who operate a business out of their shed . Although the BBC commissioners were happy with it , Mitchell and Webb scrapped it themselves , as they felt it was too similar to Peep Show . A new pilot had been commissioned , but the plan was later shelved . Mitchell and Webb voiced a robotic duo in the Doctor Who episode " Dinosaurs on a Spaceship " in 2012 .
In 2007 the duo fronted the UK version of Apple Inc . ' s " Get a Mac " adverts , with Mitchell playing PC . The adverts received much criticism . Writing in The Guardian , Charlie Brooker claimed that the use of Mitchell and Webb in the adverts was a curious choice . He compared the characters of PC and Mac in the adverts to those of Mark and Jeremy in Peep Show , stating that " when you see the ads , you think , ' PCs are a bit rubbish yet ultimately lovable , whereas Macs are just smug , preening tossers . ' " The British Sitcom Guide also criticised the pair for " selling their souls " . One journalist called the adverts " worse than not funny " , and accused Mitchell and Webb of " an act of grave betrayal " for taking corporate work . In an interview with The Telegraph , Robert Webb responded to the duo 's critics , stating that " when someone asks , ' Do you want to do some funny ads for not many days in the year and be paid more than you would be for an entire series of Peep Show ? ' the answer , obviously , is , ' Yeah , that 's fine . ' " In the same interview , Mitchell also said : " I don 't see what is morally inconsistent with a comedian doing an advert . It 's all right to sell computers , isn 't it ? Unless you think that capitalism is evil – which I don 't . It 's not like we 're helping to flog a baby @-@ killing machine . "
In 2005 , the duo were placed ninth on a list of the United Kingdom 's best television talent , and were named twelfth in a Radio Times list of the most powerful people in television comedy .
= = = Solo acting , presenting and writing = = =
As well as his work alongside Webb , Mitchell has appeared on his own in several shows . He played technical expert Owen in the Radio 4 sitcom Think the Unthinkable in 2001 . He played the surgeon Dr Toby Stephens in the BBC2 sitcom Doctors and Nurses . In 2005 he played Kate 's hapless secretary Tim in the BBC 's updating of The Taming of The Shrew in its ShakespeaRe @-@ Told series . Mitchell appeared as various roles on the Channel 4 sketch programme Blunder . The show was not well received , with the British Sitcom Guide naming it as the worst thing that Mitchell did in all of 2006 in their " British Sitcom Awards " of that year . He portrayed the recurring character of Dr. James Vine in the BBC sitcom Jam and Jerusalem . Mitchell had a small part in the film I Could Never Be Your Woman , playing an English writer , also named David . While in Los Angeles to record the part he decided that he did not like the area much , and preferred filming in Britain .
He wrote for series five of the BBC2 impressionist sketch show Dead Ringers , and voiced Mitch in the Disney animated series Phineas and Ferb . He also narrated the reality show Beauty and the Geek . Following the success of Channel 4 's Alternative Election Night in 2010 , which Mitchell hosted with Jimmy Carr , Charlie Brooker and Lauren Laverne , the four presented 10 O 'Clock Live , a series of live shows looking at the week 's affairs . Mitchell has a solo segment entitled Listen to Mitchell . The show has run for three series .
Mitchell has presented four series of the online video show David Mitchell 's Soapbox , a series of short monologues co @-@ written with John Finnemore for ChannelFlip . In these monologues Mitchell has criticised a variety of subjects , including the BBC show Doctor Who and 3D television . Matt Warman of the Daily Telegraph suggested that the series could be a sign that new comedy will increasingly become available online , rather than on television . The series has been released on DVD .
He provided the voiceover for a £ 1 million government advert for FRANK , warning of the dangers of cocaine , as " Pablo the Drug Mule Dog " ; and also for the Driving Standards Agency 's " The Highway Code " . He writes columns for The Observer and The Guardian . He also took part in Channel 4 's Comedy Gala , a benefit show held in aid of Great Ormond Street Children 's Hospital at the O2 Arena . In October 2009 , Mitchell signed a deal with HarperCollins and its imprint Fourth Estate to write a volume of memoirs and a novel . The memoirs , Back Story : A Memoir , was published in October 2012 with the novel scheduled for 2013 .
Mitchell played William Shakespeare in the sitcom Upstart Crow , broadcast in 2016 as part of the celebrations of the 400th anniversary of the playwright 's death . The series has been renewed for 6 more episodes , as well as a Christmas special , scheduled to air in 2017 on BBC 2 .
= = = Panel shows = = =
Mitchell has become a regular participant on many panel shows , leading The Independent 's James Rampton to christen him " if not king , then certainly prince regent of the panel games . " Mitchell is a team captain on the BBC panel show Would I Lie To You ? , opposite Lee Mack . The show has run since 2007 , airing nine series . Since 2006 , he has hosted fourteen series of The Unbelievable Truth , a panel game on BBC Radio 4 . The inaugural episode of Was It Something I Said ? , a panel comedy show that Mitchell hosts , was broadcast on Channel 4 in October 2013 .
He was a team captain on the Channel 4 comedy quiz show Best of the Worst , opposite Johnny Vaughan . Mitchell has also hosted three episodes of Have I Got News For You . Mitchell hosted the panel show The Bubble . He hosted the second week of Channel 4 's FAQ U , and appeared as himself in an episode of Rob Brydon 's Annually Retentive , a panel show parody . He also appeared as one of the participants on the Channel 4 show TV Heaven , Telly Hell , and has appeared on several episodes of Question Time . Other appearances include QI , Have I Got News for You , Mock the Week , Just a Minute , Armando Iannucci 's Charm Offensive and 8 Out of 10 Cats , as well as appearances on The Big Fat Quiz of the Year in 2005 , 2007 , 2009 , 2011 , 2014 and 2015 .
In a 2007 interview with Digital Spy , Mitchell stated that he enjoyed panel shows , as they are " a game worth playing " . He then further explained his appreciation of the panel format in response to criticism from Fast Show co @-@ creator Charlie Higson , who stated in September 2013 that panel comedies were overtaking television programming at the expense of sketch shows and sitcoms :
There was a quote from Catherine Zeta @-@ Jones about playing golf with her husband Michael Douglas . We essentially all started to imagine the scene of the two of them playing golf and that was very enjoyable and turned into a really fun bit of TV . It is moments like that which , for me , justify the existence of panel shows because no @-@ one would ever have written those words . It purely came out of that combination of people which proves panel shows can produce funny TV in a way you could never write into a sitcom or a sketch show and thereby justifies its place on screen . I think it is a great form of entertainment and we shouldn 't lose sight of that .
The Radio Times named him " The Best Comedy Panel Show Guest " in the world , stating that " he 's incredibly , disgustingly witty " and " even starting to make Paul Merton look slow on the uptake " .
Following his BAFTA win , Mitchell was ranked at No. 53 in the 2009 MediaGuardian 100 , an annual ranking of media people in The Guardian . In reference to his ubiquitous presence in broadcast and print media , The Guardian 's writer called him " the go @-@ to funnyman of the moment " . In their entry for Peep Show on their list of " The top 50 TV shows of the Noughties " , The Times labelled Mitchell " a national institution " .
= = Influences = =
Mitchell 's favourite actor is Sir Alec Guinness , and he lists Spike Milligan , Peter Sellers and Peter Cook as his comedy idols . Additionally , following the death of British actor Richard Briers in February 2013 , Mitchell revealed that whenever he has acted he " always hoped to be something like him [ Briers ] " . Mitchell has also identified Morecambe and Wise , Monty Python and The Two Ronnies as highly influential on his career .
= = Personal life = =
Mitchell 's father was born in Liverpool of Scottish ancestry , and his mother is Welsh — Mitchell considers himself British rather than English . On 7 August 2014 , Mitchell 's name appeared — as part of a list of 200 signatories — in support of an open letter to The Guardian opposing Scottish independence prior to the September 2014 referendum on the issue . Mitchell 's participation in the open letter follows a May 2011 Observer column , in which he concludes that " the British will have lost their country " if Scotland ever achieves independence .
Mitchell has often joked about his personal life in interviews . In 2005 he stated he had " been in so many situations when I 've just said nothing to someone I 've fancied . " He later added that " I 'm sort of all right on my own . I don 't want it to be forever , but the fundamental thing is I 'm all right alone . " For many years he lived in Kilburn , London , as the flatmate of novelist Robert Hudson . In 2007 , he was best man at Robert Webb 's wedding to Abigail Burdess .
He first met broadcaster Victoria Coren at a showbusiness party in 2007 and was " completely smitten " , and although she decided to pursue someone else , he continued to pine for her . In December 2010 they began dating . In March 2012 their engagement was announced in The Times , and they married on 17 November 2012 . In May 2015 , Coren announced the birth of their daughter .
He remains interested in history and said in an interview with The Observer that " I can see myself in a few years ' time joining the National Trust and going round the odd castle . I think I might find that restful as the anger of middle age sets in . " In his interview on Parkinson he stated that if he could go back in time to do one thing , it would be to go to the building of Stonehenge , to ask them " why they were bothering " . He is a cricket and snooker fan , and also plays the occasional game of squash and tennis . He is a user of Twitter , and does not drive . He is an agnostic .
Mitchell walks for an hour each day to counter a bad back , and as a result lost weight , but he " probably [ has ] quite a bad diet " and " probably drinks too much . " He is constantly " checking and re @-@ checking things " , and describes himself as a worrier . Mitchell is a keen cricket fan and has written on the subject for The Guardian .
His favourite television programmes include The Simpsons , which he called the " best programme ever " . He claims that watching new comedy is " very stressful " , and cites I 'm Alan Partridge , The Office and Monty Python as being among his favourite television programmes . He has also stated a liking for Extras , 30 Rock , CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , Bleak House , Tinker , Tailor , Soldier , Spy , Terry and June and the television programmes of Adam Hart @-@ Davis .
Beyond the realm of film and television , Mitchell cites Evelyn Waugh as among his favourite authors . He once claimed that he is " not remotely interested in music " , but appeared on the radio programme Desert Island Discs . Mitchell has revealed that he owns two CDs , Phil Collins 's ... But Seriously and Susan Boyle 's I Dreamed a Dream .
= = Credits = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = = Non @-@ fictional appearances = = = =
= = = Radio = = =
= = = = Non @-@ fictional appearances = = = =
The Unbelievable Truth – Host ( 2006 – )
Heresy – 4 appearances ( 2008 – 2010 )
Just a Minute – 4 appearances ( 2009 , 2010 )
Desert Island Discs – 1 appearance – ( 2009 )
The News Quiz – 1 appearance – ( 2009 )
I 'm Sorry I Haven 't A Clue – 6 appearances – ( 2009 – 2011 )
= = = Publications = = =
This Mitchell and Webb Book ( 2009 ) , with Robert Webb
Back Story : A Memoir ( 2012 )
Thinking About It Only Makes it Worse ( 2014 )
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= Fernando de la Rúa =
Fernando de la Rúa ( born September 15 , 1937 ) is an Argentine retired politician of the Radical Civic Union ( UCR ) who served as President of Argentina from December 10 , 1999 , to December 21 , 2001 . De la Rúa was born in Córdoba ; he entered politics after graduating with a degree in law . He was elected senator in 1973 and unsuccessfully ran for the office of Vice President as Ricardo Balbín 's running mate the same year . In 1993 , he was re @-@ elected senator in 1983 and 1993 , and as deputy in 1991 . He unsuccessfully opposed the pact of Olivos between President Carlos Menem and party leader Raúl Alfonsín , which enabled the 1994 amendment of the Argentine Constitution and the re @-@ election of Menem in 1995 .
De la Rúa was the first chief of government of Buenos Aires to be elected by popular vote , a change introduced by the amendment of the Constitution . He expanded the Buenos Aires Underground , adding new stations to Line D , starting the expansion of Line B , and establishing Line H. He established Roberto Goyeneche Avenue and the city 's first bicycle path .
In 1999 , De la Rúa was elected President after running on the Alliance ticket , a political coalition of the UCR and the Frepaso . He was opposed by the Peronist unions and his Vice President Carlos Álvarez resigned after denouncing bribes in the Senate . The economic crisis that began during Menem 's administration worsened and by the end of 2001 led to a banking panic . The government established the Corralito to limit bank withdrawals . De la Rúa called a state of emergency during the December 2001 riots . He resigned on December 20 , and the Congress appointed a new President . As of April 2016 , he is retired from politics and facing legal proceedings .
= = Early life = =
Fernando de la Rúa is the son of Eleonora Bruno and Antonio De la Rúa ; he was born in the city of Córdoba and attended the local Military Lyceum before entering the National University of Córdoba , from which he graduated with a law degree at the age of 21 . He married a Buenos Aires socialite , Inés Pertiné , in 1970 ; they had three children , including Antonio de la Rúa . De la Rúa became involved in politics at a young age ; he entered public service in 1963 as an advisor to President Arturo Illia 's minister Juan Palmero .
He was elected senator in the March 1973 general elections , defeating the Peronist Marcelo Sánchez Sorondo . He was the only politician from the Radical Civic Union ( UCR ) who could defeat the Peronist candidate in his administrative division . The elected president Héctor José Cámpora and his vice president resigned a few months later , leading to the call to new elections . Ricardo Balbín ran for president in the September general elections , with De la Rúa as his running mate for the post of vice president . The UCR was defeated by Juan Perón by a landslide . De la Rúa was removed from the Congress during the 1976 Argentine coup d 'état . He left politics and worked as a lawyer for the firm Bunge y Born .
The National Reorganization Process ended in 1983 . De la Rúa intended to run for president but lost in the primary elections of the UCR to Raúl Alfonsín , who was elected in the general election . De la Rúa ran for the post of senator instead , defeating the Peronist Carlos Ruckauf . He ran for re @-@ election as senator in 1989 but , despite of his electoral victory , the electoral college voted for the Peronist Eduardo Vaca . De la Rúa was elected deputy in 1991 and returned to the senate in 1993 . President Carlos Menem , elected in 1989 , wanted to amend the constitution to allow him to run for re @-@ election in 1995 , which was opposed by the UCR . Alfonsín signed the Pact of Olivos with Menem , negotiating terms to support the proposal . De la Rúa led the opposition to the pact within the UCR , but Alfonsín prevailed in the internal dispute . This damaged the relationship between both leaders , but helped the party to retain a number of radicals who were against the pact . De la Rúa could not prevent the 1994 amendment of the Argentine Constitution . As a result , Menem was re @-@ elected in 1995 . The UCR finished third in the elections for the first time , being surpassed by the Frepaso , a new party composed by former Peronists .
= = Mayor of Buenos Aires = =
The constitutional amendment gave autonomy to the city of Buenos Aires , allowing it to sanction local laws and elect its own mayor , who was previously appointed by the president of the nation . De la Rúa was the first mayor elected in this manner , defeating the previous mayor Jorge Domínguez . During his term of office he created or reformulated several institutions to fit the new status of the city , as required by the national constitution and the recently approved Constitution of Buenos Aires .
De la Rúa worked on the expansion of the Buenos Aires Underground . The first stations of the extended Line D , Olleros and José Hernández , were opened in 1997 , Juramento was opened in 1999 , and Congreso de Tucumán in 2000 . He also started the works to extend the Line B. Carlos Menem started to transfer the control and financing of the underground system to the city , but the 2001 economic crisis halted the process .
The former mayor Domínguez intended to expand the Pan @-@ American Highway into Saavedra , but the project met widespread opposition . De la Rúa reformulated the project and built an avenue instead of a highway , which was accepted . The avenue was named Roberto Goyeneche . He also restarted a project to build the Cámpora Highway linking Dellepiane Avenue with the Riachuelo , and established the first non @-@ recreational bikeway in Buenos Aires at Avenida del Libertador .
= = Presidential elections = =
The Pact of Olivos diminished the electoral strength of the UCR , leading to the rise of the Frepaso . Both parties united in a political coalition , the Alliance , which defeated the PJ in the 1997 midterm elections . It was the PJ 's first national defeat since 1985 . The parties held open primary elections for the 1999 presidential elections . De la Rúa stood for the UCR ; the whole party , including Alfonsín , supported him . The Frepaso candidate was Graciela Fernández Meijide , who had defeated Peronism in the populous Buenos Aires province . De la Rúa won the primary elections by a wide margin . In the primaries , De la Rúa was voted for by more people than those who voted for the UCR in 1995 . Despite his victory , Alfonsín was still the president of the UCR . They disagreed on the vice president for De la Rúa 's ticket ; he thought that it should be Meijide because she took part in the primary elections and came from a different district than him . Alfonsín preferred the popular Carlos Álvarez , leader of the Frepaso , saying he could attract more voters and had more political expertise . It was also a result of the internal politics of the Alliance : except for Meijide , the Frepaso did not have a political figure who may run with good chances for governor of the Buenos Aires province . Had she run for vicepresident , Frepaso would have had to resign that candidacy to a radical candidate .
Carlos Menem dismissed De la Rúa as a " boring " candidate . De la Rúa exploited that description in television advertisements , embracing it and setting a comparison with the glitzy style of Menem and the perceived political corruption of his administration . He also compared himself with the Peronist candidate Eduardo Duhalde . He promised to solve the economic crisis with fiscal austerity and higher tax controls , hoping it would lower interest rates , bring more foreign investments , and reduce unemployment . He also promised to keep the Convertibility plan established by Menem that pegged the Argentine Peso one @-@ to @-@ one with the United States dollar .
The 1999 presidential election was held on October 24 . De la Rúa defeated Duhalde by 48 @.@ 4 % to 38 @.@ 3 % , well ahead of the threshold to avoid a ballotage election . Domingo Cavallo , Menem 's former minister of economy , finished the race in third place . De la Rúa was inaugurated President of Argentina on December 10 , 1999 . He took office with a favorability rating of 75 % . Unlike Menem , whose initial cabinet was composed by trusted friends , De la Rúa 's cabinet included five people with international degrees , and four economists .
= = Presidency = =
= = = Domestic policy = = =
In the first days of his presidency , De la Rúa sent a bill to the Congress to request a federal intervention in Corrientes Province . The province had a high level of debt , and organizations of piqueteros blocked roads to make demonstrations . There were two interim governors disputing power . The bill was immediately approved . The intervenor selected for the work was Ramón Mestre .
The Peronist unions opposed De la Rúa and held seven general strikes against him . He sent a bill known as the labour flexibility law to deregulate labor conditions , attempting to reduce the political influence of unions , to the Congress . This project was opposed by the PJ and was changed from the original draft . It was finally approved but Álvarez said several legislators were bribed to support the bill . Álvarez asked for the removal of the labor minister Alberto Flamarique , but De la Rúa instead promoted him to be his personal secretary . Álvarez resigned the following day and the political scandal divided the coalition . Several deputees who initially supported De la Rúa switched to the opposition . Alfonsín tried to prevent a breakup of the UCR . Some months later , it was proposed that Álvarez returned as Chief of the Cabinet of Ministers ; he initially supported the idea but De la Rúa opposed it . Cavallo was also proposed for the office before he was appointed Minister of Economy . De la Rúa intended to include the Frepaso in the new cabinet but to exclude Álvarez himself because he still resented the latter 's resignation . The negotiations failed and the new cabinet included no Frepaso politicians , but the Alliance was still working as a coalition in the Congress . It also included several radical politicians from Alfonsín 's internal faction . The new Chief of Cabinet was Chrystian Colombo , who mediated between Alfonsín and the president .
The PJ won the 2001 midterm election by 40 % to 24 % , giving it a majority in both chambers of the Congress . However , the abstention rate and several forms of protest votes combined reached 41 % , the highest in Argentine history , as a consequence of the popular discontent with the two main parties . Even the few candidates of the Alliance who won at their districts , such as the radical Rodolfo Terragno in Buenos Aires , did so with political platforms against De la Rúa 's administration .
= = = Foreign policy = = =
The first year of De la Rúa 's presidency coincided with the last year of Bill Clinton 's presidency of the United States . Ricardo Lopez Murphy , Minister of Defense at the time , met William Cohen , U.S. Secretary of Defense , in a summit of ministers that took place in Brazil in 2000 . Both countries agreed to share classified information and to hold joint operations against terrorism .
George W. Bush took office in January 2001 , and changed the American policy towards countries in financial crises . The Treasury Secretary Paul H. O 'Neill , a critic of financial aids , said , " We 're working to find a way to create a sustainable Argentina , not just one that continues to consume the money of the plumbers and carpenters in the United States who make $ 50 @,@ 000 a year and wonder what in the world we 're doing with their money " . The September 11 attacks occurred a few months later , and the U.S. focused its foreign policy on the War on Terror against countries suspected of harboring terrorist organizations . As a result , the U.S. gave no further financial aid to Argentina . This policy was confirmed after an interview of Bush with the Brazilian president , Fernando Henrique Cardoso , who confirmed Brazil would not be affected by the Argentine crisis .
= = = Economic policy = = =
De la Rúa 's first Minister of Economy was the progressivist José Luis Machinea , who was proposed by Alfonsín and Álvarez . Menem had left a deficit of 5 Gross Domestic Product ( GDP ) points that Machinea tried to compensate with higher taxes to people with the highest incomes , and a reduction of the highest retirement pensions . The deficit was reduced but the crisis continued . The scandal over the labor law and the resignation of Álvarez increased the country risk , and made Argentina 's access to international credit more difficult . The government negotiated a US $ 38 billion International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) line of credit to prevent a default and allow the economy to grow again . Machinea also proposed to appoint the former minister Cavallo as the new president of the Central Bank of Argentina . However , Machinea was unable to achieve the levels of austerity negotiated with the IMF and resigned a few days later . The Minister of Defense Ricardo López Murphy became the new Minister of Economy . During the election camapain , De la Rúa had promised not to appoint him to that ministry , but with the ongoing crisis he did not want to risk problems caused by a temporary lack of minister . López Murphy announced a stricter austerity plan , with reduction to the health and education budgets . His plan was rejected by street demonstrations and the Frepaso , so De la Rúa declined it . Murphy resigned after being minister for 16 days .
De la Rúa appointed Cavallo , who had served under Menem and had established the convertibility plan . He was supported by the PJ , Carlos Álvarez , and the financial groups , but he was rejected by the rest of the UCR . The government announced it would retain the convertibility plan and that there would be no devaluation or sovereign default . Cavallo proposed several bills ; De la Rúa sent them to the Congress and they were approved . The " superpowers law " authorized the chief of government to modify the national budget without the intervention of the Congress . There was a new tax on bank operations and more products attracted value @-@ added tax . The wages of national customs workers were increased and some industries benefited from tax exemptions . The Megacanje was a negotiation to delay the payment of foreign debt in exchange for higher interest rates . However , internal debt was still a problem because the provinces , especially Buenos Aires Province , were nearing default . This led to conflicts between Cavallo and the provincial governors . The Congress approved a bill for a " Zero deficit " policy to prevent further increases of debt and to work only with money from tax revenue . There was a banking panic in November ; the government reacted by introducing the " corralito " , which prevented people from withdrawing cash from banks . It was initially a temporary measure . The IMF refused to send the monthly payment for the line of credit approved at the beginning of the year because the government had not stuck to the " zero deficit " policy .
= = = Riots and resignation = = =
The crisis worsened and by December 19 , 2001 , riots and looting broke out at several points in the country . De la Rúa announced in a cadena nacional ( national network broadcast ) that he established a state of emergency . The riots continued ; his speech was followed by increased protests , the cacerolazos , which caused 27 deaths and thousands of injuries . Cavallo resigned at midnight the same day , and the rest of the cabinet followed suit .
There was increased looting on December 20 , both in Buenos Aires and the Conurbano . The cacerolazos continued ; large groups of people started demonstrations calling for the government 's resignation . The unions — first the CTA and then the CGT — began general strikes against the state of emergency . Most of the UCR withdrew their support to De la Rúa , so he asked the PJ to create a government coalition . The PJ refused , and De la Rúa resigned from government . His last administrative action was to lift the state of emergency . He gave his resignation to the Congress at 19 : 45 local time on December 20 , 2001 , and left the Casa Rosada in a helicopter . He had ruled for two years , half of his term of office .
Because Vice president Carlos Álvarez had already resigned , the Congress convened to appoint a new president . Adolfo Rodríguez Saá , governor of the San Luis Province , was in office for two months while calling for new presidential elections . Renewed demonstrations forced him to resign as well , and Eduardo Duhalde was appointed as the new president . He was able to complete De la Rúa 's term of office .
= = Later life = =
De la Rúa retired from political life after his resignation . The scandal over the labor flexibility law was renewed in 2003 when a former Senate worker , Mario Pontaquarto , claimed to be a witness of the case who delivered $ 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to the legislators . De la Rúa was indicted alongside seven politicians from both the UCR and the PJ . In 2013 , they were all cleared of charges by a unanimous resolution , and Pontaquarto was removed from the witness protection program .
De la Rúa was also indicted for the police repression that took place during the crisis ; he was tried by judge Caudio Bonadio , who declared him innocent in 2009 . The Supreme Court overturned Bonadio 's ruling and ordered him to further investigate the matter . De la Rúa and Cavallo were indicted for illegally benefiting the banks that took part in the Megacanje . They were declared innocent on October 6 , 2014 .
= = Public image = =
De la Rúa started to work in politics from a very young age . He was nicknamed " Chupete " ( Spanish : " Pacifier " ) because of this ; the nickname was still used when he grew up . During Carlos Menem 's administration he was perceived as a serious and formal politician , in stark contrast with Menem 's style . De la Rúa took advantage of this perception during the electoral campaign of 1999 . When he became president and the economic crisis worsened , he was perceived as a weak and tired man who was unable to react to the crisis . He was perceived as a man without leadership who could not make use of his presidential authority . De la Rúa considers that the parody of the television comedian Freddy Villarreal helped to establish that image . He sought to change his image by appearing on the television comedy show El show de Videomatch , but it backfired . He confused the names of the show and that of the host Marcelo Tinelli 's wife . After De la Rúa 's participation ended , Tinelli began to close the program ; De la Rúa could be seen seeking an exit from the set in the background . The popular image was further strengthened when he was hospitalized for peripheral artery disease caused by high blood cholesterol . Although it is a standard , simple medical intervention , the medic told the press De la Rúa suffered from arteriosclerosis , which is usually linked with a lack of speed and reflexes .
= = = Honours = = =
Slovakia : Grand Cross ( or 1st Class ) of the Order of the White Double Cross ( 2001 )
Portugal : Key of Honor to the City of Lisbon on November 15 , 2001
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= Hard Justice ( 2005 ) =
Hard Justice ( 2005 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event produced by the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) promotion , which took place on May 15 , 2005 at the TNA Impact ! Zone in Orlando , Florida . It was the first event under the Hard Justice chronology and the fifth event in the 2005 TNA PPV schedule . Eight matches and one pre @-@ show match were featured on the event 's card .
The main event was for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship between then @-@ champion Jeff Jarrett and the challenger A.J. Styles with Tito Ortiz as Special Guest Referee . Styles ended up winning the bout , thus winning the championship for the third time . TNA held a Twenty @-@ Man Gauntlet for the Gold to become the number one contender to the NWA World Heavyweight Championship . The match came down to Abyss and Ron Killings , with Abyss coming out as the victor . The TNA X Division Championship defense by Christopher Daniels against Shocker was another highly promoted match for the event . Daniels won the bout , successfully retaining the title . The Naturals ( Andy Douglas and Chase Stevens ) defended the NWA World Tag Team Championship against America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ; AMW ) on the card . The Naturals ended up retaining the tag team championship over AMW .
The event is marked for Styles ' winning the NWA World Heavyweight Championship for the third time and for opening with a memorial for Chris Candido , who died prior to the show . Jason Clevett of the professional wrestling section of the Canadian Online Explorer felt the event was the " most entertaining pay per view from TNA since January 's Final Resolution . "
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
Hard Justice was announced in early March 2005 as taking place on May 15 at the TNA Impact ! Zone in Orlando , Florida . A section covering the event was created on TNA 's official website prior to the show . TNA released a poster promoting the event featuring Jeff Jarrett at some point beforehand . TNA planned a thirty @-@ minute pre @-@ show prior to the event , featuring Shark Boy versus David Young for a spot in the Twenty @-@ Man Gauntlet for the Gold to take place during the telecast . TNA opened the show with a ten @-@ bell salute to TNA wrestler Chris Candido , who died on April 28 , 2005 due to a blood clot from surgery to fix an injury sustained at TNA 's previous PPV event Lockdown on April 24 , 2005 .
= = = Storylines = = =
Hard Justice featured eight professional wrestling matches and one pre @-@ show match that involved wrestlers from pre @-@ existing scripted feuds and storylines portraying villains , heroes , or less distinguishable characters ; these scripted events built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches .
The main event was a contest for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship between then @-@ champion , Jeff Jarrett , and the challenger , A.J. Styles , with Tito Ortiz as Special Guest Referee . On the April 8 episode of TNA 's television program TNA Impact ! , Director of Authority ( DOA ) Dusty Rhodes announced that the winner of the planned bout between Styles and Abyss in a Six Sides of Steel Cage match at TNA 's Lockdown PPV event on April 24 , 2005 , would earn a championship match at Hard Justice . Styles went on to defeat Abyss at Lockdown , thus becoming the number one contender . DOA Rhodes announced on the April 29 , 2005 episode of Impact ! that the match was official and that Ortiz would be special guest referee for the bout . TNA held a sit @-@ down interview conducted by TNA commentator Mike Tenay between Styles and Jarrett on the May 6 episode of Impact ! . The match was promoted heading into the event with a video package highlighting the strengths of Styles ' in @-@ ring ability against Jarrett 's history as champion on the May 13 episode of Impact ! .
A Twenty @-@ Man Gauntlet for the Gold to determine the number contender to the NWA World Heavyweight Championship was held at Hard Justice . The match was announced on the April 29 episode of Impact ! by DOA Rhodes . In a Gauntlet for the Gold , two wrestlers start the bout , with more entering at time intervals , in which the point is to eliminate the opponent by throwing them over the top rope and to the floor . When the match is down to two wrestlers , a standard match is held , with the winner being the one to gain the pinfall or submission . On the May 6 episode of Impact ! , Abyss was announced as a participant in the match . TNA held a Ten @-@ Man Gauntlet on the May 13 episode of Impact ! to determine the first and final entrants in the match , with the first eliminated in the match entering first while the winner being the last entrant . Abyss , Bobby Roode , David Young , A @-@ 1 , Chris Sabin , Petey Williams , Lance Hoyt , Michael Shane , Trytan , and Apolo all participated in the bout , with Roode being the first eliminated and Abyss winning the contest .
The TNA X Division Championship was defended by Christopher Daniels against Shocker at Hard Justice . At Lockdown , Shocker defeated Chris Sabin , Michael Shane , and Sonjay Dutt to win the first @-@ ever Xscape match . On the April 29 episode of Impact ! , it was announced that Daniels would defend the championship against Shocker at the PPV event . The match was promoted on the basis of Shocker having wrestled for numerous promotions across the world , garnering extensive fame in Mexico , and Daniels ' having to defend against an international star of this level .
The Naturals ( Andy Douglas and Chase Stevens ) defended the NWA World Tag Team Championship against America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) ( AMW ) in another featured match on the card . The Naturals , accompanied by Chris Candido , defeated then @-@ tag team champions AMW in a non @-@ title match on the April 22 episode of Impact ! . On the April 29 episode of Impact ! , The Naturals defeated AMW to win the tag team championship with help from Candido . The match was announced for Hard Justice on the May 6 episode of Impact ! .
Raven versus Jeff Hardy in a Clockwork Orange House of Fun match was promoted for the event . The feud behind this match began on the March 25 episode of Impact ! , when Raven offered Hardy an alliance which he refused . Raven attacked Hardy during a confrontation between Abyss and Hardy on the April 1 episode of Impact ! . This led to a Six Sides of Steel Tables match at Lockdown , which Hardy won . It was announced on the May 13 episode of Impact ! Raven and Hardy would face in a Clockwork Orange House of Fun match at Hard Justice .
= = Event = =
= = = Pre @-@ Show = = =
Prior to the event 's commencement , TNA held a thirty @-@ minute pre @-@ show . It featured a six minute and twenty @-@ eight second bout between Shark Boy and David Young in which the winner earned entry into the Gauntlet for the Gold later in the night . Shark Boy ended up gaining the pinfall in the contest after driving Young into the mat back @-@ first using his signature maneuver the Dead Sea Drop . During the show , it was announced that Sean Waltman would be replacing Jeff Hardy as Raven 's opponent in the Clockwork Orange House of Fun match due to Hardy not arriving in time for the event .
= = = On @-@ air employees = = =
The event featured employees other than the wrestlers involved in the matches . Mike Tenay and Don West were the commentators for the telecast . Jeremy Borash and David Penzer were ring announcers for the event . Andrew Thomas , Rudy Charles , and Mark " Slick " Johnson participated as referees for the encounters . Terry Taylor and Tenay were used as an interviewers during the event ; Taylor was also used during the pre @-@ show . Besides employees appearing in a wrestling role , Coach D 'Amore , A @-@ 1 , Tito Ortiz , David Young , Phi Delta Slam ( Bruno Sassi and Big Tilly ) , and Dusty Rhodes all appeared on camera , either in backstage or ringside segments . Borash , West , Tenay , Taylor , and TNA ring girl SoCal Val all appeared during the pre @-@ show for the event .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The event opened with a ten @-@ bell salute to Chris Candido while a photo of Candido , a pair of boots , and one @-@ half of the NWA World Tag Team Championship positioned on a steel chair sat in the center of the ring .
The first match to take place at Hard Justice involved Team Canada ( Petey Williams and Eric Young ) , who were accompanied by Coach D 'Amore , taking on the team of Apolo and Sonny Siaki . The duration of the encounter was eight minutes and six seconds . Team Canada gained the victory after A @-@ 1 interfered in the contest and performed a suplex on Siaki while the referee was distracted by D 'Amore , then placed an unconscious Williams on top of Siaki for the pinfall .
A Mixed Tag Team match between the team of Michael Shane and Trinity and the team of Chris Sabin and Traci was held next . The match lasted ten minutes and nineteen seconds . In the final moments of the bout , Traci hit Sabin in the groin and Shane kicked Trinity in the face , which allowed Shane to gain the pinfall on Sabin . After Traci and Shane betrayed their partners , they united an alliance of their own .
Raven fought Sean Waltman in a Clockwork Orange House of Fun match . A Clockwork Orange House of Fun match is held under no disqualification rules , involving multiple types of weapons including part of a steel cage . Waltman scored a near @-@ fall after jumping off the pillars holding up the cage and performing a somersault leg drop onto Raven through a table . Raven won the bout after throwing Waltman into the cage causing it to collapse , Raven then followed with a pinfall victory at thirteen minutes .
Monty Brown and The Outlaw fought Diamond Dallas Page and Ron Killings in the fourth match of the night . This was originally promoted with B.G. James as Page 's partner , however prior to the contest it was announced during an interview with Page that James was having travel issues and Killings offered to be his replacement , which Page accepted . The encounter lasted eight minutes and fifty @-@ five seconds . Brown gained the pinfall after performing his signature maneuver the Pounce following interference from Phi Delta Slam ( Bruno Sassi and Big Tilly ) .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The Naturals ( Andy Douglas and Chase Stevens ) defended the NWA World Tag Team Championship against America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) in a bout which lasted fourteen minutes and ten seconds . The Naturals retained the title after Stevens scored the pinfall while using the ropes for leverage .
The TNA X Division Championship was defend by Christopher Daniels against Shocker in the sixth encounter . The duration of the match was eleven minutes and fifty @-@ eight seconds . In the final moments , Shocker went for a suplex off the top of a padded turnbuckle , however Daniels countered the move and instead performed his signature maneuver the Angel Wings to retain the X Division Championship .
The Twenty @-@ Man Gauntlet for the Gold to become number one contender to the NWA World Heavyweight Championship was held , involving Abyss , Bobby Roode , Zach Gowen , Eric Young , Cassidy Riley , Elix Skipper , Shark Boy , A @-@ 1 , Chris Sabin , Petey Williams , Sonny Siaki , Lance Hoyt , Michael Shane , Jerrelle Clarke , Mikey Batts , The Outlaw , Trytan , Ron Killings , Apolo , and B.G. James . The first entrant was Roode , while the second was Gowen , who began the encounter . Abyss was the last entrant . Gowen was the first eliminated by Shark Boy . The Outlaw and James were the lasted eliminated simultaneously by Abyss , before it became a standard bout between Abyss and Killings . Killings bashed a steel chair over Abyss ' head to gain a near @-@ fall . Abyss went on to win after Killings jumped off the top turnbuckle and Abyss countered it into his signature maneuver the Black Hole Slam to become number one contender to the NWA World Heavyweight Championship at twenty @-@ six minutes and forty @-@ five seconds .
The main event was a standard match for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship , in which then @-@ champion Jeff Jarrett defended the title against A.J. Styles with Tito Ortiz as Special Guest Referee . During the bout , Jarrett tried to use his signature guitar as a weapon , however was stopped by Ortiz . Styles instead tried to use it , but was also stopped by Ortiz . Styles then broke the guitar , preventing it from being used as a weapon . Jarrett earned a near @-@ fall after performing Styles ' own signature maneuver the Styles Clash . Later , Styles also gained a near @-@ fall after performing Jarrett 's own signature maneuver The Stroke . In the final minutes , Monty Brown interfered in the contest , performing the Pounce on Jarrett after Styles pushed him into Brown 's path . While Ortiz was distracted by Brown , Styles covered Jarrett for a pin . Another referee came to make the count , however was stopped by Ortiz . This allowed Jarrett to hit Styles in the groin and place him on the top of a padded turnbuckle . A few moments later , Ortiz knocked Jarrett out after Jarrett shoved Ortiz , which allowed Styles to move from one turnbuckle to another , he then performed his Spiral Tap maneuver . Styles followed with the pinfall victory at nineteen minutes and thirty seconds to become the new NWA World Heavyweight Champion for the third time .
= = Reception = =
A total of 775 people attended the event . Canadian Online Explorer writer Jason Clevett felt the event was the " most entertaining pay per view from TNA since January 's Final Resolution . " Clevett rated the main event , the X Division Championship match , and the Clockwork Orange House of Fun match each an 8 out of 10 . The Gauntlet for the Gold and the NWA World Tag Team Championship defense were each rated a 7 out of 10 . Wade Keller of the Pro Wrestling Torch rated the main event and the Clockwork Orange House of Fun match 3 and a fourth stars out of 5 . Regrading the main event , Keller felt it was a " PPV main event worthy match , the best of the night , but when a 20 minute Styles main event PPV match isn 't four stars , it 's not Styles 's fault . " As for the Clockwork Orange House of Fun match , Keller felt it was a " good garbage match " and that Waltman was a " suitable substitution for the Hardy no @-@ show . " Keller rated the Gauntlet for the Gold and the X Division Championship match each 2 and three @-@ quarter stars out of 5 . He stated that the Gauntlet for the Gold was " above @-@ average " , but that it felt " clogged with undersized wrestlers who didn 't look like legit contenders , exposing TNA 's roster depth limitations in the heavyweight division . " While reporting on the X Division Championship bout , that it " never felt special , but it was always good . " TNA released a DVD counting down the top 50 moments in their history in 2007 , with Styles defeating Jarrett for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship at number 7 .
= = Aftermath = =
It was reported following Hard Justice that Shane Douglas was originally supposed to handle interview duties for the show , but came down with the stomach flu and was replaced by Terry Taylor . Also , that Jeff Hardy missed multiple flights causing him to arrive after the conclusion of the show . Hardy was subsequently suspended for this and past instances of no @-@ showing events . Abyss and Ron Killings were the only ones to receive injuries at Hard Justice . Abyss was given a fairly deep cut on the top of his head from being bashed with a steel chair by Killings that required stitches . Meanwhile , Killings cracked his front teeth after falling face @-@ first onto a steel chair .
After Hard Justice , Jeff Jarrett demanded a rematch for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship at TNA 's Slammiversary PPV event on June 19 against Styles on the May 20 episode of Impact ! . Director of Authority Dusty Rhodes granted Jarrett his rematch , however made it a King of the Mountain match also involving Monty Brown , new number one contender Abyss , and a mystery " wild card " opponent . At Slammiversary , Jarrett was arrested during the pre @-@ show for assaulting a fan in the storyline and replaced by Raven . Raven went on to win the NWA World Heavyweight Championship , defeating Styles , Brown , Abyss , and Sean Waltman .
Reigning TNA X Division Champion Christopher Daniels went on to Slammiversary to defend the title in a Three Way Elimination match against Chris Sabin and Michael Shane . Shane attacked and demanded a championship match against Daniels on the May 20 episode of Impact ! , before Sabin intervened and attacked Shane , leading to a brawl between all three wrestlers . The match was announced on the May 27 episode of Impact ! . Daniels retained the championship at Slammiversary .
On the May 20 episode of Impact ! , Team Canada ( Eric Young and Petey Williams ) defeated America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) to become number one contenders to the NWA World Tag Team Championship . The Naturals ( Andy Douglas and Chase Stevens ) went on to successfully defend the NWA World Tag Team Championship against Team Canada at Slammiversary .
= = Results = =
= = Gauntlet for the Gold entrances and eliminations = =
1 . ^
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= Germany =
Germany ( / ˈdʒɜːrməni / ; German : Deutschland , pronounced [ ˈdɔʏtʃlant ] ) , officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( German : Bundesrepublik Deutschland , listen ) , is a sovereign state and federal parliamentary republic in central @-@ western Europe . It includes 16 constituent states , covers an area of 357 @,@ 021 square kilometres ( 137 @,@ 847 sq mi ) , and has a largely temperate seasonal climate . Its capital and largest city is Berlin . With about 81 @.@ 8 million inhabitants , Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union . After the United States , it is the second most popular human migration destination .
Various Germanic tribes have occupied the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity . A region named Germania was documented before 100 AD . During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward . Beginning in the 10th century , German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire . During the 16th century , northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation .
In 1871 most of the German states unified into the Prussian @-@ dominated German Empire . After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918 – 1919 , the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic . The establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and systematic genocide . After a period of Allied occupation , two German states were founded : the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic . In 1990 , the country was reunified .
In the 21st century , Germany is a great power and has the world 's fourth @-@ largest economy by nominal GDP , as well as the fifth @-@ largest by PPP . As a global leader in several industrial and technological sectors , it is both the world 's third @-@ largest exporter and importer of goods . Germany is a developed country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled and productive society . It upholds a social security and universal health care system , environmental protection and a tuition @-@ free university education .
Germany was a founding member of the European Union in 1993 . It is part of the Schengen Area , and became a co @-@ founder of the Eurozone in 1999 . Germany is a member of the United Nations , NATO , the G8 , the G20 , and the OECD . The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world . Known for its rich cultural history , Germany has been continuously the home of influential artists , philosophers , musicians , sportspeople , entrepreneurs , scientists and inventors .
= = Etymology = =
The English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania , which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine . The German term Deutschland , originally diutisciu land ( " the German lands " ) is derived from deutsch ( cf. dutch ) , descended from Old High German diutisc " popular " ( i.e. belonging to the diot or diota " people " ) , originally used to distinguish the language of the common people from Latin and its Romance descendants . This in turn descends from Proto @-@ Germanic * þiudiskaz " popular " ( see also the Latinised form Theodiscus ) , derived from * þeudō , descended from Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European * tewtéh ₂ - " people " .
= = History = =
The discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600 @,@ 000 years ago . The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a coal mine in Schöningen where three 380 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old wooden javelins were unearthed . The Neander Valley was the location where the first ever non @-@ modern human fossil was discovered ; the new species of human was called the Neanderthal . The Neanderthal 1 fossils are known to be 40 @,@ 000 years old . Evidence of modern humans , similarly dated , has been found in caves in the Swabian Jura near Ulm . The finds include 42 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old bird bone and mammoth ivory flutes which are the oldest musical instruments ever found , the 40 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old Ice Age Lion Man which is the oldest uncontested figurative art ever discovered , and the 35 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old Venus of Hohle Fels which is the oldest uncontested human figurative art ever discovered . The Nebra sky disk is a bronze artifact created during the European Bronze Age attributed to a site near Nebra , Saxony @-@ Anhalt . It is part of UNESCO 's Memory of the World Programme .
= = = Germanic tribes and Frankish Empire = = =
The Germanic tribes are thought to date from the Nordic Bronze Age or the Pre @-@ Roman Iron Age . From southern Scandinavia and north Germany , they expanded south , east and west from the 1st century BC , coming into contact with the Celtic tribes of Gaul as well as Iranian , Baltic , and Slavic tribes in Central and Eastern Europe . Under Augustus , Rome began to invade Germania ( an area extending roughly from the Rhine to the Ural Mountains ) . In 9 AD , three Roman legions led by Varus were defeated by the Cheruscan leader Arminius . By 100 AD , when Tacitus wrote Germania , Germanic tribes had settled along the Rhine and the Danube ( the Limes Germanicus ) , occupying most of the area of modern Germany ; Austria , Baden Württemberg , southern Bavaria , southern Hessen and the western Rhineland , however , were Roman provinces .
In the 3rd century a number of large West Germanic tribes emerged : Alemanni , Franks , Chatti , Saxons , Frisii , Sicambri , and Thuringii . Around 260 , the Germanic peoples broke into Roman @-@ controlled lands . After the invasion of the Huns in 375 , and with the decline of Rome from 395 , Germanic tribes moved further south @-@ west . Simultaneously several large tribes formed in what is now Germany and displaced or absorbed smaller Germanic tribes . Large areas known since the Merovingian period as Austrasia , Neustria , and Aquitaine were conquered by the Franks who established the Frankish Kingdom , and pushed further east to subjugate Saxony and Bavaria . Areas of what is today the eastern part of Germany were inhabited by Western Slavic tribes of Sorbs , Veleti and the Obotritic confederation .
= = = East Francia and Holy Roman Empire = = =
In 800 , the Frankish king Charlemagne was crowned emperor and founded the Carolingian Empire , which was later divided in 843 among his heirs . Following the break up of the Frankish Realm , for 900 years , the history of Germany was intertwined with the history of the Holy Roman Empire , which subsequently emerged from the eastern portion of Charlemagne 's original empire . The territory initially known as East Francia stretched from the Rhine in the west to the Elbe River in the east and from the North Sea to the Alps .
The Ottonian rulers ( 919 – 1024 ) consolidated several major duchies and the German king Otto I was crowned Holy Roman Emperor of these regions in 962 . In 996 Gregory V became the first German Pope , appointed by his cousin Otto III , whom he shortly after crowned Holy Roman Emperor . The Holy Roman Empire absorbed northern Italy and Burgundy under the reign of the Salian emperors ( 1024 – 1125 ) , although the emperors lost power through the Investiture Controversy .
In the 12th century , under the Hohenstaufen emperors ( 1138 – 1254 ) , German princes increased their influence further south and east into territories inhabited by Slavs ; they encouraged German settlement in these areas , called the eastern settlement movement ( Ostsiedlung ) . Members of the Hanseatic League , which included mostly north German cities and towns , prospered in the expansion of trade . In the south , the Greater Ravensburg Trade Corporation ( Große Ravensburger Handelsgesellschaft ) served a similar function . The edict of the Golden Bull issued in 1356 by Emperor Charles IV provided the basic constitutional structure of the Empire and codified the election of the emperor by seven prince @-@ electors who ruled some of the most powerful principalities and archbishoprics .
Population declined in the first half of the 14th century , starting with the Great Famine in 1315 , followed by the Black Death of 1348 – 50 . Despite the decline , however , German artists , engineers , and scientists developed a wide array of techniques similar to those used by the Italian artists and designers of the time who flourished in such merchant city @-@ states as Venice , Florence and Genoa . Artistic and cultural centers throughout the German states produced such artists as the Augsburg painters Hans Holbein and his son , and Albrecht Dürer . Johannes Gutenberg introduced moveable @-@ type printing to Europe , a development that laid the basis for the spread of learning to the masses .
In 1517 , the Wittenberg monk Martin Luther publicised The Ninety @-@ Five Theses , challenging the Roman Catholic Church and initiating the Protestant Reformation . In 1555 , the Peace of Augsburg established Lutheranism as an acceptable alternative to Catholicism , but also decreed that the faith of the prince was to be the faith of his subjects , a principle called Cuius regio , eius religio . The agreement at Augsburg failed to address other religious creed : for example , the Reformed faith was still considered a heresy and the principle did not address the possible conversion of an ecclesiastic ruler , such as happened in Electorate of Cologne in 1583 . From the Cologne War until the end of the Thirty Years ' Wars ( 1618 – 1648 ) , religious conflict devastated German lands . The latter reduced the overall population of the German states by about 30 percent , and in some places , up to 80 percent . The Peace of Westphalia ended religious warfare among the German states . German rulers were able to choose either Roman Catholicism , Lutheranism or the Reformed faith as their official religion after 1648 .
In the 18th century , the Holy Roman Empire consisted of approximately 1 @,@ 800 territories . The elaborate legal system initiated by a series of Imperial Reforms ( approximately 1450 – 1555 ) created the Imperial Estates and provided for considerable local autonomy among ecclesiastical , secular , and hereditary states , reflected in Imperial Diet . The House of Habsburg held the imperial crown from 1438 until the death of Charles VI in 1740 . Having no male heirs , he had convinced the Electors to retain Habsburg hegemony in the office of the emperor by agreeing to the Pragmatic Sanction . This was finally settled through the War of Austrian Succession ; in the Treaty of Aix @-@ la @-@ Chapelle , Maria Theresa 's husband became Holy Roman Emperor , and she ruled the Empire as Empress Consort . From 1740 , dualism between the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy and the Kingdom of Prussia dominated the German states in the 18th century . As a consequence of the French Revolutionary Wars , and the subsequent final meeting of the Imperial Diet , most of the secular Free Imperial Cities were annexed by dynastic territories ; the ecclesiastical territories were secularized and annexed . In 1806 the Imperium was dissolved ; German states , particularly the Rhineland states , fell under the influence of France . Until 1815 , France , Russia , Prussia and the Habsburgs competed for hegemony in the German states during the Napoleonic Wars .
= = = German Confederation and Empire = = =
Following the fall of Napoleon , the Congress of Vienna ( convened in 1814 ) founded the German Confederation ( Deutscher Bund ) , a loose league of 39 sovereign states . The appointment of the Emperor of Austria as the permanent president of the Confederation reflected the Congress 's failure to accept Prussia 's influence among the German states , and acerbated the long @-@ standing competition between the Hohenzollern and Habsburg interests . Disagreement within restoration politics partly led to the rise of liberal movements , followed by new measures of repression by Austrian statesman Metternich . The Zollverein , a tariff union , furthered economic unity in the German states . National and liberal ideals of the French Revolution gained increasing support among many , especially young , Germans . The Hambach Festival in May 1832 was a main event in support of German unity , freedom and democracy . In the light of a series of revolutionary movements in Europe , which established a republic in France , intellectuals and commoners started the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states . King Frederick William IV of Prussia was offered the title of Emperor , but with a loss of power ; he rejected the crown and the proposed constitution , leading to a temporary setback for the movement .
King William I appointed Otto von Bismarck as the new Minister President of Prussia in 1862 . Bismarck successfully concluded war on Denmark in 1864 , which promoted German over Danish interests in the Jutland peninsula . The subsequent ( and decisive ) Prussian victory in the Austro @-@ Prussian War of 1866 enabled him to create the North German Confederation ( Norddeutscher Bund ) which excluded Austria from the federation 's affairs . After the French defeat in the Franco @-@ Prussian War , the German princes proclaimed the founding of the German Empire in 1871 at Versailles , uniting all scattered parts of Germany except Austria . Prussia was the dominant constituent state of the new empire ; the Hohenzollern King of Prussia ruled as its concurrent Emperor , and Berlin became its capital .
In the Gründerzeit period following the unification of Germany , Bismarck 's foreign policy as Chancellor of Germany under Emperor William I secured Germany 's position as a great nation by forging alliances , isolating France by diplomatic means , and avoiding war . Under Wilhelm II , Germany , like other European powers , took an imperialistic course , leading to friction with neighbouring countries . Most alliances in which Germany had previously been involved were not renewed . This resulted in creation of a dual alliance with the multinational realm of Austria @-@ Hungary , promoting at least benevolent neutrality if not outright military support . Subsequently , the Triple Alliance of 1882 included Italy , completing a Central European geographic alliance that illustrated German , Austrian and Italian fears of incursions against them by France and / or Russia . Similarly , Britain , France and Russia also concluded alliances that would protect them against Habsburg interference with Russian interests in the Balkans or German interference against France .
At the Berlin Conference in 1884 , Germany claimed several colonies including German East Africa , German South @-@ West Africa , Togo , and Cameroon . Later , Germany further expanded its colonial empire to include German New Guinea , German Micronesia and German Samoa in the Pacific . In what became known as the " First Genocide of the Twentieth @-@ Century " , between 1904 and 1907 , the German colonial government in South @-@ West Africa ( present @-@ day Namibia ) ordered the annihilation of the local Heroro and Namaqua peoples , as a punitive measure for an uprising against German colonial rule . In total , around 100 @,@ 000 people — 80 % of the Herero and 50 % of the Namaqua — perished form imprisonment in concentration camps , where the majority died of disease , abuse , and exhaustion , or from dehydration and starvation in the countryside after being deprived of food and water .
The assassination of Austria 's crown prince on 28 June 1914 provided the pretext for the Austrian Empire to attack Serbia and trigger World War I. After four years of warfare , in which approximately two million German soldiers were killed , a general armistice ended the fighting on 11 November , and German troops returned home . In the German Revolution ( November 1918 ) , Emperor Wilhelm II and all German ruling princes abdicated their positions and responsibilities . Germany 's new political leadership signed the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 . In this treaty , Germany , as part of the Central Powers , accepted defeat by the Allies in one of the bloodiest conflicts of all time . Germans perceived the treaty as humiliating and unjust and it was later seen by historians as influential in the rise of Adolf Hitler . After the defeat in the First World War , Germany lost around thirteen percent of its European territory ( totaling more than 27 @,@ 000 square miles ) and all of its colonial possessions in Africa and the South Sea .
= = = Weimar Republic and Nazi Germany = = =
Germany was declared a republic at the beginning of the German Revolution in November 1918 . On 11 August 1919 President Friedrich Ebert signed the democratic Weimar Constitution . In the subsequent struggle for power , the radical @-@ left Communists seized power in Bavaria , but conservative elements in other parts of Germany attempted to overthrow the Republic in the Kapp Putsch . It was supported by parts of the Reichswehr ( military ) and other conservative , nationalistic and monarchist factions . After a tumultuous period of bloody street fighting in the major industrial centers , the occupation of the Ruhr by Belgian and French troops and the rise of inflation culminating in the hyperinflation of 1922 – 23 , a debt restructuring plan and the creation of a new currency in 1924 ushered in the Golden Twenties , an era of increasing artistic innovation and liberal cultural life . Underneath it all , though , lay a current of animosity and frustration over the Treaty of Versailles , widely perceived as a stab in the back , which provided the basis of much of the anti @-@ Semetism rife in the next two decades . The economic situation remained volatile . Historians describe the period between 1924 and 1929 as one of " partial stabilization . " The world @-@ wide Great Depression hit Germany in 1929 . After the federal election of 1930 , Chancellor Heinrich Brüning 's government was enabled by President Paul von Hindenburg to act without parliamentary approval . Brüning 's government pursued a policy of fiscal austerity and deflation which caused high unemployment of nearly 30 % by 1932 .
The Nazi Party won the special federal election of 1932 . After a series of unsuccessful cabinets , Hindenburg appointed Adolf Hitler as Chancellor of Germany in 1933 . After the Reichstag fire , a decree abrogated basic civil rights and within weeks the first Nazi concentration camp at Dachau opened . The Enabling Act of 1933 gave Hitler unrestricted legislative power ; subsequently , his government established a centralised totalitarian state , withdrew from the League of Nations following a national referendum , and began military rearmament .
Using deficit spending , a government @-@ sponsored program for economic renewal focused on public works projects . In public work projects of 1934 , 1 @.@ 7 million Germans immediately were put to work , which gave them an income and social benefits . The most famous of the projects was the high speed roadway , the Reichsautobahn , known as the German autobahns . Other capital construction projects included such hydroelectric facilities as the Rur Dam , such water supplies as Zillierbach Dam , and such transportation hubs as Zwickau Hauptbahnhof . Over the next five years , unemployment plummeted and average wages both per hour and per week rose .
In 1935 , the regime withdrew from the Treaty of Versailles and introduced the Nuremberg Laws which targeted Jews and other minorities . Germany also reacquired control of the Saar in 1935 , annexed Austria in 1938 , and occupied Czechoslovakia in early 1939 .
In August 1939 , Hitler 's government signed the Molotov – Ribbentrop pact with Stalin that divided Eastern Europe into German and Soviet spheres of influence . Following the agreement , on 1 September 1939 Germany invaded Poland , marking the beginning of World War II . In response to Hitler 's actions , Britain and France declared war on Germany . In the spring of 1940 , Germany conquered Denmark and Norway , the Netherlands , Belgium , Luxembourg , and France forcing the French government to sign an armistice after German troops occupied most of the country . The British repelled German air attacks in the same year . In 1941 , German troops invaded Yugoslavia , Greece and the Soviet Union . By 1942 , Germany and other Axis powers controlled most of continental Europe and North Africa , but following the Soviet Union 's victory at the Battle of Stalingrad , the allies ' reconquest of North Africa and invasion of Italy in 1943 , German forces suffered repeated military defeats . In June 1944 , the Western allies landed in France and the Soviets pushed into Eastern Europe . By late 1944 , the Western allies had entered Germany despite one final German counter offensive in the Ardennes Forest . Following Hitler 's suicide during the Battle of Berlin , German armed forces surrendered on 8 May 1945 , ending World War II in Europe .
In what later became known as The Holocaust , the German government persecuted minorities and used a network of concentration and death camps across Europe to conduct a genocide of what they considered to be inferior races . In total , over 10 million civilians were systematically murdered , including 6 million Jews , between 220 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 Romani , 275 @,@ 000 persons with disabilities , thousands of Jehovah 's Witnesses , thousands of homosexuals , and hundreds of thousands of members of the political and religious opposition . Nazi policies in the German occupied countries resulted in the deaths of 2 @.@ 7 million Poles , 1 @.@ 3 million Ukrainians , and an estimated 2 @.@ 8 million Soviet war prisoners . German military war casualties were estimated at between 3 @.@ 2 million and 5 @.@ 3 million soldiers , and up to 2 million German civilians . German territorial losses resulted in the expulsion of circa 12 million of ethnic Germans from Eastern Europe . Germany ceded roughly one @-@ quarter of its pre @-@ war territory . Strategic bombing and land warfare destroyed many cities and cultural heritage sites . After World War II , former members of the Nazi regime were tried for war crimes at the Nuremberg trials .
= = = East and West Germany = = =
After Germany surrendered , the Allies partitioned Berlin and Germany 's remaining territory into four military occupation zones . The western sectors , controlled by France , the United Kingdom , and the United States , were merged on 23 May 1949 to form the Federal Republic of Germany ( Bundesrepublik Deutschland ) ; on 7 October 1949 , the Soviet Zone became the German Democratic Republic ( Deutsche Demokratische Republik ) . They were informally known as " West Germany " and " East Germany " . East Germany selected East Berlin as its capital , while West Germany chose Bonn as a provisional capital , to emphasise its stance that the two @-@ state solution was an artificial and temporary status quo .
West Germany was established as a federal parliamentary republic with a " social market economy " . Starting in 1948 West Germany became a major recipient of reconstruction aid under the Marshall Plan and used this to rebuild its industry . Konrad Adenauer was elected the first Federal Chancellor ( Bundeskanzler ) of Germany in 1949 and remained in office until 1963 . Under his and Ludwig Erhard 's leadership , the country enjoyed prolonged economic growth beginning in the early 1950s , that became known as an " economic miracle " ( Wirtschaftswunder ) . West Germany joined NATO in 1955 and was a founding member of the European Economic Community in 1957 .
East Germany was an Eastern Bloc state under political and military control by the USSR via occupation forces and the Warsaw Pact . Although East Germany claimed to be a democracy , political power was exercised solely by leading members ( Politbüro ) of the communist @-@ controlled Socialist Unity Party of Germany , supported by the Stasi , an immense secret service controlling many aspects of the society . A Soviet @-@ style command economy was set up and the GDR later became a Comecon state . While East German propaganda was based on the benefits of the GDR 's social programmes and the alleged constant threat of a West German invasion , many of its citizens looked to the West for freedom and prosperity . The Berlin Wall , built in 1961 to stop East Germans from escaping to West Germany , became a symbol of the Cold War . It was the site of Ronald Reagan 's " Mr. Gorbachov , Tear down this wall ! " speech of 12 June 1987 , which echoed John F. Kennedy 's famous Ich bin ein Berliner speech of 26 June 1963 . The fall of the Wall in 1989 became a symbol of the Fall of Communism , German Reunification and Die Wende .
Tensions between East and West Germany were reduced in the early 1970s by Chancellor Willy Brandt 's Ostpolitik . In summer 1989 , Hungary decided to dismantle the Iron Curtain and open the borders , causing the emigration of thousands of East Germans to West Germany via Hungary . This had devastating effects on the GDR , where regular mass demonstrations received increasing support . The East German authorities eased the border restrictions , allowing East German citizens to travel to the West ; originally intended to help retain East Germany as a state , the opening of the border actually led to an acceleration of the Wende reform process . This culminated in the Two Plus Four Treaty a year later on 12 September 1990 , under which the four occupying powers renounced their rights under the Instrument of Surrender , and Germany regained full sovereignty . This permitted German reunification on 3 October 1990 , with the accession of the five re @-@ established states of the former GDR .
= = = Reunified Germany and EU = = =
The united Germany is considered to be the enlarged continuation of the Federal Republic of Germany and not a successor state . As such , it retained all of West Germany 's memberships in international organizations . Based on the Berlin / Bonn Act , adopted in 1994 , Berlin once again became the capital of the reunified Germany , while Bonn obtained the unique status of a Bundesstadt ( federal city ) retaining some federal ministries . The relocation of the government was completed in 1999 . Following the 1998 elections , SPD politician Gerhard Schröder became the first Chancellor of a red – green coalition with the Alliance ' 90 / The Greens party .
The modernisation and integration of the eastern German economy is a long @-@ term process scheduled to last until the year 2019 , with annual transfers from west to east amounting to roughly $ 80 billion .
Since reunification , Germany has taken a more active role in the European Union . Together with its European partners Germany signed the Maastricht Treaty in 1992 , established the Eurozone in 1999 , and signed the Lisbon Treaty in 2007 . Germany sent a peacekeeping force to secure stability in the Balkans and sent a force of German troops to Afghanistan as part of a NATO effort to provide security in that country after the ousting of the Taliban . These deployments were controversial since Germany was bound by domestic law only to deploy troops for defence roles .
In the 2005 elections , Angela Merkel became the first female Chancellor of Germany as the leader of a grand coalition . In 2009 the German government approved a € 50 billion economic stimulus plan to protect several sectors from a downturn .
In 2009 , a liberal @-@ conservative coalition under Merkel assumed leadership of the country . In 2013 , a grand coalition was established in a Third Merkel cabinet . Among the major German political projects of the early 21st century are the advancement of European integration , the energy transition ( Energiewende ) for a sustainable energy supply , the " Debt Brake " for balanced budgets , measures to increase the fertility rate significantly ( pronatalism ) , and high @-@ tech strategies for the future transition of the German economy , summarized as Industry 4 @.@ 0 .
Germany was affected by the European migrant crisis in 2015 as it became the final destination of choice for most migrants entering the EU . The country took in over a million refugees and developed a quota system which redistributed migrants around its federal states based on their tax income and existing population density .
= = Geography = =
Germany is in Western and Central Europe , with Denmark bordering to the north , Poland and the Czech Republic to the east , Austria to the southeast , Switzerland to the south @-@ southwest , France , Luxembourg and Belgium lie to the west , and the Netherlands to the northwest . It lies mostly between latitudes 47 ° and 55 ° N and longitudes 5 ° and 16 ° E. Germany is also bordered by the North Sea and , at the north @-@ northeast , by the Baltic Sea . With Switzerland and Austria , Germany also shares a border on the fresh @-@ water Lake Constance , the third largest lake in Central Europe . German territory covers 357 @,@ 021 km2 ( 137 @,@ 847 sq mi ) , consisting of 349 @,@ 223 km2 ( 134 @,@ 836 sq mi ) of land and 7 @,@ 798 km2 ( 3 @,@ 011 sq mi ) of water . It is the seventh largest country by area in Europe and the 62nd largest in the world .
Elevation ranges from the mountains of the Alps ( highest point : the Zugspitze at 2 @,@ 962 metres or 9 @,@ 718 feet ) in the south to the shores of the North Sea ( Nordsee ) in the northwest and the Baltic Sea ( Ostsee ) in the northeast . The forested uplands of central Germany and the lowlands of northern Germany ( lowest point : Wilstermarsch at 3 @.@ 54 metres or 11 @.@ 6 feet below sea level ) are traversed by such major rivers as the Rhine , Danube and Elbe . Germany 's alpine glaciers are experiencing deglaciation . Significant natural resources include iron ore , coal , potash , timber , lignite , uranium , copper , natural gas , salt , nickel , arable land and water .
= = = Climate = = =
Most of Germany has a temperate seasonal climate dominated by humid westerly winds . The country is situated in between the oceanic Western European and the continental Eastern European climate . The climate is moderated by the North Atlantic Drift , the northern extension of the Gulf Stream . This warmer water affects the areas bordering the North Sea ; consequently in the northwest and the north the climate is oceanic . Germany gets an average of 789 mm ( 31 in ) of precipitation per year ; there is no consistent dry season . Winters are mild and summers tend to be warm : temperatures can exceed 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) .
The east has a more continental climate : winters can be very cold and summers very warm , and longer dry periods can occur . Central and southern Germany are transition regions which vary from moderately oceanic to continental . In addition to the maritime and continental climates that predominate over most of the country , the Alpine regions in the extreme south and , to a lesser degree , some areas of the Central German Uplands have a mountain climate , with lower temperatures and more precipitation .
= = = Biodiversity = = =
The territory of Germany can be subdivided into two ecoregions : European @-@ Mediterranean montane mixed forests and Northeast @-@ Atlantic shelf marine . As of 2008 the majority of Germany is covered by either arable land ( 34 % ) or forest and woodland ( 30 @.@ 1 % ) ; only 13 @.@ 4 % of the area consists of permanent pastures , 11 @.@ 8 % is covered by settlements and streets .
Plants and animals include those generally common to Central Europe . Beeches , oaks , and other deciduous trees constitute one @-@ third of the forests ; conifers are increasing as a result of reforestation . Spruce and fir trees predominate in the upper mountains , while pine and larch are found in sandy soil . There are many species of ferns , flowers , fungi , and mosses . Wild animals include roe deer , wild boar , mouflon ( a subspecies of wild sheep ) , fox , badger , hare , and small numbers of the Eurasian beaver . The blue cornflower was once a German national symbol .
The 14 national parks in Germany include the Jasmund National Park , the Vorpommern Lagoon Area National Park , the Müritz National Park , the Wadden Sea National Parks , the Harz National Park , the Hainich National Park , the Black Forest National Park , the Saxon Switzerland National Park , the Bavarian Forest National Park and the Berchtesgaden National Park . In addition , there are 14 Biosphere Reserves , as well as 98 nature parks . More than 400 registered zoos and animal parks operate in Germany , which is believed to be the largest number in any country . The Berlin Zoo , opened in 1844 , is the oldest zoo in Germany , and presents the most comprehensive collection of species in the world .
= = = Urbanization = = =
Germany has a number of large cities . There are 11 officially recognised metropolitan regions in Germany . 34 cities have been identified as regiopolis . The largest conurbation is the Rhine @-@ Ruhr region ( 11 @.@ 7 million in 2008 ) , including Düsseldorf ( the capital of North Rhine @-@ Westphalia ) , Cologne , Bonn , Dortmund , Essen , Duisburg , and Bochum .
= = Politics = =
Germany is a federal , parliamentary , representative democratic republic . The German political system operates under a framework laid out in the 1949 constitutional document known as the Grundgesetz ( Basic Law ) . Amendments generally require a two @-@ thirds majority of both chambers of parliament ; the fundamental principles of the constitution , as expressed in the articles guaranteeing human dignity , the separation of powers , the federal structure , and the rule of law are valid in perpetuity .
The president , Joachim Gauck ( 18 March 2012 – present ) , is the head of state and invested primarily with representative responsibilities and powers . He is elected by the Bundesversammlung ( federal convention ) , an institution consisting of the members of the Bundestag and an equal number of state delegates . The second @-@ highest official in the German order of precedence is the Bundestagspräsident ( President of the Bundestag ) , who is elected by the Bundestag and responsible for overseeing the daily sessions of the body . The third @-@ highest official and the head of government is the Chancellor , who is appointed by the Bundespräsident after being elected by the Bundestag .
The chancellor , Angela Merkel ( 22 November 2005 – present ) , is the head of government and exercises executive power , similar to the role of a Prime Minister in other parliamentary democracies . Federal legislative power is vested in the parliament consisting of the Bundestag ( Federal Diet ) and Bundesrat ( Federal Council ) , which together form the legislative body . The Bundestag is elected through direct elections , by proportional representation ( mixed @-@ member ) . The members of the Bundesrat represent the governments of the sixteen federated states and are members of the state cabinets .
Since 1949 , the party system has been dominated by the Christian Democratic Union and the Social Democratic Party of Germany . So far every chancellor has been a member of one of these parties . However , the smaller liberal Free Democratic Party ( in parliament from 1949 to 2013 ) and the Alliance ' 90 / The Greens ( in parliament since 1983 ) have also played important roles .
The debt @-@ to @-@ GDP ratio of Germany had its peak in 2010 when it stood at 80 @.@ 3 % and decreased since then . According to Eurostat , the government gross debt of Germany amounts to € 2 @,@ 152 @.@ 0 billion or 71 @.@ 9 % of its GDP in 2015 . The federal government achieved a budget surplus of € 12 @.@ 1 billion ( $ 13 @.@ 1 billion ) in 2015 . Germany 's credit rating by credit rating agencies Standard & Poor 's , Moody 's and Fitch Ratings stands at the highest possible rating AAA with a stable outlook in 2016 .
= = = Law = = =
Germany has a civil law system based on Roman law with some references to Germanic law . The Bundesverfassungsgericht ( Federal Constitutional Court ) is the German Supreme Court responsible for constitutional matters , with power of judicial review . Germany 's supreme court system , called Oberste Gerichtshöfe des Bundes , is specialised : for civil and criminal cases , the highest court of appeal is the inquisitorial Federal Court of Justice , and for other affairs the courts are the Federal Labour Court , the Federal Social Court , the Federal Finance Court and the Federal Administrative Court .
Criminal and private laws are codified on the national level in the Strafgesetzbuch and the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch respectively . The German penal system seeks the rehabilitation of the criminal and the protection of the public . Except for petty crimes , which are tried before a single professional judge , and serious political crimes , all charges are tried before mixed tribunals on which lay judges ( Schöffen ) sit side by side with professional judges . Many of the fundamental matters of administrative law remain in the jurisdiction of the states .
= = = Constituent states = = =
Germany comprises sixteen federal states which are collectively referred to as Bundesländer . Each state has its own state constitution and is largely autonomous in regard to its internal organisation . Because of differences in size and population the subdivisions of these states vary , especially as between city states ( Stadtstaaten ) and states with larger territories ( Flächenländer ) . For regional administrative purposes five states , namely Baden @-@ Württemberg , Bavaria , Hesse , North Rhine @-@ Westphalia and Saxony , consist of a total of 22 Government Districts ( Regierungsbezirke ) . As of 2013 Germany is divided into 402 districts ( Kreise ) at a municipal level ; these consist of 295 rural districts and 107 urban districts .
= = = Foreign relations = = =
Germany has a network of 227 diplomatic missions abroad and maintains relations with more than 190 countries . As of 2011 it is the largest contributor to the budget of the European Union ( providing 20 % ) and the third largest contributor to the UN ( providing 8 % ) . Germany is a member of NATO , the OECD , the G8 , the G20 , the World Bank and the IMF . It has played an influential role in the European Union since its inception and has maintained a strong alliance with France and all neighboring countries since 1990 . Germany promotes the creation of a more unified European political , economic and security apparatus .
The development policy of Germany is an independent area of foreign policy . It is formulated by the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development and carried out by the implementing organisations . The German government sees development policy as a joint responsibility of the international community . It is the world 's third biggest aid donor in 2009 after the United States and France .
In 1999 , Chancellor Gerhard Schröder 's government defined a new basis for German foreign policy by taking part in the NATO decisions surrounding the Kosovo War and by sending German troops into combat for the first time since 1945 . The governments of Germany and the United States are close political allies . Cultural ties and economic interests have crafted a bond between the two countries resulting in Atlanticism .
= = = Military = = =
Germany 's military , the Bundeswehr , is organised into Heer ( Army and special forces KSK ) , Marine ( Navy ) , Luftwaffe ( Air Force ) , Bundeswehr Joint Medical Service and Streitkräftebasis ( Joint Support Service ) branches . In absolute terms , German military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world . In 2015 , military spending was at € 32 @.@ 9 billion , about 1 @.@ 2 % of the country 's GDP , well below the NATO target of 2 % .
As of December 2015 the Bundeswehr employed roughly 178 @,@ 000 service members , including 9 @,@ 500 volunteers . Reservists are available to the Armed Forces and participate in defence exercises and deployments abroad . Since 2001 women may serve in all functions of service without restriction . About 19 @,@ 000 female soldiers are on active duty . According to SIPRI , Germany was the fourth largest exporter of major arms in the world in 2014 .
In peacetime , the Bundeswehr is commanded by the Minister of Defence . In state of defence , the Chancellor would become commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Bundeswehr .
The role of the Bundeswehr is described in the Constitution of Germany as defensive only . But after a ruling of the Federal Constitutional Court in 1994 the term " defense " has been defined to not only include protection of the borders of Germany , but also crisis reaction and conflict prevention , or more broadly as guarding the security of Germany anywhere in the world . As of January 2015 , the German military has about 2 @,@ 370 troops stationed in foreign countries as part of international peacekeeping forces , including about 850 Bundeswehr troops in the NATO @-@ led ISAF force in Afghanistan and Uzbekistan , 670 German soldiers in Kosovo , and 120 troops with UNIFIL in Lebanon .
Until 2011 , military service was compulsory for men at age 18 , and conscripts served six @-@ month tours of duty ; conscientious objectors could instead opt for an equal length of Zivildienst ( civilian service ) , or a six @-@ year commitment to ( voluntary ) emergency services like a fire department or the Red Cross . In 2011 conscription was officially suspended and replaced with a voluntary service .
= = Economy = =
Germany has a social market economy with a highly skilled labour force , a large capital stock , a low level of corruption , and a high level of innovation . It is the world 's third largest exporter of goods , and has the largest national economy in Europe which is also the world 's fourth largest by nominal GDP and the fifth one by PPP .
The service sector contributes approximately 71 % of the total GDP ( including information technology ) , industry 28 % , and agriculture 1 % . The unemployment rate published by Eurostat amounts to 4 @.@ 7 % in January 2015 , which is the lowest rate of all 28 EU member states . With 7 @.@ 1 % Germany also has the lowest youth unemployment rate of all EU member states . According to the OECD Germany has one of the highest labour productivity levels in the world .
Germany is part of the European single market which represents more than 508 million consumers . Several domestic commercial policies are determined by agreements among European Union ( EU ) members and by EU legislation . Germany introduced the common European currency , the Euro in 2002 . It is a member of the Eurozone which represents around 338 million citizens . Its monetary policy is set by the European Central Bank , which is headquartered in Frankfurt , the financial centre of continental Europe .
Being home to the modern car , the automotive industry in Germany is regarded as one of the most competitive and innovative in the world , and is the fourth largest by production . The top 10 exports of Germany are vehicles , machinery , chemical goods , electronic products , electrical equipments , pharmaceuticals , transport equipments , basic metals , food products , and rubber and plastics .
= = = Companies = = =
Of the world 's 500 largest stock @-@ market @-@ listed companies measured by revenue in 2014 , the Fortune Global 500 , 28 are headquartered in Germany . 30 Germany @-@ based companies are included in the DAX , the German stock market index . Well @-@ known international brands include Mercedes @-@ Benz , BMW , SAP , Volkswagen , Audi , Siemens , Allianz , Adidas , Porsche , and DHL .
Germany is recognised for its large portion of specialised small and medium enterprises , known as the Mittelstand model . Around 1 @,@ 000 of these companies are global market leaders in their segment and are labelled hidden champions . Berlin developed a thriving , cosmopolitan hub for startup companies and became a leading location for venture capital funded firms in the European Union .
The list includes the largest German companies by revenue in 2014 :
= = = Transport = = =
With its central position in Europe , Germany is a transport hub for the continent . Like its neighbours in Western Europe , Germany 's road network is among the densest in the world . The motorway ( Autobahn ) network ranks as the third @-@ largest worldwide in length and is known for its lack of a general speed limit .
Germany has established a polycentric network of high @-@ speed trains . The InterCityExpress or ICE network of the Deutsche Bahn serves major German cities as well as destinations in neighbouring countries with speeds up to 300 km / h ( 186 mph ) . The German railways are subsidised by the government , receiving € 17 @.@ 0 billion in 2014 .
The largest German airports are Frankfurt Airport and Munich Airport , both hubs of Lufthansa , while Air Berlin has hubs at Berlin Tegel and Düsseldorf . Other major airports include Berlin Schönefeld , Hamburg , Cologne / Bonn and Leipzig / Halle . The Port of Hamburg is one of the top twenty largest container ports in the world .
= = = Energy and infrastructure = = =
In 2008 , Germany was the world 's sixth @-@ largest consumer of energy , and 60 % of its primary energy was imported . In 2014 , energy sources were : oil ( 35 @.@ 0 % ) ; coal , including lignite ( 24 @.@ 6 % ) ; natural gas ( 20 @.@ 5 % ) ; nuclear ( 8 @.@ 1 % ) ; hydro @-@ electric and renewable sources ( 11 @.@ 1 % ) . The government and the nuclear power industry agreed to phase out all nuclear power plants by 2021 . It also enforces energy conservation , green technologies , emission reduction activities , and aims to meet the country 's electricity demands using 40 % renewable sources by 2020 . Germany is committed to the Kyoto protocol and several other treaties promoting biodiversity , low emission standards , water management , and the renewable energy commercialisation . The country 's household recycling rate is among the highest in the world — at around 65 % . Nevertheless , the country 's greenhouse gas emissions were the highest in the EU in 2010 . The German energy transition ( Energiewende ) is the recognised move to a sustainable economy by means of energy efficiency and renewable energy .
= = = Science and technology = = =
Germany 's achievements in the sciences have been significant , and research and development efforts form an integral part of the economy . The Nobel Prize has been awarded to 104 German laureates . In the beginning of the 20th century , German laureates had more awards than those of any other nation , especially in the sciences ( physics , chemistry , and physiology or medicine ) .
Notable German physicists before the 20th century include Hermann von Helmholtz , Joseph von Fraunhofer and Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit , among others . Albert Einstein introduced the relativity theories for light and gravity in 1905 and 1915 respectively . Along with Max Planck , he was instrumental in the introduction of quantum mechanics , in which Werner Heisenberg and Max Born later made major contributions . Wilhelm Röntgen discovered X @-@ rays . Otto Hahn was a pioneer in the fields of radiochemistry and discovered nuclear fission , while Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch were founders of microbiology . Numerous mathematicians were born in Germany , including Carl Friedrich Gauss , David Hilbert , Bernhard Riemann , Gottfried Leibniz , Karl Weierstrass , Hermann Weyl and Felix Klein .
Germany has been the home of many famous inventors and engineers , including Hans Geiger , the creator of the Geiger counter ; and Konrad Zuse , who built the first fully automatic digital computer . Such German inventors , engineers and industrialists as Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin , Otto Lilienthal , Gottlieb Daimler , Rudolf Diesel , Hugo Junkers and Karl Benz helped shape modern automotive and air transportation technology . German institutions like the German Aerospace Center ( DLR ) are the largest contributor to ESA . Aerospace engineer Wernher von Braun developed the first space rocket at Peenemünde and later on was a prominent member of NASA and developed the Saturn V Moon rocket . Heinrich Rudolf Hertz 's work in the domain of electromagnetic radiation was pivotal to the development of modern telecommunication .
Research institutions in Germany include the Max Planck Society , the Helmholtz Association and the Fraunhofer Society . The Wendelstein 7 @-@ X in Greifswald hosts a facility in the research of fusion power for instance . The Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize is granted to ten scientists and academics every year . With a maximum of € 2 @.@ 5 million per award it is one of highest endowed research prizes in the world .
= = = Tourism = = =
Germany is the seventh most visited country in the world , with a total of 407 million overnights during 2012 . This number includes 68 @.@ 83 million nights by foreign visitors . In 2012 , over 30 @.@ 4 million international tourists arrived in Germany . Berlin has become the third most visited city destination in Europe . Additionally , more than 30 % of Germans spend their holiday in their own country , with the biggest share going to Mecklenburg @-@ Vorpommern . Domestic and international travel and tourism combined directly contribute over EUR43.2 billion to German GDP . Including indirect and induced impacts , the industry contributes 4 @.@ 5 % of German GDP and supports 2 million jobs ( 4 @.@ 8 % of total employment ) .
Germany is well known for its diverse tourist routes , such as the Romantic Road , the Wine Route , the Castle Road , and the Avenue Road . The German Timber @-@ Frame Road ( Deutsche Fachwerkstraße ) connects towns with examples of these structures . There are 40 UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Germany , including the old town cores of Regensburg , Bamberg , Lübeck , Quedlinburg , Weimar , Stralsund and Wismar . Germany 's most @-@ visited landmarks include i. e . Neuschwanstein Castle , Cologne Cathedral , Berlin Bundestag , Hofbräuhaus Munich , Heidelberg Castle , Dresden Zwinger , Fernsehturm Berlin and Aachen Cathedral . The Europa @-@ Park near Freiburg is Europe 's second most popular theme park resort .
= = Demographics = =
With a population of 80 @.@ 2 million according to the 2011 census , rising to 81 @.@ 5 million as at 30 June 2015 and to at least 81 @.@ 9 million as at 31 December 2015 , Germany is the most populous country in the European Union , the second most populous country in Europe after Russia , and ranks as the 16th most populous country in the world . Its population density stands at 227 inhabitants per square kilometre ( 588 per square mile ) . The overall life expectancy in Germany at birth is 80 @.@ 19 years ( 77 @.@ 93 years for males and 82 @.@ 58 years for females ) . The fertility rate of 1 @.@ 41 children born per woman ( 2011 estimates ) , or 8 @.@ 33 births per 1000 inhabitants , is one of the lowest in the world . Since the 1970s , Germany 's death rate has exceeded its birth rate . However , Germany is witnessing increased birth rates and migration rates since the beginning of the 2010s , particularly a rise in the number of well @-@ educated migrants .
Four sizable groups of people are referred to as " national minorities " because their ancestors have lived in their respective regions for centuries . There is a Danish minority ( about 50 @,@ 000 ) in the northernmost state of Schleswig @-@ Holstein . The Sorbs , a Slavic population of about 60 @,@ 000 , are in the Lusatia region of Saxony and Brandenburg . The Roma and Sinti live throughout the whole federal territory and the Frisians live on Schleswig @-@ Holstein 's western coast , and in the north @-@ western part of Lower Saxony .
Approximately 5 million Germans live abroad .
= = = Immigrant population = = =
In 2014 , about seven million of Germany 's 81 million residents did not have German citizenship . Ninety @-@ six percent of these people lived in western Germany and mostly in urban areas .
In the 1960s and 1970s , the German governments invited " guest workers " ( Gastarbeiter ) to migrate to Germany for work in the German industries . Many companies preferred to keep these workers employed in Germany after they had trained them and Germany 's immigrant population has steadily increased . As of 2011 , about six million foreign citizens ( 7 @.@ 7 % of the population ) were registered in Germany .
The Federal Statistical Office classifies the citizens by immigrant background . Regarding immigrant background , 20 % of the country 's residents , or more than 16 million people , were of immigrant or partially immigrant descent in 2009 ( including persons descending or partially descending from ethnic German repatriates ) . In 2010 , 29 % of families with children under 18 had at least one parent with immigrant roots .
In 2015 , the Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs listed Germany as host to the second @-@ highest number of international migrants worldwide , about 5 % or 12 million of all 244 million migrants . Germany ranks 7th amongst EU countries and 37th globally in terms of the percentage of migrants who made up part of the country 's population . As of 2014 , the largest national group was from Turkey ( 2 @,@ 859 @,@ 000 ) , followed by Poland ( 1 @,@ 617 @,@ 000 ) , Russia ( 1 @,@ 188 @,@ 000 ) , and Italy ( 764 @,@ 000 ) . Since 1987 , around 3 million ethnic Germans , mostly from the former Eastern Bloc countries , have exercised their right of return and emigrated to Germany .
= = = Religion = = =
Since its foundation in 1871 , Germany has been about two @-@ thirds Protestant and one @-@ third Roman Catholic , with a notable Jewish minority . Other faiths were also present , but to a much lesser degree . The religious makeup changed gradually in the decades following 1945 , with West Germany becoming more religiously diversified through immigration and East Germany becoming overwhelmingly irreligious through state policies . It continues to diversify after the German reunification in 1990 .
According to the 2011 German Census , Christianity is the largest religion in Germany , claiming 66 @.@ 8 % of the total population . Relative to the whole population , 31 @.@ 7 % declared themselves as Protestants , including members of the Evangelical Church in Germany ( EKD ) ( 30 @.@ 8 % ) and the free churches ( German : Evangelische Freikirchen ) ( 0 @.@ 9 % ) , and 31 @.@ 2 % declared themselves as Roman Catholics . Orthodox believers constituted 1 @.@ 3 % , while Jews – 0 @.@ 1 % . Other religions accounted for 2 @.@ 7 % . In 2014 , the Catholic Church accounted for 23 @.@ 9 million members ( 29 @.@ 5 % of the population ) and the Evangelical Church for 22 @.@ 6 million ( 27 @.@ 9 % of the population ) . Both large churches have lost significant number of adherents in recent years .
Geographically , Protestantism is concentrated in the northern , central and eastern parts of the country . These are mostly members of the EKD , which encompasses Lutheran , Reformed and unions of both traditions dating back to the Prussian Union of 1817 . Roman Catholicism is concentrated in the south and west .
In 2011 , 33 % of Germans were not members of officially recognised religious associations with special status . Irreligion in Germany is strongest in the former East Germany and major metropolitan areas .
Islam is the second largest religion in the country . In the 2011 census , 1 @.@ 9 % of Germans declared themselves to be Muslims . More recent estimation suppose , there are between 2 @.@ 1 and 4 million Muslims living in Germany . Most of the Muslims are Sunnis and Alevites from Turkey , but there are a small number of Shi 'ites , Ahmadiyyas and other denominations .
Other religions comprising less than one percent of Germany 's population are Buddhism with 250 @,@ 000 adherents ( roughly 0 @.@ 3 % ) and Hinduism with some 100 @,@ 000 adherents ( 0 @.@ 1 % ) . All other religious communities in Germany have fewer than 50 @,@ 000 adherents each .
= = = Languages = = =
German is the official and predominant spoken language in Germany . It is one of 24 official and working languages of the European Union , and one of the three working languages of the European Commission . German is the most widely spoken first language in the European Union , with around 100 million native speakers .
Recognized native minority languages in Germany are Danish , Low German , Sorbian , Romany , and Frisian ; they are officially protected by the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages . The most used immigrant languages are Turkish , Kurdish , Polish , the Balkan languages , and Russian . Germans are typically multilingual : 67 % of German citizens claim to be able to communicate in at least one foreign language and 27 % in at least two .
Standard German is a West Germanic language and is closely related to and classified alongside Low German , Dutch , Frisian and English languages . To a lesser extent , it is also related to the East Germanic ( extinct ) and North Germanic languages . Most German vocabulary is derived from the Germanic branch of the Indo @-@ European language family . Significant minorities of words are derived from Latin and Greek , with a smaller amount from French and most recently English ( known as Denglisch ) . German is written using the Latin alphabet . German dialects , traditional local varieties traced back to the Germanic tribes , are distinguished from varieties of standard German by their lexicon , phonology , and syntax .
= = = Education = = =
Responsibility for educational supervision in Germany is primarily organised within the individual federal states . Optional kindergarten education is provided for all children between three and six years old , after which school attendance is compulsory for at least nine years . Primary education usually lasts for four to six years . Secondary education includes three traditional types of schools focused on different academic levels : the Gymnasium enrols the most gifted children and prepares students for university studies ; the Realschule for intermediate students lasts six years and the Hauptschule prepares pupils for vocational education . The Gesamtschule unifies all secondary education .
A system of apprenticeship called Duale Ausbildung leads to a skilled qualification which is almost comparable to an academic degree . It allows students in vocational training to learn in a company as well as in a state @-@ run trade school . This model is well regarded and reproduced all around the world .
Most of the German universities are public institutions , and students traditionally study without fee payment . The general requirement for university is the Abitur . However , there are a number of exceptions , depending on the state , the college and the subject . Tuition free academic education is open to international students and is increasingly common . According to an OECD report in 2014 , Germany is the world 's third leading destination for international study .
Germany has a long tradition of higher education reflecting the global status as a modern economy . The established universities in Germany include some of the oldest in the world , with Heidelberg University ( established in 1386 ) being the oldest . It is followed by the Leipzig University ( 1409 ) , the Rostock University ( 1419 ) and the Greifswald University ( 1456 ) . The University of Berlin , founded in 1810 by the liberal educational reformer Wilhelm von Humboldt , became the academic model for many European and Western universities . In the contemporary era Germany has developed eleven Universities of Excellence : Humboldt University Berlin , the University of Bremen , the University of Cologne , TU Dresden , the University of Tübingen , RWTH Aachen , FU Berlin , Heidelberg University , the University of Konstanz , LMU Munich , and the Technical University of Munich .
= = = Health = = =
Germany 's system of hospices , called spitals , dates from medieval times , and today , Germany has the world 's oldest universal health care system , dating from Bismarck 's social legislation of the 1880s , Since the 1880s , reforms and provisions have ensured a balanced health care system . Currently the population is covered by a health insurance plan provided by statute , with criteria allowing some groups to opt for a private health insurance contract . According to the World Health Organization , Germany 's health care system was 77 % government @-@ funded and 23 % privately funded as of 2013 . In 2005 , Germany spent 11 % of its GDP on health care . Germany ranked 20th in the world in life expectancy with 77 years for men and 82 years for women , and it had a very low infant mortality rate ( 4 per 1 @,@ 000 live births ) .
In 2010 , the principal cause of death was cardiovascular disease , at 41 % , followed by malignant tumours , at 26 % . In 2008 , about 82 @,@ 000 Germans had been infected with HIV / AIDS and 26 @,@ 000 had died from the disease ( cumulatively , since 1982 ) . According to a 2005 survey , 27 % of German adults are smokers . Obesity in Germany has been increasingly cited as a major health issue . A 2007 study shows Germany has the highest number of overweight people in Europe .
= = Culture = =
Culture in German states has been shaped by major intellectual and popular currents in Europe , both religious and secular . Historically Germany has been called Das Land der Dichter und Denker ( " the land of poets and thinkers " ) , because of the major role its writers and philosophers have played in the development of Western thought .
Germany is well known for such folk festival traditions as Oktoberfest and Christmas customs , which include Advent wreaths , Christmas pageants , Christmas trees , Stollen cakes , and other practices . As of 2016 UNESCO inscribed 40 properties in Germany on the World Heritage List . There are a number of public holidays in Germany determined by each state ; 3 October has been a national day of Germany since 1990 , celebrated as the Tag der Deutschen Einheit ( German Unity Day ) .
In the 21st century Berlin has emerged as a major international creative center . According to the Anholt – GfK Nation Brands Index , in 2014 Germany was the world 's most respected nation among 50 countries ( ahead of US , UK , and France ) . A global opinion poll for the BBC revealed that Germany is recognised for having the most positive influence in the world in 2013 and 2014 .
= = = Music = = =
German classical music includes works by some of the world 's most well @-@ known composers . Dieterich Buxtehude composed oratorios for organ , which influenced the later work of Johann Sebastian Bach and Georg Friedrich Händel ; these men were influential composers of the Baroque period . During his tenure as violinist and teacher at the Salzburg cathedral , Augsburg @-@ born composer Leopold Mozart mentored one of the most noted musicians of all time : Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart . Ludwig van Beethoven was a crucial figure in the transition between the Classical and Romantic eras . Carl Maria von Weber and Felix Mendelssohn were important in the early Romantic period . Robert Schumann and Johannes Brahms composed in the Romantic idiom . Richard Wagner was known for his operas . Richard Strauss was a leading composer of the late Romantic and early modern eras . Karlheinz Stockhausen and Hans Zimmer are important composers of the 20th and early 21st centuries .
Germany is the second largest music market in Europe , and fourth largest in the world . German popular music of the 20th and 21st century includes the movements of Neue Deutsche Welle , pop , Ostrock , heavy metal / rock , punk , pop rock , indie and schlager pop . German electronic music gained global influence , with Kraftwerk and Tangerine Dream pioneering in this genre . DJs and artists of the techno and house music scenes of Germany have become well known ( e.g. Robin Schulz , Paul van Dyk , Paul Kalkbrenner , and Scooter ) .
= = = Art = = =
German painters have influenced western art . Albrecht Dürer , Hans Holbein the Younger , Matthias Grünewald and Lucas Cranach the Elder were important German artists of the Renaissance , Peter Paul Rubens and Johann Baptist Zimmermann of the Baroque , Caspar David Friedrich and Carl Spitzweg of Romanticism , Max Liebermann of Impressionism and Max Ernst of Surrealism . Such German sculptors as Otto Schmidt @-@ Hofer , Franz Iffland , and Julius Schmidt @-@ Felling made important contributions to German art history in the late 19th and early 20th centuries .
Several German art groups formed in the 20th century , such as the November Group or Die Brücke ( The Bridge ) and Der Blaue Reiter ( The Blue Rider ) , by the Russian @-@ born Wassily Kandinsky , influenced the development of Expressionism in Munich and Berlin . The New Objectivity arose as a counter @-@ style to it during the Weimar Republic . Post @-@ World War II art trends in Germany can broadly be divided into Neo @-@ expressionism , performance art and Conceptualism . Especially notable neo @-@ expressionists include Georg Baselitz , Anselm Kiefer , Jörg Immendorff , A. R. Penck , Markus Lüpertz , Peter Robert Keil and Rainer Fetting . Other notable artists who work with traditional media or figurative imagery include Martin Kippenberger , Gerhard Richter , Sigmar Polke , and Neo Rauch . Leading German conceptual artists include or included Bernd and Hilla Becher , Hanne Darboven , Hans @-@ Peter Feldmann , Hans Haacke , Joseph Beuys , HA Schult , Aris Kalaizis , Neo Rauch ( New Leipzig School ) and Andreas Gursky ( photography ) . Major art exhibitions and festivals in Germany are the documenta , the Berlin Biennale , transmediale and Art Cologne .
= = = Architecture = = =
Architectural contributions from Germany include the Carolingian and Ottonian styles , which were precursors of Romanesque . Brick Gothic is a distinctive medieval style that evolved in Germany . Also in Renaissance and Baroque art , regional and typically German elements evolved ( e.g. Weser Renaissance and Dresden Baroque ) . Among many renowned Baroque masters were Pöppelmann , Balthasar Neumann , Knobelsdorff and the Asam brothers . The Wessobrunner School exerted a decisive influence on , and at times even dominated , the art of stucco in southern Germany in the 18th century . The Upper Swabian Baroque Route offers a baroque @-@ themed tourist route that highlights the contributions of such artists and craftsmen as the sculptor and plasterer Johann Michael Feuchtmayer , one of the foremost members of the Feuchtmayer family and the brothers Johann Baptist Zimmermann and Dominikus Zimmermann . Vernacular architecture in Germany is often identified by its timber framing ( Fachwerk ) traditions and varies across regions , and among carpentry styles .
When industrialisation spread across Europe , Classicism and a distinctive style of historism developed in Germany , sometimes referred to as Gründerzeit style , due to the economical boom years at the end of the 19th century . Regional historicist styles include the Hanover School , Nuremberg Style and Dresden 's Semper @-@ Nicolai School . Among the most famous of German buildings , the Schloss Neuschwanstein represents Romanesque Revival . Notable sub @-@ styles that evolved since the 18th century are the German spa and seaside resort architecture . German artists , writers and gallerists like Siegfried Bing , Georg Hirth and Bruno Möhring also contributed to the development of Art Nouveau at the turn of the 20th century , known as Jugendstil in German .
Expressionist architecture developed in the 1910s in Germany and influenced Art Deco and other modern styles , with e.g. Fritz Höger , Erich Mendelsohn , Dominikus Böhm and Fritz Schumacher being influential architects . Germany was particularly important in the early modernist movement : it is the home of Werkbund initiated by Hermann Muthesius ( New Objectivity ) , and of the Bauhaus movement founded by Walter Gropius . Consequently , Germany is often considered the cradle of modern architecture and design . Ludwig Mies van der Rohe became one of the world 's most renowned architects in the second half of the 20th century . He conceived of the glass façade skyscraper . Renowned contemporary architects and offices include Hans Kollhoff , Sergei Tchoban , KK Architekten , Helmut Jahn , Behnisch , GMP , Ole Scheeren , J. Mayer H. , OM Ungers , Gottfried Böhm and Frei Otto ( the last two being Pritzker Prize winners ) .
= = = Literature and philosophy = = =
German literature can be traced back to the Middle Ages and the works of writers such as Walther von der Vogelweide and Wolfram von Eschenbach . Well @-@ known German authors include Johann Wolfgang von Goethe , Friedrich Schiller , Gotthold Ephraim Lessing and Theodor Fontane . The collections of folk tales published by the Brothers Grimm popularised German folklore on an international level . The Grimms also gathered and codified regional variants of the German language , grounding their work in historical principles ; their Deutsches Wörterbuch , or German Dictionary , sometimes called the Grimm dictionary , was begun in 1838 and the first volumes published in 1854 .
Influential authors of the 20th century include Gerhart Hauptmann , Thomas Mann , Hermann Hesse , Heinrich Böll and Günter Grass . The German book market is the third largest in the world , after the United States and China . The Frankfurt Book Fair is the most important in the world for international deals and trading , with a tradition spanning over 500 years , also the Leipzig Book Fair retains a major position in Europe .
German philosophy is historically significant : Gottfried Leibniz 's contributions to rationalism ; the enlightenment philosophy by Immanuel Kant ; the establishment of classical German idealism by Johann Gottlieb Fichte , Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling ; Arthur Schopenhauer 's composition of metaphysical pessimism ; the formulation of communist theory by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels ; Friedrich Nietzsche 's development of perspectivism ; Gottlob Frege 's contributions to the dawn of analytic philosophy ; Martin Heidegger 's works on Being ; the development of the Frankfurt school by Max Horkheimer , Theodor Adorno , Herbert Marcuse and Jürgen Habermas have been particularly influential ; and Oswald Spengler 's historical philosophy , including his book The Decline of the West , in which he predicts the fall of the western European civilization and describes the Germanic culture as Faustian .
= = = Media = = =
The largest internationally operating media companies in Germany are the Bertelsmann enterprise , Axel Springer SE and ProSiebenSat.1 Media . The German Press Agency DPA is also significant . Germany 's television market is the largest in Europe , with some 38 million TV households . Around 90 % of German households have cable or satellite TV , with a variety of free @-@ to @-@ view public and commercial channels . There are more than 500 public and private radio stations in Germany , with the public Deutsche Welle being the main German radio and television broadcaster in foreign languages . Germany 's national radio network is the Deutschlandradio while ARD stations are covering local services .
Many of Europe 's best @-@ selling newspapers and magazines are produced in Germany . The papers ( and internet portals ) with the highest circulation are Bild ( a tabloid ) , Die Zeit , Süddeutsche Zeitung , Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung and Die Welt , the largest magazines include Der Spiegel , Stern and Focus .
The German video gaming market is one of the largest in the world . The Gamescom in Cologne is the world 's leading gaming convention . Popular game series from Germany include Turrican , the Anno series , The Settlers series , the Gothic series , SpellForce , the FIFA Manager series , Far Cry and Crysis . Relevant game developers and publishers are Blue Byte , Crytek , Deep Silver , Kalypso Media , Piranha Bytes , Yager Development , and some of the largest social network game companies like Bigpoint , Gameforge , Goodgame and Wooga .
= = = Cinema = = =
German cinema has made major technical and artistic contributions to film . The first works of the Skladanowsky Brothers were shown to an audience in 1895 . The renowned Babelsberg Studio in Berlin 's suburb Potsdam was established in 1912 , thus being the first large @-@ scale film studio in the world . Today it is Europe 's largest studio . Early German cinema was particularly influential with German expressionists such as Robert Wiene and Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau . Director Fritz Lang 's Metropolis ( 1927 ) is referred to as the first major science @-@ fiction film . In 1930 Josef von Sternberg directed The Blue Angel , the first major German sound film , with Marlene Dietrich . Films of Leni Riefenstahl set new artistic standards , in particular Triumph of the Will .
After 1945 , many of the films of the immediate post @-@ war period can be characterised as Trümmerfilm . Such films included Wolfgang Staudte 's Die Mörder sind unter uns ( The Murderers are among us ) ( 1946 ) . Notable East German films included Der Untertan ( 1951 ) ; Konrad Wolf 's Der geteilte Himmel ( Divided Heaven ) ( 1964 ) and Frank Beyer 's Jacob the Liar ( 1975 ) . The defining film genre in West Germany of the 1950s was arguably the Heimatfilm ( " homeland film " ) ; these films depicted the beauty of the land and the moral integrity of the people living in it .
During the 1970s and 1980s , New German Cinema directors such as Volker Schlöndorff , Werner Herzog , Wim Wenders , and Rainer Werner Fassbinder brought West German auteur cinema to critical acclaim . German movies such as Das Boot ( 1981 ) , The Never Ending Story ( 1984 ) , Good Bye , Lenin ! ( 2003 ) , Head On ( 2004 ) , The White Ribbon ( 2009 ) , Animals United ( 2010 ) , and Cloud Atlas ( 2012 ) also had international success . The Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film ( " Oscar " ) went to the German production Die Blechtrommel ( The Tin Drum ) in 1979 , to Nirgendwo in Afrika ( Nowhere in Africa ) in 2002 , and to Das Leben der Anderen ( The Lives of Others ) in 2007 .
The annual European Film Awards ceremony is held every other year in Berlin , home of the European Film Academy . The Berlin International Film Festival , known as " Berlinale " , awarding the " Golden Bear " and held annually since 1951 , is one of the world 's leading film festivals . The " Lolas " are annually awarded in Berlin , at the German Film Awards , that have been presented since 1951 .
= = = Cuisine = = =
German cuisine varies from region to region and often neighboring regions share some culinary similarities ( e.g. the southern regions of Bavaria and Swabia share some traditions with Switzerland and Austria ) . International varieties such as pizza , sushi , Chinese food , Greek food , Indian cuisine and doner kebab are also popular and available , thanks to diverse ethnic communities .
Bread is a significant part of German cuisine and German bakeries produce about 600 main types of bread and 1 @,@ 200 different types of pastries and rolls ( Brötchen ) . German cheeses account for about a third of all cheese produced in Europe . In 2012 over 99 % of all meat produced in Germany was either pork , chicken or beef . Germans produce their ubiquitous sausages in almost 1 @,@ 500 varieties , including Bratwursts , Weisswursts , and Currywursts . In 2012 , organic foods accounted for 3 @.@ 9 % of total food sales .
Although wine is becoming more popular in many parts of Germany , especially in German wine regions , the national alcoholic drink is beer . German beer consumption per person stands at 110 litres ( 24 imp gal ; 29 US gal ) in 2013 and remains among the highest in the world . German beer purity regulations date back to the 15th century .
The 2015 Michelin Guide awarded eleven restaurants in Germany three stars , the highest designation , while 38 more received two stars and 233 one star . German restaurants have become the world 's second @-@ most decorated after France .
= = = Sports = = =
Twenty @-@ seven million Germans are members of a sports club and an additional twelve million pursue sports individually . Association football is the most popular sport . With more than 6 @.@ 3 million official members , the German Football Association ( Deutscher Fußball @-@ Bund ) is the largest sports organisation of its kind worldwide , and the German top league , the Bundesliga , attracts the second highest average attendance of all professional sports leagues in the world . The German men 's national football team won the FIFA World Cup in 1954 , 1974 , 1990 , and 2014 , and the UEFA European Championship in 1972 , 1980 and 1996 . Germany hosted the FIFA World Cup in 1974 and 2006 and the UEFA European Championship in 1988 .
Other popular spectator sports include winter sports , boxing , basketball , handball , volleyball , ice hockey , tennis , horse riding and golf . Water sports like sailing , rowing , and swimming are popular in Germany as well .
Germany is one of the leading motor sports countries in the world . Constructors like BMW and Mercedes are prominent manufacturers in motor sport . Porsche has won the 24 Hours of Le Mans race 17 times , and Audi 13 times ( as of 2015 ) . The driver Michael Schumacher has set many motor sport records during his career , having won more Formula One World Drivers ' Championships with seven titles , than any other . He is one of the highest paid sportsmen in history . Sebastian Vettel is also among the top three most successful Formula One drivers of all time .
Historically , German athletes have been successful contenders in the Olympic Games , ranking third in an all @-@ time Olympic Games medal count ( when combining East and West German medals ) . Germany was the last country to host both the summer and winter games in the same year , in 1936 the Berlin Summer Games and the Winter Games in Garmisch @-@ Partenkirchen , and in Munich it hosted the Summer Games of 1972 .
= = = Fashion and design = = =
German designers were leaders of modern product design , with the Bauhaus designers like Mies van der Rohe , and Dieter Rams of Braun being essential .
Germany is a leading country in the fashion industry . The German textile industry consisted of about 1 @,@ 300 companies with more than 130 @,@ 000 employees in 2010 , which generated a revenue of 28 billion Euro . Almost 44 percent of the products are exported . The Berlin Fashion Week and the fashion trade fair Bread & Butter are held twice a year .
Munich , Hamburg and Düsseldorf are also important design , production and trade hubs of the domestic fashion industry , among smaller towns . Renowned fashion designers from Germany include Karl Lagerfeld , Jil Sander , Wolfgang Joop , Philipp Plein and Michael Michalsky . Important brands include Hugo Boss , Escada , Adidas , Puma and Triumph . The German supermodels Claudia Schiffer , Heidi Klum , Tatjana Patitz and Nadja Auermann have come to international fame .
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= Remember December =
" Remember December " is a song recorded by American singer Demi Lovato for her second studio album , Here We Go Again . It was written by John Fields , Lovato and Anne Preven , and produced by Fields . The song was released as the album 's second and final single outside North America on January 18 , 2010 through Hollywood Records . " Remember December " adapts power pop and synthpop genres and diverges from Lovato 's usual pop rock sound . The lyrics describe the protagonist 's attempt to remind her boyfriend of the good times of their relationship . Lovato described the song 's sound as an example of what she wanted her future music to sound like .
" Remember December " received generally positive reviews from music critics ; the majority of them praised its hook and chorus . Several critics also named it one of the album 's standouts . " Remember December " was commercially unsuccessful , peaking at number 80 on the UK Singles Chart and failing to enter charts elsewhere . It sold 144 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , according to Nielsen SoundScan . Lovato has performed the song numerous times , including on her tour Summer Tour 2009 and The Alan Titchmarsh Show .
= = Background = =
In January 2009 , Lovato first started writing the songs for her sophomore album Here We Go Again , right after filming from the first season of Sonny with a Chance . In April 2009 , Lovato explained about the album 's process and collaborating with other songwriters and artists , such as Jon McLaughlin and The Academy Is ... lead singer William Beckett . Unlike her first studio album Don 't Forget , she did not collaborate with the Jonas Brothers , as she wanted to see what her sound would be like without their input . According to Lovato , the album 's writing process was nearly completed in just two weeks .
Lovato worked with songwriter Anne Preven wrote three songs on the album , " Solo " , " Quiet " and " Remember December " . John Fields , who helmed production on Don 't Forget , co @-@ wrote " Remember December " with Lovato and Preven , and produced all three songs , along with the majority of the album . The recording sessions for the album began in January 2009 , and " Remember December " was recorded by Fields in Studio Wishbone in Los Angeles , California . The song features Owsley on guitars , synths and backing vocals , and Dorian Crozier on drums . Tommy Barbarella contributed synths , while Ken Chastain handled percussion . Fields and Paul David Hager mixed the recordings . In an interview with Jocelyn Vena of MTV News , Lovato said that the song is meant for " all her girls out there who need to remind guys that they messed up " . In the same interview , she said that it is different from her usual pop rock sound :
I love this song for many reasons . It had a different sound than a lot of my songs . I related to it personally more than other songs , and I have so much fun with it . I thought if it could be a single that it would be incredible to perform it all the time ... What stands out about the song [ is that ] I can dance to it and rock out to it , which is ultimately my goal . I was just so excited when I heard this one , ' cause it 's the epitome of where I want to go with the future .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" Remember December " is a 1980s @-@ inspired power pop song with influences of synthpop and pop rock . Patrick Varine of The Observer @-@ Dispatch noted " a bit of techno " , and Fraser McAlpine of BBC Music referred the verses to as " moody synthpop " . Critics made comparisons with works by rock bands Paramore and The Veronicas . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Walt Disney Music Publishing , " Remember December " is composed in the time signature of common time , with a moderate beat rate of 112 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of F minor and Lovato 's vocal range spans from the low @-@ note of E ♭ 4 to the high @-@ note of F5 . It has a basic sequence of F5 – A ♭ 5 – D ♭ 5 as its chord progression .
The song begins with Lovato singing " I feel a separation coming on , Cos [ sic ] I know , you want to be moving on . " Lyrically , the song sees the protagonist reminisce about a winter romance , with lines such as , " I remember us together / We promised that forever . " Los Angeles Times critic Maragret Wappler deemed it an " ode to breakups " and noted that the protagonist asks her willful boyfriend to remember " the good times " of their relationship . In the chorus , she sings " Don 't surrender , surrender , surrender " , before asking him to remember their " promise of forever " . Lovato explained that the song is about " a girl [ who ] has so much to say to the guy , and it feels like he 's not listening , and she wants him to remember everything that they had " .
= = Release and reception = =
" Remember December " was released as the second and final single from Here We Go Again . The song was first released in Scandinavian countries via digital download on January 18 , 2010 , through Hollywood Records . The song was later released as a CD single and digital download in the UK on February 15 , 2010 . The physical release includes a club mix of the song by Sharp Boys , while the digital release also includes a radio edit of the remix . Following its release , " Remember December " peaked at number 80 on the UK Singles Chart on February 27 , 2010 .
The song received generally positive reviews from critics . AllMusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine considered Here We Go Again " not quite as much fun " , as Lovato 's debut album Don 't Forget , " but still fun , particularly when Lovato tears into hooky power pop like ... ' Remember December ' . " Erlewine also named the song one of the best tracks on the album . BBC Music 's Fraser McAlpine rated it four out of five stars , and wrote , " I 'm sure there 's a punkrock reason why we should all get together and hate it , but for the life of me I just can 't . Even with the weird pronunciation and silly lyrics , this is a corker . " McAlpine praised the " grand " chorus and wrote : " Someone in Team Lovato has been cocking an ear to the musical stylings of Paramore and maybe suggested that the next logical step after Camp Rock 's wholesome Disneyfication of popular song might be something a little more confessional . "
Cody Miller of PopMatters was positive regarding the song , writing : " When a real hook pops up , as on ' Remember December ' , Lovato really bites into it , belting and howling with enough melodrama and bravado to actually make one believe [ the ] lines . " Tamar Anitai of MTV Buzzworthy named the track the fifth best song of 2009 , calling it " the strongest and best " on Here We Go Again . Anitai wrote , " ' Remember December ' is a serious standout that quickly makes it point with Demi behind the wheel – seriously speeding – the whole time . It 's the perfect showcase for Demi 's way @-@ beyond @-@ her @-@ years vocals and ability to sell a song without sugar @-@ coating it . " In a more mixed review , Nick Levine of Digital Spy awarded it three out of five stars and said that it lacked " original ideas " , but said that it " does at least have a decent chorus " . Levine called it a " Veronicas @-@ lite pop @-@ rock stomper " and praised Lovato 's vocals .
= = Music video = =
" Remember December " was directed by Tim Wheeler , who co @-@ directed the videos of Lovato 's previous singles , " Here We Go Again " and " La La Land " Lovato was interviewed by MTV News on the set of the music video , where she stated that it stays true to the song 's theme : " The music video relates to the song in a way ... And so instead of having a love interest in this video , it 's all about being fierce and kind of , like , taking control as a girl . It 's like girl empowerment . Yeah , divas ! " She described the video as " really , really glam rock " . According to Tim Wheeler , the concept behind the video was to incorporate different lights and backlights . The video premiered on November 12 , 2009 and was made available for download in the iTunes Store on December 1 , 2009 .
The video features appearances from Disney 's Camp Rock 2 : The Final Jam stars Chloe Bridges , Meaghan Martin and Anna Maria Perez de Taglé . It begins with Lovato performing with her band on stage while sporting a " Rock Chick " outfit with a black leather jacket and stud gloves . In cutscenes , she is seen sitting in a car with three friends , all four sporting beehive hairstyles . Other cutscenes include Lovato wearing a glitter hooded sweatshirt while standing in front of bright lights . Later in the video , Lovato and her friends are walking down Hollywood Boulevard . The video ends with Lovato finish performing the song on stage .
= = Live performances = =
Lovato performed the song for the first time on her Summer Tour 2009 , where it was sung towards the end of the show . Althea Legaspi of Chicago Tribune wrote that the song " demonstrated her rock singing chops " . Thomas Kinter of the Hartford Courant commented that Lovato " loosened up a bit " with " Every Time You Lie " and returned to " full @-@ bore vocal blaring " for " Remember December " . During a string of promotional appearances in the United Kingdom in early @-@ 2010 , Lovato performed " Remember December " on The Alan Titchmarsh Show on January 29 , 2010 . In September 2011 , she performed it during the revue concert An Evening with Demi Lovato . It was also the closing song of the setlist during the tour A Special Night with Demi Lovato .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Studio Wishbone , Los Angeles , California
Personnel
Credits are adapted from the Here We Go Again liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Survivor Series ( 2005 ) =
Survivor Series ( 2005 ) was the 19th annual Survivor Series professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . It took place on November 27 , 2005 , at the Joe Louis Arena in Detroit , Michigan and consisted of six professional wrestling matches involving wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands .
In the first of two main event matches , WWE Champion John Cena defeated Kurt Angle to retain his title . The second main event was an interpromotional 5 @-@ on @-@ 5 Survivor Series match , in which Team SmackDown ( Batista , Rey Mysterio , John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) , Bobby Lashley , and Randy Orton ) defeated Team Raw ( Shawn Michaels , Kane , The Big Show , Carlito , and Chris Masters ) after Orton last eliminated Michaels . In another match , Triple H defeated Ric Flair in a Last Man Standing match .
= = Background = =
The event 's card consisted of six professional wrestling involving wrestlers from either Raw or SmackDown , WWE 's two brand divisions .
The main leading rivalry leading into the event was between the Raw and SmackDown brands as a whole , rather than individual wrestlers . The rivalry began on " WWE Homecoming , a special episode of Raw on October 3 when Raw 's general manager Eric Bischoff stopped a match involving SmackDown wrestlers by turning the lights off . In return , Bischoff 's SmackDown counterpart , Theodore Long , interrupted a Raw match . As a result , wrestlers from the two brands started a brawl and interfered in the other 's show before facing each other in a tag team match at Taboo Tuesday ; SmackDown 's Rey Mysterio , Jr. and Matt Hardy defeated Raw 's Chris Masters and Gene Snitsky . After Taboo Tuesday , Bischoff and Long agreed that teams from each brand would face each other in a 5 @-@ on @-@ 5 Survivor Series match , while the two managers would wrestle in a singles match at Survivor Series . The teams feuded on both shows , and Batista , the captain of the SmackDown team , suffered an injury after being attacked several times . Eddie Guerrero was originally scheduled to be on Team SmackDown , but due to his death on November 13 , 2005 , he was replaced by Randy Orton .
Another rivalry heading into the event was between John Cena and Kurt Angle , over the WWE Championship . Their feud began in August , when Bischoff chose Angle as the number one contender to the WWE Championship . Angle failed to win the title at Unforgiven , due to Cena being disqualified . The two squared off against each other again at Taboo Tuesday in a Triple Threat match that also included Shawn Michaels , and again Cena retained the title . On the November 7 edition of Raw , Angle refused to compete in a tag team match pitting him and Chris Masters against Cena and Michaels due to the " you suck " chants from the audience . Angle finally agreed to compete if Bischoff silenced the crowd and let him have a special guest referee . Angle chose Daivari , who favoured Angle and Masters throughout the match and ultimately disqualified Cena and Michaels for using a chair , which he had ignored earlier when it had been used by Masters .
The rivalry between Triple H and Ric Flair began at WWE Homecoming , when Triple H returned to WWE television after an absence of three months . The two had been aligned since 2002 , as members of Evolution , and were partners in a tag team match on the show . After they won the match , Triple H attacked Flair with a sledgehammer . The week after , Triple H explained his actions , saying that he realized Flair was no longer the legend he was , and he needed to stop Flair . Flair and Triple H met in a steel cage match at Taboo Tuesday , which Flair won . A Last Man Standing match was made between the two for Survivor Series .
= = Event = =
Before the event aired live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , a match was contested on Sunday Night Heat between Juventud ( accompanied by Super Crazy and Psicosis ) defeated Simon Dean .
In the first pay @-@ per @-@ view match , Booker T ( accompanied by Sharmell ) faced off against Chris Benoit in the first match of their " Best of 7 series " for the vacant WWE United States Championship . The match started with Booker T exiting the ring when Benoit gained a slight advantage . The match went back and forth for the first half before Booker T took control . The match saw interference by Sharmell , as she distracted Benoit , who was on the top ropes . After Benoit missed a free fall headbutt , Booker T won the match with a pin using the ropes for leverage . Booker T took a 1 – 0 lead in the series .
In the following match Trish Stratus ( accompanied by Mickie James ) defended her WWE Women 's Championship against Melina ( accompanied by Joey Mercury and Johnny Nitro . Stratus immediately took control until Melina fought back . When Nitro and Mercury interfered , the referee ejected them from ringside . Melina kept control until Stratus fought back with forearm shots . Stratus pinned Melina after a diving bulldog to retain the title .
Next , Triple H met Ric Flair in a Last Man Standing match . Flair was still on his way to the ring , when Triple H attacked him and gained the early advantage . After attacking Flair 's head with a screwdriver , Triple H continued using foreign objects throughout the match , including a folding chair , a sledgehammer , and the steel ring steps . The match went back and forth between Triple H and Flair . Triple H attempted to hit Flair with a Pedigree on the announce table , but Flair countered the move into a back body drop through another announce table . Triple H later performed the Pedigree three times on Flair , but Flair got up each time . Triple H then hit Flair in the back with a sledgehammer , and Flair did not get to his feet before the referee 's ten count , giving Triple H the win . After the match , Edge and Lita came into the ring , and Edge announced that he would be hosting a new show on Raw entitled " The Cutting Edge " . Edge noted that Dmitri Young was in the audience , and proceeded to criticize the sports teams of Detroit . Young replied by insulting Edge and his lack of a world championship .
The fourth match saw John Cena defending the WWE Championship against Kurt Angle , with Daivari as the special guest referee . Early in the match , Angle was able to apply the Ankle lock on Cena . Cena reached the ropes but Daivari kicked his hand off . An angered Cena slapped Daivari , who tried to disqualify him as a result . Angle , however , stopped him , and both men were knocked out of the ring by Cena . As Daivari was knocked down outside , a Raw referee came out to officiate . After Cena gained the advantage , Angle knocked down the referee , and executed an illegal low blow . Angle called for another referee , but failed to get the win after executing an Olympic Slam and a superplex . After Angle missed a moonsault attempt , Cena went for an FU ; however , Angle countered by holding onto the referee , which led to Angle knocking down the referee . As the other referee was knocked out , a SmackDown referee came out . Cena then hit a DDT on Daivari and executed an FU on Angle , pinning him to retain the title .
In the fifth match , the authority figures from both brands faced each other with two referees from each show officiating the match . Theodore Long , who was accompanied by Palmer Canon , started the match by avoiding Eric Bischoff 's attacks . As Cannon climbed on the apron , and distracted the referees , Bischoff used his obi to choke Long . Bischoff continued to choke Long and applied the sleeper hold . Cannon distracted the referees again as Long hit Bischoff with his shoe . Bischoff then hit Long with a chop to the throat . The Boogeyman 's music played with Bischoff sending the referees up the ramp to stop him . The Boogeyman was behind Bischoff , however , and he hit Bischoff with a pumphandle slam on Bischoff . Long took advantage and pinned Bischoff to win the match .
The final match was the Survivor Series match between Team SmackDown ( Batista , Rey Mysterio , John " Bradshaw " Layfield , Bobby Lashley and Randy Orton ) and Team Raw ( Shawn Michaels , Kane , The Big Show , Carlito and Chris Masters ) . At first , the two teams alternated in taking control . The first wrestler to be eliminated was Lashley , who was chokeslammed by Kane and pinned by Michaels . Kane was then eliminated by Batista after a 619 from Mysterio and a spinebuster from Batista . After that , Batista was eliminated after a double chokeslam by Big Show and Kane . Big Show was eliminated next after a Clothesline From Hell by JBL , a 619 from Mysterio , an RKO by Orton , another Clothesline by JBL and a seated senton by Mysterio . Mysterio then pinned him for the elimination . Carlito was then eliminated , after JBL performed a Clothesline From Hell . Next , Mysterio hit a Springboard Legdrop on Masters for the elimination . Michaels went on to eliminate both Mysterio and JBL , after a superkick . Orton and Michaels were the final two men left from their respective teams . JBL then distracted Michaels , which made Michaels superkick JBL . As Michaels turned around , Orton executed an RKO on Michaels and pinned Michaels to win the match for Team SmackDown .
Following the match , SmackDown wrestlers came to the ring to celebrate with Orton when hooded figures carrying a casket came out . At No Mercy ( 2005 ) Orton had defeated the Undertaker in a handicap @-@ casket and set the casket on fire . Now , lightning struck the casket and set it on fire ; The Undertaker emerged and attacked several of the wrestlers while Orton and his father " Cowboy " Bob Orton evaded the Undertaker by leaving the ring .
= = Aftermath = =
The five @-@ on @-@ five Survivor Series match ended the rivalry between the brands . Eric Bischoff was fired as general manager of Raw by Vince McMahon , who took control of the Raw brand as temporary general manager of Raw . McMahon soon started to feud with Shawn Michaels , whom he lauded for his part in the Montreal Screwjob , when Michaels told McMahon to move on .
After Survivor Series , John Cena and Kurt Angle continued their feud . Before being fired , Bischoff had proposed that Cena should defend his WWE championship in an Elimination Chamber match at New Year 's Revolution . On the December 12 episode of Raw , Kurt Angle , Carlito , Shawn Michaels , Chris Masters , and Kane won matches qualifying them for the Elimination Chamber match . After the qualifying matches , Cena faced Angle 's associate , Daivari in a " You Can 't See Me " match , as it would see Cena blindfolded during the match . Cena won as he made Daivari submit to the STFU . At New Year 's Revolution , Cena also won the Elimination Chamber match , last eliminating Carlito .
Randy Orton and The Undertaker fought each other at Armageddon in a Hell in a Cell match , which the Undertaker won , ending their feud . Triple H moved on to feud with The Big Show , and Ric Flair feuded with Edge over the WWE Intercontinental Championship . Chris Benoit continued to feud with Booker T throughout the rest of the year and into 2006 ; their " Best of Seven series " concluded in January . Randy Orton , who was Booker 's replacement due to a kayfabe injury , defeated Benoit in the seventh and final match , giving Booker the WWE United States Championship . However , Booker would lose the title to Benoit the following month at No Way Out .
= = Results = =
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= The Irregular at Magic High School =
The Irregular at Magic High School , known in Japanese as Mahōka Kōkō no Rettōsei ( 魔法科高校の劣等生 ? , lit . " The Poor Performing Student of a Magic High School " ) , is a Japanese web novel series by Tsutomu Satō . It was published on Shōsetsuka ni Narō , an internet web novel website , between October 2008 and March 2011 . Satō reached a deal with Dengeki Bunko and began releasing his work in a light novel format beginning July 2011 . In 2013 , each story arc received a manga adaptation with varying manga artists and publishers . That same year , an anime adaptation by Madhouse was announced and was broadcast between April and September 2014 . The Irregular at Magic High School franchise had been localized for English by two companies : The light novels and one of the manga adaptations are licensed by Yen Press while Aniplex of America licensed the anime series . The anime series was simulcasted on four networks , and was later made available on Netflix .
The story takes place in an alternate history where magic exists and is polished through modern technology . It follows Tatsuya and Miyuki Shiba , siblings who enroll into First High magic high school . While keeping their connections to the infamous Yotsuba clan secret , they attempt to live their daily life in peace where Tatsuya is shunned for his apparent ineptness and Miyuki is validated for her magical abilities .
The series has been well received . The light novels appeared on Sugoi Japan 's 2015 polls and since 2011 , is one of the top selling series in Japan with 5 @.@ 3 million copies sold as of 2014 . In addition , its manga and anime adaptations also appeared on top selling charts . English reviewers had mixed to negative reception towards the anime adaptation . The complex technicality of magic within the series was received warmly but the exposition was criticized for being heavy , unclear , and poorly executed .
= = Plot = =
The series is set in a world with an alternate history , where magic exists and has been polished through modern technology . However , the ability to use magic is determined by genetics , limiting the amount of magicians in existence . Following the Third World War , the world 's superpowers shifted to these four nations : The United States of North America ( USNA ) , New Soviet Union , the Great Asian Alliance , and Japan . In Japan , the magic community is informally governed by the ten master clans in lieu of the government . Due to the limited amount of magicians , they are treated as commodity and are forced to enter magic related schools and professions . Nine magic high schools exist in Japan ; they each specialize in different aspects of magic and are just referred to by their numbers .
The story follows Tatsuya Shiba , a bodyguard to his sister Miyuki Shiba who is also a candidate to succeed the master clan , Yotsuba . They enroll into First High School which segregates its students based on their magical abilities . Miyuki is enlisted as a first course student and is viewed as one of the best students , while Tatsuya is in the second course and considered to be magically inept . However , Tatsuya 's technical knowledge , combat abilities , and unique magic techniques causes people to view him as an irregular to the school 's standardized rankings .
= = = Main characters = = =
Tatsuya Shiba ( 司波 達也 , Shiba Tatsuya ) and Miyuki Shiba ( 司波 深雪 , Shiba Miyuki )
Tatsuya and Miyuki are siblings of the same year and children to Tatsurou Shiba and the late Miya Yotsuba ; LN 3 @.@ 2 their parents had a loveless forced marriage , and when their mother died , their father married his mistress , Sayuri Furuha , leaving the siblings to live by themselves.LN 6 @.@ 2 Maya Yotsuba , their aunt and the leader of the Yotsuba , was the reason Tatsuya was born with the unique magic to decompose , reconstruct , and detonate matter.LN 16 @.@ 6 Out of fear , the Yotsuba rallied for Tatsuya 's death , forcing Miya and Maya to take measures to ensure his survival : the first was Miyuki 's creation , a powerful magician who will act as a seal to Tatsuya 's power ; the second is to magically dull Tatsuya 's emotions except for his love towards Miyuki ; and the third was to assign Tatsuya to be Miyuki 's bodyguard in order to develop his sense of loyalty towards her.LN 16 @.@ 6 During a family vacation in Okinawa , Tatsuya wards off an invasion by the Great Asian Alliance and joins the 101 Independent Magic @-@ Equipped Battalion which is headed by major Kazama Harunobu.LN 8 @.@ 7 At some point during his life , Tatsuya developed an interest in engineering magical technology and commercialized revolutionary technology through his family 's company , Four Leaves Technology , under the identity Taurus Silver.LN 3 @.@ 2 He is voiced by Yuichi Nakamura .
Miyuki is considered one of the strongest magicians in the world and is a candidate to succeed the Yotsuba . Her specialty is freezing magic , and her unique magic allows her to freeze a person 's consciousness . In addition , half of her magic casting abilities is used to seal Tatsuya 's powers . Before the family vacation in Okinawa , Miyuki treated Tatsuya coldly akin to how the other Yotsuba clan members did . She begins to warm up to him and when Tatsuya saves her life , devotes her existence to him . It evolves to the point she disdains the touch of other males and expresses jealousy towards females around Tatsuya.LN 11 @.@ 15 Genetically different from Tatsuya , Miyuki professes her love to him following their engagement under Maya 's orders.LN 16 @.@ 6 She is voiced by Saori Hayami .
In the polls by Kono Light Novel ga Sugoi ! , both Tatsuya and Miyuki ranked as one of the most popular light novel characters . Outside of the franchise , Tatsuya and Miyuki also appear in Dengeki Bunko : Fighting Climax .
Tatsuya 's group
Tatsuya 's group consists of seven classmates whom he spends time with in his daily school life . They often assist Tatsuya during investigations and dangerous situations .
Erika Chiba is the daughter born from the Chiba clan 's leader and his mistress , which creates a strained relationship with her family . She has a tomboyish and optimistic personality , and is considered one of the best swordsman in the clan.LN 7 @.@ 11 Her magic is used to enhance her sword and combat techniques . She considers Mizuki to be her best friend and has a crush on Tatsuya.LN 8 @.@ 10 She is voiced by Yumi Uchiyama .
Mizuki Shibata is a girl with the disposition called crystal eyes which allows her to see the components of magic invisible to most people.LN 3 @.@ 3 Her ability mentally strains her , requiring her to wear glasses to control her vision . She has a timid , calm , and feminine personality , and is voiced by Satomi Sato .
Leonhard Saijo , commonly referred to as Leo , is the grandson of a Fortress Series modified magician.LN 3 @.@ 4 His grandfather was one of the few survivors of the Fortress Series ' instabilities , which causes early death or psychosis . Leo inherited his grandfather 's physical augmentations and fears he may also have inherited the Fortress Series ' faults.LN 3 @.@ 4 During combat , Leo uses magic to fortify objects or his own body to augment his combat abilities . He is voiced by Takuma Terashima .
Mikihiko Yoshida is a prodigy from the Yoshida clan which specializes in magic dealing with spirits . Years prior to the series Mikihiko failed a summoning ritual which created a psychological block and prevented him from using magic effectively . His involvement with Tatsuya restores his confidence , allowing him to regain his magical talents . He is voiced by Atsushi Tamaru .
Honoka Mitsui is a descendant of a group of extinct magician referred to as the Elements.LN 6 @.@ 7 The Elements specialize in one of the six elements of magic and had loyalty genetically imbedded into their genes . Honoka uses light magic , and her genetic loyalty is directed towards Tatsuya . She is voiced by Sora Amamiya .
Shizuku Kitayama is Honoka 's best friend and daughter to an extremely wealthy man.LN 4 @.@ 1 Shizuku is a mature and tactful girl who rarely shows emotion . She inherited her mother 's talent for oscillation magic . She is voiced by Yuiko Tatsumi .
Minami Sakurai is the niece of Hoonami Sakurai , Miya Yotsuba 's guardian.LN 12 @.@ 1 Both Minami and Hoonami were created by the Yotsuba to serve the clan and specialize in barrier type magic . Minami is Miyuki 's junior and serves as her maid and second bodyguard.LN 12 @.@ 1
The Student Council and Disciplinary Committee
The student council is a group of students which provides a liaison between the teachers and students . Meanwhile , the Disciplinary Committee consists of students who are essentially rule enforcers . The third less notable committee is the Extracurricular Activities Federation who ensures that school clubs don 't come into conflict with each other . The three committees are closely related and work together to preserve the peace on campus .
Mayumi Saegusa is the student council president during the Shiba siblings first year at school.LN 1 @.@ 2 She puts on a coy and innocent facade but is actually mischievous and highly perceptive . Mayumi is talented as a sniper and her form of offensive magic involves firing dry ice as projectiles.LN 3 @.@ 5 During the course of the story , she manipulates Miyuki into joining the student council and Tatsuya into the Disciplinary Committee . She develops an attraction to Tatsuya and places him in awkward situations for fun . After enrolling into Magic University , her twin sisters , Kasumi and Izumi Saegusa , enroll into First High.LN 12 @.@ 6 Mayumi is voiced by Kana Hanazawa .
Two people worked alongside Mayumi during the year . The first is Mari Watanabe who is the leader of the Disciplinary Committee.LN 1 @.@ 2 Mari has a tomboyish personality but becomes completely feminine in front of her boyfriend , Chiba Naotsugu , who is also Erika 's half brother.LN 4 @.@ 10 For combat , she uses a whip like blade and uses magic to manipulate toxic chemicals.LN 6 @.@ 6 Second is Katsuto Jumonji , the leader of the Extracurricular Activities Federation.LN 2 @.@ 6 Katsuto is the next head for the Jumonji clan and inherited the clans barrier magic , Phalanx ; an impenetrable and perpetual barrier used for defensive and offensive purposes.LN 4 @.@ 12 Both the Saegusa and Jumonji are members of the master clan , forcing Mayumi and Katsuto to be politically involved with the magic community outside of school . Mari is voiced by Marina Inoue while Jumonji by Junichi Suwabe .
During the Shiba siblings second year , Mayumi is succeeded by Azusa Nakajou , a timid and youthful looking girl.LN 5 @.@ 6 Azusa has an interest in magic engineering and suspects Tatsuya is Taurus Silver . She is able to use a unique magic named after her , Azusa Dream , to forcefully pacify people.LN 7 @.@ 10 Mari is succeeded by Kanon Chiyoda , an impulsive and good @-@ natured girl.LN 6 @.@ 1 She is engaged to Kei Isori , an androgynous and timid boy , and loves him dearly.LN 3 @.@ 4 Azusa is voiced by Saki Ogasawara , Kanon is voiced by Saori Onishi , and Isori is voiced by Sōma Saitō .
Other characters
Masaki Ichijo is a first @-@ year student from Third High School and the successor to the Ichijo clan.LN 3 @.@ 4 His combat magic includes manipulating air , water molecules , and his unique magic allows him to evaporate water within an organism . He is often accompanied by his best friend , Shinkuro Kichijoji , who is credited as discovering one of the sixteen codes fundamental to magic.LN 3 @.@ 4 Shinkuro feels indebted to the Ichijo family for adopting him after his parents ' death and promises to serve them forever . After losing the nine school competition , they both seek to improve themselves to overcome Tatsuya.LN 5 @.@ 4 Masaki is voiced by Yoshitsugu Matsuoka while Shinkuro by Ayumu Murase .
Haruka Ono is an agent for the Ministry of Public Safety and infiltrates the school as a counselor.LN 3 @.@ 1 She takes both her duties seriously and frequently assists Tatsuya in gathering information . In addition , Haruka disposition enhances her concealment magic ; she also trains under Yakumo Kokonoe to enhance her hiding abilities.LN 3 @.@ 1 She is voiced by Sakura Tange .
Yakumo Kokonoe is a master of ninjutsu , a minority and an older form of magic.LN 1 @.@ 2 He chooses to isolate himself from magician politics and spends most of his time gathering information and training his disciples . He is voiced by Ryōtarō Okiayu
Pixy is a Humanoid Home Helper , an android designed to serve humans . She was created and owned by First High 's robotics club . During the Visitor Arc , she is used as a vessel for a supernatural sentient being dubbed as parasites.LN 6 @.@ 7 The parasite began identifying itself as Pixy , and due to Honoka 's presence , has developed feelings of love towards Tatsuya . To prevent her from falling into the wrong hands , Tatsuya buys her.LN 6 @.@ 8 She is voiced by Nao Tōyama .
Zhou Gongjin is the middle man who orchestrated all major conflicts in the series . He is part of an unknown organization led by Jiedo Heigu who wishes to destroy the Yotsuba . Zhou is voiced by Kōji Yusa .
Angelina Kudo Shields is the leader of the USNA 's magician army force known as Stars.LN 7 @.@ 1 Her military identity is Angie Sirius , and she is considered one of the thirteen publicly declared strategic magicians . She is voiced by Yōko Hikasa .
= = Publication and conception = =
The story was conceived around a protagonist whose abilities can not be measured through standardized evaluation ; LN 2.A as such , he is mistakenly categorized as a poor performing student or an irregular . This premise served as a basis for the character , Tatsuya Shiba.LN 2.A Satō has two processes for scripting the story arcs : the first is to create scenarios to have characters behave and interact in certain ways ; the second is to plan a scene , then script the story so it leads to that scene.LN 11.A Satō professed that he does not feel his characters are alive or have a will of their own when scripting them.LN 11.A
Tsutomu Satō published his work on the online web novel website , Shōsetsuka ni Narō , between October 12 , 2008 and March 21 , 2011 . At some point during his publication on Syosetu , Satō sent an original work to Dengeki Bunko under a pseudonym.LN 1.A The original work 's setting shared similarities to The Irregular at Magic High School causing an editor to deduce his identity and offer him a publication deal.LN 1.A On March 11 , 2011 , the author announced his work is going to be published as a light novel under the Dengeki Bunko imprint . The author expressed some regret turning free content into paid commodity and cited his financial needs as the reason.LN 1.A The illustrations accompanying the light novels were done by Kana Ishida . The first light novel volume was unable to accommodate the first story arc ; deciding against cutting content from the web novel , it was split into two volumes and released a month later.LN 2.A On March 9 , 2015 , Yen Press announced its licensing of the light novels for English localization through Twitter . Yen Press ' first volume is slated for April 2016 .
= = = Volume list = = =
= = Media adaptations = =
= = = Manga = = =
The Irregular at Magic High School was adapted into a manga series with storyboards by Fumino Hayashi and illustrations by Tsutomu Satō ; it was serialized between GFantasy 's January 2012 and October 2013 issues . Square Enix collected the individual chapters into four tankōbon volumes and released them between September 2012 and December 2013 . After the conclusion of the first manga adaptation , it was immediately followed up with two more adaptations beginning in GFantasy 's November 2013 issue ; the two adaptations were based on the light novel 's Nine Schools Competition Arc and Yokohama Disturbance Arc story arcs . The Nine Schools Competition Arc is illustrated by Tsuna Kitaumi and is currently ongoing . It was collected into four tankōbon volumes released between April 2014 and October 2015 . Meanwhile , the Yokohama Disturbance Arc is illustrated by Gin Amau and ended in the October 2015 issue . It was collected into five tankōbon volumes released between April 2014 to November 2015 . A manga adaptation subtitled and based on the Recollection Arc was serialized between Dengeki Daioh 's April 2014 and September 2015 issue . It is illustrated by Waki Ikawa and was collected into three tankōbon volumes under the Dengeki Comics Next imprint . In the final chapter of the Yokohama Arc Amau announced he will adapt the Visitor Arc , the next part of the story .
A spin @-@ off manga titled The Honor Student at Magic High School ( 魔法科高校の優等生 , Mahōka Kōkō no Yūtōsei ) by Yu Mori premiered in Dengeki Daioh 's June 2012 issue . It is currently ongoing , and was collected into five tankōbon volumes under the Dengeki Comics Next imprint . Yen Press licensed the series ' tankōbon volumes for a North American release ; the first volume is localized in November 2015 .
= = = Anime = = =
An anime adaptation of the light novel was announced during the Dengeki Bunko Fall Festival on October 6 , 2013 . It is directed by Manabu Ono and animated by Madhouse . It premiered on Tokyo Metropolitan Television , Gunma TV , and Tochigi TV on April 6 , 2014 ; nine other networks and three streaming services broadcast the series afterwards . The final episode premiered on September 28 . The individual episodes were later encapsulated into ten DVD and Blu @-@ ray volumes released between July 2014 and April 2015 .
In March 2014 , Aniplex of America announced its acquisition for streaming rights to the anime series ; much later they unveiled their plans to release the series into three Blu @-@ ray volumes which segregate the episodes by story arcs . Four networks simulcasted the series with English subtitles : these include Aniplex Channel , Crunchyroll , Hulu , and Daisuki . In June 2014 , the Australasia distributor , Hanabee Entertainment , announced its licensing of the series for streaming and home media release . Months later , Netflix made the series available on their network . Animax Asia also began broadcasting the series in July 2015 .
The development of The Irregular at Magic High School : The Movie was revealed in the 19th light novel volume which was released in March 2016 . The film will feature a plot scripted by series creator , Tsutomu Satou .
Three related media to the anime were created . The first is a super deformed short series titled Get to Know Magic Studies ! by Aniplex . These shorts were uploaded on Aniplex 's YouTube channel , and was later English subtitled and uploaded on Aniplex of America 's channel . An internet radio show titled The Irregular at Magic High School Web Radio Full Bloom ! Bloom Broadcasting Committee , premiered on March 23 , 2014 and is hosted by Sora Amamiya and Yuiko Tatsumi , the voice actresses for Honoka Mitsui and Shizuku Kitayama respectively ; the radio show episodes was later made available for purchase on CD . The third is a radio drama DVD which was released in December 2014 and is based on the light novel 's Recollection Arc .
= = = Video games = = =
Three video game adaptations have been made for the franchise . The first is The Irregular at Magic High School : Out of Order by Bandai Namco Entertainment . It is a 3D fighting game for the PlayStation Vita and was released on December 25 , 2014 . The second game is The Irregular at Magic High School : School Magicus Battle , a Japanese role @-@ playing game by Mobage . It was made available for Android , iOS , and feature phone on June 9 , 2014 . The third game is The Irregular at Magic High School : Lost Zero , developed by BeXide and published by Square Enix . It was made available for the Android and iOS on September 4 , 2014 .
= = Reception = =
The light novels have been well received . They were ranked seventh in Sugoi Japan 2015 polls and since 2011 , was one of the top selling light novel series in Japan . As of 2014 , 5 @.@ 3 million copies of the light novel have been sold . In addition , its manga and anime adaptations also appeared on top selling charts .
Anime News Network had four editors review the first episode of the anime : Carl Kimlinger saw potential in its take on a typical anime premise , praising Tatsuya as the lead protagonist and its handling of mysteries surrounding the plot ; Theron Martin , although hopeful because of its male lead and plot concept , expressed criticism towards the indistinguishable animation and constant exposition for the viewers ; and Rebecca Silverman felt that it was bland and nothing special . The fourth reviewer , Hope Chapman , expressed immediate dislike towards the series , criticizing it for lacking anything to engage the viewers and for being a lazy adaptation of a light novel , and concluding the review with " I can 't even remember the last time I saw something with not a single redeeming factor or thing to recommend about it at all . " Silverman reviewed the series future episodes . Plotwise , she praised the Enrollment Arc 's underline on standardized testing , criticized the Nine Schools Competition Arc for its execution and weak exposition , and felt the characters were uninteresting . Silverman felt the series doesn 't live up to its potential and cited the background music and stilted animations as possible reasons .
Fandom Post 's review was highly positive towards the anime series , calling it a dark horse contender as one of their top new anime series of the year . They praised the technical and fundamental aspects of magic in the series for breaking the supernatural approach other works usually take and liked the potential impact it could have on future events . However , while the reviewer liked the series ' technicality , they noted it will frustrate certain viewers in that aspect . Kotaku liked the characters , story , the complex and technical magic system , and mysteries . However , they panned the exposition , citing it to be poorly timed , heavy , and failing to explain things with better clarity . They concluded their review writing that the anime might have been great if a different director or screenwriting was hired .
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= Say You 'll Be There =
" Say You 'll Be There " is a song by English girl group Spice Girls . It was co @-@ written by the Spice Girls with Jonathan Buck and Eliot Kennedy , for their debut album Spice ( 1996 ) . Production duo Absolute incorporated a mix of pop and R & B into the song , which includes a harmonica solo , played by Judd Lander . The lyrics — which described the things the group have been through together and how they always have been there for each other — received mixed reviews from critics , who described them as " confusing " and felt that the R & B @-@ infused production was a " bid for street cred " . The song has also been covered by Danish singer @-@ songwriter MØ which also gained popularity .
The music video was inspired by the films Faster , Pussycat ! Kill ! Kill ! ( 1965 ) and Pulp Fiction ( 1994 ) , and features the group as a band of female techno @-@ warriors , who use martial arts and high @-@ tech ninja influenced weapons to capture a hapless male . It includes symbols of male disempowerment , and serves as an example of solidarity and the group 's bonding . It received positive reactions from fans and was nominated for numerous awards including the 1996 Smash Hits ! Awards , the 1997 MTV Video Music Awards , and the 1997 BRIT Awards .
Released as the album 's second single on 14 October 1996 , it became their 2nd top @-@ one single in the United Kingdom , and was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . It was a commercial success across Europe , reaching the top ten in most of the charts that it entered . As a result of its popularity , the song was released in 1997 in Australia , receiving a gold certification by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , and in North America , entering the top five in both , Canada and the United States .
= = Background = =
In October 1994 , armed with a catalogue of demos and dance routines , the Spice Girls began touring management agencies . They felt insecure about the lack of a contract and were frustrated by the direction in which Heart Management was steering them . In November , the group persuaded their managers — father @-@ and @-@ son team Bob and Chris Herbert — to set up a showcase performance in front of industry writers , producers and A & R men at the Nomis Studios in Shepherd 's Bush where they received an " overwhelmingly positive " reaction .
Due to the large interest in the group , the Herberts quickly set about creating a binding contract for them . Encouraged by the reaction they had received at the showcase , all five members delayed signing contracts on the legal advice from , amongst others , Victoria Beckham 's father , Anthony Adams . In March 1995 , because of the group 's frustration at their management 's unwillingness to listen to their visions and ideas , they parted from Heart Management . In order to ensure they kept control of their own work , the group retrieved the master recordings of their discography from the management offices . The next week they were supposed to meet with Sheffield @-@ based producer Eliot Kennedy . The Herberts arranged the session weeks before the group 's departure .
= = Writing and recording = =
Without access to Herbert 's address book , the group knew nothing of Kennedy 's whereabouts other than he lived in Sheffield . Melanie Brown and Geri Halliwell drove to Sheffield the day after the departure from Heart Management and looked for the first phone book they came across , Eliot was the third Kennedy that they called . That evening they went to his house and persuade him to work with them , the rest of the group travelled to Sheffield the next day . Kennedy commented about the session :
None of them played instruments , so I was left to do the music and get that vibe together . What I said to them was , ' Look , I 've got a chorus — check this out ' . And I 'd sing them the chorus and the melody — no lyrics or anything — and straight away five pencils and pads came out and they were throwing lines at us . Ten minutes later the song was written . Then you go through and refine it . Then later , as you were recording it you might change a few thing here and there . But pretty much it was a real quick process . They were confident in what they were doing , throwing it out there .
The group stayed at Kennedy 's house for the most part of the week . He named his studio Spice , after the group , because it had never been used before . Together , they composed two songs in the session : " Love Thing " and " Say You 'll Be There " . Paul Wilson and Andy Watkins — the songwriters and production duo known as Absolute — produced the song and recorded it for the most part at Olympic Studios in Barnes , London . At first , discussions were made about what song the group would release as their second single , originally it was going to be " Love Thing " , but in the end they decided to change it for " Say You 'll Be There " .
In December 1996 , while charting across Europe , " Say You 'll Be There " became the focus of a controversy when the Israeli soldier Idit Shechtman accused the group of copying her song " Bo Elai " ( בוא אלי , " Come to me " ) , a highly similar song released two years earlier in Israel . Shechtman hired lawyers and threatened to sue . A spokesman of the group later declared : " Where there 's a hit , there 's a writ . There 's always someone who crawls out of the woodwork claiming to have written a hit song . We look forward to seeing her in court . "
= = Composition = =
" Say You 'll Be There " is a mid @-@ tempo dance @-@ pop song , with influences from G @-@ funk and R & B. It is written in the key of D ♭ major , with a time signature set on common time , and moves at a moderate tempo of 108 beats per minute . The song is constructed in a verse @-@ chorus form . It uses the sequence B ♭ m – E ♭ – G ♭ m – D ♭ as its chord progression during the verses and the chorus . The third verse includes an instrumental solo , that closes with a coda , which consists in the group singing the chorus repeatedly until the song gradually fades out , while Melanie Chisholm adds the high harmony . Absolute played the instruments , except for the harmonica , which was played by Judd Lander , who also played it on Culture Club 's " Karma Chameleon " .
The lyrics , according to Brown are about relationships , and to be there for each other . That it does not matter to say merely that you love them , the only thing that they care is that their lover give his promise that he will be there for them whenever they need him . In " Say You 'll Be There " , the group exuded a brash confidence that was attractive to their teenage and young adult fans . The Spice Girls decide to be friends , not lovers , the clear message is that the relationship can be channelled and controlled by the girl , with an emphasis on stating where they come from and what they stand for .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The song received mixed reviews , some critics praised " Say You 'll Be There " as a catchy song , others dubbed it as merely a bid for credibility . Dele Fadele of the NME said that it is " another monstrously catchy tune from the fledging pop starlets " , and called it " state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art pop music for ' 96 " . Time magazine 's Christopher John Farley commented that the song 's " groove is penetrating , but the whole thing sounds suspiciously like an Earth , Wind and Fire song that 's just on the tip of one 's tongue " . Melissa Ruggieri of the Richmond Times @-@ Dispatch commented that the song " is a harmless , mid @-@ tempo foot @-@ tapper that will work just fine on Top 40 radio " . Edna Gundersen of the USA Today said that Spice " is assembly @-@ line dance @-@ pop " , adding that " only the funky ' Say You 'll Be There ' and touchingly cornball ' Mama ' hint at depth " . Steve Dollar of The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution said of the song " it 's all pure confection more sugar really than spice " , adding that it " even includes a Wonderesque harmonica solo among other obvious sources " .
Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune said that their first album " is a compendium of slick secondhand urban pop encompassing [ ... ] G @-@ funk synths on ' Say You 'll Be There ' [ ... ] and Babyface 's guitar and strings balladry on ' 2 Become 1 ' " . Larry Flick of Billboard magazine compared it to " Wannabe " saying that it " is as immediately infectious , though it 's not nearly as silly and novelty @-@ driven " . Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly called the song " a bid for street cred " , while David Browne from the same magazine commented about the confusing lyrics , " let 's see : She wants to be friends , he wants more , and yet she croons , ' I 'm giving you everything / All that joy can bring ' ? She 's as confused as I am . Better to revel in the delectably frothy girl @-@ group melody " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic , in a review of their debut album Spice , said that " what is surprising is how the sultry soul of ' Say You 'll Be There ' is more than just a guilty pleasure " . In a review of the group 's 2007 compilation album Greatest Hits , NME said that it is a " fine song in any age " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Say You 'll Be There " was released in the UK on 14 October 1996 once the popularity of " Wannabe " began to fade . The high anticipation for their second single assured its commercial success . A week before the release , reports gave the single advanced sales of 334 @,@ 000 copies , — the highest Virgin Records had ever recorded for a single — while the song jumped eleven positions to number eight on the UK Airplay Chart . It debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number one , selling 350 @,@ 000 copies . It was the group 's first single to debut at number one , staying at the top position for two weeks , twelve weeks inside the top forty , and seventeen weeks inside the top seventy @-@ five . It sold 750 @,@ 000 copies by the end of October , and 940 @,@ 000 copies in total , receiving a platinum certification by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) in October 1996 .
" Say You 'll Be There " was commercially successful in Europe . On 16 November 1996 it reached the top of Eurochart Hot 100 for two weeks , and had a similar performance across the continent , topping the singles chart in Finland , and peaking inside the top ten in Austria , Belgium ( both the Flemish and French charts ) , Denmark , France , Ireland , the Netherlands , Norway , Spain , Sweden , and Switzerland . In New Zealand , it debuted on 10 November 1996 at number two , stayed ten weeks inside the top ten , and twenty @-@ three weeks in total . In Australia , the single debuted in January 1997 on the ARIA Charts at number twenty @-@ three , peaked at number twelve thirteen weeks later , remained on the chart for over five months , and was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) .
In March 1997 , " Say You 'll Be There " debuted on the Canadian RPM singles chart at number ninety , reaching a peak of number five in its twelfth week . It ended at the thirty @-@ fifth position on the year @-@ end chart . In the United States , it was released on 6 May 1997 . The song set a record on the Billboard Hot 100 , when it debuted on 24 May 1997 at number five , with sales of 60 @,@ 000 copies . At the time this was the highest @-@ entry by a British act in the US . " Say You 'll Be There " peaked at number six on the Hot 100 Airplay and at four on the Hot Singles Sales , peaking at number three on the Hot 100 for three consecutive weeks . It sold over 900 @,@ 000 copies by December 1997 , and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . It peaked at two on the Mainstream Top 40 , and had crossover success , peaking at three on the Rhythmic Top 40 and at nine on the Hot Dance Singles Sales chart .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Say You 'll Be There " was directed by Vaughan Arnell , produced by Adam Saward and filmed on 7 – 8 September 1996 , in the Mojave Desert , located in California . It was inspired by the films Pulp Fiction and Faster , Pussycat ! Kill ! Kill ! , the latter in which led the girls to adopt fictional identities , an idea that Halliwell came up with .
The video features the group as a band of female techno @-@ warriors , who use martial arts and high @-@ tech ninja influenced weapons to capture a hapless male , played by American model Tony Ward , who happens to appear in a Petty blue Dodge Charger Daytona . The clip is presented as a narrative , with movie credits at the start introducing the Spice Girls as fantastic characters .
Melanie Chisholm played " Katrina Highkick " , Geri Halliwell 's alter @-@ ego was " Trixie Firecracker " , Emma Bunton took on the role of " Kung Fu Candy " , Victoria Beckham played " Midnight Miss Suki " , and " Blazin ' Bad Zula " was Melanie Brown 's alter @-@ ego . The shots of male bondage are unexplained , and function as symbols of male disempowerment , just as the rest of the clip serves to assert the power and fighting abilities of the women . At the end the group captures a confused icecream man who appears in his pick @-@ up truck . He is carried off on the roof of the car as a trophy . Another man with a cowboy hat is also captured and tied to his car . An alternate version of the video exists that removes the male bondage shots and replaces them with unseen shots of the girls . This version was never given an official release .
The video won for Best Pop Video at the 1996 Smash Hits ! Awards , for Best Video at the 1997 BRIT Awards , and was nominated for the Viewer 's Choice at the 1997 MTV Video Music Awards . It won the FAN.tastic Video honour — given by online Billboard readers — at the 1997 Billboard Music Video Awards , and was also nominated for Best New Artist in a Video and Best Pop / Rock Clip .
= = Live performances = =
The song was performed many times on television , in both Europe and the US , including An Audience with ... , Live & Kicking , Top of the Pops , the Bravo Supershow , Much Music , the Late Show with David Letterman , and Saturday Night Live . The performance at Saturday Night Live on 12 April 1997 was the first time " Say You 'll Be There " was performed with a live band — their previous performances have all been either lip @-@ synched or sung to a recorded backing track . The group performed the song at the 1996 Smash Hits ! Awards , the 1997 Prince 's Trust Gala , the 1997 San Remo Festival , and the 1997 MTV Video Music Awards . In October 1997 , the group performed it as the fifth song of their first live concert at the Abdi İpekçi Arena in Istanbul , Turkey . The performance was broadcast on Showtime in a pay @-@ per @-@ view event titled Spice Girls in Concert Wild ! , and was later included in the VHS and DVD release Girl Power ! Live in Istanbul .
The Spice Girls have performed the song on their three tours , the Spiceworld Tour , the Christmas in Spiceworld Tour , and the Return of the Spice Girls . The performance at the Spiceworld Tour 's final concert can be found on the video : Spice Girls Live at Wembley Stadium , filmed in London , on 20 September 1998 . It remained in the group 's live set after Halliwell 's departure . The second verse had originally been sung by Halliwell with Chisholm adding the harmonies . After Halliwell 's departure , Chisholm sang the lead and Bunton added the high harmony . For the Return of the Spice Girls Tour , it was performed as the third song from the show 's opening segment . The group dressed in tight bronze and copper coloured outfits made by Italian fashion designer Roberto Cavalli .
= = Formats and track listings = =
These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of " Say You 'll Be There " :
= = Credits and personnel = =
Published by Windswept Pacific Music Ltd / Sony ATV Music Publishing .
= = Charts = =
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= Joe Mullen =
Joseph Patrick Mullen ( born February 26 , 1957 ) is an American former professional ice hockey player . He played 16 seasons in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) with the St. Louis Blues , Calgary Flames , Pittsburgh Penguins and Boston Bruins between 1980 and 1997 . He was a member of three Stanley Cup championship teams , winning with the Flames in 1989 and the Penguins in 1991 and 1992 . Mullen turned to coaching in 2000 , serving as an assistant in Pittsburgh and briefly as head coach of the Wilkes @-@ Barre / Scranton Penguins . He is currently an assistant with the Philadelphia Flyers .
An undrafted player , Mullen was an all @-@ star for the Boston College Eagles before turning professional in the Blues ' organization . He was named the Central Hockey League ( CHL ) rookie of the year in 1980 and most valuable player in 1981 as a member of the Salt Lake Golden Eagles . He won the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy as the NHL 's most gentlemanly player on two occasions as a member of the Flames , as well as the NHL Plus @-@ Minus Award . Mullen was named to the First All @-@ Star Team in 1988 – 89 and played in three NHL All @-@ Star Games .
Mullen played with the United States National Team on several occasions , including three Canada Cup tournaments . He was the first American player to score 500 goals and to reach 1 @,@ 000 points in his career . Mullen received the Lester Patrick Trophy in 1995 in recognition of his contributions to the sport in the United States . He was inducted into the United States Hockey Hall of Fame in 1998 and the Hockey Hall of Fame in 2000 .
= = Early life = =
Born February 26 , 1957 , in New York City , New York , Mullen grew up in the Hell 's Kitchen neighborhood of Manhattan when it was controlled by the Gambino crime family . It was a rough neighborhood ; Mullen later said that many of the people he grew up with fell into gangs and drug use , and several died before turning 21 . He has three brothers , Ken , Tom Jr. and Brian , and a sister , Debbie .
The Mullen family lived less than a block from Madison Square Garden , where Joe 's father Tom was a longtime employee on the ice and maintenance staffs . Joe and his brothers often hung around the arena with their father , taking old sticks to play with . He began playing roller hockey at the age of five , playing in a concrete schoolyard and using a sanded down roll of electrical tape as a puck . The boys ' schoolyard games served as a partial inspiration for New York Rangers ' general manager , Emile Francis , to create the Metropolitan Junior Hockey Association in 1966 . Mullen did not learn to ice skate until he was ten years old , but at the age of 14 joined the Metropolitan association as one of the league 's youngest players . Mullen played four seasons in the league between 1971 and 1975 . He scored 71 goals in 1973 – 74 , then 182 points in 40 games the following season . Mullen 's 110 goals in 1974 – 75 was 52 more than his nearest competitor .
= = Playing career = =
= = = College = = =
Boston College offered Mullen a partial scholarship for the 1975 – 76 season to attend and play for the Eagles hockey program . He paid $ 700 out of his own pocket in the first year , but after scoring 34 points in 24 games as a freshman , the school gave him a full scholarship . Including tournament games , he led the Eagles in goals the following three seasons with 39 , 38 and 30 respectively , and points in 1977 – 78 with 68 and in 1978 – 79 with 56 . Mullen led the Eagles to the Eastern College Athletic Conference ( ECAC ) championship in 1977 – 78 , and was named an all @-@ star of the 1978 National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) tournament . He scored a goal in the championship game , but the Eagles lost to cross @-@ town rival Boston University , 5 – 3 .
In four seasons with Boston College , Mullen set school records of 110 goals and 212 points ( both subsequently broken ) . He was named to the All @-@ ECAC , All @-@ New England and NCAA All @-@ American teams in 1978 and 1979 . He won the Walter Brown Award in 1978 as the top American @-@ born player in New England , and was the team captain in 1978 – 79 . Boston College has twice honored Mullen ; He was inducted into the school 's Varsity Club Hall of Fame in 1998 , while the hockey program retired his jersey number 21 the following year .
= = = St. Louis Blues = = =
While Mullen had a successful college career , he went undrafted by any National Hockey League ( NHL ) team . His small stature , coupled with a general bias against American players at the time , especially from non @-@ traditional development areas , contributed to his failure to be selected . However , he received interest as a free agent from several teams following graduation as well as the United States Olympic Team . He passed up the opportunity to play in the 1980 Winter Olympics and signed with the St. Louis Blues on August 16 , 1979 . The Blues assigned Mullen to their Central Hockey League ( CHL ) affiliate , the Salt Lake Golden Eagles for the 1979 – 80 season . In 75 games with the Golden Eagles , Mullen scored 40 goals and 72 points . He was named to the CHL 's second all @-@ star team and was voted rookie of the year . He made his NHL debut in the 1980 Stanley Cup Playoffs , appearing in one game for the Blues .
Mullen returned to Salt Lake for the 1980 – 81 season where he scored 59 goals and led the league with 117 points . He was named to the first all @-@ star team and won the CHL 's Most Valuable Player Award . Opening the 1981 – 82 season with Salt Lake , Mullen had 21 goals in 27 games before he was recalled to St. Louis . He scored his first two NHL goals on January 5 , 1981 , against the Minnesota North Stars . They came eight seconds apart and set a Blues ' franchise record for fastest two goals by one player . Mullen scored 25 goals for the Blues that season and became the first player in history to score at least 20 goals in both the minor leagues and the NHL in the same season .
Injuries reduced Mullen to 49 games with the Blues in 1982 – 83 , but he still scored 47 points . His 41 goals in 1983 – 84 set a record as the most scored by an American @-@ born player in NHL history ( broken by Bobby Carpenter the following season ) . He again reached the 40 @-@ goal plateau in 1984 – 85 , and had 92 points total . He missed the first three days of the Blues ' training camp prior to the 1985 – 86 season in a contract dispute before agreeing to a one @-@ year deal . On February 1 , 1986 , the Blues dealt him to the Calgary Flames as part of a six player trade . Mullen went to Calgary , along with Terry Johnson and Rik Wilson , for Eddy Beers , Charlie Bourgeois and Gino Cavallini .
= = = Calgary Flames = = =
The Flames felt they needed a quality offensive player and expected Mullen to fulfill that role . As it was the first time in his career he had been traded , Mullen was initially upset at the move . He was awed by the reaction he received from fans in Calgary however ; fans greeted him warmly even as his flight landed to arrive in the city . Mullen described the experience as being " almost like ... an instant celebrity " . He quickly established himself as a fan favorite , scoring 38 points in 29 games to end the regular season . He then led the league with 12 goals in the 1986 Stanley Cup Playoffs . The Flames reached the final for the first time in franchise history , but lost to the Montreal Canadiens in five games . Mullen set a personal best of 47 goals in his first full year in Calgary , 1986 – 87 , and with only 14 penalty minutes on the season , was voted the winner of the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy as the NHL 's most gentlemanly player .
Mullen 's 40 goals in 1987 – 88 was the fifth consecutive season he reached that total . He won his first of three consecutive Molson Cups as the Flames player with the most three star selections during the season . 1988 – 89 was Mullen 's best season in the NHL . He reached the 50 goal and 100 point milestones , leading the Flames with 51 and 110 respectively , and won his second Lady Byng Memorial Trophy . He was named a First @-@ Team All @-@ Star at right wing and won the Plus @-@ Minus Award at + 51 . Additionally , he played in his first NHL All @-@ Star Game , appearing opposite his brother Brian . He led the 1989 Stanley Cup Playoffs with 16 goals as the Flames defeated the Canadiens to win their first Stanley Cup championship .
Though he played in his second All @-@ Star Game in 1990 , Mullen 's production fell by 41 points , to 69 , and he failed to score at least 40 goals for the first time in six seasons . Concerned about his age , the Flames chose to trade the 33 @-@ year @-@ old Mullen following the season . He was sent to the Pittsburgh Penguins in a draft day trade on June 16 , 1990 , in exchange for Pittsburgh 's second round selection .
= = = Pittsburgh and Boston = = =
The move to Pittsburgh brought Mullen closer to his New York home and fulfilled his desire to raise his family in his native United States . He also appreciated that the Penguins felt he could aid their team . Penguins ' coach Bob Johnson , who had previously coached him in Calgary , influenced the team 's decision to acquire him . Mullen played only 47 games in 1990 – 91 , scoring 17 goals and 39 points . He missed the last two months of the regular season after having surgery to remove a herniated disc in his back , an injury for which he could not identify a specific check or incident as the cause . He returned for the third game of the Penguins ' first @-@ round playoff series against the New Jersey Devils , scoring a goal . Mullen finished the 1991 Stanley Cup Playoffs with eight goals , including two in game six of the final , an 8 – 0 victory over the Minnesota North Stars that clinched Pittsburgh 's first Stanley Cup .
Healthy throughout the 1991 – 92 season , Mullen rebounded offensively to score 42 goals and 87 points in 77 games . Midway through the season , he became the first player in Penguins ' history to have consecutive four @-@ goal games , doing so against the New York Islanders on December 23 , 1991 , and the Toronto Maple Leafs three days later . He appeared in only nine playoff games , however , as he suffered a knee injury that required surgery to repair in the second game of Pittsburgh 's second @-@ round series against the New York Rangers . Mullen watched from the sidelines as the Penguins repeated as Stanley Cup champions .
Mullen tested free agency prior to the 1992 – 93 season , but ultimately chose to remain with the Penguins . He missed the first month of the season while recovering from his knee surgery , but finished the season with 33 goals and 70 points in 72 games . He added 6 points in 12 playoff games , but the Penguins ' attempt at a third consecutive championship ended with a second @-@ round loss to the New York Islanders . A 38 @-@ goal season in 1993 – 94 led to Mullen 's third All @-@ Star Game appearance . The game was a homecoming of sorts for Mullen , as it was played in Madison Square Garden .
In the lockout @-@ shortened 1994 – 95 season , Mullen scored 37 points in 45 games . He scored the 1,000th point of his career with a pair of assists on February 7 , 1995 , in a 7 – 3 victory over the Florida Panthers . He left the Penguins following the season , signing a one @-@ year contract as a free agent with the Boston Bruins . He missed the majority of the season after requiring surgery for another herniated disc , then suffering a sprained medial collateral ligament . He appeared in only 37 games , scoring 15 points .
Mullen rejoined the Penguins for the 1996 – 97 season , signing a one @-@ year contract . He appeared in 54 games and scored 22 points . He scored his 500th career goal on March 14 , 1997 , in a 6 – 3 loss to the Colorado Avalanche . He retired as a player following the season .
= = = International = = =
Mullen made his first appearance with the United States National Team following his graduation from Boston College . He appeared in eight games at the 1979 World Ice Hockey Championships , scoring seven goals and adding an assist for the seventh place Americans . He was a member of three Canada Cup teams , appearing at the 1984 , 1987 and 1991 tournaments . He scored two goals in the 1991 tournament , both of which came in a 7 – 3 semi @-@ final victory over Finland that led the United States into their first tournament final . The Americans settled for second place , however , after losing to Canada in the championship series .
At the age of 41 , Mullen emerged from retirement to join the Americans for a qualifying tournament leading into the 1999 Men 's World Ice Hockey Championships . The United States had a disastrous 12th @-@ place finish in the 1998 tournament , requiring them to go into a qualifying round to avoid relegation to the B division for 1999 . As the qualifying tournament was played in November , American NHL players were not available . Mullen recorded three assists in three games , and helped the Americans stay in the top division for the 1999 tournament .
= = Playing style = =
Mullen arrived in the NHL possessing great balance on his skates , an ability his teammates and coaches believed he gained from playing roller hockey . His coaches praised his willingness to play in the difficult areas of the ice , even though he stood only five foot nine inches tall and knew he would have to take a hit to make a play . Penguins ' play @-@ by @-@ play announcer Mike Lange nicknamed Mullen " Slippery Rock Joe " for his ability to evade opposing players .
The first American player in NHL history to score 500 goals and 1 @,@ 000 points , Mullen 's career totals of 502 goals and 1 @,@ 063 points stood as American records until surpassed by Mike Modano and Phil Housley , respectively . Along with his brother Brian , Mullen was named a recipient of the Lester Patrick Award in 1995 in recognition of his contributions to hockey in the United States . He was inducted into the United States Hockey Hall of Fame in 1998 , and two years later , to the Hockey Hall of Fame . In 2011 , the St. Louis Blues honored four players who wore uniform number 7 for their team . Mullen , Red Berenson , Garry Unger and Keith Tkachuk were each celebrated as part of the ceremony .
= = Coaching career = =
Mullen turned to coaching in 2000 , joining the Penguins ' staff as an assistant under Ivan Hlinka . He remained on the staff when Hlinka was fired one year later , under replacement Rick Kehoe , then Ed Olczyk . Mullen was removed from his role midway through the 2005 – 06 NHL season when the Penguins fired Olczyk and his entire staff . He was retained by the organization , however , and named interim head coach of the Wilkes @-@ Barre / Scranton Penguins for the remainder of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) season . In 52 games , Mullen achieved a record of 28 wins , 16 losses , 3 ties and 5 overtime losses . The Penguins chose not to retain Mullen following the season . He moved to Pittsburgh 's cross @-@ state rival , the Philadelphia Flyers , first as an assistant with the AHL 's Philadelphia Phantoms in 2006 – 07 , then joining the NHL team in 2007 . Mullen coaches the team 's power play , and was a member of the staff when the team reached the 2010 Stanley Cup Final . He remains on the Flyers ' staff for the 2012 – 13 season .
= = Personal life = =
Mullen and his wife , Linda , have four children : sons Ryan , Michael and Patrick , and a daughter : Erin . Patrick is also a professional hockey player . He signed a contract with the Ottawa Senators organization for the 2013 – 14 season .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = = Coaching = = =
= = Awards and honors = =
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= History of the New York Jets =
The history of the New York Jets American football team began in 1959 with the founding of the Titans of New York , an original member of the American Football League ( AFL ) . The team had little success in its early years . After playing three seasons at the Polo Grounds , the team changed its name to the Jets , and moved into newly built Shea Stadium in 1964 . In January 1965 , the Jets signed University of Alabama quarterback Joe Namath to a then @-@ record contract . The team showed gradual improvement in the late 1960s , posting its first winning record in 1967 and winning its only American Football League championship in 1968 . By winning the title , New York earned the right to play in Super Bowl III against the champions of the National Football League ( NFL ) , the Baltimore Colts . The Jets defeated the Colts in the game ; in the aftermath of the upset , the AFL was deemed a worthy partner to the NFL as the two leagues merged .
Following the merger , the Jets fell into mediocrity ; Namath was dogged by injuries through much of his later career . In 1981 , New York qualified for the playoffs for the first time in the post @-@ Namath era . They reached the AFC Championship Game in 1982 ; they were defeated on a rain @-@ soaked Orange Bowl field by the Miami Dolphins . Beginning with the 1984 season , the team played in New Jersey 's Giants Stadium . The team started the 1986 season with a 10 – 1 record , but the injury @-@ plagued Jets lost their last five regular season games and relinquished a ten @-@ point fourth quarter lead to lose in double overtime to the Cleveland Browns in the playoffs .
In the following eleven seasons , New York had limited success , reaching the playoffs only once and enduring a string of disastrous seasons , including a 1 – 15 record in 1996 . The following year , the Jets hired two @-@ time Super Bowl winning coach Bill Parcells . The new coach guided the team to its most successful season since the merger in 1998 ; the Jets finished 12 – 4 and reached the AFC Championship Game , in which they fell to the Denver Broncos . The team made five playoff appearances in the 2000s , their most of any decade . In 2009 and 2010 , the Jets achieved back @-@ to @-@ back appearances in the AFC Championship Game , losing to the Indianapolis Colts and Pittsburgh Steelers . In 2010 , the team began to play in MetLife Stadium , constructed near the now @-@ demolished Giants Stadium .
= = Origins and the Polo Grounds era ( 1959 – 1964 ) = =
= = = Organization and first season = = =
In 1959 , young oilmen Lamar Hunt and Bud Adams sought a National Football League franchise . They found that NFL expansion required a unanimous vote of existing team owners , so there was little likelihood of convincing the NFL to expand . The two men attempted to acquire the Chicago Cardinals , intending to move the franchise to Dallas , where there was no NFL team . Cardinals co @-@ owner Walter Wolfner , who owned the team with his wife , Violet Bidwill Wolfner , was unwilling to sell majority control . During the discussions , Walter Wolfner mentioned the names of other wealthy bidders seeking to acquire the Cardinals . On the flight home , Hunt and Adams decided to recruit the other bidders as owners of teams in a new professional football league .
New York City attorney William Shea was attempting to create the Continental League , a rival league to Major League Baseball . Hunt met with him , and Shea suggested Harry Wismer , a minority shareholder in both the Washington Redskins and Detroit Lions , as a potential New York franchise owner for the new football league . Wismer was willing ; he was feuding at the time with the Redskins ' principal owner , George Preston Marshall , and realized he would never own the Washington franchise . Wismer , while wealthy , was not nearly as rich as the other potential team owners .
On August 14 , 1959 , the league held an organizational meeting and announced its plans ; eight days later it announced its name : the American Football League ( AFL ) , the fourth league to take that name . On November 24 , 1959 , the AFL held its first draft ; the " Titans of New York " , as the franchise awarded to Wismer was dubbed , selected Notre Dame quarterback George Izo as their first pick . The league announced a policy , formulated by Wismer , that it would negotiate with a network for a single television contract to cover all the teams , the first league to do so . On December 7 , the Titans hired Steve Sebo as general manager . Sebo had just been fired as coach at the University of Pennsylvania , despite taking the Quakers to the Ivy League championship . On December 17 , the Titans announced at a press conference that " one of the biggest names in the history of football " would be soon be named as their head coach . Although Wismer was prone to hyperbole , in this case he told the truth : New York had persuaded a former NFL great , quarterback and punter Sammy Baugh , to be its coach . Since his retirement as a player , Baugh had coached at tiny Hardin @-@ Simmons University , where he built a strong football program that sent a team to the 1958 Sun Bowl . Before appearing at the press conference , Baugh demanded his entire salary of $ 20 @,@ 000 for 1960 , in cash . The Titans accommodated him .
Wismer sought a place for his team to play , but was only able to secure the decrepit Polo Grounds , which had been without a major tenant since the departure of the New York Giants baseball team in 1957 . The stadium stood on the northern tip of Manhattan , across the Harlem River from Yankee Stadium , where the New York Giants NFL team played .
Baugh invited some 100 players to the Titans ' first training camp , which opened at the University of New Hampshire on July 9 , 1960 . As NFL teams cut players from their training camps , many were invited to the Titans ' or other AFL training camps as the teams sought to fill their 35 @-@ man rosters . The franchise 's first preseason game took place on August 6 , 1960 , against the Los Angeles Chargers at Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum . The Titans kicked off to begin the game , and Chargers running back Paul Lowe returned the kick 105 yards for a touchdown . New York lost , 27 – 7 . On September 11 , 1960 , the opening regular season game was played in a heavy downpour , the remains of Hurricane Diana . Water poured off Coogan 's Bluff , situated above the Polo Grounds , swamping the field , which had poor drainage . The Titans ' offense was less affected by the mud than that of the visiting Buffalo Bills . The Titans won the game 27 – 3 before a crowd of 9 @,@ 607 ( 5 @,@ 727 paid attendance ) . The following week New York played another home game , against the Boston Patriots . On the first of many occasions when the team would lose a game after taking a big lead , the Titans were ahead 24 – 7 in the second half . With the lead reduced to 24 – 21 , the Titans punted from deep in their own territory with seconds left . The punter , Rick Sapienza , fumbled the snap , and the Patriots recovered in the end zone for the victory . The following week , with the Titans playing at the Denver Broncos , New York blocked a punt on the final play to win the game . In their fourth game , New York had a two @-@ point lead when it fumbled with fifteen seconds left against the Dallas Texans . This set off a scramble for the ball , which the Titans recovered as time ran out . Viewers in New York were spared the harrowing ending ; in a prelude to the Heidi Game eight years later , the local ABC station had switched to a Walt Disney Davey Crockett special at 6 : 30 p.m. Many viewers called to complain .
Five weeks into the season , guard Howard Glenn broke his neck during a loss to the Houston Oilers , and died a few hours later , becoming the first player in professional football to die from injuries sustained on the field . New York suffered other injuries as the season progressed , and Wismer lacked the money to replace the injured players . Several players had to play both offense and defense . Wismer had arranged for the Titans to play three home games before their cross @-@ river rivals , the Giants , started their season . This meant the Titans had to play their final three games on the road , and Wismer claimed to have lost $ 150 @,@ 000 on the trip . The Titans finished their first season 7 – 7 ; according to attendance figures released by the team , the Titans drew an average of 16 @,@ 375 fans per game . This claim was mocked by the New York press , which reported that the fans had disguised themselves as empty seats . The New York Times estimated that the team had lost $ 450 @,@ 000 for the season ; in his autobiography , Wismer set the figure at $ 1 @.@ 2 million .
= = = Bankruptcy and recovery = = =
New York City had proposed to build a new stadium for its franchise in baseball 's stillborn Continental League . When that league dissolved and the city was awarded a franchise , dubbed the New York Mets , in the National League , plans for a stadium continued . Wismer had hoped the Titans could play in the new stadium , to be built at Flushing Meadows in Queens , beginning with the 1961 season , but funding difficulties and legal problems delayed construction . Wismer signed a memorandum of understanding in late 1961 , although he was unhappy about the terms , which gave the Mets exclusive use of the stadium until they completed their season , and gave the Titans no revenue from parking . According to team doctor James Nicholas , " The lease that Harry signed cost the team quite a lot . It led to [ later team owner ] Leon Hess going to the Meadowlands . " Shea Stadium , as it came to be known , did not open until 1964 .
New York hoped to improve its fortunes through the AFL draft , but most Titans draftees signed with the NFL . The Titans won only one preseason game , before a crowd of 73 @,@ 916 against the Patriots in Philadelphia – free tickets had been given to anyone who bought $ 10 in groceries at an Acme Market . The New York Times columnist Howard Tuckner described the crowd as " presumably well @-@ fed . " The 1961 season , which ended at 7 – 7 , was marked by financial difficulties , as the paychecks of many players bounced ; team members learned to hurry to the bank as soon as they received their pay . At the end of the season , Wismer announced that Clyde " Bulldog " Turner would be the Titans ' head coach in 1962 . Baugh had a contract for 1962 and would have to be paid unless he quit . Although Wismer did not fire Baugh , he also did not tell him where the team 's 1962 training camp would be . Baugh showed up anyway , and spent several days acting as kicking coach before Wismer came to the conclusion that Baugh would not quit . The team owner finally agreed to pay the coach his 1962 salary in monthly installments , although Baugh later stated that he was never paid . Baugh 's 14 – 14 record stood as the best mark by any Titans / Jets coach until bettered by Bill Parcells in 1997 – 1999 . In the offseason , Wismer hoped to bring a star to the Polo Grounds by drafting Heisman Trophy winner Ernie Davis of Syracuse , but Davis was drafted by the Bills instead , signed with the NFL , and died of leukemia before ever playing a professional game .
Turner had never been a head coach before ; he faced a team convinced that Baugh had been treated shabbily by Wismer and had difficulty uniting the players . After the Titans split their first two games against Oakland and the Chargers ( who had moved to San Diego ) , the team came home to no paychecks . The players refused to practice , though they worked out on their own on Friday . They then flew to Buffalo and defeated the winless Bills . Public attention in New York was focused on the established local teams , as well as the abysmal record of the fledgling Mets , who nevertheless attracted a cult following . The Titans received little publicity and attracted only 4 @,@ 719 fans to the home opener against Denver . They were required to wait until the end of the Mets ' season before they were allowed to use the Polo Grounds . The Broncos defeated the Titans , 32 – 10 , and Titans quarterback Dean Look suffered a career @-@ ending injury . New York 's financial and football woes continued through October 1962 , and at the beginning of November , Wismer informed AFL commissioner Joe Foss that he lacked the money to continue operations . The league assumed the cost of running the team for the rest of 1962 ; Wismer remained in nominal charge . The Titans had little success on the field ( the highlight was a 46 – 45 victory at favored Denver on Thanksgiving ) , and finished the season insolvent with a 5 – 9 record .
Wismer agreed to sell the team , but attempted to prevent the sale with a bankruptcy filing . He contended that the move into Shea Stadium would lead to sufficient revenue to make the team profitable . A bankruptcy referee granted the league the authority to sell the team to a five @-@ man syndicate composed of David A. " Sonny " Werblin , Townsend B. Martin , Leon Hess , Donald C. Lillis , and Philip H. Iselin . The sale of the team was approved by a court on March 15 and completed on March 28 , 1963 . The sale price was $ 1 million .
On April 15 , 1963 , the team named Wilbur " Weeb " Ewbank as their head coach and general manager . Ewbank had won back @-@ to @-@ back NFL championships in 1958 and 1959 with the Baltimore Colts , and was one of the most respected coaches in the game . The Colts had fired Ewbank in favor of Don Shula , an untested 33 @-@ year @-@ old . Werblin also announced a new name for his team , the Jets , which had been selected from among 500 candidates submitted by " friends , enemies , and advertising agencies " . The name was chosen over Dodgers , Borros , and Gothams . The team 's colors were changed to green and white . In a press release , the team stated the reason for the selections :
The site of the new stadium between New York 's two major airports , symbols of this speedy , modern age , influenced the selection of the new name " Jets " . It reflects the spirit of these times and the eagerness of all concerned — players , coach , and owners — to give New York another worthy team . The new team 's colors of green and white were chosen for much the same reasons , plus the fact that down through the ages green has always signified hope , freshness and high spirits .
The new owners faced a chaotic situation . The team had few players under contract , and had made little effort to sign any of their draft picks , most of which had signed with the NFL . The league attempted to strengthen the Jets and the woeful Oakland Raiders by allowing them to select players from the other six teams , and by giving them the first opportunity to sign players cut from NFL rosters . Ewbank , who had discovered Colts great Johnny Unitas at an open tryout , held tryouts for the Jets . Only seven of the participants were invited to training camp , and one , Marshall Starks , made the team as a second @-@ teamer . In mid @-@ July , it was announced that the Jets could not move into Shea Stadium until 1964 .
Despite the offseason problems , New York contended for its first division title in a weak AFL East during the 1963 season . By early December , the Jets had compiled a record of 5 – 5 – 1 , and faced a game in Buffalo with the Bills only a half game ahead . The Jets lost the game , 45 – 14 , as well as their other two remaining games , and finished 5 – 8 – 1 . Although the Jets drew just over 100 @,@ 000 fans to the Polo Grounds in seven home games , they quickly sold 17 @,@ 500 season tickets for the first season in Shea Stadium . Running back Matt Snell was drafted by both New York teams , and the Jets were able to sign him . On September 12 , 1964 , New York played its home opener at Shea Stadium , defeating Denver 30 – 6 before a crowd of 52 @,@ 663 , which broke the AFL regular season attendance record by almost 20 @,@ 000 . On November 8 , 1964 , both the Jets and Giants played home games ; both teams sold out their games and the Jets drew 61 @,@ 929 fans . The Jets posted a home record of 5 – 1 – 1 in 1964 , but lost all seven road games to finish 5 – 8 – 1 again .
As the season concluded , the obvious standout draft choice for both leagues was Alabama quarterback Joe Namath . The Houston Oilers , in last place in the AFL East , had the number @-@ one pick for the AFL . Both the Oilers and Jets realized that the Jets had a far better chance of signing Namath in competition with the NFL team which drafted him ( as it turned out , the St. Louis Cardinals , formerly the Chicago Cardinals ) , and the Jets were able to acquire the number @-@ one pick . Neither the Jets nor the Cardinals could sign Namath until Alabama played its final game of the season , the Orange Bowl , on January 1 , 1965 . Both the Jets and Cardinals negotiated with Namath 's attorney , and when the price got too high for the Cardinals , the Giants secretly acquired Namath 's NFL rights . Longtime Jets coach Walt Michaels admitted many years later that the Jets had signed Namath days before the game . On January 2 , 1965 , the Jets held a press conference to announce Namath 's signing .
= = " Broadway Joe " era ( 1965 – 1976 ) = =
= = = Road to Super Bowl III = = =
Namath did not start the January 1965 Orange Bowl , as he was nursing an injured knee . He came off the bench in the second quarter with Alabama down by two touchdowns , and led his team to within a foot of victory , falling short in a run on the game 's final play . Despite the loss , he was voted the game 's Most Valuable Player . The following day , Namath officially signed with New York for an unprecedented contract worth $ 427 @,@ 000 over three years . The total included bonuses yet to be earned as well as a convertible given to Namath as a signing bonus . The Jets had been aware that Namath had knee problems , but when team doctor Nicholas examined Namath in the restroom at a party held to celebrate his signing , he told the quarterback that had he known Namath 's knees were that bad , he would have advised Werblin not to sign him . The Jets scheduled Namath for surgery amid considerable public interest ; the media asked to photograph the operation , but were refused permission . The Jets hedged their bets by signing three other quarterbacks for a total of $ 400 @,@ 000 , including Notre Dame quarterback and Heisman Trophy winner John Huarte . There was an intense media spotlight on Namath , who became known for a playboy lifestyle ; he was dubbed " Broadway Joe " .
Ewbank maintained through training camp that second @-@ year Mike Taliaferro was the number @-@ one quarterback and disappointed a sellout crowd at Houston 's Rice Stadium by keeping Namath on the bench at the Jets ' season opener . Ewbank felt that Namath might not be ready for several more weeks , but Werblin intervened . Namath saw his first regular season action in the AFL the next week against the Kansas City Chiefs ( the former Dallas Texans ) , and he was starting quarterback the following week against the Buffalo Bills . Namath 's performance was inconsistent as he gained pro experience , but he was named AFL Rookie of the Year . The Jets finished the season 5 – 8 – 1 again . Beginning in 1966 , the Jets began to improve on the field behind Namath , who led them to a 6 – 6 – 2 record . That season , the NFL and AFL announced a merger , which would be effective in 1970 . A championship game ( it came to be known as the Super Bowl ) , played between the two league champions , would follow each season until the merger took place .
In 1967 , Namath threw a then @-@ record 4 @,@ 007 yards as the Jets posted their first winning record , 8 – 5 – 1 . The Jets led the division until running back Emerson Boozer was injured against the Chiefs on November 6 , which meant opposing teams were able to concentrate on the passing threat from Namath .
In 1968 , Werblin 's co @-@ owners gave him an ultimatum – either buy them out or be bought out . He chose the latter option , reportedly profiting $ 1 @.@ 4 million for his 1963 investment of $ 250 @,@ 000 . Prior to Werblin 's departure , the Jets had considered firing Ewbank . They attempted to secure Green Bay Packers coach Vince Lombardi , but Lombardi decided to remain in Green Bay one more season . The season started with the usual three road games due to the team 's status as secondary tenant to the Mets at Shea Stadium . The Jets rose to the top of the AFL East ; they had lost only two games by mid @-@ November and built a three @-@ game lead over second @-@ place Houston . New York 's next game was at Oakland . In what became known as the Heidi Game , the Jets took a 32 – 29 lead with 68 seconds left , only to have Oakland score two touchdowns to win the game . However , the touchdowns went unseen by much of the national TV audience , as NBC had switched at 7 : 00 p.m. to a TV movie of Heidi . Nevertheless , the Jets won their remaining games to finish 11 – 3 . In the playoffs , the Jets defeated the Raiders for the AFL Championship at Shea Stadium , 27 – 23 , a game in which Namath threw three touchdowns , including the game winner to Don Maynard in the fourth quarter .
= = = Super Bowl III = = =
In the Super Bowl at the Miami Orange Bowl on January 12 , 1969 , the Jets faced the Baltimore Colts , who had dominated the NFL with a 13 – 1 record . In their 14 regular season games , the Colts permitted only 144 points . Their sole loss had been to the Cleveland Browns , who they then defeated 34 – 0 in the 1968 NFL Championship Game . Bookie Jimmy " The Greek " Snyder proclaimed the Colts as 17 @-@ point favorites over the Jets . Sports Illustrated 's top football writer , Tex Maule , predicted a 43 – 0 Colts victory . The first two Super Bowls had been dominated by the NFL champion Green Bay Packers ; most journalists expected the Colts to easily defeat the Jets .
From his arrival in Miami , Namath was outspoken about the Jets ' chances in the Super Bowl . He alleged that there were five AFL quarterbacks better than Colts quarterback Earl Morrall , who would be only the third @-@ best on the Jets . He was equally outspoken in a verbal confrontation with Colts kicker Lou Michaels in a Miami restaurant . Three days before the game , while accepting an award from the Miami Touchdown Club , Namath made the statement for which he would be remembered : " And we 're going to win Sunday , I 'll guarantee you . "
The game was a defensive struggle . At halftime , the Jets led 7 – 0 on a Matt Snell touchdown run ; New York 's defense frustrated Baltimore , and the Colts were scoreless despite repeated opportunities . Jim Turner added two field goals to make the score 13 – 0 , and Colts coach Don Shula inserted Hall of Fame quarterback Johnny Unitas in Morrall 's place . Unitas initially failed to move the Colts ' offense , and Turner gave the Jets a 16 – 0 lead with his third field goal . Unitas managed to lead the Colts to a touchdown with less than four minutes left . A second drive ( after a successful onside kick ) fell short , and the Jets were able to run out the clock for a 16 – 7 victory , one of the greatest upsets in football history .
Houston Post columnist Jack Gallagher traced the Jets ' progress from their early days to the Super Bowl :
I remember when the 1962 Titans drew 36 @,@ 161 — not the average attendance , mind you , but for the season ... I remember when a squirt of a Texan named Hayseed Stephens , instead of Broadway Joe Namath quarterbacked New York 's AFL entry ... As the thoughts keep rolling back I find it difficult to reconcile the Jets with the champions of pro football . But I do recall [ former AFL Commissioner Joe ] Foss once saying , " When sports historians chart the progress of this league they 'll find that no organization in sport went so far so fast . " Clearly , the franchise that went the farthest the fastest was the New York Jets .
= = = Decline and Namath 's departure = = =
Before the 1969 season , the Jets suffered offseason problems . Namath , faced with NFL claims that his Bachelors III bar was a hangout for gangsters , was told by the NFL to sell the bar . Instead , he briefly retired , feeling he had been badly treated . Six weeks following his announcement , Namath sold the bar and rejoined the team . A number of Super Bowl veterans were cut by the team , or had bitter contract disputes with Ewbank in his capacity as general manager . According to receiver Don Maynard , " When you get rid of veteran ballplayers and replace them with rookies , the level goes down . "
The Jets ' success in signing Namath and the rise of the team in the standings adversely affected their crosstown rivals , the Giants , who had played in five NFL championship games in six years to 1963 , but who thereafter declined in the standings . Giants owner Wellington Mara stated , " I think the Jets coming in when they did contributed to our bad years , because we tried to do everything for the short term rather than the long haul — we 'd trade a draft choice for a player , figuring he 'd give us one or two good years . We didn 't want to accept how the public might react if we had a bad year or two or three . " In 1968 , the Giants traded for star Minnesota Vikings quarterback Fran Tarkenton in the vain hopes he would lead them to renewed success and rival Namath in the public eye . In August 1969 , the Jets faced the Giants in a preseason game at the Yale Bowl . While the Jets ' Super Bowl win legitimized the AFL as a comparable league to the NFL in the eyes of many , others doubted the AFL 's standard of play , and the Jets were underdogs going into the game . Giants coach Allie Sherman approached the game as if it were a regular season contest , and the Jets sent the three remaining original Titans out for the coin toss . The Jets defeated the Giants 37 – 14 , and Sherman was fired a few weeks later . The Jets ' fellow tenants , the Mets , won a championship themselves ; the baseball team 's accomplishments forced the Jets to play their first five games on the road . The Jets recovered from a slow start to win their second consecutive Eastern Division championship , but fell to Kansas City in the divisional round of the playoffs , 13 – 6 .
The first NFL game for the Jets , as the leagues finalized their merger in 1970 , was also the first @-@ ever Monday Night Football game , a 31 – 21 loss to the Cleveland Browns . Three weeks later , they played the Colts for the first time since the Super Bowl . The Jets lost both the game and Namath , who fractured his wrist and was lost for the season as the Jets fell to a record of 4 – 10 , the worst mark yet of the Namath era . They did not have a winning record again until 1981 . After six years with the team , wide receiver George Sauer , a major contributor offensively , retired on April 16 , 1971 . Namath was injured again in a 1971 preseason game in Tampa , and missed much of the season . He returned on November 28 against the San Francisco 49ers and threw three touchdown passes ; the Jets lost by three points . The Jets finished the season at 6 – 8 . In 1972 , Namath had one of the best days of his career against the Baltimore Colts : he completed 15 of 28 passes for 496 yards and six touchdowns . Despite Namath 's performance , John Madden 's Oakland Raiders eliminated the Jets from contention in their second @-@ to @-@ last regular season game . New York finished the season with a record of 7 – 7 .
Before the 1973 season , the aging Ewbank announced that he would retire as coach after the season and as general manager after 1974 . The Mets unexpectedly qualified for the World Series , consigning the Jets to another long stay away from Shea . The Jets did not play a home game until the end of October . The team finished with a record of 4 – 10 , though their final game against the Bills attracted considerable media attention . The attention was not for Ewbank 's last game , but for Bills running back O. J. Simpson 's attempt to become the first NFL player to rush for 2 @,@ 000 yards in a season . Simpson gained 200 yards , finishing with 2 @,@ 003 for the season . Shortly after the 1973 season , the team hired Ewbank 's son @-@ in @-@ law , former Cardinals coach Charley Winner , as head coach . The new coach showed an initial inability to get his team to emulate his last name : the team started the season by losing seven of their first eight games . Namath , who had a reasonably healthy season behind a poor offensive line , predicted the Jets would win their final six games . The first NFL regular @-@ season overtime victory , over the Giants at the Yale Bowl , and the usual large number of home games towards the end of the season helped New York in its comeback , and a Namath prediction again came true .
Al Ward replaced Ewbank as general manager in 1975 . The Jets won four of their five preseason games , though sportswriter Gerald Eskenazi , in his history of the Jets , notes that the wins were secured by playing first @-@ string players while the other teams were trying out rookies and backups . When the regular season started , the Jets lost seven of their first nine games , and Winner was fired . Offensive coordinator Ken Shipp became interim head coach , and the Jets finished with a record of 3 – 11 . Running back John Riggins , who became the first 1 @,@ 000 @-@ yard rusher in franchise history during the season and made the Pro Bowl , departed for the Washington Redskins as he felt the Jets ' Namath @-@ led offense passed the ball too often . New York hired North Carolina State coach Lou Holtz . With New York enduring the second of three consecutive 3 – 11 seasons ( two wins came over the 2 – 12 Bills and a third over the 0 – 14 expansion Tampa Bay Buccaneers ) , Holtz — who went on to great success at Notre Dame — resigned with one game left in the season to become head coach at the University of Arkansas .
Following their disastrous 1976 season , the Jets hired longtime assistant Walt Michaels as their new head coach . In the offseason , the team made the difficult decision to part ways with Joe Namath , who had become ineffective on the field . Although Namath 's throwing abilities were unimpaired , his knees were so bad as to render him almost immobile ; Paul Zimmerman of the New York Post dubbed him the " million dollar statue " . The team attempted to trade him but was unsuccessful . On May 12 , 1977 , Namath was cut from the roster . He signed with the Los Angeles Rams , but retired at season 's end .
= = Rebuilding and modest success ( 1977 – 1989 ) = =
= = = Final years at Shea = = =
Feeling that having to play road games until the Mets were done with Shea Stadium put the Jets at a disadvantage , the team announced in 1977 that they would play two home games a year in September at the Giants ' new home at the Meadowlands Sports Complex in New Jersey , Giants Stadium . Litigation began between New York City and the Jets over the issue , and in the lawsuit 's settlement , the city agreed to allow the Jets to play two September home games a season at Shea beginning in 1978 for the remaining six years in the Jets ' lease . In 1977 , the Jets were to play one September game at Giants Stadium and an October 2 game at Shea . Despite the favorable settlement , the Jets won only three of fourteen games . Rookies on the team , selected in the 1977 NFL Draft , included seven players who started for them in the late 1970s and early 1980s , such as tackle Marvin Powell , wide receiver Wesley Walker , and defensive lineman Joe Klecko . Klecko became part of a defensive line known as the New York Sack Exchange .
In Michaels ' second season , the Jets adopted new uniforms in a darker green and with a streamlined logo . When quarterback Richard Todd was injured , his backup Matt Robinson proved to be a deep @-@ throwing threat who led New York to eight wins in the first fourteen of the newly expanded sixteen @-@ game season , and into playoff contention . However , the team lost its final two contests and did not qualify for the playoffs . Michaels was named AFC Coach of the Year for keeping his young team in playoff contention so long . There was much media discussion as to whether Todd or Robinson should be the starting quarterback in 1979 . Todd emerged as the starter , as Robinson was injured while arm wrestling during the preseason . The injury — and his attempts to conceal it from Michaels — ended his career with the Jets . Todd led the Jets to another 8 – 8 record . Jimmy the Greek predicted the Jets would go to the Super Bowl in 1980 , but they ended that season with a 4 – 12 record .
There was fan pressure on the Jets to fire Michaels after 1980 ; it increased when the Jets lost their first three games of the 1981 season . Even so , Michaels described his team as being of " a championship , playoff caliber " . The Jets compiled a record of 10 – 2 – 1 in their remaining games — losing twice to the Seattle Seahawks — to finish the season with their first winning record and playoff appearance since 1969 . Their Week 16 victory over the Packers boosted the Jets into the playoffs and also gave the Giants their first playoff birth since 1963 with a victory over the Dallas Cowboys the prior day . The Jets fell behind the Bills 24 – 0 in the wild card game and lost 31 – 27 , as their potential game @-@ winning drive was stopped when the Bills intercepted a Todd pass near Buffalo 's goal line . One of the Jets ' bright spots was their defensive line . Mark Gastineau and Klecko anchored the Sack Exchange and combined for more than 40 quarterback sacks .
In the strike @-@ shortened 1982 season , the Jets finished 6 – 3 and upset the Cincinnati Bengals in the first round of the playoffs , as running back Freeman McNeil became the second player to rush for 200 yards in a postseason game . New York then defeated the top seeded Los Angeles Raiders 17 – 14 , based on the strong performances of McNeil and Wesley Walker in a game that saw numerous turnovers on both sides . The Jets next traveled to face the Miami Dolphins in the AFC Championship Game . The game was preceded by a series of storms that turned the Orange Bowl into a mud pit . The Dolphins stated that they did not own a tarpaulin , and that stadium maintenance was Dade County 's responsibility , so the field lay exposed to the elements . The muddy field slowed the Jets ' offense . In what was dubbed the " Mud Bowl " , neither team managed much offense ( both teams gained less than 200 yards ) . At the end of his best season , Todd threw five interceptions , the last being a screen pass deflected and returned by linebacker A.J. Duhe for a costly 4th @-@ quarter touchdown as New York fell to Miami 14 – 0 . On February 9 , 1983 , Michaels announced his resignation , and the following day the Jets elevated offensive coordinator Joe Walton to the head coaching position .
In Walton 's first months as head coach , the team made a decision which would long be discussed and criticized . In the first round of the 1983 NFL Draft , New York selected quarterback Ken O 'Brien . In drafting O 'Brien , the Jets passed up University of Pittsburgh quarterback Dan Marino , who went on to have a stellar career with the Dolphins , and would many times be a thorn in the Jets ' side . The 1983 season started with high expectations , but the Jets dropped to 7 – 9 . The Jets ' lease at Shea Stadium was due to expire after 1983 ; Jets majority owner Leon Hess and New York Mayor Ed Koch attempted to negotiate a new lease for the team . The Jets wanted the city to redevelop the stadium to expand its capacity to 67 @,@ 000 and to alleviate its rundown state . Hess felt that Koch was uninterested in the Jets ( he had attended one Jets game in his six years as mayor , and had left early ) . Negotiations soon reached an impasse , and in October 1983 , the team announced it would move to Giants Stadium beginning in the 1984 season .
= = = Early Meadowlands years = = =
Hess acquired full ownership of the Jets on February 9 , 1984 , when Helen Dillion sold her 25 % interest to him . Before the season , New York traded quarterback Richard Todd to the New Orleans Saints . New York began its season with veteran Pat Ryan as starting quarterback ; O 'Brien was spending most weekdays waiting to testify about an altercation at the Studio 54 nightclub , at which Jets players had been present and , by some accounts , involved . The Jets had a second consecutive mediocre season , finishing 7 – 9 after starting the season 6 – 2 .
In 1985 , the Jets made the playoffs , accruing an 11 – 5 record , and hosted their first playoff game in four years . They were defeated in the first round by the eventual AFC champion New England Patriots after turning the ball over four times . Looking to improve on their 1985 performance , the Jets started the 1986 season 10 – 1 , including nine straight wins . In week three against Miami , the Jets won 51 – 45 in overtime as Ken O 'Brien and Dan Marino combined to pass for 884 yards , then an NFL record . Wracked by injuries , the Jets lost their final five regular season games , but still made the playoffs . In the wild card playoff game against the Kansas City Chiefs , the Jets replaced O 'Brien with Pat Ryan , and won 35 – 15 . This victory sent the Jets to the divisional round in an away game against the Cleveland Browns . The Jets built a 20 – 10 lead and appeared to have stopped a late Cleveland drive — until Mark Gastineau was called for a roughing the passer penalty , a late hit on Browns quarterback Bernie Kosar that gave the Browns another opportunity . Cleveland went on to tie the game , and in the second overtime , defeated the Jets , 23 – 20 . The Browns went on to lose to the Denver Broncos ( beaten by the Jets earlier in the season ) in the AFC Championship Game ; the Broncos in turn lost to the Giants in Super Bowl XXI . Many Jets were convinced that given the opportunity to play the Giants , the Jets would have won . According to Eskenazi , the Giants " were the toast of New York , back in a championship game for the first time since the 1960s , while the Jets contemplated the late hit and what might have been " .
In 1987 , the Jets won their first two games . NFL players then staged a strike ; a team composed mostly of replacement players lost two of the next three games . The locker room was divided after the strike due to the decision of a few players , led by Gastineau , to cross the picket line . The Jets remained in contention in a mediocre AFC East through much of the season , but dropped all four games in December to finish 6 – 9 , in last place . In 1988 , the Sack Exchange era ended as Joe Klecko failed his offseason physical and was waived , linebacker Lance Mehl announced his retirement during training camp , and Mark Gastineau retired midseason , citing personal reasons . In spite of these departures , the Jets finished with an 8 – 7 – 1 record . They secured a winning record by ending the season with a victory over the Giants , which cost their in @-@ state rivals a playoff berth . The team performed badly in 1989 , finishing 4 – 12 . On December 18 , 1989 , the Jets hired executive Dick Steinberg from the New England Patriots to take over as general manager . Three days after New York 's final game of the season , a 37 – 0 loss to the Bills at Giants Stadium , Steinberg fired Walton and began to search for the team 's 10th coach . The disastrous 1989 campaign cost Walton the chance to be the first Jets coach to complete his career with a winning record , a statistic he later admitted he cared about deeply .
= = Search for success ( 1990 – 1996 ) = =
Dick Steinberg initially sought to hire Michigan State coach George Perles as Jets head coach , but the university refused to release him from his contract . Steinberg then hired Cincinnati Bengals offensive coordinator Bruce Coslet . Coslet 's offensive schemes , described as " state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art " by Sports Illustrated , had helped the Bengals to Super Bowl XXIII , following the 1988 season . The Jets ' poor record in 1989 had given them the second pick in the draft ; the team selected star Penn State running back Blair Thomas , who was expected to have a strong career with the Jets . Instead Thomas played on the team for four injury @-@ plagued , unproductive years and was cut before the 1994 season began .
Coslet 's first season proved only slightly better than Joe Walton 's last ; the Jets finished 6 – 10 . In the 1991 NFL Draft , the Jets lost another opportunity to draft a star quarterback , as a draft @-@ day deal that would have allowed them to select Brett Favre fell through . The Jets had more success in the 1991 season : they built a 7 – 8 record with one game remaining , and needed a win against Miami to clinch a playoff berth . New York kicker Raul Allegre ( recently signed to replace aging kicker Pat Leahy , who had been kicking for the Jets since the days of Joe Namath ) made one field goal to force overtime , and another to win in the extra period . The victory gave the Jets their first playoff berth since 1986 . In the wild card game , a Ken O 'Brien pass into the end zone in the final seconds of the game was intercepted , and the Jets lost to Houston , 17 – 10 .
After a strong performance by rookie quarterback Browning Nagle in the team 's 5 – 0 1992 preseason , Coslet promoted him to the starting lineup . Despite throwing for a total of 366 yards against the Atlanta Falcons in the opener , then the second @-@ highest yardage total for a quarterback making his NFL debut , the team lost 20 – 17 ; the Jets lost their first four games . Wide receiver Al Toon retired on November 27 , 1992 , having suffered the ninth concussion of his career earlier in the season . Two days later , defensive end Dennis Byrd collided with teammate Scott Mersereau when Chiefs quarterback Dave Krieg stepped forward in the pocket as the two players were about to sandwich him . Mersereau managed to walk away and continue his career with New York , but Byrd suffered a fracture to his C @-@ 5 vertebra that left him partially paralyzed . Inspired by Byrd 's persistent high spirits , New York traveled to Buffalo the following week and defeated the AFC champion Bills . The Jets finished the season 4 – 12 .
Prior to the 1993 season , the Jets obtained Bengals quarterback Boomer Esiason , who had worked with Coslet in Cincinnati . Steinberg signed veteran safety Ronnie Lott to shore up the defense . O 'Brien 's career with the Jets ended with an offseason trade to the Green Bay Packers , and running back Freeman McNeil retired after twelve seasons . The Jets suffered another December collapse : they lost four of their last five to finish 8 – 8 . The Jets would have made the playoffs by winning their last game , but were shut out at the Astrodome by the Oilers . Following the season , Steinberg fired Coslet and replaced him with defensive coordinator Pete Carroll .
Carroll 's first season , 1994 , started well . Going into a November home game against Miami , the Jets were 6 – 5 ; a victory over the Dolphins would tie them for the AFC East lead . The Jets built leads of 17 – 0 and 24 – 6 , but Dan Marino and the Dolphins cut the lead to 24 – 21 and got the ball for a final @-@ minute drive . Marino completed a pass into Jets territory with just over 30 seconds remaining . With the clock running , the Dolphins acted like Marino would spike the ball to stop the clock . However , Marino faked the spike and tossed the ball to Mark Ingram in the end zone for the winning touchdown . The loss started yet another December collapse ; the Jets would not win again for the rest of the season . Prior to the season finale , the Jets announced that Steinberg was ill with stomach cancer ; he died the following September . The team fired Carroll after the season and replaced him with former Philadelphia Eagles coach Rich Kotite . Hess also named Kotite as general manager as well .
At the press conference announcing Kotite 's hiring , Hess told the media , " I 'm 80 years old , I want results now . " However , the first game of the Kotite era proved to be a harbinger – a 52 @-@ 14 loss to the Dolphins . A month later , they lost to the Oakland Raiders 47 @-@ 10 in the Jets ' sole national television appearance of the season . The Jets defeated the Seattle Seahawks on the Sunday following Thanksgiving after an inspirational speech by Hess , but again had trouble in December , losing all four games in the month to finish 3 – 13 . In 1996 , the Jets brought in veteran quarterback Neil O 'Donnell , who had just led Pittsburgh to Super Bowl XXX , to lead the offense . The Jets , for the first time since the leagues merged , were in possession of the first pick overall in the NFL Draft , which they used to select wide receiver Keyshawn Johnson . O 'Donnell proved injury @-@ prone , and the Jets suffered the worst season in franchise history . They lost their first eight games , beat the Arizona Cardinals in Tempe , then proceeded to lose their remaining seven games . Two days before the season finale , on December 20 , 1996 , Kotite announced his resignation effective at season 's end . After the last game , a 31 – 28 home loss to the Dolphins , Kotite was hit with a full cup of beer as he left the field ; another fan ( fewer than 22 @,@ 000 attended the game ; almost 56 @,@ 000 ticketholders stayed home ) held up a sign , " The End of an Error " .
= = Return to respectability ( 1997 – present ) = =
= = = Bill Parcells era = = =
Hess and team president Gutman agreed on a top candidate as new coach — Patriots coach Bill Parcells , who had won two Super Bowls with the Giants and was in the process of taking the Patriots there as well . Parcells believed that he could void his contract and seek a position elsewhere ; New England owner Robert Kraft believed the Patriots would be entitled to compensation . NFL commissioner Paul Tagliabue ruled in the Patriots ' favor , and New England demanded the Jets give them the first pick overall in the upcoming draft . The Jets responded by hiring Parcells disciple Bill Belichick as head coach ; Parcells was to serve as a " consultant " in 1997 and head coach beginning in 1998 . The Patriots were unimpressed by what they saw as a subterfuge , and Tagliabue mediated the matter . He set Parcells free from the Patriots ; the Jets gave the Patriots four draft picks , including their first round pick in 1999 . The Jets put an end to Belichick 's six @-@ day reign ( he remained as assistant head coach and as defensive coordinator ) and hired Parcells as head coach .
The Parcells era started with a 41 – 3 victory over Seattle . The Jets were 9 – 6 in their first fifteen games and went into the season finale against the Detroit Lions needing a win to make the playoffs . Parcells , who never had full confidence in O 'Donnell , benched him in favor of Ray Lucas after O 'Donnell threw an early interception . Lucas was ineffective as well , as the Jets lost 13 – 10 . The eight @-@ game improvement in the standings , together with Parcells ' reputation as a winner , caused high expectations for 1998 . The team announced that it would adopt a modified version of the Jets ' 1963 – 1977 logo beginning in the 1998 season .
Parcells signed Patriots running back Curtis Martin as a restricted free agent , giving up 1st- and 3rd @-@ round picks . Parcells also signed Baltimore Ravens quarterback Vinny Testaverde as a free agent , which paved the way for O 'Donnell 's release from the team . After an 0 – 2 start , New York won six of the next seven games . The Jets lost only once the rest of the way , and clinched their first NFL division crown against the Bills on December 19 , 1998 . They set a franchise record for the number of victories in a season with a win over the Patriots in the season finale . The team finished 12 – 4 and were second seed in the playoffs with a first round bye . The Jets faced the Jacksonville Jaguars in their divisional playoff game , their first home playoff game since the 1986 season . New York defeated the Jaguars 34 – 24 and met the top @-@ seeded Broncos in the AFC Championship Game . Though the Jets possessed a 10 – 0 lead in the 3rd quarter , the Broncos , led by John Elway in his final home game , came back and defeated the Jets , 23 – 10 .
The Jets had high hopes for 1999 , but suffered a blow in the season opener when Testaverde ruptured his Achilles tendon and was lost for the season . New York suffered other injuries and fell to a 2 – 6 record before recovering to finish 8 – 8 . Two days after the end of the season , Parcells announced his resignation as coach ; he remained with the team for a year as chief of football operations . Belichick was slated to become head coach in Parcells ' place , but one day later , he announced his own resignation . Robert Kraft had gotten word to Belichick through intermediaries that he could have complete control of football operations and a $ 2 million salary if he got out of his contract with the Jets . After a lawsuit to void Belichick 's contract failed and Tagliabue refused to release him , the Jets and Patriots agreed on draft choice compensation for the Jets .
As a result of Leon Hess ' death in May 1999 , the team was put up for auction in January 2000 . In a bidding war between Charles F. Dolan and Woody Johnson , Johnson emerged victorious , and he purchased the team for $ 635 million . Johnson expressed interest in having Parcells return to his coaching role ; the team elevated linebackers coach Al Groh to the head coaching position when Parcells refused .
In April 2000 , New York traded wide receiver Keyshawn Johnson , a major offensive threat on the 1998 team , to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers for two 1st @-@ round draft picks . Johnson wanted a renegotiated contract and was threatening to hold out . Having acquired New England 's pick in the Belichick compensation , and with their own pick , the Jets had four 1st @-@ round picks . They selected quarterback Chad Pennington as well as defensive linemen John Abraham and Shaun Ellis , and tight end Anthony Becht , all of whom would be key players on the Jets playoff teams of the 2000s . For the first time , the Jets won their first four games , including a victory over Johnson and the Buccaneers . They reached 6 – 1 following the " Monday Night Miracle " , the largest comeback in the history of Monday Night Football : the Jets overcame a 30 – 7 4th @-@ quarter deficit to defeat the Dolphins , 40 – 37 in overtime . The Jets went 3 – 6 after that , finishing at 9 – 7 , out of the playoffs .
After spending less than a year with the team , Groh resigned to accept a coaching job at his alma mater , the University of Virginia . Parcells resigned from his front @-@ office position and was replaced with Chiefs executive Terry Bradway on Parcells ' recommendation .
= = = Herman Edwards takes over = = =
On January 18 , 2001 , the Jets announced Herman Edwards as the new coach . Edwards , a former defensive back who had worked his way up through the NFL coaching system , had never served as head coach at any level . He was the first African @-@ American Jets head coach . Edwards lost his first game , two days before the September 11 attacks . In the wake of 9 / 11 , the NFL had to decide whether to play its games the following weekend . Testaverde and the Jets spoke out against playing on the weekend after 9 / 11 , and the Jets were prepared to forfeit the game rather than fly . The NFL decided to move that week 's games to the end of the regular season . The Jets needed to win that game , in Oakland against the Raiders , to reach the playoffs , and John Hall kicked a last @-@ minute 53 @-@ yard field goal for a 24 – 22 victory and a playoff berth . Edwards was the first coach to lead the Jets to the playoffs in his first year with the team . In the playoffs , the Jets again played at Oakland . New York could not stop the Raiders ' passing game , and Oakland won , 38 – 24 .
The Jets began the 2002 season 1 – 4 , but then put together a six @-@ game winning streak . On the final day of the season , the Jets beat the Packers following a New England victory over Miami . This gave the Jets a 9 – 7 record , their second post @-@ merger division title , and a playoff berth . Chad Pennington had an outstanding day against the Packers and finished the season the top @-@ rated passer in the league . The Jets began the playoffs against the Indianapolis Colts at home , and defeated them 41 – 0 . The Jets then played the Raiders , who again defeated them in Oakland , 30 – 10 . The Jets lost a number of key players to free agency in the offseason . Four signed with the Washington Redskins , including kicker Hall , wide receiver Laveranues Coles , kick returner Chad Morton , and offensive lineman Randy Thomas . During a preseason game against the Giants , Pennington sustained a serious wrist injury , and required surgery . The aging Testaverde stepped in as starter , but led the Jets to only a 2 – 6 record , including losses to the Redskins and the Dallas Cowboys . The Jets split their remaining games and finished 6 – 10 .
In spite of the team 's poor 2003 record , Johnson retained Edwards as head coach and extended his contract through 2007 . With a healthy Pennington at quarterback , the Jets began their season at 5 – 0 for the first time and then lost two of their next three games . During the team 's second meeting with the Bills , Pennington suffered a tear in his rotator cuff that caused him to miss three starts . Pennington returned in a 29 – 7 rout of the Houston Texans . The team struggled toward the end of the regular season , winning only one of its final four games . Despite a final @-@ game loss to the St. Louis Rams , the Jets reached the playoffs . The team traveled to San Diego to play the Chargers in the wild card round and upset them 23 – 20 on a Doug Brien field goal in overtime . The win sent the Jets to the divisional round against the 15 – 1 Pittsburgh Steelers . The Jets again took their opponent to overtime , as Brien missed a field goal with two minutes remaining and the score tied . He missed a second field goal in overtime . Pittsburgh kicker Jeff Reed proved more accurate , and the Steelers beat the Jets , 20 – 17 .
In Week 3 of the 2005 season , both Pennington and backup quarterback Jay Fiedler were injured against the Jaguars . With both quarterbacks out for the season , third @-@ string quarterback Brooks Bollinger started ; the 41 @-@ year @-@ old Testaverde was brought out of retirement to serve as his backup . Bollinger played badly in a loss in week four , and Testaverde became the starter . Testaverde had little success , and Bollinger did not fare better when he was re @-@ inserted . Running back Curtis Martin chose to have arthroscopic surgery on his knee with four games left in the season . The Jets finished 4 – 12 .
= = = Eric Mangini : initial success , eventual firing = = =
On January 6 , 2006 , Herman Edwards announced his resignation as head coach to take the same position with Kansas City . The Jets received a 4th @-@ round draft pick as compensation for Edwards , who was still under contract with the team . On January 17 , New York announced the hiring of former Patriots defensive coordinator Eric Mangini . Three weeks later , General Manager Terry Bradway stepped down in favor of his assistant , Mike Tannenbaum . Although Pennington took back his starting position , the Jets only managed to split their first eight games . They began the second half with a victory over New England in Foxboro , and lost only two games the rest of the way to finish 10 – 6 and secure a playoff berth . In the wild card round , the Jets visited Foxboro again , but this time fell to the Patriots , 37 – 16 . For his success in leading the Jets to the playoffs , Mangini received the nickname " Mangenius " and had a cameo appearance on The Sopranos .
After Mangini 's successful rookie season , New York had high hopes of further improvement . Following the team 's opening loss against New England , the Jets accused the Patriots of videotaping their signals . NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell fined the Patriots and Bill Belichick , and stripped New England of its 1st @-@ round pick in the 2008 NFL Draft . Struggling to a 1 – 7 start , the Jets benched Pennington in favor of backup Kellen Clemens . The Jets won only three games the rest of the way and finished with a record of 4 – 12 . The Jets were again overshadowed by the Giants , who won their third Super Bowl by defeating the previously unbeaten Patriots .
Following the 2007 season , Green Bay Packers quarterback Brett Favre had retired . He wished to return several months later , but found that the Packers had given Aaron Rodgers the starting spot . The subsequent trade talks and rumors were a major story leading up to the 2008 season , and the Jets unexpectedly won the bidding war to trade for Favre . With Favre 's acquisition , the Jets released Pennington , who signed with the Dolphins . Despite a good start to the season , the Jets began to falter in December after Favre tore his rotator cuff — he threw five interceptions in a three @-@ game span . The season came down to a final game against the Dolphins , led by Pennington , at Giants Stadium . The Dolphins won to take the division title and eliminate the 9 – 7 Jets from playoff contention . On December 29 , 2008 , Mangini was fired after three seasons as head coach , with an overall record of 23 @-@ 25 . Favre again briefly retired from football on February 11 , 2009 .
= = = Rex Ryan era ; Todd Bowles takes over = = =
Following Mangini 's departure , New York hoped to lure former Pittsburgh Steelers head coach Bill Cowher out of retirement , suggesting that Cowher might be given control of football operations in addition to serving as coach . However , Cowher decided to remain retired for the season . On January 20 , 2009 , the Jets offered the position to Baltimore Ravens defensive coordinator Rex Ryan , who accepted . Tannenbaum engineered a draft @-@ day trade with Cleveland , which enabled New York to move up and select highly regarded USC quarterback Mark Sanchez .
New York won its first three games of 2009 , including their first home victory over the Patriots since 2000 , but lost six of its next seven games . The Jets recovered to 7 – 6 , but then lost to the Atlanta Falcons on December 20 , a defeat that caused Ryan to state that the Jets " were obviously out of the playoffs " . The next week , the Jets played the 14 – 0 Indianapolis Colts . The Colts removed many of their starting players from the game early in the second half with a 15 – 10 lead ; the Jets came back for the victory . The victory put the Jets ' fate in their own hands , and they defeated the Bengals ( who had also clinched a playoff spot and played few starters ) in the last game ever at Giants Stadium to secure a playoff berth .
The following week , the team played the Bengals in the playoffs , this time at Paul Brown Stadium , and secured a 24 – 14 victory over Cincinnati . That victory meant that the Jets would travel to San Diego to play the Chargers , who had won eleven straight games , in the divisional round . Strong performances by Sanchez , running back Shonn Greene , and the Jets defense helped the Jets to a 17 – 14 win over the Chargers . New York played the top @-@ seeded Colts in the AFC Championship Game and secured an early 17 – 6 lead . They had little luck in the second half as the Colts went to the Super Bowl with a 30 – 17 victory .
The Jets had hoped to move into what was termed the West Side Stadium , to be built in Manhattan , after their 25 @-@ year lease at Giants Stadium expired . In 2005 , it became clear that New York authorities would not permit the stadium to be built . After the West Side failure , the Jets and Giants entered into a joint venture to build a new $ 1 @.@ 6 billion facility alongside Giants Stadium , which was torn down after the new venue was completed . The Jets ' new home , MetLife Stadium , opened to the public in April 2010 . The stadium took 34 months to construct , and can seat 82 @,@ 500 . The Jets hosted the Giants in the first game of the preseason on August 16 , 2010 .
The Jets ' first regular season home game at the new stadium was on September 13 , 2010 and was shown nationwide on Monday Night Football . New York lost to the Ravens 10 – 9 , but built a 9 – 2 record , tied for the division lead with the Patriots ( whom the Jets had beaten once ) going into a Monday night game at New England . Expectations of a Jets victory were high , but the Jets were defeated , 45 – 3 . New York recovered to qualify for the AFC playoffs as the sixth and final seed . In the wild card round , the Jets defeated Indianapolis , 17 – 16 . This victory sent the Jets to a rematch with New England . The Jets upset the Patriots , 28 – 21 , setting up an AFC Championship Game at Pittsburgh . The Jets fell behind 24 – 0 , and mounted a second @-@ half comeback before losing to the Steelers , 24 – 19 . In 2011 , Ryan promised a Super Bowl appearance . The Jets played the Giants in the next @-@ to @-@ last week of the regular season with both teams still alive for playoff berths . The Jets lost to the Giants , and the following week to the Dolphins , finishing 8 – 8 and missing the playoffs , while the Giants used their victory over their in @-@ stadium rivals to launch a winning streak which culminated in the Super Bowl XLVI championship , again defeating the Patriots .
Sanchez did not perform as well in 2011 as he had the previous two years . In March 2012 , Colts quarterback Peyton Manning signed with Denver , making Broncos quarterback Tim Tebow expendable . Tebow had won considerable public attention in 2011 by leading the Broncos on an unexpected playoff run . On March 21 , 2012 , the Jets acquired Tebow from the Broncos in a trade involving lower @-@ round draft picks . Despite a season @-@ long quarterback controversy and a poor 2012 for Sanchez , Tebow was little @-@ used . Third @-@ string quarterback Greg McElroy started late in the year but was ineffective , as the Jets fell to 6 @-@ 10 , their first losing season under Ryan . On December 31 , 2012 , the Jets fired Tannenbaum , but announced that Ryan would remain as head coach . The Jets announced the hiring of Seahawks Vice President of Football Operations John Idzik as general manager on January 18 , 2013 . On April 29 , soon after the team took West Virginia quarterback Geno Smith in the 2013 NFL Draft , Tebow was released by the Jets .
The quarterback controversy between Smith and Sanchez was settled when Sanchez was injured in the 2013 preseason ; he subsequently had surgery that ended his year . The Jets were inconsistent behind Smith , and finished 8 – 8 , though knocking the Dolphins out of the playoff picture with a final @-@ week victory . Ryan 's contract was due to expire after 2014 , but the head coach was given a multi @-@ year extension on January 16 of that year . Sanchez was released on March 21 , 2014 , allowing the Jets to sign controversial former Falcons and Eagles quarterback Michael Vick . In 2014 , the Jets went 4 – 12 , last in passing until a final @-@ game victory at the Dolphins . Both Idzik and Ryan were fired on December 29 , 2014 , the day after the season ended .
On January 13 , 2015 , the Jets announced the hiring of Mike Maccagnan , scouting director of the Houston Texans , as general manager . The following day , the Jets announced they had hired Arizona Cardinals defensive coordinator Todd Bowles as head coach . Smith was injured in a locker room brawl in training camp , and journeyman Ryan Fitzpatrick took over . After a slow start , the Jets got hot late in the season and had their playoff fate in their own hands going into a final week game at the Bills , coached by Ryan . The Jets lost , and a victory by the Steelers over the Browns put the Jets out of the playoffs , though they finished 10 – 6 .
Sportswriter Eskenazi , in his history of the Jets , wrote :
The Jets are in that pantheon [ of teams that have won championships ] . And they are housed there despite having only one title , one defining image . Because they have never repeated , there is the constant of failed expectations . Unfair , perhaps ... But this is the nature of sports . The Jets achieved such fame , such notoriety , became such a product and symbol of their times , that they also became a frozen icon . They can have life breathed back into them only by another great success . In the meantime , they and their fans have had to live with their moment in the sun .
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= Barney Frank =
Barnett " Barney " Frank ( born March 31 , 1940 ) is a former American politician and board member of the New York @-@ based Signature Bank . He previously served as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Massachusetts from 1981 to 2013 . As a member of the Democratic Party , he served as chairman of the House Financial Services Committee ( 2007 – 2011 ) and was a leading co @-@ sponsor of the 2010 Dodd – Frank Act , a sweeping reform of the U.S. financial industry . Frank , a resident of Newton , Massachusetts , is considered the most prominent gay politician in the United States .
Born and raised in Bayonne , New Jersey , Frank graduated from Harvard College and Harvard Law School . He worked as a political aide before winning election to the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1972 . He was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1980 with 52 percent of the vote . He was re @-@ elected every term thereafter by wide margins . In 1987 , he publicly came out as gay , after coming out to family , friends and close associates a few years prior , becoming the first member of Congress to do so voluntarily . From 2003 until his retirement , Frank was the leading Democrat on the House Financial Services Committee , and he served as committee chairman when his party held a House majority from 2007 to 2011 . In July 2012 , he married his long @-@ time partner , James Ready , becoming the first member of Congress to marry someone of the same sex while in office . Frank did not seek re @-@ election in 2012 , and retired from Congress at the end of his term in January 2013 . Frank had expressed interest in serving temporarily in the United States Senate after John Kerry had been confirmed as Secretary of State but was ultimately passed over for Mo Cowan . A biography of Frank was published in 2015 .
= = Early life , education , and early career = =
Frank was born Barnett Frank in Bayonne , New Jersey , one of four children of Elsie ( née Golush ) and Samuel Frank . His family was Jewish , and his grandparents had immigrated from Poland and Russia . Frank ’ s father ran a truck stop in Jersey City — a place Frank has described as " totally corrupt " — and when Frank was 6 or 7 , served a year in prison for refusing to testify to a grand jury against Frank ’ s uncle . Frank was educated at Harvard College , where he resided in Matthews Hall his first year and then in Kirkland House and Winthrop House . He graduated in 1962 . One of his roommates was Hastings Wyman of Aiken , South Carolina , later a political consultant who in 1978 began publishing The Southern Political Report . When Wyman invited Frank to visit in Aiken in the early 1960s , Frank made a point of drinking from the since @-@ abolished " colored @-@ only " water fountain then available to African Americans .
Frank ’ s undergraduate studies were interrupted by the death of his father , and Frank took a year off to help resolve the family ’ s affairs prior to his graduation . In 1964 , he was a volunteer in Mississippi during Freedom Summer . He taught undergraduates at Harvard while studying for a PhD in Government , but left in 1968 before having completed the degree , to become Boston mayor Kevin White ’ s Chief Assistant , a position he held for three years . He then served for a year as Administrative Assistant to Congressman Michael J. Harrington . Frank later graduated from Harvard Law School , in 1977 , where he was once a student of Henry Kissinger , while serving as Massachusetts State Representative .
= = Pre @-@ congressional career = =
In 1972 , Frank was elected to the Massachusetts House of Representatives where he served for eight years . He made a name for himself in the mid @-@ 1970s as a political defender of the Combat Zone , Boston ’ s notorious red light district . Neighborhoods in Frank ’ s district bordered the Combat Zone . As a means of dealing with crime in the area ( including violence , police corruption and the infiltration by organized crime ) , he introduced a bill into the Massachusetts General Court that would have legalized the sex @-@ for @-@ hire business but kept it quarantined in a red light district , which would have been moved to Boston ’ s Financial District . The bill , which had the support of Boston ’ s Police Commissioner , never came up for a vote . Later , when Frank was running for Congress , opponents erroneously portrayed him as having attempted to permit red @-@ light districts in all Bay State communities .
In 1979 , Frank was admitted to the bar in Massachusetts . While in state and local government , he taught , part @-@ time , at the University of Massachusetts Boston , the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard , and at Boston University . He published numerous articles on politics and public affairs ; in 1992 , he published Speaking Frankly , an essay on the role the Democratic Party should play in the 1990s .
= = U.S. House of Representatives = =
= = = Elections = = =
In 1980 , Frank ran for the U.S. House of Representatives in the 4th congressional district , hoping to succeed Father Robert Drinan , who had left Congress , following a call by Pope John Paul II for priests to withdraw from political positions . In the Democratic primary held on September 16 , 1980 , Frank won 52 % of the vote in a four @-@ candidate field . As the Democratic nominee , he faced Republican Richard A. Jones in the general election and won narrowly , 52 % – 48 % .
For his first term , Frank represented a district in the western and southern suburbs of Boston , anchored by Brookline and his hometown of Newton . However , in 1982 , redistricting forced him to run against Republican Margaret Heckler , who represented a district centered on the South Coast , including Fall River and New Bedford . Although the newly configured district retained Frank ’ s district number — the 4th — it was geographically more Heckler 's district . Frank focused on Heckler 's initial support for President Ronald Reagan 's tax cuts , and won with 60 % of the vote .
Frank did not face another serious race again for a quarter @-@ century . From 1984 to 2008 , he won re @-@ election 12 times with at least 67 % of the vote .
In 2010 , Frank ran for his 16th term . Public opinion polling showed him facing his first credible challenge since defeating Heckler in 1982 . His opponent was Republican Sean Bielat , a U.S. Marine veteran and businessman . In mid @-@ September , an internal poll showed Frank leading 48 % – 38 % . In late October , he loaned his campaign $ 200 @,@ 000 . In early October , the Cook Political Report changed its assessment of the district from " solid Democratic " to " likely Democratic " — meaning that while Frank was favored , a victory by Bielat could not be entirely ruled out . While Frank had a 3 @-@ to @-@ 1 advantage in terms of cash on hand , Bielat outraised him in September . On October 25 , a Boston Globe survey showed Frank leading 46 % – 33 % . Frank won re @-@ election to his 16th term , 54 % – 43 % .
On November 28 , 2011 , Frank announced at a news conference that he would not seek re @-@ election in 2012 .
= = = Tenure = = =
= = = = Scandal = = = =
In 1985 Frank was still publicly closeted . That year he hired Steve Gobie , a male prostitute , for sex , and they became " more friends than sexual partners . " Frank housed Gobie and hired him with personal funds as an aide , housekeeper and driver and paid for his attorney and court @-@ ordered psychiatrist . In 1987 , Frank evicted Gobie after being advised by his landlord that Gobie kept escorting despite the support and was doing so in the residence . Later that year , Gobie 's friends persuaded him that he had a gay male version of Mayflower Madam , a TV movie about an escort service . In 1989 , Gobie tried to initiate a bidding war for the story between WUSA @-@ TV ( Channel 9 ) , the Washington Times , and The Washington Post . He then gave the story to The Washington Times for nothing , in hopes of getting a book contract . Amid calls for an investigation , Frank asked the House Ethics Committee to investigate his relationship " in order to ensure that the public record is clear . " The Committee found no evidence that Frank had known of or been involved in the alleged illegal activity and dismissed all Gobie 's more scandalous claims ; they recommended a reprimand for Frank using his congressional office to fix 33 of Gobie 's parking tickets and for misstatements of fact in a memorandum relating to Gobie 's criminal probation record . The House voted 408 – 18 to reprimand Frank . The attempts to censure and expel Frank were led by Republican Larry Craig ( whom Frank later criticized for hypocrisy after Craig 's own arrest in 2007 for " propositioning an undercover cop in a Minneapolis @-@ St. Paul airport bathroom " ) . Despite the controversy , Frank won re @-@ election in 1990 with 66 percent of the vote , and by larger margins until the 2010 Mid @-@ term elections when his victory margin went down to eleven points .
= = = = Public image = = = =
Frank is known for his quick wit and rapid @-@ fire speaking style . In one quip , he said he was unable to complete his review of the Starr Report detailing President Bill Clinton 's relationship with Monica Lewinsky , complaining that it was " too much reading about heterosexual sex " . In 2004 and again in 2006 , a survey of Capitol Hill staffers published in Washingtonian gave Frank the title of the " brainiest " , " funniest " , and " most eloquent " member of the House . In 2008 , the same survey named him " brainiest " , and runner up for " workhorse " , and " most eloquent " ; in 2010 , he was named " brainiest " , " workhorse " , and " funniest " . He is also widely considered to have been , during his tenure , one of the most powerful members of Congress . Democratic speech writer Josh Gottheimer , in his book Ripples of Hope : Great American Civil Rights Speeches , describes Frank as " one of the brightest and most energetic defenders of civil rights issues . "
= = = = Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac = = = =
Frank was criticized by conservative organizations for campaign contributions totaling $ 42 @,@ 350 between 1989 and 2008 . Bill Sammon , the Washington managing editor for Fox News Channel , claimed the donations from Fannie and Freddie influenced his support of their lending programs , and said that Frank did not play a strong enough role in reforming the institutions in the years leading up to the Economic crisis of 2008 . In 2006 , a Fannie Mae representative stated in SEC filings that they " did not participate in large amounts of these non @-@ traditional mortgages in 2004 and 2005 . " In response to criticism , Frank said , " In 2004 , it was Bush who started to push Fannie and Freddie into subprime mortgages , because they were boasting about how they were expanding homeownership for low @-@ income people . And I said at the time , ' Hey — ( a ) this is going to jeopardize their profitability , but ( b ) it 's going to put people in homes they can 't afford , and they 're gonna lose them . ' "
In 2009 Frank responded to what he called " wholly inaccurate efforts by Republicans to blame Democrats , and [ me ] in particular " for the subprime mortgage crisis , which is linked to the financial crisis of 2007 – 2009 . He outlined his efforts to reform these institutions and add regulations , but met resistance from Republicans , with the main exception being a bill with Republican Mike Oxley that died because of opposition from President Bush . The 2005 bill included Frank objectives , which were to impose tighter regulation of Fannie and Freddie and new funds for rental housing . Frank and Mike Oxley achieved broad bipartisan support for the bill in the Financial Services Committee , and it passed the House . But the Senate never voted on the measure , in part because President Bush was likely to veto it . " If it had passed , that would have been one of the ways we could have reined in the bowling ball going downhill called housing , " Oxley told Frank . In an op @-@ ed piece in the Wall Street Journal , Lawrence B. Lindsey , a former economic adviser to President George W. Bush , wrote that Frank " is the only politician I know who has argued that we needed tighter rules that intentionally produce fewer homeowners and more renters . " Once control shifted to the Democrats , Frank was able to help guide both the Federal Housing Reform Act ( H.R. 1427 ) and the Mortgage Reform and Anti @-@ Predatory Lending Act ( H.R. 3915 ) to passage in 2007 . Frank also said that the Republican @-@ led Gramm – Leach – Bliley Act of 1999 , which repealed part of the Glass – Steagall Act of 1933 and removed the wall between commercial and investment banks , contributed to the financial meltdown . Frank stated further that " during twelve years of Republican rule no reform was adopted regarding Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac . In 2007 , a few months after I became the Chairman , the House passed a strong reform bill ; we sought to get the [ Bush ] administration 's approval to include it in the economic stimulus legislation in January 2008 ; and finally got it passed and onto President Bush 's desk in July 2008 . Moreover , " we were able to adopt it in nineteen months , and we could have done it much quicker if the [ Bush ] administration had cooperated . "
= = = = Subprime Mortgage crisis = = = =
As former chairman of the House Financial Services Committee , beginning in 2007 , Frank was " at the center of power " . Frank has been a critic of aspects of the Federal Reserve system , partnering with some Republicans in opposition to some policies . Frank says that he and Republican Congressman Ron Paul " first bonded because we were both conspicuous nonworshipers at the Temple of the Fed and of the High Priest Alan Greenspan . "
Frank has been involved in mortgage foreclosure bailout issues . In 2008 Frank supported passage of the American Housing Rescue & Foreclosure Prevention Act , intended to protect thousands of homeowners from foreclosure . This law , H.R. 3221 , is considered one of the most important and complex issues on which he worked . In an August 2007 op @-@ ed piece in Financial Times , Frank wrote , " In the debate between those who believe in essentially unregulated markets and others who hold that reasonable regulation diminishes market excesses without inhibiting their basic function , the subprime situation unfortunately provides ammunition for the latter view . " Frank was also instrumental in the passage of H.R. 5244 , the Credit Cardholders ' Bill of Rights Act of 2008 , a measure that drew praise from editorial boards and consumer advocates . In 2007 . Frank co @-@ sponsored legislation to reform the Section 202 refinancing program , which is for affordable housing for the elderly , and Section 811 disabled programs . Frank has been a chief advocate of the National Housing Trust Fund , which was created as part of the Housing and Economic Recovery Act of 2008 and was the first affordable housing program to be enacted by the Congress since 1990 .
During the subprime mortgage crisis , Frank was characterized as " a key deal @-@ maker , an unlikely bridge between his party 's left @-@ wing base and [ ... ] free market conservatives " in the Bush administration . Hank Paulson , the U.S. Treasury Secretary for the Bush administration , said he enjoyed Frank 's penchant for brokering deals , " he is looking to get things done and make a difference , he focuses on areas of agreement and tries to build on those . "
The New York Times noted that the Federal Housing Administration 's crucial role in the nation 's housing market , providing low @-@ down @-@ payment mortgages during the crisis of 2007 – 2010 when no mortgages would otherwise have been available , " helped avert full @-@ scale disaster " by helping people purchase or refinance homes and thereby putting a floor under falling home prices . However , due to the tighter flow of credit from the banks , total FHA loans in 2009 were four times that of 2006 , raising concern that year that if the economy were to dip back into recession , more Fed funds could be required to keep those loans afloat . Frank 's response was that the additional defaults — 2 @.@ 2 % more of the total portfolio in 2009 than the year before — were worth the economic stabilization of the broader policy , noting " It was an effort to keep prices from falling too fast . " In that context , he opined , " I don 't think it 's a bad thing that the bad loans occurred . " In fact , the unprecedented number of loans made since 2008 were noted to be performing far better than those in the prior two years .
= = = Committee assignments = = =
Committee on Financial Services ( Ranking Member )
= = Political positions and votes = =
= = = Abortion = = =
In 2009 Frank had a 100 % rating from NARAL Pro @-@ Choice America , indicating a pro @-@ choice voting record . He voted against the Partial @-@ Birth Abortion Ban Act , against the Unborn Victims of Violence Act and against restrictions on the transportation of minors across state lines by non @-@ family members to circumvent local abortion laws . In 1993 Frank co @-@ sponsored the " Freedom of Choice Act " ( H.R.25 ) ( 1993 @-@ H25 ) to " protect the reproductive rights of women " . In 2006 , he co @-@ sponsored the " Compassionate Assistance for Rape Emergencies Act " ( S.3945 ) ( 06 @-@ S3945 ) , a bill for " emergency contraception for rape victims " . In 2007 he co @-@ sponsored the " Compassionate Care for Servicewomen Act " ( S.1800 & HR.2064 ) ( 07 @-@ HR2064 ) to " providing emergency contraception at military facilities " ; the " Prevention First Act " ( S.21 & H.R.463 2009 @-@ S21 ) to " expand access to preventive health care services that help reduce unintended pregnancy , reduce abortions , and improve access to women 's health care " .
= = = Civil rights = = =
In 1987 , Frank was the Chair of the important House Judiciary Subcommittee on Administrative Law and Governmental Relations in the 100th Congress . In this position , he was one of the staunchest supporters of redress and reparations for Japanese American internment during World War II . In 2001 , Frank co @-@ sponsored an amendment to the U.S. Constitution to apply equal rights based on gender differences . In 2002 he co @-@ sponsored the " Federal Agency Protection of Privacy Act " ( H.R.4561 ) to require a " Privacy Impact Statement " on new federal rules . In 2002 he was scored at 93 % by the American Civil Liberties Union on civil rights issues indicating a pro @-@ civil rights voting record .
In 2006 , Frank was one of three Representatives to oppose the Respect for America 's Fallen Heroes Act , which restricted protests ( notably those of Fred Phelps ' Westboro Baptist Church ) at soldiers ' funerals . He opposed the bill , which passed unanimously in the Senate , on civil liberties and constitutional grounds . Frank said of the vote , " I think it 's very likely to be found unconstitutional . It 's true that when you defend civil liberties you are typically defending people who do obnoxious things ... You play into their hand when you let them provoke you into overdoing it . I don 't want these thugs to [ make the ] claim [ that ] America is hypocritical . " The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People scored him at 100 % in 2006 indicating a pro @-@ affirmative @-@ action stance .
In 2007 , Frank co @-@ sponsored the " Partnership Benefits and Obligations Act " ( S.2521 / H.R.4838 ) to " provide benefits to domestic partners of Federal employees " . That same year , he co @-@ sponsored the " Equal Rights Amendment " ( S.J.RES.10 / H.J.RES.40 ) to " strengthen the ongoing efforts of women across the country to obtain equal treatment . " In 2009 , he signed bills recognizing the 40th anniversary of the Stonewall Riots and the 100th anniversary of the NAACP .
Frank has been outspoken on many civil rights issues , including lesbian , gay , bisexual and transgender ( LGBT ) rights . In 1987 , he publicly came out as gay . In 1990 , Frank was instrumental in crafting the 1990 Immigration Act , which restated the reasons for which a person could be denied entry into the country . The act did not include " sexual preference exclusion [ s ] " , reforming earlier immigration law which allowed persons to be excluded for a sexual deviance " afflict [ ion ] " . He said in a 1996 interview : " I 'm used to being in the minority . I 'm a left @-@ handed gay Jew . I 've never felt , automatically , a member of any majority . " In 1995 , then @-@ Republican House Majority Leader Dick Armey famously referred to Frank as " Barney Fag " in a press interview . Armey apologized and said it was " a slip of the tongue " . Frank did not accept Armey 's explanation , saying " I turned to my own expert , my mother , who reports that in 59 years of marriage , no one ever introduced her as Elsie Fag . " In 1998 , Frank founded the National Stonewall Democrats , the national LGBT Democratic organization .
In 2006 , Frank and incoming House Speaker Nancy Pelosi were accused by Rep. John Hostettler ( R @-@ IN ) of having a " radical homosexual agenda " ; Frank responded " I do have things I would like to see adopted on behalf of LGBT people : they include the right to marry the individual of our choice ; the right to serve in the military to defend our country ; and the right to a job based solely on our own qualifications . I acknowledge that this is an agenda , but I do not think that any self @-@ respecting radical in history would have considered advocating people 's rights to get married , join the army , and earn a living as a terribly inspiring revolutionary platform . " Frank 's stance on outing gay Republicans has been called the " Frank Rule " whereby a closeted person who uses her or his power , position , or notoriety to hurt LGBT people can be outed . The issue became relevant during the Mark Foley scandal of 2006 , during which Frank clarified his position on HBO 's Real Time with Bill Maher : " I think there 's a right to privacy . But the right to privacy should not be a right to hypocrisy . And people who want to demonize other people shouldn 't then be able to go home and close the door and do it themselves . "
In February 2009 , Frank was one of three openly gay members of Congress , along with Tammy Baldwin of Wisconsin and Jared Polis of Colorado . In April 2009 , Frank was named in the LGBT magazine Out 's " Annual Power 50 List " , landing at the top spot .
In 2006 the Human Rights Campaign scored him at 100 % indicating a pro @-@ gay @-@ rights stance .
= = = Crime = = =
In 2000 , Frank was rated at 89 % by Citizens United for Rehabilitation of Errants , indicating pro @-@ rehabilitation crime votes . He co @-@ sponsored " Innocence Protection Act of 2001 " ( H.R. 912 , S.486 ) to " reduce the risk that innocent persons may be executed [ by examining DNA evidence more thoroughly ] " and the " National Death Penalty Moratorium Act of 2001 " ( H.R.1038 , S.233 ) to limit capital punishment until the National Commission on the Death Penalty reviewed the " fairness of the imposition of the death penalty " . In 2001 , he also co @-@ sponsored the " Local Law Enforcement Hate Crimes Prevention Act " ( 01 @-@ HR1343 ) to " provide Federal assistance to States and local jurisdictions to prosecute hate crimes . " Frank co @-@ sponsored the " Recidivism Reduction and Second Chance Act of 2007 " to reduce recidivism . ( this became Public Law No : 110 @-@ 199 ) .
= = = Drugs = = =
In 2001 , Frank authored the States ' Rights to Medical Marijuana Act ( H.R. 2592 ) , an attempt to stop the federal government from preempting states ' medical marijuana laws . He has consistently voted for the bipartisan Hinchey @-@ Rohrabacher amendment , annually proposed by Dana Rohrabacher ( R @-@ CA ) and Maurice Hinchey ( D @-@ NY ) , that would prohibit the United States Department of Justice from prosecuting medical marijuana patients . In March 2008 , he proposed the Personal Use of Marijuana by Responsible Adults Act of 2008 ( HR 5843 ) , which would have decriminalized small amounts of the drug , but which died in committee during the 110th Congress . On June 18 , 2009 , he re @-@ introduced the bill as the Personal Use of Marijuana by Responsible Adults Act of 2009 ( HR 2943 ) . Commenting on legislation to remove federal criminal penalties for possession of small amounts of marijuana for personal use , Frank stated " In a free society a large degree of human activity is none of the government 's business . We should make criminal what 's going to hurt other people and other than that we should leave it to people to make their own choices . " In 2003 , he was rated " A " by Vote Hemp , indicating a pro @-@ hemp voting record . In 2006 he was rated " + 30 " by NORML , indicating a pro @-@ drug @-@ reform stance . In 2007 he co @-@ sponsored the " Drug Sentencing Reform & Kingpin Trafficking Act " ( ( S.1711 ) 07 @-@ S1711 ) to " target cocaine kingpins and address sentencing disparity between crack and powder cocaine " . In 2008 , Frank sponsored " Removing Impediments to Students Education " ( RISE ) ( ( H.R.5157 ) 08 @-@ HR5157 ) to allow rehabilitated drug offenders to get student loans .
In 2009 Frank signed the " Community AIDS and Hepatitis Prevention Act " ( HR 179 2009 @-@ H179 ) to " use Federal funds for syringe exchange programs for purposes of reducing the transmission of bloodborne pathogens , including HIV and viral hepatitis " and the Industrial Hemp Farming Act of 2009 ( H.R.1866 2009 @-@ H1866 ) to " grant each state regulating authority for the growing and processing of industrial hemp . "
= = = Economic issues = = =
Frank was a member of the Congressional Internet Caucus established in 1996 to " promoting growth and advancement of the Internet and advance the United States ' world leadership in the digital world " . In 2001 , he co @-@ sponsored the " Anti @-@ Spamming Act " ( 01 @-@ HR718 ) to protect people and businesses from " unsolicited and unwanted electronic mail " . In 2006 , Frank voted for the " Communications , Opportunity , Promotion , and Enhancement Act " ( Bill HR 5252 Amendment 987 ) to " establish " network neutrality " ( non @-@ tiered Internet ) . " In 2008 , Frank voted against the " FISA Amendments Act " ( Bill HR6304 ) which would give retroactive immunity for those involved in the NSA warrantless surveillance controversy . That same year , he co @-@ sponsored overturning FCC approval of media consolidation ( S.J.RES.28 & H.J.RES.79 2008 @-@ SJR28 ) .
= = = Environment = = =
In 1993 , Frank co @-@ sponsored " Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments " ( H.R.3392 ) to regulate more contaminants under the Clean Water Act . In 2001 , he co @-@ sponsored the " National Forest Protection and Restoration Act " ( H.R.1494 ) to " prohibiting commercial logging on Federal public lands " . In 2003 , he was rated 95 % by the League of Conservation Voters , indicating pro @-@ environment votes . In 2007 , he co @-@ sponsored the " Great Cats and Rare Canids Act " ( H.R.1464 ) to " provide financial resources and to foster international cooperation for promoting conservation of rare felids & canids " . In the same year , he co @-@ sponsored the " Animal Fighting Prohibition Enforcement Act " ( S.261 / H.R.137 ) to " strengthen prohibitions against animal fighting " .
= = = Military = = =
In 1996 Frank co @-@ sponsored the " Federal Law Enforcement Dependents Assistance Act " ( H.R.4111. Became Public Law No : 104 @-@ 238 . ) " to provide educational assistance to the dependents of Federal law enforcement officials who are killed or disabled in the performance of their duties . " In 2001 Frank co @-@ sponsored " the MX Missile Stand @-@ Down Act " ( 01 @-@ HR2718 ) to take fifty Peacekeeper missiles off of high @-@ alert status as well as the Landmine Elimination and Victim Assistance Act ( 01 @-@ HR948 ) . As of December 2003 , Frank had an 89 % rating by Peace Action , indicating a pro @-@ peace voting record . In 2005 , he co @-@ sponsored " Rail Security Act " ( S.1379 / H.R.153 ) ( 05 @-@ S1379 ) giving higher priority to rail transportation security . In 2008 , he co @-@ sponsored the " Veterans Suicide Study Act " ( ( S.2899 / H.R.4204 ) 08 @-@ S2899 ) designed to study and address suicides among veterans . As of the 111th Congress , Frank is advocating a 25 @-@ percent reduction in the overall Military budget of the United States . " The math is compelling : if we do not make reductions approximating 25 percent of the military budget starting fairly soon , it will be impossible to continue to fund an adequate level of domestic activity ... , " wrote Frank . He claimed that such a significant reduction would have no effect on the United States ' ability to defend itself . " If , " he said , " beginning one year from now , we were to cut military spending by 25 percent from its projected levels , we would still be immeasurably stronger than any combination of nations with whom we might be engaged . " Frank supports having fewer F @-@ 35 Joint Strike Fighter planes , but also supports a $ 3 @-@ billion backup engine project that the Pentagon does not want . Frank told MSNBC 's Keith Olbermann that he actually wanted to cut the entire F @-@ 35 program , but as long as military spending continued , he would fight for his district 's share of it .
= = = Online gambling = = =
Frank has partnered with Ron Paul in support of online gambling rights . In 2006 , both strongly opposed H.R. 4777 , the Internet Gambling Prohibition and Enforcement Act , and H.R. 4411 , the Goodlatte @-@ Leach Internet Gambling Prohibition Act . To restore online gambling rights , in 2007 Frank sponsored H.R. 2046 , the Internet Gambling Regulation and Enforcement Act . This bill would have established licensing and regulation of online gaming sites . It provided for age verification and protections for compulsive gamblers . In 2008 , he and Paul introduced H.R. 5767 , the Payment Systems Protection Act , a bill that sought to place a moratorium on enforcement of the Unlawful Internet Gambling Enforcement Act of 2006 while the United States Treasury Department and the Federal Reserve defined " unlawful Internet gambling " . As a result of these efforts , Frank ( who does not gamble ) has been praised by poker players and online gamblers , including many Republicans .
= = = Relations with Israel = = =
Frank has been a determined supporter of the State of Israel . " The Israeli government has been a wholly democratic one from the beginning , " he said in a lecture to students . " It is one of the freest democracies in the world " . He attributed the primary reason for Israel ’ s long war to his belief that Palestinians are unwilling to make concessions .
In August 2009 , a confidential memo written by the consul general of Israel in Boston , Nadav Tamir , was leaked to the Israeli media . In the memo , Tamir said that Israel 's dealings with the Obama administration on differences over settlements were eroding US support . After Tamir was reprimanded by the Israeli government , Frank defended Tamir in a letter sent to Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu , in which Frank wrote : " I was sorry to learn that he ( Tamir ) is being criticized because of his accurate reporting of significant ( negative ) sentiment in the United States ... If the people who work for me did not give me the kind of straightforward , thoughtful analysis that the consul is providing , even if it wasn 't the most welcome news , that failure - not the information - would cause me unhappiness . "
= = Post @-@ House career = =
In the wake of the fiscal cliff legislation at the start of 2013 , Frank stated that he was interested in the interim appointment that Governor Deval Patrick was expected to make to fill John Kerry 's U.S. Senate seat once the latter resigns to serve as United States Secretary of State . Frank had initially said he was not interested in the seat , but went on to change his mind , noting that " that [ fiscal cliff ] deal now means that February , March , and April are going to be among the most important months in American financial history " . He has said he will not run in the special election which will be held to fill the seat for the remainder of Kerry 's term . At the end of January 2013 , Governor Patrick named associate Mo Cowan to the seat for the interim term .
Mr. Frank joined to the board of directors of the New York @-@ based Signature Bank on Wednesday , June 17 , 2015 .
= = Personal life = =
Frank resides in a studio apartment complex in Newton , Massachusetts . His husband , Jim Ready , is a surfing enthusiast whom Frank met during a gay political fundraiser in Maine , where Ready still lives . On July 7 , 2012 , Frank married Ready , his longtime partner , at Boston Marriott Newton in suburban Boston .
As of 2010 , Frank 's net worth is estimated by the Center for Responsive Politics to be between $ 619 @,@ 024 and $ 1 @,@ 510 @,@ 000 . His sister , Ann Lewis , served as a senior adviser in Hillary Clinton 's 2008 presidential campaign .
On August 3 , 2013 , Frank expressed sympathy with the host 's atheism on the television program Real Time with Bill Maher . In his biography , however , Frank states unequivocally that he is not an atheist and is uncomfortable expressing firm views on question for which he is unable to provide an answer . Frank 's agnosticism led him to resolve ( if he had been appointed as interim Senator ) to take the Oath of office on the United States Constitution , rather than the Bible . For most of his life and entire Congressional career , Frank was known as a Jew . Frank continues to identify strongly with the Jewish community and has been careful throughout his career that his agnosticism not reflect negatively on other Jews . For example , when he stopped going to temple services on High Holy Days he was careful to remain at home and out of the public eye in order that other Jews would not be criticized using his example .
= = = Sexuality = = =
According to Stuart Weisberg 's 2009 biography Barney Frank : The Story of America 's Only Left @-@ Handed , Gay , Jewish Congressman , Frank dated women in an effort to deny his homosexuality . His last romance with a woman was a nearly two @-@ year @-@ long affair with Irish @-@ American Catholic Kathleen Sullivan , a Boston School Committee member and the daughter of New England Patriots owner Billy Sullivan , that began in 1974 . When the two split up , at Frank 's instigation , he admitted to her that he was gay . He was still closeted publicly . According to Frank , he " realized it was crazy " to try to have a romance with someone he cared for but was not compatible with due to his homosexuality . " That was the last effort to avoid being gay , " Weisberg quotes Frank as saying . Frank never again dated a woman .
Frank started coming out as gay to friends before he ran for Congress and came out publicly on May 30 , 1987 , " prompted in part by increased media interest in his private life " and the death of Stewart McKinney , " a closeted bisexual Republican representative from Connecticut " . Frank told The Washington Post after McKinney 's death that there was " An unfortunate debate about ' Was he or wasn 't he ? Didn 't he or did he ? ' I said to myself , I don 't want that to happen to me . " Frank 's announcement had little impact on his electoral prospects . Shortly after coming out , Frank met and began dating Herb Moses , an economist and LGBT activist ; their relationship lasted for eleven years until an amicable break @-@ up in July 1998 . Moses , who was an executive at Fannie Mae from 1991 to 1998 , was the first partner of an openly gay member of Congress to receive spousal benefits and the two were considered " Washington 's most powerful and influential gay couple " .
= = Electoral history = =
= = = Articles = = =
Johansson , Warren & Percy , William A. Outing : Shattering the Conspiracy of Silence . Harrington Park Press , 1994 @.@ pp. 106 , 139 , 143 , 154 , 157 , 188 – 9 , 228 , 231 , 235 , 291
Rapp , Linda ( 2004 ) . " Frank , Barney " . glbtq.com. Retrieved August 16 , 2007 .
" A Liberal Wit Builds Bridges To the G.O.P. " , The New York Times , May 13 , 2008 .
Congressman Frank defends trans @-@ exclusive Employment Non @-@ Discrimination Act , The Bilerico Project , September 28 , 2007 .
The Republicans ' Democracy Disorder , In These Times , 2006 @-@ 02 @-@ 04
Congressman Barney Frank : A Buzzflash Interview , Buzzflash , July 22 , 2003
Monumentally Frank : Interview with Massachusetts Congressman Barney Frank Metro Weekly , March 20 , 2003 .
Frank Discusses U.S. Policy , Attitude Regarding Gay Rights at the Wayback Machine ( archived October 19 , 2007 ) , The Hoya , October 19 , 2001 .
Long interview with Frank at the end of his career
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= Amarillo , Texas =
Amarillo ( / ˌæməˈrɪloʊ / am @-@ ə @-@ RIL @-@ o ) is the fourteenth most populous city in the state of Texas , in the United States . It is also the largest city in the Texas Panhandle , and the seat of Potter County . A portion of the city extends into Randall County . The population was 190 @,@ 695 at the 2010 census ( 105 @,@ 486 in Potter County , and 85 @,@ 209 in Randall ) . The Amarillo metropolitan area has an estimated population of 236 @,@ 113 in four counties .
Amarillo , originally named Oneida , is situated in the Llano Estacado region . The availability of the railroad and freight service provided by the Fort Worth and Denver City Railroad contributed to the city 's growth as a cattle marketing center in the late 19th century .
The city was once the self @-@ proclaimed " Helium Capital of the World " for having one of the country 's most productive helium fields . The city is also known as " The Yellow Rose of Texas " ( as the city takes its name from the Spanish word for yellow ) , and most recently " Rotor City , USA " for its V @-@ 22 Osprey hybrid aircraft assembly plant . Amarillo operates one of the largest meat packing areas in the United States . Pantex , the only nuclear weapons assembly and disassembly facility in the country , is also a major employer . The location of this facility also gave rise to the nickname Bomb City . The attractions Cadillac Ranch and Big Texan Steak Ranch are located adjacent to Interstate 40 . U.S. Highway 66 also passed through the city .
= = History = =
Large ranches exist in the Amarillo area : among others , the defunct XIT Ranch and the still functioning JA Ranch founded in 1877 by Charles Goodnight and John George Adair . Goodnight continued the partnership for a time after Adair 's death with Adair 's widow , Cornelia Wadsworth Ritchie Adair , who was then the sole owner from 1887 until her death in 1921 .
During April 1887 , J.I. Berry established a site for a town after he chose a well @-@ watered section along the way of the Fort Worth and Denver City Railroad , which had begun building across the Texas Panhandle . Berry and Colorado City , Texas merchants wanted to make their new town site the region 's main trading center . On August 30 , 1887 , Berry 's town site won the county seat election and was established in Potter County . Availability of the railroad and freight service after the county seat election made the town a fast @-@ growing cattle marketing center .
The settlement originally was called Oneida ; it would later change its name to Amarillo , which probably derives from yellow wildflowers that were plentiful during the spring and summer or the nearby Amarillo Lake and Amarillo Creek , named in turn for the yellow soil along their banks and shores ( Amarillo is the Spanish word for the color yellow ) . Early residents originally pronounced the city 's name more similar to the Spanish pronunciation / ˌɑːməˈriːjoʊ / ah @-@ mə @-@ REE @-@ yoh , which later gave way to the current pronunciation .
On June 19 , 1888 , Henry B. Sanborn , who is given credit as the " Father of Amarillo , " and his business partner Joseph F. Glidden began buying land to the east to move Amarillo after arguing that Berry 's site was on low ground and would flood during rainstorms . Sanborn also offered to trade lots in the new location to businesses in the original city 's site and help with the expense of moving to new buildings . His incentives gradually won over people , who moved their businesses to Polk Street in the new commercial district . Heavy rains almost flooded Berry 's part of the town in 1889 , prompting more people to move to Sanborn 's location . This eventually led to another county seat election making Sanborn 's town the new county seat in 1893 .
By the late 1890s , Amarillo had emerged as one of the world 's busiest cattle shipping points , and its population grew significantly . The city became a grain elevator , milling , and feed @-@ manufacturing center after an increase in production of wheat and small grains during the early 1900s . Discovery of gas in 1918 and oil three years later brought oil and gas companies to the Amarillo area .
The United States government bought the Cliffside Gas Field with high helium content in 1927 and the Federal Bureau of Mines began operating the Amarillo Helium plant two years later . The plant would be the sole producer of commercial helium in the world for a number of years . The U.S. National Helium Reserve is stored in the Bush Dome Reservoir at the Cliffside facility .
Following the lead of the Fort Worth and Denver City Railroad , the Atchison , Topeka and Santa Fe Railway and Chicago , Rock Island and Pacific Railroad established services to and from Amarillo . Each of these three carriers maintained substantial freight and passenger depots and repair facilities in the city through most of the 20th century and were major employers within the community .
In 1929 , Ernest O. Thompson , a decorated World War I general and a major businessman in Amarillo , was elected mayor to succeed Lee Bivins . Thompson instituted a major capital improvements project and worked to reduce utility rates . He joined the Texas Railroad Commission by appointment in 1933 and was elected to full terms in 1934 , 1940 , 1946 , 1952 , and 1958 . He became an international expert on national petroleum and natural gas production and conservation . The first Mrs. Thompson , May Peterson Thompson , a former Metropolitan Opera singer , was involved in the arts while in Amarillo and later when the couple lived in Austin .
Amarillo was hit by the Dust Bowl and entered an economic depression . U.S. Routes 60 , 87 , 287 , and 66 merged at Amarillo , making it a major tourist stop with numerous motels , restaurants , and curio shops . World War II led the establishment of Amarillo Army Air Field in east Amarillo and the nearby Pantex Army Ordnance Plant , which produced bombs and ammunition . After the end of the war , both of the facilities were closed . The Pantex Plant was reopened in 1950 and produced nuclear weapons throughout the Cold War .
In 1951 , the army air base was reactivated as Amarillo Air Force Base and expanded to accommodate a Strategic Air Command B @-@ 52 Stratofortress wing . The arrival of servicemen and their families ended the city 's depression . Between 1950 and 1960 , Amarillo 's population grew from 74 @,@ 443 to 137 @,@ 969 . However , the closure of Amarillo Air Force Base on December 31 , 1968 , contributed to a decrease in population to 127 @,@ 010 by 1970 .
In 1970 , the Census Bureau reported Amarillo 's population as 6 @.@ 1 % Hispanic and 88 @.@ 5 % non @-@ Hispanic white . In the 1980s , ASARCO , Iowa Beef Processors ( present day Tyson Foods ) , Owens @-@ Corning and Weyerhaeuser built plants at Amarillo . The Eastridge neighborhood houses many immigrants from countries such as Vietnam , Laos , and Burma . Many of them found employment at the nearby Iowa Beef Processors plant . The following decade , Amarillo 's city limits encompassed 60 square miles ( 155 km2 ) in Potter and Randall counties . Interstate 27 highway connecting Lubbock to Amarillo was built mostly during the 1980s .
In 2006 , the historian Paul H. Carlson , professor emeritus at Texas Tech University in Lubbock , published Amarillo : The Story of a Western Town .
= = Geography and climate = =
Amarillo is located near the middle of the Texas Panhandle . It does not share similar weather characteristics with south and east Texas . Amarillo sits closer in proximity to Oklahoma , New Mexico , Colorado , and Wyoming state capitals than it does to Austin . The region has a surface that is relatively flat and has little soil drainage . Due to the lack of developed drainage , much of the rainfall either evaporates , infiltrates into the ground , or accumulates in playa lakes . According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 90 @.@ 3 square miles ( 234 km2 ) , with 89 @.@ 9 sq mi ( 233 km2 ) of it land and 0 @.@ 4 sq mi ( 1 @.@ 0 km2 ) of it ( 0 @.@ 50 % ) water . The Amarillo metropolitan area is the 180th @-@ largest in the United States with a population of 236 @,@ 113 in four counties : Armstrong , Carson , Potter , and Randall .
About 20 miles ( 32 km ) northeast of Amarillo is the Canadian River , a central corridor of the Southwestern Tablelands ecological region , which divides the Western High Plains ecological region . The southern divide of the Western High Plains is the Llano Estacado or Staked Plains geographical region . The river is dammed to form Lake Meredith , a major source of drinking water in the Texas Panhandle region . The city is situated near the Panhandle Field , in a productive gas and oil area , covering 200 @,@ 000 acres ( 81 @,@ 000 ha ) in Hartley , Potter , Moore , Hutchinson , Carson , Gray , Wheeler , and Collingsworth counties . The Potter County portion had the nation 's largest natural gas reserve . Approximately 25 miles ( 40 km ) south of Amarillo is the canyon system , Palo Duro Canyon .
The underground structures known as Amarillo Mountains are an extension of the Arbuckles of Oklahoma and the Ouachita of Arkansas and Oklahoma . They are some thousands of feet underground . The range was discovered by pioneer oilmen . Some of the peaks are believed to be 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) high . The tallest peak is reported to be 2 @,@ 500 feet underground in northeast Potter County under the Alibates Flint Quarries National Monument .
= = = Cityscape = = =
Most of Amarillo 's population growth and commercial development are occurring in the southern and northwestern parts of the city . Similar to many towns in the Texas Panhandle , the city 's downtown has suffered economic deterioration throughout the years . To help revitalize it , the organization Center City of Amarillo was formed to establish partnerships with groups who have a large presence in the city . Since its conception in the 1990s , Center City has sponsored public art projects and started block parties in the downtown area .
The 31 @-@ story Chase Tower was opened in Amarillo 's downtown in 1971 . Completed in the same year as the Chase Tower , the Amarillo National Bank Plaza One building houses the headquarters of Amarillo National Bank , the city 's largest financial institution . The Santa Fe Building , completed in 1930 , was the regional offices of the Atchison , Topeka and Santa Fe Railway , but was vacant for several years until Potter County bought the building for $ 426 @,@ 000 in 1995 to gain new office spaces .
Amarillo 's historic homes and buildings listed on the National Register of Historic Places reflect the economic growth from around 1900 to the start of World War II . Polk Street contains many of the city 's historic downtown buildings and homes . The large historic homes on this street were built close to downtown , and homes were located on the west side of the street as a symbol of status because they would be greeted with the sunrise every morning .
The City of Amarillo 's Parks and Recreation Department operates over 50 municipal parks , including a skatepark west of the city . Amarillo 's largest parks are Medical Park , Thompson Memorial Park , and Memorial Park , near Amarillo College 's Washington Street Campus . From 1978 to 2002 , the Junior League of Amarillo and the City of Amarillo 's Parks and Recreation Department co @-@ sponsored Funfest , a family entertainment festival , benefiting the city parks and the league 's Community Chest Trust Fund . Funfest was held in Thompson Memorial Park during Memorial Day weekend . The festival included Amarillo 's only 42 @.@ 2 @-@ kilometre ( 26 @.@ 2 mi ) foot race , the Funfest Marathon .
= = = Climate = = =
Amarillo and the Texas Panhandle 's climate is semi @-@ arid ( Köppen climate classification BSk or BSh ) ; both the city and the region as a whole lie in USDA Plant Hardiness Zone 7 . It is characterized by high diurnal temperature variation , day @-@ to @-@ day variability , a rush of cold air from the north or northwest into a warmer area and occasionally , by blizzards during the winter season and a hot summer with low humidity . The normal annual precipitation is 20 @.@ 4 inches ( 518 mm ) , most of it occurring in the late spring and summer months . The monthly daily average temperature ranges from 37 @.@ 0 ° F ( 2 @.@ 8 ° C ) in January to 78 @.@ 3 ° F ( 25 @.@ 7 ° C ) in July . Sunny weather prevails year @-@ round , with nearly 3300 hours of bright sunshine annually . The National Weather Service in Amarillo forecasts and provides climatic data for the city .
Extreme temperatures range from − 16 ° F ( − 27 ° C ) on February 12 , 1899 to 111 ° F ( 44 ° C ) on June 26 , 2011 , but lows do not typically lower to 0 ° F ( − 18 ° C ) in most years , while highs above 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) are seen on 4 @.@ 7 days . There is an average of 5 @.@ 9 days of lows at or below 10 ° F ( − 12 ° C ) , 8 @.@ 9 days where the temperature fails to rise above freezing , and 61 days of 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) + highs ; unlike in the Rio Grande Valley or eastern portions of Texas , days where the low does not fall below 70 ° F ( 21 ° C ) are uncommon due to the aridity and elevation . Blizzards are very possible , but snowfall is typically light , averaging nearly 18 inches ( 46 cm ) seasonally and the median figure is near 10 inches ( 25 cm ) . Much of Amarillo 's precipitation falls during heavy convective showers and thunderstorms . According to ' Cities Ranked and Rated ' ( Bert Sperling and Peter Sander ) , Amarillo averages 48 days per year during which thunder and lightning is reported . This is above the national average . These storms can be severe - Amarillo and the Texas Panhandle are situated in the western portion of " Tornado Alley " . Amarillo is also recorded as the windiest city in the U.S. by the Weather Channel " America 's Windiest Cities " . weather.com. 2014 . Retrieved April 16 , 2014 .
| source # 3 = National Weather Service Climate
= = Demographics = =
At the 2010 Census , there were 190 @,@ 695 people residing in Amarillo , an increase of 9 @.@ 8 % since 2000 .
According to the 2010 Census , 59 @.@ 7 % of the population was White , 6 @.@ 3 % Black or African American , 0 @.@ 5 % American Indian and Alaska Native , 3 @.@ 1 % Asian , 0 @.@ 1 % from some other race ( non @-@ Hispanic ) and 1 @.@ 5 % of two or more races ( non @-@ Hispanic ) . 28 @.@ 8 % of Amarillo 's population was of Hispanic , Latino , or Spanish origin ( they may be of any race ) .
There were 67 @,@ 699 households out of which 33 @.@ 9 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 50 @.@ 6 % were married couples living together , 12 @.@ 8 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 32 @.@ 4 % were non @-@ families . Of 67 @,@ 699 households , 2 @,@ 981 were unmarried partner households : 2 @,@ 713 heterosexual , 82 same @-@ sex male , and 186 same @-@ sex female . 27 @.@ 7 % of all households were made up of individuals and 9 @.@ 9 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 53 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 10 .
The age distribution of the city was as follows : 27 @.@ 9 % of the population was under the age of 18 , 10 @.@ 2 % from 18 to 24 , 28 @.@ 8 % from 25 to 44 , 20 @.@ 5 % from 45 to 64 , and 12 @.@ 6 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 34 years . For every 100 females there are 92 @.@ 4 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 88 @.@ 5 males .
The median income for a household in the city was $ 34 @,@ 940 , and the median income for a family was $ 42 @,@ 536 . Males had a median income of $ 31 @,@ 321 versus $ 22 @,@ 562 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 18 @,@ 621 . About 11 @.@ 1 % of families and 14 @.@ 5 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 19 @.@ 6 % of those under age 18 and 9 @.@ 3 % of those age 65 or over .
= = Government = =
= = = Local government = = =
In 1913 , Amarillo became the first Texas city and the fifth in United States to use the council @-@ manager form of municipal government , with all governmental powers resting in a legislative body , called a council ( before 2014 , it was called a commission ) . Amarillo 's commission is composed of five elected commissioners , one of whom is the mayor of the city . The mayor and each commissioner serves a two @-@ year term . The role of the commission is to pass ordinances and resolutions , adopt regulations , and appoint city officials , including the city manager . While the mayor serves as a presiding officer of the commission , the city manager is the administrative head of the municipal government and is responsible for the administration of all departments . The city commission holds its regular meetings on Tuesday of each week .
= = = County , state , and federal representation = = =
As the seat of Potter County , the city is the location of the county 's trial , civil , and criminal courts . The Randall County Amarillo Annex building is located within the city limits and houses its Sheriff 's Office and Justice of the Peace Court , Precinct 4 .
The Texas Seventh Court of Appeals is located in Amarillo .
The Texas Department of Criminal Justice operates the Amarillo District Parole Office in the city . It also operates the Clements Unit in unincorporated Potter County , east of Amarillo .
The United States Postal Service operates the Amarillo Main Post Office . Other post offices in the city include Downtown Amarillo , Jordan , Lone Star , North Amarillo , and San Jacinto .
In the U.S. House , Amarillo is located in Texas 's 13th congressional district , and is represented by Representative Mac Thornberry . In the Texas Legislature , the city is in the 31st District in the Texas Senate , represented by Republican Kel Seliger , a former Amarillo mayor . It is in the 87th District in the Texas House of Representatives , having been represented by Republican David A. Swinford since 1991 . Swinford retired in January 2011 and was succeeded by fellow Republican Four Price , who is the current representative . That part of Amarillo within Randall County is represented by Swinford 's Republican colleague , John T. Smithee , who has served in the 86th District since 1985 .
Grady Hazlewood , a 1930s district attorney in Amarillo , served in the Texas Senate from 1941 to 1971 . He authored the first state school loan programs for returning World War II veterans and college students . He is the father of the farm @-@ to @-@ market road program in Texas .
= = Economy = =
Amarillo is considered the regional economic center for the Texas Panhandle as well as Eastern New Mexico and the Oklahoma Panhandle . The meat packing industry is a major employer in Amarillo ; about one @-@ quarter of the United States ' beef supply is processed in the area . The city is also the location of headquarters for the Texas Cattle Feeders Association . Petroleum extraction is also a major industry . The helium industry has decreased in significance since the federal government privatized local operations in the late 1990s . Bell Helicopter Textron opened a helicopter assembly plant near the city 's international airport in 1999 .
The city 's largest employer in 2005 is Tyson Foods , with 3 @,@ 700 employees . The Amarillo Independent School District is next with 3 @,@ 659 employees followed by BWXT Pantex , Baptist St. Anthony 's Health Care System , City of Amarillo , Northwest Texas Healthcare System , Amarillo College , Wal @-@ mart , and United Supermarkets . Other major employers include Bell Helicopter Textron , Owens @-@ Corning , and ASARCO .
Approximately 14 million acres ( 57 @,@ 000 km2 ) of agricultural land surrounds the city with corn , wheat and cotton as the primary crops . Other crops in the area include sorghum , silage , hay and soybeans . The Texas Panhandle , particularly in Hereford , Texas , serves as a fast @-@ growing milk producing area as several multimillion @-@ dollar state of the art dairies were built in early 2000s .
The Amarillo Economic Development Corporation ( AEDC ) is funded by a city sales tax , and it provides aggressive incentive packages to existing and prospective employers . In the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1990s , the AEDC gained notoriety by sending mock checks to businesses across the country , placing full @-@ page advertisements in The Wall Street Journal , and paying an annual $ 1 million subsidy to American Airlines to retain jet service . The AEDC is largely responsible for bringing Bell Helicopter Textron 's development of the V @-@ 22 Osprey hybrid aircraft and the future site of Marine One assembly in Amarillo .
= = Education = =
According to the 2000 United States Census , 20 @.@ 5 % of all adults over the age of 25 in Amarillo have obtained a bachelor 's degree , as compared to a national average of 24 @.@ 4 % of adults over 25 , and 79 @.@ 3 % of Amarillo residents over the age of 25 have earned a high school diploma , as compared to the national average of 80 @.@ 4 % .
The higher education institutions in the city are Amarillo College , a two @-@ year community college with over 10 @,@ 000 students ; Wayland Baptist University , a private university based in Plainview , has a branch campus in Amarillo ; Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center at Amarillo School of Pharmacy , and Texas Tech University at Amarillo , a branch campus of Texas Tech University that offers selected master 's degree programs . West Texas A & M University , a regional university headquartered in nearby Canyon , has a satellite campus in the Chase Tower in downtown Amarillo .
The public primary and secondary education are mostly handled by the Amarillo Independent School District ( AISD ) and Canyon Independent School District . ( CISD ) The AISD has approximately 29 @,@ 000 students in 2004 while CISD has over 8 @,@ 000 students in 2005 . The AISD operates 4 high schools , 9 middle schools , 36 elementary schools , a specialty high school , and an alternative school . While , the CISD has 2 high schools , 2 junior high / intermediate schools , and 4 elementary schools in Amarillo . Randall High School is located on the southern edge of Amarillo . Other school districts in the city are River Road , Bushland , and Highland Park . Nonreligious and Christian denomination private schools in Amarillo include Ascension Academy , Holy Cross Catholic Academy , San Jacinto Christian Academy , Amarillo Montessori Academy , St. Andrew 's Episcopal School , St. Joseph 's Catholic School and St. Mary 's Catholic School . The city also has one charter school , Vista Academy .
From 1922 to 1938 , the author Laura Vernon Hamner , who wrote a novelized biography of Charles Goodnight , served as the Potter County school superintendent . She was a ranch historian and radio personality . In her later years , she lived in the Herring Hotel , owned by Ernest Thompson , and was often known informally as " Miss Amarillo " .
= = Culture = =
Amarillo has a number of natural attractions near the city . The Palo Duro Canyon State Park is the United States ' second largest canyon system , after the Grand Canyon and is located south of Amarillo . Palo Duro has a distinct hoodoo that resembles a lighthouse . Another natural landmark near the city , the Alibates Flint Quarries National Monument is located 30 miles ( 48 km ) north of Amarillo . It is once known as the site for prehistoric inhabitants to obtain flint in order to make tools and weapons . About 100 miles ( 160 km ) southeast of Amarillo in Briscoe County is Caprock Canyons State Park and Trailway , the state park is the home of the official Texas State Bison Herd , who were captured and taken care of by cattle rancher Charles Goodnight .
From 1932 to 1977 , the Paramount Theater , originally built for $ 250 @,@ 000 , flourished in Amarillo . It had plush red carpet , murals and a pipe organ , 1 @,@ 433 seats , and was considered the finest theater north of Dallas . The building is now an office and parking garage .
Local millionaire Stanley Marsh 3 funded many public art projects in the city including the Cadillac Ranch , located west of Amarillo on Interstate 40 , a monument of painted Cadillac automobiles that were dug into the ground head first . Marsh participates as well in an ongoing art project called the Dynamite Museum , which consist of thousands of mock traffic signs . These signs , bearing messages such as " Road does not end " or displaying a random picture , are scattered throughout the city of Amarillo . Besides these works , one can find close to the city the final earthwork of Robert Smithson ( and another commission by Marsh ) , Amarillo Ramp .
The city has events and attractions honoring the cowboy and Texas culture . During the third week of September , the Tri @-@ State Fair & Rodeo brings participants mostly from Oklahoma , New Mexico and Texas to Amarillo since 1921 . On the Tri @-@ State Exposition grounds , the Amarillo National Center is a special events center for events ranging from national equestrian competitions to motor sports and rodeos . The World Championship Ranch Rodeo sponsored by the Working Ranch Cowboys Association is held every November in the Amarillo Civic Center . Amarillo hosts the annual World Championship Chuckwagon Roundup the first weekend in June . Teams in competition prepare a feast of breaded beef cutlets , mashed potatoes , baked beans , and sourdough biscuits and attempt to duplicate the food served on western cattle trails of the 1860s and 1870s . The Amarillo Livestock Auction on Bull Road holds a free @-@ to @-@ the @-@ public cattle auction on Tuesdays . Now located on Interstate 40 , The Big Texan Steak Ranch is famous by offering visitors a free 72 ounce ( 2 kg ) beef steak if it ( and its accompanying dinner ) is eaten in under an hour .
Globe @-@ News Center for the Performing Arts , opened in 2006 , houses the Amarillo Opera , Amarillo Symphony , and Lone Star Ballet concerts . The facility , located just across the Amarillo Civic Center , features a 1 @,@ 300 @-@ seat auditorium . The Globe @-@ News Center was built in hope by city officials and others that it will revitalize the downtown area . The nonprofit community theater group , Amarillo Little Theatre , has its season run from September to May . The theater group 's two facilities , the Mainstage and the Adventure Space , are located west of Amarillo 's downtown . The Pioneer Amphitheater , located in nearby Palo Duro Canyon , is the setting for the outdoor musical drama Texas , which plays nightly during the summer . The musical depicts a story about the history of Texas Panhandle settlers throughout the years . In 2002 , the producers changed its name to Texas Legacies after retiring the previous script that was used for 37 years for a more historically @-@ accurate one , but attendance declined over the next four seasons , so it was decided to revert to the original Paul Green script in 2006 .
The Amarillo Public Library is affiliated with the Harrington Library Consortium . The consortium consist of public , college , and school libraries located in the Texas Panhandle that share resources and cooperate with one another . Other members include the Amarillo 's public schools , Amarillo College , Canyon Area Library , Lovett Memorial Library in Pampa , Texas , and Hutchinson County Library in Borger , Texas . The Amarillo Public Library 's main branch is located in downtown and operates 4 neighborhood branches .
Wonderland Amusement Park is located in northern Amarillo at Thompson Park , named for Ernest Thompson . The park also houses the Amarillo zoo and offers picnicking .
Amarillo residents are known as Amarilloans . Notable Amarilloans include actress Ann Doran ( 1911 – 2000 ) , old @-@ style journalist Bascom N. Timmons , prominent surveyor W. D. Twichell , the Dory Funk wrestling family , former UFC Champions Heath Herring and Evan Tanner , astronaut Rick Husband , professional golfer Ryan Palmer , rockabilly pioneer Buddy Knox , actress Carolyn Jones , actress and dancer Cyd Charisse , actor and poet Harry Northup , State Senator Max Sherman , Republican state chairman Tom Mechler , clergyman W. Winfred Moore , politicians Beau Boulter , Roy Whittenburg and John Marvin Jones , businessman T. Boone Pickens , Jr . , singer @-@ songwriter J. D. Souther , gambler Thomas " Amarillo Slim " Preston , and music artist and composer Terry Stafford ( " Amarillo by Morning " ; " Suspicion " ) . Tom Blasingame , considered to have been the oldest cowboy in the history of the American West , worked for seventy @-@ three years , primarily , on the JA Ranch south of Amarillo . Pulitzer @-@ prize @-@ winning author Mark E. Neely , Jr. was born in Amarillo on November 10 , 1944 . In nearby Clarendon and Canyon , Texas , lived the Western artist Harold Dow Bugbee , whose early works were patronized by Ernest Thompson . Physician Steven Berk wrote Anatomy of a Kidnapping : A Doctor 's Story about his kidnapping from his Amarillo home in 2005 and how the four @-@ hour ordeal changed his perspective on life . Singer Lacey Brown of Amarillo advanced to the top 24 in season 8 on the hit show American Idol . She returned to the show again in season 9 and advanced to the top 12 but was eliminated from the program on March 17 , 2010 .
= = = Museums and art collections = = =
The American Quarter Horse Association ( AQHA ) is an international organization dedicated to the preservation , improvement and record @-@ keeping of the American Quarter Horse breed . The organization is headquartered in Amarillo and has a museum . There is also an American Quarter Horse Hall of Fame exhibited in the museum ; among the inductees was J. L. " Dusty " Rhoades of Odessa , who served as AQHA president in 1966 and 1974 . In addition , the AQHA and Center City of Amarillo co @-@ sponsors the project , " Hoof Prints of the American Quarter Horse " which consist of horse statues located in front of several Amarillo businesses , such as the downtown Amarillo National building , Nationwide Insurance , and Edward Jones . An area business would purchase a horse statue and a local artist paints on it .
Two of the Amarillo area 's higher education institutions have at least one museum in their campuses . The Amarillo Art Center [ 1 ] , opened in 1972 , is a building complex with the Amarillo Museum of Art ( AMoA ) and concert hall located on the Washington Street Campus of Amarillo College . In addition , Amarillo College 's Washington Street Campus is the home to the previously mentioned AMoA and is regarded as the largest natural history museum belonging to any two @-@ year college in the United States . Located on the campus of West Texas A & M University , the Panhandle @-@ Plains Historical Museum claims to be the largest historical museum in Texas .
Don Harrington Discovery Center , located in the city 's hospital district , is an interactive science center and space theater with over 60 hands @-@ on exhibits . Outside of the building is a steel structure called the Helium Monument which has time capsules and designates Amarillo the " Helium Capital of the World . " Near the proximity of the Discovery Center , the Amarillo Botanical Gardens has gardens , indoor exhibits , and a library for visitation throughout the year .
The Texas Pharmacy Museum claims to be the only Texas museum specialized in the research , collection , preservation , and exhibition of the history of pharmacy , is also located in the city 's hospital district .
Founded in 2013 , by businessman Tom Warren , The Amarillo Historical Museum is Amarillo 's only local museum to exclusively feature local history .
Other notable museums in the area are the Kwahadi Kiva Indian Museum and the English Field Air & Space Museum . The Kwahadi Kiva Indian Museum features a collection of Native American artifacts and provides dance performances . Sadly , the English Field Air & Space Museum , which had been operated by the Texas Aviation Historical Society featuring aircraft and space exhibits , in 2007 closed its doors and lost many of its aircraft . The museum is now rebuilding its aircraft collection as Texas Air & Space Museum and is located on American Drive on the south side of the airport .
= = = Local media = = =
The major local newspaper is the Amarillo Globe @-@ News , owned by Morris Communications , was a combination of three newspapers : Amarillo Daily News , Amarillo Globe , and Amarillo Times . Other publications include a local monthly magazine dealing with city and regional issues in the Amarillo area called , Accent West and a daily online paper , The Amarillo Pioneer . The American Quarter Horse Association publishes two monthly publications , The American Quarter Horse Journal and The American Quarter Horse Racing Journal , HISPANIC Newspaper El Mensajero owned by Dr. Ramon Godoy started printing in 1989 .
Amarillo 's major network television affiliates are KACV @-@ TV 2 ( PBS ) , KAMR 4 ( NBC ) , KVII 7 ( ABC ) , KFDA 10 ( CBS ) , KCIT 14 ( Fox ) , and KCPN 33 ( MyNet ) . In the 2005 – 2006 television season , Amarillo is the 131st largest television market in the United States designated by Nielsen Media Research .
Amarillo is the 168th largest United States radio market in autumn 2005 designated by the radio audience research company , Arbitron . According to Arbitron the top 5 rated commercial radio stations in Fall 2012 / Spring 2013 are :
KXGL @-@ FM -100.9 FM- Classic Hits Station
KGNC @-@ FM -97.9 FM- Country Music Station
KGNC -710 AM- News , Talk and Sports Station
KXSS @-@ FM -96.9 FM- Hit Music Station
KQIZ @-@ FM -93.1 FM- Top 40 Station
The regional public radio network , High Plains Public Radio , operates KJJP @-@ FM 105 @.@ 7 . Other notable radio stations around the area include the college stations KACV @-@ FM 89 @.@ 9 ( Amarillo College ) KZRK @-@ FM ( 107 @.@ 9 ) , and KWTS @-@ FM 91 @.@ 1 ( West Texas A & M University ) in nearby Canyon .
= = = Outside media attention = = =
The city gained national media attention in 1998 when television talk show host Oprah Winfrey was unsuccessfully sued by local cattlemen for comments made on her show connecting American beef to mad cow disease , costing them and their industry millions of dollars . In order to attend the trial in Amarillo , she temporarily relocated her show to the Amarillo Little Theatre for nearly a year . During the trial , Winfrey hired Dallas @-@ based jury consultant Phil McGraw to aid her attorneys on selecting and analyzing the members of the jury . McGraw would later become a regular guest on Winfrey 's television show and subsequently started his own talk show , Dr. Phil , in 2002 . Another notable trial in Amarillo includes the Fort Worth @-@ area murder case of T. Cullen Davis , which involved one of the richest men in the United States , his former wife , and her daughter and boyfriend . The trial was moved from Fort Worth to Amarillo in 1977 on a change of venue . The murder of Brian Deneke also brought attention from outside of the Texas Panhandle mainly due to the crime revolved around a conflict between two different cultures . The small town of Tulia , Texas , approximately 47 miles ( 76 km ) south from Amarillo , was the scene of a controversial drug sting in 1999 . Local civil rights attorney Jeff Blackburn took up the case of the Tulia defendants , which became a cause célèbre and resulted in the exoneration and pardon of the defendants . A federal lawsuit directed at the officials responsible for the sting operation was held in Amarillo . In the final settlement , the City of Amarillo agreed to pay $ 5 million in damages to the former Tulia defendants ; disband the Panhandle Regional Narcotics Task Force that it set up to oversee the sting operation ; and require early retirement for two Amarillo Police Department officers who were responsible for supervising the sting 's sole undercover agent .
Amarillo has been mentioned in popular music such " Amarillo by Morning " by Paul Fraser and Terry Stafford , Nat King Cole 's " ( Get Your Kicks ) on Route 66 " , Bob Dylan 's " Brownsville Girl " ( Amarillo was referred to as the " land of the living dead " ) , Rob Zombie 's " Two Lane Blacktop " , Amarillo Sky by Jason Aldean , and the song " Is This the Way to Amarillo " written by Neil Sedaka and Howard Greenfield , recorded famously by Yorkshireman Tony Christie and Sedaka , and revived in the UK by comedian Peter Kay through performances in the comedy series Peter Kay 's Phoenix Nights and in a charity performance for Comic Relief . Christie 's version , which only managed to reach 18 when originally released in 1971 , made it to the number 1 spot in the UK Singles Chart in 2005 for 7 weeks . In 2010 , Damon Albarn wrote the song " Amarillo " whilst on tour in America with the Gorillaz , although it is not known to what extent the song is reference to the city .
The Amarillo Film Commission is a division of the Amarillo Convention and Visitor Council that was created to provide film crews with locations and other assistance when filming in Amarillo . Amarillo was the setting for many motion pictures , including Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade , Switchback 1997 , and The Plutonium Circus , the 1995 South by Southwest Film Festival winner for best documentary feature . Amarillo was the title of the third episode of the second season of AMC ( TV channel ) ' s drama Better Call Saul , a spin @-@ off of the hit drama Breaking Bad . The city played a part in the plot of the episode , as it was a location used by series protagonist Jimmy McGill to solicit clients .
= = = Sports = = =
The Lone Star Football League team Amarillo Venom and the NAHL Jr . A hockey team , the Amarillo Bulls both play in the Amarillo Civic Center . Amarillo 's independent league baseball team , Amarillo Thunderheads ( formerly the Amarillo Sox ) of the American Association , plays its home games in the Potter County Memorial Stadium . Before the founding of the Dillas , the city was the home of the AA Amarillo Gold Sox . Amarillo had a minor league indoor soccer team called the Amarillo Challengers that competed in the SISL and later the USISL .
West Texas A & M University features a full slate of NCAA Division II teams ; however , Amarillo College is one of the few community colleges in Texas without an athletic program . From 1968 to 1996 , Amarillo hosted the annual National Women 's Invitational Tournament ( NWIT ) , a post season women 's college basketball tournament . During high school football season , the Amarillo Independent School District schools ' home games are in Dick Bivins Stadium which had a $ 5 @.@ 7 million renovation in 2005 . Randall High School ( part of the adjacent Canyon Independent School District ) plays its home games in Kimbrough Memorial Stadium in Canyon , as well as the yearly Clinton Invitational horseshoe tournament . River Road , Highland Park , and Bushland High Schools , also play football , in addition other sports .
Amarillo is home to the Amarillo Gun Club , which features a variety of clay target sports including trap , skeet and 5 @-@ Stand .
Another part of Amarillo 's sporting history was its roots in professional wrestling . Amarillo residents Dory Funk , Stanley Blackburn and Doc Sarpolis promoted the territory for several decades . Funk 's sons , Dory Funk , Jr . , and Terry Funk were both National Wrestling Alliance World Heavyweight Champions and represented Amarillo .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Air transportation = = =
Rick Husband Amarillo International Airport is a public airport located 10 miles ( 16 km ) east of the central business district of Amarillo , north of Interstate 40 . A portion of the former Amarillo Air Force Base was converted to civilian use and became part of the airport . The airport was named after NASA astronaut Rick Husband , an Amarillo native and commander of the final flight of Space Shuttle Columbia , STS @-@ 107 , which disintegrated on re @-@ entry , killing Husband and his crewmates . The airport is served by several major air carriers with non @-@ stop service to Dallas , Houston , Denver , and Las Vegas .
Tradewind Airport is a public @-@ use general aviation airport located in Randall County , 3 nautical miles ( 3 @.@ 5 mi ; 5 @.@ 6 km ) south of Amarillo 's central business district . The airport covers 595 acres ( 241 ha ) and has two asphalt @-@ paved runways and one helipad .
Buffalo Airport is a public @-@ use general aviation airport located in Randall County , 9 nautical miles ( 10 mi ; 17 km ) south of Amarillo 's central business district . The airport covers 40 acres ( 16 ha ) and has two grass runways .
= = = Ground transportation = = =
Local transit services in the city have been available since 1925 and have been provided through the City of Amarillo 's Amarillo City Transit ( ACT ) department since 1966 ; before that time the system was privately owned . ACT operates bus services that include fixed route transit and demand response paratransit which are designed for people with disabilities . The ACT transports approximately 350 @,@ 000 passengers per year on the fixed route and 30 @,@ 000 paratransit passengers , but it is a declining ridership . ACT has no plans to scale back any of their transit routes or services .
Amarillo has no passenger rail service but remains an important part of the rail freight system . The BNSF Railway complex in Amarillo continues to serve a heavy daily traffic load , approximately 100 @-@ 110 trains per day . The Union Pacific Railroad also sends substantial shipments to or through Amarillo . In addition to intermodal and general goods , a big portion of rail shipments involve grains and coal . There have been various proposals over the years to add passenger service . One , the Caprock Chief , would have seen daily service as part of a Fort Worth , Texas — Denver , Colorado service , but it failed to gain traction .
The streets in Amarillo 's downtown area conform to a grid pattern . The city 's original street layout was set up by William H. Bush , beginning at the west end of the town moving to the east . Bush named the north to south streets for past United States presidents , in chronological order except for John Quincy Adams because the surname was taken with the second president , John Adams . ( The last president so honored was Grover Cleveland ; though the city has expanded eastward the pattern was not continued . ) While the streets running north – south honor past presidents and are designated ' streets ' , east – west streets are numbered and are designated ' avenues ' . North of the Fort Worth & Denver ( now Burlington Northern @-@ Santa Fe ) railyard , the numbers are " NW " ( northwest ) west of Polk Street , and " NE " ( northeast ) east of Polk . South of the railyard ( including the downtown @-@ city center area ) , numbers are officially " SW " ( southwest ) west of Polk , and " SE " ( southeast ) east of Polk . Colloquially , though , most tend to dub the SW / SE avenues as W ( west ) / E ( east ) , respectively . One example of the numbering difference regards the former U.S. Highway 66 routing west of downtown and into the San Jacinto neighborhood . Most call it ' West Sixth Street ' when it 's actually SW Sixth Avenue .
In 1910 , the Amarillo voters approved to pay for street paving and the materials used to pave the streets were bricks . As of 2003 , the city still has 16 @.@ 2 miles ( 26 @.@ 1 km ) of brick streets in some parts of the downtown area . The city spent $ 200 @,@ 000 in 2002 to restore one block of brick street on Ninth Avenue between Polk and Tyler streets .
Less than one mile ( ~ 1 @.@ 6 km ) of Interstate 27 highway is located in Potter County . The highway terminates at the city 's main west @-@ east highway , Interstate 40 , just north of the Potter @-@ Randall County line . The roadway continues northward into downtown Amarillo via U.S. 60 , 87 , and 287 , via a series of four one @-@ way streets including Buchanan , Pierce , Fillmore and Taylor . North of downtown the highway becomes US 87 & 287 and continues northward to Dumas , Texas .
Interstate 40 , the city 's major east – west thoroughfare was completed entirely through Amarillo in November 1968 across the center of the city . Previously , U.S. Highway 66 was the major east – west highway through the city , generally following Amarillo Blvd. to the north of the downtown area and then curving southwest to leave the city near the Veterans Hospital . A city route ( which was an original alignment of US 66 through central and west Amarillo ) followed Fillmore south into the downtown area and turned on West 6th through the San Jacinto Heights district which is now home to many antique shops , restaurants and other businesses , passing the Amarillo Country Club and veering onto West 9th Street and Bushland Blvd. before tying into the through route at a traffic circle near the Veterans Hospital . Loop 335 circles around Amarillo in all four directions and consists of four @-@ lane roadway on its northeast and southwest quadrants and two @-@ lane paving to the southeast and northwest .
Amarillo is also mentioned in the song " Route 66 " .
= = = Medical centers and hospitals = = =
Amarillo is home to medical facilities including Baptist St. Anthony 's and Northwest Texas Hospitals , the Don & Sybil Harrington Cancer Center , Bivins Memorial Nursing Home , Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center , Texas Tech School of Pharmacy , and Texas Panhandle Mental Health and Mental Retardation . All are located in the Harrington Regional Medical Center , the first specifically designated city hospital district in Texas .
Baptist St. Anthony 's , known locally as BSA , had some of its services listed on the U.S. News & World Report 's " Top 50 Hospitals " from 2002 to 2005 . BSA was a result of a merger between the Texas Panhandle 's first hospital , St Anthony 's , with High Plains Baptist Hospital in 1996 . The BSA Hospice & Life Enrichment Center provides important services to the Amarillo area . The BSA facility , opened in 1985 , was the first free @-@ standing hospice west of the Mississippi River that was built and opened without debt .
Northwest Texas Hospital is home to the area 's only Level III designated trauma center .
The Thomas E. Creek Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center is located east of Harrington Regional Medical Center . The facility opened in 1940 and was renamed in 2005 , honoring the 18 @-@ year @-@ old Amarillo Marine who was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor . Construction began in 2006 for a new Texas State Veterans Home in northwest Amarillo . The United States government , through the Veterans Affairs Medical Center , provided the funding to build the facility , while the Texas government will run it after construction is completed . The home is scheduled to open in 2007 .
= = = Utilities = = =
Drinking water is provided by the City of Amarillo and its Utilities Division . Amarillo 's water supply used to come from both from Lake Meredith and the Ogallala Aquifer . Due to the lake 's low water level , water is now only supplied by the aquifer . Lake Meredith is located northeast of Amarillo and in 2005 it contained at least 114 billion US gallons ( 430 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) of water . By 2011 , lake levels had dropped so much due to the Texas drought , the Canadian River Municipal Water Authority voted to stop using it entirely . Generally , the city 's daily water production averages between 40 – 50 million US gallons ( 150 @,@ 000 – 190 @,@ 000 m3 ) .
Collection and disposal of the city 's trash and garbage are the responsibilities of the City of Amarillo 's Solid Waste Collection and Solid Waste Disposal Departments . Amarillo 's non @-@ hazardous solid waste is collected and disposed of through burial in the city 's landfill . The City of Amarillo also operates recycling collection centers , one located near the downtown area and 4 at fire stations in the city . Other utilities are primarily provided by private organizations . Natural gas is distributed by Atmos Energy . Electric power service is distributed by Xcel Energy , which bought out the Amarillo @-@ based Southwestern Public Service ( SPS ) in 2006 . Wired telephone service is primarily provided by AT & T. Cable television is provided by Suddenlink Communications .
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= Mr. Tambourine Man =
" Mr. Tambourine Man " is a song written , composed , and performed by Bob Dylan , who released his original version of it on his 1965 album Bringing It All Back Home . The Byrds also recorded a version of the song that they released in the same year as their first single on Columbia Records , reaching number 1 on both the Billboard Hot 100 chart and the UK Singles Chart , as well as being the title track of their first album , Mr. Tambourine Man . The Byrds ' recording of the song was influential in initiating the musical subgenre of folk rock , leading many contemporary bands to mimic its fusion of jangly guitars and intellectual lyrics in the wake of the single 's success .
This song has been performed and recorded by many artists , including Judy Collins , Odetta , Melanie , and William Shatner . The song 's popularity led to Dylan recording it live many times , and it has been included in multiple Dylan and Byrds compilation albums . It has been translated into other languages , and has been used or referenced in television shows , films and books .
The song has a bright , expansive melody and has become famous in particular for its surrealistic imagery , influenced by artists as diverse as French poet Arthur Rimbaud and Italian filmmaker Federico Fellini . The lyrics call on the title character to play a song and the narrator will follow . Interpretations of the lyrics have included a paean to drugs such as LSD , a call to the singer 's muse , a reflection of the audience 's demands on the singer , and religious interpretations . Dylan 's song has four verses , of which The Byrds only used the second for their recording . Dylan 's and The Byrds ' versions have appeared on various lists ranking the greatest songs of all time , including an appearance by both on Rolling Stone 's list of the 500 best songs ever . Both versions also received Grammy Hall of Fame Awards .
= = Composition = =
" Mr. Tambourine Man " was written and composed in early 1964 , at the same approximate time as " Chimes of Freedom , " which Dylan recorded later that spring for his album Another Side of Bob Dylan . Dylan began writing and composing " Mr. Tambourine Man " in February 1964 , after attending Mardi Gras in New Orleans during a cross @-@ country road trip with several friends , and completed it sometime between the middle of March and late April of that year after he had returned to New York . Nigel Williamson has suggested in The Rough Guide to Bob Dylan that the influence of Mardi Gras can be heard in the swirling and fanciful imagery of the song 's lyrics . Journalist Al Aronowitz has claimed that Dylan completed the song at his home , but folk singer Judy Collins , who later recorded the song , has stated that Dylan completed the song at her home . Dylan premiered the song the following month at a May 17 concert at London 's Royal Festival Hall .
= = Recording = =
Dylan first recorded " Mr. Tambourine Man " a few weeks later , on June 9 , with Tom Wilson producing , during the Another Side of Bob Dylan session . The take , recorded with Ramblin ' Jack Elliott , was cut from the album because Dylan felt the song was special and their performance did not do it justice . Sometime that month he also recorded a publisher demo of the song at Witmark Music . More than six months passed before Dylan re @-@ recorded the song , again with Wilson in the producer 's chair , during the final Bringing It All Back Home session on January 15 , 1965 , the same day that " Gates of Eden , " " It 's Alright , Ma ( I 'm Only Bleeding ) , " and " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " were recorded . It was long thought that the four songs were each recorded in one long take . However , in the biography Bob Dylan : Behind the Shades , Clinton Heylin relates that the song required six attempts , possibly because of difficulties in working out the playoffs between Dylan 's acoustic guitar and Bruce Langhorne 's electric lead . The final take was selected for the album , which was released on March 22 , 1965 .
In his book Keys to the Rain : The Definitive Bob Dylan Encyclopedia , Oliver Trager describes " Mr. Tambourine Man " as having a bright , expansive melody , with Langhorne 's electric guitar accompaniment , which provides a countermelody to the vocals , being the only instrumentation besides Dylan 's acoustic guitar and harmonica . Author Wilfred Mellers has noted that although the song is in the key of D major , it is harmonized as if it were in a Lydian G major , giving the song a tonal ambiguity that enhances the dreamy quality of the melody . Unusually , rather than beginning with the first verse , the song begins with an iteration of the chorus :
Hey ! Mr. Tambourine Man , play a song for me ,
I 'm not sleepy and there is no place I 'm going to .
Hey ! Mr. Tambourine Man , play a song for me ,
In the jingle @-@ jangle morning I 'll come following you .
= = Interpretations = =
William Ruhlmann , writing for the Allmusic website , has suggested the following interpretation of the song 's lyrics : " The time seems to be early morning following a night when the narrator has not slept . Still unable to sleep , though amazed by his weariness , he is available and open to Mr. Tambourine Man 's song , and says he will follow him . In the course of four verses studded with internal rhymes , he expounds on this situation , his meaning often heavily embroidered with imagery , though the desire to be freed by the tambourine man 's song remains clear . "
While there has been speculation that the song is about drugs such as LSD or marijuana , particularly with lines such as " take me on a trip upon your magic swirling ship " and " the smoke rings of my mind " , Dylan has always denied the song is about drugs . Though he was using marijuana at the time the song was written , Dylan was not introduced to LSD until a few months later . Other commentators have interpreted the song as a call to the singer 's spirit or muse , or the singer 's search for transcendence . In particular , biographer John Hinchey has suggested in his book Like a Complete Unknown that the singer is praying to his muse for inspiration ; Hinchey notes that ironically the song itself is evidence the muse has already provided the sought @-@ after inspiration . Mr. Tambourine Man has also been interpreted as a symbol for Jesus Christ and for the Pied Piper of Hamelin . The song may also reference gospel music , with Mr. Tambourine Man being the bringer of religious salvation .
Dylan has cited the influence of Federico Fellini 's movie La strada on the song , while other commentators have found echoes of the poetry of Arthur Rimbaud . Author Howard Sounes has identified the lyrics " in the jingle jangle morning I 'll come following you " as having been taken from a Lord Buckley recording . Bruce Langhorne , who performs guitar on the track , has been cited by Dylan as the inspiration for the tambourine man image in the song . Langhorne used to play a giant , four @-@ inch @-@ deep " tambourine " ( actually a Turkish frame drum ) , and had brought the instrument to a previous Dylan recording session .
= = Other Dylan releases = =
The Bringing it All Back Home version of " Mr. Tambourine Man " was included on Bob Dylan 's Greatest Hits in 1967 and several later Dylan compilation albums , including Biograph , Masterpieces , and The Essential Bob Dylan . The two June 1964 recordings , one with Ramblin ' Jack Elliott and the other at Witmark Music , have been released on The Bootleg Series Vol . 7 : No Direction Home and The Bootleg Series Vol . 9 : The Witmark Demos 1962 – 1964 , respectively . Outtakes from the January 15 , 1965 recording session were released on The Bootleg Series Vol . 12 : The Cutting Edge 1965 – 1966 in 2015 .
The song has been in Dylan 's live concert repertoire ever since it was written , usually as a solo acoustic song , and live performances have appeared on various concert albums and DVDs . An early performance , recorded during a songs workshop at the Newport Folk Festival on July 24 , 1964 is included in both Murray Lerner 's film The Other Side of the Mirror and the DVD release of Martin Scorsese 's documentary No Direction Home . A live performance at New York 's Philharmonic Hall dating from October 31 , 1964 , appeared on The Bootleg Series Vol . 6 : Bob Dylan Live 1964 , Concert at Philharmonic Hall . During his appearance at the Newport Folk Festival on July 25 , 1965 , after he was heckled by acoustic folk music fans during his electric set , Dylan returned to play acoustic versions of " Mr. Tambourine Man " and " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " ; this performance of " Mr. Tambourine Man " is also included in The Other Side of the Mirror .
A live version from Dylan 's famous May 17 , 1966 , concert in Manchester , England ( popularly but mistakenly known as the Royal Albert Hall Concert ) is included on The Bootleg Series Vol . 4 : Bob Dylan Live 1966 , The " Royal Albert Hall " Concert . Dylan 's August 31 , 1969 performance of the song at the Isle of Wight Festival appears on Isle of Wight Live , part of the 4 @-@ CD deluxe edition of The Bootleg Series Vol . 10 : Another Self Portrait ( 1969 – 1971 ) . Dylan also played the song as part of his evening set at the August 1 , 1971 , Concert for Bangladesh , a benefit concert organized by George Harrison and Ravi Shankar . That performance is included on The Concert For Bangladesh album , although it was excluded from the film of the concert . Another live version , from the Rolling Thunder Revue tour of 1975 , is on The Bootleg Series Vol . 5 : Bob Dylan Live 1975 , The Rolling Thunder Revue , while an electric band version from 1978 is on Bob Dylan at Budokan .
= = The Byrds ' version = =
= = = Release and the birth of folk rock = = =
" Mr. Tambourine Man " was the debut single by the American band The Byrds and was released on April 12 , 1965 by Columbia Records . The song was also the title track of the band 's debut album , Mr. Tambourine Man , which was released on June 21 , 1965 . The Byrds ' version is abridged and in a different key from Dylan 's original .
The single 's success initiated the folk rock boom of 1965 and 1966 , many acts imitating the band 's hybrid of rock beat , jangly guitar and poetic or socially conscious lyrics . The single , the " first folk rock smash hit " , gave rise to the very term " folk rock " in the U.S music press to describe the band 's sound .
This hybrid had its antecedents in the American folk revival of the early 1960s , The Animals 's rock @-@ oriented recording of the folk song " The House of the Rising Sun , " the folk @-@ influences present in the songwriting of The Beatles , and the twelve @-@ string guitar jangle of The Searchers and The Beatles 's George Harrison . However the success of The Byrds ' debut created a template for folk rock that proved successful for many acts during the mid @-@ 1960s .
= = = Conception = = =
Most of the members of The Byrds had a background in folk music , since Jim McGuinn , Gene Clark , and David Crosby had all worked as folk singers during the early 1960s . They had also spent time , independently of each other , in various folk groups , including The New Christy Minstrels , The Limeliters , The Chad Mitchell Trio , and Les Baxter 's Balladeers . In early 1964 , McGuinn , Clark and Crosby formed The Jet Set and started developing a fusion of folk @-@ based lyrics and melodies , with arrangements in the style of The Beatles . In August 1964 , the band 's manager Jim Dickson acquired an acetate disc of " Mr. Tambourine Man " from Dylan 's publisher , featuring a performance by Dylan and Ramblin ' Jack Elliott . Although the band members were initially unimpressed with the song , they eventually agreed to begin rehearsing and demoing it . In an attempt to make it sound more like The Beatles , the band and Dickson elected to give the song a full , electric rock band treatment , effectively creating the musical subgenre of folk rock . To further bolster the group 's confidence in the song , Dickson invited Dylan to hear the band 's rendition . Dylan was impressed , enthusiastically commenting , " Wow , you can dance to that ! " His endorsement erased any lingering doubts the band had about the song . During this period , drummer Michael Clarke and bass player Chris Hillman joined , and the band changed their name to The Byrds over Thanksgiving 1964 . The two surviving demos of " Mr. Tambourine Man " dating from this period feature an incongruous marching band drum part from Clarke but overall the arrangement , which utilized a 4 / 4 time signature instead of Dylan 's 2 / 4 configuration , is very close to the later single version .
= = = Production = = =
The master take of " Mr. Tambourine Man " was recorded on January 20 , 1965 , at Columbia Studios in Hollywood , prior to the release of Dylan 's own version . The song 's jangling , melodic guitar playing ( performed by McGuinn on a 12 @-@ string Rickenbacker guitar ) was immediately influential and has remained so to the present day . The group 's complex harmony work , as featured on " Mr. Tambourine Man , " became another major characteristic of their sound . Due to producer Terry Melcher 's initial lack of confidence in The Byrds ' musicianship , McGuinn was the only Byrd to play on both " Mr. Tambourine Man " and its B @-@ side , " I Knew I 'd Want You . " Rather than using band members , Melcher hired The Wrecking Crew , a collection of top L.A. session musicians , who ( with McGuinn on guitar ) provided the backing track over which McGuinn , Crosby , and Clark sang . By the time the sessions for their debut album began in March 1965 , however , Melcher was satisfied that the band was competent enough to record its own musical backing . Much of the track 's arrangement and final mixdown was modeled after Brian Wilson 's production work for the Beach Boys ' " Don 't Worry Baby " .
The Byrds ' recording of the song opens with a distinctive , Bach @-@ inspired guitar introduction played by McGuinn and then , like Dylan 's version , goes into the song 's chorus . Although Dylan 's version contains four verses , The Byrds only perform the song 's second verse and two repeats of the chorus , followed by a variation on the song 's introduction , which then fades out . The Byrds ' arrangement of the song had been shortened during the band 's rehearsals at World Pacific Studios in 1964 , at the suggestion of Jim Dickson , in order to accommodate commercial radio stations , which were reluctant to play songs that were over two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes long . Thus , while Dylan 's version is five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes long , The Byrds ' runs just short of two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes . The lead vocal on The Byrds ' version of " Mr. Tambourine Man " was sung by McGuinn , who attempted to modify his singing style to fill what he perceived as a gap in the popular music scene of the day , somewhere between the vocal sound of John Lennon and Bob Dylan . The song also took on a spiritual aspect for McGuinn during the recording sessions , as he told The Byrds ' biographer Johnny Rogan in 1997 : " I was singing to God and I was saying that God was the Tambourine Man and I was saying to him , ' Hey , God , take me for a trip and I 'll follow you . ' It was a prayer of submission . "
= = = Reception = = =
The single reached number 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 , and number 1 on the UK Singles Chart , making it the first recording of a Dylan song to reach number 1 on any pop music chart . Critic William Ruhlmann has argued that in the wake of " Mr. Tambourine Man " , the influence of The Byrds could be heard in recordings by a number of other Los Angeles @-@ based acts , including The Turtles , The Leaves , Barry McGuire , and Sonny & Cher . In addition , author and music historian Richie Unterberger sees the influence of The Byrds in recordings by The Lovin ' Spoonful , The Mamas & the Papas , Simon & Garfunkel , and Love , while author John Einarson has noted that both The Grass Roots and We Five enjoyed commercial success by emulating The Byrds ' folk rock sound . In addition , a number of commentators , including Richie Unterberger , Scott Plangenhoef , and Ian MacDonald have noted that by late 1965 , The Beatles themselves were assimilating the sound of folk rock , and in particular The Byrds , into the material found on their Rubber Soul album , most notably on the songs " Nowhere Man " and " If I Needed Someone " .
As the 1960s came to a close , folk rock changed and evolved away from the jangly template pioneered by The Byrds , but , Unterberger argues , the band 's influence could still be heard in the music of Fairport Convention . Since the 1960s , The Byrds ' jangly , folk rock sound has continued to influence popular music up to the present day , with authors Chris Smith , Johnny Rogan , Mark Deming and Stephen Thomas Erlewine all noting the band 's influence on such acts as Big Star , Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers , R.E.M. , The Long Ryders , The Smiths , The Bangles , The Stone Roses , Teenage Fanclub , and The La 's .
In addition to appearing on The Byrds ' debut album , " Mr. Tambourine Man " is included on several Byrds ' compilation and live albums , including The Byrds Greatest Hits , Live at Royal Albert Hall 1971 , The Very Best of The Byrds , The Essential Byrds , The Byrds Play Dylan , and the live disc of The Byrds ' ( Untitled ) album . The Byrds ' version of the song also appears on compilation albums that include hit songs by multiple artists . Two earlier demo recordings of " Mr. Tambourine Man " , dating from the World Pacific rehearsal sessions , can be heard on The Byrds ' archival albums Preflyte , In the Beginning , and The Preflyte Sessions .
= = Other recordings and references = =
" Mr. Tambourine Man " has been performed and recorded by many artists over the years , including at least thirteen versions recorded in 1965 alone . The Brothers Four recorded a commercial version before the Byrds , but were unable to release it due to licensing issues . In addition , notable recordings of the song have been made by Odetta , Judy Collins , Stevie Wonder , The Four Seasons , The Barbarians , and Chad and Jeremy . Other artists who have recorded the song include The Beau Brummels ( 1966 ) , The Lettermen ( 1966 ) , Kenny Rankin ( 1967 ) , Melanie ( 1968 ) , Gene Clark ( 1984 ) , Les Fradkin ( 2007 ) , Bob Sinclar ( 2009 ) , Jack 's Mannequin ( 2012 ) , and The Flowers of Hell ( 2012 ) . William Shatner also recorded the song in a spoken @-@ word recitation on his 1968 album , The Transformed Man .
The song was recorded by the fictitious group , The Termites , in an episode of the 1960s TV comedy , F Troop . Major cast members pose as " hippie " musicians in a send @-@ up of British Invasion groups in the 1967 episode " That 's Show Biz " , written by Austin and Irma Kalish .
A reunited line @-@ up of The Byrds , featuring Roger McGuinn , Chris Hillman , and David Crosby , performed " Mr. Tambourine Man " with Dylan at a Roy Orbison tribute concert on February 24 , 1990 . This live performance of the song was included on the 1990 box set , The Byrds . At the October 1992 Bob Dylan 30th anniversary tribute concert at Madison Square Garden , McGuinn performed the song , backed by Tom Petty , Mike Campbell , and Benmont Tench , among others .
The song has been translated and recorded in a number of languages . Müslüm Gürses recorded the song with different lyrics written in Turkish . The Turkish version of the song was called Hayat Berbat . It was translated into Romanian by Florian Pittiş , and sung by Pasărea Colibri on their 1995 album În căutarea cuibului pierdut . There are also at least two Brazilian Portuguese versions of the song , covered by Zé Ramalho and Zé Geraldo on their Zé Ramalho canta Bob Dylan and Catadô de Bromélias albums respectively .
" Mr. Tambourine Man " has also been referenced in books and film , including Tom Wolfe 's nonfiction novel The Electric Kool @-@ Aid Acid Test , Stephen King 's book Carrie , the film Dangerous Minds , and the documentary film Gonzo : The Life and Work of Dr. Hunter S. Thompson . The subject of the latter film , journalist Hunter S. Thompson , had " Mr. Tambourine Man " played at his funeral and dedicated his novel Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas to Dylan because of the song . The song was also performed by Pete Townshend at the funeral of Neil Aspinall , The Beatles ' road manager and personal assistant .
The 2013 John Craigie song , " I Wrote Mr. Tambourine Man " , is about a person that Craigie met in New Orleans who claimed to have written the original lyrics to " Mr. Tambourine Man " .
" Mr. Tambourine Man " is one of seven Dylan songs whose lyrics were reset for soprano and piano ( or orchestra ) by John Corigliano for his song cycle Mr. Tambourine Man : Seven Poems of Bob Dylan .
= = Legacy = =
The Byrds ' version of " Mr. Tambourine Man " was listed as the number 79 song on Rolling Stone 's list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time , and Dylan 's version was ranked number 106 . It is one of three songs to place twice , along with " Walk This Way " by both Aerosmith and Run @-@ DMC with Perry and Tyler , and " Blue Suede Shoes " by both Carl Perkins and Elvis Presley . The Byrds ' version was honored with a Grammy Hall of Fame Award in 1998 , and Dylan 's version was honored with the same award in 2002 .
In 1989 Rolling Stone ranked The Byrds ' version of " Mr. Tambourine Man " as the number 86 single of the prior 25 years . That same year , music critic Dave Marsh listed it as number 207 in his list of the top 1001 singles ever made . In 1999 , National Public Radio in the United States listed this version as one of the 300 most important American records of the 20th century . In the UK , music critic Colin Larkin listed The Byrds ' version as the number 1 single of all time . Other UK publishers that have listed this song as one of the top songs or singles include Mojo , New Musical Express , and Sounds . Australian music critic Toby Creswell included the song in his book 1001 Songs : The Great Songs of All Time and the Artists , Stories and Secrets Behind Them .
In a 2005 reader 's poll reported in Mojo , Dylan 's version of " Mr. Tambourine Man " was listed as the number 4 all @-@ time greatest Bob Dylan song , and a similar poll of artists ranked the song number 14 . In 2002 , Uncut listed it as the number 15 all @-@ time Dylan song .
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= Pirates of the Caribbean : On Stranger Tides =
Pirates of the Caribbean : On Stranger Tides is a 2011 American fantasy swashbuckler film and the fourth installment in the Pirates of the Caribbean film series . It is the first film in the series not to be directed by Gore Verbinski , being replaced by Rob Marshall . Jerry Bruckheimer again served as producer . The film serves as a stand @-@ alone sequel to the previous installments . In the film , which draws its plot from the novel On Stranger Tides by Tim Powers , Captain Jack Sparrow ( Johnny Depp ) is joined by Angelica ( Penélope Cruz ) in his search for the Fountain of Youth , confronting the infamous pirate Blackbeard ( Ian McShane ) . The film was produced by Walt Disney Pictures and released in the United States on May 20 , 2011 . It was the first film in the series to be released in the Disney Digital 3 @-@ D and IMAX 3D formats .
Writers Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio first learned of Powers ' novel during the back @-@ to @-@ back production of Dead Man 's Chest and At World 's End , and considered it a good starting point for a new movie in the series . Pre @-@ production started after the end of the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike , with Depp collaborating with the writers on the story design . Principal photography rolled for 106 days between June and November 2010 , with locations in Hawaii , the United Kingdom , Puerto Rico , and California . Filming employed 3D cameras similar to those used in the production of the 2009 film Avatar , and ten companies were involved with the film 's visual effects . Following inflated production costs it is currently noted as the most expensive film ever made .
On Stranger Tides broke many box office records upon release , and it stands as the 19th highest @-@ grossing film of all time worldwide when not adjusting for inflation . Critical reviews were mixed , with the film receiving criticism over the script @-@ writing , excessiveness , and lack of originality ; positive mentions were given on the acting , directing , action , music , and visuals . A sequel , titled Dead Men Tell No Tales , is scheduled to be released on May 26 , 2017 .
= = Plot = =
After a failed attempt to rescue his first mate , Joshamee Gibbs in London , Captain Jack Sparrow is brought before King George II . The king wants Jack to guide an expedition to the Fountain of Youth before King Ferdinand and the Spanish Navy can locate it . Jack 's old nemesis , Captain Hector Barbossa , now a privateer in service to the British Navy after losing his leg and ship , the Black Pearl , which he says was sunk , is heading the expedition .
Jack refuses the offer and escapes . He meets up with his father , Captain Teague , who warns Jack about the Fountain 's rituals . Jack learns someone is impersonating him to recruit a crew to find the Fountain . The impostor is Angelica , Jack 's former lover , and the daughter of the ruthless pirate Blackbeard , who practices voodoo magic and wields the mythical " Sword of Triton " that controls his ship , the Queen Anne 's Revenge . While Jack is shanghaied aboard Blackbeard 's ship , Gibbs escapes execution by memorizing and destroying Jack 's map showing the Fountain 's location , forcing Barbossa to take him along .
Meanwhile , after a failed mutiny aboard the Queen Anne 's Revenge , Jack is forced to guide the crew to the Fountain . Blackbeard seeks the Fountain 's power to circumvent his predestined fatal encounter with a " one @-@ legged man " , who happened to be Barbossa . Jack must find two silver chalices aboard Juan Ponce de León 's missing flagship , the Santiago . The Fountain 's water must simultaneously be drunk by two people from the chalices . Drinking from one chalice containing a mermaid 's tear will extend life ; the second person dies , their remaining years of life transferred to the other drinker . Jack also discovers that the Black Pearl was captured and shrunk before being added to Blackbeard 's collection of other shrunken ships in bottles .
The Queen Anne 's Revenge heads for Whitecap Bay to find and harvest mermaid tears . A mermaid named Syrena is caught , but Philip Swift , a captive missionary , falls in love with her . Reaching Ponce de León 's ship on an uncharted island , Angelica and Blackbeard coerce Jack into retrieving both chalices . Jack locates the grounded , decaying vessel , only to find Barbossa there . Both claim that the Spanish have taken the chalices , after it was nowhere to be found on the vessel .
Jack and Barbossa team up to sneak into the Spanish camp and steal the chalices . Barbossa reveals he only wants revenge against Blackbeard for attacking the Black Pearl , and his leg being amputated . Jack and Barbossa escape with the chalices . Meanwhile , Syrena , reciprocating Philip 's love , is tricked into shedding a tear . Blackbeard collects it , leaving her to die while Philip is forced to go with them . Jack returns with the chalices and bargains with Blackbeard for Angelica 's safety , Jack 's confiscated magical compass , and Gibbs ' release . In return , Jack vows to give Blackbeard the chalices and lead him to the Fountain ; Blackbeard agrees , and Gibbs is set free with the compass .
At the Fountain , Blackbeard 's crew are confronted by Barbossa and his men and they battle while Barbossa and Blackbeard fight . The Spanish suddenly arrive , intending to destroy the Fountain , believing its power an abomination against God . When Barbossa stabs Blackbeard with a poisoned sword , Angelica pulls it out but is cut and poisoned . Barbossa obtains Blackbeard 's magic sword and gains control of the Queen Anne 's Revenge and her crew . Philip is mortally wounded , but he returns to free Syrena . She retrieves the missing chalices and gives them to Jack , telling him not to waste her tear . Syrena goes back to the dying Philip . She says she can save him if he asks her to . When he asks for her forgiveness , she kisses him and takes him underwater .
With Blackbeard and Angelica both nearing death , Jack wants Angelica to drink from the chalice containing the tear . Instead , Blackbeard drinks it , asking his daughter to sacrifice herself . Angelica agrees and drinks from the second chalice . Anticipating that the self @-@ serving Blackbeard would sacrifice his daughter , Jack lied about which chalice contained the tear to save Angelica 's life and Blackbeard 's soul . Angelica 's wounds are healed as the Fountain fatally consumes Blackbeard 's body . Although Angelica claimed she loves Jack , he distrusts her intentions and strands her on a cay . Now wielding Blackbeard 's magical sword , Barbossa captains the Queen Anne 's Revenge and returns to piracy .
Jack finds Gibbs , who had used the compass to locate the Revenge . He reclaimed the shrunken Black Pearl and the other conquered ships in bottles , carrying them in a gunny sack . The two leave , hoping to revert the Black Pearl to its original size .
In a post @-@ credits scene , a voodoo doll of Jack crafted by Blackbeard washes ashore and is found by grinning Angelica .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Shortly before the premiere of At World 's End , Jerry Bruckheimer stated it was the end of the trilogy , but the idea of a spin @-@ off was still possible . After the film 's successful opening weekend , Dick Cook , then Chairman of the Walt Disney Studios , said he was interested in a fourth installment . The Los Angeles Times also reported that rights to a book were bought . Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio had started working on a script in 2007 , but they were interrupted by the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike , and only resumed in mid @-@ 2008 .
In June 2009 , Bruckheimer indicated Disney would prefer the fourth installment of Pirates to be released before The Lone Ranger film , which he , Johnny Depp , Ted Elliott , and Terry Rossio had been working on for release on May 20 , 2011 . He hoped Gore Verbinski would return to direct the fourth film , as his BioShock film adaptation had been put on hold . As Verbinski was unavailable due to his commitment with Rango the same year , Bruckheimer suggested Rob Marshall , who he considered a " premiere filmmaker " , stating that " Every film [ Marshall ] made I thought was unique and different . " On July 21 , 2009 , Marshall accepted the job , because of the " whole new story line and set of characters . It felt new , and that was important to me . " Marshall said the film provided him a long @-@ awaited opportunity to work with Depp , and that his directing was helped by past experience as a choreographer — " the action sequences felt like big production numbers . " On September 11 , 2009 , at Disney 's D23 convention during a Disney event , Cook and Johnny Depp , in full Captain Jack Sparrow costume , announced that a fourth Pirates film was in development . The title was announced as Pirates of the Caribbean : On Stranger Tides . Marshall visited the Pirates of the Caribbean ride in Disneyland for inspiration , eventually paying homage with a skeleton holding a magnifying glass in Ponce de León 's ship . An appearance of " Old Bill " , the pirate who tries to share his rum with a cat , was also filmed but cut . Pintel and Ragetti were originally supposed to make an appearance , but director Rob Marshall opted out of the idea as he feared their roles would be cut .
Cook resigned in September 2009 after working for Disney for over 38 years . Depp 's faith in Pirates of the Caribbean : On Stranger Tides was somewhat shaken after the resignation , with Depp explaining that " There 's a fissure , a crack in my enthusiasm at the moment . It was all born in that office " . Depp also explained Cook was one of the few who accepted his portrayal of Jack Sparrow : " When things went a little sideways on the first Pirates movie and others at the studio were less than enthusiastic about my interpretation of the character , Dick was there from the first moment . He trusted me " .
= = = Writing = = =
During production of Dead Man 's Chest and At World 's End , writers Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio discovered Tim Powers ' 1987 novel On Stranger Tides , which they considered a good foundation on which to base " a new chapter " in the Pirates series . Disney bought the rights to the novel in April 2007 . Rossio stated that he and Elliot had considered using Blackbeard and the Fountain of Youth in the story before reading the book , " but whenever you say those words , Powers ' novel comes to mind . There was no way we could work in that field without going into territory Tim had explored . " However , they denied that it would be a straight version of the novel : " Blackbeard came from the book , and in the book there is a daughter character , too . But Jack Sparrow is not in the book , nor is Barbossa . So I wouldn 't call this an adaptation . " Rossio declared the script was written to be a standalone film , " kind of a James Bond sort of thing " , instead of the " designed to be a trilogy " structure of the previous installments . They hoped to " design a story that would support new characters , " as characters such as Will Turner would not return . Bruckheimer added that there was a decision to " streamline the story a little bit , make it a little simpler and not have as many characters to follow " , as the number of characters and subplots in At World 's End caused the film to have an unwieldy length . The duo decided to employ another sea myth alluded in the previous episodes : mermaids , which are briefly referenced in the book . The mermaids ' role expanded in the script , which included a vast attack sequence .
Depp was deeply involved with the story design , frequently meeting the writers to show what he was interested in doing , and in the words of Rossio , being " involved in coming up with story lines , connecting characters , creating moments that we would then fashion , shape and then go back . " Among Depp 's suggestions were turning Phillip into a missionary and having a Spanish contingent following the protagonists . Afterwards , Rob Marshall and executive producer John DeLuca met Rossio and Elliot , and did alterations of their own , including building the female lead .
= = = Casting = = =
Depp signed on to return as Captain Jack Sparrow in September 2008 , saying that he would come back if the script was good . Almost a year later , Disney announced that Depp would be paid $ 55 @.@ 5 million for his role , realizing that without him the franchise would be " dead and buried . " Geoffrey Rush expressed interest in returning to his role as Barbossa , and Bruckheimer later confirmed his presence . Rush was positive on Barbossa having lost a leg , as he considered the disability made him " angrier , more forceful and resilient as a character " , and had to work with the stunt team for an accurate portrayal of the limp and usage of crutch , particularly during sword fighting scenes . While the production team considered a prop pegleg to be put over Rush 's leg , the tight schedule caused it to be replaced with a blue sock that was replaced digitally , with a knob on the shoe to give Rush a reference for his walk . Three other actors from the previous films returned , Kevin McNally as Joshamee Gibbs , Greg Ellis as Lt. Theodore Groves , and Damian O 'Hare as Lt. Gilette . Keith Richards also had a cameo , reprising his role as Captain Teague from At World 's End ; he and Depp tried to persuade Mick Jagger to audition for the part of a pirate elder . Previous cast members Orlando Bloom and Keira Knightley stated that they would not reprise their roles , as they wanted to be involved in different films . They both thought the storyline involving their characters had gone as far as it could . On February 5 , 2010 , Mackenzie Crook also announced he would not be reprising his role of Ragetti , stating , " They haven 't asked me . But actually I don 't mind that at all . I 'm a fan of the first one especially and I think the trilogy we 've made is great . I 'd almost like them to leave it there . "
New cast members include Ian McShane , who plays the notorious pirate and primary antagonist of the film , Blackbeard , and Penélope Cruz , who plays Angelica , Jack Sparrow 's love interest . According to Marshall , McShane was chosen because " he can play something evil but there 's always humor behind it as well " and the actor accepted the job due to both the " very funny and charming " script and the opportunity to work with Marshall . The beard took one hour and a half to get applied , and McShane likened the character 's costume to " a real biker pirate — it 's all black leather . ” Marshall said Cruz was the only actress considered for the role , as she fit the description as " an actress who could not only go toe to toe with Johnny and match him , but also needed to be all the things that Jack Sparrow is in a way . She needed to be funny and clever and smart and crafty and beautiful " , and invited her for the role as they wrapped the production of Nine . The actress spent two months working out and learning fencing for the role . During filming , Cruz discovered she was pregnant , leading the costume department to redesign her wardrobe to be more elastic , and the producers to hire her sister Mónica Cruz to double for Penélope in risky scenes . Depp recommended Stephen Graham , who worked with him in Public Enemies , to play Scrum , a Machiavellian pirate and sidekick to Jack Sparrow , and Richard Griffiths for the role of King George II , as Depp was a fan of Griffiths ' work on Withnail and I. Sam Claflin , a recent drama school graduate with television experience , was chosen to play the missionary Philip , and British actor Paul Bazely also joined the cast . Spanish news website El Pais reported that the film had four Spanish actors : Cruz , Bergès @-@ Frisbey , Óscar Jaenada , and Juan Carlos Vellido . Jaenada was picked for both his work in The Losers and a recommendation by Cruz .
Casting for mermaids required the actresses to have natural breasts — no implants . As Bruckheimer explained to EW , " I don 't think they had breast augmentation in the 1700s , [ ... ] So it 's natural for casting people to say , ' We want real people . ' " Marshall invited Spanish @-@ French actress Àstrid Bergès @-@ Frisbey to play Syrena after seeing her in a French magazine article on up @-@ and @-@ coming actresses . Bergès @-@ Frisbey had to take lessons of English , swimming and breath control for the role . The rest of the mermaid portrayers , such as Australian supermodel Gemma Ward , were chosen for having " exotic sense , an otherworldly sensibility , but also under those layers a deadly quality " , according to Marshall , and had to take swimming lessons to learn movements such as the dolphin and eggbeater kicks .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began on June 14 , 2010 , in Hawaii . Filming was moved to California in August 2010 , primarily at the Long Beach shore and a recreation of Whitecap Bay done in the Universal Studios backlot , as the original Hawaiian location on Halona Cove was plagued with strong tides . After a brief shoot in Puerto Rico , with locations in both Palomino Island and the Fort of San Cristóbal in San Juan , production moved to the United Kingdom in September , where principal photography wrapped on November 18 after 106 days of shooting . Locations included Hampton Court Palace in London , Knole House in Kent , and Old Royal Naval College at Greenwich . Interiors were shot at London 's Pinewood Studios , and a replica of an 18th @-@ century London street was built on the backlot alongside the soundstages . The producers also considered using New Orleans as a location . In October , security was breached at the UK site when a celebrity impersonator gained access to filming at the Old Royal Naval College by dressing up as Captain Jack .
After the joint production of Dead Man 's Chest and At World 's End cost over $ 300 million , Disney decided to give a lower budget to the fourth installment . Many costs had to be cut , including moving primary production to Hawaii and London , where tax credits are more favorable , and having a shorter shooting schedule and fewer scenes featuring special effects compared to At World 's End . The tighter schedule — according to Bruckheimer , " We had a 22 @-@ week post , and for a picture like this , with almost 1 @,@ 200 visual effects shots , it 's usually 40 weeks " — meant that Marshall supervised editing of sequences during filming . The British financial statements of the film revealed total expenditures of £ 240 @.@ 7 million ( $ 410 @.@ 6 million ) by 2013 , with Disney receiving a rebate of $ 32 @.@ 1 million from the British government , making Pirates of the Caribbean : On Stranger Tides the most expensive film ever made to date .
Bruckheimer said the decision to film in 3D was made due to its being " immersive filmmaking ; I think it makes you part of the actual filming because you 're part of the screen . " Bruckheimer described it as the first major " exterior movie " to be shot in 3D , as Avatar was mostly done in sound stages . At first Marshall was not much interested in 3D , but the director eventually considered it a film that could benefit from the format . " You are on an adventure and with the 3D experience you are inside that adventure . " While the original plan was to add 3D effects during post @-@ production , the decision was made to shoot digitally with 3D cameras . Only one sequence was shot conventionally and needed a 3D conversion . The cameras were improved versions of the ones James Cameron developed for Avatar , which were made more compact for extra mobility . This meant the cameras could be brought into locations such as the Hawaiian jungle .
The Queen Anne 's Revenge was built atop the Sunset , the same ship used to depict the Black Pearl in previous installments . On February 2010 , the Sunset was sailed from Long Beach to a shipyard in Hawaii for the reforms , where a big concern was to make it imposing , with three stories , without sacrificing actual seakeeping . Given Blackbeard was meant to be the meanest pirate to appear in the series , the look for the Queen Anne 's Revenge was ominous , with sails dyed blood red , various elements on fire , and a decoration based on skulls and bones ( drawing inspiration from the Sedlec Ossuary in Czech Republic ) . Damage from cannon fire was also added to show that " not only Blackbeard was a dying man , but his ship is also a dying ship " . The ship 's figurehead also drew inspiration from Blackbeard 's pirate flag . The replica ship HMS Surprise was used for Barbossa 's ship , the HMS Providence , and all the scenes aboard the Providence were shot on the Long Beach shore as the Surprise could not be sailed to Hawaii . Over 50 designs were considered for the Fountain of Youth , with the final one representing a temple built by an ancient civilization around the Fountain , which itself was located in a round rocky structure to represent " the circle of life " . The locations leading up to the Fountain were shot in the Hawaiian islands of Kauai and Oahu , but the Fountain itself was built at the 007 Stage on Pinewood .
= = = Effects = = =
On Stranger Tides employed 1 @,@ 112 shots of computer @-@ generated imagery , which were done by ten visual effects companies . Cinesite visual effects supervisor Simon Stanley @-@ Clamp claimed that the most difficult part was doing the effects in 3D : " Rotoscoping is tricky . Cleaning up plates is double the work , and tracking has to be spot on . " The lead companies , with over 300 effects each , were Industrial Light & Magic — responsible for , among others , the mermaids and most water effects — and Moving Picture Company , who created digital ships and environment extensions , such as changing weather and designing cliffs and waterfalls . Filming the mermaids involved eight model @-@ actresses , who portrayed them outside the water , as well as 22 synchronized swimming athletes and a group of stuntwomen , both of whom wore motion capture suits to be later replaced by digital mermaids . Mermaid corpses were depicted by plaster models . The design tried to avoid the traditional representations of mermaids in paintings and literature , instead going for a scaly body with a translucent membrane inspired by both jellyfish and the fabric employed in ballet tutus . To make the mermaids more menacing underwater , the faces of the actresses had some digital touch @-@ ups on the underwater scenes , adding sharper teeth and a shimmery fish scale quality on the skin . ILM also handled Blackbeard 's death , where Ian McShane 's actual performance was covered by digital doubles which turned him into a " boiling mass of blood and clothing " , and a hurricane @-@ like formation that represented " the waters of the Fountain taking his life " . Cinesite handled the recreation of London and Barbossa 's peg leg , CIS Hollywood did 3D corrections and minor shots , and Method Studios created matte paintings .
= = = Music = = =
The film 's score was written by Hans Zimmer , who had worked in all of the previous entries in the franchise ; being the main composer for the second and third installments . Zimmer said that he tried to incorporate a rock n ' roll sound , as he felt " pirates were the rock ' n ' rollers of many , many years ago " , and Spanish elements , which led to a collaboration with Mexican guitarists Rodrigo y Gabriela and a tango song written by Penélope Cruz 's brother Eduardo . American composer Eric Whitacre contributed several choir @-@ based cues , as well as regular assistant Geoff Zanelli .
= = Release = =
On January 6 , 2010 , Disney announced that the film would be released in the United States and Canada on May 20 , 2011 , following Columbia Pictures ' announcement of a delay in the Spider @-@ Man reboot and Paramount Pictures slating Thor for May 6 , 2011 . The film was released in IMAX 3D , as well as traditional 2D and IMAX format , with Dolby 7 @.@ 1 surround sound . This film was also the first film to be released in the 4DX motion theaters in Mexico and in the Western Hemisphere , featuring strobe lights , tilting seats , blowing wind and fog and odor effects . It is available exclusively at select Cinépolis cinemas .
The world premiere of On Stranger Tides was on May 7 , 2011 , at a premium ticket screening at Disneyland in Anaheim , California , home of the original Pirates of the Caribbean ride that inspired the film series . Many of the film 's stars were in attendance . Two other early screenings followed , one in Moscow on May 11 , and another during the Cannes International Film Festival on May 14 . The international release dates fell within May 18 and 20 , with opening dates in the United Kingdom on May 18 , in Australia on May 19 , and in North America on May 20 . The film was released on a then @-@ record 402 IMAX screens , 257 screens in North America , and 139 in other territories . The total number of theaters was 4 @,@ 155 in North America and 18 @,@ 210 worldwide .
= = = Promotion = = =
Disney 's marketing president , MT Carney , said that the film 's advertising campaign was intended " to remind people of why they fell in love with Jack Sparrow in the first place and also introduce new elements in a way that was elegant " . Sony Pictures ' former marketing president , Valerie Van Galder , was hired as a consultant . The first footage from the film appeared on Entertainment Tonight on December 4 , 2010 . Three trailers were released , one in December , which had a 3D version included with the release of Tron : Legacy and broadcast by ESPN 3D ; a Super Bowl XLV spot on February 2011 , which was later released online in an extended version ; and a final trailer in March that focused more on the plot than the previous trailer and commercials .
Promotional tie @-@ ins included Lego Pirates of the Caribbean toy sets and a related video game , a cell phone app by Verizon Wireless , a special edition of Pirate 's Booty , lines of nail polish by OPI , clothing from Hot Topic , and jewelry from Swarovski . Goldline International produced replicas of the " Pieces of Eight " coins from the movies and gold Mexican Escudo coins , which were given in sweepstakes at the El Capitan Theatre . At Disney California Adventure Park , the Pirates of the Caribbean segment of the World of Color show was extended to include visual clips and music from On Stranger Tides .
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on Blu @-@ ray and DVD on September 12 , 2011 in the United Kingdom , topping both the Blu @-@ ray and DVD sales charts during its first two weeks . The film had its high @-@ definition home release on October 18 , 2011 in the United States and Canada . Three different physical packages were made available : a 2 @-@ disc combo pack ( Blu @-@ ray and DVD ) , a 5 @-@ disc combo pack ( 2 @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray , 1 @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray 3D , 1 @-@ disc DVD , and 1 @-@ disc Digital Copy ) , and a 15 @-@ disc collection featuring all four Pirates movies . On Stranger Tides was also released as a movie download in both high definition and 3D . The regular DVD edition came out on December 6 .
In its first week of release , it sold 1 @.@ 71 million Blu @-@ ray units and generated $ 48 @.@ 50 million , topping the weekly Blu @-@ ray chart . However these results were quite skewed due to the one @-@ month delay of its DVD @-@ only release . It sold 3 @.@ 20 million Blu @-@ ray units ( $ 83 @.@ 46 million ) after 11 weeks . It has also sold 1 @.@ 12 million DVD units ( $ 19 @.@ 32 million ) . Upon its television premiere on December 29 , 2013 in the UK on BBC One , it was watched by a total of 5 @.@ 4 million viewers , making it the third most watched program that night , according to overnight figures .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box @-@ office performance = = =
On Stranger Tides earned $ 241 @,@ 071 @,@ 802 in the North America and $ 804 @,@ 642 @,@ 000 in other countries for a worldwide total of $ 1 @,@ 045 @,@ 713 @,@ 802 . It is the sixteenth highest @-@ grossing film worldwide , the third highest @-@ grossing 2011 film , the second most successful installment of the Pirates of the Caribbean series , the fourth highest @-@ grossing Disney feature and the second highest @-@ grossing fourth film in a franchise ( behind Transformers : Age of Extinction ) . On its worldwide opening weekend , it grossed $ 350 @.@ 6 million , surpassing At World 's End 's $ 344 million opening as best in the series and ranking as the seventh highest worldwide opening . It scored an IMAX worldwide opening @-@ weekend record with $ 16 @.@ 7 million ( first surpassed by Transformers : Dark of the Moon ) .
It set records for the least time to reach $ 500 , $ 600 , and $ 700 million worldwide ( in 10 , 12 and 16 days , respectively ) . The first of these records was first surpassed by Dark of the Moon and the other two by Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 . After 46 days in theaters ( July 2 , 2011 ) , it became the eighth film in cinema history and the fourth film released by Walt Disney Studios to cross the $ 1 @-@ billion @-@ mark . It set a record for the fastest Disney @-@ distributed film to reach the milestone ( first surpassed by Marvel 's The Avengers ) and it is the fifth @-@ fastest film overall to achieve this .
= = = = North America = = = =
During its Thursday @-@ midnight showings , On Stranger Tides earned $ 4 @.@ 7 million from 2 @,@ 210 theaters , and $ 34 @,@ 860 @,@ 549 in total on its opening day . It earned $ 90 @,@ 151 @,@ 958 on its opening weekend , topping the weekend box office , but earning much less than its two immediate predecessors ( At World 's End – $ 114 @.@ 7 million and Dead Man 's Chest – $ 135 @.@ 6 million ) and the directly preceding Johnny Depp spectacle ( Alice in Wonderland – $ 116 @.@ 1 million ) . 3D showings accounted for only 46 % of its opening weekend gross . It closed on September 29 , 2011 , with a $ 241 @.@ 1 million gross , ranking as the fifth highest @-@ grossing film of 2011 and the least profitable film of the franchise . However , it was the top @-@ grossing movie during May 2011 ( with $ 166 @.@ 8 million by May 31 ) .
= = = = Outside North America = = = =
Outside North America , On Stranger Tides is the sixth highest @-@ grossing film , the third highest @-@ grossing Disney film , the second highest @-@ grossing 2011 film and the highest @-@ grossing film of the Pirates of the Caribbean series . It is the highest @-@ grossing Pirates film in at least 58 territories .
During its opening day ( Wednesday , May 18 , 2011 ) , On Stranger Tides made $ 18 @.@ 5 million from 10 territories . It added 37 territories and $ 25 @.@ 7 million on Thursday , for a two @-@ day total of $ 44 @.@ 2 million , and on Friday , it expanded to almost all countries , earning $ 46 @.@ 2 million for a three @-@ day total of $ 92 @.@ 1 million . On its 5 @-@ day opening weekend as a whole , it earned a then @-@ record $ 260 @.@ 4 million from 18 @,@ 210 screens in more than 100 territories , in all which it reached first place at the box office . The record debut was surpassed later in the same summer season by Deathly Hallows Part 2 . Earnings originating from 3 @-@ D showings accounted for 66 % of the weekend gross , which was a much greater share than in North America . Its highest @-@ grossing countries during its first weekend were Russia and the CIS ( $ 31 @.@ 42 million including previews ) , China ( $ 22 @.@ 3 million ) and Germany ( $ 20 @.@ 53 million ) . It dominated for three weekends at the overseas box office despite competition from The Hangover Part II , Kung Fu Panda 2 , and X @-@ Men : First Class . It reached the $ 300 , $ 400 and $ 500 @-@ million @-@ mark at the box office outside North America in record time ( 7 , 11 and 14 days respectively ) , records first surpassed by Deathly Hallows – Part 2 .
On Stranger Tides set opening day records in both Russia ( including the CIS ) and Sweden . Subsequently , it set opening @-@ weekend records in Latin America , the Middle East , Russia , Norway , Ukraine and Turkey , still retaining the record in Russia ( $ 26 @.@ 8 million ) and Ukraine ( $ 2 @.@ 15 million ) . Its highest @-@ grossing market after North America is Japan ( $ 108 @.@ 9 million ) , followed by China ( $ 71 @.@ 8 million ) and Russia and the CIS ( $ 63 @.@ 7 million ) . It is the highest @-@ grossing film of 2011 in Russia and the CIS , Austria , Ukraine , Greece , Portugal and Angola , South Africa , Romania , Bulgaria , Egypt , Estonia , and Latvia .
= = = Critical reception = = =
On Stranger Tides has received mixed to negative reviews . Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a score of 33 % based on 255 reviews , with a rating average of 5 @.@ 1 out of 10 . The site 's consensus was " It 's shorter and leaner than the previous sequel , but this Pirates runs aground on a disjointed plot and a non @-@ stop barrage of noisy action sequences . " Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , gives the film a rating score of 45 based on 39 reviews . CinemaScore polls reported that the average grade moviegoers gave the film was a B + on an A + to F scale .
Roger Ebert gave On Stranger Tides two out of four stars , saying that although the removal of Knightley and Bloom as well as the addition of Cruz were positive aspects , the film in general was " too much of a muchness " for him . Tom Long of The Detroit News gave a D + , saying that Jack Sparrow had " worn out his welcome " . Despite the more linear plot , " the movie is still ridiculous " . He found On Stranger Tides to be " precisely what you 'd expect of the fourth installment of a movie based on an amusement park ride : a whole lot of noise , plenty of stunts and complete silliness . " British film critic Mark Kermode gave the film an overwhelmingly negative review on his 5 Live show , saying " it 's not as staggeringly misjudged as the third part , because it is just nothing , it is just a big empty nothing , whereas part three I think was an active atrocity , it 's just nothing at all " .
As with the previous films , the plot was criticized as incoherent and confusing . The Arizona Republic critic Bill Goodykoontz rated the film two out of five , stating that " the movie is a series of distractions tossed together in the hopes that they will come together in a coherent story . That never really happens . " Online reviewer James Berardinelli considered the script " little more than a clothesline from which to dangle all of the obligatory set pieces " , and USA Today 's Claudia Puig found On Stranger Tides " familiar and predictable , ... often incoherent and crammed with pointless details . "
Mike Scott from The Times @-@ Picayune mentions that " while this latest chapter isn 't quite sharp enough to restore the sense of discovery that made that first outing so darn exciting , it 's enough to make up for most of the missteps that made the third one so darn arrgh @-@ inducing . " Writing for The A.V. Club , Tasha Robinson described On Stranger Tides as " a smaller film than past installments , by design and necessity " , and felt that " the series has needed this streamlining " as the film " feels lightweight , but that 's still better than bloated . "
On Stranger Tides also had positive reviews ; some critics found the film to be entertaining and well @-@ made . Richard Roeper gave the film a B + , describing it as " the most fun installment since the first " , calling the story " pure cartoon , but a lot easier to follow than the other sequels " , and summing as " the franchise is getting tired , but Penelope energizes it . " Along the same lines , Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post gave the film three out of four stars , writing that it " feels as fresh and bracingly exhilarating as the day Jack Sparrow first swashed his buckle , infusing new reckless energy into a franchise that shows no signs of furling its sails " . She said that Marshall " swiftly and without fuss delivers the action set pieces and eye @-@ popping escapism " and praised Depp , Cruz , and McShane 's performances . Ray Bennett from The Hollywood Reporter considered that Marshall " shows terrific flair with all the usual chases and sword fights , and he handles the 3D well " , and welcomed Penélope Cruz 's character , saying she " brings her Oscar @-@ winning vivacity " and had " lively sexual tension " with Depp . Writing for The Globe and Mail , Rick Groen found the action scenes to range from " merely competent to tritely cluttered " , but he was pleased with the overall result , calling McShane a " fresh villain " whose " stentorian tones are welcome anywhere " . Variety 's Andrew Barker considered the film derivative , but accessible . " It has nary an original idea and still doesn 't make much sense , but it 's lost all pretensions that it should " . He praised Geoffrey Rush , stating that he " not only gets the funniest lines and reaction shots , but also starts to siphon away much of the roguish charm that used to be Depp 's stock and trade . "
= = = Accolades = = =
The film was nominated for four Teen Choice Awards : Sci @-@ Fi / Fantasy Movie , Sci @-@ Fi / Fantasy Actor , Sci @-@ Fi / Fantasy Actress , and Villain . Its trailer and TV spot were nominated for Golden Trailer Awards .
= = Sequel = =
On May 29 , 2013 , it was announced that Kon @-@ Tiki directors Joachim Rønning and Espen Sandberg would be directing Pirates of the Caribbean : Dead Men Tell No Tales .
While earlier reports stated Dead Men Tell No Tales would be released between 2015 and 2016 , Disney announced in 2014 that the film would enter theaters on July 2017 . Production began in late February 2015 in Australia .
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= Buy , Buy Baby =
" Buy , Buy Baby " is the eighteenth episode of the American television series Will & Grace 's eighth season . It was written by Kirk J. Rudell and directed by series producer James Burrows . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) in the United States on March 30 , 2006 . Guest stars in " Buy , Buy Baby " include Britney Spears , Wanda Sykes , and George Takei .
In the episode , Jack 's ( Sean Hayes ) talk show Jack Talk is completely revamped , after right @-@ wing conservatives take over the gay network , OutTV . The new owners hire the ultra @-@ conservative Amber @-@ Louise ( Spears ) as Jack Talk 's new co @-@ host , infuriating Jack . While Jack is deciding whether or not he will stand up to his new bosses , Karen ( Megan Mullally ) desires a baby of her own . After seeing Grace ( Debra Messing ) so happy about her pregnancy , Karen decides she wants a baby and offers to pay a surrogate ( Sykes ) to carry one for her .
Before the airing of " Buy , Buy Baby " , a press release from NBC revealed that the episode would include a scene in which Spears hosted a Christian cooking segment called " Cruci @-@ fixins " . The name of the segment was met with protest from Christian groups , who accused it of mocking Jesus ' crucifixion . The network canceled the segment after criticism from the American Family Association . " Buy , Buy Baby " received generally mixed reviews and , according to Nielsen ratings , was watched by 3 @.@ 7 million households during its original broadcast .
= = Plot = =
Jack ( Sean Hayes ) learns that OutTV , the gay television network where he is employed , has been bought by a " large corporation " and that his talk show Jack Talk will have a co @-@ host " to widen the audience . " Not in favor of the idea , Jack agrees and meets his co @-@ host , Amber @-@ Louise ( Britney Spears ) . During an episode of Jack Talk , Jack is stunned to realize that OutTV , which has been bought by right @-@ wing conservatives , have made changes to the show , including it being renamed Talk Time USA . Not thrilled at the idea , Jack is told to compromise ; Amber @-@ Louise admits to Jack that she is a lesbian , and is merely pretending to be an ultra @-@ conservative Christian to get by in the TV world . She asks him to go along with it , so that he can keep his job . Jack gets on board and informs his guest , actor George Takei , that the network asked that he not reveal he is gay on the show . Will tells Jack not to be let himself be pushed around , and to stand up for who he is . Jack takes Will 's advice and does not compromise , which ultimately costs him his job .
Grace 's ( Debra Messing ) pregnancy prompts Karen ( Megan Mullally ) to have a baby of her own . She pays a surrogate , Cricket ( Wanda Sykes ) , to carry her child . Grace , who is bewildered at the idea of Karen having a baby , suspects that the only reason is that she is having one . Karen , however , dismisses the idea . Meanwhile , Cricket begins to have second thoughts on becoming Karen 's surrogate , following Karen 's strange behavior towards her and Karen 's admission on how she and her husband , Stanley , will raise the child . This prompts Cricket to quit and Karen revealing to Grace that the only reason she wanted a baby was to help her marriage . She also admits that she has thought about leaving her husband .
= = Production = =
" Buy , Buy Baby " was written by Kirk J. Rudell and directed by series producer James Burrows . In February 2006 , it was confirmed that singer Britney Spears would guest star on the show . She rehearsed with the cast on February 11 , 2006 , and recorded her lines in front of a live audience on February 13 and February 15 , 2006 . Spears ' appearance on Will & Grace was her first acting performance on prime @-@ time television , and her first television appearance since giving birth to a child in September 2005 . The show 's creators , David Kohan and Max Mutchnick , thought she did a " surprisingly good job " . On March 28 , 2006 , the Human Rights Campaign announced that actor George Takei would also appear in the episode , in support of Gay , Lesbian , Bisexual , and Transgender ( GLBT ) issues since coming out as gay . In addition , actress Wanda Sykes appears as Cricket .
The episode first aired on NBC in the United States on March 30 , 2006 . According to a press release for " Buy , Buy Baby " released by NBC in February 2006 , the episode was to air on April 13 , 2006 ( Maundy Thursday ) , the day before Good Friday and the crucifixion of Jesus . In the press release , NBC said the episode would include a scene in which Spears hosted a Christian cooking segment called " Cruci @-@ fixins " . The name of the segment was met with controversy from Christian groups , who called it a " mockery " of Jesus ' crucifixion . According to the American Family Association ( AFA ) , pressure from themselves and NBC 's affiliates , caused NBC to cancel the segment and move the episode 's air date . NBC , however , stated that the " Cruci @-@ fixins " segment was " erroneous information " mistakenly included in the press release and that it was an idea for another episode that had yet to be written . An NBC spokesperson stated : " The reference to ' Cruci @-@ fixins ' will not be in the show and the storyline will not contain a Christian characterization at all . We value our viewers and sincerely regret if this misinformation has offended them . " AFA responded by claiming that the network was " lying " in its claim that the segment had never been a part of the episode . A statement on AFA 's website read :
In an attempt to confuse the public , the network issued an intentionally misleading statement that left the impression that AFA had lied to our supporters . When NBC said that the script ' has yet to be written , ' what they didn 't tell you is that the ' story board ' had been completed and the offensive material was scheduled to be a part of the episode . The story board contains the outline of the program . That is the reason for the detailed description of the episode issued by NBC in their initial press release . The bottom line is that the actions taken by AFA online supporters like you caused them to rewrite the episode and remove the offensive segment .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Buy , Buy Baby " was watched by approximately 3 @.@ 7 million households , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode achieved an 11 % in the key 18 – 49 demographics among adults . It was the eighth highest @-@ rated show on the NBC network that week . Since airing , the episode has received mixed reviews from television critics . R.D. Heldenfels of the Akron Beacon Journal said Spears ' appearance on the show was " uninspired " . Lenny Ann Low of The Sydney Morning Herald commented that Spears as a right @-@ wing co @-@ host was a miss . " It proves she can talk and avoid the furniture but her flitting , one @-@ dimensional character feels like a stunt . " In Low 's opinion , the only thing that saved the episode from a " thumbs down " , was " its message about finding the courage to be yourself in a sea of conservatism , saccharine though that sounds . " Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune thought Spears " bombed " in the episode , and Jeff Hidek of Star @-@ News disliked the Southern accent she used in her performance . The Plain Dealer 's Mark Dawidziak commented : " Granted , the episode wasn 't very well written , but Spears seemed more out of place on the show than Megan Mullally 's Karen at a sensitivity seminar . "
A Herald Sun reviewer , however , thought she gave the final season of Will & Grace the " send @-@ off it deserved . " Rachel Browne of The Sun Herald said the problem with Spears ' performance is that " it 's impossible to accept her in any role other than her own headline @-@ hugging self . " Browne , however , thought her appearance was " fun to watch " . The Sunday Mail was also positive about Spears ' performance , commenting that she " does well , especially when you remember the dismal Crossroads . " Trent Vanegas of Pink is the New Blog said that doing the show was a " great move " for Spears . Television researcher Tim Brooks , the co @-@ author of the 1979 book The Complete Directory to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows , commented that Spears ' role was a " very good way to get her chops into comedy " , in part because it is " very out of type . She 's not just playing herself as a celebrity . "
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= Ivo Andrić =
Ivo Andrić ( Serbian Cyrillic : Иво Андрић , pronounced [ ǐːʋɔ ǎːndritɕ ] ; born Ivan Andrić ; 9 October 1892 – 13 March 1975 ) was a Yugoslav novelist , poet and short story writer who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1961 . His writings dealt mainly with life in his native Bosnia under Ottoman rule .
Born in Travnik in Austrian @-@ occupied Bosnia , Andrić attended high school in Sarajevo , where he became an active member of several South Slav national youth organizations . Following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in June 1914 , Andrić was arrested and imprisoned by the Austro @-@ Hungarian police , who suspected his involvement in the plot . As the authorities were unable to build a strong case against him , he spent much of the war under house arrest , only being released following a general amnesty for such cases in July 1917 . After the war , he studied South Slavic history and literature at universities in Zagreb and Graz , eventually attaining his Ph.D in Graz in 1924 . He worked in the diplomatic service of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia from 1920 – 23 and again from 1924 – 41 . In 1939 , he became Yugoslavia 's ambassador to Germany , but his tenure ended in April 1941 with the German @-@ led invasion of his country . Shortly after the invasion , Andrić returned to German @-@ occupied Belgrade . He lived quietly in a friend 's apartment for the duration of World War II , in conditions that some biographers liken to house arrest , and wrote some of his most important works , including Na Drini ćuprija ( The Bridge on the Drina ) .
Following the war , Andrić was named to a number of ceremonial posts in Yugoslavia , which had come under communist rule at the war 's end . In 1961 , the Nobel Committee awarded him the Nobel Prize in Literature , selecting him over writers such as J.R.R. Tolkien , Robert Frost , John Steinbeck and E.M. Forster . The Committee cited " the epic force with which he ... traced themes and depicted human destinies drawn from his country 's history " . Afterwards , Andrić 's works found an international audience and were translated into a number of languages . In subsequent years , he received a number of awards in his native country . Andrić 's health declined substantially in late 1974 , and he died in Belgrade the following March .
In the years following Andrić 's death , the Belgrade apartment where he spent much of World War II was converted into a museum and a nearby street corner was named in his honour . A number of other cities in the former Yugoslavia also have streets bearing his name . In 2012 , filmmaker Emir Kusturica began construction of an ethno @-@ town in eastern Bosnia that is named after Andrić . As Yugoslavia 's only Nobel Prize @-@ winning writer , Andrić was well known and respected in his native country during his lifetime . In Bosnia and Herzegovina , beginning in the 1950s and continuing past the breakup of Yugoslavia , his works have been disparaged by Bosniak literary critics for their supposed anti @-@ Muslim bias . In Croatia , his works were long shunned for nationalist reasons , and even briefly blacklisted following Yugoslavia 's dissolution , but were rehabilitated by the literary community at the start of the 21st century . He is highly regarded in Serbia for his contributions to Serbian literature .
= = Early life = =
= = = Family = = =
Ivan Andrić was born in the village of Dolac , near Travnik , on 9 October 1892 while his mother , Katarina ( née Pejić ) , was in the town visiting relatives . Andrić 's parents were both Catholic Croats , and he was their only child . His father , Antun , was a struggling silversmith who resorted to working as a school janitor in Sarajevo , where he lived with his wife and infant son . Antun died of tuberculosis , like most of his siblings , at the age of thirty @-@ two . Andrić was only two years old at the time .
Widowed and penniless , Andrić 's mother took him to Višegrad and placed him in the care of her sister @-@ in @-@ law Ana and brother @-@ in @-@ law Ivan Matković , an Austro @-@ Hungarian police officer . The couple were financially stable but childless , so they agreed to look after the infant and brought him up as their own . In the meantime , Andrić 's mother returned to Sarajevo seeking employment .
Andrić was raised in a country that had changed little since the Ottoman period despite being mandated to Austria @-@ Hungary at the Congress of Berlin in 1878 . Eastern and Western culture intermingled in Bosnia to a far greater extent than anywhere else in the Balkan peninsula . Having lived there from an early age , he came to cherish Višegrad , calling it " my real home " . Though it was a small provincial town ( or kasaba ) , it proved to be an enduring source of inspiration . Višegrad was multi @-@ ethnic and multi @-@ confessional , the predominant groups being Serbs and Bosnian Muslims ( Bosniaks ) . From an early age , Andrić closely observed the customs of the local people . These customs , and the particularities of life in eastern Bosnia , would later be detailed in his works . Andrić made his first friends in Višegrad , playing with them along the Drina River and the town 's famous Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge .
= = = Primary and secondary education = = =
At age six , Andrić began primary school . He later recounted that these were the happiest days of his life . At the age of ten , he received a three @-@ year scholarship from a Croat cultural group called Napredak ( Progress ) to study in Sarajevo . In the autumn of 1902 , he was registered at the Great Sarajevo Gymnasium ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Velika Sarajevska gimnazija ) , the oldest secondary school in Bosnia . While in Sarajevo , Andrić lived with his mother , who worked in a rug factory . At the time , the city was overflowing with civil servants from all parts of Austria @-@ Hungary , and thus many languages could be heard in its restaurants , cafés and on its streets . Culturally , the city boasted a strong Germanic element , and the curriculum in educational institutions was designed to reflect this . From a total of 83 teachers that worked at Andrić 's school over a twenty @-@ year period , only three were natives of Bosnia and Herzegovina . " The teaching program , " biographer Celia Hawkesworth notes , " was devoted to producing dedicated supporters of the [ Habsburg ] Monarchy . " Andrić disapproved . " All that came ... at secondary school and university , " he wrote , " was rough , crude , automatic , without concern , faith , humanity , warmth or love . "
Andrić experienced difficulty in his studies , finding mathematics particularly challenging , and had to repeat the sixth grade . For a time , he lost his scholarship due to poor grades . Hawkesworth attributes Andrić 's initial lack of academic success at least partly to his alienation from most of his teachers . Nonetheless , Andrić excelled in languages , particularly Latin , Greek and German . Although he initially showed substantial interest in natural sciences , he later began focusing on literature , likely under the influence of his two Croat instructors , writer and politician Đuro Šurmin and poet Tugomir Alaupović . Of all his teachers in Sarajevo , Andrić liked Alaupović best , and the two became lifelong friends .
Andrić felt he was destined to become a writer . He began writing in secondary school , but received little encouragement from his mother . He recalled that when he showed her one of his first works , she replied : " Did you write this ? What did you do that for ? " Andrić published his first two poems in 1911 in a journal called Bosanska vila ( Bosnian Fairy ) , which promoted Serbo @-@ Croat unity . At the time , he was still a secondary school student . Prior to World War I his poems , essays , reviews , and translations appeared in journals such as Vihor ( Whirlwind ) , Savremenik ( The Contemporary ) , Hrvatski pokret ( The Croatian Movement ) , and Književne novine ( Literary News ) . One of Andrić ’ s favorite literary forms was lyrical reflective prose , and many of his essays and shorter pieces are prose poems . The historian Wayne S. Vucinich describes Andrić ’ s poetry from this period as " subjective and mostly melancholic " . Andrić ’ s translations of August Strindberg , Walt Whitman , and a number of Slovene authors also appeared around this time .
= = = Student activism = = =
In 1908 , Austria @-@ Hungary officially annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina , to the chagrin of South Slav nationalists like Andrić . In late 1911 , Andrić was elected the first president of the Serbo @-@ Croat Progressive Movement ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Srpsko @-@ Hrvatska Napredna Organizacija ; SHNO ) , a Sarajevo @-@ based secret society that promoted unity and friendship between Serb and Croat youth and opposed the Austro @-@ Hungarian occupation . Its members were vehemently criticized by both Serb and Croat nationalists , who dismissed them as " traitors to their nations " . Unfazed , Andrić continued agitating against the Austro @-@ Hungarians . On 28 February 1912 , he spoke before a crowd of 100 student protesters at Sarajevo 's railway station , urging them to continue their demonstrations . The Austro @-@ Hungarian police later began harassing and prosecuting SHNO members . Ten were expelled from their schools or penalized in some other way , though Andrić himself escaped punishment . Andrić also joined the South Slav student movement known as Young Bosnia , and became one of its most prominent members .
In 1912 , Andrić registered at the University of Zagreb in Croatia @-@ Slavonia , having received a scholarship from an educational foundation in Sarajevo . He enrolled in the department of mathematics and natural sciences because these were the only fields for which scholarships were offered , but was able to take some courses in Croatian literature . Andrić was well received by South Slav nationalists there , and regularly participated in on @-@ campus demonstrations . This led to his being reprimanded by the university . In 1913 , after completing two semesters in Zagreb , Andrić transferred to the University of Vienna , where he resumed his studies . While in Vienna , he joined South Slav students in promoting the cause of Yugoslav unity and worked closely with two Yugoslav student societies , the Serbian cultural society Zora ( Dawn ) and the Croatian student club Zvonimir , which shared his views on " integral Yugoslavism " ( the eventual assimilation of all South Slav cultures into one ) .
Despite finding like @-@ minded students in Vienna , the city 's climate took a toll on Andrić 's health . He contracted tuberculosis and became seriously ill , then asked to leave Vienna on medical grounds and continue his studies elsewhere , though Hawkesworth believes he may actually have been taking part in a protest of South Slav students that were boycotting German @-@ speaking universities and transferring to Slavic ones . For a time , Andrić had considered transferring to a school in Russia but ultimately decided to complete his fourth semester at Jagiellonian University in Kraków . He transferred in early 1914 , and continued to publish translations , poems and reviews .
= = World War I = =
On 28 June 1914 , Andrić learned of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo . The assassin was Gavrilo Princip , a Young Bosnian and close friend of Andrić who had been one of the first to join the SHNO in 1911 . Upon hearing the news , Andrić decided to leave Kraków and return to Bosnia . He travelled by train to Zagreb , and in mid @-@ July , departed for the coastal city of Split with his friend , the poet and fellow South Slav nationalist Vladimir Čerina . Andrić and Čerina spent the rest of July at the latter 's summer home . As the month progressed , the two began feeling increasingly uneasy about the escalating political crisis that followed the Archduke 's assassination and eventually led to the outbreak of World War I. They then went to Rijeka , where Čerina left Andrić without explanation , only saying he urgently needed to go to Italy . Several days later , Andrić learned that Čerina was being sought by the police .
By the time war was declared , Andrić had returned to Split feeling exhausted and ill . Given that most of his friends had already been arrested for nationalist activities , he was certain the same fate would befall him . Despite not being involved in the assassination plot , on 4 August , Andrić was arrested for " anti @-@ state activities " and imprisoned in Split . From there , he was transferred to a prison in Šibenik , then to Rijeka and finally to Maribor , where he arrived on 19 August . Plagued by tuberculosis , Andrić passed the time reading , talking to his cellmates and learning languages .
By the following year , the case against Andrić was dropped due to lack of evidence , and he was released from prison on 20 March 1915 . The authorities exiled him to the village of Ovčarevo , near Travnik . He arrived there on 22 March and was placed under the supervision of local Franciscan monks . Andrić soon befriended the friar Alojzije Perčinlić and began researching the history of Bosnia 's Catholic and Orthodox Christian communities under Ottoman rule . Andrić lived in the parish headquarters , and the Franciscans gave him access to the monastery chronicles . In return , he assisted the parish priest and taught religious songs to pupils at the monastery school . Andrić 's mother soon came to see her son , and offered to serve as a housekeeper for the parish priest . " Mother is very happy , " Andrić wrote . " It has been three whole years since she saw me . And she can 't grasp all that has happened to me in that time , nor the whole of my crazy , cursed existence . She cries , kisses me and laughs in turn . Like a mother . "
Andrić was later transferred to a prison in Zenica , where Perčinlić regularly visited him . In March 1917 , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Army declared Andrić a political threat and exempted him from armed military service . He was thus registered with a non @-@ combat unit until February of the following year . On 2 July 1917 , Emperor Charles I declared a general amnesty for all political prisoners on the territory of Austria @-@ Hungary . His freedom of movement restored , Andrić visited Višegrad , where he was reunited with several school friends . He remained in the town until July , when he was mobilized . Due to his poor health , Andrić was admitted to a Sarajevo hospital and thus avoided service . He was then transferred to the Reservospital in Zenica , where he was treated for several months before moving on to Zagreb . There , Andrić again fell seriously ill and sought treatment at the Sisters of Mercy hospital , which had become a gathering ground for many former political prisoners .
In January 1918 , Andrić joined several other South Slav nationalist writers in editing a short @-@ lived pan @-@ Yugoslav periodical called Književni jug ( Literary South ) . Here and in other periodicals , Andrić published book reviews , plays , verse , and translations . Over the course of several months in early 1918 , Andrić 's health began to deteriorate , and his friends believed he was nearing death . However , he recovered and spent the spring of 1918 in Krapina writing Ex ponto , a book of prose poetry which was published that July . It was his first book .
= = Interwar period = =
The end of World War I saw the disintegration of Austria @-@ Hungary , which was replaced by a newly established South Slav state , the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( renamed Yugoslavia in 1929 ) . In late 1918 , Andrić re @-@ enrolled at the University of Zagreb and resumed his studies . By January 1919 , he fell ill again and was back in the hospital . Fellow writer Ivo Vojnović became worried for his friend 's life and appealed to Andrić 's old schoolteacher Tugomir Alaupović ( who had just been appointed the new kingdom 's Minister of Religious Affairs ) to use his connections and help Andrić pay for treatment abroad . In February , Andrić wrote Alaupović and asked for help finding a government job in Belgrade . Eventually , Andrić chose to seek treatment in Split , where he stayed for the following six months . During his time on the Mediterranean coast , Andrić completed a second volume of prose poetry , titled Nemiri ( Unrest ) , which was published the following year . By the time Andrić left , he had almost fully recovered , and quipped that he was cured by the " air , sun and figs . " Troubled by news that his uncle was seriously ill , Andrić left Split in August and went to him in Višegrad . He returned to Zagreb two weeks later .
= = = Early diplomatic career = = =
By 1919 , Andrić had acquired his undergraduate degree in South Slavic history and literature at the University of Zagreb . Yet he was perennially impoverished , and earned a meagre sum through his writing and editorial work . By mid @-@ 1919 , he realized that he would be unable to financially support himself and his aging mother , aunt and uncle for much longer , and his appeals to Alaupović for help securing a government job became more frequent . In September 1919 , Alaupović offered him a secretarial position at the Ministry of Religion , which Andrić accepted .
In late October , Andrić left for Belgrade . He became involved in the city 's literary circles and soon acquired the distinction of being one of Belgrade 's most popular young writers . Though the Belgrade press wrote positively of him , Andrić disliked being a public figure , and went into seclusion and distanced himself from his fellow writers . At the same time , he grew dissatisfied with his government job and wrote to Alaupović asking for a transfer to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs . On 20 February , Andrić 's request was granted and he was assigned to the Foreign Ministry 's mission at the Vatican .
Andrić left Belgrade soon after , and reported for duty in late February . At this time , he published his first short story , Put Alije Đerzeleza ( The Journey of Alija Đerzelez ) . He complained that the consulate was understaffed and that he did not have enough time to write . All evidence suggests he had a strong distaste for the ceremony and pomp that accompanied his work in the diplomatic service , but according to Hawkesworth , he endured it with " dignified good grace " . Around this time , he began writing in the Ekavian dialect used in Serbia , and ceased writing in the Ijekavian dialect used in his native Bosnia . Andrić soon requested another assignment , and in November , he was transferred to Bucharest . Once again , his health deteriorated . Nevertheless , Andrić found his consular duties there did not require much effort , so he focused on writing , contributed articles to a Romanian journal and even had time to visit his family in Bosnia . In 1922 , Andrić requested another reassignment . He was transferred to the consulate in Trieste , where he arrived on 9 December . The city 's damp climate only caused Andrić 's health to deteriorate further , and on his doctor 's advice , he transferred to Graz in January 1923 . He arrived in the city on 23 January , and was appointed vice @-@ consul . Andrić soon enrolled at the University of Graz , resumed his schooling and began working on his doctoral dissertation in Slavic studies .
= = = Advancement = = =
In August 1923 , Andrić experienced an unexpected setback in his career . A law had been passed stipulating that all civil servants had to have a doctoral degree . As Andrić had not completed his dissertation , he was informed that his employment would be terminated . Andrić 's well @-@ connected friends also intervened on his behalf and appealed to Foreign Minister Momčilo Ninčić , citing Andrić 's diplomatic and linguistic abilities . In February 1924 , the Foreign Ministry decided to retain Andrić as a day worker with the salary of a vice @-@ consul . This gave him the opportunity to complete his Ph.D. On 24 May 1924 , Andrić submitted his dissertation to a committee of examiners at the University of Graz , who gave it their approval . This allowed Andrić to take the examinations necessary for his Ph.D to be confirmed . He passed both his exams , and on 13 July , received his Ph.D. The committee of examiners recommended Andrić 's dissertation be published . Andrić chose the title Die Entwicklung des geistigen Lebens in Bosnien unter der Einwirkung der türkischen Herrschaft ( The Development of Spiritual Life in Bosnia Under the Influence of Turkish Rule ) . In it , he characterized the Ottoman occupation as a yoke that still loomed over Bosnia . " The effect of Turkish rule was absolutely negative , " he wrote . " The Turks could bring no cultural content or sense of higher mission , even to those South Slavs who accepted Islam . "
Several days after receiving his Ph.D , Andrić wrote the Foreign Minister asking to be reinstated and submitted a copy of his dissertation , university documents and a medical certification that deemed him to be in good health . In September , the Foreign Ministry granted his request . Andrić stayed in Graz until 31 October , when he was assigned to the Foreign Ministry 's Belgrade headquarters . During the two years he was in Belgrade , Andrić spent much of his time writing . His first collection of short stories was published in 1924 , and he received a prize from the Serbian Royal Academy ( of which he became a full @-@ fledged member in February 1926 ) . In October 1926 , he was assigned to the consulate in Marseille and again appointed vice @-@ consul . On 9 December 1926 , he was transferred to the Yugoslav embassy in Paris . Andrić 's time in France was marked by increasing loneliness and isolation . His uncle had died in 1924 , his mother the following year , and upon arriving in France , he was informed that his aunt had died as well . " Apart from official contacts , " he wrote Alaupović , " I have no company whatever . " Andrić spent much of his time in the Paris archives poring over the reports of the French consulate in Travnik from 1809 – 14 , material he would use in Travnička hronika ( Travnik Chronicle ) , one of his future novels .
In April 1928 , Andrić was posted to Madrid as vice @-@ consul . While there , he wrote essays on Simón Bolívar and Francisco Goya , and began work on the novel Prokleta avlija ( The Damned Yard ) . In June 1929 , he was named secretary of the Yugoslav legation to Belgium and Luxembourg in Brussels . On 1 January 1930 , he was sent to Switzerland as part of Yugoslavia 's permanent delegation to the League of Nations in Geneva , and was named deputy delegate the following year . In 1933 , Andrić returned to Belgrade , and shortly thereafter France decorated him with the Legion of Honour . Two years later , he was named head of the political department of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs . On 5 November 1937 , Andrić became assistant to Milan Stojadinović , Yugoslavia 's Prime Minister and Foreign Minister .
= = World War II = =
On 28 March 1939 , Andrić was appointed Yugoslavia 's ambassador to Germany . This appointment , Hawkesworth writes , demonstrates that he was highly regarded by the Yugoslav leadership . In 1934 , Yugoslavia 's King Alexander had been assassinated in Marseille . He was succeeded by his ten @-@ year @-@ old son Peter , and a regency council led by Peter 's uncle Paul was established to rule in his place until he turned eighteen . Paul 's government established closer economic and political ties with Germany . In March 1941 , Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact , pledging support for Germany and Italy . Though the negotiations had occurred behind Andrić 's back , in his capacity as ambassador he was obliged to attend the document 's signing in Berlin . Andrić was highly critical of the move , and on 17 March , he wrote to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs asking to be relieved of his duties . Ten days later , pro @-@ Western Royal Yugoslav Air Force officers overthrew the regency and proclaimed Peter of age . This led to a breakdown in relations with Germany and prompted Adolf Hitler to order Yugoslavia 's invasion . Given these circumstances , Andrić 's position as ambassador to Germany was an extremely difficult one . Yet , he used the little influence he had and attempted unsuccessfully to help Polish prisoners following the German invasion of Poland .
Prior to their invasion of his country , the Germans offered Andrić the opportunity to evacuate to neutral Switzerland . He declined on the basis that his staff would not be allowed to go with him . On 6 April 1941 , the Germans and their allies invaded Yugoslavia . The country capitulated on 17 April and was subsequently partitioned between the Axis powers . In early June , Andrić and his staff were taken back to German @-@ occupied Belgrade , where some were jailed . Andrić was retired from the diplomatic service , but refused to receive his pension or cooperate in any way with the puppet government the Germans had installed in Serbia . He was spared jail , but the Germans kept him under close surveillance throughout the occupation . Because of his Croat heritage , they had offered him the chance to settle in Zagreb , then the capital of the fascist puppet state known as the Independent State of Croatia , but he declined . Andrić spent the following three years in a friend 's Belgrade apartment in conditions that some biographers liken to house arrest . He directed most of his energies towards writing , and during this time completed two of his best known novels , Na Drini ćuprija ( The Bridge on the Drina ) and Travnička hronika .
In late spring 1942 , Andrić sent a message of sympathy to Draža Mihailović , the leader of the royalist Chetniks , one of two resistance movements vying for power in Axis @-@ occupied Yugoslavia , the other being Josip Broz Tito 's communist Partisans . In 1944 , Andrić was forced to leave his friend 's apartment during the Allied bombing of Belgrade and evacuate the city . As he joined a column of refugees , he became ashamed that he was fleeing by himself , in contrast to the masses of people accompanied by their children , spouses and infirm parents . " I looked myself up and down , " he wrote , " and saw I was saving only myself and my overcoat . " In the ensuing months , Andrić refused to leave the apartment , even during the heaviest bombing . That October , the Red Army and the Partisans drove the Germans out of Belgrade , and Tito proclaimed himself Yugoslavia 's ruler .
= = Later life = =
= = = Political career and marriage = = =
Andrić 's relationship with the communists was initially precarious given he had previously been an official in the royalist government . He returned to public life only once the Germans had been forced out of Belgrade . Na Drini ćuprija was published in March 1945 . It was followed by Travnička hronika that September and Gospođica ( The Young Lady ) that November . Na Drini ćuprija came to be regarded as Andrić 's magnum opus and was proclaimed a classic of Yugoslav literature by the communists . It chronicles the history of the Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge and the town of Višegrad from the bridge 's construction in the 16th century until the outbreak of World War I. The second novel , Travnička hronika , follows a French diplomat in Bosnia during the Napoleonic Wars . The third , Gospođica , revolves around the life of a Sarajevan woman . In the post @-@ war period , Andrić also published several short story collections , some travel memoirs , and a number of essays on writers such as Vuk Karadžić , Petar II Petrović @-@ Njegoš , and Petar Kočić .
In November 1946 , Andrić was elected vice @-@ president of the Society for the Cultural Cooperation of Yugoslavia with the Soviet Union . The same month , he was named president of the Yugoslav Writers ' Union . The following year , he became a member of the People 's Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina . In 1948 , Andrić published a collection of short stories he had written during the war . His work came to influence writers such as Branko Ćopić , Vladan Desnica , Mihailo Lalić and Meša Selimović . In April 1950 , Andrić became a deputy in the National Assembly of Yugoslavia . He was decorated by the Presidium of the National Assembly for his services to the Yugoslav people in 1952 . In 1953 , his career as a parliamentary deputy came to an end . The following year , Andrić published the novella Prokleta avlija ( The Damned Yard ) , which tells of life in an Ottoman prison in Istanbul . That December , he was admitted into the League of Communists of Yugoslavia , the country 's ruling party . According to Hawkesworth , it is unlikely he joined the party out of ideological conviction , but rather to " serve his country as fully as possible " .
On 27 September 1958 , the 66 @-@ year @-@ old Andrić married Milica Babić , a costume designer at the National Theatre of Serbia who was almost twenty years his junior . Earlier , he had announced it was " probably better " that a writer never marry . " He was perpetually persecuted by a kind of fear , " a close friend recalled . " It seemed as though he had been born afraid , and that is why he married so late . He simply did not dare enter that area of life . "
= = = Nobel Prize , international recognition and death = = =
By the late 1950s , Andrić 's works had been translated into a number of languages . On 26 October 1961 , he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature by the Swedish Academy . Documents released 50 years later revealed that the Nobel Committee had selected Andrić over writers such as J.R.R. Tolkien , Robert Frost , John Steinbeck and E.M. Forster . The Committee cited " the epic force with which he has traced themes and depicted human destinies drawn from his country 's history " . Once the news was announced , Andrić 's Belgrade apartment was swarmed by reporters , and he publicly thanked the Nobel Committee for selecting him as the winner of that year 's prize .
The Nobel Prize ensured Andrić received global recognition . The following March , he fell ill while on a trip to Cairo and had to return to Belgrade for an operation . He was thus obliged to cancel all promotional events in Europe and North America , but his works continued to be reprinted and translated into numerous languages . Judging by letters he had written at the time , Andrić felt burdened by the attention but did his best not to show it publicly . Upon receiving the Noble Prize , the number of awards and honours bestowed upon him multiplied . He received the Order of the Republic in 1962 , as well as the 27 July Award of Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina , the AVNOJ Award in 1967 , and the Order of the Hero of Socialist Labour in 1972 . Apart from being a member of the Yugoslav and Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts , he was also a correspondent of their Bosnian and Slovenian counterparts . He was bestowed honorary doctorates by the universities of Belgrade , Sarajevo and Kraków .
Andrić 's wife died on 16 March 1968 . Nearing seventy @-@ six at the time of her death , his health deteriorated steadily and he travelled little in his final years . He continued to write until 1974 , when his health took another turn for the worse . In December 1974 , he was admitted to a Belgrade hospital . He soon fell into a coma , and died in the Military Medical Academy at 1 : 15 a.m. on 13 March 1975 , aged 82 . Andrić was cremated , and on 24 April , the urn containing his ashes was buried at the Alley of Distinguished Citizens in Belgrade 's New Cemetery . The ceremony was attended by about 10 @,@ 000 residents of Belgrade .
= = Influences , style and themes = =
Andrić was an avid reader in his youth . The young Andrić 's literary interests varied greatly , ranging from the Greek and Latin Classics to the works of past and contemporary literary figures , including German and Austrian writers such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe , Heinrich Heine , Friedrich Nietzsche , Franz Kafka , Rainer Maria Rilke and Thomas Mann , French writers Michel de Montaigne , Blaise Pascal , Gustave Flaubert , Victor Hugo and Guy de Maupassant , and British writers Thomas Carlyle , Walter Scott and Joseph Conrad . Andrić also read the works of Miguel de Cervantes , Italian poet and philosopher Giacomo Leopardi , Russian writer Nikolay Chernyshevsky , Norwegian writer Henrik Ibsen , the American writers Walt Whitman and Henry James , and Czechoslovak philosopher Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk . Andrić was especially fond of Polish literature , and later stated that it had greatly influenced him . He held several Serb writers in high esteem , particularly Karadžić , Njegoš , Kočić and Aleksa Šantić . Andrić also admired the Slovene poets Fran Levstik , Josip Murn and Oton Župančič , and translated some of their works . Kafka appears to have had a significant influence on Andrić 's prose , and his philosophical outlook was informed strongly by the works of Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard . At one point in his youth , Andrić even took an interest in Chinese and Japanese literature , which he read as French- and German @-@ language translations .
Much of Andrić 's work was inspired by the traditions and peculiarities of life in Bosnia , and examines the complexity and cultural contrasts of the region 's Muslim , Serb and Croat inhabitants . His two best known novels , Na Drini ćuprija and Travnička hronika , subtly contrast Ottoman Bosnia 's " oriental " propensities to the " Western atmosphere " first introduced by the French and later the Austro @-@ Hungarians . His works contain many so @-@ called Turkisms ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Turcizmi ) , words of Turkish , Arabic or Persian origin that found their way into the languages of the South Slavs during Ottoman rule . According to Vucinich , Andrić uses these words to " express oriental nuances and subtleties that cannot be rendered as well in his own Serbo @-@ Croatian " .
In the opinion of literary historian Nicholas Moravcevich , Andrić 's work " frequently betrays his profound sadness over the misery and waste inherent in the passing of time " . Na Drini ćuprija remains his most famous novel and has received the most scholarly analysis of all his works . Most scholars have interpreted the eponymous bridge as a metonym for Yugoslavia , which was itself a bridge between East and West during the Cold War . In his Nobel acceptance speech , Andrić described the country as one " which , at break @-@ neck speed and at the cost of great sacrifices and prodigious efforts , is trying in all fields , including the field of culture , to make up for those things of which it has been deprived by a singularly turbulent and hostile past . " In Andrić 's view , the seemingly conflicting positions of Yugoslavia 's disparate ethnic groups could be overcome by knowing one 's history . This , he surmised , would help future generations avoid the mistakes of the past , and was in line with his cyclical view of time . Andrić expressed hope that these differences could be bridged and " histories demystified " .
= = Legacy = =
Shortly before his death , Andrić stated that he wished for all of his possessions to be preserved as an endowment to be used for " general cultural and humanitarian purposes " . In March 1976 , an administrative committee decided that the purpose of the endowment would be to promote the study of Andrić 's work , as well as art and literature in general . The Ivo Andrić Endowment has since organized a number of international conferences , made grants to foreign scholars studying the writer 's works and offered financial aid to cover the publication costs of books covering Andrić 's life and art . An annual yearbook , titled Sveske Zadužbine Ive Andrića ( The Journals of the Ivo Andrić Endowment ) , is published by the organization . Andrić 's will also stipulated that an award be given annually to the author of each year 's best collection of short stories .
The street that runs beside Novi dvor , now the seat of the President of Serbia , was posthumously named Andrićev venac ( Andrić 's Crescent ) in his honour . It also includes a life @-@ size statue of the writer ; the flat where he spent his final years ( now Andrićev venac 8 . ) has been turned into a museum . The museum was opened more than a year after Andrić 's death and houses books , manuscripts , documents , photographs and some of his other belongings . Several of Serbia 's other major cities , such as Novi Sad and Kragujevac , have streets named after him . Streets in a number of cities in Bosnia and Herzegovina , such as Sarajevo , Banja Luka , Tuzla , and Višegrad , also carry his name .
According to the scholar Guido Snel , Serbs consider Andrić " one of the greatest non @-@ Serb @-@ born Serbs " . The historian Bojan Aleskov deems Andrić one of the two central pillars of Serbian literature , the other being Njegoš . " The plasticity of his narrative , " Moravcevich writes , " the depth of his psychological insight , and the universality of his symbolism remain unsurpassed in all of Serbian literature . " Indeed , Andrić was the first and only Yugoslav writer ever to be awarded the Nobel Prize . Due to his Serb orientation , Andrić 's works were blacklisted under Croatian President Franjo Tuđman following Yugoslavia 's disintegration in the early 1990s . Though Andrić 's biography remains a controversial topic in Croatia , the Croatian literary establishment by and large rehabilitated his works following Tuđman 's death in 1999 . Andrić 's writings were also criticized by Bosniak nationalists , who objected to his ostensibly negative portrayal of Muslim characters . Andrić 's most vocal Bosniak detractors were Šukrija Kurtović , Adil Zulfikarpašić , Muhamed Filipović and Muhsin Rizvić , who accused him of everything from plagiarism to being a Serb nationalist , and made remarks insinuating that he was a homosexual . Some went so far as to call for his Nobel Prize to be taken away . A few of these scholars censured Andrić in the late 1950s , but most Bosniak criticism of his works appeared in the period immediately before the breakup of Yugoslavia and in the aftermath of the Bosnian War . In early 1992 , a Bosniak nationalist in Višegrad destroyed a statue of Andrić with a sledgehammer . Twenty years later , in 2012 , filmmaker Emir Kusturica and Bosnian Serb President Milorad Dodik unveiled another statue of Andrić in Višegrad , this time as part of the construction of an ethno @-@ town called Andrićgrad , sponsored by Kusturica and the Government of Republika Srpska . In June 2014 , Andrićgrad was officially opened on the occasion of the 100th anniversary of the assassination of Franz Ferdinand .
= = List of works = =
Source : The Swedish Academy ( 2007 , Bibliography )
= = Explanatory notes = =
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= Joseph Dudley =
Joseph Dudley ( 23 September 1647 – 2 April 1720 ) was an English colonial administrator . A native of Roxbury , Massachusetts , and the son of one of its founders , Dudley had a leading role in the administration of the Dominion of New England ( 1686 – 1689 ) , overthrown in the 1689 Boston revolt , and served briefly on the council of the Province of New York . In New York , he oversaw the trial that convicted Jacob Leisler , the ringleader of Leisler 's Rebellion . He then spent eight years in England in the 1690s as Lieutenant @-@ Governor of the Isle of Wight , including one year as a Member of Parliament for Newtown , ( Isle of Wight ) . In 1702 he returned to New England after being appointed governor of the provinces of Massachusetts Bay and New Hampshire , posts he held until 1715 .
His rule of Massachusetts was characterized by hostility and tension , with political enemies opposing his attempts to gain a regular salary , and regularly making complaints about his official and private actions . Most of his tenure was dominated by Queen Anne 's War , in which the two provinces were on the front lines with New France and suffered from a series of major and minor French and Indian raids . He orchestrated an unsuccessful attempt to capture the Acadian capital of Port Royal in 1707 , raised provincial militia forces for its successful capture in 1710 , and directed an unsuccessful expedition against Quebec in 1711 .
Dudley 's governorship institutionalized a pattern of hostility toward royal governance in Massachusetts , most frequently over the issue of the salaries of crown officials . The colonial legislature routinely challenged or disputed the prerogatives of the governor . While this hostility affected most of the governors of Massachusetts up to the American Revolutionary War and the end of British rule , his rule of New Hampshire was comparatively uncontroversial .
= = Early life = =
Joseph Dudley was born in Roxbury , Massachusetts Bay Colony , on 23 September 1647 . His mother was Katherine Dudley ( née Dighton or Deighton ; formerly Hackburne ) , and his father was Thomas Dudley , one of the founders and leading magistrates of the colony . His father was elderly ( seventy ) when he was born , and he was raised by his mother and Reverend John Allin , whom she married after his father 's death in 1653 .
He graduated from Harvard College in 1665 , and was admitted as a freeman in 1672 . He became a member of the general court representing Roxbury in 1673 , and was elected to the colony 's council of assistants in 1676 . In 1675 , when King Philip 's War broke out , Dudley was a commissioner who accompanied the colonial troops into the field against the Indians . He was present at the Great Swamp Fight , in which the Narragansett tribe was decisively defeated . He served for several years as a commissioner to the New England Confederation , and was sent by the administration on diplomatic missions to neighboring Indian communities . He served on a committee that negotiated the boundary between Massachusetts and the neighboring Plymouth Colony .
= = Revocation of the colonial charter = =
The colony 's governance , which had first come under increased scrutiny by King Charles II beginning in the 1660s , came under substantial threat in the late 1670s . Crown agent Edward Randolph , sent to New England in 1676 to collect customs duties and enforce the Navigation Acts , documented a list of issues and took his complaints to the Lords of Trade in London . The colonial leadership was divided on how to answer this threat . Dudley was part of a moderate faction , along with his brother @-@ in @-@ law Simon Bradstreet and William Stoughton , that supported accommodating the king 's demands . The moderates were opposed by hardliners who opposed attempts by the crown to interfere in the colony 's business . These factions were separated in part along class lines , with the wealthier land owners and merchants who dominated the legislature 's upper house ( called the " court of assistants " ) favoring accommodation , while the more representative lower house favored the hardliners .
In 1677 Dudley was elected as a member of the Artillery Company of Massachusetts .
In 1682 Massachusetts sent Dudley and John Richards to London as agents to represent its case to the Lords of Trade . Dudley brought with him a letter of introduction from Plymouth Governor Thomas Hinckley to William Blathwayt , the colonial secretary . The favorable relationship he established with Blathwayt contributed much to Dudley 's future success as a colonial administrator , although it also raised suspicions in the colony about his motives and ability to represent its interests . The authority of the agents was limited , and the Lords of Trade insisted to the colonial administration that their agents be authorized to negotiate modifications to the colonial charter . The legislature , dominated by hardliners , refused this demand . This led directly to this issuance of a quo warranto writ demanding the surrender of the colonial charter . When Dudley brought this news to Boston at the end of 1683 , a heated debate began in the legislature , with the hardline party again prevailing . The hardliners , whose leadership included the influential Reverend Increase Mather , in particular castigated moderates like Dudley and Bradstreet as enemies of the colony . Richards , despite the hostile reception the agents had received in London , sided with the hardliners , and the hatred focused against Dudley resulted in his ouster from the council of assistants in the 1684 election .
The episode also led to accusations that Dudley had secretly schemed in London to have the charter vacated as a means of personal advancement . Although he is claimed to have discussed the form of a replacement government with Edward Randolph , this discussion did not take place until after the quo warranto writ was issued . This was treated as evidence that he was hostile to the present order of the colony , and working against his commission as colonial agent . His discussions with Randolph were perceived favorably by the latter , who also came to believe that Dudley 's election loss meant he would make a good crown servant . As a result , rumors began circulating in Boston in late 1684 that Dudley might be appointed governor , with Randolph as his deputy .
The charter was annulled in 1684 , and the Lords of Trade began planning to combine the New England colonies into a single province called the Dominion of New England . This work was still in progress when King James II took the throne in 1685 ; however , difficulties in drafting a commission for the intended governor , Sir Edmund Andros , prompted Randolph to propose an interim appointment . Dudley was chosen for this post based on Randolph 's recommendation , and on 8 October 1685 a commission was issued to him as President of the Council of New England . The territories covered by his commission included those of Massachusetts , New Hampshire , Maine , and the " Narragansett Country " , a disputed territory in present @-@ day southern Rhode Island . Randolph was appointed to a long list of subsidiary posts , including secretary of the colony , that would give him considerable power in the colony .
= = President of the Council of New England = =
Randolph arrived in Boston with Dudley 's charter on 14 May 1686 , and Dudley formally took charge of Massachusetts on 25 May . His rule did not begin auspiciously , since a number of Massachusetts magistrates who had been named to his council refused to serve , and he was unable to reconcile with Increase Mather , who refused to see him . According to Randolph , the Puritan magistrates " were of opinion that God would never suffer me to land again in this country , and thereupon began in a most arbitrary manner to assert their power higher than at any time before . " Elections of colonial military officers were also compromised when many of them also refused to serve . Dudley made a number of judicial appointments , generally favoring the political moderates who had supported accommodation of the king 's wishes in the battle over the old charter . He renewed treaties with the Indians of northern New England , and traveled to the Narragansett Country in June to formally establish his authority there .
Dudley was significantly hampered by the inability to raise revenues in the dominion . His commission did not allow for the introduction of new revenue laws , and the Massachusetts government , anticipating the loss of the charter , had repealed all such laws in 1683 . Furthermore , many people refused to pay the few remaining methods of income on the grounds that they had been enacted by the old government and were thus invalid . Attempts by Dudley and Randolph to introduce the Church of England were largely unsuccessful due to a lack of funding , but were also hampered by the perceived political danger of imposing on the existing churches for their use .
The enforcement of the Navigation Acts was conducted by Dudley and Randolph , although they did not adhere to the letter of the laws . Understanding that some provisions of the acts were unfair ( for example , resulting in the payments of multiple duties ) , some violations were overlooked , and they suggested to the Lords of Trade that the laws be modified to ameliorate these conditions . However , the Massachusetts economy was harmed by their vigorous enforcement of the acts . Dudley and Randolph eventually had a falling out over matters related to trade , administration , and religion . " I am treated by Mr. Dudley worse than by Mr. Danforth " , Randolph wrote , unfavorably comparing Dudley to one of the hardline magistrates .
While Dudley governed , the Lords of Trade , based on a petition from Dudley 's council , decided to include the colonies of Rhode Island and Connecticut in the dominion . Andros , whose commission had been issued in June , was given an annex to his commission with instructions to incorporate them under his authority .
= = Service under Governor Andros = =
When Governor Andros arrived in December 1686 he immediately assumed the reins of power . Dudley sat on his council , and served as judge of the superior court and censor of the press . He also sat on the committee that worked to harmonize legislation across the dominion .
Although Andros ' appointed council was intended to represent all of the combined territories , the difficulties of travel and the failure of the government to reimburse travel expenses meant that his council was dominated by representatives from Boston and Plymouth . Dudley and Randolph were widely regarded as being a significant part of the " tyranny " of Andros ' reign . Dudley 's position as judge brought him the harshest criticisms and complaints , in particular when he enforced unpopular laws concerning taxes , town meetings , and land titles imposed by Andros .
When word of the 1688 Glorious Revolution arrived in Massachusetts , a mob rose up and arrested Andros in April 1689 . Dudley was away from the city , but was arrested upon his return . Since he was ill , he was released into house arrest upon payment of a £ 1 @,@ 000 bond , but a mob descended on his home and carried him back to jail . He stayed in jail for ten months , in part for his own safety , and was then sent back to England at the command of King William along with Andros and other dominion leaders . Colonial authorities brought charges against Andros and Dudley , but since none of their agents in London were prepared to take responsibility for making those charges in court , they were dismissed , and both men were freed . The defense he prepared against those charges demonstrated to the Lords of Trade his willingness and ability to follow crown policy directives .
Dudley , stranded in London with limited connections , appealed to Blathwayt for assistance . He also asked a business associate , Daniel Coxe , for help in finding a new position . Coxe , a proprietor of West Jersey , considered Dudley for the post of lieutenant governor there . Through these or other connections , Dudley was eventually recommended as chief of council to the new governor of New York , Henry Sloughter , a position he took up in 1691 . In addition to his council duties , he negotiated with New York 's Indians , and sat as chief judge in the trial of Jacob Leisler , who had led the rebellion that in 1689 overthrew Andros ' lieutenant governor , Francis Nicholson . The trial was controversial , and Dudley 's role made him many enemies . Leisler was convicted of high treason and sentenced to death . Governor Sloughter was initially opposed to immediately executing Leisler and his main ally and son @-@ in @-@ law Jacob Milborne , preferring to defer the decision to the king . Under pressure from anti @-@ Leisler forces in his council , Sloughter changed his mind , and the two men were executed on 16 May 1691 . Cotton Mather claimed that Dudley was an influential force arguing for Leisler 's execution , but this is disputed by testimony from anti @-@ Leisler councillor Nicholas Bayard .
Dudley left New York for his home in Roxbury in 1692 , and re @-@ established connections with political friends like William Stoughton , who had just been appointed lieutenant governor of the newly chartered Province of Massachusetts Bay under Sir William Phips .
= = Patronage = =
Returning to England in 1693 , Dudley embarked on a series of intrigues to regain an office in New England . He ingratiated himself to the religious elements of the London political establishment by formally joining the Church of England . He acquired a patron in Baron Cutts , who engineered his appointment as lieutenant governor of the Isle of Wight , where Cutts had been appointed governor . Dudley and Cutts assisted each other politically : Cutts worked to advance Dudley 's agenda in London , while Dudley worked to promote that of Cutts on Wight . The principal activity he was engaged in that has been documented is the manipulation of parliamentary election processes in the island 's constituencies to see that Cutts ' chosen candidates were elected . This process made Cutts highly unpopular on Wight , although he continued in its governorship until his death in 1707 . Dudley also tried to assist Cutts with some financial difficulties , unsuccessfully scheming with Cutts ' father @-@ in @-@ law to gain permission to mint coinage for use in the colonies .
Dudley 's principal object of intrigue was the removal of William Phips as Massachusetts governor , something he did not hide from the colony 's agents . Phips , whose rule in Massachusetts was unpopular , was recalled to England to answer a variety of charges his opponents made . Dudley caused Phips to be arrested shortly after his arrival , on inflated charges that Phips had withheld customs monies from the crown . Phips died in February 1695 before the charges against him were heard , and Dudley was optimistic that he would be named the next governor .
At this point Dudley 's enemies from New York and Massachusetts joined forces against him to deny him the opportunity . Jacob Leisler 's son was in London , attempting to have the attainder against his father 's estate reversed . With assistance from Massachusetts agent Constantine Phips , a bill to do this was introduced into Parliament . The debate included a review of Leisler 's trial , and Dudley was forced to appear and defend his role in it . Afterward , Phips wrote to Cotton Mather , " [ Dudley ] is not so much talked of to be governor . " The appointment to replace Phips went instead to Lord Bellomont .
Cutts continued to be active on Dudley 's behalf , and secured for him election as a Member of Parliament representing Newtown in 1701 . This made it possible for Dudley to further expand his own political connections in London . He managed to at least temporarily mend political fences with Constantine Phips and Cotton Mather , and began lobbying for the Massachusetts governorship after the death of Bellomont in 1701 . In this he was successful , receiving commissions as governor of Massachusetts and New Hampshire on 1 April 1702 from Queen Anne .
= = Governor of Massachusetts and New Hampshire = =
Dudley served as governor until 1715 . His administration was marked , particularly in the earlier years , by regular conflict with the general court . Upon instruction from the colonial office , he was to gain a regular salary for the governor . He and all of the succeeding royal governors were unsuccessful in extracting this concession from the provincial legislature , and it became a regular source of friction between representatives of crown and colony . Dudley pressed his complaint in letters to London , in which he complained of men " who love not the Crown and Government of England to any manner of obedience " . In one letter to his son Paul , then the provincial attorney general , he wrote " this country will never be worth living in for lawyers and gentlemen , till the charter is taken away . " This letter was discovered and published , fueling provincial opposition to his rule . Dudley also angered the powerful Mather family when he awarded the presidency of Harvard to John Leverett instead of Cotton Mather , and consistently vetoed the election of councilors and speakers of the general court who had acted against him in 1689 , further increasing his unpopularity in Massachusetts . In contrast , his tenure as governor of New Hampshire was popular ; its legislature specifically praised him to the queen after learning of complaints levelled against him by his Massachusetts opponents .
= = = Queen Anne 's War = = =
Dudley was active in managing colonial defenses during Queen Anne 's War . He attempted to forestall French @-@ orchestrated Indian hostilities by meeting with Indians at Casco Bay in June 1703 , but the French had already begun rallying the Indians to their cause , and the war began with raids on the settlements of southern Maine in August 1703 . Dudley called out the militia , and the Massachusetts and New Hampshire frontiers , extending from the Connecticut River to southern Maine , were fortified . The French and Indians raided Deerfield in February 1704 , prompting calls for retaliation . Dudley authorized the aging Indian fighter Benjamin Church to lead a retaliatory expedition against settlements in Acadia . He also engaged in protracted negotiations for the return of captives taken at Deerfield that the French sought to broaden into a wider @-@ ranging agreement .
In part because he specifically refused Church permission to attack the Acadian capital and commercial center , Port Royal , Dudley was accused by Boston merchants and the Mathers of being in league with smugglers and traders illegally trading with the French . He sought to forestall these criticisms in 1707 , when he sent the colonial militia on a fruitless expedition against Port Royal . In 1708 a bitter attack on his administration was published in London , entitled The Deplorable State of New England by reason of a Covetous and Treacherous Governor and Pusillanimous Counsellors , as part of a campaign to have him recalled . Dudley again rallied the provincial militias for a planned expedition against Quebec in 1709 , but the supporting expedition from England was called off . In 1710 support from England arrived , and a successful siege of Port Royal led to its fall , and the beginning of the Province of Nova Scotia . Boston was again the organizing point for an expedition to Quebec in 1711 . Combining British and provincial forces , the expedition failed disastrously when some of its transports foundered on the shores of the Saint Lawrence River . During the war Dudley also authorized expeditions against the Abenakis of northern New England , but these were largely ineffectual . The war quieted to some extent after the fall of Port Royal , with only small raiding parties hitting frontier communities , and peace came with the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 .
Dudley negotiated a separate peace with the Abenakis at Portsmouth , New Hampshire , in 1713 . Seeking to separate at least the western Kennebec from French influence , he adopted a fairly hard line , threatening to withhold trade that was vital to their survival , and reiterated claims of British sovereignty over the Abenaki . Although the Treaty of Portsmouth that resulted from those negotiations repeats the claims of sovereignty , there is evidence that the implications of the sovereign claim were not explained to Abenaki negotiators , and that the Abenaki explicitly repudiated land claims in the negotiations . In response to Dudley 's claims that the French had ceded Abenaki lands ( claimed as part of Acadia ) , one sachem responded , " The French never said anything to us about it , and wee wonder how they would give it away without asking us " . Nevertheless , Dudley and succeeding governors treated the Abenaki as British subjects , and friction persisted over British colonial expansion into Maine that flared into Dummer 's War in the 1720s .
= = = Other issues = = =
The war worsened currency and finance problems in Massachusetts . Since the 1690s the province had been issuing paper currency , and the issuance of large amounts of this currency was causing it to depreciate relative to precious metals used in other currencies . How to deal with this divided colonists among themselves and with the governor , and would not be resolved until the 1760s . Business leaders who borrowed money were happy to pay it back later with depreciated currency , while lenders sought reforms to stabilize the currency . In 1714 a major proposal was floated by Dudley 's opponents in which a land bank , secured by the holdings of the shareholder 's properties , would issue as much as £ 50 @,@ 000 in currency . Dudley was opposed to this scheme , and instead convinced the provincial legislature to issue £ 50 @,@ 000 in bills of credit . The financially powerful interests he upset with this move would prove to be his downfall .
In 1713 surveys determined that the border between Massachusetts and the Connecticut Colony had been incorrectly sited in the 17th century , and that Massachusetts had consequently distributed lands that actually belonged to Connecticut . Dudley and Connecticut Governor Gurdon Saltonstall negotiated an agreement in which Massachusetts would retain those lands , but grant to Connecticut for distribution an equivalent amount of land . The " Equivalent Lands " amounted to over 100 @,@ 000 acres ( 400 km2 ) of land in an area on either side of the Connecticut River in present @-@ day northern Massachusetts , southeastern Vermont , and southwestern New Hampshire . These lands were auctioned off in April 1716 , and Connecticut used the proceeds to fund Yale College .
Following the death in 1714 of Queen Anne , Dudley 's commission and that of Lieutenant Governor William Tailer , like most royal commissions , expired six months later . The governor 's council , dominated by Dudley 's political opponents , at that point asserted its authority , and on 14 February 1715 , assumed control of the government under the provisions of the provincial charter concerning governance in the absence of the governor and his lieutenant . Just six weeks later , news arrived from England that Dudley 's commission had been at least temporarily confirmed by King George I , and he was reinstated on 21 March .
However , Dudley 's political opponents , especially those involved in the land bank proposal , were active in London , and they convinced the king to appoint Colonel Elizeus Burges as governor later in the year . Burges ' commission was proclaimed in Boston on 9 November 1715 , ending Dudley 's commission . Since Burges was not in the colony , governance fell to Lieutenant Governor Tailer , whose commission had been renewed . Burges was bribed by Jonathan Belcher and Jeremiah Dummer , the brother of Dudley 's son @-@ in @-@ law William , to resign his commission in April 1716 without leaving England , and a new commission was issued to Samuel Shute , who promised to oppose attempts to introduce the land bank . He arrived in the colony and assumed the post of governor in October 1716 , with William Dummer as his lieutenant .
Dudley retired to the family home in Roxbury . He acted as an informal advisor to Governor Shute upon his arrival , and made appearances at public and private functions . He died in Roxbury on 2 April 1720 . He was buried , with pomp and ceremony appropriate to his position , next to his father in Roxbury 's Eliot Burying Ground .
= = Family and legacy = =
In 1668 , Dudley married Rebecca Tyng , who survived him by two years . They had twelve children , ten of whom survived to adulthood . His son Paul served as attorney general and chief justice of Massachusetts . Dudley , Massachusetts , is named for his sons Paul and William , who were its first proprietors .
Dudley at his death owned large tracts of land in Massachusetts , principally in Roxbury and what is now Worcester County . The latter properties he purchased from the Nipmuc in partnership with William Stoughton , and was granted land for the purpose of settling French Huguenots that became part of Oxford . Dudley frequently used his position , especially when president of the dominion and governor of the province , to ensure that the titles to lands he was interested in were judicially cleared , a practice that also benefited friends , relatives , and business partners . Edward Randolph wrote that it was " impossible to bring titles of land to trial before them where his Majesties 's rights are concerned , the Judges also being parties . "
Nineteenth century historian John Palfrey wrote of Dudley that he " united rich intellectual attributes with a groveling soul " , forging political connections and relationships in his early years for the purpose of furthering his own advancement . He capitalized on his favorable family connections to the Puritan leadership of Massachusetts to establish connections in England , but then betrayed those Massachusetts connections when it became necessary to further his quest for power . Thomas Hutchinson , who later also served as provincial governor , and wrote an extensive history of Massachusetts , wrote of Dudley that " he had as many virtues as can consist with so great a thirst for honour and power . " Biographer Everett Kimball wrote of Dudley , " ... in spite of his failings of temper he possessed a good deal of tact and personal charm , by which , when everything else failed , he could sometimes transform an enemy into a friend . "
= = Portrait = =
Dudley 's portrait ( seen above ) , is documented as having been painted in 1704 . The portrait remained in the family from its creation , through a direct line of descent , to the 20th century . It was sold at public auction by Eldred 's in 2006 . Numerous internet sites misidentify a reversed 19th century black and white photograph of this portrait as his father Thomas .
The following text is inscribed on the reverse of portrait , “ Gov. Joseph Dudley , Supposed to have been painted by Lely about 1680 - Property of Dr. Daniel Dudley Gilbert . Restored by Harold Fletcher in 1886 . ” The attribution to Peter Lely was conjecture and incorrect .
Recorded in : American Colonial Painting , Materials for a History by Waldron Phoenix Belknap , Jr . ( ref : The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press , Cambridge , Massachusetts , 1959 ) p . 238 , “ Gov. Joseph Dudley ( 16 - ) , son of Gov. Thomas Dudley , No 1 . HL , own hair long , robe and steinkirk , right hand gesturing across body . Repro . Hist . Dudley Fam opp p . 834 , photo by Elmer Chickering , Boston . Ref . : Hist . Dudley Fam . , pp. 757 , 163 , “ Memorial of Reunion , ” p . 13 . Owned 1892 : Dr. Daniel Dudley Gilbert ( 1838 - ) , of Dorchester , Mass . ”
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= So Long Self =
" So Long Self " is a song written and performed by Christian rock band MercyMe . " So Long Self " is musically a power pop song with a lyrical theme revolving around a figurative breakup with one 's self . " So Long Self " was released as the lead single from the band 's 2006 album Coming Up to Breathe .
" So Long Self " received positive reception from critics , who praised the song 's lyrical hook . It was added by fifty @-@ two Christian AC stations in its first chart week , a record for the Christian AC chart . The song had success on both Christian and mainstream radio , peaking at number one on the Christian Songs chart for four consecutive weeks ; it also peaked at number sixteen on the Adult Contemporary chart . It was listed on Billboard magazine 's 2006 year @-@ end Christian Songs and Adult Contemporary charts .
= = Background and composition = =
Lead singer Bart Millard has described the story behind " So Long Self " as " ... really simple : It ’ s Not About [ humanity ] . It never has been and it never will be . Just like when maybe you had to break up with a girlfriend or a boyfriend growing up , or maybe the same thing happened to you , the ultimate breakup in life is when we breakup with ourselves . Because Christ said you have to die to self to follow him " . The song is also lyrically about a break @-@ up with sinful human nature .
" So Long Self " was written and composed by MercyMe . It was recorded in Allaire Studios in Shokan , New York ; overdubs were recorded in Oxford Sound in Nashville , Tennessee , while strings were recorded at Abbey Road Studios in London , England . " So Long Self " is a power pop song with a length of four minutes and three seconds . The song is set in the key of E major and has a tempo of 144 beats per minute , with a vocal range spanning from B3 to E5 . " So Long Self " features a guitar solo near the end of the song , and the bridge of the song features what has been described as Electric Light Orchestra @-@ influenced vocals .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
" So Long Self " received positive reviews from critics . Steve Losey of Allmusic commented that " [ ' So Long Self ' ] has mass appeal musically and lyrically " , also opining that " the coolest part about the poppy hook is the ELO type vocals that penetrate the song 's middle " . Lauren Summerford of Jesus Freak Hideout stated that " Lead single ' So Long Self ' is one the best tracks Coming Up To Breathe has to offer . With a lyrical hook sure to have radio listeners singing along , this song finds [ Bart ] Millard bidding farewell to sinful nature and moving closer to Christ " . Russ Breimeier of Christianity Today commented that " It almost seems like MercyMe is overcompensating to gain artistic credibility with the bouncy single ' So Long Self , ' an undeniably catchy breakup song with our sinful nature that echoes [ Steven Curtis ] Chapman covering The Beatles , going so far as to playfully evoke a carnival in the bridge " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
Upon release , the song was added by fifty @-@ two Christian AC stations - a record for the most adds in the history of the Christian AC chart . The record was previously forty @-@ five adds , accomplished by the Joy Williams song " Hide " ( 2005 ) . " So Long Self " later peaked at number one on the Christian AC chart , as well as at number one on the Christian Songs chart and at number sixteen on the Adult Contemporary chart .
" So Long Self " debuted at No. 26 on Billboard magazine 's Christian Songs chart for the chart week of April 1 , 2006 . The song jumped up to No. 15 the next week before advancing to No. 10 in its fourth chart week . " So Long Self " advanced to No. 4 for the chart week of May 13 , 2006 , and hit No. 1 ten weeks later , a spot the song held for four consecutive weeks . After " So Long Self " spent its fourth and final weeks at the top , the song spent nine more weeks on the chart before dropping out . In all , " So Long Self " spent twenty @-@ six weeks on the chart . On the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart , " So Long Self " debuted at No. 38 for the chart week of May 6 , 2006 , and advanced to No. 23 in its second week on the chart . The song advanced to No. 20 in its fourth week on the chart and spent a further three weeks inside the top 20 before dropping back to No. 22 on its eighth chart week . " So Long Self " reached its eventual peak of No. 16 for the chart week of August 5 , 2006 , and spent a further six weeks on the chart before dropping out . In all , " So Long Self " spent twenty weeks on the chart .
Billboard ranked " So Long Self " at No. 10 on its 2006 year @-@ end Christian Songs chart , and at No. 33 on its year @-@ end Adult Contemporary chart . They also ranked the song at No. 61 on the 2000s decade @-@ end Hot Christian AC chart .
= = Music video = =
A music video was released for " So Long Self " . The video opens with the members of the band watching a television program of their live soundcheck for a concert . When the band realizes it cannot possibly be playing a ' live ' soundcheck since they are in their tour bus , they exit the vehicle to stop the imposters . The real band members trap the fakes in a room , and then go out on stage and perform . Near the end of the video , security kicks the fake band members out of the arena .
Matt Johnson of Jesus Freak Hideout commented about the video on his review of MercyMe 's album 10 , noting that " Most people think of serious worshipful songs ( such as " I Can Only Imagine " & " Word of God Speak " ) when they think of MercyMe , but the " So Long Self " video captures a side that most don 't think of , their fun side " .
= = Charts = =
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= Socorro springsnail =
The Socorro springsnail , scientific name Pyrgulopsis neomexicana , is an endangered species of minute freshwater snail with a gill and an operculum , an aquatic gastropod mollusk or micromollusk in the family Hydrobiidae , the mud snails .
This tiny snail previously inhabited a small group of thermal springs in the State of New Mexico , USA . Its survival is seriously endangered because its habitat is both vulnerable and severely threatened . The current status of the population of this snail and its habitat area is unknown . The Socorro springsnail has been listed as endangered by the governments of the United States and New Mexico .
Very little is known about this snail in general , because of its minute size , its very restricted range , and the fact that the places where it currently lives are on private property which allows no access .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Socorro springsnail was originally described from warm springs in Socorro , New Mexico . The collector and date of the unique first sample are unknown . Specimens came from the collection of American mineralogist Charles Moore Wheatley ( 1822 Essex , England - 1882 , Phoenixville , Pennsylvania , U.S.A. ) and were likely collected in the 19th century . The species was formally described and named Amnicola neomexicana by American malacologist ( mollusk expert ) Henry Augustus Pilsbry in 1916 .
Pilsbry 's original type description , the text where the species is officially named and described , reads as follows :
In 1982 , American zoologist John B. Burch reclassified the Socorro springsnail as Fontelicella neomexicana . In 1987 , two other American zoologists , Robert Hershler from the National Museum of Natural History and Fred Gilbert Thompson from the Florida State Museum ( now the Florida Museum of Natural History ) assigned members of the genus Fontelicella , including F. neomexicana , to the genus Pyrgulopsis .
= = Description = =
The Socorro springsnail has an elongate @-@ ovate conical shell that is light tan and short @-@ spired , in other words the shell is low and rounded , without much of a pointed " tip " to it . The shell has 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 whorls . The protoconch is usually eroded . The internal callus is reddish brown to amber , and the operculum is pale . The height of the shell is 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 3 mm , and its aperture is ovate .
The body , head , snout and tentacles are dark gray to black in color . The tentacles range from black or dark gray at the base , to pale gray at the tips . Female snails are larger than males . In the male , the penis has a long glandular strip on the terminal lobe , a long penial gland , and three shorter dorsal glandular strips . A detailed description of the reproductive system of this snail species was provided by Hershler in 1994 .
The animal respires by using a type of gill known as a ctenidium ( a comb @-@ like respiratory apparatus ) which in this species has 20 tall and narrow ctenidial filaments .
In all of the species in the genus Pyrgulopsis , the radula ( a strong rasping feeding ribbon covered in microscopic teeth ) is of taenioglossan type ( seven teeth in each row , i.e. one middle , two laterals and 4 marginals . ) The radula of Pyrgulopsis neomexicana was described in detail by Hershler ( 1994 ) .
= = Distribution = =
This species is endemic to Socorro County in central New Mexico in the southwestern United States . The original specimen of the Socorro springsnail reportedly came from a thermal spring near Socorro , New Mexico .
It is now extinct at the type locality , but the date and cause of the extinction are uncertain . The species has been reported from other springs in Socorro County ( Landye 1981 ) , although there is disagreement on whether the species historically occurred there . Currently , the Socorro springsnail is known from only one spring : the Torreon Spring in Socorro County , New Mexico , where it was located in 1979 .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Habitat = = =
The Socorro springsnail is entirely aquatic , occurring in low @-@ velocity ( slow @-@ moving ) water near spring sources in a thermal habitat , i.e. near hot springs . More precisely , it is found in the uppermost layer of an organic muck substrate or surface .
The principal spring source where the Socorro springsnail is currently found has been impounded ( artificially enclosed , blocked off or dammed ) , and this has reduced the flowing @-@ water habitat to a very small pool . Only one tiny spring source remains , and this has a small improved pool ( less than 1 m ² in area ) , with a water temperature of 17 ° C. The species is abundant on rootlets in this pool , but is not found in the ditches and ponds radiating from the spring into irrigation structures . Other mollusks found in the vicinity include Physa mexicana , Lymnaea modicella , and Pisidium casertanum . In 1981 , the colony of Socorro springsnails was found to occupy not only the source , but also the outflow tributary about 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 ft ) long to an irrigation ditch . No snails were found in the irrigation flow itself however . In 1991 , the total population of the Socorro springsnail in the spring outflow was estimated at 5 @,@ 000 individuals .
The snail had formerly occurred throughout the thermal springs west of the city of Socorro , living in the same habitats as the Socorro isopod Thermosphaeroma thermophilum .
= = = Feeding habits = = =
This species is herbivorous . It feeds on algae and other materials that occur in the organic film which is found on the surface of plants and debris .
= = = Life cycle = = =
The females of the Socorro springsnail are oviparous , in other words , they lay eggs . They probably deposit eggs in spring and summer .
= = Threats = =
The limited range and precise habitat demands of the Socorro springsnail makes this species vulnerable to habitat loss or alteration . Potential threats to the species include all activities that would significantly reduce either spring flow or availability of the food source that supports this springsnail species . Alterations to the watersheds , springs , or associated runs could cause a reduction in water flow , a change in water temperature or water quality , or could modify the habitat or food source . This could have a devastating impact on the existing populations of the snail .
This snail species has extremely limited dispersal capabilities , which means it has little or no ability to find , and disperse to , other suitable habitats , or to move out of a habitat where the conditions have changed such that it is no longer suitable . Consequently , these snails are unable to avoid contaminants or other unfavorable changes to their habitat .
The population of the Socorro springsnail is thought to be limited to a single pool which is less than 1 m ² in area , and an outflow ditch about 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 ft ) in length . Several of the springs that formerly contained the Socorro springsnail have been impounded , and this has eliminated the precise habitat that is critical for the species ’ survival .
Perhaps the greatest threat facing this species is the potential loss of water flow . Excessive pumping from the aquifer that supplies water to the springs could destroy both the springs themselves and the species along with them . Potential pollution of the spring could negatively impact this species and perhaps could also cause its extinction . The effects of climate change , if they include widespread drought , decreased spring discharge , or a change in water chemistry , are a newly @-@ recognized threat that could eliminate the species .
= = Conservation = =
The State of New Mexico listed the Socorro springsnail as endangered , group 2 , on March 28 , 1985 ( Section 17 — 2 — 37 through 17 — 2 — 46 NMSA 1978 ) . On October 30 , 1991 , the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service also listed this species as endangered under the Endangered Species Act of 1973 . Because of the extremely limited distribution , the recovery strategy for this species has its foundation in the maintenance of their habitat . While it is possible that additional populations might be established in other thermal springs , this possibility is contingent upon finding springs within the species ’ presumed historic range that have the physical and biologic attributes , including terrestrial habitat components , that the springsnail requires to survive , and which do not support their own endemic fauna .
The locality is on private land and access to the spring has been denied since 1995 . Because of this , the recent population numbers are unknown , the status of the habitat is unknown , and the magnitude of current threats is also unknown . Lack of cooperation by the private land owner and impacts caused by their actions were not specifically identified as a threat . However the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service recommendations for further actions suggested that efforts should continue in an attempt to gain access to the spring . If and when access is granted , it was recommended that life history studies should be carried out , monitor population numbers should be monitored , the attributes of suitable habitat should be determined ( qualities like the exact nature of the preferred substrate , the water temperature limits , pH , hardness , alkalinity etc . ) and that long @-@ term monitoring of discharge and temperature should be set up . If on the other hand , access continues to be denied , the recommendation was to attempt to set up a one @-@ time visit to the spring in order to collect individuals for a captive refugium population .
A decision was made by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service not to implement the part of the Endangered Species Act which allows the authorities to acquire land as necessary if it is " critical habitat " for the conservation of a listed species , because it was felt in this situation that making the land public would actually expose the remaining population to an even greater risk of extinction from threats such as vandalism and collection by unauthorized parties . A habitat management plan had not yet been written for the species as of 2008 , as was directed by the 1994 recovery plan , which also covered another species , the Alamosa springsnail . The 1994 recovery plan is out of date and needs to be revised and updated . It was recommended that a separate plan should be created .
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= New Jersey Route 109 =
Route 109 is a 3 @.@ 06 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 92 km ) state highway located in Cape May County , New Jersey , United States . The route runs from Jackson Street in Cape May north to an intersection with U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) in Lower Township . It crosses one of two road bridges over the Cape May Canal ( the other is Route 162 ) and provides access to the southern end of the Garden State Parkway and County Route 621 ( Ocean Drive ) as well as to Cape May . Only the section of road in Lower Township is state maintained ; the rest is maintained by Cape May County and signed as County Route 633 , which extends 0 @.@ 34 mi ( 0 @.@ 55 km ) past the southern terminus along Jackson Street and Perry Street to County Route 626 in West Cape May .
Present @-@ day Route 109 was designated as a part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 14 in 1917 before becoming the southernmost portion of Route 4 in 1927 . By the 1940s , US 9 extended south to Cape May from Absecon along this part of Route 4 . In 1953 , the Route 4 designation was dropped from this segment of road to avoid the concurrency with US 9 . In 1972 , US 9 was rerouted to head to the Cape May – Lewes Ferry terminal , with the former alignment into Cape May becoming Route 109 .
= = Route description = =
Route 109 begins at an intersection with County Route 633 in Cape May , heading to the northeast on Lafayette Street , a two @-@ lane undivided road that is county @-@ maintained and signed as a part of County Route 633 , which itself extends past the southern terminus of Route 109 along Jackson Street and Perry Street to County Route 626 in West Cape May . The route passes through residential and commercial areas of Cape May , intersecting the northern terminus of County Route 653 . At the intersection with Sidney Avenue , Route 109 splits into a one @-@ way pair that has two lanes in each direction , with the northbound direction following Sidney Avenue east before turning north on Washington Street and the southbound direction remaining on Lafayette Street . Along this pairing , northbound Route 109 intersects the northern terminus of County Route 622 . A short distance later , Washington Street turns west to join Lafayette Street , ending the one @-@ way pair , and the route heads north as a two @-@ lane undivided road .
It crosses a body of water onto an island in Lower Township . Here , the route becomes maintained by the New Jersey Department of Transportation and signed as Route 109 , continuing north past several marinas and other resort businesses . The road briefly widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway before the median ends and it crosses over the Cape May Canal on a bridge . Upon crossing the canal , Route 109 becomes a divided highway again and intersects County Route 621 ( Ocean Drive ) . From here , the road passes a mix of homes and businesses before intersecting the southern terminus of the Garden State Parkway at an at @-@ grade intersection . At this point , the route turns to the west and becomes a two @-@ lane undivided road and heads through woods and marshland with some residences . Route 109 heads into residential neighborhoods before it ends at an intersection with US 9 , which continues north on the road past this intersection as well as west along Sandman Boulevard toward the Cape May @-@ Lewes Ferry terminal .
= = History = =
The road that is now Route 109 was legislated as a part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 14 in 1917 , a route that was to run from Cape May to Egg Harbor City along what is now Route 109 , US 9 and Route 50 . In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , this portion of pre @-@ 1927 Route 14 became the southernmost part of Route 4 , a route that was to run from Cape May north to the George Washington Bridge . By the 1940s , US 9 was extended south from Absecon to Cape May , running concurrent with Route 4 . In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , which eliminated long concurrencies between U.S. and state routes , the Route 4 designation was dropped along this portion of road , leaving US 9 as the sole designation . In 1972 , US 9 was relocated from its southern terminus in Cape May to head west to its new southern terminus at the Cape May – Lewes Ferry terminal in North Cape May , with the former route into Cape May becoming Route 109 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Cape May County .
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= La Luz del Mundo =
The Iglesia del Dios Vivo , Columna y Apoyo de la Verdad , La Luz del Mundo , ( English : " Church of the Living God , Column and Ground of the Truth , The Light of the World " ) — or simply La Luz del Mundo — is a Christian denomination with international headquarters in Guadalajara , Jalisco , Mexico . La Luz del Mundo ( abbreviated LLDM , or sometimes The LDM ) practices a form of restorationist theology centered on three leaders : founder Aarón — born Eusebio — Joaquín González ( 1896 – 1964 ) , Samuel Joaquín Flores ( 1937 – 2014 ) , and Naasón Joaquin García ( born 1969 ) . These three men are regarded by the Church as modern day Apostles of Jesus Christ and Servants of God .
The Church had its beginnings in 1926 just as Mexico plunged into a violent struggle between the anti @-@ clerical government and Catholic rebels . The conflict centered in the west @-@ central states like Jalisco , where González focused his missionary efforts . Given the environment of the time , La Luz del Mundo remained a small missionary endeavor until 1934 when it built its first temple . Thereafter the Church continued to grow and expand , interrupted only by an internal schism in 1942 . Apostles : Aarón Joaquín is believed to be designated the ministry of the Lord by revelation of God , then his son Samuel ; thereafter by his son Naasón . The Church is now present in 50 countries and has between 1 and 7 million adherents worldwide .
La Luz del Mundo describes itself as the restoration of primitive Christianity . It does not use crosses or images in its worship services and its members do not observe Christmas or Holy Week . Female members follow a dress code that includes long skirts and head coverings during religious services .
= = Name = =
The full name of the Church is Iglesia del Dios Vivo Columna y Apoyo de la Verdad , La Luz del Mundo ( " Church of the Living God , Column and Support of The Truth , The Light of The World " ) which is derived from two passages in the Bible , Matthew 5 : 14 and 1 Timothy 3 : 15 .
= = History = =
= = = Historical background = = =
Eusebio Joaquín González was born on August 14 , 1896 in Colotlán , Jalisco . At a young age , he joined the Constitutional Army during the Mexican Revolution . While he was on leave in 1920 , he met Elisa Flores , whom he later married . While stationed in the state of Coahuila in 1926 , he came into contact with Saulo and Silas , two ascetic preachers from the Iglesia Cristiana Espiritual . Their teachings forbade their followers to keep good hygiene and wear regular clothes . After being baptized by the two itinerant preachers , González resigned from the army , and along with his wife became domestic workers to the two preachers .
During the 1920s , Mexico underwent a period of instability under the Plutarco Elías Calles administration who was seeking to limit the influence of the Catholic Church to modernize and centralize the state within the religious sphere of Mexican society . To protest the policies , the Catholic Church suspended all religious services , bringing about an uprising in Mexico . This uprising , or Cristero War , lasted from 1926 to 1929 and reemerged in the 1930s . On April 6 , 1926 González had a vision in which God changed his name from Eusebio to Aarón and was later told to leave Monterrey where he and his wife served Saulo and Silas . On his journey , he preached near the entrances of Catholic churches — often facing religious persecution — until he arrived at Guadalajara on December 12 , 1926 . The Cristero Wars impacted both Catholic and non @-@ Catholic congregations and preachers , especially evangelical movements . Small movements were attacked by the government and the Cristeros , resulting in a hostile environment for González 's work .
= = = Ministry of Aarón Joaquín González ( 1926 @-@ 1964 ) = = =
= = = = Early years = = = =
Working as a shoe vendor , González formed a group of ten worshipers who met at his wife 's apartment . He began constructing the Church 's hierarchy by instituting the first two deacons , Elisa Flores and Francisca Cuevas . Later he charged the first minister to oversee 14 congregations in Ameca , Jalisco . During these early years ( late 1920s ) , González traveled to the states of Michoacán , Nayarit , and Sinaloa to preach . In 1931 , the first Santa Cena ( Holy Supper ) was held to commemorate the crucifixion of Jesus . The Church met in rural areas , fearing complaints from Catholic neighbors . Urbanization contributed migrants from the countryside who added a significant amount of members to the Church .
In 1934 , a temple was built in Sector Libertad of Guadalajara 's urban zone and members were encouraged to buy homes in the same neighborhood thereby establishing a community . The temple was registered as Iglesia Cristiana Espiritual ( Spiritual Christian Church ) but González claimed to have received God 's word in the dedication of the temple , saying that it was " light of the world " and that they were the Iglesia del Dios Vivo , Columna y Apoyo de la Verdad ( Church of the Living God , Column and Ground of the Truth ) . The Church used the latter name to identify itself . In 1939 , it moved to a new meeting place at 12 de Octubre street in San Antonio in southeast Guadalajara , forming its second small community which was populated mainly by its members . This community was an attempt to escape the hostile environment , not to create an egalitarian society .
In 1938 González returned to Monterrey to preach to his former associates . There he learned that he had been baptized using the Trinitarian formula and not in the name of Jesus Christ as he preached . His re @-@ baptism in the name of Jesus Christ by his collaborator Lino Figueroa marked González 's separation from the rest of the Pentecostal community .
= = = = Schism of 1942 = = = =
In 1942 , in its most significant schism , at least 250 members left the Church . Tensions began to build after González 's birthday , when the congregation gave him gifts of flowers and sang hymns celebrating his birthday . This celebration generated a heated debate that culminated with the defection of several church members , including some pastors . Anthropologist Renée de la Torre described this schism as a power struggle in which González was accused of having enriched himself at the expense of the faithful . Church dissidents took to El Occidental to accuse members of La Luz del Mundo of committing immoralities with young women . Some of the accusations were aimed to close down a temple that LLDM used with government permission . Members of La Luz del Mundo attribute this episode to the envy and ambition of the dissidents , who formed their own group called El Buen Pastor ( The Good Shepherd ) under the leadership of José María González , with doctrines and practices similar to those of La Luz del Mundo . The leader is considered a prophet of God . As of 2010 , El Buen Pastor Church has a membership of 17 @,@ 700 in Mexico .
Among those who defected to El Buen Pastor Church was Lino Figueroa , the pastor who had re @-@ baptized González in 1938 . González had a vision in July 1943 where the baptism by Figueroa was invalidated and he was ordered to re @-@ baptize himself invoking Jesus ' name . The whole congregation was re @-@ baptized as well , as now González was the source of baptismal legitimacy and authenticity . With all those who had challenged him gone , González was able to consolidate leadership of the Church .
With the growth of the Church in the city , issues of safety developed in the 12 de Octubre street meeting place in the late 1940s and early 1950s . In 1952 , González purchased a plot of land outside the city and called it Hermosa Provincia ( Beautiful Province ) .
= = = = Hermosa Provincia = = = =
In 1952 , González purchased land on the outskirts of Guadalajara with the intent of forming a small community made up exclusively by members of LLDM . The land was then sold at reduced prices to church members . The community included most necessities ; services provided in Hermosa Provincia included health , education , and other urban services , which were provided in full after six years partly with help that the Church received from municipal and non @-@ municipal authorities . This dependency upon outside assistance to obtain public services ended by 1959 when residents formed the Association of Colonists of Hermosa Provincia , which was used to directly petition the government . Hermosa Provincia received a white flag from the city for being the only neighborhood in the city that has eliminated illiteracy by the early 1970s . González started missionary efforts in Central America and by the early 1960s , La Luz del Mundo had 64 congregations and 35 missions . By 1964 , after his death , the Church had between 20 @,@ 000 and 30 @,@ 000 members spread through five countries , including Mexico . The neighborhood became a standard model for the Church which has replicated it in many cities in Mexico and other countries .
= = = Ministry of Samuel Joaquin Flores ( 1964 @-@ 2014 ) = = =
Samuel Joaquín Flores was born on February 14 , 1937 and became the leader of the Church by the age of 27 after the death of González . He continued his father 's desire for international expansion by traveling outside of Mexico extensively . He first visited members of the Church in the Mexican state of Michoacán in August 1964 and later that year he went to Los Angeles on a missionary trip . By 1970 , the Church had expanded to Costa Rica , Colombia , and Guatemala . The first small temple in the Hermosa Provincia was demolished and replaced by a larger one in 1967 . With Flores ' work , La Luz del Mundo became integrated into Guadalajara and the Church replicated the model of Hermosa Provincia in many cities in Mexico and abroad . By 1972 , there were approximately 72 @,@ 000 members of the Church , which increased to 1 @.@ 5 million by 1986 and to 4 million by 1993 . Anthropologist Patricia Fortuny says that the Church 's growth can be attributed to several factors , including its social benefits , which " improves the living conditions of believers . " Flores oversaw the construction of schools , hospitals and other social services produced by the Church . It also expanded to countries including the UK , the Netherlands , Switzerland , Ethiopia and Israel between 1990 and 2010 . After fifty years at the head of La Luz del Mundo church , Flores died in his home on December 8 , 2014 .
= = = Ministry of Naasón Joaquín García ( 2014 @-@ present ) = = =
On December 14 , 2014 Naasón Joaquín García , the fifth born of the Joaquin family , became the spiritual leader and international director of La Luz del Mundo church . García was born on May 7 , 1969 and previously served as pastor in Los Angeles , California . After one year of arduous work García continues to lead the church , with ambition to fulfill a promise he received from God in a vision , that La Luz del Mundo Church will grow to a number that he could never imagine or perceive . He also urges the youth members of the church to join him in spreading their doctrine to the ends of the earth .
= = Beliefs and practices = =
= = = Worship = = =
During La Luz del Mundo 's religious services , male and female members are separated during worship ; from the preacher 's perspective , women sit on the left side of the temple and men on the right . The Church does not use musical instruments during its services . There is no dancing or clapping , and women cover their heads with a veil during worship services . Hymns are sung a cappella ; Despite this , members listen to instrumental music and some have composed Christian music . When singing , all congregants sing at the same time . Congregations practice the songs to maintain proper melody and uniformity during their religious meetings . The Church believes that worship should be done spiritually and only to God , and thus temples are devoid of images , saints , crosses , and anything that might be considered idolatry . The places of worship have plain walls and wide , clear windows .
The Church holds three daily prayer meetings during the week , with two meetings on Sundays and one regular consecration . On Sunday mornings , congregants meet at the temple for Sunday School , which begins with prayers and hymns . After that , the preacher — usually a minister — presides over a talk during which he reads from the Bible and presents the material to be covered throughout the week . During the talk , it is common for members of either sex to read a cited verse from the Bible . At the end of the talk , more hymns and prayers are recited and voluntary offerings are given . Sunday evening services begin with hymns and prayers , after which members of the congregation of both sexes recite from the Bible or sing hymns . A shorter talk is held with the aim of deepening the Sunday School 's talk .
The Church holds three scheduled prayer meetings each day . The first daily prayer meeting is at 5 : 00 a.m. and usually lasts one hour . The service includes a talk that is meant to recordar ( remember ) the material covered in the Sunday School . The 9 : 00 a.m. prayer was originally started by González 's wife , Elisa Flores . A female church member presides over the prayer meeting , which includes a talk . The evening prayer has the same structure as the 5 : 00 a.m. meeting . In each prayer meeting members are expected to be prepared with their Bibles , hymn books and notebooks and to be consecrated .
= = = Bible = = =
Members of La Luz del Mundo believe that the Bible along with the teachings of the Apostle are the only source of Christian doctrine . It is used as the source of ministers ' and lay persons ' talks during prayer meetings . Through organizational arrangements , such as Sunday school , church authorities attempt to maintain uniformity of teachings and beliefs throughout all congregations . The Bible is the only historical reference used by La Luz del Mundo during religious services . Members can find cited Bible verses quickly , regardless of their level of education . It is also seen as the one of two " sufficient rules of faith for salvation " .
= = = Restorationism = = =
La Luz del Mundo teaches that there was no salvation on Earth between the death of the last Apostle ( Apostle John ) around 96 AD and the calling of González in 1926 . Members believe that the Church itself was founded by Jesus Christ approximately two thousand years ago and that after the deaths of the Apostles of God , the church became corrupt and was lost . The Church claims that through González , it is the restoration of the Primitive Christian church that was lost during the formation of the Roman Catholic Church . After those times passed , the beginning of González 's ministry is seen as the restoration of the original Christian Church . Salvation can be attained in the Church by following the Bible @-@ based teachings of their leader .
= = = Calling of the Servants of God = = =
The Church states that its members believe in " the calling of the Servants of God , sent to express the will of God and Salvation " . It believes that González was called by God to restore the Primitive Christian Church . González was succeeded by Flores upon his death in 1964 ; Flores was in turn succeeded by García upon his death in 2014 . La Luz del Mundo teaches that it is the only true Christian church founded by Jesus Christ because it is led by García , who it considers the only true servant of God and Apostle of Jesus Christ in this era . Members believe that this Apostolic Authority allows them to find peace , feel close to God and attain meaning in their lives from the hopes of joining with Christ to reign with him for eternity .
= = = Christology = = =
La Luz del Mundo rejects the doctrine of the Trinity as a later addition to Christian theology . It believes in a " one and universal " God and in Jesus Christ who is the " Son of God and Savior of the world " , rather than part of a trinity . God is worshiped " by essence " , whereas Jesus is worshiped " by commandment . " Moreover , by worshiping Jesus Christ they are also worshiping God through him according to their teachings . The Church also preaches baptism in the name of Jesus Christ for forgiveness of sins , and baptism with the Holy Spirit as confirmation from God for entrance into heaven .
There is disagreement among external sources regarding the christology of La Luz del Mundo . According to theologian Roger S. Greenway , the Church is trinitarian but baptizes in the name of Jesus to conform to apostolic practice . Theological librarian Kenneth D. Gill agrees with Greenway that the Church is trinitarian , and says it refuses to " use the term ' person ' to describe the three modes of God . " Sociocultural anthropologist Hugo G. Nutini also says the Church is trinitarian but that its worship focuses exclusively on Jesus Christ as the source of salvation .
= = = Role of women = = =
In the tradition of Pentecostalism , female members of La Luz del Mundo do not wear jewelery or makeup and are instructed to wear full , long skirts . Women can have their hair as short as their shoulder blades . These restrictions do not apply to recreational activities , where wearing bathing suits is permitted . Women wear a head covering during religious meetings . According to an interview of one adherent , women in the Church are considered equal to men in social spheres and have equal capacities for obtaining higher education , social careers , and other goals that may interest them .
González established the 9 a.m. prayer after hearing about one of his followers who was being abused by her Catholic husband . This prayer became one led by women . These prayers are seen as a religious activity equal to all other activities . This prayer provides space for empowerment in which women can express themselves and develop a status within the congregation 's membership . Anthropologist Patricia Fortuny said , concerning the 9 a.m. prayer , that , " I infer from this that , if the membership considers this as [ a ] female [ gathering ] , they would be giving authority to women in the religious or ecclesiastical framework of the ritual , and this then [ would ] put [ them ] on a plane of equality or [ in ] absence of subordination to men . " She said that women of the Church may be playing with their subordinate roles in the Church to acquire certain benefits .
Church women personalize their attire , according to Patricia Fortuny . Rebozos are worn by indigenous members and specially designed veils by other female members . Fortuny says that , " ... wearing long skirts does not negate the meaning of being a woman and , although it underlines the difference between men and women , [ the Church 's female members ] say that it does not make them feel like inferior human beings " . Fortuny says women describe their attire as part of obeying biblical commands found in 1 Timothy 2 : 9 , and 1 Corinthians 11 : 15 for long hair . Female members say the Church 's dress code makes them feel they are honoring God and that it is part of their " essence " .
Fortuny also states that dress codes are a sign of a patriarchal organization because men are only forbidden from growing their hair long or wearing shorts in public . Women , at times , can be more autonomous than those in the general population in Mexico . Fortuny says that the growing trend of educated women having husbands in supporting roles is also seen within the Church both in the Guadalajara ( Mexico ) , and Houston ( Texas ) congregations . Many young female members said they want to undergo post @-@ secondary education , and some told Fortuny they were degree students . Both young men and women are equally encouraged to enter post @-@ compulsory education . Fathers who are members of La Luz del Mundo are more likely than their mothers to direct their daughters towards attending university .
La Luz del Mundo Church does not practice ordination of women . According to Fortuny , women can become missionaries or evangelizers ; the lowest tier of the Church 's hierarchy . She states that " the rank of deaconess is not a position which common women could aspire to " . Dormady states that the first two deaconesses were Elisa Flores and Francisca Cuevas . Wives of important members of the Church usually get the rank of deaconess , according to Dormady .
Women are active and play key roles in organizing activities and administering them in the Church . Female office holders are always head of groups of women and not groups of men . A deaconess can help pastors and deacons , but cannot herself administer the sacrament . All members of the ministerial hierarchy are paid for their services as part of the tithe by the congregational members .
At the turn of the century , La Luz del Mundo Church began promoting women to public relations positions that were previously held by men only . As of December 2014 , two women ( and three men ) serve as legal representatives of the church in Northern Mexico . Public relations positions that have been held by women include spokesperson , director of social communication , and assistant director of international affairs . Within church operated civil organizations women also occupy executive positions such as director of La Luz del Mundo Family Services , a violence prevention and intervention center in South Side , Milwaukee ; Director of Social Work and Psychology within the Ministry of Social Welfare ; director of the Samuel Joaquín Flores Foundation ; president of Recab de México A.C. ; and director of the Association of Students and Professionals in the USA .
= = = Other beliefs and practices = = =
The Church teaches moral and civil principles such as community service and that science is a gift from God . Members of La Luz Del Mundo do not celebrate Christmas or Holy Week . The most important yearly rituals are the Holy Supper ( Santa Cena in Spanish or " Santa Convocation " ) , held yearly on August 14 , and the anniversary of García 's birth is held on May 7 at its international headquarters in Guadalajara .
= = Organization = =
= = = Ecclesiastical organization = = =
The organization of La Luz del Mundo is apostolic . The head of the Church is Jesus Christ and in his representation is Naason Joaquin García , who is the " Apostle and Servant of God " and the organizational authority as General Director of the Church . Below him is the ranks of pastors , who are expected to develop one or more of the qualities as doctor , prophet , and evangelist . All pastors are evangelists and are expected to undertake missionary tasks . As doctors , pastors explain the word of God and as prophets they interpret it . Below them are the deacons , who administer the sacraments to the congregational members . Below the deacons are the encargados ( managers or overseers ) , who have responsibility for the moral conduct and well @-@ being of certain groups within the congregation . Overseers grant permits to members who wish to leave their congregations for vacations or to take jobs outside of the church district . At the lowest echelon of the hierarchy are the obreros ( laborers ) , who mainly assist their higher @-@ ups with missionary work .
= = = Territorial organization = = =
A church , or group , that is unable to fully provide for the religious needs of its members is called a mission . Missions are dependent on a congregation which is administered by a minister . A group of several congregations with their missions form a district . The Church in each nation is divided into multiple districts . In Mexico , several districts form together into five jurisdictions that act as legal entities .
= = Architecture = =
La Luz del Mundo uses the architecture of its temples to express its faith through symbolism and to attract potential converts . Among the Church 's buildings are a replica of a Mayan pyramid in Honduras , a mock Taj Mahal in Chiapas , Mexico , and a Greco @-@ Roman @-@ inspired temple in California . Its flagship temple is located in its headquarters in Hermosa Provincia . Two smaller replicas of this temple are being built in Anchorage , Alaska , and in Chile to symbolize " the northern and southern @-@ most reach of the Church 's missionary efforts . "
= = = Hermosa Provincia Temple = = =
The flagship temple in Guadalajara is pyramidal and has an innovative structure . The project began in 1983 , when the Church 's former temple built to accommodate 8 @,@ 000 people was deemed insufficient to accommodate the growing number of people who attended various annual celebrations . Construction began on July 3 , 1983 when Flores laid the cornerstone and lasted until August 1 , 1992 . The temple was completed largely by members of the Church . It is a notable architectural feature in Guadalajara in a working @-@ class district on the outskirts of the city . Dozens of institutions , architects , and engineers were invited to submit proposals for a new temple . The pyramidal design submitted by Leopoldo Fernández Font was from the final shortlist of four proposals . Fernandez Font was later awarded an honorary degree for this and other structures . He said that one of his favorite works is the Temple of the Resurrection , but that the temple of La Luz del Mundo seemed difficult to him . The temple was built to accommodate 12 @,@ 000 worshipers and is used for annual ceremonies .
The building 's design represents the infinite power and existence of God . It consists of seven levels over a base menorah , each of which symbolize steps toward the human spirit 's perfection . In February 1991 , a laser beacon was installed to commemorate the 449 @-@ year anniversary of the founding of Guadalajara . On July 1999 the pinnacle of the temple " La Flama " was replaced by Aaron 's rod , a twenty @-@ ton bronze sculpture by artist Jorge de la Peña . The installation of the 23 @-@ metre ( 75 ft ) long structure required a special crane .
= = = Houston Texas Temple = = =
The main temple in Houston , Texas , was inspired by Greco @-@ Roman architecture . It is the largest temple constructed by La Luz del Mundo in the United States as of 2011 . The temple 's pillars resemble the Parthenon , according to religious historian Timothy Wyatt . The front of the building is decorated with carved scenes from the Bible and three panes of stained glass also depict biblical scenes . The temple can hold 4 @,@ 500 people . The interior has marble floors , glass chandeliers , and wood paneling .
The structure is worth US $ 18 million and consists of the temple , classrooms , offices , and a parsonage . There is a sitting area with 14 free @-@ standing columns in a circle next to the temple . Each column represents each of the Apostles — including Aarón and Samuel Joaquín . On top of the temple under Aaron 's rod — the Church 's symbol which represents God 's power tobring spiritual life to believers — is a large , golden dome . The symbol is also a reference to the Church 's founder .
Construction of the temple began in 2000 and it was finished in 2005 . Most of the construction was done by Church volunteers , who provided funding and a skilled workforce . The structure was designed by Church members and the design was revised by architects to ensure compliance with building codes . The decorations and ornaments were also designed and installed by Church members . The temple serves as a central congregation for southeastern Texas .
= = Statistics = =
There are no definitive statistics for the total membership of La Luz del Mundo . It has reported having over five million members worldwide in 2000 with 1 @.@ 5 million in Mexico . The Church does not appear in the 1990 Mexican census or any census prior to that .
The 2000 Mexican census reported about 70 @,@ 000 members nationwide , and the 2010 census reported 188 @,@ 326 members . The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints , whose numbers also differ significantly from those of the census — 1 @,@ 234 @,@ 545 compared to the census figure of 314 @,@ 932 — said ambiguity in the census questionnaire was the source of the disparity . The World Christian Encyclopedia reports 430 @,@ 000 adherents in Mexico in 2000 and 488 @,@ 000 in Mexico in 2010 . Anthropologist Hugo G. Nutini estimated that the Church had around 1 @,@ 125 @,@ 000 members in 2000 in Mexico . In 2008 , Fortuny and Williams estimated the membership at 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . Anthropologist Ávila Meléndez says that the membership numbers reported by La Luz del Mundo are plausible given the great interest it has generated among " religious authorities " and the following it receives in Mexico .
In El Salvador , as of 2009 , there are an estimated 70 @,@ 000 members of La Luz del Mundo , which had 140 congregations with a minister and 160 other congregations with between 13 and 80 members . As of 2008 , there were around 60 @,@ 000 members of the Church in the United States .
= = Controversy = =
In the wake of the Heaven 's Gate mass suicide , La Luz del Mundo found itself embroiled in a controversy that would play out in some of Mexico 's major media outlets . Former members and anti @-@ cult groups leveraged accusations against the church and its leadership . Church members and sympathizers defended the integrity of the church . Academics , meanwhile , denounced a climate of intolerance toward religious minorities in Mexico .
= = = Allegations of potential for mass suicide = = =
Following the Heaven 's Gate mass suicide on March 26 , 1997 , Mexican journalists asked which religious group at home could stage similar acts . The following day , in TV Azteca 's flagship program , Jorge Erdely Graham leader of the obscure anti @-@ cult group Instituto Cristiano de Mexico ( Christian Institute of Mexico ) pointed to La Luz del Mundo as a group with the potential to commit mass suicide . Erdely 's claims were based on an interview with three church members conducted two years earlier . La Luz del Mundo denied the claims arguing that the answers of three individuals cannot be used to make generalizations about an entire community . Religious scholars Gordon Melton and David Bromley characterized the accusations as " fraudulent reports by ideological enemies . " Anthropologist Elio Masferrer Kan criticized the methodology employed in the interview , noting that the interviewer cornered the subjects to obtain the desired response .
This incident focused media attention on the church , and in May 4 , 1997 the accusations were broadcast on Mexico 's most @-@ watched newscast on Televisa .
= = = Sexual abuse accusations against Flores = = =
On May 18 , 1997 ( a day after Flores ' 35th wedding anniversary ) in a follow @-@ up report on Televisa , a handful of women claimed to have been sexually abused by Flores approximately twenty years earlier . In a third report on August 17 , shortly after the church 's most significant holiday , former member Moisés Padilla Íñiguez also accused Flores of sexually abusing him when he was a teenager . These accusations were spearheaded by Erdely 's anti @-@ cult group , which demanded that La Luz del Mundo be stripped of its legal recognition as a religious organization . Four people later filed formal complaints with the state prosecutor , but the statute of limitations for the alleged crimes had passed .
The issue came back to life in February of the following year when , two days before Flores ' birthday , Padilla reported being kidnapped and stabbed by two gunmen . Padilla received 57 shallow slashes from a dagger which did not put his life in danger , but he could have died from blood loss . Padilla blamed Flores for the stabbing and for an earlier attack in which he was allegedly beaten by men who warned him against criticizing the church leader . A church spokesman denied that the Church or Flores had any involvement in the attack and suggested that Padilla may have orchestrated the attack in a desperate attempt to authenticate his previous charges against the Church .
Judicial authorities investigating the charges said the alleged victims were not being fully cooperative , whereas former members were suspicious of the Mexican legal system , arguing that it favored the church . Ten years later a spokesman for the state prosecutor said the criminal complaints were unsuccessful because , in addition to the statute of limitations , the accusations were unfounded .
Sociologist Roberto Blancarte called the controversy a " persecution " fueled by " obscure interests . " Journalist Carlos Monsiváis described the issue as a diffamation campaign . Sociologist Bernardo Barranco described it as a dirty war that was well exploited by the media . Anthropologist Carlos Garma Navarro criticized that the accusations were first brought before the mass media , and thought it was very likely that the accusations were an attempt to give the church a bad image . Journalist Gastón Pardo called it a smear campaign characterized by the systematic use of defamation and slander .
= = Discrimination = =
= = = Opposition to new temple in California = = =
In 1995 , La Luz del Mundo acquired a vacant nursery building in a commercial zone in Ontario , California . The Church planned to use it for religious activities and was assured that it could as long as building requirements were met . The city then passed a law requiring all new religious organizations to obtain a conditional use permit to operate a church in the commercial zone . In 1998 , the Church petitioned for such a permit but concerned residents objected to its plans . María de Lourdes Argüelles , professor at Claremont Graduate University and board member of the Instituto Cristiano de México , led the opposition against the Church , which she called a " destructive sect " . She said she had seen children and teenagers working overnight on the site under precarious conditions .
Ontario officials met with objecting residents and began researching the Church and checking with cities where Luz del Mundo had temples , but found no problems . After considering zoning questions and citing traffic , parking and disruption of economic plans for that area , the city denied the permit to the Church . La Luz del Mundo then sued the city for denying it use of its own building for services and for allegedly violating its civil rights . The case was settled out of court in 2004 , and the Church was allowed to build the temple . The city agreed to pay about US $ 150 @,@ 000 in cash and fee credits to the Church . The case was not taken to court because city officials and attorneys concluded the city would most likely lose the case and spend more money than the settlement .
= = = Denominational Discrimination = = =
According to Patricia Fortuny , members of La Luz del Mundo along with members of other Protestant denominations , are treated as " second class citizens " . She says the Church is called a sect in an offensive manner in Mexico . Rodolfo Morán Quiroz , a sociologist , said that the discrimination started by the Catholic Church , which in the past caused La Luz del Mundo to seek help from the authorities who promoted religious freedom in establishing its community in Hermosa Provincia , continues in Mexico . Church founder González was beaten by Cristeros and was jailed by the government for preaching in the open air .
In 1995 , as thousands of members of the Church traveled to the Holy Supper celebration in Guadalajara , several members of a neighboring community supported by Cardinal Juan Sandoval Íñiguez protested the use of schools to provide temporary shelters for the Luz del Mundo pilgrims . The protesters said that after the ceremony the schools were left in disarray ; however church authorities presented photographic evidence to newspapers to refute these claims .
According to Armando Maya Castro , many students who are members of the Church have been discriminated against for refusing to partake in celebrations and customs concerning the Day of the Dead in their schools , and some have been punished for it . In one case reported by a Mexican newspaper , La Gaceta , a female member of the Church was pushed by a fellow bus passenger , who then crossed herself because the member was wearing a long skirt . In July 25 , 2008 , a public official sealed the entrance to a La Luz del Mundo temple in Puerto Vallarta , Jalisco , trapping the congregation inside until other officials removed the seals . This incident occurred because of complaints from individuals who did not like the presence of the Church in the area . Reporter Rodolfo Chávez Calderón stated the Church was in compliance with local laws .
Many female church members have faced discrimination and verbal abuse on buses , schools , and hospitals . Church members who were patients in a Mexican hospital were denied access to their ministers in 2011 . The hospital required permission from Catholic clergy so that LLDM ministers could visit patients .
Ministers of the Church reported that the site of a newly constructed temple in Silao was subject to harassment of its members , vandalism , and physical threats because of religious intolerance , which caused them to request increased police protection . In February 2012 , seventy ministers of La Luz del Mundo from different nations appeared before Mexican authorities in Guadalajara to denounce the lack of police protection for the Church 's residents in the city after a series of attacks left several members hospitalized .
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= Communist Party of China =
The Communist Party of China ( CPC ) is the founding and ruling political party of the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) . The CPC is the sole governing party of China , although it coexists alongside eight other legal parties that comprise the United Front . It was founded in 1921 , chiefly by Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao . The party grew quickly , and by 1949 the CPC had driven the Kuomintang ( KMT ) government from mainland China after the Second Chinese Civil War , thus leading to the establishment of the People 's Republic of China . The CPC is currently the world 's second largest political party with a membership of 88 @.@ 76 million as of 2016 .
The CPC is , officially , organized on the basis of democratic centralism , a principle conceived by Russian Marxist theoretician Vladimir Lenin which entails democratic and open discussion on policy on the condition of unity in upholding the agreed upon policies . The highest body of the CPC is the National Congress , convened every fifth year . When the National Congress is not in session , the Central Committee is the highest body , but since the body meets normally only once a year , most duties and responsibilities are vested in the Politburo and its Standing Committee . The party 's leader holds the offices of General Secretary ( responsible for civilian party duties ) , Chairman of the Central Military Commission ( CMC ) ( responsible for military affairs ) and state president ( a largely ceremonial position ) . Through these posts the party leader is the country 's paramount leader . The current party leader is Xi Jinping , elected at the 18th National Congress ( held in 2012 ) .
The CPC is still committed to communist thought and continues to participate in the International Meeting of Communist and Workers ' Parties each year . According to the party constitution the CPC adheres to Marxism – Leninism , Mao Zedong Thought , socialism with Chinese characteristics , Deng Xiaoping Theory , Three Represents and the Scientific Outlook on Development . The official explanation for China 's economic reforms is that the country is in the primary stage of socialism , a developmental stage similar to the capitalist mode of production . The planned economy established under Mao Zedong was replaced by the socialist market economy , the current economic system , on the basis that " Practice is the Sole Criterion for the Truth " ( i.e. the planned economy was deemed inefficient ) .
Since the collapse of Eastern European communist regimes in 1989 – 1990 and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 , the CPC has emphasized its party @-@ to @-@ party relations with the ruling parties of the remaining socialist states . While the CPC still maintains party @-@ to @-@ party relations with non @-@ ruling communist parties around the world , since the 1980s it has established relations with several non @-@ communist parties , most notably with ruling parties of one @-@ party states ( whatever their ideology ) , dominant parties in democratic systems ( whatever their ideology ) , and social democratic parties .
= = History = =
= = = Founding and early history ( 1921 – 27 ) = = =
The CPC has its origins in the May Fourth Movement of 1919 , during which radical ideologies like Marxism and anarchism gained traction among Chinese intellectuals . Li Dazhao was the first leading Chinese intellectual who publicly supported Leninism and world revolution . In contrast to Chen Duxiu , Li did not renounce participation in the affairs of the Republic of China . Both of them regarded the October Revolution in Russia as groundbreaking , believing it to herald a new era for oppressed countries everywhere . The CPC was modeled on Vladimir Lenin 's theory of a vanguard party . Study circles were , according to Cai Hesen , " the rudiments [ of our party ] " . Several study circles were established during the New Culture Movement , but " by 1920 skepticism about their suitability as vehicles for reform had become widespread . "
The founding National Congress of the CPC was held on 23 – 31 July 1921 . While it was originally planned to be held in Shanghai French Concession , police officers interrupted the meeting on 3 July . Because of that , the congress was moved to a tourist boat on South Lake in Jiaxing , Zhejiang province . Only 12 delegates attended the congress , with neither Li nor Chen being able to attend . Chen sent a personal representative to attend the congress . The resolutions of the congress called for the establishment of a communist party ( as a branch of the Communist International ) and elected Chen as its leader .
The communists dominated the left wing of the KMT , a party organized on Leninist lines , struggling for power with the party 's right wing . When KMT leader Sun Yat @-@ sen died in March 1925 , he was succeeded by a rightist , Chiang Kai @-@ shek , who initiated moves to marginalize the position of the communists . Fresh from the success of the Northern Expedition to overthrow the warlords , Chiang Kai @-@ shek turned on the communists , who by now numbered in the tens of thousands across China . Ignoring the orders of the Wuhan @-@ based KMT government , he marched on Shanghai , a city controlled by communist militias . Although the communists welcomed Chiang 's arrival , he turned on them , massacring 5000 with the aid of the Green Gang . Chiang 's army then marched on Wuhan , but was prevented from taking the city by CPC General Ye Ting and his troops . Chiang 's allies also attacked communists ; in Beijing , 19 leading communists were killed by Zhang Zuolin , while in Changsha , He Jian 's forces machine gunned hundreds of peasant militiamen . That May , tens of thousands of communists and their sympathizers were killed by nationalists , with the CPC losing approximately 15 @,@ 000 of its 25 @,@ 000 members .
The CPC continued supporting the Wuhan KMT government , but on 15 July 1927 the Wuhan government expelled all communists from the KMT . The CPC reacted by founding the Workers ' and Peasants ' Red Army of China , better known as the " Red Army " , to battle the KMT . A battalion led by General Zhu De was ordered to take the city of Nanchang on 1 August 1927 in what became known as the Nanchang Uprising ; initially successful , they were forced into retreat after five days , marching south to Shantou , and from there being driven into the wilderness of Fujian . Mao Zedong was appointed commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Red Army , and led four regiments against Changsha in the Autumn Harvest Uprising , hoping to spark peasant uprisings across Hunan . His plan was to attack the KMT @-@ held city from three directions on 9 September , but the Fourth Regiment deserted to the KMT cause , attacking the Third Regiment . Mao 's army made it to Changsha , but could not take it ; by 15 September , he accepted defeat , with 1000 survivors marching east to the Jinggang Mountains of Jiangxi .
= = = Chinese Civil War and World War II ( 1927 – 49 ) = = =
The near @-@ destruction of the CPC 's urban organizational apparatus led to institutional changes within the party . The party adopted democratic centralism , a way to organize revolutionary parties , and established a Politburo ( functioned as the standing committee of the Central Committee ) . The result was increased centralization of power within the party . At every @-@ level of the party this was duplicated , with standing committees now in effective control . After Chen Duxiu 's dismissal , Li Lisan was able to assume de facto control of the party organization by 1929 – 30 . Li Lisan 's leadership was a failure , and by the end of it , the CPC was on the brink of destruction . The Comintern became involved , and by late @-@ 1930 , his powers had been taken away . By 1935 Mao had become the party 's informal leader , with Zhou Enlai and Zhang Wentian , the formal head of the party , serving as his informal deputies . The conflict with the KMT led to the reorganization of the Red Army , with power now centralized in the leadership through the creation of CPC political departments charged with supervising the army .
The Second Sino @-@ Japanese War caused a pause in the conflict between the CPC and the KMT . The Second United Front was established between the CPC and the KMT to tackle the invasion . While the front formally existed until 1945 , all collaboration between the two parties had ended by 1940 . Despite their formal alliance , the CPC used the opportunity to expand and carve out independent bases of operations to prepare for the coming war with the KMT . In 1939 the KMT began to restrict CPC expansion within China . This led to frequent clashes between CPC and KMT forces . It did not take long before the situation were deescalated , since none of the parties considered a civil war an option at this time . Despite this , by 1943 the CPC was again actively expanding its territory at the expense of the KMT .
From 1945 until 1949 , the war had been reduced to two parties ; the CPC and the KMT . This period lasted through four stages ; the first was from August 1945 ( when the Japanese surrendered ) to June 1946 ( when the peace talks between the CPC and the KMT ended ) . By 1945 , the KMT had three @-@ times more soldiers under its command than the CPC , and because of it , it looked early on like it was winning . With the cooperation of the Americans and the Japanese , the KMT was able to retake major parts of the country . However , KMT rule over the reconquested territories would prove unpopular because of endemic corruption within the party . Despite this advantage , the KMT , with 2 million more troops than the CPC , failed to reconquer the rural territories which made up the CPC 's stronghold . Around the same time , the CPC launched an invasion of Manchuria , where they were given assistance by the Soviet Union . The second stage , lasting from July 1946 to June 1947 , saw KMT extend its control over major cities , such as Yan 'an ( the CPC headquarter for much of the war ) . The KMT 's successes were hollow ; the CPC had tactically withdrawn from the cities , and instead attacked KMT authorities by instigating protests amongst students and intellectuals in the cities ( the KMT responded to these events with heavy @-@ handed repression ) . In the meantime , the KMT was struggling with factional infighting and Chiang Kai @-@ shek 's autocratic control over the party , which weakened the KMT 's ability to respond to attacks . The third stage , lasting from July 1947 to August 1948 , saw a limited counteroffensive by the CPC . The objective was to clear " Central China , strengthening North China , and recovering Northeast China . " This policy , coupled with desertions from the KMT military force ( by spring 1948 KMT military had lost an estimated 2 million troops , having 1 million troops left ) and the increasing unpopularity of KMT rule . The result was that the CPC was able to cut off KMT garrisons in Manchuria and retake several lost territories . The last stage , lasting from September 1948 to December 1949 , saw the communist take the initiative and the collapse of KMT rule in mainland China . On 1 October 1949 , Mao declared the establishment of the PRC , which signified the end of the Chinese Revolution ( as it is officially described by the CPC ) .
= = = Single Ruling party ( 1949 – present ) = = =
The Chinese Revolution , directed by Mao Zedong and the CPC , led to the establishment of the ( PRC ) in 1949 . The PRC was founded on Marxist – Leninist principles , or more precisely , the sinification of Marxism – Leninism ( officially known as Mao Zedong Thought , referred to in the West as Maoism ) . During the 1960s and 1970s , the CPC experienced a significant ideological separation from the Communist Party of the Soviet Union . By that time , Mao had begun saying that the " continued revolution under the dictatorship of the proletariat " stipulated that class enemies continued to exist even though the socialist revolution seemed to be complete , leading to the Cultural Revolution .
Following Mao 's death in 1976 , a power struggle between CPC General Secretary Hua Guofeng and Deng Xiaoping erupted . Deng won the struggle , and became the " paramount leader " . Deng , alongside Chen Yun and Li Xiannian , spearheaded the Reform and opening policy , and introduced the ideological concept of socialism with Chinese characteristics . In reversing some of Mao 's " leftist " policies , Deng argued that a socialist state could use the market economy without itself being capitalist . While asserting the political power of the Party , the change in policy generated significant economic growth . The new ideology , however , was contested on both sides of the spectrum , by Maoists as well as by those supporting political liberalization . With other social factors , the conflicts culminated in the 1989 Tiananmen Square Protests . Deng 's vision on economics prevailed , and by the early 1990s the concept a socialist market economy had been introduced . In 1997 , Deng 's beliefs ( Deng Xiaoping Theory ) , were embedded in the CPC constitution .
CPC General Secretary Jiang Zemin succeeded Deng as “ paramount leader ” in the 1990s , and continued most of his policies . As part of Jiang Zemin 's nominal legacy , the CPC ratified the Three Represents for the 2003 revision of the Party constitution , as a " guiding ideology " to encourage the Party to represent " advanced productive forces , the progressive course of China 's culture , and the fundamental interests of the people . " The theory has legitimized the entry of private business owners and bourgeois elements into the party . Hu Jintao , Jiang Zemin 's successor as paramount leader , took office in 2002 . Unlike Mao , Deng and Jiang Zemin , Hu laid emphasis on collective leadership and opposed one @-@ man dominance of the political system . The insistence on focusing on economic growth has led to a wide range of serious social problems . To address these , Hu introduced two main ideological concepts : the Scientific Outlook on Development and Harmonious Socialist Society . Hu resigned from his post as CPC General Secretary and Chairman of the CMC at the 18th National Congress held in 2012 , and was succeeded in both posts by Xi Jinping . Since taking power Xi has initiated the most concerted anti @-@ corruption effort in decades , while centralizing powers in the office of CPC General Secretary at the expense of the collective leadership which has led foreign commentators to liken him to Mao .
= = Governance = =
= = = Collective leadership = = =
Currently , in a bid to curtail the powers of the individual , collective leadership , the idea that decisions will be taken through consensus , has become the ideal in the CPC . The concept has its origins back to Vladimir Lenin and the Russian Bolshevik Party . At the level of the central party leadership this means that , for instance , all members of the Politburo Standing Committee are of equal standing ( each member having only one vote ) . A member of the Politburo Standing Committee often represents a sector ; during Mao 's reign , he controlled the People 's Liberation Army , Kang Sheng , the security apparatus , and Zhou Enlai , the State Council and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs . This counts as informal power . Despite this , in a paradoxical relation , members of a body are ranked hierarchically ( despite the fact that members are in theory equal to each others ) . In spite of this , the CPC is led by an informal leader principle , each collective leadership is led by a core , that is a paramount leader ; a person who holds the offices of CPC General Secretary , CMC chairman and President of the PRC . Before Jiang Zemin 's tenure as paramount leader , the party core and collective leadership were indistinguishable . In practice , the core was not responsible to the collective leadership . However , by the time of Jiang , the party had begun propagating a responsibility system , referring to it in official pronouncements to the " core of the collective leadership " .
= = = Democratic centralism = = =
The CPC 's organizational principle is democratic centralism , which is based on two principles ; democracy ( synonymous in official discourse with " socialist democracy " and " inner @-@ party democracy " ) and centralism . This has been the guiding organizational principle of the party since the 5th National Congress , held in 1927 . In the words of the party constitution , " The Party is an integral body organized under its program and constitution and on the basis of democratic centralism " . Mao once quipped that democratic centralism was " at once democratic and centralized , with the two seeming opposites of democracy and centralization united in a definite form . " Mao claimed that the superiority of democratic centralism laid in its internal contradictions , between democracy and centralism , and freedom and discipline . Currently , the CPC is claiming that " democracy is the lifeline of the Party , the lifeline of socialism " . But for democracy to be implemented , and functioning properly , there needs to be centralization . Democracy in any form , the CPC claims , needs centralism , since without centralism there will be no order . According to Mao , democratic centralism " is centralized on the basis of democracy and democratic under centralized guidance . This is the only system that can give full expression to democracy with full powers vested in the people 's congresses at all levels and , at the same time , guarantee centralized administration with the governments at each level exercising centralized management of all the affairs entrusted to them by the people ’ s congresses at the corresponding level and safeguarding whatever is essential to the democratic life of the people " .
= = = Multi @-@ party Cooperation System = = =
The Multi @-@ party Cooperation and Political Consultation System is led by the CPC in cooperation and consultation with the 8 parties which make up the United Front . Consultation takes place under the leadership of the CPC , with mass organizations , the United Front parties , and " representatives from all walks of life " . These consultations contribute , at least in theory , to the formation of the country 's basic policy in the fields of political , economic , cultural and social affairs . The CPC 's relationship with other parties is based on the principle of " long @-@ term coexistence and mutual supervision , treating each other with full sincerity and sharing weal or woe . " This process is institutionalized in the Chinese People 's Political Consultative Conference ( CPPCC ) . All the parties in the United Front support China 's road to socialism , and hold steadfast to the leadership of the CPC . Despite all this , the CPPCC is a body without any real power . While discussions do take place , they are all supervised by the CPC .
= = Organization = =
= = = Central organization = = =
The National Congress is the party 's highest body , and , since the 9th National Congress in 1969 , has been convened every five years ( prior to the 9th Congress they were convened on an irregular basis ) . According to the party 's constitution , a congress may not be postponed except " under extraordinary circumstances . " The party constitution gives the National Congress six responsibilities :
electing the Central Committee ;
electing the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection ( CCDI ) ;
examining the report of the outgoing Central Committee ;
examining the report of the outgoing CCDI ;
discussing and enacting party policies ; and :
revising the party 's constitution . :
In practice , the delegates rarely discuss issues at length at the National Congresses . Most substantive discussion takes place before the congress , in the preparation period , among a group of top party leaders . In between National Congresses , the Central Committee is the highest decision @-@ making institution . The CCDI is responsible for supervising party 's internal anti @-@ corruption and ethics system . In between congresses the CCDI is under the authority of the Central Committee .
The Central Committee , as the party 's highest decision @-@ making institution between national congresses , elects several bodies to carry out its work . The 1st Plenary Session of a newly elected central committee elects the General Secretary of the Central Committee , the party 's titular leader , the Central Military Commission ( CMC ) , the Politburo , the Politburo Standing Committee ( PSC ) , and since 2013 , the Central National Security Commission ( CNSC ) . The first plenum also endorses the composition of the Secretariat and the leadership of the CCDI . According to the party constitution , the General Secretary must be a member of the Politburo Standing Committee ( PSC ) , and is responsible for convening meetings of the PSC and the Politburo , while also presiding over the work of the Secretariat . The Politburo " exercises the functions and powers of the Central Committee when a plenum is not in session " . The PSC is the party 's highest decision @-@ making institution when the Politburo , the Central Committee and the National Congress are not in session . It convenes at least once a week . It was established at the 8th National Congress , in 1958 , to take over the policy @-@ making role formerly assumed by the Secretariat . The Secretariat is the top implementation body of the Central Committee , and can make decisions within the policy framework established by the Politburo ; it is also responsible for supervising the work of organizations that report directly into the Central Committee , for example departments , commissions , publications , and so on . The CMC is the highest decision @-@ making institution on military affairs within the party , and controls the operations of the People 's Liberation Army . The General Secretary has , since Jiang Zemin , also served as Chairman of the CMC . Unlike the collective leadership ideal of other party organs , the CMC Chairman acts as commander @-@ in @-@ chief with full authority to appoint or dismiss top military officers at will . The CNSC " co @-@ ordinates security strategies across various departments , including intelligence , the military , foreign affairs and the police in order to cope with growing challenges to stability at home and abroad . " The General Secretary serves as the Chairman of the CNSC .
A first plenum of the Central Committee also elects several departments , bureaus , central leading groups and other institutions to pursue its work during a term ( a " term " being the period elapsing between national congresses , usually five years ) . The General Office is the party 's " nerve centre " , in charge of day @-@ to @-@ day administrative work , including communications , protocol , and setting agendas for meetings . The CPC currently has four main central departments : the Organization Department , responsible for overseeing provincial appointments and vetting cadres for future appointments , the Publicity Department ( formerly " Propaganda Department " ) , which oversees the media and formulates the party line to the media , the International Department , functioning as the party 's " foreign affairs ministry " with other parties , and the United Front Work Department , which oversees work with the country 's non @-@ Communist parties and other mass organizations . The CC also has direct control over the Central Policy Research Office , which is responsible for researching issues of significant interest to the party leadership , the Central Party School , which provides political training and ideological indoctrination in communist thought for high @-@ ranking and rising cadres , the Party History Research Centre , which sets priorities for scholarly research in state @-@ run universities and the Central Party School , and the Compilation and Translation Bureau , which studies and translates the classical works of Marxism . The party 's newspaper , the People 's Daily , is under the direct control of the Central Committee . The theoretical magazines Seeking Truth from Facts and Study Times are published by the Central Party School . The various offices of the " Central Leading Groups " , such as the Hong Kong and Macau Affairs Office , the Taiwan Affairs Office , and the Central Finance Office , also report to the central committee during a plenary session .
= = = Lower @-@ level organizations = = =
Party committees exist at the level of provinces ; autonomous regions ; municipalities directly under the central government ; cities divided into districts ; autonomous prefectures ; counties ( including banners ) ; autonomous counties ; cities not divided into districts ; and municipal districts . These committees are elected by party congresses ( at their own level ) . Local party congresses are supposed to be held every fifth year , but under extraordinary circumstances they may be held earlier or postponed . However that decision must be approved by the next higher level of the local party committee . The number of delegates and the procedures for their election are decided by the local party committee , but must also have the approval of the next higher party committee .
A local party congress has many of the same duties as the National Congress , and it is responsible for examining the report of the local Party Committee at the corresponding level ; examining the report of the local Commission for Discipline Inspection at the corresponding level ; discussing and adopting resolutions on major issues in the given area ; and electing the local Party Committee and the local Commission for Discipline Inspection at the corresponding level . Party committees of " a province , autonomous region , municipality directly under the central government , city divided into districts , or autonomous prefecture [ are ] elected for a term of five years " , and include full and alternate members . The party committees " of a county ( banner ) , autonomous county , city not divided into districts , or municipal district [ are ] elected for a term of five years " , but full and alternate members " must have a Party standing of three years or more . " If a local Party Congress is held before or after the given date , the term of the members of the Party Committee shall be correspondingly shortened or lengthened .
A local Party Committee is responsible to the Party Committee at the next higher level . The number of full and alternate members at the local Party Committee is decided by the Party Committee at the next higher level . Vacancies in a Party Committee shall be filled by an alternate members according to the order of precedence , which is decided by the number of votes an alternate member got during his or hers election . A Party Committee must convene for at least two plenary meetings a year . During its tenure , a Party Committee shall " carry out the directives of the next higher Party organizations and the resolutions of the Party congresses at the corresponding levels . " The local Standing Committee ( analogous to the Central Politburo ) is elected at the first plenum of the corresponding Party Committee after the local party congress . A Standing Committee is responsible to the Party Committee at the corresponding level and the Party Committee at the next higher level . A Standing Committee exercises the duties and responsibilities of the corresponding Party Committee when it is not in session .
= = = Members = = =
To join the party , an applicant must be 18 years of age , and must spend a year as a probationary member . In contrast to the past , when emphasis was placed on the applicants ' ideological criteria , the current CPC stresses technical and educational qualifications . To become a probationary member , the applicant must take an admission oath before the party flag . The relevant CPC organization is responsible for observing and educating probationary members . Probationary members have duties similar to those of full members , with the exception that they may not vote in party elections nor stand for election . Many join the CPC through the Communist Youth League . Under Jiang Zemin , private entrepreneurs were allowed to become party members . According to the CPC constitution , a member , in short , must follow orders , be disciplined , uphold unity , serve the Party and the people , and promote the socialist way of life . Members enjoy the privilege of attending Party meetings , reading relevant Party documents , receiving Party education , participating in Party discussions through the Party 's newspapers and journals , making suggestions and proposal , making " well @-@ grounded criticism of any Party organization or member at Party meetings " ( even of the central party leadership ) , voting and standing for election , and of opposing and criticizing Party resolutions ( " provided that they resolutely carry out the resolution or policy while it is in force " ) ; and they have the ability " to put forward any request , appeal , or complaint to higher Party organizations , even up to the Central Committee , and ask the organizations concerned for a responsible reply . " No party organization , including the CPC central leadership , can deprive a member of these rights .
As of 30 June 2016 , individuals who identify as farmers , herdsmen and fishermen make up 26 million members ; members identifying as workers totalled 7 @.@ 2 million . Another group , the " Managing , professional and technical staff in enterprises and public institutions " , made up 12 @.@ 5 million , 9 million identified as working in administrative staff and 7 @.@ 4 million described themselves as party cadres . 22 @.@ 3 million women are CPC members . The CPC currently has 88 @.@ 76 million members , making it the second largest political party in the world after India 's Bharatiya Janata Party .
= = = Communist Youth League = = =
The Communist Youth League ( CYL ) is the CPC 's youth wing , and the largest mass organization for youth in China . According to the CPC 's constitution the CYL is a " mass organization of advanced young people under the leadership of the Communist Party of China ; it functions as a party school where a large number of young people learn about socialism with Chinese characteristics and about communism through practice ; it is the Party 's assistant and reserve force . " To join , an applicant has to be between the ages of 14 and 28 . It controls and supervises Young Pioneers , a youth organization for children below the age of 14 . The organizational structure of CYL is an exact copy of the CPC 's ; the highest body is the National Congress , followed by the Central Committee , Politburo and the Politburo Standing Committee . However , the Central Committee ( and all central organs ) of the CYL work under the guidance of the CPC central leadership . Therefore , in a peculiar situation , CYL bodies are both responsible to higher bodies within CYL and the CPC , a distinct organization . As of the 17th National Congress ( held in 2013 ) , CYL has 89 million members .
= = Symbols = =
According to the Article 53 of the CPC constitution , " the Party emblem and flag are the symbol and sign of the Communist Party of China . " At the beginning of its history , the CPC did not have a single official standard for the flag , but instead allowed individual party committees to copy the flag of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union . On 28 April 1942 , the Central Politburo decreed the establishment of a sole official flag . " The flag of the CPC has the length @-@ to @-@ width proportion of 3 : 2 with a hammer and sickle in the upper @-@ left corner , and with no five @-@ pointed star . The Political Bureau authorizes the General Office to custom @-@ make a number of standard flags and distribute them to all major organs " . According to People 's Daily , " The standard party flag is 120 centimeters ( cm ) in length and 80 cm in width . In the center of the upper @-@ left corner ( a quarter of the length and width to the border ) is a yellow hammer @-@ and @-@ sickle 30 cm in diameter . The flag sleeve ( pole hem ) is in white and 6 @.@ 5 cm in width . The dimension of the pole hem is not included in the measure of the flag . The red color symbolizes revolution ; the hammer @-@ and @-@ sickle are tools of workers and peasants , meaning that the Communist Party of China represents the interests of the masses and the people ; the yellow color signifies brightness . " In total the flag has five dimensions , the sizes are " no . 1 : 388 cm in length and 192 cm in width ; no . 2 : 240 cm in length and 160 cm in width ; no . 3 : 192 cm in length and 128 cm in width ; no . 4 : 144 cm in length and 96 cm in width ; no . 5 : 96 cm in length and 64 cm in width . " On 21 September 1966 , the CPC General Office issued " Regulations on the Production and Use of the CPC Flag and Emblem " , which stated that the emblem and flag were the official symbols and signs of the party .
= = Ideology = =
It has been argued in recent years , mainly by foreign commentators , that the CPC does not have an ideology , and that the party organization is pragmatic and interested only in what works . This view is considered wrong by some in many ways , since official statements make it very clear the party does have a coherent worldview . For instance , Hu Jintao stated in 2012 that the Western world is " threatening to divide us " and that " the international culture of the West is strong while we are weak ... Ideological and cultural fields are our main targets " . The CPC puts a great deal of effort into the party schools and into crafting its ideological message . Before the " Practice Is the Sole Criterion for the Truth " campaign , the relationship between ideology and decision @-@ making was a deductive one , meaning that policy @-@ making was derived from ideological knowledge . Under Deng this relationship was turned upside down , with decision @-@ making justifying ideology and not the other way around . Lastly , Chinese policy @-@ makers believe that one of the reasons for the dissolution of the Soviet Union was its stagnant state ideology . They therefore believe that their party ideology must be dynamic to safeguard the party 's rule , unlike the Soviet Union 's communist party , whose ideology they believe became " rigid , unimaginative , ossified , and disconnected from reality . "
= = = Formal ideology = = =
Marxism – Leninism was the first official ideology of the Communist Party of China . According to the CPC , " Marxism – Leninism reveals the universal laws governing the development of history of human society . " To the CPC , Marxism – Leninism provides a " vision of the contradictions in capitalist society and of the inevitability of a future socialist and communist societies " . According to the People 's Daily , Mao Zedong Thought " is Marxism – Leninism applied and developed in China " . Mao Zedong Thought was conceived not only by Mao Zedong , but by leading party officials .
While non @-@ Chinese analysts generally agree that the CPC has rejected orthodox Marxism – Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought ( or at least basic thoughts within orthodox thinking ) , the CPC itself disagrees . Certain groups argue that Jiang Zemin ended the CPC 's formal commitment to Marxism with the introduction of the ideological theory , the Three Represents . However , party theorist Leng Rong disagrees , claiming that " President Jiang rid the Party of the ideological obstacles to different kinds of ownership [ ... ] He did not give up Marxism or socialism . He strengthened the Party by providing a modern understanding of Marxism and socialism — which is why we talk about a ‘ socialist market economy ’ with Chinese characteristics . " The attainment of true " communism " is still described as the CPC 's and China 's " ultimate goal " . While the CPC claims that China is in the primary stage of socialism , party theorists argue that the current development stage " looks a lot like capitalism " . Alternatively , certain party theorists argue that “ capitalism is the early or first stage of communism . ” Some have dismissed the concept of a primary stage of socialism as intellectual cynicism . According to Robert Lawrence Kuhn , a China analyst , " When I first heard this rationale , I thought it more comic than clever — a wry caricature of hack propagandists leaked by intellectual cynics . But the 100 @-@ year horizon comes from serious political theorists " .
Deng Xiaoping Theory was added to the party constitution at the 14th National Congress . The concepts of " socialism with Chinese characteristics " and " the primary stage of socialism " were credited to the theory . Deng Xiaoping Theory can be defined as a belief that state socialism and state planning is not by definition communist , and that market mechanisms are class neutral . In addition , the party needs to react to the changing situation dynamically ; to know if a certain policy is obsolete or not , the party had to " seek truth from facts " and follow the slogan " practice is the sole criterion for the truth " . At the 14th National Congress , Jiang reiterated Deng 's mantra that it was unnecessary to ask if something was socialist or capitalist , since the important factor was whether it worked .
The " Three Represents " , literally a Marxism adapted to Chinese conditions , was adopted by the party at the 16th National Congress . Certain segments within the CPC criticized the Three Represents as being un @-@ Marxist and a betrayal of basic Marxist values , supporters viewed it as a further development of socialism with Chinese characteristics . Jiang disagreed , and had concluded that attaining the communist mode of production , as formulated by earlier communists , was more complex than had been realized , and that it was useless to try to force a change in the mode of production , as it had to develop naturally , by following the economic laws of history . The theory is most notable for allowing capitalists , officially referred to as the " new social strata " , to join the party on the grounds that they engaged in " honest labor and work " and through their labour contributed " to build [ ing ] socialism with Chinese characteristics . " The 3rd Plenary Session of the 16th Central Committee conceived and formulated the ideology of the Scientific Outlook on Development . It is considered to be Hu Jintao 's contribution to the official ideological discourse . To apply the Scientific Outlook on Development to Chinese conditions , the CPC must adhere to building a Harmonious Socialist Society .
= = = Economics = = =
Deng did not believe that the fundamental difference between the capitalist mode of production and the socialist mode of production was central planning versus free markets . He said , " A planned economy is not the definition of socialism , because there is planning under capitalism ; the market economy happens under socialism , too . Planning and market forces are both ways of controlling economic activity " . Jiang Zemin supported Deng 's thinking , and stated in a party gathering that it did not matter if a certain mechanism was capitalist or socialist , because the only thing that mattered was whether it worked . It was at this gathering that Jiang Zemin introduced the term socialist market economy , which replaced Chen Yun 's " planned socialist market economy " . In his report to the 14th National Congress Jiang Zemin told the delegates that the socialist state would " let market forces play a basic role in resource allocation . " At the 15th National Congress , the party line was changed to " make market forces further play their role in resource allocation " ; this line continued until the 3rd Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee , when it was amended to " let market forces play a decisive role in resource allocation . " Despite this , the 3rd Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee upheld the creed " Maintain the dominance of the public sector and strengthen the economic vitality of the State @-@ owned economy . "
The CPC views the world as organized into two opposing camps ; socialist and capitalist . They insist that socialism , on the basis of historical materialism , will eventually triumph over capitalism . In recent years , when the party has been asked to explain the capitalist globalization occurring , the party has returned to the writings of Karl Marx . Despite admitting that globalization developed through the capitalist system , the party 's leaders and theorist argue that globalization is not intrinsically capitalist . The reason being that if globalization was purely capitalist , it would exclude an alternative socialist form of modernity . Globalization , as with the market economy , therefore does not have one specific class character ( neither socialist or capitalist ) according to the party . The instance that globalization is not fixed in nature , comes from Deng 's insistence that China can pursue socialist modernization by incorporating elements of capitalism . Because of this there is considerable optimism within the CPC that despite the current capitalist dominance of globalization , globalization can be turned into a vehicle supporting socialism .
= = Party @-@ to @-@ party relations = =
= = = Communist parties = = =
The CPC continues to have relations with non @-@ ruling communist and workers ' parties and attends international communist conferences , most notably the International Meeting of Communist and Workers ' Parties . Delegates of foreign communist parties still visit China ; in 2013 , for instance , the General Secretary of the Portuguese Communist Party ( PCP ) , Jeronimo de Sousa , personally met with Liu Qibao , a member of the Central Politburo . In another instance , Pierre Laurent , the National Secretary of the French Communist Party ( FCP ) , met with Liu Yunshan , a Politburo Standing Committee member . In 2014 Xi Jinping , the CPC General Secretary , personally met with Gennady Zyuganov , the First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation ( CPRF ) , to discuss party @-@ to @-@ party relations . While the CPC retains contact with major parties such as the PCP , FCP , the CPRF , the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia , the Communist Party of Brazil , the Communist Party of Nepal ( Unified Marxist − Leninist ) and the Communist Party of Spain , the party retains relations with minor communist and workers ' parties , such as the Communist Party of Australia , the Workers Party of Bangladesh , the Communist Party of Bangladesh ( Marxist – Leninist ) ( Barua ) , the Communist Party of Sri Lanka , the Workers ' Party of Belgium , the Hungarian Workers ' Party , the Dominican Workers ' Party and the Party for the Transformation of Honduras , for instance . In recent years , noting the self @-@ reform of the European social democratic movement in the 1980s and 1990s , the CPC " has noted the increased marginalization of West European communist parties . "
= = = = Ruling parties of socialist states = = = =
The CPC has retained close relations with the remaining socialist states still espousing communism : Cuba , Laos , North Korea and Vietnam and their respective ruling parties . It spends a fair amount of time analyzing the situation in the remaining socialist states , trying to reach conclusions as to why these states survived when so many did not , following the collapse of the Eastern European socialist states in 1989 and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 . In general , the analyses of the remaining socialist states and their chances of survival have been positive , and the CPC believes that the socialist movement will be revitalized sometime in the future .
The ruling party which the CPC is most interested in is the Communist Party of Vietnam ( CPV ) . In general the CPV is considered a model example of socialist development in the post @-@ Soviet era . Chinese analysts on Vietnam believe that the introduction of the Doi Moi reform policy at the 6th CPV National Congress is the key reason for Vietnam 's current success .
While the CPC is probably the organization with most access to North Korea , writing about North Korea is tightly circumscribed . The few reports accessible to the general public are those about North Korean economic reforms . While Chinese analysts of North Korea tend to speak positively of North Korea in public , in official discussions they show much disdain for North Korea 's economic system , the cult of personality which pervades society , the Kim family , the idea of hereditary succession in a socialist state , the security state , the use of scarce resources on the Korean People 's Army and the general impoverishment of the North Korean people . There are those analysts who compare the current situation of North Korea with that of China during the Cultural Revolution . Over the years , the CPC has tried to persuade the Workers ' Party of Korea ( or WPK , North Korea 's ruling party ) to introduce economic reforms by showing them key economic infrastructure in China . For instance , in 2006 the CPC invited the WPK General Secretary Kim Jong @-@ il to Guandong province to showcase the success economic reforms have brought China . In general , the CPC considers the WPK and North Korea to be negative examples of a communist ruling party and socialist state .
There is a considerable degree of interest in Cuba within the CPC . Fidel Castro , the former First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba ( PCC ) , is greatly admired , and books have been written focusing on the successes of the Cuban Revolution . Communication between the CPC and the PCC has increased considerably since the 1990s , hardly a month going by without a diplomatic exchange . At the 4th Plenary Session of the 16th Central Committee , which discussed the possibility of the CPC learning from other ruling parties , praise was heaped on the PCC . When Wu Guanzheng , a Central Politburo member , met with Fidel Castro in 2007 , he gave him a personal letter written by Hu Jintao : " Facts have shown that China and Cuba are trustworthy good friends , good comrades , and good brothers who treat each other with sincerity . The two countries ' friendship has withstood the test of a changeable international situation , and the friendship has been further strengthened and consolidated . "
= = = Non @-@ communist parties = = =
Since the decline and fall of communism in Eastern Europe , the CPC has begun establishing party @-@ to @-@ party relations with non @-@ communist parties . These relations are sought so that the CPC can learn from them . For instance , the CPC has been eager to understand how the People 's Action Party of Singapore ( PAP ) maintains its total domination over Singaporean politics through its " low @-@ key presence , but total control . " According to the CPC 's own analysis of Singapore , the PAP 's dominance can be explained by its " well @-@ developed social network , which controls constituencies effectively by extending its tentacles deeply into society through branches of government and party @-@ controlled groups . " While the CPC accepts that Singapore is a democracy , they view it as a guided democracy led by the PAP . Other differences are , according to the CPC , " that it is not a political party based on the working class — instead it is a political party of the elite ... It is also a political party of the parliamentary system , not a revolutionary party . " Other parties the CPC studies and maintains strong party @-@ to @-@ party relations with are the United Malays National Organisation , which has ruled Malaysia democratically since 1957 , and the Liberal Democratic Party in Japan , which dominated Japanese politics for over five uninterrupted decades .
The CPC has , since Jiang Zemin 's time , made friendly overtures to its erstwhile foe , the Kuomintang . The CPC emphasizes strong party @-@ to @-@ party relations with the KMT so as to strengthen the probability of the reunification of Taiwan with mainland China . However , several studies have been written on the KMT 's loss of power in 2000 , after having ruled Taiwan since 1949 ( the KMT officially ruled China from 1928 to 1949 ) . In general , one @-@ party states or dominant @-@ party states are of special interest to the party , and party @-@ to @-@ party relations are formed so that the CPC can study them . For instance , the longevity of the Syrian Regional Branch of the Arab Socialist Ba 'ath Party is attributed to the personalization of power in the al @-@ Assad family , the strong presidential system , the inheritance of power , which passed from Hafez al @-@ Assad to his son Bashar al @-@ Assad , and the role given to the Syrian military in politics .
In recent years , the CPC has been especially interested in Latin America , as shown by the increasing number of delegates sent to and received from these countries . Of special fascination for the CPC is the 71 @-@ year @-@ long rule of the Institutional Revolutionary Party ( PRI ) in Mexico . While the CPC attributed the PRI 's long reign in power to the strong presidential system , tapping into the machismo culture of the country , its nationalist posture , its close identification with the rural populace and the implementation of nationalization alongside the marketization of the economy , the CPC concluded that the PRI failed because of the lack of inner @-@ party democracy , its pursuit of social democracy , its rigid party structures that could not be reformed , its political corruption , the pressure of globalization , and American interference in Mexican politics . While the CPC was slow to recognize the Pink tide in Latin America , it has strengthened party @-@ to @-@ party relations with several socialist and anti @-@ American political parties over the years . The CPC has occasionally expressed some irritation over Hugo Chavez 's anti @-@ capitalist and anti @-@ American rhetoric . Despite this , in 2013 the CPC reached an agreement with the United Socialist Party of Venezuela ( PSUV ) , which was founded by Chavez , for the CPC to educate PSUV cadres in political and social fields . By 2008 , the CPC claimed to have established relations with 99 political parties in 29 Latin American countries .
Social democratic movements in Europe have been of great interest to the CPC since the early 1980s . With the exception of a short period in which the CPC forged party @-@ to @-@ party relations with far @-@ right parties during the 1970s in an effort to halt " Soviet expansionism " , the CPC 's relations with European social democratic parties were its first serious efforts to establish cordial party @-@ to @-@ party relations with non @-@ communist parties . The CPC credits the European social democrats with creating a " capitalism with a human face " . Before the 1980s , the CPC had a highly negative and dismissive view of social democracy , a view dating back to the Second International and the Leninist and Stalinist view on the social democratic movement . By the 1980s that view had changed , and the CPC concluded that it could actually learn something from the social democratic movement . CPC delegates were sent all over Europe to observe . It should be noted that by the 1980s most European social democratic parties were facing electoral decline , and were in a period of self @-@ reform . The CPC followed this with great interest , laying most weight on reform efforts within the British Labour Party and the Social Democratic Party of Germany . The CPC concluded that both parties were re @-@ elected because they modernized , replacing traditional state socialist tenets with new ones supporting privatization , shedding the belief in big government , conceiving a new view of the welfare state , changing negative views of the market , and moving from their traditional support base of trade unions to entrepreneurs , younger members and students .
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= Donald Brashear =
Donald Maynard Brashear ( born January 7 , 1972 ) is an American @-@ Canadian former professional ice hockey player who played for five organizations in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) , in which he was considered one of the most effective enforcers . His aggressive style led to being among the League leaders in penalty minutes for six seasons , while currently ranking 15th all @-@ time in NHL history , and resulted in multiple suspensions as well . He remains the Vancouver Canucks all @-@ time single season leader in penalty minutes , which he set in the 1997 – 98 season . He was the victim of one most publicized incidents of on @-@ ice violence in NHL history , when he was slashed in the head by Marty McSorley , during the 1999 – 2000 season .
Brashear was born in Bedford , Indiana , but moved to Val @-@ Bélair , Quebec , as a child . He has represented his native United States twice internationally , playing in consecutive IIHF World Championships in 1997 and 1998 .
= = Early life = =
Brashear is the youngest of three children born to an African @-@ American father , Johnny Brashear , and French Canadian mother , Nicole Gauthier , in Bedford , Indiana . His father was an alcoholic who abused his family , including beating Donald with belts and electrical cords . On one occasion , when Donald was only six months old , he picked him up and threw him out of a window . Nicole , afraid that Johnny might kill her , left the family and returned to Canada . Later she came back to take the children , but left Donald to live with his father for another four years , until Donald 's paternal grandmother sent him to Canada . Donald 's mother later stated that she left him behind because her future husband was prejudiced and did not want another mixed @-@ race child in the house .
Brashear moved in with his mother and his new stepfather in Lorretteville , Quebec . Unfortunately , he suffered further abuse in his new surroundings ; he was forced to sleep with a garbage bag tied around his waist to keep him from wetting the bed , and was verbally berated for not being able to tie his shoes . His mother finally decided to give him up to foster care , due in part because of what she called " mental problems " from the abuse he had suffered , and because he did not accept her as his mother . Brashear lived in two different foster homes that sent him away since the families believed he was a " little too much to handle . "
At the age of eight , Brashear moved to Val @-@ Bélair , Quebec , and settled into a new foster home . Once there , he began playing hockey with his new siblings . In order to help pay for hockey , Brashear sold baked bread and garbage bags door @-@ to @-@ door . Later , he became a paper boy .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Brashear was signed as a free agent by the Montreal Canadiens in 1992 . He spent parts of three seasons with their American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Fredericton Canadiens , before becoming a regular with Montreal at the NHL level . During the 1993 – 94 AHL season , he registered professional career highs of 38 goals and 66 points , along with 250 Penalty Minutes ( PIMs ) in 62 games . His 38 goals tied him for the team lead and the 250 PIMs led Fredericton . Brashear made his NHL debut on November 15 , 1993 , against the Ottawa Senators . He registered an assist in the contest , his first career NHL point . Two days later , he scored his first NHL goal in a game against the Edmonton Oilers . After playing parts of four seasons with the Canadiens , his time in Montreal ended following a heated verbal exchange with Head Coach Mario Tremblay during a team practice on November 9 , 1996 . Four days later , Brashear was traded to the Vancouver Canucks in exchange for Jassen Cullimore . Brashear finished the year with 13 points and 245 PIMs , seventh @-@ highest in the NHL .
The following season , 1997 – 98 , Brashear led the NHL in penalty minutes and set a Canucks franchise record with 372 PIMs , while adding 18 points . During the season , he also received a four @-@ game suspension for delivering a blind @-@ side punch to Ian Laperrière . Brashear stated that he hit Laperrière in retaliation to Laperrière punching Brashear 's teammate Gino Odjick from behind . The 1998 – 99 season marked the only time in his career which he played in all 82 games , again leading the Canucks in penalty minutes and finishing eighth in the NHL . In the 1999 – 2000 season , Brashear set a career @-@ high in goals with 11 , but the season was marred by one of the most published incidents of excessive violence in the modern era of hockey .
= = = McSorley incident = = =
During the February 21 , 2000 game between the Canucks and the Boston Bruins , Brashear was involved in a fight with Marty McSorley . Brashear handily won the fight and on his way to the penalty box taunted the Bruins bench . Later in the game , Brashear collided with Bruins goaltender Byron Dafoe , who had to be taken off on a stretcher with a knee injury . For the rest of the game , McSorley attempted to fight Brashear , who refused . With 4 @.@ 6 seconds left in the game , McSorley struck Brashear with a two @-@ handed slash to the temple with his stick ; Brashear collapsed , and his helmet fell off upon impact . He suffered a seizure on the ice and the slash resulted in a grade three concussion . Goaltender Garth Snow would later try to fight McSorley , but McSorley was ejected with 2 @.@ 8 seconds left in the game . McSorley later received an indefinite suspension from the NHL and was charged with assault with a weapon as a result of his actions .
The case went to trial in British Columbia , where Brashear testified that he had no memory of the incident . McSorley testified that he tried to hit Brashear in the shoulder to start a fight with him , but missed , resulting in the head shot . McSorley was found guilty but avoided a jail sentence . He was required to complete 18 months of probation , in which he was not allowed to play in a game against Brashear . Brashear returned to play prior to the end of the season . McSorley , who missed the remaining 23 games of the regular season , had his suspension officially set at one year following the conviction . However , he ultimately never played in another NHL game during his career .
= = = Mid @-@ career = = =
Brashear played in 79 games the following season , registering 19 assists and 28 points . After leading the Canucks in penalty minutes for the previous four seasons , Brashear was traded 31 games into the 2001 – 02 season to the Philadelphia Flyers . The Flyers received Brashear and the Canucks ' sixth @-@ round draft pick in 2002 in exchange for Jan Hlaváč and the Flyers ' third @-@ round pick in the same draft . While splitting time between the two franchises , Brashear set a career @-@ high in points ( 32 ) while also amassing 199 PIMs . In 2002 – 03 , he recorded eight goals , 25 points and 161 PIMs . Thanks in part to his strong work ethic , he was awarded the Pelle Lindbergh Memorial Trophy , an annual award given to the Flyers ' most improved player . During the 2003 – 04 season , he was among the League leaders in PIMs , registering 212 , ranking him fifth overall . His PIM total was aided by his role in the most penalized game in NHL history . On March 5 , 2004 , the Flyers were defeating the Ottawa Senators 5 – 2 , when with 1 : 45 remaining in the game , Brashear fought Ottawa enforcer Rob Ray . The fight was believed to be in retaliation to Flyers forward Mark Recchi being slashed in the face by the Senators Martin Havlát . Following Brashear 's fight , five separate brawls broke out . For his role in starting the fighting , Brashear was assessed 34 PIMs , more than any other Flyer . When asked later why he started the fighting , he responded by saying , " Why wouldn ’ t I ? Did you see the last game ? "
Due to the cancellation of the 2004 – 05 NHL season by the NHL lockout , Brashear signed with the Quebec Radio X of the semi @-@ pro Ligue Nord @-@ Américaine de Hockey league ( LNAH ) . The deal was reportedly worth $ 300 @,@ 000 . He registered 18 goals and 50 points in 47 games , but was reluctant to fight and felt the League did little to protect him from players wanting to make a name for themselves against an established NHL enforcer . Brashear was suspended from the League following an incident where he continued punching a player in the face while he was lying on the ice .
Following the lockout , Brashear voiced his displeasure with the new way the League called games , stating that the NHL changed the rules to favor " superstars , " and he felt that there was no longer a way to " get respect " on the ice . His statement came following a game in which he attempted to fight Darius Kasparaitis , who the Flyers believed delivered a " cheap shot " to Simon Gagné in an Olympic game earlier in the year . After Kasparaitis refused to fight Brashear at various points in the game , Brashear hit Kasparaitis with a gloved punch with 1 : 53 remaining in the game . Kasparaitis did not fight back , and instead covered up to protect himself . Brashear was assessed 29 PIMs for the incident , including an instigator penalty . Brashear was given a one @-@ game suspension due to new League rules for the 2005 – 06 season ; any player given an instigator penalty in the final five minutes of regulation or overtime would receive an automatic one @-@ game suspension . At the end of the year , he was again in the top ten ( eighth ) in PIMs , accumulating 166 , but his offensive production dropped to a mere nine points . The Flyers opted not to re @-@ sign the enforcer .
The Washington Capitals then signed Brashear on July 14 , 2006 , to a one @-@ year , $ 1 million contract . The signing was to provide Alexander Ovechkin with some on @-@ ice protection . Capitals management felt that Brashear was skilled enough not to be a liability on the team while bringing an intimidating presence . During the 2006 – 07 season , the Capitals decided to extend Brashear 's contract , signing him to a one @-@ year , $ 1 @.@ 1 million contract extension . He was suspended one game by the NHL during the regular season for punching New York Rangers defenceman Aaron Ward following a fight between Brashear and Brendan Shanahan . In the game , Shanahan felt Brashear was taking liberties with Rangers captain Jaromír Jágr , and subsequently challenged Brashear to a fight . Brashear won the fight and motioned as if he was dusting off his hands . Ward then approached him and had words with Brashear , who responded by punching him in the face , earning Brashear a game misconduct for intent to injure and eventually the suspension . At season 's end , his point total increased from the previous season to 13 and his 156 PIMs ranked him in the top ten ( sixth ) in the League for the sixth time in his career . In the 2007 – 08 season , Brashear played in 80 games for the Capitals , but his offensive production slipped down to eight points while registering only 119 PIMs . However , he served as one of the Capitals ' alternate captains . On January 24 , 2008 , the Capitals once again re @-@ signed Brashear , this time to a one @-@ year , $ 1 @.@ 2 million extension .
In the 2008 – 09 season , Brashear 's point total dropped to four , his lowest total since 1995 – 96 while he was with the Montreal Canadiens . During the 2009 Stanley Cup playoffs , he earned a suspension for two separate on @-@ ice incidents . On April 26 , 2009 , the Capitals faced the New York Rangers in Game 6 of their first @-@ round series . In the pre @-@ game warm @-@ ups , Brashear shoved Rangers enforcer Colton Orr , then delivered a blind @-@ side hit to Blair Bettsmid @-@ way through the game 's first period . As a result of the hit , and a possible elbow , Betts suffered a broken orbital bone and was out indefinitely . Colin Campbell ruled that the hit was late on an unsuspecting player ; he also believed it targeted the head , and as a result caused significant injury . For his actions , Brashear was given a six @-@ game suspension by the League — one for the pre @-@ game altercation and five for the hit on Betts .
= = = Later career = = =
Brashear was not given an extension during the season , and prior to the start of the free agency he indicated that he would like to return to Washington , citing the prospect of winning a Stanley Cup . Brashear noted that at his age and place in his career , taking care of his family was his top priority and that money would be the deciding factor in his destination . The Capitals , however , opted not re @-@ sign him . After initial talks with the Kontinental Hockey League ( KHL ) ' s Vityaz Chekhov , he eventually agreed to a two @-@ year , $ 2 @.@ 8 million contract with the New York Rangers . At an event for season @-@ ticket holders , Brashear was booed due to the altercation with the Rangers in the previous post @-@ season . He set a personal milestone during the 2009 – 10 season by playing in his 1,000th NHL game on November 12 against the Atlanta Thrashers .
Brashear struggled in New York , however , registering just one assist and 73 PIMs in 36 games ; he became unhappy with his role in New York and asked the Rangers for a trade . Following a stretch of seven @-@ straight and 12 of 13 games where he was a healthy scratch , the Rangers placed Brashear on waivers . After clearing waivers , he was assigned to the Rangers ' AHL affiliate , the Hartford Wolf Pack . Despite the demotion , Brashear was happy to be receiving steady ice time whilst in Hartford .
At the end of the season , the Rangers again placed Brashear on waivers , making him eligible for a contract buyout . Instead of buying @-@ out his contract , however , the Rangers traded Brashear on August 2 , 2010 , along with Patrick Rissmiller , to the Atlanta Thrashers in exchange for centre Todd White . Atlanta then placed Brashear on waivers and bought @-@ out the remaining year of his contract , thus making him an unrestricted free agent . At the end of the 2009 – 10 season , Brashear ranked 15th all @-@ time in NHL history for penalty minutes .
After not receiving serious interest from any NHL teams , Brashear opted to return to the LNAH and signed with Sorel @-@ Tracy GCI . He noted that his decision was based on his desire to continue playing hockey , his love for playing in the province of Quebec and a chance to reunite with some former teammates . He was later traded during the season to Rivière @-@ du @-@ Loup 3L to add talent and toughness to the team . Rivière @-@ du @-@ Loup considered the acquisition of Brashear a " coup , " noting that they could not pass up the chance to add him to the team . Late in the season , Brashear was given a suspension following a his actions in a brawl against Trois @-@ Rivières . During the melee , Brashear " attacked " goaltender Julien Ellis after he slashed one of Brashear 's teammates who was engaged in a different fight . Brashear hit Ellis with several gloved punches before one of Ellis ' teammates attempted to restrain Brashear . Brashear fought with the intervening player and after falling to the ice , Brashear continued to punch the " defenceless " player . He went back after the goaltender before a linesman tackled him . The suspension was originally set at eight games , but after the League met with Brashear and Rivière @-@ du @-@ Loup 's general manager , it was reduced to five games .
In November 2014 , Brashear stepped out of retirement and signed a contract with Modo Hockey of the Swedish Hockey League ( SHL ) for the remainder of the season . He appeared scoreless in 12 games with Modo before concluding his prof career at the conclusion of the 2014 – 15 season .
= = International play = =
Brashear has represented the United States on two separate occasions . He made his international debut at the 1997 World Championship , where he registered two goals and five points in eight games , helping the Americans to a sixth @-@ place finish . He later noted that he was surprised by the invitation , but felt that it gave him an opportunity to show he could play other roles besides being an enforcer . He played for the U.S. again the following year at the World Championship , playing in six games and accumulating ten penalty minutes as the Americans finished in 12th place .
= = Playing style = =
Brashear was an enforcer ; his role was to protect his teammates if an opponent went beyond what is considered acceptable physical play to " dirty " play or taking " cheap shots . " Brashear was a tenacious forechecker , who created momentum by playing aggressive and delivering body checks , while possessing an underrated shot . Whilst fighting , he used a combination of balance and upper @-@ body strength while taking his time trying to control his opponents before landing punches . Although left handed by nature , he became adept at using either hand during fights . During his career in the NHL , Brashear was considered one of the toughest players in the League as well as one most feared .
In the January 2010 issue of The Hockey News , Brashear was named Enforcer of the Decade , noting that although he did not lead the NHL in number of fights , during the decade , he would have been involved in more if " he wasn 't so feared . " Hockey analyst Bill Clement states that " Brashear has a great sense of when his fighting skills are necessary and he picks his spots before dropping the gloves . He 's excellent at understanding when a bit of pugilism might well provide the push or nudge to get some momentum going for his team . " The Hockey News also assessed his skills by saying he possessed one of the most intimidating packages in the League , had a decent skating stride and was one of the best pugilists in the NHL . He was a bit too deliberate when handling and passing the puck , and fought much less as he got older , while slowly breaking down over time .
= = Mixed martial arts = =
In April 2011 , Brashear signed a three @-@ fight contract with the mixed martial arts promoter Ringside MMA . Brashear 's first fight occurred on June 4 , 2011 , against Mathieu Bergeron at the Colisée Pepsi in Quebec City . In the fight , Brashear immediately charged Bergeron , knocking him down with a right hook . After knocking him down , he continued to hit him with hammer fists , forcing the referee to stop the fight after only 21 seconds . Brashear was officially awarded the win by TKO .
= = Personal = =
Brashear has two sons , Jordan and Jackson ; he separated from their mother , Gabrielle Desgagne , his common @-@ law wife , in 2007 . In 2000 , Brashear was charged with assault following an incident where he grabbed a man by the neck and shoved him . The incident occurred after the man complained to Desgagne about the couple 's infant son crawling on the exercise machines in a communal gym . Brashear received six months probation after pleading guilty to common assault .
During the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout , Brashear spent time as an amateur boxer , compiling a 2 – 1 record . Later on , he trained with former heavyweight champion Smokin ' Joe Frazier In 2007 , Brashear , along with some friends , founded the house building company DEC Construction . During the off @-@ season , he works on @-@ site performing various jobs . He has a skill for languages , speaking French and English , while also learning both Russian and Spanish . He enjoys music as well , playing the piano while learning the acoustic guitar . Brashear 's great @-@ uncle Carl Brashear was the first African @-@ American to be certified as a Master Diver in the United States Navy ; he was the inspiration for the movie Men of Honor , in which he was portrayed by actor Cuba Gooding , Jr .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = = Mixed martial arts record = = =
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= The Powerpuff Girls =
The Powerpuff Girls is an American animated television series created by animator Craig McCracken for Cartoon Network . The show centers on Blossom , Bubbles , and Buttercup , three girls with superpowers , as well as their father , the brainy scientist Professor Utonium , who all live in the fictional city of Townsville , USA . The girls are frequently called upon by the town 's childlike and naive mayor to help fight nearby criminals using their powers .
McCracken originally developed the show in 1992 as a cartoon short entitled Whoopass Stew ! while in his second year at CalArts . Following a name change , Cartoon Network featured the first Powerpuff Girls pilots in its animation showcase program What a Cartoon ! in 1995 and 1996 . The series made its official debut as a Cartoon Cartoon on November 18 , 1998 , with the final episode airing on March 25 , 2005 . A total of 78 episodes were aired in addition to two pilot shorts , a Christmas special , and a feature film . In addition , a tenth anniversary special was made in 2008 . A CGI special was also made in 2014 without McCracken 's input .
The series has been nominated for six Emmy Awards , nine Annie Awards , and a Kids ' Choice Award during its run . Spin @-@ off media include an anime , three CD soundtracks , a home video collection , and a series of video games , as well as various licensed merchandise . The series has received generally positive reception and won four awards . On June 16 , 2014 , Cartoon Network announced that the series would be rebooted , which premiered in the United States on April 4 , 2016 .
= = Premise = =
The show revolves around the adventures of three girls with superpowers : Blossom ( who is pink ) , Bubbles ( blue ) , and Buttercup ( green ) . The plot of an episode is usually some humorous variation of standard superhero and tokusatsu shows , with the girls using their powers to defend their town from villains and giant monsters . In addition , the girls have to deal with the normal issues that young children face , such as sibling rivalries , loose teeth , personal hygiene , going to school , bed wetting , or dependence on a security blanket . Episodes often contain hidden references to older pop culture ( especially noticeable in the episode " Meet the Beat Alls , " which is an homage to the Beatles ) . The cartoon always tries to keep different ideas within each episode with some small tributes and parodies thrown in .
The show is set mainly in the city of Townsville , USA . Townsville is depicted as a major American city , with a cityscape consisting of several major skyscrapers . In his review of The Powerpuff Girls Movie , movie critic Bob Longino of The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution said , " the intricate drawings emanate 1950s futuristic pizzazz like a David Hockney scenescape , " and that the show is " one of the few American creations that is both gleeful pop culture and exquisite high art . "
= = Characters = =
As depicted in the opening sequence of each episode , the Powerpuff Girls were created by Professor Utonium in an attempt " to create the perfect little girls " using a mixture of " sugar , spice , and everything nice " ( shown in respective fields of light blue , light green , and pink ) . However , he accidentally spilled a mysterious substance called " Chemical X " into the mixture , creating , instead of the " perfect little girl " , three girls ( each possessing one of the above elements dominating her personality ) , and granting all three superpowers including flight , super strength , super speed , near invulnerability , x @-@ ray vision , super senses , heat vision , energy projection , invisibility , and control over lightning . In the original pilot , the accidental substance was a can of " Whoopass " , which was replaced by " Chemical X " in the aired version .
The three girls all have oval @-@ shaped heads , abnormally large eyes ( inspired by Margaret Keane 's art ) , stubby arms and legs , and lack noses , ears , fingers , necks , and flat feet with toes ( McCracken preferred them to look more symbolic of actual girls rather than going for a " realistic " look , meaning fewer body parts were needed ) . They wear dresses that match the colors of their eyes with black stripes , as well as white tights and black Mary Janes . They do not have secret identities . The closing theme to the cartoon offers a nutshell description of the three Powerpuff Girls ' personalities : Blossom , commander and the leader . Bubbles , she is the joy and the laughter . Buttercup , ' cause she 's the toughest fighter .
Blossom ( voiced by Cathy Cavadini ) is the tactician and self @-@ proclaimed leader of the Powerpuff Girls . Her personality ingredient is " everything nice " , her signature color is pink , and she has long red hair with a red bow and a heart @-@ shaped hairclip that can be seen from behind . She was named for having spoken freely and honestly to the Professor shortly after her creation as shown in the Powerpuff Girls Movie . She is often seen as the most level @-@ headed , and composed member of the group and also strong and determined . Her unique power is freezing objects with her breath as seen in the episode " Ice Sore " .
Bubbles ( voiced by Tara Strong in the series and by Kath Soucie in the What a Cartoon ! episodes ) is the cute and sensitive one . Her personality ingredient is sugar , her signature color is blue , and she has short blonde hair in two pigtails . Bubbles is seen as kind and very sweet but she is also capable of extreme rage and can fight monsters just as well as her sisters can . Her best friend is a stuffed octopus doll she calls " Octi " , and she also loves animals . She exhibits the ability to both understand multiple languages and communicate with various animals ( squirrels , cats , monsters ) , and her unique power is emitting supersonic waves with her voice .
Buttercup ( voiced by E. G. Daily ) is the toughest of the three . Her personality ingredient is spice , her signature color is green , and she has short black hair in a flip . She is a tomboy who loves to get dirty , fights hard and plays rough ; she does not plan and is all action . Buttercup is the only Powerpuff Girl without a unique super power ( aside from being able to curl her tongue as shown in the episode " Nuthin ' Special " ) . But often is shown being much stronger than her sisters . For example , she often takes on many monsters her self and defeats them all . McCracken originally wanted to name the character " Bud " until a friend suggested the name Buttercup .
= = Production = =
During Craig McCracken 's first year in the character animation program of CalArts , he created a series of short cartoons based on a character called " No Neck Joe " . In June 1991 , he created a drawing of three girls on a small sheet of orange construction paper as a birthday card design for his brother . The following year he included the three girls as the main characters of his short film Whoopass Stew ! The Whoopass Girls in : A Sticky Situation . Initially , McCracken wanted to animate four Whoopass Girls shorts , but only one came to be . McCracken 's shorts were selected to be shown at Spike and Mike 's Sick and Twisted Festival of Animation in 1994 .
While working on 2 Stupid Dogs in 1993 , McCracken 's Whoopass Girls short was picked up for a series by Cartoon Network . However , the name Whoopass had to be dropped for the channel to include it as part of its new What a Cartoon ! animated shorts showcase mostly because the name Whoopass sounded inappropriate because it was pronounced whoop ass . The Whoopass Girls then became The Powerpuff Girls , and the " can of whoop ass " was renamed " Chemical X " . McCracken 's new short , entitled " The Powerpuff Girls in : Meat Fuzzy Lumpkins " , aired as part the network 's World Premiere Toon @-@ In on February 20 , 1995 . The short was not as popular as Dexter 's Laboratory , a project McCracken and former classmate Genndy Tartakovsky ( who also directed many episodes of Powerpuff Girls ) worked on together ; being the most popular of the shorts , Dexter 's Laboratory was the first to be greenlit by the network . Cartoon Network executive Mike Lazzo allowed McCracken to produce a new Powerpuff Girls short titled " Crime 101 " , which aired on What a Cartoon ! in early 1996 . Announcer Ernie Anderson , the narrator of the pilot episodes , died of cancer in 1997 , and he was replaced by Tom Kenny for the remainder of the series .
The Powerpuff Girls series debut on November 18 , 1998 , was the highest rated premiere in Cartoon Network 's history at the time . During its run , the series consistently scored the highest rating for an original series each week for the network across a wide range of demographics — from young children to adults . In October 2000 , Cartoon Network credited the series for its Friday night prime time ratings win among cable networks . By the end of 2000 , merchandising based on the series encompassed a whole variety of products , including T @-@ shirts , toys , video games , lunchboxes , and dishware . Concerning the show 's success , Craig McCracken has stated , " I thought it would get on Cartoon Network and college kids would watch it and there would be a few random T @-@ shirts out there in the rave scene or in record shops . But I had no idea that it would take off to this extent . " Following the series ' fourth season , McCracken left The Powerpuff Girls to focus on his new animated series , Foster 's Home for Imaginary Friends , leaving Chris Savino to take his place . The show 's last original run episode was on March 25 , 2005 ; in all six seasons were made . Cartoon Network had offered to give McCracken and Savino a seventh season of The Powerpuff Girls , but they believed the series had run its course .
All of the original episodes were hand @-@ drawn and produced at Rough Draft Studios in South Korea , except the What a Cartoon ! shorts , with the first one being animated at Animal House in Japan and the second being animated at Fil Cartoons in the Philippines . James L. Venable , Thomas Chase , & Stephen Rucker composed the opening theme of the series , and Scottish band Bis performed the ending theme song , as played during the credits . The opening theme uses a sped @-@ up drum break sample of " Funky Drummer " performed by Clyde Stubblefield .
= = = Tenth anniversary special = = =
In August 2008 , McCracken revealed on his DeviantArt account , as had been announced in that year 's Comic Con , that he was working with Cartoon Network on a new half @-@ hour Powerpuff Girls special to celebrate the series ' tenth anniversary . The special , titled " The Powerpuff Girls Rule ! ! ! " , aired on the Pan @-@ Euro Cartoon Network on November 29 , 2008 , on the Powerpuff Girls Birthday Marathon , and in the United States on January 19 , 2009 , as part of its 10th anniversary marathon . Unlike previous episodes in the series , the anniversary special was animated using Adobe Flash at Cartoon Network Studios . In March 2012 , the series returned to Cartoon Network in reruns on the revived block , Cartoon Planet .
= = = 2014 special = = =
On January 28 , 2013 , a new CGI special titled Powerpuff Girls : Dance Pantsed was announced to premiere that year , though it was later delayed to January 20 , 2014 . The former Beatle Ringo Starr promoted the special on Cartoon Network singing a new original song " I Wish I Was a Powerpuff Girl " with previews leading up to the airdate . Ringo also voiced a new character named Fibonacci Sequins in the episode . The special was directed by Dave Smith , who directed episodes for the series in the past , and featured the original cast members reprising their roles . This Powerpuff Girls special marked the first time that series creator Craig McCracken had no input . The episode 's plot has Mojo Jojo kidnap Fibonacci along with an opera singer and a badger . The girls rescue all of them , and defeat Mojo yet again with his kidnapping plan . Not deterred he then goes on to invent an evil video game called " Dance Pants R @-@ EVILution " to take over Townsville . Common Sense Media gave the special 3 / 5 stars citing the " tasteful update of the original animation style " however recommends it for older kids around the age of 7 . GON ( Geeked Out Nation ) gave the show a B rank and described it as " ... a good special with the return of the characters that many of us grew up [ with ] " , while they said that the special has few flaws . Den of Geek gave the special a 2 @.@ 5 out 5 said " The Powerpuff reboot needs those paddles to jump @-@ start it . I want more . But I want better . "
= = Merchandise and media = =
= = = Anime and manga = = =
In April 2005 , plans for a Japanese anime version , Demashita ! Powerpuff Girls Z , were announced . The series premiered in Japan the following year with 52 half @-@ hour episodes , airing each Saturday from July 1 to December 23 , 2006 , and from January 6 to June 30 , 2007 . The series deviated from its American predecessor in terms of style , storyline , and characterization , but only minimally retained the essential themes that made the original a success . The characters feature three junior high school students Momoko Akatsutsumi ( Hyper Blossom ) , Miyako Gotokuji ( Rolling Bubbles ) , and Kaoru Matsubara ( Powered Buttercup ) as the three heroines . A manga adaptation , illustrated by Shiho Komiyuno , was serialized in Shueisha 's Ribon magazine between June 2006 and July 2007 .
= = = Film = = =
The Powerpuff Girls Movie was released in the United States on July 3 , 2002 , by Warner Bros. and Cartoon Network . The movie , a prequel to the series , tells the story of how the Powerpuff Girls were created , and how Mojo Jojo became a supervillain . After the girls were created by Professor Utonium to help the city against crime , they end up only causing chaos in Townsville . Down about how everyone refers to them as freaks , they turn to Mojo Jojo , a monkey who says he is there to help make people like them again . Unknown to the girls , Mojo Jojo was Professor Utonium 's lab chimp helper who was mutated as a cause from the Powerpuff Girls being made and has become super smart as a result and jealous of them . Mojo Jojo ends up tricking the girls into helping him make a machine to mutate other chimps . Seeing what they have done the girls run away in shame but come back after seeing Professor Utonium in trouble , and they end up beating Mojo Jojo and his army of mutated smart chimps and saving the day , thus becoming Townsville 's new defenders . The movie received a rating of 63 % at Rotten Tomatoes and receive some criticism for the violence involved . In all , the movie grossed $ 16 million worldwide with an $ 11 million budget .
= = = Music = = =
Three CD soundtracks were officially released for the series . The first , entitled Heroes & Villains , features original songs about the Powerpuff Girls characters by a number of artists , including the new wave group Devo , Bis , The Apples in Stereo and Frank Black . The first album did well , topping the Billboard 's children 's music chart for six weeks . Another album entitled , The City of Soundsville , features electronica @-@ style character themes and also did well with critics . The third album , entitled Power Pop , features a more teen @-@ oriented variety of pop songs . The album was considered a " big disappointment " and not received as well .
= = = Parodies and comics = = =
A crossover parody of The Powerpuff Girls and 2 Broke Girls was done in Cartoon Network 's TV series MAD 's second season known as " 2 Broke Powerpuff Girls " . The parody which aired on January 30 , 2012 , is of Bubbles and Buttercup , who are broke and work for " Him " in a diner after the show got placed on permanent hiatus . Tara Strong ( Bubbles ) and Tom Kane ( " Him " ) reprised their roles here . The MAD episode with the parody ranked # 26 / 30 for the week with 1 @.@ 903 million viewers . In February 2013 , IDW Publishing announced a partnership with Cartoon Network to produce comics based on its properties and The Powerpuff Girls was one of the titles announced to be published .
A fan @-@ produced webcomic series called PowerPuff Girls Doujinshi was created in 2004 and released through Snafu Comics . The girls are shown to be a bit older than , but with the same personalities as , their T.V. counterparts , and the comic includes many characters from other cartoon shows . The story has the girls now going to school in a neighboring city of Townsville known as Megaville . The comic was the " Outstanding Superhero Comic " and " Outstanding Character Art " winner on the Web Cartoonist 's Choice Awards in 2005 .
Shortly after the 2014 CGI special 's release , a comic which was published by IDW Publishing was withdrawn after retailers complained that they wanted to boycott the issue . The comic , which shows the Powerpuff Girls with breasts and dressed in latex , was designed by an artist who works for Cartoon Network . The artist was " thinking of it more along the lines of ' female empowerment ' than the kind of thing you guys are talking about " . Cartoon Network said in a statement : " We recognise some fans ' reaction to the cover and , as such , will no longer be releasing it at comic book shops . "
= = = Toys = = =
From August 21 to October 1 , 2000 , Subway promoted the series with four toys in their kids ' meals . A set of six kids ' meal toys was available as part of an April 2001 Dairy Queen promotion , which also included a sweepstakes offering the Powerpuff Girls VHS Boogie Frights . Jack in the Box released six Powerpuff Girls toys in July 2002 as a tie @-@ in for The Powerpuff Girls Movie . On February 10 , 2003 , Burger King began a four @-@ week promotion featuring The Powerpuff Girls and Dragon Ball Z toys as well as special codes to redeem online for Cartoon Network 's Cartoon Orbit .
= = = Video games = = =
Several video games were made for this show all being action in genre . The Powerpuff Girls : Bad Mojo Jojo , released on November 14 , 2000 , follows Blossom as she tries to beat Mojo Jojo . The game was called " simple and boring " by GameSpot and was a failure critically . The Powerpuff Girls : Paint the Townsville Green , another game released in November 2000 , follows Buttercup as she fights crime . The Powerpuff Girls : Battle HIM follows Bubbles in her fight against HIM and was released in February 2001 . The Powerpuff Girls : Chemical X @-@ traction was released in October 2001 , where the girls battle enemies in a variety of settings in order to reclaim Chemical X and track down Mojo Jojo , who fed the material to all the villains in Townsville . IGN gave the game a positive review while giving the PSone version a 2 @.@ 0 / 10 bad review . The Powerpuff Girls : Relish Rampage was released in November 2002 . All three girls are playable in a 3D world , and the game received mixed reviews . The Powerpuff Girls : Mojo Jojo A @-@ Go @-@ Go released in 2001 centers around the name of the Powerpuff Girls ' mission to stop Mojo Jojo and his minions . The game received mixed reviews . The Powerpuff Girls : HIM and Seek was released in 2002 where the girls battle their variety of enemies through Townsville while on a scavenger hunt . The game received mostly positive reviews . PC games were also made for the series . These include : The Powerpuff Girls : Mojo Jojo Clone Zone , The Powerpuff Girls : Princess Snorebucks , The Powerpuff Girls : Mojo Jojo 's Pet Project , and The Powerpuff Girls : Gamesville .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
In a 2000 Entertainment Weekly review , Marc Bernadin complimented the show on its " spot @-@ on pop @-@ culture acumen " and " unparalleled sense of fun " , giving it a warm welcome from earlier " lame " superhero cartoons that he grew up with . Peter Marks of The New York Times noted the show 's use of adult humor and pop culture references , declaring it " the sort of playful satire that can appeal as much to a viewer of 37 as 7 . " Joly Herman of Common Sense Media describes the show as a " cute , highly stylized series thrills the senses with its strange characters , funny situations , and lots of lowbrow humor " . She goes on to say , however , that the show does go from innocent to violent in no time and that there is not much protecting young viewers against the violent undertones . Robert Lloyd of the LA Times said that the series might be " transgressive " based on the violence but " also cute " .
TV Guide chose the Powerpuff Girls as No. 13 in a list of the 50 Greatest cartoon characters of all time . IGN ranked the series 18th in its Top 25 Primetime Animated Series of All Time list in 2006 .
Delta Express promoted the series by having a Boeing 737 @-@ 200 jet painted with a special livery featuring the characters Blossom , Bubbles , and Buttercup on the exterior . The plane 's inaugural flight was held at Logan International Airport in Boston , Massachusetts , on July 17 , 2000 . In 2002 the aircraft was repainted with a different Powerpuff Girls theme to promote The Powerpuff Girls Movie . The Powerpuff Girls series has won two Primetime Emmys , two Annie Awards , and including those four wins , has been nominated a total of sixteen times for various awards .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
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= Verna ( 30 Rock ) =
" Verna " is the twelfth episode of the fourth season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 70th overall episode of the series . The episode was written by co @-@ executive producer Ron Weiner and directed by series producer Don Scardino . It originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on February 4 , 2010 . Jan Hooks guest stars as the title character of this episode and was her last acting role before dying on October 9 , 2014 .
In the episode , Jenna Maroney 's ( Jane Krakowski ) mother Verna ( Hooks ) comes to visit her , and Jenna turns to Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) for help . At the same time , Frank Rossitano ( Judah Friedlander ) moves in with Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) temporarily , and they both decide to make a pact to give up their bad habits .
" Verna " has received generally positive reception from television critics . According to the Nielsen ratings , the episode was watched by 5 @.@ 93 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 2 @.@ 9 rating / 8 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = Plot = =
Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) learns that her mother , Verna ( Jan Hooks ) , has come to visit her . Jenna does not want to see Verna , though , as she knows that her visit will lead to her asking Jenna for money , so Jenna turns to her boss , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) , for help . Jack , who also does not get along with his mother Colleen Donaghy ( Elaine Stritch ) , shows Jenna a presentation on how to deal with overbearing mothers . Jenna attempts to follow the presentation , but Verna surprises her by giving her back the money she has borrowed from Jenna and wanting to be in her life again , leading to Jenna ignoring what Jack has told her and reconciling with Verna , making Jack convinced that Verna has an ulterior motive for making amends with Jenna . Later , his suspicions come true when Verna admits that she sneaked her way back into Jenna 's life solely to convince her to star in a reality show featuring them both . Jack tries to let Jenna know Verna 's true intentions but cannot bring himself to tell Jenna as she is so happy . Instead , Jack pays Verna off to visit Jenna on a regular basis , letting Jenna believe her mother has changed her ways .
At the same time , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) takes her staff writer , Frank Rossitano ( Judah Friedlander ) in as a roommate , and they both decide to make a pact to give up their bad habits : Liz eating junk food and Frank 's smoking . As they continue living together , Liz is having a hard time adjusting to not eating junk food and suspects that Frank is still smoking , due to his calm behavior during the situation . To catch him in the act , she decides to hide a recording video camera equipped with night vision in her apartment . The next day , Liz shows the video to her staff writers , including Frank . However , instead of showing Frank smoking cigarettes , the footage shows Liz sleepwalking , " sleepeating , " ordering pizza in her sleep , eating large amounts of junk food , and eating the cigarettes . However , it also shows Frank having an affair with a much older cleaning lady , whom he calls " mommy , " thus embarrassing them both and breaking the pact .
A subplot involves Pete not being able to have a moment alone at work because of Kenneth continuously talking to him . However , Pete ultimately finds a release by hanging out with homeless people and is able to tolerate Kenneth 's jabbering .
= = Production = =
" Verna " was written by co @-@ executive producer Ron Weiner and directed by series producer Don Scardino . This episode was Weiner 's sixth writing credit , having penned " Secrets and Lies " , " Señor Macho Solo " , " Goodbye , My Friend " , " Mamma Mia " , and " The Problem Solvers " . This was Scardino 's twenty @-@ fifth directed episode . " Verna " originally aired in the United States on February 4 , 2010 , on NBC , as the twelfth episode of the show 's fourth season and the 70th overall episode of the series . This episode of 30 Rock was filmed on December 7 , 2009 .
Comedian @-@ actress Jan Hooks , best known for appearing on Saturday Night Live and 3rd Rock from the Sun , guest @-@ starred as Verna Maroney , the mother of Jenna Maroney , played by Jane Krakowski . She reprised her role as Verna in the May 6 , 2010 , episode " The Moms " . Hooks is eleven years older than Krakowski . Some television commentators have noted that Hooks 's appearance on 30 Rock was her first acting job since appearing in the 2004 comedy movie Jiminy Glick in Lalawood .
The episode opens with Liz Lemon having a dream in which she is married to Jack Donaghy and is giving birth to their child . Since its beginning , the series has occasionally hinted at a romantic relationship between Liz and Jack . In one episode , Jack passes Liz off as his live @-@ in girlfriend to his ex @-@ wife to make her jealous . In another episode , Jack 's mother tells him that Liz is a perfect match for him , and in the same episode he has Liz listed as his emergency contact . In an April 2010 Esquire interview , series creator Tina Fey said that one of the plots the show will never do is have Liz and Jack get together . " Let me put the Internet at ease : Liz and Jack will never be together . " Alec Baldwin was asked if the two characters will ever hook up ; he responded " I sincerely doubt it , and I think the show is better off that way . Once they cross that line , all the tension goes out of those relationships . And I think the lesson we learned about both those characters is that they are married to their jobs and they are married to their work . "
= = Cultural references = =
In the beginning of the episode , Liz dreams she is giving birth to Meat Cat , a fictional cartoon mascot for " cheesy blasters " , her favorite cheese snacks . This episode made reference to the mascot as it was first introduced in the fourth season 's premiere episode " Season 4 " . Many television reviewers have noted that Jack 's presentation on how to deal with overbearing mothers , given the acronym " ASQ " ( Always Speak Quietly ) , was a reference to Baldwin 's " ABC " ( Always Be Closing ) speech seen in the film Glengarry Glen Ross ( 1992 ) . The night vision video that Liz shows to her writing staff , in which she is seen sleepwalking , ordering a pizza and eating large amounts of junk food , was a parody of the 2009 horror film Paranormal Activity .
= = Reception = =
According to the Nielsen ratings system , " Verna " was watched by 5 @.@ 93 million households in its original American broadcast . The rating was a 7 percent increase in viewership from the previous week 's episode , " Winter Madness " , which was seen by 5 @.@ 585 million American viewers . The show claimed a 2 @.@ 9 rating / 8 share in the 18 – 49 demographic , meaning that it was seen by 2 @.@ 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 8 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast .
TV Squad 's Bob Sassone enjoyed Jan Hooks ' appearance , and said that her role as Jenna 's mother was " good casting . " His only complaint was that this episode had nothing to do with The Girlie Show with Tracy Jordan , the fictional show on 30 Rock , and hoped that no other characters have to stay at Liz 's apartment . " Laughter wasn 't constant during [ ' Verna ' ] , but the direction it moved in kept interest even when jokes were sparse . That being said , some of the material ... were pretty great by even the show 's lofty standards " , said Paste magazine 's Sean Gandert . In his recap , Adam Mersel for TV Guide was complimentary , writing it had " spot @-@ on one @-@ liners , witty pop culture references , and a hilarious guest @-@ star in Jan Hooks " , and that " Verna " became his favorite episode of the season . Nick Catucci for New York magazine liked Liz and Frank 's plot , noting that their bad habits featured here " culminated in the greatest few moments the show has had in some time . " The A.V. Club ’ s Nathan Rabin enjoyed this episode of 30 Rock , writing that the show " was firing on all cylinders . It was good for laughs aplenty but it also helped illuminate Jack 's paternal relationship with Jenna , the source of some of Jenna 's narcissistic craziness and the full measure of Jack 's Oedipal hell . " Margaret Lyons for Entertainment Weekly deemed " Verna " a solid episode from the show . Time contributor James Poniewozik enjoyed Hooks ' performance , and that it was good to see Jane Krakowski 's Jenna " get a story that was not solely about her being an insecure ninny . "
Not all reviews were positive . IGN contributor Robert Canning gave the episode a 7 @.@ 9 out of 10 rating , and said that Hooks ' role as Jenna 's mother " helped the half hour , but this Jenna @-@ centric episode still didn 't blow me away . " He noted that the main plot had funny moments but " there wasn 't much else to invest in . " Overall , Canning reasoned that this episode was very much a stand @-@ alone one " built for some good jokes , and not exactly focused on storytelling . [ ... ] An episode like ' Verna ' can still bring a lot of laughs , but you can 't help but feel like it 's missing that extra something . " Television columnist Alan Sepinwall for The Star @-@ Ledger disliked both stories from " Verna " , and wrote that it was a disappointing episode , and that it was " pretty weak overall . " Meredith Blake , a contributor from the Los Angeles Times , reported that despite Hooks ' hilarious performance , the episode still felt a " little bit like filler " , and that there " wasn 't too much that was especially funny or memorable about it " .
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= Supercell ( band ) =
Supercell ( stylized as supercell ) is a Japanese 11 @-@ member J @-@ pop music group led by songwriter Ryo , which formed in 2007 as a dōjin music group . The other 10 members are artists and designers who provide illustrations in album booklets and music videos . Supercell started out by making use of the Hatsune Miku Vocaloid singing synthesizer to produce vocals for songs submitted to the Nico Nico Douga video sharing website . The popularity of the songs led the group to release their independent self @-@ titled album Supercell ( 2008 ) . Supercell later signed to Sony Music Entertainment Japan and had a professional release of their Supercell album in March 2009 , which was updated with more songs .
Supercell made a transition to vocalist Nagi Yanagi with their debut single " Kimi no Shiranai Monogatari " ( 2009 ) . Two more singles featuring Yanagi were released in 2010 , followed by Supercell 's second album Today Is A Beautiful Day ( 2011 ) , which was Yanagi 's last contribution with Supercell . Following Yanagi 's departure , Supercell held auditions for vocalists , and 15 @-@ year @-@ old female singer Koeda was chosen out of about 2 @,@ 000 candidates . Koeda 's first single with Supercell is " My Dearest " ( 2011 ) , and four more singles featuring Koeda were released between 2012 and 2013 , followed by Supercell 's third album Zigaexperientia ( 2013 ) .
Supercell and Today Is A Beautiful Day were awarded a Gold Disc by the Recording Industry Association of Japan for having exceeded 100 @,@ 000 copies shipped in a single year , and Supercell was chosen as one of the best five new Japanese artists of 2009 during the 2010 Japan Gold Disc Award competition .
= = History = =
= = = 2007 – 2008 : Formation and indie releases = = =
On December 7 , 2007 , Ryo submitted the song " Melt " ( メルト , Meruto ) to the Nico Nico Douga video sharing website , and since then the video has been viewed over 5 million times . For the song 's vocals , Ryo used the Vocaloid singing synthesizer software Hatsune Miku , and he used an illustration of Miku by an artist named 119 ( pronounced Hikeshi ) on the video without his permission . After Ryo contacted 119 with an apology , 119 responded with great interest in " Melt " and began to work together with Ryo , thus forming Supercell . More members joined Supercell since its formation , which led to 11 members by the time the group made its major debut . In an article in The Japan Times , Ryo admitted that he did not have any " big intentions " in uploading " Melt " to Nico Nico Douga and was not someone who " set out to find success " as he put it .
Ryo chose to distribute his music on Nico Nico Douga because he liked the website along with its response system , which enables user 's comments to appear overlaid on the video screen . Ryo did not originally intend to use Hatsune Miku as the vocalist for his songs , and most members of Supercell did not even know of Miku until after " Melt " gained popularity . Since Ryo did not know any singers , he was recommended by his friends to use Miku , which he thought was a good idea since videos using Miku were already widely being distributed on Nico Nico Douga at the time .
In 2008 , Supercell continued to release songs on Nico Nico Douga which quickly became popular . Supercell 's releases of " Koi wa Sensō " ( 恋は戦争 ) on February 22 , " World is Mine " ( ワールドイズマイン , Wārudo izu Main ) on May 31 , and " Black Rock Shooter " ( ブラック ★ ロックシューター , Burakku Rokku Shūtā ) on June 13 all received over 1 million views . Ryo composed the song " Kibō no Neiro " ( キボウノネイロ ) , released as a limited edition image song CD with the fifth volume of Shū Shirase 's light novel series Oto × Maho on July 15 , 2008 . The song was released in two versions : one sung by Hatsune Miku sold at Animate and one sung by the human singer Sari sold at Comic Toranoana . At Comiket 74 in August 2008 , Supercell released the independent self @-@ titled album Supercell containing their most popular songs in addition to several previously unreleased tracks . On December 12 , 2008 , Supercell released " Hajimete no Koi ga Owaru Toki " ( 初めての恋が終わる時 ) on Nico Nico Douga , which has since received over 1 million views ; this was the last song Supercell posted to the website .
= = = 2009 – 2011 : Major debut and vocalist Nagi Yanagi = = =
Supercell made their major debut with Sony Music Entertainment Japan with the professional release of their Supercell album on March 4 , 2009 . The updated release included the art book originally bundled with the indie version , contained more songs than the original , and included a DVD with music videos for four songs . The album obtained a No. 4 ranking on Oricon 's weekly albums chart , and in June 2009 was awarded the Gold Disc by the Recording Industry Association of Japan for having exceeded 100 @,@ 000 copies shipped in a single year . Ryo approached singer Nagi Yanagi to be the vocalist for Supercell 's debut single " Kimi no Shiranai Monogatari " ( 君の知らない物語 ) , who was known for her uploads to Nico Nico Douga under the name Gazelle . The single was released on August 12 , 2009 and ranked No. 5 on Oricon 's weekly singles chart . The song " Kimi no Shiranai Monogatari " was used as the ending theme song for the 2009 Bakemonogatari anime series , and the single also included two tracks featured in the 2009 animated film Cencoroll . Supercell was chosen as one of the best five new Japanese artists of 2009 during the 2010 Japan Gold Disc Award competition .
A second single , " Sayonara Memories " ( さよならメモリーズ ) , was released on February 10 , 2010 . Supercell 's third single , " Utakata Hanabi / Hoshi ga Matataku Konna Yoru ni " ( うたかた花火 / 星が瞬くこんな夜に ) , is a double A @-@ side and was released on August 25 , 2010 . " Utakata Hanabi " was used as the 14th ending theme for the Naruto : Shippuden anime series and " Hoshi ga Matataku Konna Yoru ni " was used as the ending theme for Type @-@ Moon 's visual novel Mahōtsukai no Yoru . Supercell released a split single in collaboration with Kz of Livetune called " Kotchi Muite Baby / Yellow " ( こっち向いて Baby / Yellow ) on July 14 , 2010 by Sony Music Direct , which is the theme song of Hatsune Miku : Project DIVA 2nd . Ryo composed " Kotchi Muite Baby " and Livetune composed " Yellow " ; both songs are sung by Hatsune Miku . Supercell produced the song " Hero " ( ヒーロー ) as a theme song to Shueisha 's manga magazine Aoharu , a special edition version of Young Jump , which had its first issue on November 30 , 2010 .
A 50 @-@ minute original video animation project titled Black Rock Shooter was released on July 24 , 2010 based on the song " Black Rock Shooter " and its original music video featuring illustrations by Huke . A " Pilot Edition " of the anime was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc on September 30 , 2009 . Ryo and Huke collaborated on the project with supervisor Yutaka Yamamoto and his animation studio Ordet ; Shinobu Yoshioka directed the project . Black Rock Shooter is Ordet 's first solo production as the main animation studio . Some footage of the anime was shown at Anime Expo on July 4 , 2010 .
In late 2010 , Shibuya , Tokyo @-@ based company INCS toenter established the major record label TamStar Records for musicians and artists who originally made their debut as dōjin music artists online . Supercell joined the label as one of the inaugural members , including others such as Livetune , Gom , Rapbit , and Nagi Yanagi . Supercell collaborated on a compilation album titled TamStar Records Collection Vol . 0 released as a limited edition at Comiket 79 in December 2010 ; on the album is Ryo 's " Kibō no Neiro " sung by Hatsune Miku and " Ashita e " ( アシタヘ ) sung by Rapbit and Clear . TamStar Records released a remix album of Supercell 's debut album Supercell as a tribute to the band titled Stowaways on January 17 , 2011 . Supercell released their second studio album Today Is A Beautiful Day on March 16 , 2011 , which was Yanagi 's last contribution with Supercell .
= = = 2011 – present : Vocalist Koeda = = =
Supercell held auditions from May 25 to June 19 , 2011 for a guest vocalist on the band 's third album . The main criteria for the vocalist was his or her voice , as Supercell was not concerned with the singer 's gender or age . Out of about 2 @,@ 000 candidates , then 15 @-@ year @-@ old female singer Koeda was chosen . Also , then 17 @-@ year @-@ old female singer Chelly was selected to be the vocalist for Ryo 's separate music act Egoist . Supercell collaborated with the dōjin musician Dixie Flatline to produce the split single " Sekiranun Graffiti ( 積乱雲グラフィティ ) / Fallin ' Fallin ' Fallin ' " released on August 31 , 2011 by Sony Music Direct . Ryo composed " Sekiranun Graffiti " and Dixie Flatline composed " Fallin ' Fallin ' Fallin ' " ; both songs are sung by Hatsune Miku . " Sekiranun Graffiti " is used as the opening theme to Hatsune Miku : Project DIVA Extend . The theme songs for the 2011 anime series Guilty Crown were produced by Ryo . The band 's fourth single " My Dearest " and was released on November 23 , 2011 ; the song was used as the anime 's first opening theme .
Supercell 's fifth single , also released on March 7 , 2012 , is the double A @-@ side " Kokuhaku / Bokura no Ashiato " ( 告白 / 僕らのあしあと ) . " Kokuhaku " was used as Guilty Crown 's second ending theme , and " Bokura no Ashiato " was used as the ending theme to the 2012 anime series Black Rock Shooter . Ryo wrote the song " Light My Fire " sung by Kotoko , which was used as the first opening theme to the 2011 anime series Shakugan no Shana Final . Ryo also wrote the song " Naisho no Hanashi " sung by ClariS , which was used as the ending theme to the 2012 anime series Nisemonogatari . Ryo collaborated with the dōjin musician Jin to produce the split single " Odds & Ends / Sky of Beginning " released on August 29 , 2012 by Sony Music Direct . Ryo composed " Odds & Ends " and Jin composed " Sky of Beginning " ; both songs are sung by Hatsune Miku . " Odds & Ends " is the opening theme song to Hatsune Miku : Project DIVA F.
In 2012 , designer Yoshika Usa collaborated with illustrator Tomoko Fujinoko to create the manga Wooser 's Hand @-@ to @-@ Mouth Life , which was adapted into a CG anime series by Sanzigen in 2012 . The anime 's ending theme song " Love Me Gimme " ( ラブミーギミー , Rabu Mī Gimī ) by Tia is written by Ryo , who has continued to produce music for the singer . Supercell 's sixth single " Gin 'iro Hikōsen " ( 銀色飛行船 ) was released on December 19 , 2012 ; the song is used as the opening theme to the 2012 anime film Nerawareta Gakuen . Supercell 's seventh single " The Bravery " was released on March 13 , 2013 ; the song is used as the second ending theme to the 2012 anime series Magi : The Labyrinth of Magic . Supercell 's eighth single " Hakushukassai Utaawase " ( 拍手喝采歌合 ) was released on June 12 , 2013 ; the song is used as the opening theme for the 2013 rebroadcast of the 2010 anime series Katanagatari . Supercell released their third studio album Zigaexperientia on November 27 , 2013 . Ryo composed the music for the 2015 video game Bravely Second : End Layer . Ryo produced the single " Great Distance " featuring Chelly released on May 20 , 2015 ; this song is used as the opening theme song to Bravely Second . Also included on the single is " Last Song " , which is used as the ending theme to Bravely Second .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Daniel Robson of The Japan Times described Supercell 's music as " sentimental J @-@ pop ... [ that ] also explores the genre 's jazzier , spunkier and dancier elements . " Their sound has been compared to pop singers Aiko and Yui , and Ryo has stated himself that he likes expressing human emotions in his music . When creating a song , Ryo has often hummed a tune into a digital recorder , or starts by playing the piano . While it depends on the song , Ryo has stated he generally " play [ s ] the piano and take [ s ] notes of the chord progression " and then writes the lyrics . Ryo has cited " artists that blend rock and hip @-@ hop styles with today 's latest technology " as influencing his music , including : Massive Attack , Boom Boom Satellites , Portishead , Tricky , and Unkle .
Ryo found it difficult at first to write " tenderhearted " lyrics for songs meant to be sung by young women . When describing the lyrics for his songs using Hatsune Miku as the vocalist , Ryo felt that writing without hesitation based on his initial ideas with minimal editing was best , because the singer , as a computer program , would not feel embarrassed about singing the lyrics . He admitted that his friends would laugh when he played the songs , but he thought that " if a 16 @-@ year @-@ old girl is supposed to be singing ... it is best if she sings about romance . " When writing lyrics for human singers , Ryo takes more care in writing lyrics that singers would not be embarrassed to sing . When Ryo receives an offer to compose theme music , he writes lyrics that tie in with the theme and mood of the given work , such as the ending themes " Kimi no Shiranai Monogatari " for the anime Bakemonogatari , and " Hoshi ga Matataku Konna Yoru ni " for the visual novel Mahōtsukai no Yoru .
= = Members = =
Supercell is made up of 11 members led by Ryo , who produces the music and writes the lyrics . The other 10 members provide illustrations , animation , design , and photography in album booklets , cases and music videos .
Ryo ( music , lyrics )
Shirow Miwa ( illustration )
Huke ( illustration )
Redjuice ( illustration )
Suga ( illustration )
Maque ( illustration and animation )
Yoshiki Usa at Wooserdesign ( design )
Hei8ro ( Heihachiro ) ( support in illustration and photography )
Guitar ( support in illustration )
Crow ( support )
Golv ( support )
Former members
119 ( Hikeshi ) ( illustration )
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = = = Other singles = = = =
= = = = Other charted songs = = = =
= = = Music videos = = =
= = = Other album appearances = = =
= = = Other video album appearances = = =
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= Attacks at Fort Blue Mounds =
The attacks at Fort Blue Mounds were two separate incidents which occurred on June 6 and 20 , 1832 , as part of the Black Hawk War . In the first incident , area residents attributed the killing of a miner to a band of Ho @-@ Chunk warriors , and concluded that more Ho @-@ Chunk planned to join Black Hawk in his war against white settlers . The second incident occurred east of the fort as a Sauk raiding party , estimated by eyewitnesses to be as large as 100 warriors , attacked two militia men who were investigating noises heard the night before . Two members of the militia stationed at Blue Mounds were killed in the attack , and both their bodies were badly mutilated .
The attacks followed an increase in tension after the Hall sisters were released at Fort Blue Mounds on June 1 . The sisters had been kidnapped during the Indian Creek massacre in May and were brought to Blue Mounds by a party of Ho @-@ Chunk . Militia leader Henry Dodge became suspicious of the Ho @-@ Chunk and took them prisoner , though they were later released as tension between the Ho @-@ Chunk and white settlers increased . The attacks also lent credence to the belief that more Ho @-@ Chunk were set to join Black Hawk 's war against white settlers in Illinois and Michigan Territory . Though other attacks on the fort were expected they never happened and Fort Blue Mounds served as a supply center for the remaining days of the war .
= = Background = =
As a consequence of an 1804 treaty between the Governor of Indiana Territory and a group of Sauk and Fox leaders regarding land settlement the Sauk and Fox tribes vacated their lands in Illinois in 1828 and moved west of the Mississippi River . However , Sauk Chief Black Hawk and others disputed the treaty , claiming that the full tribal councils had not been consulted , nor did those representing the tribes have authorization to cede lands . Angered by the loss of his birthplace , Black Hawk led a number of incursions across the Mississippi River beginning in 1830 , but each time was persuaded , without bloodshed , to return west . In April 1832 , encouraged by promises of alliance with other tribes and the British , he again moved his so @-@ called " British Band " of around 1 @,@ 000 warriors and civilians into Illinois . A number of other engagements followed , and the state militias of Wisconsin and Illinois were mobilized to hunt down Black Hawk 's band , the conflict that ensued became known as the Black Hawk War .
= = Prelude = =
Upon hearing of Black Hawk 's return , settlers throughout northern Illinois and southern Wisconsin hastily constructed forts . Construction on a fort began at Ebeneezer Brigham 's Moundville settlement ( now Blue Mounds , Wisconsin ) on May 10 . As construction of the fort commenced Black Hawk found no allies so he attempted to return to Iowa , but events overtook him and led to the Battle of Stillman 's Run . The battle likely caused the builders of Fort Blue Mounds to accelerate the pace of construction .
One week after the clash at Stillman 's Run , on May 21 , 1832 , the Indian Creek massacre occurred well south of Fort Blue Mounds , near present @-@ day Ottawa , Illinois . During the attack , two teenage girls were kidnapped by a raiding band of Potawatomi . The girls , Sylvia and Rachel Hall , were released on June 1 at Fort Blue Mounds by the party of Ho @-@ Chunk who had helped secure their release ; the party included several important chiefs . Commander of the Michigan Territory militia Henry Dodge arrived with a company to retrieve the girls but became suspicious of the Ho @-@ Chunk and took them prisoner in an attempt to secure the alliance and good behavior of other Ho @-@ Chunk in the vicinity of Blue Mounds . The chiefs were soon released but friction between white settlers at Moundville and the Ho @-@ Chunk residing in the area increased . Indian Agent Henry Gratiot tried to calm the situation by appeasing the Ho @-@ Chunk through gifts . Despite Gratiot 's attempts , the tension exploded into violence a few days later .
= = Attacks = =
The first incident near Fort Blue Mounds occurred when William Griffith Aubrey was attacked and killed by Native American warriors on June 6 , 1832 . According to one witness statement , directly preceding the first attack at Fort Blue Mounds on June 6 , there was an argument between William Aubrey 's wife and a Ho @-@ Chunk man . During the exchange the Ho @-@ Chunk man threatened to kill her husband . Aubrey was a miner who was working for Brigham about 1 ½ miles away from Fort Blue Mounds when he was attacked . He and Jefferson Smith were detailed to retrieve water from a spring near the fort when they were ambushed by a small party of warriors . Aubrey was shot twice and stabbed through the neck with a spear . His companion , though shot three times , managed to escape with his life . Smith fled back to the fort , leaving his gun and horse behind . At the fort , the settlers correctly guessed that the attackers were Ho @-@ Chunk and not the warriors of Black Hawk 's " British Band , " which was 40 miles ( 64 km ) away at Lake Kegonsa .
The second attack occurred on June 20 , 1832 , two weeks after the first incident . In the attack , a large Sauk war party attacked Blue Mounds and two members of the militia , Emerson Green and George Force , were killed . Eyewitness accounts estimated the size of the group between 50 @-@ 100 warriors . The night before the second attack of June 20 strange noises were heard in the vicinity of the fort . Force and Green had left the fort , on horseback , to investigate the previous night 's disturbances and were several miles east of Fort Blue Mounds when they came across Black Hawk 's band , guided to the fort by sympathetic Ho @-@ Chunk . Force was killed immediately but Green broke for the fort and almost made it back to safety when , in view of the fort 's occupants , his horse was shot out from underneath him . Green was surrounded by the war party and killed , eyewitness accounts indicate that his body was badly mutilated .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the murder of Aubrey , people in the area quickly suspected that the Ho @-@ Chunk were involved which exacerbated the fear that more from the Ho @-@ Chunk Nation were set to join Chief Black Hawk 's band against the white settlers in Michigan Territory and Illinois . With the loyalty of the Ho @-@ Chunk in question the possibility of a two @-@ front war emerged . After the deaths of Green and Force , U.S. interrogators questioned two Ho @-@ Chunk warriors they had captured . The braves , members of the Prophet 's Band , took credit for the killings , even boasting of them .
The location of Aubrey 's death was in Michigan Territory near present @-@ day Blue Mounds , Wisconsin . Following his death , mounted troops and riders from the fort traced the band responsible for the attack to a recently abandoned camp , and then to the Wisconsin River , where the search ended . Aubrey was buried on a high piece of land overlooking the fort from the northeast .
Green 's body was buried at the fort but Force 's remains laid on the prairie for four days before they were retrieved ; the fort 's residents were too frightened to venture far from the building . On June 24 General Henry Dodge and Captain James H. Gentry arrived at Fort Blue Mounds with part of Gentry 's company . Their purpose was to conduct reconnaissance operations but they ended up finding the body of Lieutenant Force beneath a tree about two miles ( 3 km ) east of the fort . Early histories indicate Force 's body was badly mutilated and missing a " part . " Force was buried near the fort , along the main trail about two miles ( 3 km ) east of the fort .
Though Brigham fully expected an all @-@ out attack on Fort Blue Mounds following the incidents , it never came . The only violence that befell the occupants of the fort was that perpetrated on those who left its confines on June 6 and June 20 . Dodge left a detachment at the fort for a time but after the June 20 attack the fort was never again a target during the Black Hawk War . Until the end of the war , Fort Blue Mounds served primarily as a supply center for the militia as they continued their pursuit of Black Hawk across Wisconsin .
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= Kenneth MacMillan =
Sir Kenneth MacMillan ( 11 December 1929 – 29 October 1992 ) was a British ballet dancer and choreographer who was artistic director of the Royal Ballet in London between 1970 and 1977 , and its principal choreographer from 1977 until his death . Earlier he had served as director of ballet for the Deutsche Oper in Berlin . He was also associate director of the American Ballet Theatre from 1984 to 1989 , and artistic associate of the Houston Ballet from 1989 to 1992 .
From a family with no background of ballet or music , MacMillan was determined from an early age to become a dancer . The director of Sadler 's Wells Ballet , Ninette de Valois , accepted him as a student and then a member of her company . In the late 1940s , MacMillan built a successful career as a dancer , but , plagued by stage fright , he abandoned it while still in his twenties . After this he worked entirely as a choreographer ; he created ten full @-@ length ballets and more than fifty one @-@ act pieces . In addition to his work for ballet companies he was active in television , musicals , non @-@ musical drama , and opera .
Although he is mainly associated with the Royal Ballet , MacMillan frequently considered himself an outsider there and felt driven to work with other companies throughout his career as choreographer . His creations for the Stuttgart Ballet and the Deutsche Opera ballet include some of his most frequently revived works .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early years = = =
MacMillan was born in Dunfermline , Scotland , the youngest of four surviving children of William MacMillan ( 1891 – 1946 ) , who was a labourer and , from time to time , cook , and his wife , Edith ( 1888 – 1942 ) née Shreeve . His father had served in the army in the First World War , and suffered permanent physical and mental damage . In search of work he moved with his family to his wife 's home town , Great Yarmouth in Norfolk . After attending a local primary school , Kenneth studied from 1940 at Great Yarmouth Grammar School , to which he won a scholarship . As Great Yarmouth was a target for German air raids in the Second World War , the school was evacuated to Retford in Nottinghamshire .
In Retford , MacMillan was introduced to ballet by a local dance teacher , Jean Thomas . He had already had lessons in Scottish dancing in Dunfermline and tap dancing in Great Yarmouth , and he took to ballet immediately . In 1942 his mother died , which caused him acute and lasting distress . His father was a distant figure , and the boy 's only close family relationship was with an elder sister . His obituarist in The Times suggests that the feeling of being an outsider , displayed in many of MacMillan 's ballets , had its roots in his childhood .
When the grammar school returned to Great Yarmouth in 1944 MacMillan found a new ballet teacher , Phyllis Adams . With her help , MacMillan , aged fifteen , secured admission to the Sadler 's Wells Ballet School ( later the Royal Ballet School ) . He saw his first performances of ballets , given by Ninette de Valois ' Sadler 's Wells company , at the New Theatre in London .
= = = Dancer = = =
When David Webster was appointed chief executive of the Royal Opera House , Covent Garden at the end of the war , his assignment was to establish permanent opera and ballet companies for the house . He set about building the opera company from scratch but persuaded de Valois to make Covent Garden the main base for her ballet company . In 1946 , while still a student , MacMillan appeared in the production of The Sleeping Beauty with which Webster and de Valois reopened the opera house . At first he was a non @-@ dancing extra , and later he was promoted to a small dancing role . With the main company now resident at Covent Garden , de Valois established a smaller ensemble to perform at Sadler 's Wells and act as a training ground for young dancers and choreographers . In April 1946 MacMillan was a founder member , and quickly made progress . He was cast by Frederick Ashton , de Valois ' principal choreographer , in a leading role in a new ballet , Valses nobles et sentimentales , in October 1946 . The success of the piece encouraged Ashton to revive his 1933 Les Rendezvous . Although initially only in the corps de ballet for this work , MacMillan was unexpectedly promoted to the male lead because of injuries to all the eligible company principals . His biographer Jann Parry comments that he was able to take over without notice because he had a rare ability to remember and reproduce the steps of every dancer in any piece in which he appeared . He was promoted to the senior Covent Garden company at the start of the 1948 – 49 season , touring in Europe and dancing Florestan in the third act pas de trois of The Sleeping Beauty in the company 's opening gala in New York in October 1949 . The first new role he created was The Great Admirer of Mademoiselle Piquant in John Cranko 's ballet Children 's Corner ( 1948 ) , followed by both Sherlock Holmes and Professor Moriarty in Margaret Dale 's The Great Detective ( 1953 ) , and Moondog in Cranko 's The Lady and the Fool ( 1954 ) .
Despite his rise within the company , MacMillan became unhappy as a performer . He suffered from severe stage fright , and his leading roles became an ordeal for him . De Valois gave him three months ' leave of absence , during which he spent some time dancing with his friend John Cranko 's small group in the little Kenton Theatre , away from the spotlight , in Henley @-@ on @-@ Thames . Cranko , himself a former dancer who had moved to choreography , concluded that MacMillan might well follow the same course . When MacMillan returned to work , his confidence as a dancer somewhat restored , he took part in de Valois ' new Choreographers Group , set up in response to Marie Rambert 's " Ballet Workshops " . For this group , MacMillan choreographed his first ballet , Somnambulism , which was first given on 1 February 1953 . It was well received , and the next year he followed with another small @-@ scale work , Laiderette . This introduced the " outsider " character that became a hallmark of his ballets , in this case a female clown who attends a ball at which her host falls in love with her until she loses the mask that has made her attractive . MacMillan 's eclectic choice of music was evidenced in these two early works ; the first was danced to jazz composed by Stan Kenton , and the second was to the harpsichord music of Frank Martin .
On the strength of the workshop successes , de Valois commissioned the 25 @-@ year @-@ old MacMillan to create a ballet for performance at Sadler 's Wells . Danses concertantes , to music by Stravinsky , was first produced in January 1955 , with designs by Nicholas Georgiadis , with whom MacMillan collaborated extensively over the next years . Parry counts among MacMillan 's early influences the modernism of choreographers such as Roland Petit , Jerome Robbins and Antony Tudor , and the craftsmanship of Ashton , from whom MacMillan said he learned how a ballet was made . The Times commented that with this piece it was clear that a powerful choreographic talent had arrived . The critic Clement Crisp has described the piece as " a bravura display using a witty , allusive classical vocabulary , remade by a creator who knew the cinema and spoke the movement language of his generation " . With the success of Danses concertantes MacMillan concluded that his future lay in choreography rather than dancing . After a fierce argument with de Valois , who wanted him to continue in both capacities , he got his way , and from 1955 his contract with the company ( on a slightly reduced salary ) was purely as a choreographer . His only Covent Garden appearances as a dancer after that were two performances as an Ugly Step @-@ sister in Cinderella alongside Ashton in 1956 .
= = = Choreographer = = =
MacMillan next produced a series of one @-@ act ballets . For the junior company he choreographed House of Birds ( 1955 ) , based on the Grimm brothers ' Jorinde and Joringel , and for Covent Garden he created Noctambules ( 1956 ) about a Svengali @-@ like hypnotist . He also worked in television , with Punch and the Child ( 1954 ) , The Dreamers , a television adaptation of Sonambulism , and Turned Out Proud ( 1955 ) . In 1956 he took leave of absence to spend five months in New York , working with American Ballet Theatre , choreographing Winter 's Eve and Journey for the dramatic ballerina Nora Kaye . For the Covent Garden opera company he staged the Venusberg ballet in Tannhäuser , regarded by some critics as the best part of a disappointing production .
MacMillan was the first of his generation of choreographers to have an entire evening of his works presented by the Sadler 's Wells Ballet . In June 1956 his new " divertissement ballet " Solitaire was given in a quadruple bill with Somnambulism , House of Birds and Danses concertantes . His 1958 work , The Burrow , with its menacing echoes of war , oppression and concealment , won praise for venturing into territory seldom explored in ballet . The critic in The Times admitted that its dramatic impact was strong enough " to make one glad when it ends " . The work marked the beginning of MacMillan 's association with Lynn Seymour , who was his muse for many subsequent ballets . The company had by now been granted a royal charter and was known as the Royal Ballet , with the smaller company based at Sadler 's Wells called the Royal Ballet Touring Company .
In the late 1950s MacMillan choreographed two musicals : one for the stage ( The World of Paul Slickey , 1958 ) and one for the cinema ( Expresso Bongo , 1959 ) . The Invitation , first shown at the Royal Opera House on 30 December 1960 , is probably MacMillan ’ s most controversial ballet . This one @-@ act work about rape was interpreted by Lynn Seymour and Desmond Doyle and provoked , at the time , mixed reactions in the press and the audience . Among MacMillan ’ s works for the Royal Ballet in the early 1960s was The Rite of Spring ( 1962 ) ; he selected an unknown junior dancer , Monica Mason , to dance the lead role of the chosen maiden who dances herself to death in a primitive ritual . Dance and Dancers described it as " a singular and signal triumph " ; Mason ’ s performance was judged " brilliantly done ... one of British ballet 's most memorable performances " . In The Times John Percival commented that ever since Nijinsky 's original attempt in 1913 The Rite had been waiting for a choreographer who could make it work on stage , and MacMillan 's was the most successful version to date .
In the mid @-@ 1960s two of his ballets , though both immensely successful , strained relations between MacMillan and the Royal Opera House management . In 1964 Webster and the Covent Garden board turned down MacMillan 's proposal to create a ballet using the music of Mahler 's Das Lied von der Erde English : The Song of the Earth ; the decision was made on the grounds that the score was unsuitable for use as a ballet . Cranko , by now in charge of the Stuttgart Ballet , invited MacMillan to create the work there in 1965 . It was a huge success , and within six months the Royal Ballet had taken the piece up . MacMillan 's first full @-@ length , three @-@ act ballet , Romeo and Juliet ( 1965 ) , to Prokofiev 's score , was choreographed for Seymour and Christopher Gable , but at Webster 's insistence the gala premiere was danced by Margot Fonteyn and Rudolf Nureyev . The decision was made for commercial rather than artistic reasons : Fonteyn and Nureyev were internationally known stars and guaranteed a full house at premium prices , as well as huge publicity . In Parry 's words , MacMillan and his two chosen dancers felt betrayed .
= = = Berlin , 1966 – 69 = = =
Disillusioned with Covent Garden , MacMillan accepted an invitation from the Deutsche Oper in Berlin to run its ballet company . Parry describes this as an unhappy experience . Though at Covent Garden Webster may sometimes have been suspected of favouring the opera at the expense of the ballet , MacMillan discovered that at the Berlin house there was no doubt that the ballet was given distinctly lower priority . He did not speak German , which reduced his enjoyment from watching films ( of which he was a great devotee ) and theatre and limited him generally in everyday life . Although he had taken several colleagues with him , including Seymour , many moved away over the course of his nearly four years in charge , and MacMillan became increasingly isolated . It was the first time he had been in a managerial as well as a creative role , and the strain affected his physical and mental health . He smoked and drank heavily and suffered a minor stroke .
For the Berlin company , MacMillan created seven ballets : Valses nobles et sentimentales , Concerto , Anastasia ( one act version ) , The Sleeping Beauty , Olympiad , Cain and Abel and Swan Lake . The critic Jane Simpson considers that some of MacMillan 's finest work was done for Berlin and Stuttgart .
= = = Royal Ballet : director 1970 – 77 = = =
In 1970 Ashton , who had been artistic director of the Royal Ballet since de Valois stepped down in 1963 , retired , somewhat reluctantly . Webster retired in the same year and wanted a wholesale change of management to coincide with his own departure . For the opera he arranged the joint directorship of Colin Davis and Peter Hall , and for the ballet he secured MacMillan and John Field as co @-@ directors . Neither of the joint directorships succeeded . Hall did not take up his post , instead moving to run the National Theatre , and Field , who had run the junior Royal Ballet company under de Valois and Ashton , found the split directorship untenable and left within months to become director of ballet at La Scala , Milan .
MacMillan was in an awkward position . It was widely known that Ashton had been forced out , and many resented it . Company morale was lowered by an announcement , to which MacMillan and Field were party , that the two ballet companies would merge , with numerous job losses . The managerial side of the post was no more congenial to MacMillan than it had been in Berlin , and some felt that his creative work suffered during his seven @-@ year term . His expansion of Anastasia into a three @-@ act version ( 1971 ) and the other full @-@ length work from this period , Manon ( 1974 ) , divided opinion , receiving fiercely adverse reviews as well as laudatory ones . His Joplin ballet Elite Syncopations ( 1974 ) and Requiem ( 1976 ) were immediately successful and have been regularly revived . The latter was dedicated to the memory of Cranko , who had died suddenly in 1973 . It was premiered at Stuttgart , because as with Song of the Earth the Royal Opera House board thought the chosen music – Fauré 's Requiem – inappropriate for a ballet . The work was not given at Covent Garden until 1983 .
At the age of 42 MacMillan , hitherto unmarried and enigmatic about his personal life , married the 26 @-@ year @-@ old Australian painter Deborah Williams . The writer John Percival comments that MacMillan 's marriage " saved him , both physically and mentally [ and ] gave him stability in his private life and seems to have resolved his confused sexuality " . There was one daughter of the marriage .
= = = Royal Ballet : principal choreographer 1977 – 92 = = =
After seven years as director of the Royal Ballet , MacMillan resigned in 1977 , wishing to concentrate on choreography . He was succeeded as artistic director by Norman Morrice , whose background was the more avant garde Ballet Rambert . MacMillan took up the post of principal choreographer . His fourth full @-@ length ballet , Mayerling ( 1978 ) , was a dark work , portraying the suicides of the Austrian Crown Prince Rudolf and his young mistress . Parry comments that some scenarios for his new one @-@ act ballets featured similarly dark themes : " a disturbed family in My Brother , My Sisters , a lunatic asylum in Playground ; Valley of Shadows ... included scenes in a Nazi concentration camp . " Different Drummer ( 1984 ) was a balletic version of Georg Büchner 's Woyzeck , familiar to Covent Garden audiences from Berg 's 1925 opera Wozzeck : all three depict the brutal fate of the downtrodden . Even the lighter of MacMillan 's ballets could have their serious side : La fin du jour ( 1979 ) , to Ravel 's Piano Concerto in G , depicts a way of life of the 1930s soon to be shattered by the Second World War , and is described by Crisp as " a requiem for the douceur de vivre of an era " .
In the 1980s MacMillan ventured into non @-@ balletic theatre , directing productions of Strindberg 's The Dance of Death ( Royal Exchange Theatre , Manchester , 1983 ) and Tennessee Williams 's Kingdom of Earth ( Hampstead Theatre , 1984 ) . Parry , writing in The Observer , thought that the drama in the first play failed to spring fully to life ; Michael Billington of The Guardian praised MacMillan 's " immensely detailed , atmospheric production " of the second piece . From 1984 to 1989 , while remaining chief choreographer of the Royal Ballet , MacMillan was associate director of the American Ballet Theatre . For that company he staged new works , Wild Boy and Requiem ( this time to Andrew Lloyd Webber 's music rather than Fauré 's ) , restaged his Romeo and Juliet , and created a new production of The Sleeping Beauty .
Despite a serious heart attack in 1988 MacMillan continued to work intensely . In 1989 he made his first new ballet for Covent Garden for five years , a new version of Britten 's The Prince of the Pagodas . The company had never found the original 1956 Cranko version satisfactory , and it was neglected during the composer 's lifetime . MacMillan thought the piece could be successfully reworked with some cuts to the score , but the Britten estate refused to allow any alterations . MacMillan reverted to classical ballet for the piece , creating a fairy @-@ tale work far from his accustomed style . The result was not judged among his best works , but it marked the emergence of the 19 @-@ year @-@ old Darcey Bussell , whom he picked to dance the young heroine . Along with the former Bolshoi principal dancer Irek Mukhamedov , who joined the Royal Ballet in 1991 , Bussell was MacMillan 's final important muse . For the two of them he created Winter Dreams ( 1991 ) , inspired by Chekhov 's Three Sisters . Mukhamedov was the brutish male leading character in MacMillan 's last ballet , The Judas Tree ( 1992 ) .
MacMillan died from a heart attack backstage at the Royal Opera House during a performance of Mayerling . Jeremy Isaacs , the general director of the Royal Opera House , announced the death from the stage after the performance and asked the audience to rise and bow their heads and leave the theatre in silence . On the same night the junior company was presenting MacMillan 's Romeo and Juliet in Birmingham . MacMillan had nearly finished work on the dances for a new production of Carousel by the National Theatre , which opened at the Lyttelton Theatre six weeks later , with his family and many of his friends in the audience .
= = Honours and awards = =
MacMillan was knighted in 1983 , and he received honorary degrees from the University of Edinburgh ( 1976 ) and the Royal College of Art ( 1992 ) . His awards include the Evening Standard Ballet Award ( 1979 ) ; Society of West End Theatre Managers Ballet Award , 1980 and 1983 ; and , posthumously , the Laurence Olivier Award for Best New Dance Production in 1993 for The Judas Tree ; the Society of London Theatre Special Award in 1993 ; and the Tony Award for Best Choreography in 1994 for Carousel .
= = Choreography = =
= = = Full @-@ length ballets = = =
= = = Shorter works = = =
Sources : Royal Opera House performance database , Parry , and Kenneth MacMillan website .
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= Keyser Söze =
Keyser Söze ( / ˈkaɪzər ˈsoʊzeɪ / KY @-@ zər SOH @-@ zay ) is a fictional character and the main antagonist in the 1995 film The Usual Suspects , written by Christopher McQuarrie and directed by Bryan Singer . According to petty con artist Roger " Verbal " Kint ( Kevin Spacey ) , Söze is a crime lord whose ruthlessness and influence have acquired a legendary , even mythical , status among police and criminals alike . Further events in the story make these accounts unreliable , and , in a twist ending , a police sketch identifies Kint 's face as Söze . The character was inspired by real life murderer John List and the spy thriller No Way Out , which featured a shadowy KGB mole .
The character has placed in numerous " best villain " lists over the years , including AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes & Villains . Spacey won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor , turning him from a character actor into a star . Since the release of the film , the character has become synonymous with infamous criminals . Analysis of the character has focused on the ambiguity of his true identity and whether he even exists inside the story 's reality . Though the filmmakers have preferred to leave the character 's nature to viewer interpretation , Singer has said he believes Kint and Söze are the same person .
= = Concept and creation = =
Director Bryan Singer and writer Christopher McQuarrie originally conceived of The Usual Suspects as five felons meeting in a police line @-@ up . Eventually , a powerful underworld figure responsible for their meeting was added to the plot . McQuarrie combined this plot with another idea of his based on the true story of John List , who murdered his family and started a new life . The name was based on one of McQuarrie 's supervisors , though the last name was changed . McQuarrie settled on Söze after finding it in a Turkish dictionary ; it comes from the idiom " söze boğmak " , which means " to talk unnecessarily too much and cause confusion " ( literally : to drown in words ) .
Keyser Söze 's semi @-@ mythical nature was inspired by Yuri , a rumored KGB mole whose existence nobody can confirm , from the spy thriller No Way Out . Kint was not originally written to be as obviously intelligent ; in the script , he was , according to McQuarrie , " presented as a dummy " . Spacey and Singer had previously met at a screening for Public Access . Spacey requested a role in Singer 's next film , and McQuarrie wrote the role of Kint specifically for him . McQuarrie said he wanted audiences to dismiss Kint as a minor character , as Spacey was not yet well @-@ known . Spacey made it more obvious that the character is holding back information , though the depth of his involvement and nature of his secrets remain unrevealed . McQuarrie said that he approved of the changes , as it makes the character " more fascinating " .
= = Fictional history = =
The Usual Suspects consists mostly of flashbacks narrated by Roger " Verbal " Kint ( Kevin Spacey ) , a disabled con artist . Verbal has been granted immunity from prosecution provided he assists investigators , including Customs Agent David Kujan ( Chazz Palminteri ) and reveals all details of his involvement with a group of career criminals who are assumed to be responsible for the destruction of a freighter ship and the murder of nearly everyone on board . While Kint is telling his story , Kujan learns the name Keyser Söze from FBI agent Jack Baer ( Giancarlo Esposito ) and demands Kint tell him what he knows .
According to Kint , Söze began his criminal career as a petty drug dealer in his native Turkey . His legendary persona is born when rival Hungarian smugglers invade his house while he is away , rape his wife , and hold his children hostage ; when Söze arrives , they kill one of his children and demand he surrender his business . Instead , Söze kills his own family and all but one of the Hungarians , who he knows will tell the Mafia what has happened . Once his family is buried , Söze targets the Hungarian Mafia , their families , friends , and people who owe them money . He goes underground , never again doing business in person .
Söze 's ruthlessness is legendary ; Kint describes him as having had enemies and disloyal henchmen brutally murdered , along with everyone they hold dear , for the slightest infractions , and he personally murders anyone who can identify him . Even his own henchmen often do not know for whom they work . Over the years , his criminal empire flourishes , as does his legend ; remarking on Söze 's mythical nature , Kint says , " The greatest trick the Devil ever pulled was convincing the world he didn 't exist " , a line borrowed from Charles Baudelaire .
Kint describes how he and his cohorts are blackmailed by Söze , through Söze 's lawyer Kobayashi ( Pete Postlethwaite ) , into destroying a large drug shipment belonging to Söze 's Argentinian rivals . All but Kint and a Hungarian are killed in the attack . Baer believes there were no drugs and the true purpose of the attack was to eliminate a passenger who could identify Söze . Kujan confronts Kint with the theory that Söze is one of the four other criminals with whom Verbal had worked : a corrupt former police officer and professional thief named Dean Keaton ( Gabriel Byrne ) . Kujan 's investigation of Keaton is what involved him in the case .
In the final sequence , it is revealed that the story that Kint had told Kujan is a fabrication , made up of strung @-@ together details culled from a crowded bulletin board in a messy office . The surviving Hungarian describes Söze to a sketch artist : the drawing faxed in to the police station closely resembles Kint . Kujan realizes the fabrication and pursues Kint , who has already been released , his limp gone . He enters a car , driven by " Kobayashi " . As the two drive away , Kujan desperately looks around the crowded streets for him .
= = Reception and legacy = =
A. O. Scott of The New York Times called him the " perfect postmodern sociopath " , and Quentin Curtis of The Independent described him as " the most compelling creation in recent American film " . Jason Bailey of The Atlantic identified the role as turning Kevin Spacey from a character actor to a star . Kevin Spacey received the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance .
The character placed 48th in the American Film Institute 's " AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes & Villains " in June 2003 . Time placed him at # 10 on their list of most memorably named film characters and # 5 in best pop culture gangsters . Entertainment Weekly ranked the character # 37 in their list of the 100 greatest characters of the past twenty years , # 6 in most vile villains , and # 12 in the best heroes and villains . Ask Men ranked him # 6 in their list of top ten film villains . Total Film ranked him # 37 in their best villains and # 40 in best characters overall . MSN ranked him # 4 in their list of the 13 most menacing villains . Empire ranked him # 41 in their " 100 Greatest Movie Characters " poll .
= = = Analysis = = =
In an interview with Metro Silicon Valley , Pete Postlethwaite quoted Bryan Singer as saying that all the characters are Söze . When asked point blank whether his character is Söze , Postlethwaite said , " Who knows ? Nobody knows . That 's what 's good about The Usual Suspects . " Spacey has also been evasive about his character 's true identity . In an interview with Total Film , he said , " That 's for the audience to decide . My job is to show up and do a part – I don 't own the audience 's imagination . " Singer said the film is ambiguous about most of the character 's details , but the fax sent at the end of the film proves in his mind that Kint is Söze .
Bryan Enk , writing for UGO , states that the myth @-@ making story of Söze 's origins is a classic ghost story that would be right at home in horror fiction . Writing about psychopaths in film , academic Wayne Wilson explicitly compares Söze to Satan and assigns to him demonic motives . Wilson states that Söze allows himself to be caught just to prove his superiority over the police ; this compromises his ultimate goal of anonymity , but Söze can not resist the urge to show off and create mischief . In The Journal of Nietzsche Studies , Lewis Call states that Söze 's mythological status draws the ire of the authoritarian government agents because he " represents a terrifying truth : that power is ephemeral , and has no basis in reality . " According to Call , Söze 's intermediaries – the " usual suspects " themselves – are more useful to the police , as they represent an easily controlled and intimidated criminal underworld , in direct contrast to Söze himself .
Hanna M. Roisman compares Kint to Odysseus , capable of adapting both his personality and his tales to his current audience . Throughout his tale , Kint adapts his confession to Kujan 's revealed biases . Roisman draws direct parallels to Odysseus ' tales to the Phaeacians : like Odysseus , Kint allows his audience to define him and his narrative . Appealing to Kujan 's arrogance , Kint allows himself to be outwitted , humiliated , and broken by his interrogator ; Kint further invents a mythical villain that he credulously believes in and gives Kujan the privileged perspective of the skeptic . Kint thus creates a neo @-@ noir thriller inside of a neo @-@ noir thriller and demonstrates the artificiality of storytelling . Benjamin Widiss identifies post @-@ structural elements to the film , such as the lack of a clear protagonist throughout much of the film . This extends to ambiguity over Kint 's role as author or reader , and whether he is Kint pretending to be Söze or the reverse .
Söze was also subject to detailed fan analysis and debate . Fans contacted Singer personally and quizzed him on explanations for the film 's complicated plot . Fan theories about Söze 's identity became a popular topic on internet forums . After the film 's festival premiere , the ambiguity of Söze 's identity and how to pronounce his name were used in the film 's marketing . Pronunciation had previously been an issue for distributor Gramercy Pictures , who used , " Who is Keyser Söze ? " to demonstrate both proper pronunciation and stoke speculation . The ad campaign was later highlighted by Entertainment Weekly as " question of the year " for 1995 .
= = = In popular culture = = =
Since the release of the film , the name " Keyser Söze " has become synonymous with a feared , elusive person nobody has met . Television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer used the character 's name as part of a slang phrase that means to " definitively manipulate , outmaneuver " . In June 2001 , Time referred to Osama bin Laden as " a geopolitical Keyser Söze , an omnipresent menace whose very name invokes perils far beyond his capability " .
In his 1999 review of Fight Club , which was generally negative , film critic Roger Ebert commented , " A lot of recent films seem unsatisfied unless they can add final scenes that redefine the reality of everything that has gone before ; call it the Keyser Söze syndrome . "
Forbes used the character in a study of what it takes to succeed in business . After positing different hypothetical situations , writer Russ Alan Prince concludes that a number of the " self @-@ made super @-@ rich " would respond to these situations in the same manner as Söze .
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= The Abbot 's Fish House , Meare =
The Abbot 's Fish House in Meare , Somerset , England , was built in the 14th century and has been designated as a Grade I listed building and Scheduled Ancient Monument . It is the only surviving monastic fishery building in England .
Fishing was an important source of food for the monks of Glastonbury Abbey . Fishing was carried out in artificial ponds , which were mentioned at Meare in the Domesday Book and from the River Brue and Meare Pool . The present rectangular stone building was constructed by the abbot between 1322 and 1335 for the storage and processing of the fish and as a residence for the chief fisherman . After the Dissolution of the Monasteries the building fell into disrepair and it was seriously damaged by fire in the 1880s . Some restoration has been undertaken during the 20th century , including the replacement of the roof in the 1920s .
= = History = =
The fish ponds surrounding the Fish House were recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086 when they were tended by ten fishermen . The fishponds , which were connected with drains and gullies were up to 30 metres ( 98 ft ) long and 5 metres ( 16 ft ) wide . These were connected to the Meare Pool and the River Brue . At one point 5 @,@ 000 eels were caught each year . Pike , Bream and " white fish " were also caught . Meare Pool was formed by water ponding @-@ up behind the raised peat bogs between the Wedmore and the Polden Hills , and coring has shown that it is filled with at least 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) of detritus mud , especially in the Subatlantic climatic period ( 1st millennium BC ) . Early drainage work was carried out in the later years of the 12th century , with the responsibility for maintaining all the watercourses between Glastonbury and the sea being placed on named individuals among whom were Ralph de Sancta Barbara of Brentmarsh . Its precise boundaries varied according to season , and , over the longer term , as efforts were made to drain the area . The south end was bordered by the high ground that the village of Meare is built upon . The pond would have extended no further west than the current Westhay to Wedmore road , where a shelf of rock formed a natural boundary . To the north lies the Godney ridge . The eastern extent is harder to determine , and it may have gone as far as the site of the Glastonbury Lake Village . The importance of this industry is illustrated by a series of acrimonious disputes between Glastonbury and the Dean and Chapter of Wells Cathedral . The Abbey required fish on Fridays , fast days and during Lent . Drainage of the surrounding area by monks of Glastonbury Abbey had reduced the size of the lake to 500 acres ( 200 ha ) at the time of the Dissolution of the Monasteries . Meare Pool had disappeared from maps by 1749 .
The current fish house was built between 1322 and 1335 when Adam of Sodbury was the Abbot of Glastonbury who also built the Church of St Mary in the village and the Manor House as his summer residence . It may have replaced a previous abbey building . The upper floor was the abode of the chief fisherman when he visited intermittently and the ground floor was used for storing nets and the salting and preparing fish . Some alterations were made , probably in the 15th century .
Meare Pool was drained after the Dissolution of the Monasteries and the fish house fell into disrepair . It suffered a fire in the 1880s , which destroyed the roof and gutted the interior . In 1893 some repairs were made to the walls , although the roof was not replaced until work was undertaken by the Ministry of Works in the 1920s , with further conservation being carried out in the 1960s . A piece of timber from the building was subject to dendrochronology testing in an attempt to provide a more specific date for the buildings construction , but the results proved inconclusive .
In 1910 the building was inspected by Charles Reed Peers under the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1900 and taken into state guardianship . The fish house is now in the care of English Heritage .
= = Architecture = =
The rectangular Blue Lias stone building has a stone tiled roof . It is 12 @.@ 4 metres ( 41 ft ) long and 6 @.@ 6 metres ( 22 ft ) wide . The ground floor had three rooms , one larger than the others which had a fireplace , and a door in the southern wall . The larger room was the hall and linked by arched doorways to the smaller rooms . There were two rooms on the first floor , which were damaged in the fire of 1884 , which also has a small entrance door which was accessed via exterior stone steps which no longer exist . There was also a latrine in a turret which no longer exists . There are small traceried arched windows .
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= One Foot in the Grave =
One Foot in the Grave is a British BBC television sitcom series written by David Renwick . There were six series and seven Christmas specials over an eleven @-@ year period , from early 1990 to late 2000 . The first five series were broadcast between January 1990 and January 1995 . For the next five years , the show appeared only as Christmas specials , followed by one final series in 2000 .
The series features the exploits of Victor Meldrew , played by Richard Wilson , and his long @-@ suffering wife , Margaret , played by Annette Crosbie . Wilson initially turned down the part of Meldrew and David Renwick considered Les Dawson for the role , until Wilson changed his mind . The programmes invariably deal with Meldrew 's battle against the problems he creates for himself . Set in a typical suburb in southern England , Victor takes involuntary early retirement . His various efforts to keep himself busy , while encountering various misfortunes and misunderstandings are the themes of the sitcom . Indoor scenes were filmed at BBC Television Centre with most exterior scenes filmed on Tresillian Way in Walkford on the Dorset / Hampshire border . Despite its traditional production , the series subverts its domestic sitcom setting with elements of black humour and surrealism .
The series was occasionally the subject of controversy for some of its darker story elements , but nevertheless received a number of awards , including the 1992 BAFTA for Best Comedy . The programme came 80th in the British Film Institute 's 100 Greatest British Television Programmes . The series , originally shown on BBC One , is now available on DVD and is regularly repeated in the United Kingdom on Gold . Four episodes were remade for BBC Radio 2 The series inspired a novel published in 1992 featuring the most memorable moments from the first two series and the first Christmas special .
= = Plot = =
The series features the exploits and mishaps of irascible pensioner Victor Meldrew , who after being forced to retire from his job as a security guard , finds himself at war with the world and everything in it . Meldrew , cursed with misfortune and always complaining , is married to long @-@ suffering wife Margaret , who is often left exasperated by his many misfortunes .
Amongst other witnesses to Victor 's wrath are tactless family friend Jean Warboys , and next @-@ door couple Patrick ( Victor 's nemesis ) and Pippa Trench . Patrick often discovers Victor in inexplicably bizarre or compromising situations , leading him to believe that he is insane . The Meldrews ' neighbour on the other side , overly cheery charity worker Nick Swainey , also adds to Victor 's frustration .
Although set in a traditional suburban setting , the show subverts this genre with a strong overtone of black comedy . Series One 's " The Valley of Fear " is an episode which caused controversy , when Victor finds a frozen cat in his freezer . Writer David Renwick also combined farce with elements of tragedy . For example , in the final episode , Victor is killed by a hit @-@ and @-@ run driver , and although there is no explicit reference that Victor and Margaret had children , the episode " Timeless Time " contained a reference to someone named Stuart ; the strong implication being that they once had a son who had died as a child .
A number of episodes were also experimental in that they took place entirely in one setting . Such episodes include : Victor , Margaret and Mrs Warboys stuck in a traffic jam ; Victor and Margaret in bed suffering insomnia ; Victor left alone in the house waiting to see if he has to take part in jury service ; Victor and Margaret having a long wait in their solicitor 's waiting room ; and Victor and Margaret trying to cope during a power cut on the hottest night of the year .
Despite Margaret 's frequent exasperation with her husband 's antics , the series shows that the couple have a deep affection for one another . This is demonstrated several times throughout the series .
= = Characters = =
= = = Main characters = = =
Victor Meldrew ( Richard Wilson ) – Victor is the main protagonist of the sitcom and finds himself constantly battling against all that life throws at him as he becomes entangled , like the pawn he is , in machiavellian plots . Renwick once pointed out in an interview that the name " Victor " was ironic , since he almost always ends up a loser . From being buried alive to being prosecuted for attacking a feisty pit bull terrier with a collection of coconut meringues , Victor tries to adjust to life after his infamous replacement by a " box " at his place of employment , but to no avail . He believes that everything is going wrong for him all the time , and he has the right to be upset because it is always someone else 's fault . Victor is a tragic comedy character and sympathy is directed towards him as he becomes embroiled in complex misunderstandings , bureaucratic vanity and , at times , sheer bad luck . The audience sees a philosophical ebb to his character , however , along with a degree of optimism . Yet his polite façade collapses when events get the better of him , and a full verbal onslaught is forthcoming . " Victor @-@ isms " include " I do not believe it ! " , " I don 't believe it ! " , " Un @-@ be @-@ lievable ! " , " What in the name of bloody hell ? " , " In the name of sanity ! " . Despite his grumpy demeanor Victor isn 't totally devoid of compassion — in " Hearts of Darkness " he liberates elderly nursing home residents that were being mistreated by the staff and in " Descent Into The Maelstrom " he calls the incident room number and gives the location of an emotionally disturbed girl that abducted a baby and stole Margaret 's pearl earrings , which resulted in the girl getting picked up by the police . However , because the girl was a friend of Margaret 's and knowing she meant a lot to her , Victor never said anything . Victor has also shown a vast amount of loyalty to Margaret as , throughout their entire 38 years of lifelong marriage together , not once has the thought of infidelity ever occurred to him . In " Rearranging the Dust " , Victor and Margaret recollect the days of their courtship at a party after which Victor says " You were always my first choice " , which leaves Margaret stunned . In another episode , Margaret recounts the time Victor took her to the funfair and they ended up getting stuck in the hall of mirrors for over an hour . Victor had said he didn 't mind as he was happy to stay there and look at all the reflections of her . Victor 's very best act of compassion came in the episode " The Wisdom of the Witch " in which he ends up saving Patrick 's life from his new secretary 's psychopathic boyfriend by forcing Patrick 's would @-@ be murderer , with himself along with him as well , out the window of the house in which they were trapped during a snowstorm .
Margaret Meldrew ( née Pellow ) ( Annette Crosbie ) – Victor 's long @-@ suffering , tolerant and kind @-@ hearted wife . Margaret tries to maintain a degree of calmness and to rise above her husband 's antics . However , she is often engulfed in these follies , mishaps and confusion and often vents her anger at Victor . In early episodes , her character acts more as a comic foil to Victor 's misfortunes . Examples include fearfully asking if a cat found frozen in their freezer is definitely dead and mentioning a friend who died of a terminal illness . When Victor reminds her that the woman actually fell from a cliff , Margaret retorts she only did so because " she went to the seaside to convalesce " .
In later episodes , Margaret develops into a more complex character . She is shown to be fiercely protective of her marriage to Victor by becoming easily suspicious and jealous . For example , of a Dutch marionette that Victor becomes occupied with repairing in the episode " Hole in the Sky " , eventually leading her to destroy it . In " The Affair of the Hollow Lady " , a greengrocer ( played by Barbara Windsor ) develops a soft spot for Victor and tries to convince Margaret that he has been unfaithful to her . In revenge , Margaret assaults her with a pair of boxing gloves . However , Margaret herself is shown to have contemplated infidelity with a man called Ben whom she met on holiday in the episode " Warm Champagne " . She decides against cheating on Victor . In this episode , she sums up her relationship with Victor by telling Ben , " He 's the most sensitive person I 've ever met , and that 's why I love him and why I constantly want to ram his head through a television screen . " She also began to develop a sense of cynicism , slowly beginning to see the world the way her husband Victor sees it . This is especially evident in " Things aren 't simple anymore " where she voices that the world is " all speed and greed " and that " nobody does anything about anything " . In " Rearranging the Dust " , Margaret recounts the time she first chose Victor at a party and , during a power cut , " shared their bodies " in the garden . After this moment of passion , they went back inside and when the lights came back on Margaret realised that she had " grabbed hold of the wrong person " . Margaret 's demeanor seemed to stem from an incident she had at school when she was a child . When she was five , she had two budgies and one day when she opened the door to their cage one flew straight out and hit the window killing itself while the other stayed in the cage despite her best efforts to get it to come out . The next day at school her teacher asked the class to write a story about something that had happened to them so Margaret wrote her story about about the budgies . Her teacher made Margaret read it out loud in front of the whole class which resulted in everyone laughing at her . She then realized that the teacher had done it deliberately just to be cruel to her and knew why the other budgie never wanted to leave its cage .
Margaret could be said to have a catchphrase - typically a long , exasperated use of the word " God " , usually when making a realisation about the reasons behind one of Victor 's mishaps . These are occasionally inadvertently aided by herself in some way , such as leaving the phone off the hook or giving permission to someone to enter the Meldrews ' house when she isn 't there .
Jean Warboys ( Doreen Mantle ) – Mrs Warboys is a friend of Margaret ( and a rather annoying one in Victor 's eyes ) who attached herself to the Meldrews , accompanying them on many of their exploits . In the early series she was married to ( never seen ) Chris , but eventually he left her for the private detective she had hired when she suspected him of having an affair , and they divorced .
She often bears the brunt of Victor 's temper due to muddled misunderstandings and in part due to her aloof nature . One such occasion saw Victor asking her to pick up a suit of his from the dry @-@ cleaners , only for her to return with a gorilla costume . Another occasion saw her persuading Victor to take on a dog whose owner had just died . Victor spent time building a kennel in the garden and when Mrs Warboys arrives with the dog , she forgets to mention that the dog is stuffed - much to Victor and Margaret 's consternation . On another occasion she won a competition where the prize was either to earn £ 500 or to have a life @-@ size waxwork model made of herself , which had to be delivered to the Meldrews ' house ; she chose the waxwork . As it turned out , she hated it as much as Victor and Margaret did , and the waxwork ended up in the dustbin .
Despite being friends , she has driven Margaret to distraction on several occasions . Most notably in " Only a Story " , when she stayed with the Meldrews after her flat had been flooded and drove Margaret to the point of distraction with her complaining and laziness . Jean was also shown as a somewhat absent @-@ minded character , as she has a pet cockatiel despite having a lifelong allergy to feathers . She would often bore the Meldrews by showing them her complete collection of holiday pictures at the most unwelcome times . A running joke is her beating Victor at board @-@ games , including Trivial Pursuit and chess , while having a conversation with someone else . Doreen Mantle described her character as " wanting to do the right thing but always finding out that it was the wrong thing " .
Patrick Trench ( Angus Deayton ) – Patrick and his wife Pippa live next door to Victor , and often catches Victor engrossed in seemingly preposterous situations , all of which in context are perfectly innocuous . The couple 's relationship with their neighbours begins badly after Victor mistakes Patrick and Pippa for distant relations when they arrive outside with three suitcases – not realising that they are his next @-@ door neighbours , having been on a lengthy holiday from the day Victor and Margaret moved in . Victor subsequently invites the bemused pair to stay ; this and later incidents cause Patrick to suspect that Victor is quite insane , possibly bordering on malicious .
However , Patrick 's rift with Victor eventually transforms him into a rather cynical character ( much like Victor ) , and he often responds to him in similarly vindictive ways as a means of trying to settle the score . For example , writing complaints and grievances on post @-@ it notes . This aspect of Patrick 's character came to a head in the episode " The Executioner 's Song " where his face temporarily morphs into that of Victor 's as he looks into a mirror .
It is mentioned several times that Patrick would like to have children . After Pippa miscarries and Patrick is , so he claims , rendered infertile by a freak accident ( for which he unfairly blames Victor ) , he adopts a dachshund called Denzil , which Pippa describes as his " baby substitute " . Denzil frequently appears with Patrick through series 3 @-@ 5 . Despite their animosity towards each other , Victor ends up saving Patrick 's life in " The Wisdom of the Witch " .
Pippa Trench ( née Croker ) ( Janine Duvitski ) – Patrick 's wife sought friendly relations with the Meldrews and , after a while , became good friends with Margaret . The two women usually attempt to get the men to make peace with each other at least once per series . Eventually Patrick proposes that the Trenches move house , but they soon realise that the Meldrew curse has followed them : Victor sent workmen to their home , thinking they were removal men who had initially come to the wrong house . They were in fact from a house clearance firm Margaret had employed to clear her late cousin Ursula 's country mansion . The workmen consequently cleared Patrick and Pippa 's house of their entire furniture and sold it for a mere four hundred and seventy five pounds . Pippa is slightly dim @-@ witted ( once described by Victor as a " gormless twerp " on an answering machine message , unaware she was listening ) – for example , believing Victor had murdered an elderly blind man simply because the victim had been found clutching a double @-@ one domino in his hand , and Victor had two pimples on his nose .
New neighbours Derek and Betty McVitie replaced the Trenches for the 1997 special " Endgame " , however this turned out to be their only appearances in the series and they were said to have emigrated by the penultimate episode which caused Nick Swainey to leap straight in with the offer for their old house . Series six saw the Trenches return as prominent characters , albeit living in a house some distance from the Meldrews . Despite appearing in five out of six series and three Christmas specials , neither of the Trenches ever share a scene with Mrs Warboys .
Nick Swainey ( Owen Brenman ) – The excessively cheerful and often oblivious Mr Swainey appeared in the first episode , encouraging Victor to join his OAPs ' trip to Eastbourne , and being greeted with Victor 's trademark abuse . When the Meldrews move house , they discover he is their neighbour , living on the other side of the Meldrews from the Trenches . He remains continuously optimistic ; even his being told to " piss off " by Victor is laughed off . Despite this run @-@ in he later befriends Victor , and they frequently chat in their gardens , where Victor is often surprised by Mr Swainey 's activities , ranging from archery and preparing amateur dramatics props , to bizarre games he arranges for his bedridden senile mother , whom the audience never actually see . Despite his cheery demeanour , he does occasionally drop his guard , once displaying apparent depression at being nothing more than " an overgrown boy @-@ scout " . Following his mother 's death , he moved house near the end of the series , but only went as far as the Trenches ' / McVitie 's old house , claiming he 'd always wanted to live in an " end house , without leaving the area " . This took Victor by surprise ; he did not learn where Mr Swainey was moving to until , while reminiscing in the garden about his departure , Mr Swainey suddenly appeared from the other side .
= = = Other characters = = =
Ronnie and Mildred ( Gordon Peters and Barbara Ashcroft ) – Ronnie and Mildred were a constantly cheerful , but incredibly boring , couple who provided yet another annoyance to the Meldrews , who dreaded any upcoming visits to them ; Victor once said that he had hoped they were both dead . In " The Worst Horror of All " , when the couple attempted a surprise visit , the Meldrews hid in their house to give the impression they were away on holiday , and then took the phone off the hook for several days afterwards , though these efforts to avoid them were in vain . They are referenced a number of times in the series for giving the Meldrews bizarre and always unwanted presents that are seldom opened , usually involving a garish photograph of themselves . In the final series , however it was clear that their cheerfulness was a façade and , in a particularly dark scene , Mildred hanged herself " during a game of Happy Families " . The shot of Mildred 's feet dangling outside the window is usually cut from pre @-@ watershed screenings .
Alfred Meldrew ( Richard Pearson ) - Victor 's absent @-@ minded brother , who lives in New Zealand . During the episode " The Broken Reflection " , he comes to visit after 25 years , to the disdain of Victor . Alfred is an eccentric character , often walking around with his hat on fire , and bringing over his and Victor 's great @-@ grandfather 's skull . He is a clumsy character too , mistaking the table @-@ cloth for a napkin and dropping the contents over the floor when he stands up , and breaking a mirror in the middle of the night after mistaking his own reflection for a burglar . Victor starts to warm to Alfred towards the end of his visit , but Alfred leaves early the next day after finding an unpleasant message about him that Victor had accidentally recorded on a dictaphone . He is not seen again , but keeps in touch with the Meldrews , as Victor is seen looking at some photographs Alfred had sent over in " The Trial " .
Cousin Wilfred ( John Rutland ) – Mrs. Warboys ' cousin , Wilfred , appeared twice in the series , and was considered to be a fairly boring middle @-@ aged man . In the final series , the effects of a stroke rendered him mute , and forced him to " speak " with the aid of an electronic voice generator . His poor typing on the generator led to several misunderstandings , such as asking Victor for a " bra of soup " ( as opposed to a " bar of soap " ) and describing a visit to his " brothel " ( as opposed to " brother " ) .
Great Aunt Joyce and Uncle Dick - Unseen characters , they are often mentioned by Victor and Margaret , as an aging and grim couple and Victor and Margaret dread having anything to do with them . Great Aunt Joyce is mentioned as having a glass eye and has the habit of knitting bizarre items ( such as six @-@ fingered gloves ) for Victor . Uncle Dick has a wooden arm ; in the final Comic Relief ( 2001 ) episode , it transpires that a nurse had mistakenly placed a drip in the false arm for 18 hours after a trip to hospital after trying to remove a kidney stone with a wire coat hanger .
Mimsy Berkovitz - Another unseen character , she is the local agony aunt , whom many of the characters turn to for advice . In the episode " The Secret of the Seven Sorcerers " , Patrick is heard talking to her on the radio , seeking her advice on how to cope when Victor and Margaret invite him and Pippa around to dinner .
Martin Trout ( Peter Cook ) - A paparazzo in " One Foot in the Algarve " . He manages to take a number of compromising photographs , involving a high @-@ ranking politician . Trout compares the potential impact of the photos to the Profumo affair.On his way to sell the images , he loses the roll of film whilst arguing at a phone box with the Meldrews and subsequently pursues them across the Algarve to retrieve it . He suffers a number of disasters both related and unrelated to Victor and Margaret 's own misfortunes , only to find that the film had actually fallen into the lining of his jacket and had been with him for much of his journey . He lost it in the door of the Meldrews ' car . Retrieving the roll after a brief spell in hospital , Trout attempts to leave the Algarve in a taxi but is involved in a car crash .
= = Production = =
The production of the show was in a conventional sitcom format , with episodes taped live in front of a studio audience , interposed with pre @-@ filmed location material .
Most of the first five series of One Foot in the Grave were produced and directed by Susan Belbin , the exceptions being " Love and Death , " which was partly directed by veteran sitcom director Sydney Lotterby , and " Starbound , " for which Gareth Gwenlan ( who in fact had originally commissioned the series in 1989 ) stepped in to direct some sequences after Belbin was taken ill . Belbin retired due to ill health afterwards , and the final series was produced by Jonathan P. Llewellyn and directed by Christine Gernon . Wilson and Renwick felt that Gernon 's experience of working with Belbin on earlier series of One Foot as a production secretary and assistant , as well as other shows , meant that her style was similar to Belbin 's , aiding the transition between directors .
One Foot used Bournemouth to film some exterior sequences because of its favourable climate , easy access to London , and economical benefits relative to filming in the capital . After the first series was filmed , the house — near Pokesdown , Bournemouth — which had been used for the Meldrews ' house in location sequences , changed hands and the new owners demanded nearly treble the usage fees that the previous owners had asked for . Rather than agree to this , the production team decided to find a new house , and the first episode of the second series was rewritten to have the Meldrews ' house destroyed in a fire ( Filmed on waste ground in Northcote Road , Springbourne ) . This also gave the opportunity for a new interior set to be designed , as Belbin had been unhappy with the original set designed for the series , which she felt was too restrictive to shoot in .
Since series two , the exterior scenes of the Meldrew 's home were filmed at Tresillian Way , Walkford , near New Milton in Hampshire . These later series make extensive use of specific street and garden locations in most episodes , particularly for scenes involving the Meldrew 's neighbours . Most outside locations were filmed in and around Bournemouth and Christchurch . These include Richmond Hill , Undercliff Drive and Boscombe Pier , Bournemouth Town Hall , Lansdowne College , Christchurch Hospital and the former Royal Victoria Hospital ( Boscombe ) . Later episodes , such as " Hearts of Darkness " , were filmed entirely on location . Victor 's death by a hit and run driver in the final episode was filmed at Shawford railway station , Hampshire . Fans left floral tributes at the site .
Over the show 's history , it featured a number of notable comic actors in one @-@ off roles . These included Susie Blake , John Bird , Tim Brooke @-@ Taylor , Peter Cook , Diana Coupland , Phil Daniels , Edward de Souza , Hannah Gordon , Georgina Hale , Jimmy Jewel , Rula Lenska , Stephen Lewis , Brian Murphy , Christopher Ryan , Barbara Windsor and Ray Winstone . Two of Angus Deayton 's former Radio Active and KYTV co @-@ stars , Geoffrey Perkins and Michael Fenton Stevens were cast , in separate episodes , as respectively the brother and brother @-@ in @-@ law of Deayton 's character . A few then little @-@ known actors also appeared in one @-@ off roles before going on to greater fame , including Lucy Davis , Joanna Scanlan , Eamonn Walker and Arabella Weir .
The show was produced with an aspect ratio of 4 : 3 from 1990 @-@ 1997 . Three years later , the show returned to television for its final series , which was produced with an aspect ratio of 16 : 9 . All episodes are of Standard Definition 576i .
= = Music = =
The One Foot in the Grave theme song was written , composed and sung by Eric Idle . A longer version was produced for the special " One Foot in the Algarve " , released as a single with five remixes and a karaoke version in November 1994 . Idle included a live version of the song on his album Eric Idle Sings Monty Python . It is preluded by a similar adaptation of " Bread of Heaven " to that used in the episode " The Beast in the Cage " by disgruntled car mechanics . The music on the TV series is accompanied at the beginning and end of each episode by a tortoise . The series also made extensive use of incidental music , composed by Ed Welch , which often hinted at a particular genre to fit the mood of the scenes , frequently incorporating well @-@ known pieces of music such as " God Rest You Merry , Gentlemen " or Intermezzo from Jean Sibelius ' Karelia Suite . In the Christmas special " Endgame " during Margaret 's alleged death scene , a compilation of clips from past episodes are accompanied by the song " River Runs Deep " performed by J. J. Cale . The final episode ended with a montage of some of the mishaps Victor encountered , which were mentioned in the episode – backed by " End of the Line " by the Traveling Wilburys .
= = Awards = =
The programme received a number of prestigious awards . In 1992 , it won a BAFTA as Best Comedy ( Programme or Series ) . During its ten @-@ year run , the series was nominated a further six times . Richard Wilson also won Best Light Entertainment Performance in 1992 and 1994 , and Annette Crosbie was nominated for the same award in 1994 .
The series also won the Best Television Sitcom in 1992 from the Royal Television Society and the British Comedy Award for Best Sitcom in 1992 , 1995 and 2001 .
In 2004 , One Foot in the Grave came tenth in a BBC poll to find " Britain 's Best Sitcom " with 31 @,@ 410 votes . The programme also came 80th in the British Film Institute 's 100 Greatest British Television Programmes
= = Controversies = =
A number of complaints were made during the series ' run for its depiction of animal deaths . For example , in the episode " The Valley of Fear " , a dead cat is found in the Meldrews ' freezer ; in another , a tortoise is roasted in a brazier . However , this was later cited as a positive feature of the programme 's daring scripts in Britain 's Best Sitcom by its advocate Rowland Rivron . The programme was censured , however , for a scene in the episode " Hearts of Darkness " in which an elderly resident is abused in an old people 's home , and following complaints , the scene was slightly cut when the episode was repeated . In the DVD commentary for the episode , David Renwick stated his continued opposition to the cuts . Another controversial scene in the episode " Tales of Terror " saw the Meldrews visit Ronnie and Mildred on the understanding that Mildred had gone upstairs during a game of Happy Families and not returned ; Ronnie then shows her feet hanging outside of the window , revealing that she has committed suicide . The Broadcasting Standards Commission received complaints about this scene .
When the final episode , " Things Aren 't Simple Any More " originally aired on 20 November 2000 at 9pm , it coincided with the broadcast of the first jackpot winner in the UK version of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire ? , which had been filmed the Sunday before the broadcast . ITV was accused of engineering this in order to damage the final episode 's expected high ratings , but was later cleared by the Independent Television Commission .
= = Cultural impact = =
Due to the series ' popularity , people who constantly complain and are irritated by minor things are often compared to Victor Meldrew by the British media . Renwick disputes this usage however , claiming that Victor 's reactions are entirely in proportion to the things that happen to him .
Renwick integrated some of the plots and dialogue from the series into a novel , which was first published by BBC Books in 1992 . Renwick also adapted four episodes for BBC Radio 2 , which first aired between 21 January 1995 and 11 February 1995 . The episodes are " Alive and Buried " , " In Luton Airport , No One Can Hear You Scream " , " Timeless Time " and " The Beast in the Cage " . They are regularly repeated on the digital speech station BBC Radio 4 Extra and are available on audio CD .
Wilson dislikes saying his character 's catchphrase ( " I don 't believe it ! " ) and only performs the line for charity events for a small fee . This became a joke in the actor 's guest appearance as himself in the Father Ted episode " The Mainland " , where Ted annoys him by constantly repeating his catchphrase . The situation was conceived when Father Ted writers Graham Linehan and Arthur Mathews sat behind Wilson at a performance of Le Cirque du Soleil at the Royal Albert Hall . They considered how " tasteless and wrong " it would be to lean forward to him every time that an acrobat did a stunt and yell the catchphrase , and then they realised that that 's exactly what their fictional priests would do . This was also played upon when Wilson made a guest appearance on the comedy TV quiz show Shooting Stars , in which Vic Reeves and Bob Mortimer purposefully misquoted his catchphrase by referring to him as " Richard ' I don 't believe you ' Wilson " .
= = VHS and DVD releases = =
All six series and specials were initially available on BBC Worldwide VHS video tapes during the late 1990s and early 2000s . The Comic Relief Shorts from 1993 and 2001 have not been released on DVD . A One Foot in the Grave Very Best Of DVD featuring five of the greatest episodes was released on 22 October 2001 in Region 2 . Then on 8 July 2004 , a One Foot in the Grave Very Best Of was also released in Region 4 . Each series was gradually released on DVD in Region 2 between 2004 and 2006 , with a complete series 1 @-@ 6 box set towards the end of 2006 . A slimmer series 1 @-@ 6 box set was released in 2010 in Region 2 .
= = Foreign versions = =
German version was made of the series in 1996 @-@ 97 , Mit einem Bein im Grab , directed by Thomas Nennstiel and Frank Strecker . It starred Heinz Schubert as " Viktor Bölkhoff " , Brigitte Böttrich as " Margret Bölkhoff " and Irm Hermann as " Lisbeth Albermann " .
Swedish version , En fot i graven was made in 2001 . Produced by commercial television channel TV4 , it starred Gösta Ekman as " Victor Melldrov " and Lena Söderblom as his wife . A total of 12 episodes were broadcast .
In 2006 a Dutch version was made under the title Met één been in het graf . It starred Serge Henri Valcke as Victor Monter . The series was directed by Zdenek Kraus , who had directed the highly successful series Toen Was Geluk Heel Gewoon and was adapted for Dutch television by Ger Apeldoorn and Harm Edens , who also wrote Het Zonnetje in Huis . The series only lasted one season .
The American sitcom Cosby starring Bill Cosby , which ran on CBS from 1996 to 2000 , was loosely based on this series .
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= The White Stripes =
The White Stripes were an American rock duo , formed in 1997 in Detroit , Michigan . The group consisted of the couple , married at the time , Jack White ( songwriter , vocals , guitar , bass and keyboards ) and Meg White ( drums and occasional vocals ) . After releasing several singles and three albums within the Detroit music scene , the White Stripes rose to prominence in 2002 , as part of the garage rock revival scene . Their successful and critically acclaimed albums White Blood Cells and Elephant drew attention from a large variety of media outlets in the United States and the United Kingdom , with the single " Seven Nation Army " and its now @-@ iconic guitar line becoming a huge hit . The band recorded two more albums , Get Behind Me Satan in 2005 and Icky Thump in 2007 , and dissolved in 2011 after a lengthy hiatus from performing and recording .
The White Stripes used a low @-@ fidelity approach to writing and recording . Their music featured a melding of garage rock and blues influences and a raw simplicity of composition , arrangement , and performance . The duo was also noted for their fashion and design aesthetic which featured a simple color scheme of red , white , and black — which was used on every album and single cover the band released — as well as the band 's fascination with the number three . The band 's discography consists of six studio albums , one live album , two extended plays ( EP ) , one concert film , one tour documentary , twenty @-@ six singles , and fourteen music videos . Their last three albums each won the Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
As a senior in high school , Jack Gillis ( as he was then known ) , met Megan White at the Memphis Smoke — the restaurant where she worked and where he would read his poetry at " open mic " nights . The two became friends , and began to frequent the coffee shops , local music venues , and record stores of the area . By this time , Gillis was already playing drums with musician friends , including his upholstery apprenticeship mentor , Brian Muldoon . However , in 1994 , he got his first professional job as the drummer for the Detroit cowpunk band Goober & the Peas .
After a courtship , Gillis and White got married on September 21 , 1996 ; contrary to convention , he took his wife 's surname . Shortly after , Goober and the Peas broke up , but Jack continued to play in other bands , such as the garage punk band The Go ( he played lead guitar on their 1999 album Whatcha Doin ' ) , The Hentchmen , and Two @-@ Star Tabernacle . In 1997 — allegedly on Bastille Day — Meg first began to learn to play the drums . In Jack 's words , " When she started to play drums with me , just on a lark , it felt liberating and refreshing . There was something in it that opened me up . " The couple then became a band and , while they considered calling themselves " Bazooka " and " Soda Powder " , they settled on the name " The White Stripes " . Jack explained the band name 's origin this way :
Meg loves peppermints , and we were going to call ourselves The Peppermints . But since our last name was White , we decided to call it " The White Stripes " . It revolved around this childish idea , the ideas kids have — because they are so much better than adult ideas , right ? "
From the beginning , they established certain motifs : publicly presenting themselves as brother and sister , outfitting their production in only black , red , and white , and heavily using the number " three " . White has explained that they used these colors to distract from the fact that they were young , white musicians playing " black music " . They were also noted for their lack of a bass player , and their general refusal to be interviewed separately .
The White Stripes had their first live performance on August 14 , 1997 , at the Gold Dollar bar in Detroit . They began their career as part of the Michigan underground garage rock scene , playing with local bands such as The Hentchmen , The Dirtbombs , The Gories , and Rocket 455 . In 1998 , Dave Buick — owner of an independent , Detroit @-@ based , garage @-@ punk label called Italy Records — approached the band at a bar and asked if they would like to record a single . Jack initially declined , believing it would be too expensive , but he eventually reconsidered when he realized that Buick was offering to pay for it . Their debut single , " Let 's Shake Hands , " was released on vinyl in February 1998 with an initial pressing of 1 @,@ 000 copies . This was followed in October 1998 by the single " Lafayette Blues " which , again , was only released on vinyl with 1 @,@ 000 copies .
= = = The White Stripes ( 1999 ) = = =
In 1999 , the White Stripes signed with the label Sympathy for the Record Industry . In March 1999 , they released the single " The Big Three Killed My Baby " , followed by their debut album , The White Stripes , which was released on June 15 , 1999 .
The self @-@ titled debut was produced by Jack and engineered by Jim Diamond at his Ghetto Recorders studio in Detroit . The album was dedicated to the seminal Mississippi Delta blues musician , Son House — an artist who greatly influenced Jack . The track " Cannon " from The White Stripes contains part of an a cappella version , as performed by House , of the traditional American gospel blues song " John the Revelator " . The White Stripes also covered House 's song " Death Letter " on their follow @-@ up album De Stijl .
Looking back on their debut during a 2003 interview with Guitar Player , Jack said , " I still feel we 've never topped our first album . It 's the most raw , the most powerful , and the most Detroit @-@ sounding record we 've made . "
Allmusic said of the album :
Jack White 's voice is a singular , evocative combination of punk , metal , blues , and backwoods while his guitar work is grand and banging with just enough lyrical touches of slide and subtle solo work ... Meg White balances out the fretwork and the fretting with methodical , spare , and booming cymbal , bass drum , and snare ... All D.I.Y. punk @-@ country @-@ blues @-@ metal singer / songwriting duos should sound this good .
At the end of 1999 , the White Stripes released " Hand Springs " as a 7 " split single with fellow Detroit band The Dirtbombs on the B @-@ side . 2 @,@ 000 copies came free with the pinball fanzine Multiball . The record is currently — like the majority of vinyl records by the White Stripes — out of print and difficult to find .
= = = De Stijl ( 2000 ) = = =
the White Stripes ' second album , De Stijl ( Dutch for " The Style " ) , was released on the Sympathy for the Record Industry label on June 20 , 2000 . Considered a cult classic and self @-@ recorded on an 8 @-@ track analog tape in Jack 's living room , De Stijl displays the simplicity of the band 's blues and " scuzzy garage rock " fusion prior to their breakthrough success .
The album title derives from the Dutch art movement of the same name ; common elements of the De Stijl aesthetic are demonstrated on the album cover , which sets the band members against an abstract background of rectangles and lines in red , black and white . The White Stripes have cited the minimalist and deconstructionist aspects of De Stijl design as a source of inspiration for their own musical image and presentation . The album was dedicated to furniture designer and architect Gerrit Rietveld of the De Stijl movement , as well as to the influential Georgia bluesman Blind Willie McTell .
Party of Special Things to Do was released as a 7 " on Sub @-@ Pop in December 2000 . It comprised three songs originally performed by Captain Beefheart , an experimental blues rock musician .
De Stijl eventually reached number 38 on Billboard Magazine 's Independent Albums chart in 2002 , around the time the White Stripes ' popularity began establishing itself . One New York Times critic at the time said that the Stripes typified " what many hip rock fans consider real music . " The song " Why Can 't You Be Nicer To Me " was used in The Simpsons episode " Judge Me Tender " .
= = = White Blood Cells ( 2001 ) = = =
The White Stripes ' third album , White Blood Cells , was released on July 3 , 2001 on Sympathy for the Record Industry . The band enjoyed its first significant success the following year with the major label re @-@ release of the album on V2 Records . Its stripped @-@ down garage rock sound drew critical acclaim in the UK , and in the US soon afterward , making the White Stripes one of the most acclaimed bands of 2002 .
Several outlets praised their " back to basics " approach , with Daily Mirror calling them " the greatest band since The Sex Pistols . " In 2002 , Q magazine listed the White Stripes as one of " 50 Bands to See Before You Die " . After their first appearance on network TV ( a live set on The Late Late Show With Craig Kilborn ) , Joe Hagan of the New York Times declared , " They have made rock rock again by returning to its origins as a simple , primitive sound full of unfettered zeal . " White Blood Cells peaked at number 61 on the Billboard 200 , reaching Gold record status by selling over 500 @,@ 000 albums . It reached number 55 in the United Kingdom , being bolstered in both countries by the single " Fell in Love with a Girl " and its accompanying Lego @-@ animation music video directed by Michel Gondry . The video won three awards at the 2002 MTV Video Music Awards : Breakthrough Video , Best Special Effects , and Best Editing , and the band played the song live at the event . It was also nominated for Video of the Year , but fell short of winning . Stylus Magazine rated White Blood Cells as the fourteenth greatest album of 2000 – 2005 , while Pitchfork Media ranked it eighth on their list of the top 100 albums from 2000 – 2004 .
In 2002 , George Roca produced and directed a concert film about the band titled Nobody Knows How to Talk to Children . It chronicles the White Stripes ' four @-@ night stand at New York City 's Bowery Ballroom in 2002 , and contains live performances and behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage . Its 2004 release was suppressed by the band 's management , however , after they discovered that Roca had been showing it at the Seattle Film Festival without permission . According to the band , the film was " not up to the standards our fans have come to expect " ; even so , it remains a highly prized bootleg .
= = = Elephant ( 2003 ) = = =
The White Stripes ' fourth album , Elephant , was released in 2003 on V2 . It marked the band 's major label debut and was their first UK chart @-@ topping album , as well as their first US Top 10 album . The album eventually reached double platinum certification in Britain , and platinum certification in the United States .
Elephant was recorded in 2002 over the span of two weeks with British recording engineer Liam Watson at his Toe Rag Studios in London . Jack self @-@ produced the album with antiquated equipment , including a duct @-@ taped 8 @-@ track tape machine and pre @-@ 1960s recording gear .
Elephant garnered much critical acclaim upon its release . It received a perfect 5 out of 5 star rating from Rolling Stone magazine , and enjoys a near @-@ unanimous 92 % positive rating on Metacritic . Despite the band 's increased fame , Allmusic believed the album " sounds even more pissed @-@ off , paranoid , and stunning than its predecessor ... Darker and more difficult than White Blood Cells . " Elephant was additionally notable for premiering Jack 's first formal use of guitar soloing , and Rolling Stone placed him at No. 17 on its list of " 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time " . That same year , Elephant was ranked number 390 on the magazine 's list of the " 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " . In 2009 , the album came in at No. 18 in NME 's " Top 100 Greatest Albums of the decade " .
The album 's first single , " Seven Nation Army " , was the band 's most successful . Its success was followed with a cover of Burt Bacharach 's " I Just Don 't Know What to Do with Myself " . The album 's third single was the successful " The Hardest Button to Button " . " There 's No Home for You Here " was the fourth single . In 2004 , the album won a Grammy for Best Alternative Music Album , while " Seven Nation Army " won a Grammy for Best Rock Song .
= = = Get Behind Me Satan ( 2005 ) = = =
In 2005 , Jack began working on songs for the band 's next album at his home . He played with different techniques than in past albums , trading in his electric guitar for an acoustic on all but a few of tracks , as his trademark riff @-@ based lead guitar style is overtaken by a predominantly rhythmic approach . The White Stripes ' fifth album , Get Behind Me Satan , was released in 2005 on the V2 label . The title is an allusion to a Biblical quotation Jesus made to the Apostle Simon Peter from the Gospel of Matthew 16 : 23 of the New Testament ( in the King James Version , the quotation is slightly different : " Get thee behind me , Satan " ) . Jack has said it has a double meaning : that Satan should physically be behind him or that Satan should support him . Another theory about this title is that Jack and Meg White read James Joyce 's story collection " Dubliners " ( published 1914 ) and used a line from the final story , " The Dead , " to title this album .
With its reliance on piano @-@ driven melodies and experimentation with marimba on " The Nurse " and " Forever For Her ( Is Over For Me ) " , Get Behind Me Satan didn 't feature the explicit blues and punk styles that dominated earlier White Stripes albums . However , despite this , the band was critically lauded for their " fresh , arty reinterpretations of their classic inspirations . " It has garnered positive reactions from fans , as well as critical acclaim . Rolling Stone ranked it the third best album of the year and it received the Grammy for Best Alternative Music Album in 2006 .
Three singles were released from the album , the first being " Blue Orchid " , a popular song on satellite radio and some FM stations . The second and third singles were " My Doorbell " and " The Denial Twist " , respectively , and music videos were made for each of the three singles . " My Doorbell " was nominated for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal .
The White Stripes postponed the Japanese leg of their world tour after Jack strained his vocal cords , with doctors recommending that Jack not sing or talk for two weeks . After a full recovery , he returned to the stage in Auckland , New Zealand to headline the Big Day Out tour .
The White Stripes released a cover version of Tegan and Sara 's song " Walking with a Ghost " on iTunes in November 2005 . The song was later released in December as the Walking with a Ghost EP featuring four other live tracks .
In October 2006 , it was announced on the official White Stripes website that there would be an album of avant @-@ garde orchestral recordings consisting of past music written by Jack called Aluminium . The album was made available for pre @-@ order on November 6 , 2006 to great demand from the band 's fans ; the LP version of the project sold out in a little under a day . The project was conceived by Richard Russell , founder of XL Recordings , who co @-@ produced the album with Joby Talbot . It was recorded between August 2005 and February 2006 at Intimate Studios in Wapping , London using an orchestra . Before the album went out of print , it was available exclusively through the Aluminium website in a numbered limited edition of 3 @,@ 333 CDs with 999 LPs .
On January 12 , 2007 , V2 Records announced that , due to being under the process of reconstruction , it would no longer release new White Stripes material , leaving the band without a label . However , as the band 's contract with V2 had already expired , on February 12 , 2007 , it was confirmed that the band had signed a single album deal with Warner Bros. Records .
= = = Icky Thump ( 2007 ) = = =
The White Stripes ' sixth album , Icky Thump , was released on June 19 , 2007 on Warner Bros. Records . This was their first record with Warner Bros. , since V2 closed in 2006 , and it was released on a one @-@ album contract . Icky Thump entered the UK Albums Chart at number one , and debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 with 223 @,@ 000 copies sold . By late July , Icky Thump was certified gold in the United States . As of March 8 , 2008 , the album has sold 725 @,@ 125 copies in the US . On February 10 , 2008 , the album won a Grammy for Best Alternative Music Album .
Following the well @-@ received Get Behind Me Satan , Icky Thump marked a return to the punk , garage rock and blues influences for which the band is known . It was recorded at Nashville 's Blackbird Studio and took almost three weeks to record — the longest of any White Stripes album . It would also be their first album with a title track . The album 's release came on the heels of a series of concerts in Europe and one in North America at Bonnaroo .
Prior to the album 's release , three tracks were previewed to NME : " Icky Thump " , " You Don 't Know What Love Is ( You Just Do as You 're Told ) " and " Conquest " . NME described the tracks as " an experimental , heavy sounding 70s riff , " " a strong , melodic love song " and " an unexpected mix of big guitars and a bold horn section , " respectively . On the US Billboard Charts dated May 12 , 2007 , " Icky Thump " — the first single — became the band 's first Top 40 single , charting at No. 26 , and later charted at No. 2 in the UK charts .
On April 25 , 2007 , the duo announced that they would embark on a tour of Canada performing in all 10 provinces , plus Yukon , Nunavut and Northwest Territories . In the words of Jack : " Having never done a tour of Canada , Meg and I thought it was high time to go whole hog . We want to take this tour to the far reaches of the Canadian landscape . From the ocean to the permafrost . The best way for us to do that is ensure that we perform in every province and territory in the country , from the Yukon to Prince Edward Island . Another special moment of this tour is the show which will occur in Glace Bay , Nova Scotia on July 14 , The White Stripes ' Tenth Anniversary . " Canadian fiddler Ashley MacIsaac opened for the band at the Glace Bay show ; earlier in 2007 , MacIsaac and Jack had discovered that they were distantly related . It was also at this time that White learned he was related to Canadian fiddle player Natalie MacMaster .
On June 24 , 2007 , just a few hours before their concert at Deer Lake Park , the White Stripes kicked off their cross @-@ Canada tour by playing a 40 @-@ minute set for a group of 30 kids at the Creekside Youth Centre in Burnaby . The Canadian tour was also marked by concerts in small markets , such as Glace Bay , Whitehorse and Iqaluit , as well as by frequent " secret shows " publicized mainly by posts on The Little Room , a White Stripes fan messageboard . Gigs included performances at a bowling alley in Saskatoon , a youth center in Edmonton , a Winnipeg Transit bus and The Forks park in Winnipeg , a park in Whitehorse , the YMCA in downtown Toronto , the Arva Flour Mill in Arva , Ontario , Locas on Salter ( a pool hall ) in Halifax , Nova Scotia , and a famous one @-@ note show on George Street in St. John 's , Newfoundland . They played a full show later that night at the Mile One Centre in downtown St. John 's . Video clips from several of the secret shows have been posted to YouTube . As well , the band filmed its video for " You Don 't Know What Love Is ( You Just Do as You 're Told ) " in Iqaluit .
After the conclusion of the Canadian dates , they embarked on a brief U.S. leg of their tour , which was to be followed by a break before more shows in the fall . But before their last show — in Southaven , Mississippi — Ben Blackwell ( Jack 's nephew and the group 's archivist ) says that Meg approached him and said , " This is the last White Stripes show " . He asked if she meant of the tour , but she responded , " No . I think this is the last show , period . " On September 11 , 2007 , the band announced the cancellation of 18 tour dates due to Meg 's struggle with acute anxiety . A few days later , the duo cancelled the remainder of their 2007 UK tour dates as well .
= = = Later work and breakup ( 2008 – 2011 ) = = =
While on hiatus , Jack formed a group called The Dead Weather ( featuring himself , Jack Lawrence , Dean Fertita , and Alison Mosshart ) , although he insisted that the White Stripes remained his top priority . The White Stripes performed live for the first time since September 2007 on the final episode of Late Night with Conan O 'Brien on February 20 , 2009 , where they performed an alternate version of " We 're Going to Be Friends " .
In 2009 he reported that the White Stripes were working on their seventh album . In an article dated May 6 , 2009 with MusicRadar.com , Jack mentioned recording songs with Meg before the Conan gig had taken place , saying , " We had recorded a couple of songs at the new studio . " About a new White Stripes album , Jack said , " It won 't be too far off . Maybe next year . " Jack also explained Meg 's acute anxiety during the Stripes ' last tour , saying , " I just came from a Raconteurs tour and went right into that , so I was already full @-@ speed . Meg had come from a dead @-@ halt for a year and went right back into that madness . Meg is a very shy girl , a very quiet and shy person . To go full @-@ speed from a dead @-@ halt is overwhelming , and we had to take a break . "
A concert film , Under Great White Northern Lights premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 18 , 2009 . The film , directed by Emmett Malloy , documents the band 's summer 2007 tour across Canada and contains live concert and off @-@ stage footage . Jack and Meg White appeared at the premiere and made a short speech before the movie started about their love of Canada and why they chose to debut their movie in Toronto . The tour was in support of the album Icky Thump , and they performed in every province . Jack conceived the idea of touring Canada after learning that Scottish relatives on his father 's side had lived for a few generations in Nova Scotia before relocating to Detroit to work in the car factories . Additionally , their 10th anniversary occurred during the tour on the day of their show in Glace Bay , Nova Scotia , and in this shot , Jack and Meg are dancing at the conclusion of the concert . The film was directed by a friend of the duo , Emmett Malloy . A second feature , titled Under Nova Scotian Lights , was prepared for the DVD release .
In an interview with Self Titled , Jack alluded to the creation of a White Stripes film to be released later in 2009 .
In an interview with contactmusic.com Jack claimed that working with the White Stripes would be " strange " . " It would definitely be strange to go into the White Stripes again and have to rethink my game , " adding " But that would be the best thing about it , because it would be a whole new White Stripes . "
In November 2010 , the White Stripes contributed a previously released cover version of the song " Rated X " to the compilation album Coal Miner 's Daughter : A Tribute To Loretta Lynn .
In late 2010 , the White Stripes reissued their first three albums on Third Man Records on a 180 @-@ gram vinyl along with 500 limited edition , " split @-@ colored " records to accompany it . Jack hinted at a possible White Stripes reunion in a 2010 interview with Vanity Fair . He said , " We thought we 'd do a lot of things that we 'd never done : a full tour of Canada , a documentary , coffee @-@ table book , live album , a boxed set ... Now that we 've gotten a lot of that out of our system , Meg and I can get back in the studio and start fresh . "
On February 2 , 2011 , the duo announced that they had officially ceased recording and performing music as the White Stripes . The announcement specifically denied any artistic differences or health issues , but cited " a myriad of reasons ... mostly to preserve what is beautiful and special about the band " .
In a 2014 interview , Jack said that Meg 's lack of enthusiasm for the project contributed to the band 's breakup . White told Rolling Stone that " she viewed me that way of ' Oh , big deal , you did it , so what ? ' Almost every single moment of the White Stripes was like that . We 'd be working in the studio and something amazing would happen : I 'm like , ' Damn , we just broke into a new world right there ! ' And Meg 's sitting in silence . "
= = Music = =
= = = Musical style = = =
The musical and stylistic elements of the White Stripes were grounded and rooted in blues , garage rock , and early punk . They emerged from Detroit 's active garage rock revival scene of the late 1990s and early 2000s . Their contemporaries included bands such as The Von Bondies , The Dirtbombs , The Detroit Cobras , and other bands that Jack included on a compilation album called Sympathetic Sounds of Detroit , which was recorded in his living room .
Specifically , the band 's most prominent influences include blues musicians such as Son House , Blind Willie McTell and Robert Johnson , garage rock bands such as The Gories and The Sonics , the Detroit protopunk sound of bands like the MC5 and The Stooges , in addition to groups like The Cramps , The Velvet Underground , and the early Los Angeles punk blues band The Gun Club . Jack has stated on numerous occasions that the blues is the dominant influence on his songwriting and the roots of the band 's music , stating that he feels it is so sacred that playing it does not do it justice . Of The Gun Club 's music in particular , Jack said , " ' Sex Beat ' , ' She 's Like Heroin To Me ' , and ' For The Love Of Ivy ' ... why are these songs not taught in schools ? " Heavy blues rock bands such as the Rolling Stones and AC / DC have also influenced the band , particularly Led Zeppelin , as Jack has claimed that he " can 't trust anybody who doesn 't like Led Zeppelin . "
Traditional country music such as Hank Williams and Loretta Lynn , rockabilly acts like the Flat Duo Jets , Wanda Jackson and Gene Vincent , the surf rock of Dick Dale , and folk music like Lead Belly and Bob Dylan have also influenced the band 's sound . Meg has said one of her all @-@ time favorite musicians is Bob Dylan ; Jack has performed live with him , and has claimed " I 've got three fathers — my biological dad , God and Bob Dylan " .
In his introduction in the documentary film , It Might Get Loud , Jack showcases his minimalist style and ingenuity by constructing a rudimentary guitar in a pastoral setting . The " guitar " was built out of a plank of wood , two nails , a glass Coke bottle , a guitar string , and a pickup . He ends the demonstration with the memorable quote , " Who says you need to buy a guitar ? "
= = = Instruments and equipment = = =
Main articles : Jack White 's musical equipment and Meg White 's musical equipment .
The White Stripes were notable for having only two musicians , limiting the instruments they could play live . Jack , the principal writer , said that this was not a problem , and that he " always centered the band around the number three . Everything was vocals , guitar and drums or vocals , piano and drums . " Fans and critics drew comparisons between Jack 's prowess on the guitar and Meg 's simplistic , reserved drumming .
Early on , the band drew attention for their preference for antiquated recording equipment . In a 2001 New York Times concert reviews , Ann Powers noted that Jack 's " ingenious " playing was " constrained by [ Meg 's ] deliberately undeveloped approach , " and that " he created more challenges by playing an acoustic guitar with paper taped over the hole and a less @-@ than @-@ high @-@ quality solid body electric . "
With few exceptions , Jack displayed a continued partiality towards amps and pedals from the 1960s . Jack used a number of effects to create his sound , such as a DigiTech Whammy IV to reach pitches that would be otherwise impossible with a regular guitar . When performing live , Jack used a Randy Parsons custom guitar , a 1964 JB Hutto Montgomery Airline , a Harmony Rocket , a 1970s Crestwood Astral II , and a 1950s Kay Hollowbody . Also , while playing live , he used an MXR Micro @-@ Amp , Electro @-@ Harmonix Big Muff Pi distortion / sustainer , and an Electro @-@ Harmonix POG ( a polyphonic octave generator ) . He also used a Boss TU @-@ 2 tuner pedal . He plugged this setup into a 1970s Fender Twin Reverb , and two 100 @-@ Watt Sears Silvertone 1485 amplifiers paired with two 6x10 Silvertone cabinets . In addition to standard guitar tuning , Jack also used several open tunings .
White also played other instruments such as a black F @-@ Style Gibson mandolin , Rhodes bass keys , and a Steinway piano . He played a custom @-@ made red and white marimba on " The Nurse " , " Forever for Her ( Is Over for Me ) " as well as on the non @-@ album tracks " Who 's A Big Baby " and " Top Special " .
Meg 's minimalistic drumming style was a prominent part of the band 's sound . Meg never had formal drum lessons . She played Ludwig Drums with Paiste cymbals , and says her pre @-@ show warm @-@ up consisted of " whiskey and Red Bull . " Jack downplayed criticisms of her style , insisting :
" I never thought ' God , I wish Neil Peart was in this band . ' It 's kind of funny : When people critique hip hop , they 're scared to open up , for fear of being called racist . But they 're not scared to open up on female musicians , out of pure sexism . Meg is the best part of this band . It never would have worked with anybody else , because it would have been too complicated ... It was my doorway to playing the blues . "
Of her playing style , Meg herself said :
" I appreciate other kinds of drummers who play differently , but it 's not my style or what works for this band . I get [ criticism ] sometimes , and I go through periods where it really bothers me . But then I think about it , and I realize that this is what is really needed for this band . And I just try to have as much fun with it as possible ... I just know the way [ Jack ] plays so well at this point that I always know kind of what he 's going to do . I can always sense where he 's going with things just by the mood he 's in or the attitude or how the song is going . Once in a while , he throws me for a loop , but I can usually keep him where I want him . "
While Jack was the lead vocalist , Meg did sing lead vocals on four of the band 's songs : " In the Cold , Cold Night " ( from Elephant ) , " Passive Manipulation " ( from Get Behind Me Satan ) , " Who 's a Big Baby ? " ( released on the " Blue Orchid " single ) , and " St. Andrew ( This Battle Is in the Air ) " ( from Icky Thump ) . She also accompanied Jack on the songs " Your Southern Can Is Mine " from their album De Stijl , " Hotel Yorba " and " This Protector " from their album White Blood Cells , on " You Don 't Know What Love Is " ( You Just Do as You 're Told ) " and " Rag & Bone " from their album Icky Thump , " Rated X " and also sang alongside Jack and Holly Golightly on the song " It 's True That We Love One Another " , from the album Elephant .
= = = Recording sessions and live performances = = =
Several White Stripes recordings were completed rapidly . For example , Elephant was recorded in about two weeks in London 's Toe Rag Studio . Their 2005 follow @-@ up , Get Behind Me Satan , was likewise recorded in just two weeks .
For live shows , the White Stripes were known for Jack 's employment of heavy distortion , as well as audio feedback and overdrive . The duo performed considerably more recklessly and unstructured live , never preparing set lists for their shows , believing that planning too closely would ruin the spontaneity of their performances .
= = = Ballet production = = =
In 2007 , British choreographer Wayne McGregor used music by the White Stripes for his production Chroma , a piece he created for The Royal Ballet in London , England . The orchestral arrangements for Chroma were commissioned by Richard Russell , head of XL Recordings , as a gift to the White Stripes and were produced by the British classical composer Joby Talbot . Three of these songs , " The Hardest Button To Button " , " Aluminium " and " Blue Orchid " , were first played to the band as a surprise in Cincinnati Music Hall , Ohio . McGregor heard the orchestral versions and decided to create a ballet using the music . Talbot re @-@ orchestrated the music for the Royal Opera House orchestra , also writing three additional pieces of his own composition . The world premiere of the ballet took place on November 16 , 2006 at the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden , London . The ballet subsequently won the 2007 Laurence Olivier Award for Best New Dance Production .
= = = Aesthetics and presentation = = =
The White Stripes had a carefully constructed image built around lore they created for themselves and visual motifs . Early in their history , they turned down a potential deal with Chicago label Bobsled , because the label wanted to put its green logo on the CD . Their presentation was a subject of intrigue among the public and in the media .
Early in their career , the band provided various descriptions of their relationship . Jack claimed that he and Meg were siblings , the youngest two of ten . As they story went , they became a band when , on Bastille Day 1997 , Meg went to the attic of their parents ' home and began to play on Jack 's drum kit . This claim was widely believed and repeated despite rumors that they were , or had been , husband and wife . In 2001 , proof of their 1996 marriage emerged , as well as evidence that the couple had divorced in March 2000 , just before the band gained widespread attention . Even so , they continued to insist publicly that they were brother and sister . In a 2005 interview with Rolling Stone magazine , Jack claimed that this open secret was intended to keep the focus on the music rather than the couple 's relationship :
" When you see a band that is two pieces , husband and wife , boyfriend and girlfriend , you think , ' Oh , I see ... ' When they 're brother and sister , you go , ' Oh , that 's interesting . ' You care more about the music , not the relationship — whether they 're trying to save their relationship by being in a band . "
The White Stripes made exclusive use of a red , white and black color scheme when conducting virtually all professional duties , from album art to the clothes worn during live performances ; Meg said that " like a uniform at school , you can just focus on what you 're doing because everybody 's wearing the same thing . " Jack also explained that they aspired to invoke an innocent childishness without any intention of irony or humor . Spin magazine commented that " his songs — about getting married in cathedrals , walking to kindergarten , and guileless companionship — are performed with an almost naive certitude . " Other affectations included Jack using two microphones onstage .
The media and fans alike varied between intrigue and skepticism at the band 's appearance and presentation . Andy Gershon , president of the V2 label at the time of their signing , was reluctant to sign them , saying , " They need a bass player , they 've got this red @-@ and @-@ white gimmick , and the songs are fantastic , but they 've recorded very raw ... how is this going to be on radio ? " In a 2002 Spin magazine article , Chuck Klosterman wondered , " how can two media @-@ savvy kids posing as brother and sister , wearing Dr. Seuss clothes , represent blood @-@ and @-@ bones Detroit , a city whose greatest resource is asphalt ? " However , in 2001 , Benjamin Nugent with TIME magazine commented that " it 's hard to begrudge [ Jack ] his right to nudge the spotlight toward his band , and away from his private life , by any means available . Even at the expense of the truth . "
= = Controversy = =
On October 2 , 2005 , Jim Diamond — the owner and operator of Ghetto Recorders recording studio — filed a lawsuit against the band and Third Man Records for " breach of contract . " In the suit , he claimed that as the co @-@ producer , mixer , and editor on the band 's debut album , and mixer and engineer on De Stijl , he was due royalties for " mechanical rights . " The band filed a counterclaim on May 16 of that year , requesting damages against Diamond and an official court declaration denying him rights to the material . Diamond lost the suit , with the jury determining that he was not instrumental in crafting the band 's sound .
Dominique Payette , a Quebecois radio host , sued the band for $ 70 @,@ 000 in 2008 for sampling 10 seconds of her radio show in the song " Jumble Jumble " without permission . The matter was ultimately settled out of court .
In 2010 a Super Bowl ad by the U.S. Air Force Reserve caused the White Stripes to " take strong insult and objection to the Air Force Reserve presenting this advertisement with the implication that we licensed one of our songs to encourage recruitment during a war that we do not support . " The Air Force Reserve denied that the song was from the White Stripes and the music was scored by an advertising agency for the commercial .
= = Appearances in other media = =
Jack and Meg White appeared in Jim Jarmusch 's film Coffee and Cigarettes in 2003 , in a segment entitled " Jack Shows Meg His Tesla Coil " . This particular segment contains extensions of White Stripes motifs such as childhood innocence and Nikola Tesla . In 2004 , the band released its first music film Under Blackpool Lights , which was filmed entirely using 16 mm film and was directed by Dick Carruthers .
The band also appeared as themselves in The Simpsons episode " Jazzy and the Pussycats " in 2006 . Jack is one of three guitarists featured in the 2009 documentary It Might Get Loud , and Meg appears in segments that include the White Stripes .
= = Members = =
Jack White – vocals , guitars , bass , piano , keyboards , synthesizer , tambourine , marimba ( 1997 – 2011 )
Meg White – vocals , drums , percussion , tambourine , timpani , triangle , bells ( 1997 – 2011 )
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
The White Stripes ( 1999 )
De Stijl ( 2000 )
White Blood Cells ( 2001 )
Elephant ( 2003 )
Get Behind Me Satan ( 2005 )
Icky Thump ( 2007 )
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= Ode to a Nightingale =
" Ode to a Nightingale " is a poem by John Keats written either in the garden of the Spaniards Inn , Hampstead , London or , according to Keats ' friend Charles Armitage Brown , under a plum tree in the garden of Keats ' house at Wentworth Place , also in Hampstead . According to Brown , a nightingale had built its nest near the house Keats and Brown shared in the spring of 1819 . Inspired by the bird 's song , Keats composed the poem in one day . It soon became one of his 1819 odes and was first published in Annals of the Fine Arts the following July .
" Ode to a Nightingale " is a personal poem that describes Keats 's journey into the state of negative capability . The tone of the poem rejects the optimistic pursuit of pleasure found within Keats 's earlier poems and , rather , explores the themes of nature , transience and mortality , the latter being particularly personal to Keats .
The nightingale described within the poem experiences a type of death but does not actually die . Instead , the songbird is capable of living through its song , which is a fate that humans cannot expect . The poem ends with an acceptance that pleasure cannot last and that death is an inevitable part of life . In the poem , Keats imagines the loss of the physical world and sees himself dead — as a " sod " over which the nightingale sings . The contrast between the immortal nightingale and mortal man sitting in his garden , is made all the more acute by an effort of the imagination . The presence of weather is noticeable in the poem , as spring came early in 1819 , bringing nightingales all over the heath .
= = Background = =
Of Keats 's six major odes of 1819 , " Ode to Psyche " , was probably written first and " To Autumn " written last . Sometime between these two , he wrote " Ode to a Nightingale " . It is possible that " Ode to a Nightingale " was written between 26 April and 18 May 1819 , based on weather conditions and similarities between images in the poem and those in a letter sent to Fanny Keats on May Day . The poem was composed at the Hampstead house Keats shared with Brown , possibly while sitting beneath a plum tree in the garden . According to Keats ' friend Brown , Keats finished the ode in just one morning : " In the spring of 1819 a nightingale had built her nest near my house . Keats felt a tranquil and continual joy in her song ; and one morning he took his chair from the breakfast @-@ table to the grass @-@ plot under a plum @-@ tree , where he sat for two or three hours . When he came into the house , I perceived he had some scraps of paper in his hand , and these he was quietly thrusting behind the books . On inquiry , I found those scraps , four or five in number , contained his poetic feelings on the song of the nightingale . " Brown 's account is personal , as he claimed the poem was directly influenced by his house and preserved by his own doing . However , Keats relied on both his own imagination and other literature as sources for his depiction of the nightingale .
The exact date of " Ode to a Nightingale " , as well as " Ode on Indolence " , " Ode on Melancholy " , and " Ode on a Grecian Urn " , is unknown , as Keats dated all as ' May 1819 ' . However , he worked on the four poems together , and there is a unity in both their stanza forms and their themes . The exact order the poems were written in is also unknown , but they form a sequence within their structures . While Keats was writing " Ode on a Grecian Urn " and the other poems , Brown transcribed copies of the poems and submitted them to Richard Woodhouse . During this time , Benjamin Haydon , Keats ' friend , was given a copy of " Ode to a Nightingale " , and he shared the poem with the editor of the Annals of the Fine Arts , James Elmes . Elmes paid Keats a small sum of money , and the poem was published in the July issue . The poem was later included in Keats ' 1820 collection of poems , Lamia , Isabella , The Eve of St Agnes , and Other written by pratyush Kumar
Poems .
= = Structure = =
" Ode to a Nightingale " was probably the first of the middle set of four odes that Keats wrote following " Ode to Psyche " , according to Brown . There is further evidence of this in the structure of the poems because Keats combines two different types of lyrical poetry in an experimental way : the odal hymn and the lyric of questioning voice that responds to the odal hymn . This combination of structures is similar to that in " Ode on a Grecian Urn " . In both poems the dual form creates a sort of dramatic element within the poem . The stanza forms of the poem is a combination of elements from Petrarchan sonnets and Shakespearean sonnets .
When it came to vowel forms , Keats incorporated a pattern of alternating historically " short " and " long " vowel sounds in his ode . In particular , line 18 ( " And purple @-@ stained mouth " ) has the historical pattern of " short " followed by " long " followed by " short " and followed by " long " . This alteration is continued in longer lines , including line 31 ( " Away ! away ! for I will fly to thee " ) which contains five pairs of alternations . However , other lines , such as line 3 ( " Or emptied some dull opiate to the drains " ) rely on a pattern of five " short " vowels followed by " long " and " short " vowel pairings until they end with a " long " vowel . These are not the only combination patterns present , and there are patterns of two " short " vowels followed by a " long " vowel in other lines , including 12 , 22 , and 59 , which are repeated twice and then followed up with two sets of " short " and then " long " vowel pairs . This reliance on vowel sounds is not unique to this ode , but is common to Keats 's other 1819 odes and his Eve of St. Agnes .
The poem incorporates a complex reliance on assonance — the repetition of vowel sounds — in a conscious pattern , as found in many of his poems . Such a reliance on assonance is found in very few English poems . Within " Ode to a Nightingale " , an example of this pattern can be found in line 35 ( " Already with thee ! tender is the night " ) , where the " ea " of " Already " connects with the " e " of " tender " and the " i " of " with " connects with the " i " of " is " . This same pattern is found again in line 41 ( " I cannot see what flowers are at my feet " ) with the " a " of " cannot " linking with the " a " of " at " and the " ee " of " see " linking with the " ee " of " feet " . This system of assonance can be found in approximately a tenth of the lines of Keats 's later poetry .
When it came to other sound patterns , Keats relied on double or triple caesuras in approximately 6 % of lines throughout the 1819 odes . An example from " Ode to a Nightingale " can be found within line 45 ( " The grass , the thicket , and the fruit @-@ tree wild " ) as the pauses after the commas are a " masculine " pause . Furthermore , Keats began to reduce the amount of Latin @-@ based words and syntax that he relied on in his poetry , which in turn shortened the length of the words that dominate the poem . There is also an emphasis on words beginning with consonants , especially those that begin with " b " , " p " or " v " . These three consonants are relied on heavily in the first stanza , and they are used syzygically to add a musical tone within the poem .
In terms of poetic meter , Keats relies on spondee throughout his 1819 odes and in just over 8 % of his lines within " Ode to a Nightingale " , including line 12 :
and line 25 :
To Walter Jackson Bate , the use of spondees in lines 31 – 34 creates a feeling of slow flight , and " in the final stanza . . . the distinctive use of scattered spondees , together with initial inversion , lend [ s ] an approximate phonetic suggestion of the peculiar spring and bounce of the bird in its flight . "
= = Poem = =
My heart aches , and a drowsy numbness pains
My sense , as though of hemlock I had drunk ,
Or emptied some dull opiate to the drains
One minute past , and Lethe @-@ wards had sunk :
'Tis not through envy of thy happy lot , 5
But being too happy in thine happiness ,
That thou , light @-@ wingèd Dryad of the trees ,
In some melodious plot
Of beechen green , and shadows numberless ,
Singest of summer in full @-@ throated ease . 10
O for a draught of vintage ! that hath been
Cool 'd a long age in the deep @-@ delvèd earth ,
Tasting of Flora and the country @-@ green ,
Dance , and Provençal song , and sunburnt mirth !
O for a beaker full of the warm South ! 15
Full of the true , the blushful Hippocrene ,
With beaded bubbles winking at the brim ,
And purple @-@ stainèd mouth ;
That I might drink , and leave the world unseen ,
And with thee fade away into the forest dim : 20
Fade far away , dissolve , and quite forget
What thou among the leaves hast never known ,
The weariness , the fever , and the fret
Here , where men sit and hear each other groan ;
Where palsy shakes a few , sad , last grey hairs , 25
Where youth grows pale , and spectre @-@ thin , and dies ;
Where but to think is to be full of sorrow
And leaden @-@ eyed despairs ;
Where beauty cannot keep her lustrous eyes ,
Or new Love pine at them beyond to @-@ morrow . 30
Away ! away ! for I will fly to thee ,
Not charioted by Bacchus and his pards ,
But on the viewless wings of Poesy ,
Though the dull brain perplexes and retards :
Already with thee ! tender is the night , 35
And haply the Queen @-@ Moon is on her throne ,
Cluster 'd around by all her starry Fays
But here there is no light ,
Save what from heaven is with the breezes blown
Through verdurous glooms and winding mossy ways . 40
I cannot see what flowers are at my feet ,
Nor what soft incense hangs upon the boughs ,
But , in embalmèd darkness , guess each sweet
Wherewith the seasonable month endows
The grass , the thicket , and the fruit @-@ tree wild ; 45
White hawthorn , and the pastoral eglantine ;
Fast @-@ fading violets cover 'd up in leaves ;
And mid @-@ May 's eldest child ,
The coming musk @-@ rose , full of dewy wine ,
The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves . 50
Darkling I listen ; and , for many a time
I have been half in love with easeful Death ,
Call 'd him soft names in many a musèd rhyme ,
To take into the air my quiet breath ;
Now more than ever seems it rich to die , 55
To cease upon the midnight with no pain ,
While thou art pouring forth thy soul abroad
In such an ecstasy !
Still wouldst thou sing , and I have ears in vain —
To thy high requiem become a sod . 60
Thou wast not born for death , immortal Bird !
No hungry generations tread thee down ;
The voice I hear this passing night was heard
In ancient days by emperor and clown :
Perhaps the self @-@ same song that found a path 65
Through the sad heart of Ruth , when , sick for home ,
She stood in tears amid the alien corn ;
The same that ofttimes hath
Charm 'd magic casements , opening on the foam
Of perilous seas , in faery lands forlorn . 70
Forlorn ! the very word is like a bell
To toll me back from thee to my sole self !
Adieu ! the fancy cannot cheat so well
As she is famed to do , deceiving elf .
Adieu ! adieu ! thy plaintive anthem fades 75
Past the near meadows , over the still stream ,
Up the hill @-@ side ; and now ' tis buried deep
In the next valley @-@ glades :
Was it a vision , or a waking dream ?
Fled is that music : — do I wake or sleep ? 80
= = Themes = =
" Ode to a Nightingale " describes a series of conflicts between reality and the Romantic ideal of uniting with nature . In the words of Richard Fogle , " The principal stress of the poem is a struggle between ideal and actual : inclusive terms which , however , contain more particular antitheses of pleasure and pain , of imagination and common sense reason , of fullness and privation , of permanence and change , of nature and the human , of art and life , freedom and bondage , waking and dream . " Of course , the nightingale 's song is the dominant image and dominant " voice " within the ode . The nightingale is also the object of empathy and praise within the poem . However , the nightingale and the discussion of the nightingale is not simply about the bird or the song , but about human experience in general . This is not to say that the song is a simple metaphor , but it is a complex image that is formed through the interaction of the conflicting voices of praise and questioning . On this theme , David Perkins summarizes the way " Ode to a Nightingale " and " Ode on a Grecian Urn " perform this when he says , " we are dealing with a talent , indeed an entire approach to poetry , in which symbol , however necessary , may possibly not satisfy as the principal concern of poetry , any more than it could with Shakespeare , but is rather an element in the poetry and drama of human reactions " . However , there is a difference between an urn and a nightingale in that the nightingale is not an eternal entity . Furthermore , in creating any aspect of the nightingale immortal during the poem the narrator separates any union that he can have with the nightingale .
The nightingale 's song within the poem is connected to the art of music in a way that the urn in " Ode on a Grecian Urn " is connected to the art of sculpture . As such , the nightingale would represent an enchanting presence and , unlike the urn , is directly connected to nature . As natural music , the song is for beauty and lacks a message of truth . Keats follows Coleridge 's belief , as found in " The Nightingale " , in separating from the world by losing himself in the bird 's song . Although Keats favours a female nightingale over Coleridge 's masculine bird , both reject the traditional depiction of the nightingale as related to the tragedy of Philomela . Their songbird is a happy nightingale that lacks the melancholic feel of previous poetic depictions . The bird is only a voice within the poem , but it is a voice that compels the narrator to join with in and forget the sorrows of the world . However , there is tension in that the narrator holds Keats 's guilt regarding the death of Tom Keats , his brother . The song 's conclusion represents the result of trying to escape into the realm of fancy .
Like Percy Bysshe Shelley ’ s " To a Skylark " , Keats ’ s narrator listens to a bird song , but listening to the song within “ Ode to a Nightingale ” is almost painful and similar to death . The narrator seeks to be with the nightingale and abandons his sense of vision in order to embrace the sound in an attempt to share in the darkness with the bird . As the poem ends , the trance caused by the nightingale is broken and the narrator is left wondering if it was a real vision or just a dream . The poem reliance on the process of sleeping common to Keats 's poems , and " Ode to a Nightingale " shares many of the same themes as Keats 's Sleep and Poetry and Eve of St. Agnes . This further separates the image of the nightingale 's song from its closest comparative image , the urn as represented in " Ode on a Grecian Urn " . The nightingale is distant and mysterious , and even disappears at the end of the poem . The dream image emphasizes the shadowiness and elusiveness of the poem . These elements make it impossible for there to be a complete self @-@ identification with the nightingale , but it also allows for self @-@ awareness to permeate throughout the poem , albeit in an altered state .
Midway through the poem , there is a split between the two actions of the poem : the first attempts to identify with the nightingale and its song , and the second discusses the convergence of the past with the future while experiencing the present . This second theme is reminiscent of Keats 's view of human progression through the Mansion of Many Apartments and how man develops from experiencing and wanting only pleasure to understanding truth as a mixture of both pleasure and pain . The Elysian fields and the nightingale 's song in the first half of the poem represent the pleasurable moments that overwhelm the individual like a drug . However , the experience does not last forever , and the body is left desiring it until the narrator feels helpless without the pleasure . Instead of embracing the coming truth , the narrator clings to poetry to hide from the loss of pleasure . Poetry does not bring about the pleasure that the narrator original asks for , but it does liberate him from his desire for only pleasure .
Responding to this emphasis on pleasure , Albert Guerard , Jr. argues that the poem contains a " longing not for art but a free reverie of any kind . The form of the poem is that of progression by association , so that the movement of feeling is at the mercy of words evoked by chance , such words as fade and forlorn , the very words that , like a bell , toll the dreamer back to his sole self . " However , Fogle points out that the terms Guerard emphasizes are " associational translations " and that Guerard misunderstands Keats 's aesthetic . After all , the acceptance of the loss of pleasure by the end of the poem is an acceptance of life and , in turn , of death . Death was a constant theme that permeated aspects of Keats poetry because he was exposed to death of his family members throughout his life . Within the poem , there are many images of death . The nightingale experiences a sort of death and even the god Apollo experiences death , but his death reveals his own divine state . As Perkins explains , " But , of course , the nightingale is not thought to be literally dying . The point is that the deity or the nightingale can sing without dying . But , as the ode makes clear , man cannot — or at least not in a visionary way . "
With this theme of a loss of pleasure and inevitable death , the poem , according to Claude Finney , describes " the inadequacy of the romantic escape from the world of reality to the world of ideal beauty " . Earl Wasserman essentially agrees with Finney , but he extended his summation of the poem to incorporate the themes of Keats 's Mansion of Many Apartments when he says , " the core of the poem is the search for the mystery , the unsuccessful quest for light within its darkness " and this " leads only to an increasing darkness , or a growing recognition of how impenetrable the mystery is to mortals . " With these views in mind , the poem recalls Keats 's earlier view of pleasure and an optimistic view of poetry found within his earlier poems , especially Sleep and Poetry , and rejects them . This loss of pleasure and incorporation of death imagery lends the poem a dark air , which connects " Ode to a Nightingale " with Keats ' other poems that discuss the demonic nature of poetic imagination , including Lamia . In the poem , Keats imagines the loss of the physical world and sees himself dead — he uses an abrupt , almost brutal word for it — as a " sod " over which the nightingale sings . The contrast between the immortal nightingale and mortal man , sitting in his garden , is made all the more acute by an effort of the imagination .
= = Keats 's reception = =
Contemporary critics of Keats enjoyed the poem , and it was heavily quoted in their reviews . An anonymous review of Keats 's poetry that ran in the August and October 1820 Scots Magazine stated : " Amongst the minor poems we prefer the ' Ode to the Nightingale . ' Indeed , we are inclined to prefer it beyond every other poem in the book ; but let the reader judge . The third and seventh stanzas have a charm for us which we should find it difficult to explain . We have read this ode over and over again , and every time with increased delight . " At the same time , Leigh Hunt wrote a review of Keats 's poem for the 2 August and 9 August 1820 The Indicator : " As a specimen of the Poems , which are all lyrical , we must indulge ourselves in quoting entire the ' Ode to a Nightingale ' . There is that mixture in it of real melancholy and imaginative relief , which poetry alone presents us in her ' charmed cup , ' and which some over @-@ rational critics have undertaken to find wrong because it is not true . It does not follow that what is not true to them , is not true to others . If the relief is real , the mixture is good and sufficing . "
John Scott , in an anonymous review for the September 1820 edition of The London Magazine , argued for the greatness of Keats 's poetry as exemplified by poems including " Ode to a Nightingale " :
The injustice which has been done to our author 's works , in estimating their poetical merit , rendered us doubly anxious , on opening his last volume , to find it likely to seize fast hold of general sympathy , and thus turn an overwhelming power against the paltry traducers of talent , more eminently promising in many respects , than any the present age has been called upon to encourage . We have not found it to be quite all that we wished in this respect--and it would have been very extraordinary if we had , for our wishes went far beyond reasonable expectations . But we have found it of a nature to present to common understandings the poetical power with which the author 's mind is gifted , in a more tangible and intelligible shape than that in which it has appeared in any of his former compositions . It is , therefore , calculated to throw shame on the lying , vulgar spirit , in which this young worshipper in the temple of the Muses has been cried @-@ down ; whatever questions may still leave to be settled as to the kind and degree of his poetical merits . Take for instance , as proof of the justice of our praise , the following passage from an Ode to the Nightingale : --it is distinct , noble , pathetic , and true : the thoughts have all chords of direct communication with naturally @-@ constituted hearts : the echoes of the strain linger bout the depths of human bosoms .
In a review for the 21 January 1835 London Journal , Hunt claimed that while Keats wrote the poem , " The poet had then his mortal illness upon him , and knew it . Never was the voice of death sweeter . " David Moir , in 1851 , used The Even of St Agnes to claim , " We have here a specimen of descriptive power luxuriously rich and original ; but the following lines , from the ' Ode to a Nightingale , ' flow from a far more profound fountain of inspiration . "
At the end of the 19th century , Robert Bridges 's analysis of the poem became a dominant view and would influence later interpretations of the poem . Bridges , in 1895 , declared that the poem was the best of Keats 's odes but he thought that the poem contained too much artificial language . In particular , he emphasised the use of the word " forlorn " and the last stanza as being examples of Keats 's artificial language . In " Two odes of Keats 's " ( 1897 ) , William C Wilkinson suggested that " Ode to a Nightingale " is deeply flawed because it contains too many " incoherent musings " that failed to supply a standard of logic that would allow the reader to understand the relationship between the poet and the bird . However , Herbert Grierson , arguing in 1928 , believed Nightingale to be superior to " Ode on a Grecian Urn " , " Ode on Melancholy " , and " Ode to Psyche " , arguing the exact opposite of Wilkinson as he stated that " Nightingale " , along with " To Autumn " , showed a greater amount of logical thought and more aptly presented the cases they were intended to make .
= = = 20th @-@ century criticism = = =
At the beginning of the 20th century , Rudyard Kipling referred to lines 69 and 70 , alongside three lines from Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's Kubla Khan , when he claimed of poetry : " In all the millions permitted there are no more than five — five little lines — of which one can say , ' These are the magic . These are the vision . The rest is only Poetry . ' " In 1906 , Alexander Mackie argued : " The nightingale and the lark for long monopolised poetic idolatry--a privilege they enjoyed solely on account of their pre @-@ eminence as song birds . Keats 's Ode to a Nightingale and Shelley 's Ode to a Skylark are two of the glories of English literature ; but both were written by men who had no claim to special or exact knowledge of ornithology as such . " Sidney Colvin , in 1920 , argued , " Throughout this ode Keats ’ s genius is at its height . Imagination cannot be more rich and satisfying , felicity of phrase and cadence cannot be more absolute , than in the several contrasted stanzas calling for the draft of southern vintage [ … ] To praise the art of a passage like that in the fourth stanza [ … ] to praise or comment on a stroke of art like this is to throw doubt on the reader ’ s power to perceive it for himself . "
Bridge 's view of " Ode to a Nightingale " was taken up by H. W. Garrod in his 1926 analysis of Keats 's poems . Like Albert Gerard would argue later in 1944 , Garrod believed that the problem within Keats 's poem was his emphasis on the rhythm and the language instead of the main ideas of the poem . When describing the fourth stanza of the poem , Maurice Ridley , in 1933 , claimed , " And so comes the stanza , with that remarkable piece of imagination at the end which feels the light as blown by the breezes , one of those characteristic sudden flashes with which Keats fires the most ordinary material . " He later declared of the seventh stanza : " And now for the great stanza in which the imagination is fanned to yet whiter heat , the stanza that would , I suppose , by common consent be taken , along with Kubla Khan , as offering us the distilled sorceries of ' Romanticism ' " . He concluded on the stanza that " I do not believe that any reader who has watched Keats at work on the more exquisitely finished of the stanzas in The Eve of St. Agnes , and seen this craftsman slowly elaborating and refining , will ever believe that this perfect stanza was achieved with the easy fluency with which , in the draft we have , it was obviously written down . " In 1936 , F. R. Leavis wrote , " One remembers the poem both as recording , and as being for the reader , an indulgence . " Following Leavis , Cleanth Brooks and Robert Penn Warren , in a 1938 essay , saw the poem as " a very rich poem . It contains some complications which we must not gloss over if we are to appreciate the depth and significance of the issues engaged . " Brooks would later argue in The Well @-@ Wrought Urn ( 1947 ) that the poem was thematically unified while contradicting many of the negative criticisms lodged against the poem .
Richard Fogle responded to the critical attack on Keats 's emphasis on rhyme and language put forth by Garrod , Gerard , and others in 1953 . His argument was similar to Brooks : that the poem was thematically coherent and that there is a poet within the poem that is different from Keats the writer of the poem . As such , Keats consciously chose the shift in the themes of the poem and the contrasts within the poem represent the pain felt when comparing the real world to an ideal world found within the imagination . Fogle also responded directly to the claims made by Leavis : " I find Mr. Leavis too austere , but he points out a quality which Keats plainly sought for . His profusion and prodigality is , however , modified by a principle of sobriety . " It is possible that Fogle 's statements were a defense of Romanticism as a group that was both respectable in terms of thought and poetic ability . Wasserman , following in 1953 , claimed that " Of all Keats ' poems , it is probably the ' Ode to a Nightingale ' that has most tormented the critic [ ... ] in any reading of the ' Ode to a Nightingale ' the turmoil will not down . Forces contend wildly within the poem , not only without resolution , but without possibility of resolution ; and the reader comes away from his experience with the sense that he has been in ' a wild Abyss ' " . He then explained , " It is this turbulence , I suspect , that has led Allen Tate to believe the ode ' at least tries to say everything that poetry an say . ' But I propose it is the ' Ode on a Grecian Urn ' that succeeds in saying what poetry can say , and that the other ode attempts to say all that the poet can . "
= = = Later critical responses = = =
Although the poem was defended by a few critics , E. C. Pettet returned to the argument that the poem lacked a structure and emphasized the word " forlorn " as evidence of his view . In his 1957 work , Pettet did praise the poem as he declared , " The Ode to a Nightingale has a special interest in that most of us would probably regard it as the most richly representative of all Keats ’ s poems . Two reasons for this quality are immediately apparent : there is its matchless evocation of that late spring and early summer season [ … ] and there is its exceptional degree of ' distillation ' , of concentrated recollection " . David Perkins felt the need to defend the use of the word " forlorn " and claimed that it described the feeling from the impossibility of not being able to live in the world of the imagination . When praising the poem in 1959 , Perkins claimed , " Although the " Ode to a Nightingale " ranges more widely than the " Ode on a Grecian Urn , " the poem can also be regarded as the exploration or testing out of a symbol , and , compared with the urn as a symbol , the nightingale would seem to have both limitations and advantages . " Walter Jackson Bate also made a similar defense of the word " forlorn " by claiming that the world described by describing the impossibility of reaching that land . When describing the poem compared to the rest of English poetry , Bate argued in 1963 , " Ode to a Nightingale " is among " the greatest lyrics in English " and the only one written with such speed : " We are free to doubt whether any poem in English of comparable length and quality has been composed so quickly . " In 1968 , Robert Gittins stated , " It may not be wrong to regard [ Ode on Indolence and Ode on Melancholy ] as Keats 's earlier essays in this [ ode ] form , and the great Nightingale and Grecian Urn as his more finished and later works . "
From the late 1960s onward , many of the Yale School of critics describe the poem as a reworking of John Milton 's poetic diction , but they argued that poem revealed that Keats lacked the ability of Milton as a poet . The critics , Harold Bloom ( 1965 ) , Leslie Brisman ( 1973 ) , Paul Fry ( 1980 ) , John Hollander ( 1981 ) and Cynthia Chase ( 1985 ) , all focused on the poem with Milton as a progenitor to " Ode to a Nightingale " while ignoring other possibilities , including Shakespeare who was emphasised as being the source of many of Keats 's phrases . Responding to the claims about Milton and Keats 's shortcomings , critics like R. S. White ( 1981 ) and Willard Spiegelman ( 1983 ) used the Shakespearean echoes to argue for a multiplicity of sources for the poem to claim that Keats was not trying to respond just Milton or escape from his shadow . Instead , " Ode to a Nightingale " was an original poem , as White claimed , " The poem is richly saturated in Shakespeare , yet the assimilations are so profound that the Ode is finally original , and wholly Keatsian " . Similarly , Spiegelman claimed that Shakespeare 's A Midsummer Night 's Dream had " flavored and ripened the later poem " . This was followed in 1986 by Jonathan Bate claiming that Keats was " left enriched by the voice of Shakespeare , the ' immortal bird ' " .
Focusing on the quality of the poem , Stuart Sperry , argued in 1973 , " ' Ode to a Nightingale ' is the supreme expression in all Keats 's poetry of the impulse to imaginative escape that flies in the face of the knowledge of human limitation , the impulse fully expressed in ' Away ! away ! for I will fly to thee . ' " Wolf Hirst , in 1981 , described the poem as " justly celebrated " and claimed that " Since this movement into an eternal realm of song is one of the most magnificent in literature , the poet 's return to actuality is all the more shattering . " Helen Vendler continued the earlier view that the poem was artificial but added that the poem was an attempt to be aesthetic and spontaneous that was later dropped . In 1983 , she argued , " In its absence of conclusiveness and its abandonment to reverie , the poem appeals to readers who prize it as the most personal , the most apparently spontaneous , the most immediately beautiful , and the most confessional of Keats 's odes . I believe that the ' events ' of the ode , as it unfolds in time , have more logic , however , than is usually granted them , and that they are best seen in relation to Keats 's pursuit of the idea of music as a nonrepresentational art . "
In a review of contemporary criticism of " Ode to a Nightingale " in 1998 , James O 'Rouke claimed that " To judge from the volume , the variety , and the polemical force of the modern critical responses engendered , there have been few moments in English poetic history as baffling as Keats 's repetition of the word ' forlorn ' " . When referring to the reliance of the ideas of John Dryden and William Hazlitt within the poem , Poet Laureate Andrew Motion , in 1999 , argued " whose notion of poetry as a ' movement ' from personal consciousness to an awareness of suffering humanity it perfectly illustrates . "
= = In fiction = =
F. Scott Fitzgerald took the title of his novel Tender is the Night from the 35th line of the ode .
According to Ildikó de Papp Carrington , Keats ' wording , " when , sick for home , / She stood in tears amid the alien corn " , seems to be echoed in by Alice Munro 's Save the Reaper ( 1998 ) , the end of which reads : " Eve would lie down [ ... ] with nothing in her head but the rustle of the deep tall corn which might have stopped growing now but still made its live noise after dark " ( book version ) .
The poem is quoted in Chapter 1 of P. G. Wodehouse 's novel Full Moon ( 1947 ) : " ' Coming here ? Freddie ? ' .A numbness seemed to be paining his sense , as though of hemlock he had drunk . "
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= Fungus =
A fungus ( / ˈfʌŋɡəs / ; plural : fungi or funguses ) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes unicellular microorganisms such as yeasts and molds , as well as multicellular fungi that produce familiar fruiting forms known as mushrooms . These organisms are classified as a kingdom , Fungi , which is separate from the other eukaryotic life kingdoms of plants and animals .
One difference that places fungi in a different kingdom is that its cell walls contain chitin , unlike the cell walls of plants , bacteria and some protists . Similar to animals , fungi are heterotrophs , that is , they acquire their food by absorbing dissolved molecules , typically by secreting digestive enzymes into their environment . Growth is their means of mobility , except for spores , which may travel through the air or water ( a few of which are flagellated ) . Fungi are the principal decomposers in ecological systems . These and other differences place fungi in a single group of related organisms , named the Eumycota ( true fungi or Eumycetes ) , that share a common ancestor ( is a monophyletic group ) , an interpretation that is also strongly supported by molecular phylogenetics . This fungal group is distinct from the structurally similar myxomycetes ( slime molds ) and oomycetes ( water molds ) . The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology ( from the Greek μύκης , mukēs , meaning " fungus " ) . In the past , mycology was regarded as a branch of botany ; today it is a separate kingdom in biological taxonomy . Fungi are genetically more closely related to animals than to plants .
Abundant worldwide , most fungi are inconspicuous because of the small size of their structures , and their cryptic lifestyles in soil , on dead matter . They are both symbionts of plants , animals , or other fungi and also parasites . They may become noticeable when fruiting , either as mushrooms or as molds . Fungi perform an essential role in the decomposition of organic matter and have fundamental roles in nutrient cycling and exchange in the environment . They have long been used as a direct source of food , in the form of mushrooms and truffles ; as a leavening agent for bread ; and in the fermentation of various food products , such as wine , beer , and soy sauce . Since the 1940s , fungi have been used for the production of antibiotics , and , more recently , various enzymes produced by fungi are used industrially and in detergents . Fungi are also used as biological pesticides to control weeds , plant diseases and insect pests . Many species produce bioactive compounds called mycotoxins , such as alkaloids and polyketides , that are toxic to animals including humans . The fruiting structures of a few species contain psychotropic compounds and are consumed recreationally or in traditional spiritual ceremonies . Fungi can break down manufactured materials and buildings , and become significant pathogens of humans and other animals . Losses of crops due to fungal diseases ( e.g. , rice blast disease ) or food spoilage can have a large impact on human food supplies and local economies .
The fungus kingdom encompasses an enormous diversity of taxa with varied ecologies , life cycle strategies , and morphologies ranging from unicellular aquatic chytrids to large mushrooms . However , little is known of the true biodiversity of Kingdom Fungi , which has been estimated at 1 @.@ 5 million to 5 million species , with about 5 % of these having been formally classified . Ever since the pioneering 18th and 19th century taxonomical works of Carl Linnaeus , Christian Hendrik Persoon , and Elias Magnus Fries , fungi have been classified according to their morphology ( e.g. , characteristics such as spore color or microscopic features ) or physiology . Advances in molecular genetics have opened the way for DNA analysis to be incorporated into taxonomy , which has sometimes challenged the historical groupings based on morphology and other traits . Phylogenetic studies published in the last decade have helped reshape the classification within Kingdom Fungi , which is divided into one subkingdom , seven phyla , and ten subphyla .
= = Etymology = =
The English word fungus is directly adopted from the Latin fungus ( mushroom ) , used in the writings of Horace and Pliny . This in turn is derived from the Greek word sphongos ( σφογγος " sponge " ) , which refers to the macroscopic structures and morphology of mushrooms and molds ; the root is also used in other languages , such as the German Schwamm ( " sponge " ) and Schimmel ( " mold " ) . The use of the word mycology , which is derived from the Greek mykes ( μύκης " mushroom " ) and logos ( λόγος " discourse " ) , to denote the scientific study of fungi is thought to have originated in 1836 with English naturalist Miles Joseph Berkeley 's publication The English Flora of Sir James Edward Smith , Vol . 5 . A group of all the fungi present in a particular area or geographic region is known as mycobiota ( plural noun , no singular ) , e.g. , " the mycobiota of Ireland " .
= = Characteristics = =
Before the introduction of molecular methods for phylogenetic analysis , taxonomists considered fungi to be members of the plant kingdom because of similarities in lifestyle : both fungi and plants are mainly immobile , and have similarities in general morphology and growth habitat . Like plants , fungi often grow in soil and , in the case of mushrooms , form conspicuous fruit bodies , which sometimes resemble plants , such as mosses . The fungi are now considered a separate kingdom , distinct from both plants and animals , from which they appear to have diverged around one billion years ago . Some morphological , biochemical , and genetic features are shared with other organisms , while others are unique to the fungi , clearly separating them from the other kingdoms :
Shared features :
With other eukaryotes : Fungal cells contain membrane @-@ bound nuclei with chromosomes that contain DNA with noncoding regions called introns and coding regions called exons . Fungi have membrane @-@ bound cytoplasmic organelles such as mitochondria , sterol @-@ containing membranes , and ribosomes of the 80S type . They have a characteristic range of soluble carbohydrates and storage compounds , including sugar alcohols ( e.g. , mannitol ) , disaccharides , ( e.g. , trehalose ) , and polysaccharides ( e.g. , glycogen , which is also found in animals ) .
With animals : Fungi lack chloroplasts and are heterotrophic organisms and so require preformed organic compounds as energy sources .
With plants : Fungi have a cell wall and vacuoles . They reproduce by both sexual and asexual means , and like basal plant groups ( such as ferns and mosses ) produce spores . Similar to mosses and algae , fungi typically have haploid nuclei .
With euglenoids and bacteria : Higher fungi , euglenoids , and some bacteria produce the amino acid L @-@ lysine in specific biosynthesis steps , called the α @-@ aminoadipate pathway .
The cells of most fungi grow as tubular , elongated , and thread @-@ like ( filamentous ) structures called hyphae , which may contain multiple nuclei and extend by growing at their tips . Each tip contains a set of aggregated vesicles — cellular structures consisting of proteins , lipids , and other organic molecules — called the Spitzenkörper . Both fungi and oomycetes grow as filamentous hyphal cells . In contrast , similar @-@ looking organisms , such as filamentous green algae , grow by repeated cell division within a chain of cells . There are also single @-@ celled fungi ( yeasts ) that do not form hyphae , and fungi with both hyphal and yeast forms .
In common with some plant and animal species , more than 70 fungal species display bioluminescence .
Unique features :
Some species grow as unicellular yeasts that reproduce by budding or binary fission . Dimorphic fungi can switch between a yeast phase and a hyphal phase in response to environmental conditions .
The fungal cell wall is composed of glucans and chitin ; while glucans are also found in plants and chitin in the exoskeleton of arthropods , fungi are the only organisms that combine these two structural molecules in their cell wall . Unlike those of plants and oomycetes , fungal cell walls do not contain cellulose .
Most fungi lack an efficient system for the long @-@ distance transport of water and nutrients , such as the xylem and phloem in many plants . To overcome this limitation , some fungi , such as Armillaria , form rhizomorphs , which resemble and perform functions similar to the roots of plants . As eukaryotes , fungi possess a biosynthetic pathway for producing terpenes that uses mevalonic acid and pyrophosphate as chemical building blocks . Plants and some other organisms have an additional terpene biosynthesis pathway in their chloroplasts , a structure fungi and animals do not have . Fungi produce several secondary metabolites that are similar or identical in structure to those made by plants . Many of the plant and fungal enzymes that make these compounds differ from each other in sequence and other characteristics , which indicates separate origins and evolution of these enzymes in the fungi and plants .
= = Diversity = =
Fungi have a worldwide distribution , and grow in a wide range of habitats , including extreme environments such as deserts or areas with high salt concentrations or ionizing radiation , as well as in deep sea sediments . Some can survive the intense UV and cosmic radiation encountered during space travel . Most grow in terrestrial environments , though several species live partly or solely in aquatic habitats , such as the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis , a parasite that has been responsible for a worldwide decline in amphibian populations . This organism spends part of its life cycle as a motile zoospore , enabling it to propel itself through water and enter its amphibian host . Other examples of aquatic fungi include those living in hydrothermal areas of the ocean .
Around 100 @,@ 000 species of fungi have been formally described by taxonomists , but the global biodiversity of the fungus kingdom is not fully understood . On the basis of observations of the ratio of the number of fungal species to the number of plant species in selected environments , the fungal kingdom has been estimated to contain about 1 @.@ 5 million species . A recent ( 2011 ) estimate suggests there may be over 5 million species . In mycology , species have historically been distinguished by a variety of methods and concepts . Classification based on morphological characteristics , such as the size and shape of spores or fruiting structures , has traditionally dominated fungal taxonomy . Species may also be distinguished by their biochemical and physiological characteristics , such as their ability to metabolize certain biochemicals , or their reaction to chemical tests . The biological species concept discriminates species based on their ability to mate . The application of molecular tools , such as DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis , to study diversity has greatly enhanced the resolution and added robustness to estimates of genetic diversity within various taxonomic groups .
= = Mycology = =
Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the systematic study of fungi , including their genetic and biochemical properties , their taxonomy , and their use to humans as a source of medicine , food , and psychotropic substances consumed for religious purposes , as well as their dangers , such as poisoning or infection . The field of phytopathology , the study of plant diseases , is closely related because many plant pathogens are fungi .
The use of fungi by humans dates back to prehistory ; Ötzi the Iceman , a well @-@ preserved mummy of a 5 @,@ 300 @-@ year @-@ old Neolithic man found frozen in the Austrian Alps , carried two species of polypore mushrooms that may have been used as tinder ( Fomes fomentarius ) , or for medicinal purposes ( Piptoporus betulinus ) . Ancient peoples have used fungi as food sources – often unknowingly – for millennia , in the preparation of leavened bread and fermented juices . Some of the oldest written records contain references to the destruction of crops that were probably caused by pathogenic fungi .
= = = History = = =
Mycology is a relatively new science that became systematic after the development of the microscope in the 16th century . Although fungal spores were first observed by Giambattista della Porta in 1588 , the seminal work in the development of mycology is considered to be the publication of Pier Antonio Micheli 's 1729 work Nova plantarum genera . Micheli not only observed spores but also showed that , under the proper conditions , they could be induced into growing into the same species of fungi from which they originated . Extending the use of the binomial system of nomenclature introduced by Carl Linnaeus in his Species plantarum ( 1753 ) , the Dutch Christian Hendrik Persoon ( 1761 – 1836 ) established the first classification of mushrooms with such skill so as to be considered a founder of modern mycology . Later , Elias Magnus Fries ( 1794 – 1878 ) further elaborated the classification of fungi , using spore color and various microscopic characteristics , methods still used by taxonomists today . Other notable early contributors to mycology in the 17th – 19th and early 20th centuries include Miles Joseph Berkeley , August Carl Joseph Corda , Anton de Bary , the brothers Louis René and Charles Tulasne , Arthur H. R. Buller , Curtis G. Lloyd , and Pier Andrea Saccardo . The 20th century has seen a modernization of mycology that has come from advances in biochemistry , genetics , molecular biology , and biotechnology . The use of DNA sequencing technologies and phylogenetic analysis has provided new insights into fungal relationships and biodiversity , and has challenged traditional morphology @-@ based groupings in fungal taxonomy .
= = Morphology = =
= = = Microscopic structures = = =
Most fungi grow as hyphae , which are cylindrical , thread @-@ like structures 2 – 10 µm in diameter and up to several centimeters in length . Hyphae grow at their tips ( apices ) ; new hyphae are typically formed by emergence of new tips along existing hyphae by a process called branching , or occasionally growing hyphal tips fork , giving rise to two parallel @-@ growing hyphae . The combination of apical growth and branching / forking leads to the development of a mycelium , an interconnected network of hyphae . Hyphae can be either septate or coenocytic . Septate hyphae are divided into compartments separated by cross walls ( internal cell walls , called septa , that are formed at right angles to the cell wall giving the hypha its shape ) , with each compartment containing one or more nuclei ; coenocytic hyphae are not compartmentalized . Septa have pores that allow cytoplasm , organelles , and sometimes nuclei to pass through ; an example is the dolipore septum in fungi of the phylum Basidiomycota . Coenocytic hyphae are in essence multinucleate supercells .
Many species have developed specialized hyphal structures for nutrient uptake from living hosts ; examples include haustoria in plant @-@ parasitic species of most fungal phyla , and arbuscules of several mycorrhizal fungi , which penetrate into the host cells to consume nutrients .
Although fungi are opisthokonts — a grouping of evolutionarily related organisms broadly characterized by a single posterior flagellum — all phyla except for the chytrids have lost their posterior flagella . Fungi are unusual among the eukaryotes in having a cell wall that , in addition to glucans ( e.g. , β @-@ 1 @,@ 3 @-@ glucan ) and other typical components , also contains the biopolymer chitin .
= = = Macroscopic structures = = =
Fungal mycelia can become visible to the naked eye , for example , on various surfaces and substrates , such as damp walls and spoiled food , where they are commonly called molds . Mycelia grown on solid agar media in laboratory petri dishes are usually referred to as colonies . These colonies can exhibit growth shapes and colors ( due to spores or pigmentation ) that can be used as diagnostic features in the identification of species or groups . Some individual fungal colonies can reach extraordinary dimensions and ages as in the case of a clonal colony of Armillaria solidipes , which extends over an area of more than 900 ha ( 3 @.@ 5 square miles ) , with an estimated age of nearly 9 @,@ 000 years .
The apothecium — a specialized structure important in sexual reproduction in the ascomycetes — is a cup @-@ shaped fruit body that holds the hymenium , a layer of tissue containing the spore @-@ bearing cells . The fruit bodies of the basidiomycetes ( basidiocarps ) and some ascomycetes can sometimes grow very large , and many are well known as mushrooms .
= = Growth and physiology = =
The growth of fungi as hyphae on or in solid substrates or as single cells in aquatic environments is adapted for the efficient extraction of nutrients , because these growth forms have high surface area to volume ratios . Hyphae are specifically adapted for growth on solid surfaces , and to invade substrates and tissues . They can exert large penetrative mechanical forces ; for example , the plant pathogen Magnaporthe grisea forms a structure called an appressorium that evolved to puncture plant tissues . The pressure generated by the appressorium , directed against the plant epidermis , can exceed 8 megapascals ( 1 @,@ 200 psi ) . The filamentous fungus Paecilomyces lilacinus uses a similar structure to penetrate the eggs of nematodes .
The mechanical pressure exerted by the appressorium is generated from physiological processes that increase intracellular turgor by producing osmolytes such as glycerol . Adaptations such as these are complemented by hydrolytic enzymes secreted into the environment to digest large organic molecules — such as polysaccharides , proteins , and lipids — into smaller molecules that may then be absorbed as nutrients . The vast majority of filamentous fungi grow in a polar fashion — i.e. , by extension into one direction — by elongation at the tip ( apex ) of the hypha . Other forms of fungal growth include intercalary extension ( longitudinal expansion of hyphal compartments that are below the apex ) as in the case of some endophytic fungi , or growth by volume expansion during the development of mushroom stipes and other large organs . Growth of fungi as multicellular structures consisting of somatic and reproductive cells — a feature independently evolved in animals and plants — has several functions , including the development of fruit bodies for dissemination of sexual spores ( see above ) and biofilms for substrate colonization and intercellular communication .
The fungi are traditionally considered heterotrophs , organisms that rely solely on carbon fixed by other organisms for metabolism . Fungi have evolved a high degree of metabolic versatility that allows them to use a diverse range of organic substrates for growth , including simple compounds such as nitrate , ammonia , acetate , or ethanol . In some species the pigment melanin may play a role in extracting energy from ionizing radiation , such as gamma radiation . This form of " radiotrophic " growth has been described for only a few species , the effects on growth rates are small , and the underlying biophysical and biochemical processes are not well known . This process might bear similarity to CO2 fixation via visible light , but instead uses ionizing radiation as a source of energy .
= = Reproduction = =
Fungal reproduction is complex , reflecting the differences in lifestyles and genetic makeup within this diverse kingdom of organisms . It is estimated that a third of all fungi reproduce using more than one method of propagation ; for example , reproduction may occur in two well @-@ differentiated stages within the life cycle of a species , the teleomorph and the anamorph . Environmental conditions trigger genetically determined developmental states that lead to the creation of specialized structures for sexual or asexual reproduction . These structures aid reproduction by efficiently dispersing spores or spore @-@ containing propagules .
= = = Asexual reproduction = = =
Asexual reproduction occurs via vegetative spores ( conidia ) or through mycelial fragmentation . Mycelial fragmentation occurs when a fungal mycelium separates into pieces , and each component grows into a separate mycelium . Mycelial fragmentation and vegetative spores maintain clonal populations adapted to a specific niche , and allow more rapid dispersal than sexual reproduction . The " Fungi imperfecti " ( fungi lacking the perfect or sexual stage ) or Deuteromycota comprise all the species that lack an observable sexual cycle .
= = = Sexual reproduction = = =
Sexual reproduction with meiosis exists in all fungal phyla except Glomeromycota . It differs in many aspects from sexual reproduction in animals or plants . Differences also exist between fungal groups and can be used to discriminate species by morphological differences in sexual structures and reproductive strategies . Mating experiments between fungal isolates may identify species on the basis of biological species concepts . The major fungal groupings have initially been delineated based on the morphology of their sexual structures and spores ; for example , the spore @-@ containing structures , asci and basidia , can be used in the identification of ascomycetes and basidiomycetes , respectively . Some species may allow mating only between individuals of opposite mating type , whereas others can mate and sexually reproduce with any other individual or itself . Species of the former mating system are called heterothallic , and of the latter homothallic .
Most fungi have both a haploid and a diploid stage in their life cycles . In sexually reproducing fungi , compatible individuals may combine by fusing their hyphae together into an interconnected network ; this process , anastomosis , is required for the initiation of the sexual cycle . Ascomycetes and basidiomycetes go through a dikaryotic stage , in which the nuclei inherited from the two parents do not combine immediately after cell fusion , but remain separate in the hyphal cells ( see heterokaryosis ) .
In ascomycetes , dikaryotic hyphae of the hymenium ( the spore @-@ bearing tissue layer ) form a characteristic hook at the hyphal septum . During cell division , formation of the hook ensures proper distribution of the newly divided nuclei into the apical and basal hyphal compartments . An ascus ( plural asci ) is then formed , in which karyogamy ( nuclear fusion ) occurs . Asci are embedded in an ascocarp , or fruiting body . Karyogamy in the asci is followed immediately by meiosis and the production of ascospores . After dispersal , the ascospores may germinate and form a new haploid mycelium .
Sexual reproduction in basidiomycetes is similar to that of the ascomycetes . Compatible haploid hyphae fuse to produce a dikaryotic mycelium . However , the dikaryotic phase is more extensive in the basidiomycetes , often also present in the vegetatively growing mycelium . A specialized anatomical structure , called a clamp connection , is formed at each hyphal septum . As with the structurally similar hook in the ascomycetes , the clamp connection in the basidiomycetes is required for controlled transfer of nuclei during cell division , to maintain the dikaryotic stage with two genetically different nuclei in each hyphal compartment . A basidiocarp is formed in which club @-@ like structures known as basidia generate haploid basidiospores after karyogamy and meiosis . The most commonly known basidiocarps are mushrooms , but they may also take other forms ( see Morphology section ) .
In glomeromycetes ( formerly zygomycetes ) , haploid hyphae of two individuals fuse , forming a gametangium , a specialized cell structure that becomes a fertile gamete @-@ producing cell . The gametangium develops into a zygospore , a thick @-@ walled spore formed by the union of gametes . When the zygospore germinates , it undergoes meiosis , generating new haploid hyphae , which may then form asexual sporangiospores . These sporangiospores allow the fungus to rapidly disperse and germinate into new genetically identical haploid fungal mycelia .
= = = Spore dispersal = = =
Both asexual and sexual spores or sporangiospores are often actively dispersed by forcible ejection from their reproductive structures . This ejection ensures exit of the spores from the reproductive structures as well as traveling through the air over long distances .
Specialized mechanical and physiological mechanisms , as well as spore surface structures ( such as hydrophobins ) , enable efficient spore ejection . For example , the structure of the spore @-@ bearing cells in some ascomycete species is such that the buildup of substances affecting cell volume and fluid balance enables the explosive discharge of spores into the air . The forcible discharge of single spores termed ballistospores involves formation of a small drop of water ( Buller 's drop ) , which upon contact with the spore leads to its projectile release with an initial acceleration of more than 10 @,@ 000 g ; the net result is that the spore is ejected 0 @.@ 01 – 0 @.@ 02 cm , sufficient distance for it to fall through the gills or pores into the air below . Other fungi , like the puffballs , rely on alternative mechanisms for spore release , such as external mechanical forces . The bird 's nest fungi use the force of falling water drops to liberate the spores from cup @-@ shaped fruiting bodies . Another strategy is seen in the stinkhorns , a group of fungi with lively colors and putrid odor that attract insects to disperse their spores .
= = = Other sexual processes = = =
Besides regular sexual reproduction with meiosis , certain fungi , such as those in the genera Penicillium and Aspergillus , may exchange genetic material via parasexual processes , initiated by anastomosis between hyphae and plasmogamy of fungal cells . The frequency and relative importance of parasexual events is unclear and may be lower than other sexual processes . It is known to play a role in intraspecific hybridization and is likely required for hybridization between species , which has been associated with major events in fungal evolution .
= = Evolution = =
In contrast to plants and animals , the early fossil record of the fungi is meager . Factors that likely contribute to the under @-@ representation of fungal species among fossils include the nature of fungal fruiting bodies , which are soft , fleshy , and easily degradable tissues and the microscopic dimensions of most fungal structures , which therefore are not readily evident . Fungal fossils are difficult to distinguish from those of other microbes , and are most easily identified when they resemble extant fungi . Often recovered from a permineralized plant or animal host , these samples are typically studied by making thin @-@ section preparations that can be examined with light microscopy or transmission electron microscopy . Researchers study compression fossils by dissolving the surrounding matrix with acid and then using light or scanning electron microscopy to examine surface details .
The earliest fossils possessing features typical of fungi date to the Proterozoic eon , some 1 @,@ 430 million years ago ( Ma ) ; these multicellular benthic organisms had filamentous structures with septa , and were capable of anastomosis . More recent studies ( 2009 ) estimate the arrival of fungal organisms at about 760 – 1060 Ma on the basis of comparisons of the rate of evolution in closely related groups . For much of the Paleozoic Era ( 542 – 251 Ma ) , the fungi appear to have been aquatic and consisted of organisms similar to the extant chytrids in having flagellum @-@ bearing spores . The evolutionary adaptation from an aquatic to a terrestrial lifestyle necessitated a diversification of ecological strategies for obtaining nutrients , including parasitism , saprobism , and the development of mutualistic relationships such as mycorrhiza and lichenization . Recent ( 2009 ) studies suggest that the ancestral ecological state of the Ascomycota was saprobism , and that independent lichenization events have occurred multiple times .
It is presumed that the fungi colonized the land during the Cambrian ( 542 – 488 @.@ 3 Ma ) , long before land plants . Fossilized hyphae and spores recovered from the Ordovician of Wisconsin ( 460 Ma ) resemble modern @-@ day Glomerales , and existed at a time when the land flora likely consisted of only non @-@ vascular bryophyte @-@ like plants . Prototaxites , which was probably a fungus or lichen , would have been the tallest organism of the late Silurian . Fungal fossils do not become common and uncontroversial until the early Devonian ( 416 – 359 @.@ 2 Ma ) , when they occur abundantly in the Rhynie chert , mostly as Zygomycota and Chytridiomycota . At about this same time , approximately 400 Ma , the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota diverged , and all modern classes of fungi were present by the Late Carboniferous ( Pennsylvanian , 318 @.@ 1 – 299 Ma ) .
Lichen @-@ like fossils have been found in the Doushantuo Formation in southern China dating back to 635 – 551 Ma . Lichens formed a component of the early terrestrial ecosystems , and the estimated age of the oldest terrestrial lichen fossil is 400 Ma ; this date corresponds to the age of the oldest known sporocarp fossil , a Paleopyrenomycites species found in the Rhynie Chert . The oldest fossil with microscopic features resembling modern @-@ day basidiomycetes is Palaeoancistrus , found permineralized with a fern from the Pennsylvanian . Rare in the fossil record are the Homobasidiomycetes ( a taxon roughly equivalent to the mushroom @-@ producing species of the Agaricomycetes ) . Two amber @-@ preserved specimens provide evidence that the earliest known mushroom @-@ forming fungi ( the extinct species Archaeomarasmius leggetti ) appeared during the late Cretaceous , 90 Ma .
Some time after the Permian – Triassic extinction event ( 251 @.@ 4 Ma ) , a fungal spike ( originally thought to be an extraordinary abundance of fungal spores in sediments ) formed , suggesting that fungi were the dominant life form at this time , representing nearly 100 % of the available fossil record for this period . However , the relative proportion of fungal spores relative to spores formed by algal species is difficult to assess , the spike did not appear worldwide , and in many places it did not fall on the Permian – Triassic boundary .
= = Taxonomy = =
Although commonly included in botany curricula and textbooks , fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants and are placed with the animals in the monophyletic group of opisthokonts . Analyses using molecular phylogenetics support a monophyletic origin of the Fungi . The taxonomy of the Fungi is in a state of constant flux , especially due to recent research based on DNA comparisons . These current phylogenetic analyses often overturn classifications based on older and sometimes less discriminative methods based on morphological features and biological species concepts obtained from experimental matings .
There is no unique generally accepted system at the higher taxonomic levels and there are frequent name changes at every level , from species upwards . Efforts among researchers are now underway to establish and encourage usage of a unified and more consistent nomenclature . Fungal species can also have multiple scientific names depending on their life cycle and mode ( sexual or asexual ) of reproduction . Web sites such as Index Fungorum and ITIS list current names of fungal species ( with cross @-@ references to older synonyms ) .
The 2007 classification of Kingdom Fungi is the result of a large @-@ scale collaborative research effort involving dozens of mycologists and other scientists working on fungal taxonomy . It recognizes seven phyla , two of which — the Ascomycota and the Basidiomycota — are contained within a branch representing subkingdom Dikarya . The accompanying cladogram depicts the major fungal taxa and their relationship to opisthokont and unikont organisms , based on the work of Philippe Silar and " The Mycota : A Comprehensive Treatise on Fungi as Experimental Systems for Basic and Applied Research " . The lengths of the branches are not proportional to evolutionary distances .
= = = Taxonomic groups = = =
The major phyla ( sometimes called divisions ) of fungi have been classified mainly on the basis of characteristics of their sexual reproductive structures . Currently , seven phyla are proposed : Microsporidia , Chytridiomycota , Blastocladiomycota , Neocallimastigomycota , Glomeromycota , Ascomycota , and Basidiomycota .
Phylogenetic analysis has demonstrated that the Microsporidia , unicellular parasites of animals and protists , are fairly recent and highly derived endobiotic fungi ( living within the tissue of another species ) . One 2006 study concludes that the Microsporidia are a sister group to the true fungi ; that is , they are each other 's closest evolutionary relative . Hibbett and colleagues suggest that this analysis does not clash with their classification of the Fungi , and although the Microsporidia are elevated to phylum status , it is acknowledged that further analysis is required to clarify evolutionary relationships within this group .
The Chytridiomycota are commonly known as chytrids . These fungi are distributed worldwide . Chytrids produce zoospores that are capable of active movement through aqueous phases with a single flagellum , leading early taxonomists to classify them as protists . Molecular phylogenies , inferred from rRNA sequences in ribosomes , suggest that the Chytrids are a basal group divergent from the other fungal phyla , consisting of four major clades with suggestive evidence for paraphyly or possibly polyphyly .
The Blastocladiomycota were previously considered a taxonomic clade within the Chytridiomycota . Recent molecular data and ultrastructural characteristics , however , place the Blastocladiomycota as a sister clade to the Zygomycota , Glomeromycota , and Dikarya ( Ascomycota and Basidiomycota ) . The blastocladiomycetes are saprotrophs , feeding on decomposing organic matter , and they are parasites of all eukaryotic groups . Unlike their close relatives , the chytrids , most of which exhibit zygotic meiosis , the blastocladiomycetes undergo sporic meiosis .
The Neocallimastigomycota were earlier placed in the phylum Chytridomycota . Members of this small phylum are anaerobic organisms , living in the digestive system of larger herbivorous mammals and in other terrestrial and aquatic environments enriched in cellulose ( e.g. , domestic waste landfill sites ) . They lack mitochondria but contain hydrogenosomes of mitochondrial origin . As the related chrytrids , neocallimastigomycetes form zoospores that are posteriorly uniflagellate or polyflagellate .
Members of the Glomeromycota form arbuscular mycorrhizae , a form of symbiosis wherein fungal hyphae invade plant root cells and both species benefit from the resulting increased supply of nutrients . All known Glomeromycota species reproduce asexually . The symbiotic association between the Glomeromycota and plants is ancient , with evidence dating to 400 million years ago . Formerly part of the Zygomycota ( commonly known as ' sugar ' and ' pin ' molds ) , the Glomeromycota were elevated to phylum status in 2001 and now replace the older phylum Zygomycota . Fungi that were placed in the Zygomycota are now being reassigned to the Glomeromycota , or the subphyla incertae sedis Mucoromycotina , Kickxellomycotina , the Zoopagomycotina and the Entomophthoromycotina . Some well @-@ known examples of fungi formerly in the Zygomycota include black bread mold ( Rhizopus stolonifer ) , and Pilobolus species , capable of ejecting spores several meters through the air . Medically relevant genera include Mucor , Rhizomucor , and Rhizopus .
The Ascomycota , commonly known as sac fungi or ascomycetes , constitute the largest taxonomic group within the Eumycota . These fungi form meiotic spores called ascospores , which are enclosed in a special sac @-@ like structure called an ascus . This phylum includes morels , a few mushrooms and truffles , unicellular yeasts ( e.g. , of the genera Saccharomyces , Kluyveromyces , Pichia , and Candida ) , and many filamentous fungi living as saprotrophs , parasites , and mutualistic symbionts . Prominent and important genera of filamentous ascomycetes include Aspergillus , Penicillium , Fusarium , and Claviceps . Many ascomycete species have only been observed undergoing asexual reproduction ( called anamorphic species ) , but analysis of molecular data has often been able to identify their closest teleomorphs in the Ascomycota . Because the products of meiosis are retained within the sac @-@ like ascus , ascomycetes have been used for elucidating principles of genetics and heredity ( e.g. , Neurospora crassa ) .
Members of the Basidiomycota , commonly known as the club fungi or basidiomycetes , produce meiospores called basidiospores on club @-@ like stalks called basidia . Most common mushrooms belong to this group , as well as rust and smut fungi , which are major pathogens of grains . Other important basidiomycetes include the maize pathogen Ustilago maydis , human commensal species of the genus Malassezia , and the opportunistic human pathogen , Cryptococcus neoformans .
= = = Fungus @-@ like organisms = = =
Because of similarities in morphology and lifestyle , the slime molds ( mycetozoans , plasmodiophorids , acrasids , Fonticula and labyrinthulids , now in Amoebozoa , Rhizaria , Excavata , Opisthokonta and Stramenopiles , respectively ) , water molds ( oomycetes ) and hyphochytrids ( both Stramenopiles ) were formerly classified in the kingdom Fungi , in groups like Mastigomycotina , Gymnomycota and Phycomycetes . The slime molds were studied also as protozoans , leading to a ambiregnal , duplicated taxonomy .
Unlike true fungi , the cell walls of oomycetes contain cellulose and lack chitin . Hyphochytrids have both chitin and cellulose . Slime molds lack a cell wall during the assimilative phase ( except labyrinthulids , which have a wall of scales ) , and ingest nutrients by ingestion ( phagocytosis , except labyrinthulids ) rather than absorption ( osmotrophy , as fungi , labyrinthulids , oomycetes and hyphochytrids ) . Neither water molds nor slime molds are closely related to the true fungi , and , therefore , taxonomists no longer group them in the kingdom Fungi . Nonetheless , studies of the oomycetes and myxomycetes are still often included in mycology textbooks and primary research literature .
The Eccrinales and Amoebidiales are opisthokont protists , previously thought to be zygomycete fungi . Other groups now in Opisthokonta ( e.g. , Corallochytrium , Ichthyosporea ) were also at given time classified as fungi . The genus Blastocystis , now in Stramenopiles , was originally classified as a yeast . Ellobiopsis , now in Alveolata , was considered a chytrid . The bacteria were also included in fungi in some classifications , as the group Schizomycetes .
The Rozellida clade , including the " ex @-@ chytrid " Rozella , is a genetically disparate group known mostly from environmental DNA sequences that is a sister group to fungi . Members of the group that have been isolated lack the chitinous cell wall that is characteristic of fungi .
The nucleariids , protists currently grouped in the Choanozoa ( Opisthokonta ) , may be the next sister group to the eumycete clade , and as such could be included in an expanded fungal kingdom .
= = Ecology = =
Although often inconspicuous , fungi occur in every environment on Earth and play very important roles in most ecosystems . Along with bacteria , fungi are the major decomposers in most terrestrial ( and some aquatic ) ecosystems , and therefore play a critical role in biogeochemical cycles and in many food webs . As decomposers , they play an essential role in nutrient cycling , especially as saprotrophs and symbionts , degrading organic matter to inorganic molecules , which can then re @-@ enter anabolic metabolic pathways in plants or other organisms .
= = = Symbiosis = = =
Many fungi have important symbiotic relationships with organisms from most if not all Kingdoms . These interactions can be mutualistic or antagonistic in nature , or in the case of commensal fungi are of no apparent benefit or detriment to the host .
= = = = With plants = = = =
Mycorrhizal symbiosis between plants and fungi is one of the most well @-@ known plant – fungus associations and is of significant importance for plant growth and persistence in many ecosystems ; over 90 % of all plant species engage in mycorrhizal relationships with fungi and are dependent upon this relationship for survival .
The mycorrhizal symbiosis is ancient , dating to at least 400 million years ago . It often increases the plant 's uptake of inorganic compounds , such as nitrate and phosphate from soils having low concentrations of these key plant nutrients . The fungal partners may also mediate plant @-@ to @-@ plant transfer of carbohydrates and other nutrients . Such mycorrhizal communities are called " common mycorrhizal networks " . A special case of mycorrhiza is myco @-@ heterotrophy , whereby the plant parasitizes the fungus , obtaining all of its nutrients from its fungal symbiont . Some fungal species inhabit the tissues inside roots , stems , and leaves , in which case they are called endophytes . Similar to mycorrhiza , endophytic colonization by fungi may benefit both symbionts ; for example , endophytes of grasses impart to their host increased resistance to herbivores and other environmental stresses and receive food and shelter from the plant in return .
= = = = With algae and cyanobacteria = = = =
Lichens are a symbiotic relationship between fungi and algae or cyanobacteria . The algae partner in the relationship is referred to in lichen terminology as a " photobiont " . The fungi part of the relationship are composed mostly of various species of ascomycetes and a few basidiomycetes . Lichens occur in every ecosystem on all continents , play a key role in soil formation and the initiation of biological succession , and are the dominating life forms in extreme environments , including polar , alpine , and semiarid desert regions . They are able to grow on inhospitable surfaces , including bare soil , rocks , tree bark , wood , shells , barnacles and leaves . As in mycorrhizas , the photobiont provides sugars and other carbohydrates via photosynthesis to the fungus , while the fungus provides minerals and water to the photobiont . The functions of both symbiotic organisms are so closely intertwined that they function almost as a single organism ; in most cases the resulting organism differs greatly from the individual components . Lichenization is a common mode of nutrition for fungi ; around 20 % of fungi — between 17 @,@ 500 and 20 @,@ 000 described species — are lichenized . Characteristics common to most lichens include obtaining organic carbon by photosynthesis , slow growth , small size , long life , long @-@ lasting ( seasonal ) vegetative reproductive structures , mineral nutrition obtained largely from airborne sources , and greater tolerance of desiccation than most other photosynthetic organisms in the same habitat .
= = = = With insects = = = =
Many insects also engage in mutualistic relationships with fungi . Several groups of ants cultivate fungi in the order Agaricales as their primary food source , while ambrosia beetles cultivate various species of fungi in the bark of trees that they infest . Likewise , females of several wood wasp species ( genus Sirex ) inject their eggs together with spores of the wood @-@ rotting fungus Amylostereum areolatum into the sapwood of pine trees ; the growth of the fungus provides ideal nutritional conditions for the development of the wasp larvae . At least one species of stingless bee has a relationship with a fungus in the genus Monascus , where the larvae consume and depend on fungus transferred from old to new nests . Termites on the African savannah are also known to cultivate fungi , and yeasts of the genera Candida and Lachancea inhabit the gut of a wide range of insects , including neuropterans , beetles , and cockroaches ; it is not known whether these fungi benefit their hosts . The larvae of many families of fungicolous flies , particularly those within the superfamily Sciaroidea such as the Mycetophilidae and some Keroplatidae feed on fungal fruiting bodies and sterile mycorrhizae .
= = = = As pathogens and parasites = = = =
Many fungi are parasites on plants , animals ( including humans ) , and other fungi . Serious pathogens of many cultivated plants causing extensive damage and losses to agriculture and forestry include the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae , tree pathogens such as Ophiostoma ulmi and Ophiostoma novo @-@ ulmi causing Dutch elm disease , and Cryphonectria parasitica responsible for chestnut blight , and plant pathogens in the genera Fusarium , Ustilago , Alternaria , and Cochliobolus . Some carnivorous fungi , like Paecilomyces lilacinus , are predators of nematodes , which they capture using an array of specialized structures such as constricting rings or adhesive nets .
Some fungi can cause serious diseases in humans , several of which may be fatal if untreated . These include aspergillosis , candidiasis , coccidioidomycosis , cryptococcosis , histoplasmosis , mycetomas , and paracoccidioidomycosis . Furthermore , persons with immuno @-@ deficiencies are particularly susceptible to disease by genera such as Aspergillus , Candida , Cryptoccocus , Histoplasma , and Pneumocystis . Other fungi can attack eyes , nails , hair , and especially skin , the so @-@ called dermatophytic and keratinophilic fungi , and cause local infections such as ringworm and athlete 's foot . Fungal spores are also a cause of allergies , and fungi from different taxonomic groups can evoke allergic reactions .
= = Mycotoxins = =
Many fungi produce biologically active compounds , several of which are toxic to animals or plants and are therefore called mycotoxins . Of particular relevance to humans are mycotoxins produced by molds causing food spoilage , and poisonous mushrooms ( see above ) . Particularly infamous are the lethal amatoxins in some Amanita mushrooms , and ergot alkaloids , which have a long history of causing serious epidemics of ergotism ( St Anthony 's Fire ) in people consuming rye or related cereals contaminated with sclerotia of the ergot fungus , Claviceps purpurea . Other notable mycotoxins include the aflatoxins , which are insidious liver toxins and highly carcinogenic metabolites produced by certain Aspergillus species often growing in or on grains and nuts consumed by humans , ochratoxins , patulin , and trichothecenes ( e.g. , T @-@ 2 mycotoxin ) and fumonisins , which have significant impact on human food supplies or animal livestock .
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites ( or natural products ) , and research has established the existence of biochemical pathways solely for the purpose of producing mycotoxins and other natural products in fungi . Mycotoxins may provide fitness benefits in terms of physiological adaptation , competition with other microbes and fungi , and protection from consumption ( fungivory ) .
= = Pathogenic mechanisms = =
Ustilago maydis is a pathogenic plant fungus that causes smut disease in maize and teosinte . Plants have evolved efficient defense systems against pathogenic microbes such as U. maydis . A rapid defense reaction after pathogen attack is the oxidative burst where the plant produces reactive oxygen species at the site of the attempted invasion . U. maydis can respond to the oxidative burst with an oxidative stress response , regulated by the gene YAP1 . The response protects U. maydis from the host defense , and is necessary for the pathogen ’ s virulence . Furthermore , U. maydis has a well @-@ established recombinational DNA repair system which acts during mitosis and meiosis . The system may assist the pathogen in surviving DNA damage arising from the host plant ’ s oxidative defensive response to infection .
Cryptococcus neoformans is an encapsulated yeast that can live in both plants and animals . C. neoformans usually infects the lungs , where it is phagocytosed by alveolar macrophages . Some C. neoformans can survive inside macrophages , which appears to be the basis for latency , disseminated disease , and resistance to antifungal agents . One mechanism by which C. neoformans survives the hostile macrophage environment is by up @-@ regulating the expression of genes involved in the oxidative stress response . Another mechanism involves meiosis . The majority of C. neoformans are mating " type a " . Filaments of mating " type a " ordinarily have haploid nuclei , but they can become diploid ( perhaps by endoduplication or by stimulated nuclear fusion ) to form blastospores . The diploid nuclei of blastospores can undergo meiosis , including recombination , to form haploid basidiospores that can be dispersed . This process is referred to as monokaryotic fruiting. this process requires a gene called DMC1 , which is a conserved homologue of genes recA in bacteria and RAD51 in eukaryotes , that mediates homologous chromosome pairing during meiosis and repair of DNA double @-@ strand breaks . Thus , C. neoformans can undergo a meiosis , monokaryotic fruiting , that promotes recombinational repair in the oxidative , DNA damaging environment of the host macrophage , and the repair capability may contribute to its virulence .
= = Human use = =
The human use of fungi for food preparation or preservation and other purposes is extensive and has a long history . Mushroom farming and mushroom gathering are large industries in many countries . The study of the historical uses and sociological impact of fungi is known as ethnomycology . Because of the capacity of this group to produce an enormous range of natural products with antimicrobial or other biological activities , many species have long been used or are being developed for industrial production of antibiotics , vitamins , and anti @-@ cancer and cholesterol @-@ lowering drugs . More recently , methods have been developed for genetic engineering of fungi , enabling metabolic engineering of fungal species . For example , genetic modification of yeast species — which are easy to grow at fast rates in large fermentation vessels — has opened up ways of pharmaceutical production that are potentially more efficient than production by the original source organisms .
= = = Therapeutic uses = = =
= = = = Modern chemotherapeutics = = = =
Many species produce metabolites that are major sources of pharmacologically active drugs . Particularly important are the antibiotics , including the penicillins , a structurally related group of β @-@ lactam antibiotics that are synthesized from small peptides . Although naturally occurring penicillins such as penicillin G ( produced by Penicillium chrysogenum ) have a relatively narrow spectrum of biological activity , a wide range of other penicillins can be produced by chemical modification of the natural penicillins . Modern penicillins are semisynthetic compounds , obtained initially from fermentation cultures , but then structurally altered for specific desirable properties . Other antibiotics produced by fungi include : ciclosporin , commonly used as an immunosuppressant during transplant surgery ; and fusidic acid , used to help control infection from methicillin @-@ resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteria . Widespread use of antibiotics for the treatment of bacterial diseases , such as tuberculosis , syphilis , leprosy , and others began in the early 20th century and continues to date . In nature , antibiotics of fungal or bacterial origin appear to play a dual role : at high concentrations they act as chemical defense against competition with other microorganisms in species @-@ rich environments , such as the rhizosphere , and at low concentrations as quorum @-@ sensing molecules for intra- or interspecies signaling . Other drugs produced by fungi include griseofulvin isolated from Penicillium griseofulvum , used to treat fungal infections , and statins ( HMG @-@ CoA reductase inhibitors ) , used to inhibit cholesterol synthesis . Examples of statins found in fungi include mevastatin from Penicillium citrinum and lovastatin from Aspergillus terreus and the oyster mushroom .
= = = = Traditional and folk medicine = = = =
Certain mushrooms enjoy usage as therapeutics in folk medicines , such as Traditional Chinese medicine . Notable medicinal mushrooms with a well @-@ documented history of use include Agaricus subrufescens , Ganoderma lucidum , and Ophiocordyceps sinensis . Research has identified compounds produced by these and other fungi that have inhibitory biological effects against viruses and cancer cells . Specific metabolites , such as polysaccharide @-@ K , ergotamine , and β @-@ lactam antibiotics , are routinely used in clinical medicine . The shiitake mushroom is a source of lentinan , a clinical drug approved for use in cancer treatments in several countries , including Japan . In Europe and Japan , polysaccharide @-@ K ( brand name Krestin ) , a chemical derived from Trametes versicolor , is an approved adjuvant for cancer therapy .
= = = Cultured foods = = =
Baker 's yeast or Saccharomyces cerevisiae , a unicellular fungus , is used to make bread and other wheat @-@ based products , such as pizza dough and dumplings . Yeast species of the genus Saccharomyces are also used to produce alcoholic beverages through fermentation . Shoyu koji mold ( Aspergillus oryzae ) is an essential ingredient in brewing Shoyu ( soy sauce ) and sake , and the preparation of miso , while Rhizopus species are used for making tempeh . Several of these fungi are domesticated species that were bred or selected according to their capacity to ferment food without producing harmful mycotoxins ( see below ) , which are produced by very closely related Aspergilli . Quorn , a meat substitute , is made from Fusarium venenatum .
= = = Edible and poisonous species = = =
Edible mushrooms are well @-@ known examples of fungi . Many are commercially raised , but others must be harvested from the wild . Agaricus bisporus , sold as button mushrooms when small or Portobello mushrooms when larger , is a commonly eaten species , used in salads , soups , and many other dishes . Many Asian fungi are commercially grown and have increased in popularity in the West . They are often available fresh in grocery stores and markets , including straw mushrooms ( Volvariella volvacea ) , oyster mushrooms ( Pleurotus ostreatus ) , shiitakes ( Lentinula edodes ) , and enokitake ( Flammulina spp . ) .
There are many more mushroom species that are harvested from the wild for personal consumption or commercial sale . Milk mushrooms , morels , chanterelles , truffles , black trumpets , and porcini mushrooms ( Boletus edulis ) ( also known as king boletes ) demand a high price on the market . They are often used in gourmet dishes .
Certain types of cheeses require inoculation of milk curds with fungal species that impart a unique flavor and texture to the cheese . Examples include the blue color in cheeses such as Stilton or Roquefort , which are made by inoculation with Penicillium roqueforti . Molds used in cheese production are non @-@ toxic and are thus safe for human consumption ; however , mycotoxins ( e.g. , aflatoxins , roquefortine C , patulin , or others ) may accumulate because of growth of other fungi during cheese ripening or storage .
Many mushroom species are poisonous to humans , with toxicities ranging from slight digestive problems or allergic reactions as well as hallucinations to severe organ failures and death . Genera with mushrooms containing deadly toxins include Conocybe , Galerina , Lepiota , and , the most infamous , Amanita . The latter genus includes the destroying angel ( A. virosa ) and the death cap ( A. phalloides ) , the most common cause of deadly mushroom poisoning . The false morel ( Gyromitra esculenta ) is occasionally considered a delicacy when cooked , yet can be highly toxic when eaten raw . Tricholoma equestre was considered edible until it was implicated in serious poisonings causing rhabdomyolysis . Fly agaric mushrooms ( Amanita muscaria ) also cause occasional non @-@ fatal poisonings , mostly as a result of ingestion for its hallucinogenic properties . Historically , fly agaric was used by different peoples in Europe and Asia and its present usage for religious or shamanic purposes is reported from some ethnic groups such as the Koryak people of north @-@ eastern Siberia .
As it is difficult to accurately identify a safe mushroom without proper training and knowledge , it is often advised to assume that a wild mushroom is poisonous and not to consume it .
= = = Pest control = = =
In agriculture , fungi may be useful if they actively compete for nutrients and space with pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria or other fungi via the competitive exclusion principle , or if they are parasites of these pathogens . For example , certain species may be used to eliminate or suppress the growth of harmful plant pathogens , such as insects , mites , weeds , nematodes , and other fungi that cause diseases of important crop plants . This has generated strong interest in practical applications that use these fungi in the biological control of these agricultural pests . Entomopathogenic fungi can be used as biopesticides , as they actively kill insects . Examples that have been used as biological insecticides are Beauveria bassiana , Metarhizium spp , Hirsutella spp , Paecilomyces ( Isaria ) spp , and Lecanicillium lecanii . Endophytic fungi of grasses of the genus Neotyphodium , such as N. coenophialum , produce alkaloids that are toxic to a range of invertebrate and vertebrate herbivores . These alkaloids protect grass plants from herbivory , but several endophyte alkaloids can poison grazing animals , such as cattle and sheep . Infecting cultivars of pasture or forage grasses with Neotyphodium endophytes is one approach being used in grass breeding programs ; the fungal strains are selected for producing only alkaloids that increase resistance to herbivores such as insects , while being non @-@ toxic to livestock .
= = = Bioremediation = = =
Certain fungi , in particular " white rot " fungi , can degrade insecticides , herbicides , pentachlorophenol , creosote , coal tars , and heavy fuels and turn them into carbon dioxide , water , and basic elements . Fungi have been shown to biomineralize uranium oxides , suggesting they may have application in the bioremediation of radioactively polluted sites .
= = = Model organisms = = =
Several pivotal discoveries in biology were made by researchers using fungi as model organisms , that is , fungi that grow and sexually reproduce rapidly in the laboratory . For example , the one gene @-@ one enzyme hypothesis was formulated by scientists using the bread mold Neurospora crassa to test their biochemical theories . Other important model fungi are Aspergillus nidulans and the yeasts Saccaromyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe , each of which with a long history of use to investigate issues in eukaryotic cell biology and genetics , such as cell cycle regulation , chromatin structure , and gene regulation . Other fungal models have more recently emerged that address specific biological questions relevant to medicine , plant pathology , and industrial uses ; examples include Candida albicans , a dimorphic , opportunistic human pathogen , Magnaporthe grisea , a plant pathogen , and Pichia pastoris , a yeast widely used for eukaryotic protein production .
= = = Others = = =
Fungi are used extensively to produce industrial chemicals like citric , gluconic , lactic , and malic acids , and industrial enzymes , such as lipases used in biological detergents , cellulases used in making cellulosic ethanol and stonewashed jeans , and amylases , invertases , proteases and xylanases . Several species , most notably Psilocybin mushrooms ( colloquially known as magic mushrooms ) , are ingested for their psychedelic properties , both recreationally and religiously .
= = = Cited literature = = =
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= Devin Hester =
Devin Devorris Hester ( born November 4 , 1982 ) is an American football wide receiver and return specialist who is currently a free agent . He was drafted by the Chicago Bears in the second round of the 2006 NFL Draft . He played college football at Miami , where he was the first player in the university ’ s recent history to play in all three phases of American football : offense , defense and special teams .
Originally drafted as a cornerback , Hester quickly made an impact as a kick returner , and later became one of the team 's starting wide receivers . Hester holds the NFL record for most all @-@ time return touchdowns ( punt and kick combined ) and most all @-@ time punt return touchdowns . He is widely regarded as one of the best return specialists in the NFL ’ s history .
= = Early years = =
Devin Hester was born to Juanita Brown and Lenorris Hester , Sr. in Riviera Beach , Florida . His parents separated when he was a toddler . Before he became a teenager , his mother was severely injured in a car accident , while his father died of cancer two years later . His step @-@ father , Derrick Brown , and brother , Lenorris , Jr . , helped Hester escape his depression and rebuild his life by introducing him to football . He soon returned to his normal life and began to excel in sports and academics .
During his youth , Hester enjoyed following the Dallas Cowboys . He especially idolized Deion Sanders , Emmitt Smith and Michael Irvin . He was also a fan of the Chicago Bulls during the Michael Jordan and Phil Jackson era . Fred Taylor of the University of Florida was Hester 's favorite athlete . In addition to football , he also enjoyed playing soccer and following baseball .
= = High school career = =
Hester attended first Palm Beach Gardens High , then on to Suncoast High School , where he played football as a cornerback , wide receiver , return specialist , and running back . He earned recognition from SuperPrep.com as the top high school prospect in Florida and Parade , who named Hester onto their All @-@ American team . Hester also participated in the 2002 CaliFlorida Bowl , where he returned a kick for an 80 @-@ yard touchdown . His success prompted his teammates to nickname him " Sugar Foot . "
Considered a five @-@ star recruit by Rivals.com , Hester was listed as the No. 2 cornerback in the nation in 2002 .
= = = Track and field = = =
Hester was also a standout track athlete . While he was at Riviera Beach ( FL ) Suncoast Co . , he received All @-@ America accolades , and he ranked 2nd nationally in the long jump as a junior . He also captured the 2004 Big EAST Indoor long jump title as a member of the University of Miami track and field team , with a leap of 7 @.@ 37 meters . He also competed in the 60 meters and 100 meters , posting personal bests of 6 @.@ 77 seconds and 10 @.@ 62 , 10.42W seconds , respectively .
= = = = Personal bests = = = =
= = College career = =
After completing high school , Hester enrolled at the University of Miami , where he played for the Miami Hurricanes football team from 2003 to 2005 . As a sophomore in 2004 , he earned national recognition as a kick returner after being named a first @-@ team All @-@ American by the Walter Camp Football Foundation and The Sporting News ' . His ability to thrust laterally and break away from pursuers made him one of the nation ’ s most dangerous return specialists . During his freshman year , Hester returned an opening kick for a 98 @-@ yard touchdown against the Florida Gators . In a game against Duke in 2005 , Hester broke six tackles while returning an 81 @-@ yard punt . Ultimately , Hester completed his college career with a total of six touchdowns from kick returns , including one blocked field goal return . He also scored one rushing and receiving touchdown and recorded five interceptions as a defensive back .
Hester became the first football player in the Miami Hurricanes ' recent history to play as member of the special , offensive , and defensive teams . He was known as " Hurricane Hester " by his fans and teammates . During his productive tenure at the University of Miami , Hester befriended Deion Sanders through Ed Reed , an alumnus of the University of Miami , and friend of Sanders . Sanders counseled , advised , and encouraged Hester . Hester was also known as " Anytime " in college , which is a tribute to Sanders ' nickname , " Prime Time " . He also adopted Sanders ' signature touchdown dance , and showboating maneuvers , which he carried to his future NFL career .
= = Professional career = =
= = = 2006 NFL Combine = = =
= = = Chicago Bears = = =
= = = = 2006 = = = =
Hester began his professional career in the National Football League with the Chicago Bears , who selected him in the second round of the 2006 NFL Draft . The team originally drafted Hester as a cornerback , but they intended to play him as a return specialist , following the retirement of Jerry Azumah , and departure of Bobby Wade . The team 's decision to draft Hester was initially criticized by fans and sports analysts , who believed the Bears should have spent their early picks on offensive prospects .
In his first thirteen weeks as a professional football player , Hester recorded six return touchdowns , including a punt return in his NFL debut , and a then @-@ record tying 108 @-@ yard touchdown from a missed field goal against the New York Giants . He also returned a punt for a clutch 83 @-@ yard game @-@ winning touchdown against the Arizona Cardinals to give the Bears the lead in a comeback win , and two kickoff returns in one game against the St. Louis Rams . Following his record @-@ breaking game during Week 14 , opposing teams exercised additional caution when allowing Hester to return kicks . During the postseason Hester ran back a punt at a critical moment against the Seattle Seahawks , but it was called back on a blocking penalty . Regardless , the Bears won both NFC playoffs rounds , and advanced to Super Bowl XLI to play the Indianapolis Colts . He started the game on a high note for the Bears by returning the game ’ s opening kick for a touchdown . The feat was the first touchdown return of an opening kickoff in Super Bowl history . It also marked the quickest touchdown scored in Super Bowl history as well as the quickest lead ever taken by any team , though the latter record has since been surpassed by the Seahawks in Super Bowl XLVIII . Following the kick , the Colts did not kick the ball directly to Hester , significantly limiting the Bears ’ return efforts .
Hester 's feats in 2006 earned him three NFC Special Teams Player of the Week Awards and a trip to the 2007 Pro Bowl . After the 2006 season ended , he was named the NFC Player of the Month for December and was a finalist for 2006 Pepsi NFL Rookie of the Year . He was also voted onto the Associated Press ’ s 2006 All @-@ Pro team with 48 and a half votes , finishing fourth behind LaDainian Tomlinson , Champ Bailey , and Jason Taylor who all received 50 votes . He finished the 2006 season by accumulating three touchdowns for 600 yards on 47 punt returns , and two touchdowns for 528 yards on 20 kick returns , thus making him one of the league ’ s most productive kick and punt returners . Even without taking an offensive snap prior to Week 14 , Hester was the Bears ' second leading scorer , behind kicker Robbie Gould . On a negative note , Hester struggled to control the football at times , having games with multiple fumbles on at least two separate occasions .
Many fans speculated that Hester ’ s speed and prior experience as a wide receiver would earn him a spot on the Bears ' offense , similar to teammate Rashied Davis . While Lovie Smith dismissed the speculation , he played Hester as a wide receiver for one play against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers on December 17 , 2006 . Hester attributes his talent to his mentor , Deion Sanders , who Hester claims helped him perfect his return game . Sanders , a former cornerback and kick returner , compliments Hester after every productive performance . However , Sanders also berated Hester for taunting another player en route to his second touchdown return against the St. Louis Rams . His teammates and coaches have also praised Hester . After the 2006 season , he was voted to receive the team 's Brian Piccolo Award , which is given to a player who possesses a good character and work ethic . Bears fans and the local media nicknamed Hester the " Windy City Flyer " during his first year in Chicago .
= = = = 2007 = = = =
Shortly after losing Super Bowl XLI , Hester and special teams coach Dave Toub spent a significant amount of time working on new return strategies and formations . Ultimately , Lovie Smith converted Hester into a wide receiver in order to increase the number of opportunities he would receive during a game . Hester , who originally played as a wide receiver at the University of Miami , was initially hesitant about making the switch to offense , as he wished to follow in the footsteps of Deion Sanders . However , the Bears ’ coaching staff eventually persuaded Hester to make the transition over the summer . During the 2007 off @-@ season , Hester won the Best Breakthrough Athlete ESPY Award .
Although NFL rules generally require wide receivers to wear jersey numbers in the 10 @-@ 19 and 80 @-@ 89 range , players who later change positions are allowed to keep their previous number , as long as it is not within the 50 @-@ 79 range for eligible receiver purposes . Hester was allowed to keep number 23 , a number normally used for cornerbacks , since it sits outside the 50 @-@ 79 range . Along with former Pittsburgh Steelers wide receiver Dwight Stone , who wore number 20 during his eight @-@ year stint in Pittsburgh , Hester was one of two wide receivers to wear a 20 's jersey number since the NFL adopted the current uniform numbering system in 1973 .
Hester returned his first touchdown of the season , a 73 @-@ yard punt return , against the Kansas City Chiefs during Week 2 . He nearly recorded a second touchdown return , but the play was negated by a holding penalty . Hester established himself as a threat on offense , when he caught an 81 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Brian Griese against the Minnesota Vikings . He also returned a punt for an 89 @-@ yard touchdown , though the Bears lost the game . In the weeks to come , many opposing special teams began to kick the ball away from Hester , contributing to , according to Mike Pereira , a 132 % increase in kickoffs that went out @-@ of @-@ bounds . Rod Marinelli , the head coach of the Detroit Lions , placed a strong emphasis on kicking the ball away from Hester , saying , " kick the ball into Lake Michigan and make sure it ( sinks ) to the bottom . "
Before the Bears ’ Week 12 matchup against the Denver Broncos , Todd Sauerbrun infamously stated that he would kick the ball to Hester . Hester , who had not returned a kick for a touchdown in almost a month , responded by returning a punt and kickoff for touchdowns . Keith Olbermann , a commentator for NBC Sunday Night Football , awarded Sauerbrun with the dubious " Worst Person in the NFL Award " for kicking the ball to Hester and failing to tackle him . The two touchdowns gave Hester the most kick returns for touchdowns in the Bears ’ franchise history . Hester concluded the season with a 64 @-@ yard punt return for a touchdown and a 55 @-@ yard touchdown reception against the New Orleans Saints . He was even given the opportunity to throw a pass on a variation of a wide receiver reverse , but he was sacked while motioning to Bernard Berrian .
Hester finished the season with six kicks returned for touchdowns , which set a league record . He finished the season ranking fourth on the League ’ s all @-@ time combined kick return list , behind Brian Mitchell ( 13 ) , Eric Metcalf ( 12 ) , and Dante Hall ( 12 ) . Additionally , he amassed 299 yards on twenty receptions as a receiver , though he was often used as a decoy . His play on offense received mixed commentary . While the Bears ’ coaching staff believed Hester showed enough progress to become one of the team 's top receivers in 2008 , Hester was prone to making small errors , including running routes incorrectly or dropping catches . He drew a fifteen @-@ yard facemask penalty while attempting to fend off a would @-@ be tackler in a game against the Saints , and received a $ 5 @,@ 000 fine . Nevertheless , Hester concluded the season with four Player of the Week Awards , giving him a franchise @-@ high total of seven in his career , and an invitation to the 2008 Pro Bowl .
= = = = 2008 = = = =
Prior to the beginning of the 2008 season , Hester stated that he would not attend the Bears ' summer camp unless the team offered him a new contract . He further voiced his displeasure with his current contract in a phone interview with the Chicago Tribune , commenting , " I can ’ t go out and play this year making $ 445 @,@ 000 . Come on , man . " Adam Schefter believed that the Bears were puzzled over how Hester should be classified ( as a wide receiver or a return specialist of such a star caliber ) , and be offered a contract accordingly . After receiving a $ 30 @,@ 000 fine for not attending two days of training , Hester returned to the team 's camp . The team later offered him a new four @-@ year contract extension , worth over $ 40 million .
Hester missed the third game of the season after tearing cartilage in his ribs during the previous week . He returned to the field in the team 's Week 4 contest against the Philadelphia Eagles , where he caught his first touchdown of the season . Lovie Smith gave Hester his first starting job as a wide receiver the next week , in place of the injured Brandon Lloyd . Hester went on to catch five passes for 66 yards and one touchdown . In the following week , Hester totaled 87 yards on six receptions .
After a Week 8 bye , Hester caught four passes for 42 yards and had an 11 @-@ yard run against the Detroit Lions . He eventually lost his kick return duties to Danieal Manning , but began receiving more playing time as a wide receiver . Between Week 12 and 15 , Hester caught 17 passes for 250 yards and one touchdown . David Haugh of the Chicago Tribune regarded Hester as the team 's " biggest threat in the passing game . " He concluded the season by catching 51 passes for a team high 665 yards . Unlike his previous two seasons in the NFL , Hester did not record a single touchdown return and only averaged 6 @.@ 2 yards per punt return . Lovie Smith commented on Hester at the end of the season by saying , " I know his returns dropped off a little bit this year , but his plate was full there for a while . We think we have a happy medium now for him as a punt returner and continuing to develop as a receiver . " Hester was also selected to play in the 2009 Pro Bowl as a third alternate .
= = = = 2009 = = = =
After the acquisition of Jay Cutler , Hester took on the role as the de facto number one wide receiver . In the first game of the season , Hester caught seven passes from Cutler for 90 yards , including a 36 @-@ yard touchdown reception . In the following weeks Hester began to develop a rapport with Cutler and amassed 634 receiving yards and three touchdowns though the first ten weeks of the season . He played the best game of the season on October 25 , 2009 against the Cincinnati Bengals , catching eight passes for 101 yards and a touchdown . In a game against the St. Louis Rams during the thirteenth week of the season , Hester injured his calf and missed three starts . Hester returned to play in the Bears season finale against the Detroit Lions , catching three passes for 75 yards . Despite missing the three starts , Hester led the team with 757 receiving yards , and finished behind Greg Olsen in receptions . Hester built his reputation around his kick returning abilities , but his kickoff @-@ returning duties decreased significantly following the 2007 season finale . He told the Chicago Tribune that he plans on spending the offseason honing his receiving and returning skills by strengthening in his legs , especially to fully recover from the calf injury he sustained earlier .
= = = = 2010 = = = =
During the off @-@ season , Hester worked on his speed and conditioning by prioritizing running over weight training . Bears offensive coordinator , Mike Martz , gave Hester the opportunity to work with Isaac Bruce , who was part of Martz 's " Greatest Show on Turf " . Bruce advised Hester on route @-@ running and basic wide receiver fundamentals . Hester appeared in three preseason games , where he recorded five receptions for 64 @-@ yards .
On September 19 , the regular season , Hester caught four passes for 77 yards and a one @-@ handed catch for a touchdown against the Dallas Cowboys . The following week , Hester returned a punt for a 62 @-@ yard touchdown in a close game against the Green Bay Packers . This was his first touchdown return since the final week of the 2007 season against the New Orleans Saints . On October 17 , Hester returned 2 punts for 93 yards and an 89 @-@ yard touchdown , in a 23 – 20 loss against the Seattle Seahawks . The touchdown tied the record for most combined kick and punt return touchdowns in a career with Brian Mitchell ( 13 ) . In week 10 of the regular season , Hester caught 4 passes for 38 yards and a 19 @-@ yard touchdown against the Minnesota Vikings . Hester was given back his kick return duties , and returned 2 kicks for 100 yards including a run back of 68 yards . Hester also ran back 2 punts for 47 yards including a return of 42 yards . 2 weeks later , Hester caught 3 balls for 86 yards from Jay Cutler , and returned a kick 46 yards in a 31 – 26 win against the Philadelphia Eagles . On December 20 in a game against the Minnesota Vikings , Hester scored on a 15 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Jay Cutler . Later , Hester returned a Chris Kluwe punt 64 yards for a touchdown , which set the all @-@ time NFL record for combined kickoff and punt returns for touchdown with 14 , passing Brian Mitchell . It was the tenth punt return for touchdown of his career , tying Eric Metcalf 's record for the most punt return touchdowns in a career .
Hester finished the season with 40 receptions for 475 yards and 4 touchdowns . As a return specialist , he amassed 564 yards on punt returns , while averaging 17 @.@ 1 yards per return and scored 3 touchdowns . Hester was the third leading scorer , behind running back Matt Forte and kicker Robbie Gould . His accomplishments in the 2010 season earned him 2 NFC Special Teams Player of The Week Awards , a trip to the 2011 Pro Bowl , and a selection to the All @-@ Pro Team . Hester was ranked 32nd best player in the League in a poll where active NFL players ranked their top 100 peers .
= = = = 2011 = = = =
Prior to the 2011 season , the NFL passed a new rule that moved kickoffs to the 35 @-@ yard line from the 30 @-@ yard line . The change was a result of a player safety initiative to reduce the amount of injuries and concussions that would occur during kick @-@ offs . The rule change directly resulted in a higher number of touchbacks and fewer returns . Hester commented on the situation stating , “ They got a couple touchbacks but you ’ ve still got guys bringing it out and at the end of the day that rule is pointless . ”
On October 2 , 2011 , Hester became the NFL 's all @-@ time leader in punt return touchdowns with 11 when he returned a punt 69 yards for a touchdown against the Carolina Panthers surpassing Eric Metcalf 's record . On October 16 , Hester returned a kickoff for a 98 @-@ yard TD against the Vikings . On November 13 , Hester returned a punt 82 yards for a touchdown against the Detroit Lions .
= = = = 2012 = = = =
On April 30 , 2012 , Bears offensive coordinator Mike Tice and general manager Phil Emery announced that Hester 's role would be reduced down to at least 4th @-@ string , and Tice mentioned that the Bears would utilize Hester in a series of plays called the " Hester Package " , instead of an every @-@ down receiver . In the season , Hester caught 23 passes , a career low , while only catching one touchdown in Week 4 against the Dallas Cowboys . He also failed to return a kick / punt for a touchdown , and ranked 22nd in punt return average during 2012 . After Lovie Smith 's firing on December 31 , Hester stated that he considered retirement , though he tweeted that his consideration was not related to Smith .
= = = = 2013 = = = =
Hester exclusively saw play @-@ time as a return specialist when Marc Trestman became the Bears ’ head coach . In week two against the Minnesota Vikings , Hester broke the team record for most kickoff return yards in a game with 249 . Four weeks later against the New York Giants , Hester passed Glyn Milburn for the most all @-@ time kickoff return yards in franchise history with 4 @,@ 643 yards . Against the Washington Redskins , Hester returned a punt 81 yards for a touchdown for his 19th career return touchdown , tying Deion Sanders ' record . In addition to Hester 's NFL records , he is also the leader in career punt returns ( 264 ) and punt return yards ( 3 @,@ 241 ) among active players . Hester ended the 2013 season having averaged 27 @.@ 7 kickoff return yards and 14 @.@ 2 punt return yards , while also leading the league in kickoff return yards with 1 @,@ 442 .
Hester became a free agent on March 11 , 2014 . He released a statement on March 5 , 2014 that the Bears did not intend to re @-@ sign him . Hester thanked the Bears organization and fan base for their support throughout his time in Chicago . Phil Emery , the Bears ' general manager , commented on Hester 's legacy , stating , " While Devin has redefined the pinnacle standard of the return position in the NFL , the memories and contributions he has given us cannot be measured by stats or numbers . "
= = = Atlanta Falcons = = =
= = = = 2014 = = = =
Hester signed a three @-@ year contract with the Atlanta Falcons on March 20 , 2014 . In his debut game with the Falcons , Hester caught 5 passes for 99 yards , helping lead the Falcons to a 37 @-@ 34 overtime victory over the New Orleans Saints . During Week 3 , Hester brought back a 62 @-@ yard punt for his 20th career touchdown return , breaking the record for career non @-@ offensive touchdowns he previously shared with Deion Sanders . Also in the same game , Hester recorded a rushing touchdown , forced fumble and fumble recovery . Hester was named the NFC 's Special Teams Player of the Week for his accomplishments .
= = = = 2015 = = = =
Hester missed a majority of the 2015 NFL season due to a turf toe injury . The Falcons activated him from the injury reserve for the final five games of the season , but only used Hester on special teams . He tallied 235 yards kick return yards and 34 punt return yards , but failed to record a touchdown . Hester underwent foot surgery in January 2016 to repair the toe injury he sustained earlier in the season .
= = = = 2016 = = = =
On July 26 , Hester was released by the Atlanta Falcons .
= = Statistics and records = =
= = = NFL career statistics = = =
* Hester returned a Jay Feely missed field goal 108 yards for a touchdown in a game against the Giants .
= = = NFL records = = =
Combined special teams return touchdowns , career : 20 ( 14 punts , 5 kickoffs , 1 missed field goal )
Most non @-@ offensive touchdowns , career : 20
Most kickoff and punt return touchdowns , career : 19
Punt return touchdowns , career : 14
Punt return touchdowns , season : 4 ( 2007 )
Kickoff return touchdowns , game : 2 ( Chicago Bears at St. Louis Rams , December 11 , 2006 )
tied with many other players
Combined return touchdowns , season : 6 ( 2007 ) ( 4 punts , 2 kickoffs )
Combined return touchdowns , rookie , season : 5 ( 2006 ) ( 3 punts , 2 kickoffs )
Combined return touchdowns , game : 2 , twice
2 , Chicago Bears at St. Louis Rams , December 11 , 2006 ( 2 kickoffs )
2 , Chicago Bears vs. Denver Broncos , November 25 , 2007 ( 1 punt , 1 kickoff )
Non @-@ offensive touchdowns , season : 6 , twice
6 , 2006 ( 3 punts , 2 kickoffs , 1 missed field goal )
6 , 2007 ( 4 punts , 2 kickoffs )
= = = Chicago Bears franchise records = = =
Most punt returns , lifetime : 264
Most punt return yards , lifetime : 3 @,@ 241 yards
Most punt return yards , season : 651 yards ( 2007 )
Most punt return yards , game : 152 yards , at Arizona Cardinals , October 16 , 2006
Highest average , yards per punt return , season [ min . 15 returns ] : 17 @.@ 1 ( 2010 )
Hester returned 33 punts for 564 yards .
Highest average , yards per punt return , game [ min . 3 returns ] : 40 @.@ 7 , vs. Detroit Lions , November 13 , 2011
Hester returned 3 punts for 122 yards .
Most punt return touchdowns , lifetime : 13
Most punt return touchdowns , season : 4
Most punt return touchdowns , game : 1
Achieved several times and tied with many players
Most punt return fair catches , lifetime : 79
Most kickoff returns , lifetime : 222
Most kickoff return yards , lifetime : 5 @,@ 510 yards
Most kickoff return yards , game : 249 yards , vs. Minnesota Vikings , September 15 , 2013
Highest average , yards per kickoff return , game [ min . 3 returns ] : 56 @.@ 3 , at St. Louis Rams , December 11 , 2006
Hester returned 4 kickoffs for 225 yards .
Most kickoff return touchdowns , game : 2 , at St. Louis Rams , December 11 , 2006
Most combined return yards , lifetime : 8 @,@ 751 yards ( p @-@ 3 @,@ 241 , k @-@ 5 @,@ 510 )
Most combined return yards , game : 314 yards , at Detroit Lions , September 30 , 2007 ( p @-@ 95 , k @-@ 219 )
Most combined return touchdowns , lifetime : 18 ( p @-@ 13 , k @-@ 5 )
Most combined return touchdowns , season : 6 in 2007 ( p @-@ 4 , k @-@ 2 )
Most combined return touchdowns , game : 2 , twice
2 , at St. Louis Rams , December 11 , 2006 ( 2 kickoffs )
2 , vs. Denver Broncos , November 25 , 2007 ( 1 punt , 1 kickoff )
Longest play : 108 yards , at New York Giants , November 12 , 2006
tied with Nathan Vasher
= = Personal life = =
Hester was in a relationship with Tamara James , a women 's basketball player he met at the University of Miami . James played professionally for the Washington Mystics . Their engagement was later called off . Later , Hester married Zingha Walcott , an elementary school teacher in 2010 . They have two sons . Hester ’ s family lives in Florida and was struck by Hurricane Wilma in 2005 . Hester has assisted his family financially in helping them rebuild their home . His brother Lenorris Jr . , lived with Hester during his tenure with the Bears . Raised in a Christian household , Hester brings a Bible to every game he plays .
Hester ’ s successful rookie year drew him much publicity and popularity . Ever since his record @-@ breaking performance against the Rams , Hester has been offered marketing opportunities from Nike , soft drink , and cell phone companies . There has also been a surge in the demand for Hester ’ s jerseys within the Chicago area sporting stores . Also , Hester was invited to throw the ceremonial opening pitch and sing Take Me Out to the Ball Game at the Chicago Cubs ' 2007 home opener . Along with teammates Rex Grossman and Tommie Harris , Hester appeared on the February 2007 issue of Sports Illustrated for Kids . His reputation has also been bolstered by EA Sports ' Madden NFL 08 , where Hester 's perfect 100 speed rating made him the fastest player in the game 's history . Hester also appeared in a promotional video for the game . He appeared in commercials for Under Armour in 2008 and 2009 . In 2013 , Hester outran a cheetah in a race sponsored by National Geographic at Busch Gardens Tampa . The competition consisted of Hester running back and forth on a straight track to simulate laps , while the cheetah ran in a similar but separate track . In 2013 , Hester founded the Anytime 23 Empowerment Center Inc . , a non @-@ profit organization that serves as a positive , nurturing and safe environment for kids ages 6 – 18 .
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= New Jersey Route 173 =
Route 173 is a state highway in New Jersey , United States that is a designation for an old section of U.S. Route 22 . The route runs 14 @.@ 62 mi ( 23 @.@ 53 km ) from Interstate 78 and U.S. Route 22 in Greenwich Township , Warren County to County Route 626 ( Beaver Avenue ) in Clinton Township , Hunterdon County , just east of an interchange with Route 31 . Route 173 parallels Interstate 78 and U.S. Route 22 for its entire length through rural areas of Warren and Hunterdon Counties , passing through the towns of Bloomsbury and Clinton along the way . At one point just to the west of Clinton , Route 173 runs concurrent with Interstate 78 and U.S. Route 22 .
The route was originally part of Pre @-@ 1927 Route 9 from 1916 until 1927 , when it became part of U.S. Route 22 and Route 28 . The Route 28 designation was removed from this portion of road in 1953 . When I @-@ 78 was being built between Exits 11 and 13 in the 1950s and 1960s , it was decided that part of U.S. Route 22 would be used for the new highway . The eastbound lanes of US 22 became the westbound lanes of the new highway , the eastbound lanes of the new highway were newly constructed , and the westbound lanes of US 22 were turned into a two @-@ lane road . In 1969 , US 22 was moved to the alignment of Interstate 78 between Greenwich Township and Clinton Township and Route 173 was designated along most of the former alignment of U.S. Route 22 .
= = Route description = =
= = = Warren County = = =
Route 173 begins at an interchange with Interstate 78 and U.S. Route 22 in Greenwich Township , Warren County , where the route continues to the northwest as part of U.S. Route 22 , a six @-@ lane , divided highway that heads towards Phillipsburg . From this interchange , Route 173 heads east on a two @-@ lane , undivided road that parallels Interstate 78 / U.S. Route 22 to the south , passing through farmland and some suburban residential developments . County Route 644 ( Greenwich Church Road ) loops to the north of Route 173 as the route features three crossings of the Pohatcong Creek . Route 173 intersects County Route 637 ( Main Street / Maple Drive ) , County Route 639 ( Warren Glen Road ) , and the northern terminus of County Route 579 ( Church Street ) . Past the County Route 579 intersection , the route parallels the Musconetcong River and intersects County Route 632 ( Asbury Road ) , which provides access to westbound Interstate 78 / U.S. Route 22 .
= = = Hunterdon County = = =
Route 173 crosses the Musconetcong River into Bloomsbury , Hunterdon County . It comes to another interchange with Interstate 78 / U.S. Route 22 , where Route 173 takes on the name Brunswick Pike and closely parallels the interstate to the north . The route enters Bethlehem Township and passes under a railroad line , continuing east through farmland The route parallels a Norfolk Southern rail line for a short distance , running farther to the north of Interstate 78 / U.S. Route 22 , before intersecting County Route 643 ( West Portal @-@ Asbury Road ) . Past this intersection , Route 173 heads south and then east through the Musconetcong Mountains as a five @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane . The route crosses into Union Township , where it becomes Old Highway 22 .
The route becomes a divided highway and meets County Route 614 ( Little York Road ) at a traffic circle near an interchange with Interstate 78 / U.S. Route 22 . Route 173 has direct ramps to and from the westbound direction of the interstate with access to and from the eastbound direction provided by way of County Route 614 . Route 173 narrows back to a two @-@ lane , undivided road and closely follows Interstate 78 / U.S. Route 22 to the north , meeting County Route 625 ( Mechlin Corner Road ) and County Route 635 ( Charlestown Road ) near another interchange with Interstate 78 / U.S. Route 22 . There is direct access to and from the westbound direction of Interstate 78 / U.S. Route 22 while access to and from the eastbound direction of Interstate 78 / U.S. Route 22 is provided by County Route 625 . The route continues east and splits into a one @-@ way pair . At this point , eastbound Route 173 crosses over Interstate 78 / U.S. Route 22 and makes a left turn to merge onto eastbound Interstate 78 / U.S. Route 22 . The westbound direction of Route 173 splits from Interstate 78 / U.S. Route 22 and continues west to join back with eastbound Route 173 .
Route 173 follows Interstate 78 / U.S. Route 22 for a little over a mile in Franklin Township until an interchange County Route 513 ( Pittstown Road ) , where the eastbound direction merges onto this route and heads into Clinton . It meets the westbound direction of Route 173 , which splits at this point and heads west on West Main Street to merge into westbound Interstate 78 / U.S. Route 22 in Union Township . In Clinton , Route 173 crosses over the South Branch Raritan River and splits from County Route 513 where that route heads north on Leigh Street . The route crosses into Clinton Township and it features ramps connecting to Interstate 78 / U.S. Route 22 , with access from westbound Route 173 to westbound Interstate 78 / U.S. Route 22 and from eastbound Interstate 78 / U.S. Route 22 to eastbound Route 173 . Route 173 turns north to interchange with Route 31 and end at County Route 626 ( Beaver Avenue ) .
= = History = =
Prior to 1927 , Route 173 was part of Pre @-@ 1927 Route 9 , which was designated in 1917 to run from Phillipsburg to Elizabeth . In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , the route became Route 28 . In addition , it was also designated as part of U.S. Route 22 . In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , which eliminated long concurrencies between U.S. and State Routes , the Route 28 designation was removed along this portion of the route , leaving U.S. Route 22 the sole number along the route . In the late 1950s , construction began on Interstate 78 through the area . Construction of the portion of Interstate 78 built between Exit 11 ( County Route 614 ) and Exit 13 in Union Township , completed in 1962 , modified the alignment of U.S. Route 22 between these two points . It involved the creation of new eastbound lanes for Interstate 78 and conversion of the eastbound lanes of U.S. Route 22 into the westbound lanes of Interstate 78 . The westbound lanes of U.S. Route 22 were turned into a two @-@ lane frontage road . In 1969 , U.S. Route 22 was moved to the Interstate 78 alignment between Exit 3 in Greenwich Township and Exit 18 in Clinton Township . The former U.S. Route 22 became Route 173 between Exit 3 and Route 31 in Clinton Township , with the remainder of the former U.S. Route 22 alignment becoming county @-@ maintained Beaver Avenue ( currently County Route 626 ) .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Reginald Weaver =
Reginald Walter Darcy Weaver ( 18 July 1876 – 12 November 1945 ) was an Australian conservative parliamentarian who served in the New South Wales Legislative Assembly for 28 years . Serving from 1917 in the backbenches , he entered the cabinet of Thomas Bavin in 1929 as Secretary for Mines and Minister for Forests until he returned to opposition in 1930 . Following the success of the United Australia Party in the 1932 election , Weaver returned as the Secretary for Public Works and Minister for Health in the Stevens ministry .
In 1935 he was dropped from the ministry but was later elected as the Speaker of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly in 1937 , holding office until the Mair Government lost power in 1941 . Weaver then witnessed the death of the United Australia Party in 1943 and became the leader of the new Democratic Party in 1944 . He was then involved in the negotiations to form the future Liberal Party of Australia , which were ultimately successful , with Weaver becoming the first leader of the Liberal Party in April 1945 . He served only briefly until dying of a heart attack in November 1945 .
= = Early life = =
Reginald Weaver was born at Kickerbill station , Quirindi , New South Wales , on the Liverpool Plains , the twelfth child of English @-@ born parents Richard Weaver and his wife Fanny Seymour Weaver . Weaver was educated at Newington College ( 1890 – 1894 ) in Sydney before joining two of his brothers in a stock and station agency in Forbes and then branching out on his own at Condobolin and Narrandera . A member of the Farmers and Settlers ' Association , Weaver first entered politics when he was elected as an Alderman on Condobolin Municipal Council from 1898 to 1900 and then later as an Alderman on Narrandera Municipal Council in 1902 . On 19 April 1899 he married Gertrude Susan Bond Walker at St Andrew 's Cathedral , Sydney .
= = Early political career = =
In 1910 , Weaver , now living in Dubbo , contested the seat of Ashburnham for the Liberal Party but was defeated on 46 @-@ 53 % against the Labor Party 's John Lynch . Undeterred , Weaver stood again in 1913 as the Farmers and Settlers Party candidate for the seat of Macquarie but was narrowly defeated with 49 @.@ 61 % against the Labor Party candidate 's 50 @.@ 39 % . Weaver contested the result , accusing the Labor Party of manipulating the rolls . An inquiry found no fault in these accusations against the Labor Party , but instead found Weaver 's own organisers guilty of roll @-@ stuffing .
Moving to North Sydney in 1916 , he established a real estate business and on 24 March 1917 entered the New South Wales Legislative Assembly at the 1917 election , as the Nationalist Party candidate for the seat of Willoughby with 51 @.@ 68 % . A fervent Imperialist and pro @-@ conscriptionist , he was rejected as medically unfit for the Australian Imperial Force in 1916 but eventually enlisted on 23 August 1918 . Raising over £ 25 @,@ 000 in War Loans , Weaver was discharged from the Army on 2 December 1918 . When the Willoughby seat was abolished at the next election , Weaver contested the new multi @-@ member electorate of North Shore , receiving 15 @.@ 31 % and the first seat on the electorate .
Suspicious of the Irish Catholic establishment , embodied by the Labor Party , Weaver joined the Protestant Federation in 1921 and became a sympathiser of the right @-@ wing New Guard . At the 1922 election , he was re @-@ elected with an increased margin of 20 @.@ 16 % , gaining first place once again . He served until , citing business reasons , he retired from parliament on 18 April 1925 .
= = Minister of the Crown = =
Weaver soon returned to politics , when on 8 October 1927 , at the 1927 election , he was elected to the seat of Neutral Bay with 69 @.@ 49 % . Rising to prominence within the party , Weaver gained a reputation as an independent @-@ minded but powerful debater in the House , crossing the floor on many issues .
Nevertheless , Weaver was appointed by Premier Thomas Bavin on 16 April 1929 as the Secretary for Mines and Minister for Forests . Taking over the worsening dispute on the northern coalfields , he believed the struggle to be communist @-@ inspired and made possible by unemployment relief and child endowment and attempted to resolve an industrial dispute by supporting the use of non @-@ union labour in the Rothbury coal mine . The resultant protests led to the Rothbury Riot and the death of one miner . His suspension of unemployment relief gained him many enemies from the Labor Party . This promotion proved short @-@ lived however , when the Bavin Government was defeated at the October 1930 election , at which Weaver was returned with 65 @.@ 42 % , by Jack Lang 's Australian Labor Party .
In opposition , Weaver witnessed the end of the Nationalist Party and was elected Deputy Leader of the new United Australia Party ( UAP ) in New South Wales in 1931 . When Lang 's Government was dismissed on 13 May 1932 by the Governor of New South Wales , Sir Philip Game , an early election was called by caretaker @-@ Premier and UAP Leader , Bertram Stevens . At the 11 June 1932 election , in which Weaver was returned with 80 @.@ 70 % , Stevens ' UAP / Country Coalition gained 31 seats and won government . Stevens had already appointed Weaver as the Secretary for Public Works and Minister for Health on 16 May 1932 .
A competent , if controversial member of the cabinet , Weaver , as Minister for Health , travelled extensively and concentrated on the expansion of hospitals , becoming Director of Royal Prince Alfred Hospital ( 1929 @-@ 1930 ) . His determination to exert more control over hospitals and the banning of honorary doctors from local hospital boards brought him into conflict with the NSW branch of the British Medical Association . His strict control over Hospital administrators brought him into conflict with the medical community and he was eventually dropped from the cabinet on 10 February 1935 by Premier Stevens , who found him " too extreme in personal independence " and possessing a " needlessly sharp tongue . " Weaver returned to the backbenches and won re @-@ election at the 1935 election on 11 May with an increased margin of 88 @.@ 42 % . On 3 July 1935 , King George V , on the advice of the Governor of New South Wales , Lord Gowrie , granted him retention of the title " The Honourable " , for having served more than three years on the Executive Council of New South Wales .
= = Later career = =
When Sir Daniel Levy retired from parliament , Weaver was elected as the Speaker of the Legislative Assembly on 4 August 1937 . In 1938 , he was cleared by a judicial inquiry , chaired by Sir Percival Halse Rogers , into Jack Lang 's allegations of fraud and corruption in the sale of state enterprises in 1933 when Weaver was the Secretary for Public Works . At the 1939 election Weaver was returned uncontested . He served as Speaker until the succeeding government of Alexander Mair was defeated at the May 1941 election by the Labor Party under William McKell . Weaver was returned in his seat uncontested .
However , with the very poor results of the federal United Australia Party under Billy Hughes at the 1943 Federal election , the UAP disintegrated . A large number of former UAP members then formed the Democratic Party in New South Wales , led by Mair , who became Opposition Leader , while others moved into the Commonwealth Party and the Liberal Democratic Party . The Democratic Party then merged with the Commonwealth Party in January 1944 . With the conservative vote split in half , Mair had little chance , and resigned as Democratic Party Leader on 10 February 1944 , to be replaced by Weaver , who then became Party Leader and Leader of the Opposition . Weaver then led the party to the 1944 election where it won 19 % of the vote and 12 of the 90 seats in the Legislative Assembly . Weaver himself retained his seat with 56 @.@ 90 % .
Weaver 's efforts to merge the Democratic Party with the Liberal Democratic Party were deadlocked over questions of party organisation and by acrimony between himself and the Party leader , Ernest K White . However , in December 1944 both parties merged to become the New South Wales branch of the newly formed Liberal Party of Australia formed by Robert Menzies . Weaver was elected as the first Leader of the New South Wales Liberal Party on 20 April 1945 . His term as leader of the newly formed party was to prove short @-@ lived , however . After suffering a mild heart attack in the Legislative Assembly chamber on the evening of 7 November 1945 , he drove himself home and died a week later on 12 November 1945 at Hornsby Hospital , survived by his wife , son and three daughters . At the resulting by @-@ election on 15 December , Neutral Bay was retained by the Liberal Party candidate , Ivan Black , against a single Independent candidate with 56 % .
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= Sde Dov Airport =
Sde Dov Airport ( Hebrew : שדה דב , lit . Dov Field , Arabic : مطار سدي دوف ) , also known as Dov Hoz Airport ( Hebrew : נמל התעופה דב הוז , Nemal HaTe 'ufa Dov Hoz , Arabic : مطار دوف هوز ) ( IATA : SDV , ICAO : LLSD ) is an airport located in Tel Aviv , Israel which mainly handles scheduled domestic flights to Eilat and Uvda ( a.k.a. Ovda ) , northern Israel ( Haifa and the Galilee ) , and the Golan Heights . It is the largest airport in Tel Aviv proper , and the second largest in the area , after Ben Gurion International Airport on the outskirts of Lod . The airport is named after Dov Hoz , one of the pioneers of Jewish aviation . The airport is expected to close by the end of 2018 after an agreement was struck re @-@ purposing the land which houses it for residential apartments . Commercial flights will move to Ben Gurion Airport . The airport is a focus city for Arkia Israel Airlines and Israir Airlines .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
In 1937 , the mayor of Tel Aviv Israel Rokach asked the British mandate authorities for permission to create an airport in Palestine , promising to solve the transportation problem of Jews during the Arab revolt of 1936 – 39 when travelling from Tel Aviv through Arab territory to the main airport at Lydda , to catch Palestine Airways flights to Haifa , was difficult and dangerous . Works began on a plot of land north of the Yarkon River , Tel Aviv and when completed in October 1938 , the airport served regular flights to Haifa , with the option of flights to Beirut . In 1940 , the airport 's name was changed to Sde Dov , in memory of Dov Hoz , one of the pioneers of Jewish aviation . Sde Dov was abandoned after Palestine Airways ceased operations in August 1940 and the site was used as a British Army base until December 1947 when with British permission the runway was reopened by Haganah .
In the 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War , the airport served as a base to the Israeli Air Force . It was a central base , home to 21 aircraft at the time . The first military flight was made in December , 1947 , when Pinchas Ben Porat flew an RWD @-@ 13 to Beit Eshel to rescue an injured soldier .
= = = After the war = = =
Following the 1948 war the Arab orchards to the east of Tel Aviv were opened for development , and the military started using the Sde Dov airport on a regular basis . The airport regained its commercial operations , initially serving domestic flights , mostly to single customers , on Piper Cub aircraft . It later expanded operations to scheduled service on larger aircraft to various parts of Israel . As a result of the land availability , an additional , north – south , runway was built with no opposition . By 1960 , land in Tel Aviv became scarce , and the municipality demanded that the airport be relocated northward , so as to allow residential development in its place . However , a committee that investigated in 1961 the options for such a relocation found no feasible site in proximity to Tel Aviv and suggested that flights be moved to Lod airport ( now known as Ben Gurion Airport ) , and that road access from Tel Aviv to Lod be improved . This option , however , was blocked by the Israel Defense Forces .
The government set up a second committee in 1968 who suggested that the old east – west runway be closed and the airport 's area reduced , allowing for development to the east of the airport . They suggested that this is replaced by a new runway in the sea , adjacent to the beach . The runway was closed , and a high density upper @-@ middle income neighborhood was built to the east of the airport , although the new runway was never constructed due to the high cost involved .
As the new residential area suffered from aircraft noise , residents joined in the demand that the airport be relocated . Despite this , the number of flights to the airport increased as the newly formed Israel Airports Authority strived to reduce congestion at Ben Gurion Airport by shifting all domestic turbo @-@ prop flights to Sde Dov . Once again , the only feasible alternative proposed at this point was to build a runway in the sea and again , the high cost of this project meant that it never happened . This was a large issue in the area during the whole of the 1980s .
= = = Recent history and relocation plans = = =
The early 1990s saw a rapid rise in land values in the Tel Aviv area following the massive immigration wave from the ex @-@ Soviet Union and the rapid economic growth fueled by the peace prospects in 1993 – 1996 and subsequent hi @-@ tech boom . This brought the issue of relocation back to light . Despite this , however , in 1997 , Sde Dov was declared an International Airport for private flights . In the future , the Main Terminal , the aircraft parking aprons and the aircraft hangars will be transferred to an area near the Tel Baruch Beach which will enable the construction of new traffic routes to North Tel Aviv .
The issue remained unresolved until late 2006 when it was announced that the airport would be vacated to make way for residential redevelopment . It is unclear , however , when this will actually take place as the Tel Aviv municipality , the Israeli domestic air carriers and other interests such as the general aviation community oppose closing the airport . Initially the plan was to relocate the entire airport ( runway as well as terminal facilities ) onto an artificial island to be built offshore .
When Sde Dov does close , its military terminal would be relocated to the Palmachim Airbase and civilian activities would be relocated to Ben Gurion Airport . With capacity at Ben Gurion projected to reach a maximum over the next few decades however , the concept of building an airport offshore in the Tel Aviv region may yet be revived in the future . Sde Dov itself is operating near to capacity , however , with annual passenger movements around 700 @,@ 000 and a potential capacity of 950 @,@ 000 .
= = The airport today = =
Today , Sde Dov Airport mostly handles domestic flights within Israel , as well as light @-@ aircraft activity and limited international flights , mostly to nearby Cyprus . The airport has two terminals . The IAF still takes up about 40 % of overall movements ( take @-@ offs and landings ) , and uses the airport as a base for some of its operations , as well as a convenient hub for military and government passenger traffic . Due to its location in the centre of Israel , air @-@ force and civilian pilots alike cross the airspace controlled by Sde Dov 's air traffic control tower from north to south and vice versa in order to reach their destination , without landing at Sde Dov . This increases significantly the air traffic density above and around the airport , and efforts have been made to keep " crossing traffic " away from the approach and departure patterns in order to minimise their effect on air traffic safety at Sde Dov . The airport has seven check @-@ in desks and 45 aircraft stands .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
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= Battle of Arsuf =
The Battle of Arsuf was a battle of the Third Crusade in which Richard I of England ( Richard the Lionheart ) defeated Saladin ( Ṣalāḥ al @-@ Dīn Yūsuf ibn Ayyūb ) , founder of the Ayyubid dynasty and Sultan of Egypt and Syria , at Arsuf in Palestine . The forces of the Third Crusade had taken the city of Acre after a prolonged siege . The next strategic target for the Christian army was to secure the city of Jaffa , which would facilitate their ultimate goal , the recapture of the city of Jerusalem .
Following a series of harassing attacks by Saladin 's forces , battle was joined on the morning of 7 September 1191 . Richard 's army successfully resisted attempts to disrupt its cohesion until the Hospitallers broke ranks and charged ; Richard then committed all his forces to the attack . He regrouped his army after its initial success , and led it to victory . The battle resulted in the coastal area of southern Palestine , including the port of Jaffa , returning to Christian control . This made the capture of Jerusalem feasible .
= = Prelude- South from Acre = =
Following the capture of Acre in 1191 , Richard was aware that he needed to capture the port of Jaffa before making an attempt on Jerusalem , Richard began to march down the coast from Acre towards Jaffa in August 1191 . Saladin , whose main objective was to prevent the recapture of Jerusalem , mobilised his army to attempt to stop the Crusaders ' advance . Richard organized the advance with attention to detail . A large part of the Egyptian fleet had been captured at the fall of Acre , and with no threat from this quarter he could march south along the coast with the sea always protecting his right flank .
Mindful of the lessons of the disaster at Hattin , Richard knew that his army 's greatest need was water and that heat exhaustion was its greatest danger . Although pressed for time he proceeded at a relatively slow pace . He marched his army only in the morning before the heat of the day , making frequent rest stops , always beside sources of water . The fleet sailed down the coast in close support , a source of supplies and a refuge for the wounded . Aware of the ever @-@ present danger of enemy raiders and the possibility of hit @-@ and @-@ run attacks , he kept the column in tight formation with a core of twelve mounted regiments , each with a hundred knights . The infantry marched on the landward flank , covering the flanks of the horsemen and affording them some protection from missiles . The outermost ranks of the infantry were composed of crossbowmen . On the seaward side was the baggage and also units of infantry being rested from the continuous harassment inflicted by Saladin 's forces . Richard wisely rotated his infantry units to keep them relatively fresh .
Though provoked and tormented by the skirmish tactics of Saladin 's archers , Richard 's generalship ensured that order and discipline were maintained under the most difficult of circumstances . Baha al @-@ Din ibn Shaddad , the Muslim chronicler and eyewitness , describes the march :
" The Moslems discharged arrows at them from all sides to annoy them , and force them to charge : but in this they were unsuccessful . These men exercised wonderful self @-@ control ; they went on their way without any hurry , whilst their ships followed their line of march along the coast , and in this manner they reached their halting @-@ place . "
Baha al @-@ Din also described the difference in power between the Crusader crossbow and the bows of his own army . He saw Frankish infantrymen with from one to ten arrows sticking from their armoured backs marching along with no apparent hurt , whilst the crossbows struck down both horse and man amongst the Muslims .
= = Saladin 's strategy = =
The Crusader army 's pace was dictated by the infantry and baggage train ; the Ayyubid army , being largely mounted , had the advantage of superior mobility . Efforts to burn crops and deny the countryside to the Frankish army were largely ineffective as it could be continuously provisioned from the fleet , which moved south parallel with it . On 25 August the Crusader rearguard was crossing a defile when it was almost cut off . However , the Crusaders closed up so speedily that the Muslim soldiery was forced to flee . From 26 to 29 August Richard 's army had a respite from attack because while it hugged the coast and had gone round the shoulder of Mount Carmel , Saladin 's army had struck across country . Saladin arrived in the vicinity of Caesarea before the Crusaders , who were on a longer road . From 30 August to 7 September Saladin was always within striking distance , and waiting for an opportunity to attack if the Crusaders exposed themselves .
By early September , Saladin had realised that harassing the Frankish army with a limited portion of his troops was not going to stop its advance . In order to do this he needed to commit his entire army to a serious attack . Fortuitously for Saladin , the Crusaders had to traverse one of the few forested regions of Palestine , the " Wood of Arsuf " , which ran parallel to the sea shore for more than 12 miles ( 19 km ) . The woodland would mask the disposition of his army and allow a sudden attack to be launched .
The Crusaders traversed half of the forest with little incident , and they rested on 6 September with their camp protected by the marsh lying inland of the mouth of the river Nahr @-@ el @-@ Falaik ( Rochetaillée ) . To the south of the camp , in the 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) the Crusaders needed to march before gaining the ruins of Arsuf , the forest receded inland to create a narrow plain 1 – 2 miles ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 2 km ) wide between wooded hills and the sea . This is where Saladin intended to make his decisive attack . While threatening and skirmishing along the whole length of the Crusader column , Saladin reserved his most sustained direct assault for its rear . His plan appears to have been to allow the Frankish van and centre to proceed , in the hope that a fatal gap might be created between them and the more heavily engaged rearmost units . Into such a gap Saladin would have thrown his reserves in order to defeat the Crusaders in detail .
= = Battle = =
= = = Organisation and deployment of the opposing armies = = =
At dawn on 7 September 1191 , as Richard 's forces began moving out of camp enemy scouts were visible in all directions , hinting that Saladin 's whole army lay hidden in the woodland . King Richard took especial pains over the disposition of his army . The probable posts of greatest danger , at the front and especially the rear of the column , were given to the military orders . They had the most experience of fighting in the East , were arguably the most disciplined , and were the only formations which included Turcopole cavalry who fought like the Turkish horse archers of the Ayyubid army .
The van of the Crusader army consisted of the Knights Templar under Robert de Sablé . They were followed by three units composed of Richard 's own subjects , the Angevins and Bretons , then the Poitevins including Guy of Lusignan , titular King of Jerusalem , and lastly the English and Normans who had charge of the great standard mounted on its waggon . The next seven corps were made up of the French , the barons of Outremer and small contingents of crusaders from other lands . Forming the rearguard were the Knights Hospitaller led by Fra ' Garnier de Nablus . The twelve corps were organised into five larger formations , though their precise distribution is unknown . Additionally , a small troop , under the leadership of Henry II of Champagne , was detached to scout towards the hills , and a squadron of picked knights under King Richard and Hugh of Burgundy , the leader of the French contingent , was detailed to ride up and down the column checking on Saladin 's movements and ensuring that their own ranks were kept in order .
The first Saracen attack did not come until all the crusaders had left their camp and were moving towards Arsuf . The Ayyubid army then burst out of the woodland . The front of the army was composed of dense swarms of skirmishers , both horse and foot , Bedouin , Sudanese archers and the lighter types of Turkish horse archers . Behind these were the ordered squadrons of armoured heavy cavalry : Saladin 's mamluks ( also termed ghulams ) , Kurdish troops , and the contingents of the emirs and princes of Egypt , Syria and Mesopotamia . The army was divided into three parts , left and right wings and centre . Saladin directed his army from beneath his banners , surrounded by his bodyguard and accompanied by his kettle @-@ drummers .
The Itinerarium Regis Ricardi implies that the Ayyubid army outnumbered the Crusaders three @-@ to @-@ one . However , unrealistically inflated numbers , of 300 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 respectively , are described .
= = = Saladin 's attack = = =
In an attempt to destroy the cohesion of the Crusader army and unsettle their resolve , the Ayyubid onslaught was accompanied by the clashing of cymbals and gongs , trumpets blowing and men screaming war @-@ cries .
" In truth , our people , so few in number , were hemmed in by the multitudes of the Saracens , that they had no means of escape , if they tried ; neither did they seem to have valour sufficient to withstand so many foes , nay , they were shut in , like a flock of sheep in the jaws of wolves , with nothing but the sky above , and the enemy all around them . "
The repeated Ayyubid harrying attacks followed the same pattern : the Bedouin and Nubians on foot launched arrows and javelins into the enemy lines , before parting to allow the mounted archers to advance , attack and wheel off , a well @-@ practiced technique . Crusader crossbowmen responded , when this was possible , although the chief task among the Crusaders was simply to preserve their ranks in the face of sustained provocation . When the incessant attacks of skirmishers failed to have the desired effect , the weight of the attack was switched to the rear of the Crusader column , with the Hospitallers coming under the greatest pressure . Here the right wing of the Ayyubid army made a desperate attack on the squadron of Hospitaller knights and the infantry corps covering them . The Hospitallers could be attacked from both their rear and flank . Many of the Hospitaller infantry had to walk backwards in order to keep their faces , and shields , to the enemy . Saladin , eager to urge his soldiers into closer combat , personally entered the fray , accompanied by two pages leading spare horses . Sayf al @-@ Din ( Saphadin ) , Saladin 's brother , was also engaged in actively encouraging the troops ; both brothers were thus exposing themselves to considerable danger from crossbow fire .
= = = Hospitallers break ranks = = =
All Saladin 's best efforts could not dislocate the Crusader column , or halt its advance in the direction of Arsuf . Richard was determined to hold his army together , forcing the enemy to exhaust themselves in repeated charges , with the intention of holding his knights for a concentrated counter @-@ attack at just the right moment . There were risks in this , because the army was not only marching under severe enemy provocation , but the troops were suffering from heat and thirst . Just as serious , the Saracens were killing so many horses that some of Richard 's own knights began to wonder if a counter @-@ strike would be possible . Many of the unhorsed knights joined the infantry .
Just as the vanguard entered Arsuf in the middle of the afternoon , the Hospitaller crossbowmen to the rear were having to load and fire walking backwards . Inevitably they lost cohesion , and the enemy was quick to take advantage of this opportunity , moving into any gap wielding their swords and maces . For the Crusaders , the Battle of Arsuf had now entered a critical stage . Garnier de Nablus repeatedly pleaded with Richard to be allowed to attack . He was refused , the Master was ordered to maintain position and await the signal for a general assault , six clear trumpet blasts . Richard knew that the charge of his knights needed to be reserved until the Ayyubid army was fully committed , closely engaged , and the Saracens ' horses had begun to tire . Goaded beyond endurance , the Master and another knight , Baldwin de Carron , thrust their way through their own infantry and charged into the Saracen ranks with a cry of “ St. George ! ” ; they were then followed by the rest of the Hospitaller knights . Moved by this example , the French knights of the corps immediately preceding the Hospitallers also charged .
= = = Crusader counterattack = = =
The precipitate action of the Hospitallers could have caused Richard 's whole strategy to unravel . However , he recognised that the counterattack , once started , had to be supported by all his army and ordered the signal for a general charge to be sounded . Unsupported , the Hospitallers and the other rear units involved in the initial breakout would have been overwhelmed by the superior numbers of the enemy . The Frankish infantry opened gaps in their ranks for the knights to pass through and the attack naturally developed in echelon from the rear to the van . To the soldiers of Saladin 's army , as Baha al @-@ Din noted , the sudden change from passivity to ferocious activity on the part of the Crusaders was disconcerting , and appeared to be the result of a preconceived plan .
Having already been engaged in close combat with the rear of the Crusader column , the right wing of the Ayyubid army was in compact formation and too close to their enemy to avoid the full impact of the charge . Indeed , some of the cavalry of this wing had dismounted in order to fire their bows more effectively . As a result , they suffered great numbers of casualties , the knights taking a bloody revenge for all they had had to endure earlier in the battle . Baha al @-@ Din noted that " the rout was complete . " He had been in the centre division of Saladin 's army , when it turned in flight he looked to join the left wing , but found that it also was in rapid flight . Noting the disintegration of the right wing he finally sought Saladin 's personal banners , but found only seventeen members of the bodyguard and a lone drummer still with them .
Being aware that an over @-@ rash pursuit was the greatest danger when fighting armies trained in the fluid tactics of the Turks , Richard halted the charge after about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) had been covered . The right flank Crusader units , which had formed the van of the column , including the English and Normans had not yet been heavily engaged in close combat and they formed a reserve on which the rest regrouped . Freed from the pressure of being actively pursued , many of the Ayyubid troops turned to cut down those of the knights who had unwisely drawn ahead of the rest . James d 'Avesnes , the commander of one of the French units , was the most prominent of those killed in this episode . Amongst the Ayyubid leaders who rallied quickly and returned to the fight was Taqi al @-@ Din , Saladin 's nephew . He led 700 men of the Sultan 's own bodyguard against Richard 's left flank . Once their squadrons were back in order , Richard led his knights in a second charge and the forces of Saladin broke once again .
Leading by example , Richard was in the heart of the fighting , as the Itinerarium describes :
" There the king , the fierce , the extraordinary king , cut down the Turks in every direction , and none could escape the force of his arm , for wherever he turned , brandishing his sword , he carved a wide path for himself : and as he advanced and gave repeated strokes with his sword , cutting them down like a reaper with his sickle , the rest , warned by the sight of the dying , gave him more ample space , for the corpses of the dead Turks which lay on the face of the earth extended over half a mile . "
Alert to the danger presented to his scattered ranks , Richard , prudent as ever , halted and regrouped his forces once more after a further pursuit . The Ayyubid cavalry turned once again , showing they still had stomach to renew the fight . However , a third and final charge caused them to scatter into the woodland where they dispersed into the hills in all directions , showing no inclination to continue the conflict . Richard led his cavalry back to Arsuf where the infantry had pitched camp . During the night the Saracen dead were looted .
= = Aftermath = =
As always with medieval battles , losses are difficult to assess with any precision . The Christian chroniclers claim that Saladin 's force lost 32 emirs and 7 @,@ 000 men , but it is possible that the true number may have been fewer . Baha al @-@ Din mentions only three deaths amongst the leaders of the Ayyubid army : Musek , Grand @-@ Emir of the Kurds , Kaimaz el Adeli and Lighush . Richard 's own dead are said to have numbered no more than 700 . The only Crusader leader of note to be killed was James d 'Avesnes .
Arsuf was an important victory . The Ayyubid army was not destroyed , despite the considerable casualties it suffered , but it did rout ; this was considered shameful by the Muslims and boosted the morale of the Crusaders . A contemporary opinion stated that , had Richard been able to choose the moment to unleash his knights , rather than having to react to the actions of an insubordinate unit commander , the Crusader victory might have been crushingly decisive . After the rout Saladin was able to regroup and attempted to resume his skirmishing method of warfare but to little effect ; shaken by the Crusaders ' sudden and devastatingly effective counterattack at Arsuf , he was no longer willing to risk a further full @-@ scale attack . Arsuf had dented Saladin 's reputation as an invincible warrior , and proved Richard 's courage as a soldier and his skill as a commander . Richard was able to take , defend and hold Jaffa – a strategically crucial move toward securing Jerusalem . Also Saladin had to evacuate and demolish most of the fortresses of southern Palestine : Ascalon , Gaza , Blanche @-@ Garde , Lydda and Ramleh , as he realised he could not hold them . Richard took the fortress of Darum , the sole fortress that Saladin had garrisoned , with only his own household troops , so low had Saracen morale been reduced . By depriving Saladin of the coast , Richard seriously threatened Saladin 's hold on Jerusalem .
Although the Third Crusade , in the end , failed to retake Jerusalem , a three @-@ year truce was eventually negotiated with Saladin . The truce , known as the Treaty of Jaffa , ensured that Christian pilgrims from the west would once again be allowed to visit Jerusalem . Saladin also recognised the Crusaders ' control of the Levantine coast as far south as Jaffa . Both sides had become exhausted by the struggle , Richard needed to return to Europe in order to protect his patrimony from the aggression of Philip of France , and Palestine was in a ruinous state .
= = In fiction and film = =
The Battle of Arsuf is featured in the climax of the videogame Assassin 's Creed .
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= Believe It or Not , Joe 's Walking on Air =
" Believe It or Not , Joe 's Walking on Air " is the third episode of the sixth season of the Fox animated comedy series Family Guy , an episode produced for season 5 . Joe Swanson ( Patrick Warburton ) gets the impression that his wife Bonnie ( voiced by Jennifer Tilly ) is tired of being married to a handicapped person , so he decides to get a leg transplant . Excited about his new ability to walk , Joe dives head first into extreme sports and begins to hang around more active friends . Meanwhile , Peter ( Seth MacFarlane ) and the guys are upset at how Joe is acting and decide to teach him a lesson . In doing so , he is re @-@ crippled , and he makes amends with his friends .
The episode was written by Andrew Goldberg and directed by Julius Wu . It received praise from critics for its storyline and many cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 8 @.@ 4 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Jeff Bergman , Jamie Farr , Phil LaMarr , Wendy Raquel Robinson and Nicole Sullivan , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series . This is the first episode where Meg was not seen or mentioned .
= = Plot = =
Peter , Cleveland , Joe and Quagmire are at the Drunken Clam , when Lois , Bernice ( Cleveland 's first girlfriend since his divorce with Loretta ) and Bonnie show up at the bar , Peter and his friends get annoyed . Therefore , Peter suggests that they should build their own bar called " The Quahog Men 's Club " , which is designated for men only . It takes six weeks and $ 8 @,@ 000 for them to build it . After building it , Lois wants Peter to get rid of it .
Many people start to show up at the Quahog 's Men 's Club and Lois and her friends start to get annoyed . In order to get back at them , they enter the club . Everyone dances , except for Bonnie , because her husband is handicapped . Joe feels self @-@ conscious about his disability , and decides to get surgery so that he will be able to walk again . When Joe comes out of the operation , he invites his friends to go do physical activities such as rock climbing , karate , and dance . Joe starts to not care about his friends and his wife , and finds three new jock friends that share his status . Lois and Peter are worried about Joe , and Lois suggests that Peter should find a new friend to replace him . Meanwhile , Joe realizes that he has outgrown Bonnie and leaves her . Desperate to get their friend back , Peter , Cleveland and Quagmire try to re @-@ cripple Joe , failing miserably until Bonnie comes along with Joe 's handgun and shoots ( and misses ) Joe 's spine . Sick of waiting in pain , Joe takes the gun and shoots himself in the spine , re @-@ crippling himself . They all then go to the Drunken Clam where Joe apologizes to Peter , Cleveland and Quagmire for how he acted and they all forgive him .
= = Production = =
" Believe It or Not , Joe 's Walking on Air " was written by Andrew Goldberg . This episode was his first time working for the show , and was a result of Goldberg being creator Seth MacFarlane 's assistant . He wrote the episode , and executive producer David A. Goodman thought he did a " fantastic job " . He would later go on to write the season seven episode " The Juice is Loose " . The episode was directed by former Mission Hill and The Oblongs director and series veteran Julius Wu , who had been a member of the show 's staff since the fifth season episode , " The Tan Aquatic with Steve Zissou " . Directors Peter Shin and James Purdun acted as supervising directors .
In addition to the regular cast , actor Jeff Bergman , voice actor Phil LaMarr , actor Jamie Farr , actress Wendy Raquel Robinson , and voice actress Nicole Sullivan guest starred in the episode as Fred Flintstone , Portland , Himself , Bernice , and Muriel Goldman respectively . Recurring guest voice actors Steve Callaghan , actor Ralph Garman , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin , and writer John Viener made minor appearances . Recurring guest cast members Adam West , Jennifer Tilly , and Patrick Warburton also made appearances .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode makes several references to pop culture referencing films , music and media . Peter remembers a movie he watched with actor Jack Black in it ( The film being High Fidelity ) . When rock climbing Cleveland is saved from a fall by Spider @-@ Man . Joe makes Cleveland , Quagmire and Peter sing and dance " Good Morning " from the film Singin ' in the Rain . The title is a based off the theme song to The Greatest American Hero called " Believe it or Not , I 'm Walking on Air " sung by Joey Scarbury
The episode makes references to Family Guy itself . When Bonnie , Lois and Cleveland 's new girlfriend come to dance at The Drunken Clam , they state that they would like to make the bar their place to hang out , after Peter grabs Joe 's gun and kills himself . It turns out that this was only Peter 's imagination as he snaps out of it when Joe starts talking to him ; Peter answers that he was having a Scrubs fantasy moment . Quagmire responds to Peter 's moment by stating that Scrubs is the best show people are not watching . Cleveland replies that he hates shows that leave the story for a gag or joke , referring to the numerous cutaways Scrubs and Family Guy contain . While in the hospital Peter realizes that Mr. Pewterschmidt and Dr. Hartman have a similar voice , then Mr. Pewterschmidt comes in to the room and they both start talking about how their voices sound alike ; this is a reference to the show 's creator Seth MacFarlane as he voices both characters .
The episode also makes references to history . In the following cutaway Adolf Hitler is shown juggling three fish while riding a unicycle . After a while the same cutaway reappears , but this time Peter shows up and knocks Hitler off the unicycle and punches him in the face and breaks the fourth wall by saying " See . We had a plan for that all along " . It also makes references to Christianity . When Lois suggests that Peter finds a new friend , she tells him to find a kindred spirit like Judas found in Pontius Pilate .
= = Reception = =
This episode drew 8 @.@ 4 million viewers on its original broadcast . Also , a repeat of the episode on the Fox network December 16 , 2007 was number 29 of 94 programs listed by Nielsen Media Research , the audience measurement systems developed to determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States , for the week of December 10 to December 16 , 2007 .
The episode received mixed reviews from critics . Ahsan Haque of IGN gave the episode a positive review , writing that it " brings back memories how groundbreaking and fantastic this show once was , and how great the show can be when the writers put their minds to it " . He graded " Believe it Or Not , Joe 's Walking On Air " 9 @.@ 3 out of 10 . Brad Trechak of TV Squad also praised the episode , stating " Family Guy is starting to stick to what it does best " , though he called the ending " somewhat predictable " . Genevieve Koski of The A.V. Club wrote that the episode had " a fairly interesting storyline " , but she was distracted by the absence of Joe 's son , Kevin . She graded " Believe it Or Not , Joe 's Walking On Air " B.
In contrast , Robert Pierson from the TV Critic gave the episode a negative review criticizing the episode 's self @-@ referential humor and the fact that the characters would be so selfish that they would cripple their own friend , he stated that the scene where Peter and the others attack Joe made him " dislike the show because there is nothing funny , positive or entertaining about it " , he ended his review by saying that the episode 's humor is " evidence of a writing team which is too lazy and incompetent to write good humour " .
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= The Burns Cage =
" The Burns Cage " is the seventeenth episode of the twenty @-@ seventh season of the animated television series The Simpsons , and the 591st episode of the series overall . It aired in the United States on Fox on April 3 , 2016 .
In the episode , Waylon Smithers finally comes out as gay to his boss Mr. Burns , who rejects his love . Other characters attempt to find a boyfriend for Smithers , and he falls for Julio . Meanwhile , Milhouse competes against a new boy for the lead role in a school production of Casablanca , so he can act alongside his own unrequited love , Lisa . Openly gay actor George Takei makes a cameo as himself , and the episode features a variety of cultural references , including to Grindr , Vladimir Putin , Equus and the films of Humphrey Bogart .
The episode was written by Rob LaZebnik , inspired by when his teenage son came out . Critical reception was mixed : the emotionally touching aspects of LaZebnik 's script and Harry Shearer 's portrayal of Smithers were praised . However , criticisms included the plot possibly ending the innuendo @-@ driven humor involving Smithers ' secret love of Burns , and an assumption that the character was being retconned due to changing attitudes on homosexuality since the series ' debut . The episode was covered by international media .
= = Plot = =
Smithers declares his love for Mr. Burns after he saves Burns ' life in a skydiving accident , but Burns reaffirms his contempt for him . Angry , Smithers treats Homer , Lenny and Carl harshly , so they determine finding Smithers a boyfriend will ease the ill @-@ treatment . They invite potential partners to meet Smithers at a gay men 's singles ' party , where a neck massage from Julio snaps Smithers out of his bad mood . The two fall in love , and Smithers leaves his job at the power plant .
Smithers becomes troubled on a trip to Julio 's homeland of Cuba when Julio 's carnival outfit resembles Burns ; Julio notices and asks Smithers if he is committed to their relationship , and Smithers admits that he is not . Back in Springfield , Burns ' attempts to find a new assistant prove disastrous , and his only option is to rehire Smithers . He meets Smithers with money and other enticements to lure him back , but Smithers states that he is not swayed . Burns then says he has kept a secret bottled up : that Smithers ' performance review is " excellent " . They hug and reconcile .
Meanwhile , Springfield Elementary put on a production of Casablanca , in which Lisa gets the lead role of Ilsa . Milhouse wants the male lead role of Rick because of his love for Lisa , but he is challenged by a new boy , Jack Deforest , who dresses , acts and speaks like Humphrey Bogart . Milhouse enlists the bullies to beat up Jack , but Jack wins the fight . Principal Skinner sees this violence and declares that Milhouse will play Rick instead of Jack ; Lisa is angered as she does not believe that he is a good actor . Marge tells Lisa that it is important to tell people who are not skilled that they are , using the example of Homer . The production is a success , but at the end it is revealed that Jack was disguised as Milhouse ; he and Lisa leave hand @-@ in @-@ hand .
In an epilogue Milhouse goes to Moe 's Tavern , where Smithers teaches him that romantic setbacks make love feel better when it arrives . Moe tells the pair that he only searches for gold , not girls , and embarks on a treasure @-@ hunt with Jack and Groundskeeper Willie .
= = Production = =
Smithers ' unrequited love for Mr. Burns is a long @-@ running gag on The Simpsons ; the producers once joked that he was not gay , but " Burns @-@ sexual " . Rolling Stone described the character 's sexual orientation as the show 's " worst @-@ kept secret " , noting how in one episode he had a vacation at an all @-@ male resort , and in another he wore " rainbow @-@ striped short shorts " in Springfield 's gay district . In September 2015 , in an interview to promote the 27th season , executive producer Al Jean announced that " we actually do a lot with Smithers this year " , adding that two episodes would deal with the character 's sexuality , including one in which he becomes tired of Burns not appreciating him .
Writer Rob LaZebnik told the New York Post that the episode was inspired by his son Johnny , who came out as gay while at high school : " I am a Midwestern guy , so I don ’ t tend to wear my emotions on my sleeve , but I thought , ' What better way to tell my son I love him than to write a cartoon about it ? ' " . He added that he pitched the storyline three years earlier , and got approval for his script from his son . Smithers ' coming out is low @-@ key , as was Johnny 's ; he told the Post that as he was " the gayest little kid " , his parents were not surprised by his sexual orientation . The episode aired five days before Johnny 's 22nd birthday , and he said he would have a viewing party because the episode would be " particularly meaningful " to him . The elder LaZebnik stated his opinion that LGBT @-@ related television can have a " real impact on people 's thinking " .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode 's title comes from the 1996 LGBT @-@ related comedy film The Birdcage , in which Simpsons voice actor Hank Azaria plays a Guatemalan housekeeper ; his portrayal of Cuban bartender Julio in this episode is similar .
In the chalkboard gag in the episode 's opening sequence , Bart backs the Villanova Wildcats , who won the 2016 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship Game the day after the episode aired . Fans wondered why the show 's staff were supporting Villanova over the North Carolina Tar Heels ; one Internet writer hypothesized that it was a reference to the season 9 episode " The City of New York vs. Homer Simpson " , in which after one of his typical alcoholic binges , Barney Gumble can only recall " giving a guest lecture at Villanova , or maybe it was a street corner . "
The episode includes a variety of cultural references . Among Smithers ' paintings of Burns is a parody of a photograph of Russian president Vladimir Putin riding a horse while bare @-@ chested . Smithers likens Homer , Lenny and Carl to The Three Stooges , and Homer chooses Smithers ' potential partners via the gay dating app Grindr . At the party , George Takei asks another man if he wants to hear " horror stories " about his Star Trek co @-@ star William Shatner , and he is pleased that the man does not know who Shatner is . A billboard outside the school 's production of Casablanca advertises that the kindergarten are putting on a production of zoophilia @-@ themed play Equus the following night . The end sequence with the treasure hunt pays homage to Bogart 's The Treasure of the Sierra Madre and The African Queen .
= = Reception = =
" The Burns Cage " scored a 1 @.@ 0 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , and was watched by 2 @.@ 32 million viewers , making it Fox 's highest rated show of the night .
Dennis Perkins of The A.V. Club gave the episode a B + , commenting that casual viewers would have already presumed that Smithers had come out . He described Harry Shearer 's performance and LaZebnik 's script as " touching " . Tony Sokol of Den of Geek felt that Smithers coming out was good for social acceptance , but would end the comedy around his sexuality , which is based on double entendre . He wrote that the love story had " a few subversive laugh lines " but more " missed opportunities " . He added that the school 's production of Casablanca was disappointing compared to the series ' previous adaptations of A Streetcar Named Desire and Planet of the Apes , and gave his opinion that the Bogart homages ruined the opportunity to do better parodies of his films . However , he noted that the season had a better quality of animation .
Writing in British progressive magazine the New Statesman , Anna Leszkiewicz felt that the episode was not about " coming out " , as the innuendo concerning Smithers ' sexuality had been running for decades . She felt it was retconning the series , which had made arguably homophobic jokes around the character , for modern sensitivities ; this was likened to how Harry Potter author J.K. Rowling revealed that Albus Dumbledore was gay after the series had finished . Leszkiewicz concluded that it was progress – for the show more than for the LGBT community – that homosexuality was being treated in a more mature way on The Simpsons , but that the change should have been made at least a decade ago .
The episode was covered by international media outlets including the BBC , The Australian , Die Welt , La Stampa , Jornal de Notícias , El Mundo , L 'Avenir , and Blesk .
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= California State Route 52 =
State Route 52 ( SR 52 ) is a state highway in San Diego County , California , that extends from La Jolla Parkway at Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) in La Jolla , San Diego , to SR 67 in Santee . It is a freeway for its entire length and serves as a major east – west route through the northern part of the city of San Diego . The road connects the major north – south freeways of the county , including I @-@ 5 , I @-@ 805 , SR 163 , I @-@ 15 , SR 125 , and SR 67 . SR 52 passes north of the Rose Canyon Fault before traversing Marine Corps Air Station Miramar ( MCAS Miramar ) . East of Santo Road and west of SR 125 , the highway goes through Mission Trails Regional Park , a large open preserve . SR 52 is also known as the Soledad Freeway and the San Clemente Canyon Freeway .
Plans for a route between La Jolla and Santee date from 1959 , and SR 52 was officially designated in the 1964 state highway renumbering . Construction began in 1966 at the I @-@ 5 interchange with Ardath Road leading to La Jolla . It continued with the building of San Clemente Canyon Road , which was later widened to become SR 52 . The freeway was completed east to I @-@ 805 in 1970 , and was built in two stages from there to Santo Road east of I @-@ 15 ; the last phase was completed in 1988 .
The freeway east of Santo Road encountered delays from environmentalists over the endangered least Bell 's vireo , a songbird which faced habitat destruction , as well as those concerned with the destruction of homes and businesses for the freeway right @-@ of @-@ way . The extension to Mission Gorge Road opened in 1993 , and SR 52 was completed to SR 125 in 1998 . Funding issues delayed the completion of the entire route until 2011 , more than fifty years after construction began ; until then , the city of Santee faced traffic snarls . A widening project was completed in 2007 between Santo Road and Mast Boulevard ; further expansion has been put on hold due to state budget concerns .
= = Route description = =
SR 52 begins just west of I @-@ 5 at the eastern end of La Jolla Parkway . Before entering San Clemente Canyon , the road becomes a freeway as it intersects I @-@ 5 . The canyon is part of Marian Bear Natural Park . The freeway runs north of the Rose Canyon Fault , composed of Late Cretaceous rock estimated to be 90 million years old , and Mount Soledad . Following exits with Clairemont Mesa Boulevard / Regents Road and Genesee Avenue , SR 52 intersects I @-@ 805 before exiting the canyon and traveling along the southern edge of the MCAS Miramar military base .
From I @-@ 805 to SR 163 , the highway goes through an area with visible Pliocene sedimentary rocks estimated to be 10 million years old . After passing the Miramar Recycling Center and an interchange with Convoy Street , SR 52 intersects SR 163 , a freeway heading towards downtown San Diego . SR 52 intersects Kearny Villa Road before an interchange with I @-@ 15 . A collector @-@ distributor road serves these three interchanges .
After this interchange , the freeway leaves the edge of the military base and enters the San Diego neighborhood of Tierrasanta , where there is a junction with Santo Road , before traversing Mission Trails Regional Park , an open space preserve , for a few miles . The freeway ascends to Mission Trails Pass , north of the 1 @,@ 230 @-@ foot ( 370 m ) summit of Fortuna Mountain . The mountain is part of the Peninsular Range ; the highway cuts through Eocene rocks estimated to be 50 million years old and marine fossils . The road on the eastern side of the mountain is carved out of " igneous granitic rocks " that are thought to be 150 million years old , an unusual formation compared to the Eocene layer .
A dedicated two @-@ way bicycle path exists on the northern side of the roadway between Santo Road and Mast Boulevard , with access possible from both terminii . East of the Mast Boulevard interchange , SR 52 crosses and begins to parallel the San Diego River . The freeway enters the city of Santee , where SR 52 was built alongside Mission Gorge Road . SR 52 intersects the northern end of SR 125 , where SR 52 traffic can exit south onto SR 125 . The freeway continues east through Santee , with interchanges at Fanita Drive , Cuyamaca Street , and Magnolia Avenue , before it comes to an end at SR 67 .
SR 52 is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System and is eligible for the State Scenic Highway System ; however , it is not a scenic highway as designated by Caltrans because it has not successfully been through the nomination process . SR 52 is not part of the National Highway System , a network of roads that are important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . The entire route is known as both the Soledad Freeway and the San Clemente Canyon Freeway . In 2013 , SR 52 had an annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) of 69 @,@ 000 at the eastern terminus with SR 67 , and 103 @,@ 000 between Convoy Street and SR 163 , the lowest and the highest AADT for the highway , respectively .
= = History = =
In 1959 , Legislative Route 279 was designated as a highway from La Jolla to Santee and incorporated into the California Freeway and Expressway System . In the 1964 state highway renumbering , this became SR 52 . However , SR 52 took more than fifty years to be constructed , due to delays in the planning and construction phases .
= = = I @-@ 5 to I @-@ 805 = = =
A public hearing on Legislative Route 279 and on the Ardath Road connection to La Jolla was held on November 15 , 1961 . At the hearing , there were concerns expressed regarding destruction of vegetation . City and state officials indicated that the Soledad Freeway would be constructed in the northern part of the canyon to minimize environmental damage . On November 9 , 1966 , the I @-@ 5 interchange with Ardath Road opened at the western end of what would become SR 52 . The original goal was to connect the interchange with San Clemente Canyon Road , which served as a predecessor to SR 52 ; plans were to widen the road to four lanes and designate it as SR 52 . The connecting ramps were not opened that day because the aluminum guard rails had not been delivered on time . Estimates indicated that each resident of La Jolla would save 80 hours per year by using Ardath Road . A ramp from southbound I @-@ 5 to westbound Ardath Road was never completed because of a hairpin turn that would be necessary due to the towering cliff on the west side of I @-@ 5 that Ardath Road ascends as it continues to La Jolla . On November 18 , San Clemente Canyon Road was connected to I @-@ 5 when the aluminum guard rails arrived and were subsequently installed . San Clemente Canyon Road was not fully opened until 1967 . That year , citizens expressed opposition to the construction of the Soledad Freeway because some wanted the land to be used for a park , and did not view the freeway as " necessary . "
Formal bids began in February 1969 for the first section of SR 52 between I @-@ 5 and I @-@ 805 . The state ordered the construction of this section on April 28 , 1969 . On Thursday , May 28 , 1970 , the Soledad Freeway opened , connecting Regents Road and Genesee Avenue with I @-@ 5 ; however , it did not connect to the unopened I @-@ 805 . The road was built by Kasler , Ball and Yeager for $ 3 @.@ 9 million ( about $ 41 @.@ 5 million in 2015 dollars ) . The construction firm deposited dirt into " an unnamed finger canyon " against the conditions of the city permit , and the city ordered the firm to remove it . The section of I @-@ 805 from SR 52 to El Cajon Boulevard was scheduled to be dedicated on March 20 , 1972 .
Ardath Road was renamed La Jolla Parkway on October 15 , 2002 , for two reasons : a nearby residential street was also named Ardath Road , and there was a desire to draw attention to this primary route to downtown La Jolla . This required the city of San Diego to pay $ 20 @,@ 000 ( about $ 29 @,@ 000 in 2015 dollars ) to replace the signs on SR 52 .
= = = I @-@ 805 to Santo Road = = =
The second phase of SR 52 from I @-@ 805 to 1 @.@ 1 miles ( 1 @.@ 8 km ) past U.S. Route 395 ( which became I @-@ 15 in 1974 ) was projected to cost $ 29 @.@ 4 million ( about $ 313 million in 2015 dollars ) . The new freeway was to provide access to Tierrasanta and reduce the traffic on I @-@ 8 . The U.S. Navy was consulted in the planning process due to the road 's proposed routing through MCAS Miramar that would provide a delineation against further urban development . There were no concerns expressed at the public hearing on November 17 , 1970 ; however , construction did not begin for more than ten years , as California governor Jerry Brown stalled the construction of SR 52 from Santo Road to SR 67 . In 1977 , the county supervisor , a San Diego City councilman , and the mayors of La Mesa and National City wrote a letter to Brown to ask for the construction of this portion of SR 125 and other freeways , due to concerns about the types of congestion seen in Los Angeles coming to San Diego due to the incomplete freeway system . San Diego City Councilman Tom Gade wrote a telegram to Caltrans Director Adriana Gianturco about the possible deletions ; in response , Gianturco clarified that the plans were only being reconsidered and had not been removed , and a CHC member criticized the tone of the original telegram , calling it " intemperate " . In 1984 , Leo Trombatore , the Caltrans Director under California governor George Deukmejian , requested to the California Transportation Commission ( CTC ) that " formal studies toward this end be initiated immediately . Route 52 has a high statewide priority . " The CTC followed the director 's wishes , approving the studies .
The first part of this phase , from I @-@ 805 to Convoy Street , began construction in December 1986 . It was dedicated at a community celebration on July 11 , 1987 , and was scheduled to open to traffic a few weeks later . The first callboxes in San Diego County were installed on SR 52 near Convoy Street on June 20 , 1988 . On June 30 , 1988 , SR 52 from Convoy Street to Santo Road opened to traffic . The I @-@ 15 interchange was built with state funds from the CTC .
In 2000 , Hazard Construction Company added a single westbound lane on SR 52 from SR 163 to I @-@ 805 , a distance of 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) , at a cost of $ 1 @.@ 7 million ( about $ 2 @.@ 6 million in 2015 dollars ) . In 2006 , the Metropolitan Transit System , in cooperation with the San Diego Association of Governments ( SANDAG ) , Caltrans , and the California Highway Patrol , began a pilot program to run transit buses along the shoulders of SR 52 between Kearny Villa Road and I @-@ 805 . During rush hour , buses were able to use these shoulders to bypass slow traffic in the main lanes . The trial was considered successful as more than 99 percent of trips arrived on time , customer feedback was favorable and no safety concerns were encountered . On May 9 , 2007 , the San Diego Union @-@ Tribune published a story which raised reader concerns about a dangerous dip in the freeway . The dip had developed in a section of the highway constructed on top of the Miramar Landfill , and had been caused by trash settling ; it was repaired by the next day .
= = = Planning for eastern portion = = =
The planning process for the remainder of SR 52 began as early as 1970 , when the initial plan was to route the freeway through the city of Santee along Mission Gorge Road and the San Diego River . Planning was delayed until 1984 , along with the construction of the I @-@ 805 to Santo Road segment . The City of Santee opposed the original plans , hoping to route the freeway on Prospect Avenue or north of the San Diego River . By April 1985 , a second route along Prospect Avenue , proposed by Caltrans , earned the support of the City Council ; however , the required demolition of many small businesses led many of those affected to start a petition against this route . On the other hand , there were objections about the " river route " costing approximately $ 15 million more ( about $ 45 @.@ 9 million in 2015 dollars ) and cutting through a future " Town Center development " . The Lakeside Chamber of Commerce preferred the route along the San Diego River , citing the proximity to that city . The environmental impact report was found to be deficient by the Federal Highway Administration in late 1986 .
In January 1987 , the Santee City Council voted to commence a study of a more northern route , even though local residents and workers objected that this would postpone construction . In March , the study , done by BSI Inc . , supported the Caltrans decision to abandon plans for the northern path due to the increased cost from the " mountainous , undeveloped " terrain . The council voted to support a southern alignment through the town , with both the Prospect Avenue and San Diego River alternatives still viable . In the same month , the mayor of La Mesa , Fred Nagel , started a petition drive supporting the extension of the freeway due to the recurring traffic on I @-@ 8 . The Caltrans environmental impact report indicated that the Prospect Avenue route would cost $ 89 million ( about $ 248 million in 2015 dollars ) , compared to the river route 's $ 121 million ( about $ 337 million in 2015 dollars ) . The city council of El Cajon publicly supported the Prospect Avenue routing ; however , some employees of the City of Santee , including some city planners and engineers , were concerned that portions of the report were " outdated . " The petitions were given to the CTC in May , when San Diego officials made several arguments in support of the construction .
In June 1987 , the CTC staff initially recommended against allocating money for the SR 52 segment ; however , SANDAG agreed to fund the project with $ 1 million ( about $ 2 @.@ 78 million in 2015 dollars ) . Residents of Santee opposed the possible routes through the city at a public forum on June 10 because of the necessary destruction of homes to build on those routes . In late June , Caltrans considered making small modifications to the Prospect Avenue alignment to destroy fewer homes , including those in mobile home parks . On June 25 , 1987 , the CTC voted to support the SR 52 extension , with the requirement that $ 4 @.@ 8 million ( about $ 13 @.@ 3 million in 2015 dollars ) come from local funding sources . Finally , on September 23 , the City of Santee recommended the Prospect Avenue Route to the CTC .
In July 1987 , the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service expressed concerns that construction near the San Diego River crossing might result in the destruction of the endangered least Bell 's vireo habitat . Two of the four alternative routes considered by Caltrans passed through the Carlton Hills golf course , which the public opposed . In April 1988 , the Sierra Club denounced the Prospect Avenue route ; federal negotiators recommended shifting the route from Hollins Lake towards the golf course . Environmental concerns raised in June 1988 related to the least Bell 's vireo included decrease of insects , a darker environment after overpasses are constructed , and the fragmenting of habitat . Nevertheless , Caltrans still desired the Prospect Avenue route over concerns of a more expensive and less traveled northern route . Upset because of the delays , the Santee City Council wrote to U.S. senators Pete Wilson and Alan Cranston , asking for their assistance . Councilman Jim Bartell alleged that the issue would affect the city council elections .
In March 1989 , the Fish and Wildlife Service agreed to the project , on the conditions of altering the route to cross the San Diego River and pass east of the center of the town , and constructing 44 acres of additional habitat as mitigation . SANDAG voted against building a full bicycle lane along the route in July 1989 , citing the high costs . Finally , on July 27 , the final routing of SR 52 was determined , running along Prospect Avenue . In May 1990 , Santee councilman Roy Woodward was censured for having a conflict of interest in voting to support the proposals for the freeway because he " held interests " in three properties that would benefit from the freeway , thus violating the Political Reform Act as these interests exceeded $ 10 @,@ 000 . One of the holdings was near Cuyamaca Street , the location of an offramp on a path that he voted to support . He was fined $ 2 @,@ 000 ( about $ 4 @,@ 700 in 2015 dollars ) for each property , for a total of $ 6 @,@ 000 ( about $ 14 @,@ 000 in 2015 dollars ) .
= = = Santo Road to Mission Gorge Road = = =
In April 1990 , the Santee City Council agreed to begin purchasing land , over the environmental concerns of Councilman Jim Bartell . Construction finally began on the four @-@ lane section of SR 52 between Santo Road and Mission Gorge Road on July 19 , 1991 . The work was projected to cost $ 52 million ( about $ 119 million in 2015 dollars ) . For environmental mitigation , a new 45 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 070 sq mi ) songbird habitat was constructed that cost $ 8 @.@ 3 million ( about $ 19 million in 2015 dollars ) . Fossils of " small foraging mammals " were discovered during construction in late 1991 . The construction company , HDB Construction , was required to keep noise below 61 decibels to protect the birds . The project was funded primarily with revenue from a voter @-@ approved sales tax in 1987 . The opening of this portion was scheduled for December 16 , 1993 . This new segment ended just southeast of the Mast Boulevard interchange , after the San Diego River overpass .
The opening of this stretch of SR 52 had many effects on the transportation of the East County region . Traffic decreased significantly on I @-@ 8 in early 1994 , with an estimated 30 @,@ 000 commuters switching from I @-@ 8 to SR 52 . Fewer cars traveled on the western part of Mission Gorge Road , leading to a decrease in revenue for businesses located along that road . On Mast Boulevard and Mission Gorge Road in Santee , much more traffic was present , leading to residents complaining to the city . In 1998 , the city began to widen Mission Gorge Road between Carlton Hills Drive and Fanita Road to handle the extra traffic from the incomplete SR 52 .
The year after the September 11 , 2001 attacks , the military erected a fence to block a deer tunnel underneath the freeway that connected the base and Mission Trails Regional Park , since the tunnel could be used to gain unauthorized access to the base . In 2006 , construction began to add a third lane on westbound SR 52 between Mast Boulevard and Santo Road . The expansion cost $ 3 @.@ 4 million ( about $ 4 @.@ 09 million in 2015 dollars ) and was funded by the state and the county TransNet sales tax . The new lane opened on May 8 , 2007 ; however , the widening generated complaints from angry commuters facing a " bottleneck " at Santo Road . Because the additional lane was constructed in portions , the opening of the third lane between Santo Road and the existing third lane closer to I @-@ 15 was delayed ; however , construction for the missing 2 @,@ 100 feet ( 640 m ) was approved in April 2007 . The extension opened on July 20 , 2007 .
= = = Mission Gorge Road to SR 67 = = =
Construction on the next portion of SR 52 , from Mission Gorge Road to SR 125 , was scheduled to begin in late 1995 , at a total cost of $ 60 million ( about $ 116 million in 2015 dollars ) for the entire project . Property acquisition began in 1994 , with many property owners along the south side of Mission Gorge Road being forced to move out of the way of the freeway and subsequent road construction , as Mission Gorge Road was moved south to accommodate the new freeway . About $ 40 million ( $ 77 @.@ 6 million in 2015 dollars ) was spent on the property acquisition . After weather @-@ related construction delays due to the El Niño season of the winter of 1997 – 1998 , the extension of SR 52 between Mission Gorge Road and SR 125 was dedicated on May 9 , 1998 . The eastbound lanes were scheduled to be opened a few days later , and the westbound lanes were to be opened in mid @-@ July of that year . L.R. Hubbard Construction Company built the portion for $ 17 million ( about $ 28 @.@ 8 million in 2015 dollars ) .
The city of Santee faced problems in the construction of the freeway from SR 125 to SR 67 . As early as 1995 , it was clear that the environmental impact report was delayed and that there would be funding difficulties . SANDAG allocated $ 23 million dollars ( about $ 37 @.@ 1 million in 2015 dollars ) in 1999 to purchase properties needed for the right @-@ of @-@ way . In 2001 , SANDAG gave $ 138 million ( about $ 207 million in 2015 dollars ) to the expansion of SR 52 to SR 67 , which was necessary for extending the freeway past Cuyamaca Street . But by 2003 , the transportation committee of SANDAG voted to delay the project due to decreased state funding . The city of Santee was required to make improvements to Forester Creek to accommodate potential flooding , which cost $ 30 million ( about $ 37 @.@ 8 million in 2015 dollars ) ; the work began in May 2006 . Funding issues were finally resolved in 2006 with voter @-@ approved statewide transportation bonds . In 2007 , highway construction costs increased ; that year , the SANDAG transportation committee voted to fund the construction , taking money from a planned reversible lanes project on SR 52 .
" Heavy construction " of SR 52 from SR 125 eastward to SR 67 began in February 2008 . More than 360 properties were acquired to build the freeway ; at least 60 were mobile homes . This portion was divided into three construction projects : from SR 125 to Cuyamaca Street , from there to Magnolia Avenue , and the interchange with SR 67 , which began construction in mid @-@ June 2008 . The middle project had to be shut down briefly in February 2009 due to funding issues . Completion was scheduled for 2010 , but was postponed to early 2011 due to weather @-@ related delays . This new portion was opened to traffic on March 29 , 2011 . The cost of this project was $ 525 million , funded with state and federal funds as well as TransNet revenue . The opening was predicted to reduce traffic on I @-@ 8 as well as Mission Gorge Road and other Santee thoroughfares . The official " ribbon cutting " ceremony took place on March 19 , 2011 on the freeway at the Cuyamaca Street interchange .
Reactions to the extension between SR 125 and SR 67 were mixed . There were reports of faster transportation through the East County area , yet commuters noted a rush hour backup at SR 125 headed westbound because there were only two lanes traveling west through the interchange . Traffic along Mission Gorge Road was reported to have decreased by 20 percent .
= = Future = =
There are plans to add one lane in each direction , as well as two reversible lanes , from I @-@ 15 to SR 125 . These plans were put on hold in 2008 due to a budget shortfall . Completion is scheduled to take place by 2040 . Caltrans recommends adding two more lanes between I @-@ 5 and I @-@ 805 , and two HOV lanes between I @-@ 805 and I @-@ 15 .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in San Diego County .
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= Carex binervis =
Carex binervis , the green @-@ ribbed sedge , is a European species of sedge with an Atlantic distribution . It is found from Fennoscandia to the Iberian Peninsula , and occurs in heaths , moorland and other damp , acidic environments . It typically grows to a height of 15 – 120 cm ( 6 – 50 in ) , and has inflorescences comprising one male and several female spikes , each up to 45 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) long . The utricles have two conspicuous green veins , which give rise to both the scientific name and the common name of the species . In the vegetative state , it closely resembles C. bigelowii , a species that usually grows at higher altitude . C. binervis was first described by James Edward Smith in 1800 , and is classified in Carex sect . Spirostachyae ; several hybrids with other Carex species are known .
= = Description = =
= = = Vegetative parts = = =
The culms of Carex binervis are 15 – 150 centimetres ( 6 in – 4 ft 11 in ) tall , although typically less than 120 cm ( 3 ft 11 in ) . They are triangular in section with rounded corners and often a single furrow . The leaves are 7 – 30 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 – 11 @.@ 8 in ) long and 2 – 6 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 08 – 0 @.@ 24 in ) wide , light green and shiny on the underside , but dark green and matt on the upper surface . The leaves are flat or slightly keeled , and taper abruptly to a fine point .
The roots of C. binervis are 1 – 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 04 – 0 @.@ 08 in ) in diameter , with the root hairs mostly occurring on the short lateral rootlets . The rhizomes run 25 – 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 0 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) below the soil surface , and are light brown and approximately 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 in ) in diameter . The whole root system reaches a maximum depth of 18 cm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) , spreading more widely than Juncus squarrosus , another dominant plant in Atlantic wet heaths .
In the vegetative state , C. binervis is difficult to distinguish from C. bigelowii , a species that tends to grow at higher altitudes than C. binervis . They differ in that C. bigelowii has glaucous leaves and purplish @-@ brown scales on the rhizome , whereas C. binervis has orange @-@ brown rhizome scales , and leaves which are not glaucous . The leaves of C. binervis also develop " wine @-@ red " patches on aging , which are never seen in C. bigelowii .
= = = Reproductive parts = = =
The inflorescence of C. binervis may be up to half the length of the stem . The lower bracts resemble the leaves , while the upper bracts are more like the glumes . The inflorescence comprises a single terminal male spike , and 2 – 4 lateral female spikes . The male spike is 20 – 45 mm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 8 in ) long , with purplish glumes which are 4 @.@ 0 – 4 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 16 – 0 @.@ 18 in ) long and have a paler midrib . The female spikes are 15 – 45 mm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 8 in ) long and cylindrical . Their peduncles are half sheathed , and up to 10 cm ( 4 in ) long , such that the lower female spikes tend to be nodding , while the upper female spikes are erect .
The utricles ( seeds ) of C. binervis are 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 14 – 0 @.@ 18 in ) long and broadly elliptical , with a rough , notched beak 1 @.@ 0 – 1 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 04 – 0 @.@ 06 in ) long . They are purplish brown or sometimes partly green , and both the plant 's scientific and common names refer to the fact that the utricles are marked with two conspicuous green veins ( from the Latin roots bis , " two " , and nervis , " nerve " ) . C. binervis has a chromosome number of 2n = 74 .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
Carex binervis has an oceanic distribution , occurring only in areas of high rainfall , from Finland and Norway , through the British Isles , Germany , Belgium and France , to Spain and Portugal . Within the British Isles , Carex binervis has a westerly and northerly distribution , and is more abundant in the Scotland , Wales and Ireland than in England . Plants from Morocco that were previously referred to C. binervis are now treated as a separate species , C. paulo @-@ vargasii .
Carex binervis grows in acidic , siliceous environments , including " damp heaths , moors , rocky places and mountainsides " ; together with species such as Deschampsia flexuosa , it is a " useful indicator of acid substrate " . The species has been recorded at altitudes of up to 930 metres ( 3 @,@ 050 ft ) on Glyder Fach in north Wales , and there are reports of occurrences up to 975 m ( 3 @,@ 200 ft ) in the Scottish Highlands . Although sedges are chiefly wind pollinated , insect pollinators have been observed to visit C. binervis occasionally .
= = Taxonomy = =
In 1800 , James Edward Smith published an article in the Transactions of the Linnean Society of London , titled " Descriptions of five new British species of Carex " , which included the first descriptions of Carex davalliana , C. binervis , C. tomentosa ( a synonym of C. filiformis ) , C. micheliana ( a synonym of C. flacca ) and C. laevigata . After the Latin diagnosis of Carex binervis , Smith writes :
This species appears to have been confounded with C. distans ; and from Lightfoot 's description of the green angles of the fruit , I presume it to have been what he intended under that name . It is considerably larger than the real distans , the spikes black intermixed with green rather than yellowish , and the female ones often branched or compounded at their base . Its most essential and decisive character however consists in the two strong deep @-@ green nerves or ribs which run along each side of the fruit externally near the edge . The arillus is also broader and more compressed than in C. distans .
Carex binervis is classified in Carex subsection Elatae , part of Carex section Spirostachyae , alongside C. laevigata and other species . Natural hybrids are known between C. binervis and various other Carex species , including C. laevigata ( forming C. × deserta ) , C. viridula ( forming C. × corstorphinei ) , C. punctata and C. flava .
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= Christmas Scandal =
" Christmas Scandal " is the 12th episode of the second season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation , and the eighteenth overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on December 10 , 2009 . In the episode , a meeting with a disgraced councilman puts Leslie in the middle of a sex scandal that forces her to hide from the press .
The episode was written by series co @-@ creator Michael Schur and was directed by Randall Einhorn . " Christmas Scandal " marked the last of a string of guest appearances by stand @-@ up comedian Louis C.K. as Dave Sanderson , Leslie 's police officer boyfriend .
According to Nielsen Media Research , " Christmas Scandal " was seen by 5 @.@ 62 million households , the highest viewership of the season . The episode received generally positive reviews , although some commentators felt the central story risked becoming too busy and chaotic .
= = Plot = =
The parks department performs in the annual Pawnee City Government Follies that riffs local politics , including one sketch that skewers Councilman Bill Dexhart ( Kevin Symons ) , who was recently discovered to be involved in many bizarre sex scandals . Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) is later asked to meet Dexhart for lunch , where she learns the sketch was accidentally accurate about another bizarre sex scandal that has not been made public . After assuring Dexhart that it was merely a coincidence , Leslie discovers that the local tabloid , The Pawnee Sun , has taken pictures of their lunch and is reporting that Leslie is Dexhart 's new mistress .
The speculation about Dexhart and Leslie quickly spins out of control , upsetting Leslie because it is distracting her from overseeing the Christmas village that she set up in Lot 48 . Ron ( Nick Offerman ) decides to give Leslie the day off to lie low and distributes her daily duties among the rest of the staff . Everyone is amazed how much Leslie does by herself each day and the entire group struggles to complete their tasks . Leslie has lunch with Dave ( Louis C.K. ) , who reveals that his unit in the US Army Reserve has been called up to active duty in San Diego for a year to eighteen months , and he invites Leslie to join him since he has fallen in love with her . Leslie confides to Ann ( Rashida Jones ) that she is considering the move , as the treatment of her in the media has soured her on Pawnee .
The local show " Pawnee Today " digs up an old video of Leslie shaking hands with Dexhart and overanalyzes every aspect of the short clip . Ann brings Dexhart to her home , where Ann and Leslie demand he clear Leslie 's name . Dexhart refuses because the fake scandal is so docile compared to his real transgressions that it is actually positive press for him . Soon after , Ann is horrified to discover that a news crew secretly followed Dexhart to her home and took a photograph of the meeting , resulting in speculation that Ann is Leslie 's lesbian lover in a three @-@ way relationship with Dexhart . A furious Leslie schedules an appearance on " Pawnee Today " to clear her name once and for all . On the show , host Joan Callamezzo ( Mo Collins ) surprises Leslie by bringing out Dexhart , who tries to prove their affair by claiming that Leslie has a mole on her buttocks . To finally end the scandal , Leslie pulls down her pants on live television and moons Callamezzo . Since there is no mole , Dexhart is forced to admit that he fabricated the sex scandal .
Over dinner , Leslie tells Dave that she will not move to San Diego with him , as her life is in Pawnee . Dave , although sad , understands her choice and the two split up amicably . At Pawnee 's tree lighting ceremony , Leslie is congratulated by everyone , including Leslie 's mother Marlene , who is proud that her daughter successfully fought off the media . Leslie returns to work the next day much to Ron 's immense relief , as he could barely handle just a portion of her daily duties . Everyone is visibly glad that Leslie is back .
In a B plot , April ( Aubrey Plaza ) asks Andy ( Chris Pratt ) what to get her gay boyfriend for Christmas . All of Andy 's ideas are well @-@ meaning but dumb , although it seems that April is just happy to talk with him . To thank Andy , she gets him a Reggie Wayne jersey for Christmas . Meanwhile , Mark ( Paul Schneider ) tells Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) that he intends to get Ann a new computer bag for Christmas , but Tom tells him that he should get diamonds . In the end , he gives her the computer bag after all while Ann gives him Pacers tickets . He then gives her a second gift , telling her she does not have to go to the game , to which Ann happily accepts .
= = Production = =
" Christmas Scandal " was written by series co @-@ founder Michael Schur and directed by Randall Einhorn . The episode featured the last of a string of guest performances by stand @-@ up comedian Louis C.K. , who reprised his recurring role as Dave Sanderson , Leslie 's police officer boyfriend . Louis C.K. left the show to devote more time to his own upcoming series , Louie , which was to air in early 2010 . Louis C.K. was widely praised for his brief stint on the show , where he adopts a deadpan , technical tone of voice far different from his usual comedy persona . Matt Fowler of IGN said , " Louis C.K. , known for being a raucous , raunchy comic , is almost frightening in his ability to play against his stage persona and give us a wonderfully caring , and deadpan , character " .
" Christmas Scandal " also featured Kevin Symons as Pawnee Councilman Bill Dexhart . Dexhart was previously introduced in " Practice Date " , where his sex scandals served as a parody of the real @-@ life 2009 scandal of South Carolina Governor Mark Sanford , who publicly admitted to a long @-@ time extramarital affair with an Argentinian woman . Jay Jackson also reprised his prior role as Perd Hapley , a Pawnee television news reporter . " Christmas Scandal " is the first episode to feature the former Pawnee pit location serving a legitimate town purpose . Filling a giant construction pit and turning it into a park had been a central plot @-@ point of Parks and Recreation throughout the first season and the first half of the second season . The pit was filled in the episode " Kaboom " , and the space is turned into the town 's Winter Wonderland Christmas village in " Christmas Scandal " . The Christmas village scenes were filmed in the same location as the past pit scenes in Van Nuys , a district of Los Angeles , California . During one scene , Ron expresses concern about dangerous raccoons at the Christmas village . This is a reference to a running gag , established from the series , that Pawnee has a terrible raccoon infestation problem .
= = Cultural references = =
When April seeks gift ideas for her " gay boyfriend " , Andy suggests a DVD of Brokeback Mountain , a 2005 film about a romance between two men in the American West . As a gift , Andy receives a jersey for Reggie Wayne , the wide receiver of the Indianapolis Colts . While discussing gifts , Tom tells Mark all women love diamonds , " even the super left @-@ wing chicks who saw Blood Diamond " , a 2006 film about diamonds mined in African war zones .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on December 10 , 2009 , " Christmas Scandal " was seen by 5 @.@ 62 million households , according to Nielsen Media Research . It was the highest rating of the season , and a 10 percent increase in viewership from the previous episode , " Tom 's Divorce " . " Christmas Scandal " drew a 2 @.@ 3 rating / 6 share among viewers aged between 18 and 49 . Commentators said NBC may have been received a boost in the ratings due to the lack of competition from repeats on ABC on December 10 ; NBC shows The Office , Community , 30 Rock and The Jay Leno Show also saw rating jumps that night .
The episode received generally positive reviews . The A.V. Club writer Leonard Pierce said the story in " Christmas Scandal " was so busy that it risked running awry , but was kept together by a number of strong comedic moments and subplots . Pierce particularly enjoyed watching the parks department scrambling to do Leslie 's work , and the chemistry between both April and Andy , and Leslie and Dave . Alan Sepinwall , television columnist with The Star @-@ Ledger , said he " thoroughly enjoyed " the episode , especially the subplot of the parks department employees realizing how much work Leslie does due to her absence . However , he said way the sex scandal consumed the entire town and local media countered the central conceit of the series , " that Leslie treats her mundane , small @-@ town civil service job as if it were a high @-@ stakes national politics job , while everyone else sees their world for what it is " . Matt Fowler of IGN said the episode was " a sweet and clever way to celebrate the holiday season " , but that the media frenzy in " Christmas Scandal " was " a little out of place in an episode filled with a ton of subtler , character @-@ building moments " . Fowler said the parks department employees splitting up to do Leslie 's work was " a great element " that helped develop Leslie 's character .
= = DVD release = =
" Christmas Scandal " , along with the other 23 second season episodes of Parks and Recreation , was released on a four @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on November 30 , 2010 . The DVD included deleted scenes for each episode .
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= Triangle ( The Beau Brummels album ) =
Triangle is the fourth studio album by American rock band The Beau Brummels . Produced by Lenny Waronker and released in July 1967 , it was the band 's first album to include songs that vocalist Sal Valentino and guitarist Ron Elliott composed together . The band incorporated fantasy elements and surreal characters into the album 's song titles and lyrics , and worked with a variety of session musicians to create Triangle 's psychedelic musical style . The Beau Brummels were reduced to a trio — Valentino , Elliott , and Ron Meagher — at the time Triangle was recorded , as former group members Don Irving ( guitars ) and John Petersen ( drums ) left the band following the release of the group 's previous album , Beau Brummels ' 66 .
Triangle reached number 197 on the Billboard 200 albums chart and received mostly positive reviews ; critics commended Elliott as a songwriter and compared Valentino 's vocals to those of Bob Dylan . The single " Magic Hollow " was ranked one of " The 100 Greatest Psychedelic Classics " in a 1997 issue of Mojo magazine . Warner Japan released this album as WPCP @-@ 5252 in 1993 . Collectors ' Choice Music reissued the album in 2002 .
= = Background = =
In July 1966 , the Beau Brummels released their third album , and first with Warner Bros. Records . Titled Beau Brummels ' 66 , the album was a collection of cover songs and was a commercial disappointment . Critics questioned Warner Brothers ' decision to not release the band 's original material , which had been recorded by the band in early 1966 as their previous label , Autumn Records , collapsed . These recordings eventually appeared on the 2005 compilation album San Fran Sessions . Following the release of Beau Brummels ' 66 , guitarist Don Irving left the group when he received an induction notice into the armed forces . Drummer John Petersen quit to join pop rock band Harpers Bizarre . By early 1967 , the three remaining members — vocalist Sal Valentino , guitarist Ron Elliott , and bassist Ron Meagher — quit touring to focus on studio work . For their next album , Triangle , the band met with Warner Bros. producer Lenny Waronker , who gave the band freedom to resume recording original material . According to Elliott , " Lenny Waronker wanted to do something creative , and I was up for that . " During the album 's recording sessions , Meagher left the group when he was called to active duty in the Army Reserves .
= = Composition = =
Valentino said Triangle was partially inspired by several day trips he took to the California Palace of the Legion of Honor , a fine art museum in San Francisco . He admired the collection of 17th century Flemish portraits and landscape paintings at the museum , from which dark yet incandescent hues emanated . Elliott described the album as a " mythological cartoon about love written from some weird spaces " , and explained it as " sort of a mood swing into the world that was around us at the time . It was sort of dissolving into this drug culture . So the music became very ethereal , mystic , and mysterious " . In contrast with the band 's generally straightforward recordings for the Autumn label , Triangle 's lyrics are more abstract , containing Tolkienesque fantasy elements and dream @-@ like characters , such as the gypsy in " Only Dreaming Now " , the " Painter of Women " , " The Keeper of Time " , and " The Wolf of Velvet Fortune " , as well as the destination of " Magic Hollow " .
Elliott , the band 's principal composer , sought to move away from the formulaic songs that Autumn Records wanted . Having regained artistic freedom in the studio , and with the band no longer touring , Elliott and Valentino focused on creating an album of songs which were written and recorded specifically for that purpose . The resulting sessions for Triangle saw Elliott and Valentino collaborate as songwriters for the first time . Four of the album 's tracks were written by Elliott with frequent collaborator Bob Durand . The album also contained the Randy Newman composition " Old Kentucky Home " and a cover version of Merle Travis 's " Nine Pound Hammer " , both of which hinted at the country rock direction explored more heavily by the band on their 1968 album , Bradley 's Barn . Session musicians included guitarist James Burton , drummer Jim Gordon , bassist Carol Kaye , and Van Dyke Parks , who played harpsichord on " Magic Hollow " , adding to the album 's psychedelic musical style . Elliott returned the favor , playing guitar on Parks ' 1968 debut album , Song Cycle . Triangle also features strings , brass , accordion , woodwinds , and numerous types of percussion .
= = Release and reception = =
Released in July 1967 , Triangle spent two weeks on the Billboard 200 albums chart , peaking at number 197 . Though not a commercial success , the album gained an underground following and received critical acclaim . Sal Valentino 's " expressive " vocals were compared to those of Bob Dylan by Crawdaddy ! ' s Paul Williams in 1968 and by Perfect Sound Forever 's Steve Cooper in 2004 . A 2007 review in Electric Roulette stated that Valentino 's voice resembles Gene Clark of The Byrds , " but superior in tone and emotion " . Williams , Cooper , and Allmusic 's Stansted Montfichet praised Ron Elliott as a songwriter , with Montfichet adding that Elliott 's " lyrical imagery ... is particularly striking " in the songs " Only Dreaming Now " , " Painter of Women " , and " The Wolf of Velvet Fortune " . Australian journalist and author Lillian Roxon wrote in her 1969 Rock Encyclopedia that Triangle " was the album that astonished everyone and blew a million minds " . Music journalist Jon Savage named the song " Magic Hollow " in his list of the " 100 Greatest Psychedelic Classics " in the June 1997 issue of Mojo magazine . In 2006 , Joel Selvin of the San Francisco Chronicle called the album a " cult classic " , while SF Weekly 's Justin F. Farrar remarked that it " has aged far more gracefully than that almighty concept record from ' 67 , Sgt. Pepper 's [ Lonely Hearts Club Band ] . " Brendan McGrath of The Rising Storm wrote in a 2007 review that " Triangle has everything : it 's a tightly produced country record that is rooted in rock ; it 's straight and folky and underlined by psychedelic imagery " . Author Tom Moon selected the album for his 2008 book , 1 @,@ 000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die , in which he wrote that Triangle " captured the crisscrossing events of 1967 " and was " the rare bridge between the sunny straightforwardness of mid @-@ 60s pop and the fuzzy opaqueness of psychedelia " . During a 2005 broadcast of Fresh Air , National Public Radio 's Ken Tucker said that Triangle comes " perilously close to stuffy art rock . " The album was re @-@ released in 2002 by Collectors ' Choice Music . Kim Cooper of Scram magazine said the reissue was " long overdue " and noted that " the remaster really brings out the arrangements ' complexity " .
= = Chart performance = =
= = Track listing = =
= = = Side One = = =
= = = Side Two = = =
= = Personnel = =
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= Ray Lindwall =
Raymond Russell Lindwall MBE ( 3 October 1921 – 23 June 1996 ) was a cricketer who represented Australia in 61 Tests from 1946 to 1960 . He is widely regarded as one of the greatest fast bowlers of all time . He also played top @-@ flight rugby league football with St. George , appearing in two grand finals for the club before retiring to fully concentrate on Test cricket .
A right @-@ arm fast bowler of express pace , Lindwall was widely regarded as the greatest pace bowler of his era and one of the finest of all time . Together with Keith Miller , Lindwall formed a new @-@ ball pairing regarded as one of the greatest to have played cricket . Lindwall was known for his classical style , with a smooth and rhythmic run @-@ up and textbook side @-@ on bowling action , from which he generated his trademark outswinger which moved away late at high pace . Lindwall mixed his outswinger with a searing yorker , subtle changes of pace and an intimidating bouncer that skidded at the heads of opposing batsmen . Later in his career , Lindwall developed an inswinger , which together with his variety , pace and control made him the most feared paceman of his time . Lindwall was a fine all round cricketer ; he was a hard @-@ hitting batsman who scored two centuries at Test level and often improved Australia 's position with his lower order batting . Lindwall 's best known performance was his role in leading the Australian bowling during the 1948 tour of England under Don Bradman ; the 1948 Australian team went through the tour undefeated and gained the sobriquet The Invincibles which saw it regarded as one of the finest teams in cricketing history . Lindwall 's place in Australian cricket history saw him inducted into the Australian Cricket Hall of Fame in 1996 as one of the ten inaugural members . In 2000 , Lindwall was named in the Australian Cricket Board 's Team of the Century .
One of five children of Irish @-@ Swedish descent , Lindwall had a difficult childhood during the Great Depression , with both parents dying before he finished high school . Lindwall was inspired in his childhood after watching England 's Harold Larwood , the fastest bowler of the era , terrorise the Australian batsmen during the notorious Bodyline series of 1932 – 33 with short @-@ pitched intimidatory bowling . During his teenage years , Lindwall rose through the ranks of Sydney Grade Cricket at St. George under the tutelage of Test leg spinner Bill O 'Reilly , who was regarded as the finest bowler in the world at the time . Lindwall made his first @-@ class debut for New South Wales in 1941 – 42 . At the same time , Lindwall , a fine athlete , was playing for St. George in the first @-@ grade of the New South Wales Rugby Football League premiership as a full back . With the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , interstate cricket was cancelled and in 1943 , Lindwall joined the army and served in New Guinea until 1945 . Lindwall returned to Australia still suffering from the after @-@ effects of tropical disease , but he quickly made an impact upon the resumption of first @-@ class cricket . He did well enough to gain selection a tour of New Zealand , where he made his Test debut in March 1946 in a match that was retrospectively accredited . Lindwall returned to Australia and spent the winter playing football for St. George , helping his team to the grand final of the 1946 NSWRFL season , after which he retired to concentrate solely on cricket .
Lindwall began his celebrated opening partnership with Miller during the 1946 – 47 season which saw the first Ashes series against England . Lindwall brought up his maiden Test century in the Second Test and was the leading wicket @-@ taker as Australia established its ascendancy in the post @-@ war era . He topped the bowling the following season against India and then led the Australian attack during its celebrated Invincibles tour of England . He took 86 wickets for the tour , including 27 in the Tests , the most by any bowler . He was at his best in the Fifth Test at The Oval , when England were skittled for only 52 , taking 6 / 20 as the hosts were unable to cope with his high @-@ pace swing . Lindwall 's efforts saw him named as one of the five Wisden Cricketers of the Year .
Following the Invincibles tour , Lindwall found the pitches in South Africa in 1949 – 50 less to his liking and was dropped for the final Test . He returned in the following season against England , regularly taking wickets in another series win . The following year , he played a major part in stopping the much vaunted West Indian batsmen , but he was criticised for his prolific use of short @-@ pitched bowling . In 1952 , Lindwall played in the Lancashire League in England , where he developed his inswinger . He returned to 1953 with an aging national team in decline and despite the loss of the Ashes , commentators felt that Lindwall was at his zenith in terms of his bowling craft . Upon returning to Australia , Lindwall moved north to Queensland due to work commitments and then suffered a season of injury and illness in 1954 – 55 which saw him perform poorly as England retained the Ashes easily . After a strong performance in the Caribbean , Lindwall missed half of the 1956 English tour with injury and was otherwise ineffective as Australia lost its third consecutive Ashes series . During the return trip to Australia , Lindwall captained Australia for the only time in a Test match against India in Mumbai , after injuries forced out regular captain Ian Johnson . Following the repeated defeats to England , the Australian selectors instituted generational change and gambled on a radical youth policy which saw Lindwall dropped for the 1957 – 58 tour of South Africa . Lindwall forced his way back into the Test team at 37 years of age in the following season , breaking Clarrie Grimmett 's Australian Test record of 216 wickets . He retired from Test cricket after the tour of the Indian subcontinent in the following season , with a total of 228 Test wickets . In retirement , Lindwall mentored Test world @-@ record holder Dennis Lillee and also served as a national selector .
= = Early years = =
Lindwall was born at Mascot , Sydney , New South Wales , the fourth of five children . He had one younger sister , two older sisters and an older brother . The grandson of Swedish and Irish immigrants , Lindwall had a difficult childhood with his mother Catherine dying of pneumonia when he was seven . His father Arthur had a job at the Water and Sewerage Board , but the children were aware that their father could not financially support them beyond school @-@ leaving age .
At the age of 11 , Lindwall and his elder brother Jack were spectators at the Sydney Cricket Ground on the second day of the First Test of the 1932 – 33 Ashes series . The series saw the usage of the notorious Bodyline tactics by England 's pace battery led by Harold Larwood under the captaincy of Douglas Jardine . Larwood , a small man like Lindwall , was less than six feet and intimidated opposition batsmen with express pace bowling , aiming short pitched bouncers at their upper body . Larwood also had a smooth , rhythmic run @-@ up and a classical side @-@ on action , something for which Lindwall became famous . The match was also remembered for Stan McCabe 's much @-@ celebrated 187 not out , aggressively resisting the Bodyline tactics as Australia fell to a heavy ten wicket defeat .
The Lindwall brothers returned to their home in Hurstville , where Ray henceforth attempted to emulate Larwood . He wanted to replicate the physical threat posed by Larwood to batsmen , as well as the dynamic batting of McCabe . Lindwall attempted to copy Larwood 's action in his routine street cricket matches , before terrorising his classmates at primary school . Lindwall said that " he was the most famous fast bowler in the world and I naturally wanted to copy him " . Lindwall 's formal cricket education began the following year when he commenced his secondary schooling at Marist Brothers Kogarah . The school had teachers that had a habit of scouting around for athletic boys who could bring sporting honour to the institution . The headmaster , Brother Aidan O 'Keefe , was a competent player and invested time into training Lindwall . O 'Keefe taught Lindwall batting repertoire while also encouraging him to remain aggressive . He taught Lindwall to add accuracy and variation to his raw speed . By the age of 13 , Lindwall was leading the under @-@ 15 school team , opening both the batting and bowling . Aged 14 , Lindwall played in two distinct Saturday competitions – in the morning against schoolboys and with adults in the afternoon in a B @-@ grade competition with Carlton Waratahs . On one outing , he scored 219 and an unbeaten 110 in two different matches on the same day .
Lindwall 's physique had matured by the time he was 15 , and he was also successful at athletics and swimming . Aware that he needed a good education with his family in poverty during the Great Depression , Lindwall lifted himself for his final year of junior high school and won a half @-@ scholarship to Marist Brothers Darlinghurst for 1937 and 1938 . However , Lindwall 's focus on rugby league and cricket saw him fail his Leaving Certificate in his final year .
= = Grade cricket under O 'Reilly = =
During his secondary school years , Lindwall focused on his batting and gained a reputation as a dynamic shotmaker . In early October 1938 , with his final school year drawing to a close , Lindwall was among a group of young cricketers who received an invitation to practise at the SCG with the state team . Lindwall was the first to volunteer to bowl to Jack Fingleton , who was one of Australia 's first @-@ choice opening batsmen , having just returned from the 1938 Ashes tour . Lindwall peppered Fingleton with a series of yorkers , bouncers and outswingers . In the space of 15 minutes , Lindwall bowled Fingleton four times and beat the bat on several other occasions . When questioned by his coach , Fingleton brushed off Lindwall 's performance , noting " I 'm just off the boat . I 'm not seeing the ball . " Lindwall was stung by the comments , noting that it taught him to hate all batsmen .
Lindwall was only in the Third XI of St. George at the time , but by December , he was in the First XI along with future Invincibles team @-@ mate Arthur Morris . The senior team was captained by Bill O 'Reilly , a leg spin bowler who represented Australia in Tests and was regarded as the best bowler in the world . O 'Reilly was a firm man and came to be a father figure for Lindwall . Lindwall came into the team seeing himself as an into @-@ the @-@ wind swing bowler . O 'Reilly felt that pace bowlers were only useful for a few overs with new ball , so he instructed Lindwall to lengthen his run @-@ up and bowl as fast as possible . O ’ Reilly also decided that the team needed more bowlers . He placed Lindwall low in the batting order , where he often did not get an opportunity to bat . Lindwall did not bother protesting , realising that dissent against the autocratic O ’ Reilly would be futile . O 'Reilly also reversed Morris from a bowler into a batsman . Both Morris and Lindwall became world @-@ leading players in the fields that O ’ Reilly chose for them . By the end of the 1938 – 39 season , Lindwall had not yet established himself as a cricketer . Former Test batsman Charlie Macartney lamented what he perceived as a lack of talent and substance at St. George . Lindwall returned to school , attempting to obtain his Leaving Certificate while also playing third @-@ grade rugby . In July , Lindwall 's father died , leaving him and his four siblings orphaned .
= = Juggling work , war and first @-@ class rugby league and cricket = =
At the end of the year , Lindwall gained his Leaving Certificate . This made him eligible to study at university , but this clashed with his desire to play sport and earn money to help support his parentless family . He thus took an office job with Commercial Steel and Forge Company , which manufactured aeroplane parts and bomb fuses . During the 1939 – 40 season , Lindwall 's bowling was only moderately successful , with 16 wickets at 34 @.@ 93 . A highlight of the season was an unbeaten 49 as St. George won the grade final .
In the winter of 1940 Lindwall made his first grade rugby league debut in the New South Wales Rugby Football League premiership for the St. George club alongside his older brother Jack , who had been with the club since 1938 . He played at fullback and assumed goal @-@ kicking responsibilities . Lindwall 's cricketing improved during the 1940 – 41 season , taking 34 wickets at 16 @.@ 45 , approximately doubling his wickets while halving their cost . By this time , many of his colleagues had enlisted in the armed services and the competition was beginning to thin out during World War II . Lindwall missed the 1941 NSWRFL season due to illness , and in doing so missed out on the team that won the premiership that season . In October 1941 , Lindwall was selected to make his first @-@ class cricket debut against Queensland in Brisbane , just after turning 20 . Playing along his childhood hero McCabe , Lindwall put in a wayward performance . He conceded an expensive 81 runs in 15 wicketless overs and made just one run with the bat . The Sheffield Shield season was cancelled a month later after the December 1941 Pearl Harbor attack , that signalled the widening of the war into the Pacific arena . The Sydney grade cricket competition continued , and Lindwall helped St. George to a hat @-@ trick of premierships with 27 wickets at 22 @.@ 19 and 405 runs at 27 @.@ 00 .
During the winter of 1942 , Lindwall helped the St. George Dragons rugby league team to reach the grand final for the second consecutive year and also finished the season as the League 's top point @-@ scorer . Lindwall and his brother Jack , who played on the wing , scored all of the team 's points in the grand final , Jack scoring a try and Ray kicking three goals . However they were denied by a last @-@ minute penalty goal and St. George were defeated by Canterbury @-@ Bankstown 11 – 9 . All the while , the Japanese were inching ever closer to Australia . Malaya had fallen and the northern Australian city of Darwin had been the subject of Japanese air raids .
Army commitments intervened during the 1943 season . Lindwall had attempted to enlist in the Royal Australian Air Force , but he was rejected because the employees of his firm were exempted from military service . Thus Lindwall resigned his job in order to join the army . As part of his Anti @-@ aircraft and Fortress Signal unit , he was deployed in May 1943 to New Guinea as the Japanese reached the Kokoda Trail close to Port Moresby . Lindwall 's unit were bombed while they were ashore and he was lucky not to be killed . In 1945 , he returned from the Solomon Islands , where he was believed to have contracted malaria and Dengue fever , although medical tests did not confirm this , he needed injections and atebrin tablets to aid him in recovering from bouts of minor illness for some time afterwards , and he resumed State cricket in 1945 – 46 , despite the rigours of war having reduced him to just 73 kg , which was thin for his height of 178 cm .
= = Post @-@ war Test cricket debut = =
Lindwall resumed his first @-@ class cricket career steadily against Queensland and South Australia . Lindwall gave his first indications of cricketing potential on a 38 degree day in the second innings of a match against Victoria . A day after suffering a mild malaria attack , Lindwall gave a spell of four overs which netted him three wickets , bowling at speeds not seen in Australia since Larwood . An innings of 134 not out in just 180 minutes against Queensland at the SCG underlined by cutting and driving exhibited his batting skill , and with a haul of 9 / 77 against South Australia further underlining his allround credential . Lindwall gained further attention when he turned out for New South Wales against the feted Australian Services team of Lindsay Hassett that had played in the 1945 Victory Tests in England . Lindwall 's hostile bowling delivered three wickets in each innings , finishing with match figures of 6 / 95 , leading Hassett to rate him as the best fast @-@ bowling prospect in a decade . With 33 wickets for the season , Lindwall as selected for an Australian team tour of New Zealand under Bill Brown . He played in a Test against New Zealand , which was not awarded Test status until 1948 . In a match in which Australia fielded seven Test debutants , Lindwall opened the bowling with state team @-@ mate Ernie Toshack . Lindwall had limited opportunities on a sticky wicket which favoured the slower bowling of O ’ Reilly and Toshack , who took eight and seven wickets respectively . He took 1 / 13 and 1 / 16 as Australia won by an innings and 103 runs . Lindwall made a duck in Australia 's only innings .
Lindwall returned to Australia and resumed his rugby league career with St. George in the 1946 NSWRFL season after a two @-@ year absence , starting in reserve grade . His strong performances saw him promoted to first grade and that season St. George Dragons qualified for the grand final against the Balmain Tigers . Lindwall 's goalkicking abilities were not on display that day , as Balmain won the game 13 – 12 , scoring three tries to St George 's four , with Lindwall missing every kick at goal . He retired from competitive rugby on the advice of O`Reilly to concentrate on cricket . Lindwall played 31 first @-@ grade rugby league games for St George , scoring seven tries ( then worth three points ) and kicking 123 goals for a total of 267 career points . The narrow losses in the 1942 and 1946 grand finals prevented him from emulating Herbie Collins ' unique feat of following a New South Wales Rugby League premiership victory with captaining the Australian cricket team . Lindwall 's brother Jack was , at the time of his retirement , the club 's leading try @-@ scorer with 110 .
= = Test career = =
Having retired from rugby league , Lindwall was selected to make his Ashes and home soil debut in the First Test against England in Brisbane . It was his first Test under the captaincy of Don Bradman , universally regarded as the best batsman in history . Bradman had just returned from a break . Lindwall was a fan of Bradman 's leadership , recalling that " he put me at ease straight away " and that " his presence was inspiring for all the team " . Lindwall waited for over two days to see action , coming to bat after Australia had reached 7 / 599 . He scored his first runs with 31 as Australia reached 645 . He bowled only briefly in the first innings , with 0 / 23 before being forced from the field with chickenpox , which prevented him from bowling in the second innings as Australia secured a heavy innings victory . The illness prevented Lindwall from playing in the Second Test in Sydney in what would have been his first Test in his home town .
Lindwall returned for the Third Test at Melbourne which saw 343 @,@ 675 spectators - second only to the 350 @,@ 534 at the Third Test on the same ground in 1936 @-@ 37 - with record receipts of £ 44 @,@ 063 . Lindwall was dismissed for only nine in Australia 's first innings , bowled by Alec Bedser . He set up a successful fast bowling partnership with Keith Miller , known for giving the English batsmen an " opening blitz " , especially Len Hutton . One English pressman wrote that this was Bodyline , to the anger of Vic Richardson , Alan Kippax and Clarrie Grimmett who had seen the real thing . Lindwall took his first Ashes wicket , having Test world record holder Len Hutton caught for two by a diving Colin McCool before having Bill Edrich leg before wicket . Lindwall later dismissed English captain Wally Hammond in the second innings . However , it was Lindwall 's batting in the second innings that was the highlight of the Test , scoring his first Test century . Lindwall and wicketkeeper Don Tallon ( 92 ) produced a counterattacking eighth wicket partnership of 154 in only 87 minutes . Lindwall was on 80 when Tallon fell and was still 19 runs short when last man Toshack came to the crease . Toshack defended grimly as Lindwall attacked and reached 100 before being caught . Lindwall brought up his century by walking three metres out of his crease and straight @-@ driving Alec Bedser to the fence . Lindwall 's innings lasted only 113 minutes and 90 balls , the second fastest in Australian Test history after Jack Gregory 's 67 @-@ ball effort in 1920 – 21 .
In the Fourth Test at Adelaide Lindwall came the closest to a hat @-@ trick in his entire Test career . He finished England 's innings by clean bowling three batsmen in four deliveries , with the unsuccessful ball barely missing Doug Wright 's stumps to end with 4 / 52 . Lindwall took the last four wickets in two overs , conceding two runs . He took 2 / 60 and scored 20 in another drawn match . Lindwall came into the final Test on his home ground in Sydney with a match haul of 10 / 73 in a Shield match . He continued his productive series with 7 / 63 in the first innings on a flat pitch , managing to generate enough pace to knock the bat out of Denis Compton 's hands . Lindwall took two further wickets in the second innings as Australia took a 3 – 0 series win with another innings victory . Lindwall topped the bowling averages on either side with 18 wickets at 20 @.@ 38 , in addition to his 160 runs at 32 @.@ 00 .
In the 1947 – 48 season , the tour by the Indian cricket team saw Lindwall take his career best bowling figures of 7 / 38 at the Adelaide Oval in the second innings of the Fourth Test . Lindwall was again the leading wicket @-@ taker for the series , with 18 wickets at 16 @.@ 88 , in addition to his 70 runs at 14 @.@ 00 .
In the First Test at the Gabba , Lindwall removed Vinoo Mankad and Gul Mohammad in the first over on a sticky wicket , precipitating a collapse which saw India skittled for 58 .
= = Invincibles = =
As a result , Lindwall was selected as part of Sir Donald Bradman 's Invincibles that toured England without defeat in 1948 . There were two concerns for Lindwall in the lead @-@ up to the start of the tour . Lindwall was carrying an injured leg tendon and his foot drag in the delivery stride led to murmurings in the media and among umpires as to its legality . Bradman arranged for Lindwall to see his Melbourne masseur Ern Saunders , who had Lindwall 's leg back to prime condition in a fortnight . On the public relations front . Bradman stated his firm belief that Lindwall 's delivery was fair . During the lengthy boat journey to England , Bradman emphasized to Lindwall the importance of caution with respect to his bowling action . Bradman advised Lindwall to keep his dragging rear right foot even further than usual , to avoid being no @-@ balled , and to avoid bowling at full speed until the umpires were satisfied with his action . Bradman assured Lindwall that he was an automatic selection for the Tests even if he did not take a wicket in the lead @-@ in tour matches , telling him that being passed by the umpires was the first priority . Bradman recalled how Ernie McCormick had been no @-@ balled 35 times in traditional tour opener against Worcester during the 1938 tour , destroying his confidence . Lindwall was not no @-@ balled in the first match at Worcester , and so it remained for the rest of the tour .
With matters now turned to actual bowling , Lindwall 's classical bowling action evoked as much public interest as his captain 's batting . In a match against Nottinghamshire at Trent Bridge he took 6 / 14 , to gain a psychological blow for the forthcoming Test at the same venue . Three of his victims were castled by his yorker . In the following match he twice skittled Sussex with match figures of 11 / 59 , five of whom were bowled by yorkers , as the hosts were bowled out for 86 and 138 respectively .
Lindwall lined up for the First Test at Trent Bridge , where he had taken six wickets in the tour game . Australia bowled first , and Lindwall took the wicket of Cyril Washbrook , before he was forced to leave the field with a groin strain with figures of 1 / 30 . Lindwall returned in Australia 's innings , batting at No. 9 without a runner , where he partnered vice @-@ captain Hassett ( 137 ) in a century partnership to lift Australia 's score to 509 to take a 344 run lead . Lindwall could not bowl in the second innings as Australia completed an eight wicket victory .
Lindwall was subjected to a thorough fitness test on the morning of the Second Test at Lord 's two weeks later , the home of cricket . Bradman was not convinced of Lindwall 's fitness , but the bowler 's protestations was sufficient to convince his captain to gamble on his inclusion . Australia won the toss and elected to bat , allowing Lindwall further time to recover . Lindwall contributed 15 to Australia 's total of 350 . He then took the new ball and felt pain in his groin again after delivering his first ball to Hutton . Despite this , Lindwall persevered through the pain . He had Washbrook caught behind in his fourth over and then clean bowled Edrich and Tom Dollery in the space of three balls . England were 4 / 46 and Australia firmly in control . He later returned to bowl English captain Norman Yardley after an 87 run stand with Compton , before finishing with 5 / 70 as Australia took a 135 first innings lead . Lindwall then contributed 25 as Australia declared at 7 / 460 immediately upon his dismissal , leaving England to chase a world @-@ record 596 for victory . Lindwall removed Hutton with the new ball and later returned to remove Dollery and Jim Laker without the addition of a single run to take 3 / 61 as Australia took a 409 run victory . In later years , Bradman told Lindwall that he pretended not to notice Lindwall 's pain . Lindwall was worried that Bradman had noticed his injury , but Bradman later claimed that he feigned ignorance to allow Lindwall to relax .
When the teams reconvened at Old Trafford for the Third Test , Hutton had been dropped . The reason was said to be Hutton 's struggles with Lindwall 's short @-@ pitched bowling . The Australians were pleased , feeling that Hutton was England 's best batsman . England batted first and made 350 , with Compton making an unbeaten 145 despite being felled by a Lindwall bouncer . This forced Compton to leave the field with a bloodied eyebrow with the score at 2 / 33 . Lindwall then removed George Emmett , Edrich and Jack Crapp to leave England at 5 / 119 before Compton returned to revive the innings as Lindwall ended with 4 / 99 . Lindwall came into bat at 6 / 172 with Sid Barnes forced to retire hurt and Australia facing the prospect of the follow on . He then received five consecutive bouncers from Edrich , one of which hit him in the hand , evoking cheers from the home crowd . Lindwall made 23 as Australia struggled to 221 and avoided the follow on . Lindwall removed Emmett for a duck in the second innings , bringing his tormentor Edrich to the crease . Bradman advised Lindwall not to bowl any bouncers at Edrich , fearing that it would be interpreted as retaliation and lead to a negative media reaction . The match petered into a draw after the entire fourth day was washed out .
Hutton returned for the Fourth Test at Headingley and an opening partnership of 168 resulted until he was bowled by Lindwall . England ran up a large score of 496 , with Lindwall taking 2 / 79 . In reply , Australia was still some way behind when Lindwall came in at 6 / 329 . With the fall of Sam Loxton and Ron Saggers , Australia was at 8 / 355 with only Bill Johnston and Ernie Toshack remaining . Lindwall hit out , scoring 77 , an innings marked by powerful driving and pulling , dominating in stands of 48 and 55 with Johnston and Toshack respectively , leaving Australia 38 runs in arrears on the first innings . Lindwall took 2 / 84 before England declared on the final day , leaving Australia to chase a world Test record of 404 for victory , which they did successfully . Centuries to Bradman and Morris in a 301 @-@ run stand saw Australia seal the series 3 – 0 with a world record .
The final Test at The Oval saw Lindwall at his best . English skipper Yardley won the toss and elected to bat on a rain affected pitch . Lindwall had Compton dismissed before lunch after Morris had taken a difficult catch . After the break , England had struggled to 4 / 35 , before Lindwall bowled Yardley with a swinging yorker . He then had Godfrey Evans , Alec Bedser and Jack Young all yorked in the space of two runs . The innings ended at 52 when Hutton leg glanced and was caught by wicket @-@ keeper Don Tallon , who caught the ball one handed at full stretch to his left . Lindwall described the catch as one of the best he had ever seen . In his post @-@ lunch spell , Lindwall bowled 8 @.@ 1 overs , taking five wickets for eight runs , finishing with 6 / 20 in 16 @.@ 1 overs . Bradman described the spell as " the most devastating and one of the fastest I ever saw in Test cricket " . After Australia had replied with 389 , England were bowled out for 188 in their second innings , giving Australia an innings victory and the series 4 – 0 . Lindwall took 3 / 50 to give him 9 / 70 for the match . He ended the series as the leading wicket @-@ taker with 27 wickets at 19 @.@ 62 , and scored 191 runs at 31 @.@ 83 . The English were unable to cope with his swing , with 43 of his wickets coming after the batsmen had missed the ball and were bowled . For the entire tour , Lindwall took 86 wickets at 15 @.@ 68 and scored 405 runs at 24 @.@ 17 . Lindwall 's Test haul of 27 scalps equalled the record for an Australian fast bowler in England . Wisden recognised him by naming him as one of its five Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 1949 , citing his ability to allow Australia to seize the initiative in all but one of the Tests by achieving early breakthroughs against their batting . Wisden said that " by whatever standard he is judged " , Lindwall must " be placed permanently in the gallery of great fast bowlers " , attributing his success to " superb control of length and direction , his change of pace and general skill , the like of which in a slower bowler could be classed as cunning " . The ferocity of Lindwall 's bouncer often prompted opposing batsmen to retreat onto the back foot even before he had released the ball .
= = Later career = =
Upon the return of the Invincibles to Australian soil , Lindwall played in Bradman 's Testimonial match at the MCG in December 1948 . Lindwall featured prominently on the first day , smashing 104 in 86 minutes for Hassett 's XI . The match raised around 10 @,@ 000 pounds .
The following season in 1949 – 50 , the Australians headed to South Africa for a five Test tour . Lindwall 's partnership with Miller was broken up when the latter was omitted from the touring squad . Miller stated that he wished to be considered only as a batsman and his omission caused great controversy . In any case , Miller was drafted in as cover after Johnston was involved in a car accident at the start of the tour , although both went on to play in all five Tests . Lindwall started the tour on a poor note in the First Test at Wanderers in Johannesburg , scoring 21 and then going wicketless as Australia completed an innings victory . It was the first time that Lindwall had failed to take a wicket in both innings of a Test . His wicketless run persisted until the second innings of the Second Test in Cape Town , where he took 5 / 32 after the hosts had been forced to follow on , as Australia completed another easy victory . Lindwall then took match figures of 4 / 54 as Australia completed a hat @-@ trick of victories at Durban . Lindwall took 3 / 82 in South Africa 's only innings in the Fourth Test at Johannesburg , but was dropped for the Fifth Test , something that surprised cricket commentators . His tour had been intermittently interrupted by groin problems , fibrositis and a stomach disorder , and his 12 wickets at an average of 20 @.@ 66 at three wickets per match was below his customary rate . Overall , when fit , he was effective , with 50 wickets at 14 @.@ 58 . Lindwall forced his way back into the XI for the First Test of the 1950 @-@ 51 Ashes series against Freddie Brown 's England team . Australia struggled to 228 in its first innings with Lindwall making the second top @-@ score of 41 in supporting Neil Harvey ( 74 ) in a rearguard action . Lindwall was not required as Miller and Johnston 's medium pace reduced England to 7 / 68 on a sticky wicket before Brown declared , forcing the Australian to bat on the unfavourable pitch . Australia then declared at 7 / 32 . Lindwall yorked Reg Simpson first ball and Australia seized the initiative , reducing England to 6 / 30 before bowling them out for 122 to take the match by 70 runs . Lindwall took five wickets in the Second Test in Melbourne , two of which came in the closing stages of the English run @-@ chase . Chasing 178 , England lost Brown and Evans in consecutive overs to the second new ball and ended 28 runs short of victory . Australia went on seal the series with an innings victory in the Third Test in Sydney – Lindwall bowled Brown and Bedser before breaking Trevor Bailey 's thumb in the first innings to help Australia seize control . In the Fourth Test in Adelaide , Lindwall took 3 / 51 in England 's first innings before scoring a patient 31 in Australia 's second innings , helping to set up at target that was 274 runs too much for Brown 's men . The Fifth and final Test of the summer was to be the first Test defeat for Lindwall in the first 24 Tests of his career . Despite taking 3 / 77 in the first innings to complement the four wickets of Miller – the most in an innings by the pair during the series – England took their first win over Australia since 1938 . Lindwall had taken 15 wickets at 22 @.@ 93 for the series .
The 1951 – 52 season saw the arrival of the West Indies for the first time in two decades . The Caribbeans has just defeated England in England and were expected to test Australia , with the series seen as the battle between the best two teams in the world . Their batting was led by the celebrated batting trio , the three W 's : Frank Worrell , Everton Weekes and Clyde Walcott . Lindwall entered the First Test in Brisbane in good form , having taken nine wickets in a Sheffield Shield match against Queensland in the lead @-@ up . His pace caught the tourists off guard , having not faced a bowler of such speed before . He took 4 / 62 in the first innings before top @-@ scoring with 61 as Australia struggled and managed to only post a first innings lead of 10 runs . Lindwall was wicketless in the second innings and Australia faced 236 to win . They were again struggling at 6 / 149 , before a sixth wicket stand of 54 between Lindwall ( 29 ) and Graeme Hole ( 45 * ) saw Australia secure a narrow three wicket victory . The Second Test in Sydney saw an increase in the amount of short @-@ pitched deliveries , leading Wisden to bemoan the " relentless bumper tactics " . Lindwall 's bowling unsettled the West Indian batsmen but their captain John Goddard felt that the tactics were legitimate and that his batsmen should counter @-@ attack . Lindwall took 4 / 66 in the first innings before scoring 48 as Australia took a 155 first innings lead . In the second innings , Lindwall took two further wickets and struck vice @-@ captain Jeff Stollmeyer in the head . At one stage , Lindwall bowled 15 bouncers in five overs . Australia went on to win the match by seven wickets . The Third Test was an uneventful one for Lindwall , taking a solitary wicket as the tourists took a six wicket victory on a sticky pitch . Lindwall had another unspectacular match in the Fourth Test with combined figures of 3 / 131 , before contributing 29 in the run chase of 260 . Australia narrowly made the target with one wicket in hand , allowing them to take a 3 – 1 series lead instead of a 2 – 2 result . The series ended with a controversial battle between Lindwall and Weekes on the final day of the Fifth Test in Sydney . The tourists resumed at 2 / 112 in pursuit of 416 for victory and were repeatedly bounced by Lindwall and Miller . During Lindwall 's sixth over , Weekes missed an attempted hook shot after hesitating . His batting partner Stollmeyer ordered him not to play the hook , something that Lindwall overheard . Lindwall responded by bowling further bouncers , which elicited uncertain responses from the batsman . Weekes repeatedly positioned himself to hook , before restraining himself , leading to further instructions from Stollmeyer and taunting from the Australians . Lindwall bowled his fourth consecutive bouncer and managed to extract an uncertain hook shot from Weekes , which resulted in his dismissal behind the wicket . Lindwall went on to take 5 / 52 for the innings and 7 / 72 for the match , securing a 4 – 1 series win . Lindwall had contributed heavily to the team 's success with bat and ball , with 21 wickets at 23 @.@ 04 and 211 runs at 26 @.@ 37 , but he was also criticised for his use of the short ball .
Lindwall accepted an offer to play in the Lancashire League in England during the Australian winter of 1952 , joining Nelson Cricket Club for a sum of 600 pounds and bonuses , which did not include the boat fares for him and his wife . Lindwall took 96 wickets at 8 @.@ 37 during the season and developed an inswinger on the advice of a local umpire who adamantly refused to give leg before wicket decisions to outswingers . Lindwall returned to Australia with a newborn son who has been born during his stay in Lancashire , and he was greeted by media speculation as to whether his professional sojourn had improved or detracted from his capabilities . Lindwall 's form leading into the Tests against South Africa in 1952 – 53 prompted observers to opine that he was bowling better than ever , reinforced with the inswinger and his trademark Yorker . Lindwall made 70 from a total of 148 on a sticky wicket against South Australia in Adelaide that led Miller to regard it as the best innings he had seen under such conditions . He made the score after being sent in to open the batting in the absence of Sid Barnes .
Lindwall showed his versatility again in the First Test in Brisbane , scoring an unbeaten 38 in the second innings to extend Australia 's lead to 373 . When South Africa attempted to chase the target , Lindwall took 5 / 60 to cut them down 96 runs short of victory . Lindwall was reunited with Miller when the latter returned from injury for the Second Test at Melbourne , and despite the old combination taking 12 wickets , with Lindwall taking match figures of 5 / 116 , Australia fell 82 runs short and South Africa had its first Test win against Australia in 42 years . The teams moved to the home ground of Miller and Lindwall for the Third Test in Sydney , and the local pair delivered , taking seven wickets between them to skittle the tourists for 173 , with Lindwall taking 4 / 40 . With Australia having taken a 270 first innings lead , Lindwall allowed Australia to seize the initiative , removing both openers in his first three overs , before ending with 4 / 72 to ensure an innings victory and a 2 – 1 series lead . The value of Lindwall and Miller were demonstrated during the final two Tests . At the Fourth Test in Adelaide , both broke down mid @-@ game and left Australia two bowlers short . Chasing 377 , the South Africans managed to stave off the bowling and secure a draw . Both were absent for the Fifth Test in Melbourne and South Africa capitalised , defeating the Australians by six wickets despite the home side having scored 520 in their first innings . The absence of Lindwall and Miller 's new ball partnership allowed South Africa to fight back and draw the series 2 – 2 , making it the first series that Australia had not won since 1938 . Lindwall had taken 19 wickets at 20 @.@ 16 in just three and a half Tests for the series , and Australia seemed unlikely to find replacements for their leading strike pair anytime soon ; their eventual successors Richie Benaud and Alan Davidson were still to become regular internationals .
= = 1953 : Lindwall 's peak = =
Lindwall returned to England in 1953 , the site of his triumph five years earlier . Lindwall was to exhibit performances that were rated higher than during the Invincibles tour . Roland Perry wrote that Lindwall " reached his zenith , producing a sustained , sensational season of brilliant , powerful and intelligent fast bowling " . In the tour matches leading up to the Test , Lindwall set about gaining a psychological advantage over England 's leading batsmen . In doing so , he could leave them in a poor state leading up to the Test , potentially curtailing their ability to win matches . In a match against Yorkshire , Lindwall bowled Hutton with an inswinger yorker , something he had developed the previous year . During a match against the country champions Surrey at The Oval , Lindwall came across Peter May , who was regarded as the best young English batsman to emerge from the post @-@ war era . Lindwall 's first over to May consisted of three inswingers and three outswingers , leaving him perplexed and uncertain about his position at top level cricket . Although Lindwall did not dismiss May , he regarded it as his best over at any level of cricket . The unsettled May was bowled in the following over by Ron Archer . Lindwall 's performances saw him regarded as the finest fast bowler of his time .
After Australia had been bowled out for 249 in the first innings of the First Test at Trent Bridge , Lindwall 's high paced swing yielded 5 / 57 and cut England down for 144 . However , Australia were then bowled out for only 123 , leaving England 228 for victory . They were 1 / 120 with Lindwall wicketless as rain curtailed the match . In the Second Test at Lord 's , England had reached 1 / 177 at stumps on the second day in reply to Australia 's 346 . The following day , Lindwall yorked rising star Tom Graveney and took 5 / 66 to restrict England to a lead of 26 runs . In Australia 's second innings , Lindwall scored the fastest half @-@ century in Ashes history . He took just 48 minutes to reach the mark , with two sixes and five fours . The match was drawn with Lindwall taking 2 / 26 in the second innings . Lindwall had helped to reduce England to 3 / 12 at stumps on the fourth day after removing Don Kenyon and Hutton with the new ball , but defiant batting on the final day saved the English . The Third Test was again drawn due to heavy rain , with Lindwall failing to pass double figures in either innings and taking 2 / 30 in the first innings . Hassett won the toss for the fourth consecutive Test at Headingley and sent England into bat . In front of his home crowd in Yorkshire , Hutton was yorked second ball from a pacy inswinging yorker . Lindwall produced a display of fast and accurate pace bowling , taking 5 / 54 from 35 overs as England managed only 169 . After Australia took a 97 run lead , Lindwall took 3 / 104 to help leave the tourists with a victory target of 177 . This was not before dour English all rounder Trevor Bailey attempted to stone @-@ wall an Australian victory by batting for over four hours for 38 runs . Along with Miller , the pair took 14 wickets between them , displaying their pivotal role in Australia 's bowling attack , especially in the absence of the injured Johnston , who was unavailable for most of the tour . Hutton ordered Bedser and Bailey to bowl leg theory from a long run , sending balls down the leg side to prevent the Australians from scoring . England held on for a draw with Australia 30 runs short when time ran out . The teams met at The Oval for the deciding Test and Australia could manage 275 after winning the toss with Lindwall striking a quickfire 62 noted for an array of off drives to top score and push the total to respectability . Lindwall then took 4 / 70 but it was not enough to prevent England taking a 31 run lead . Australia collapsed for 162 in the second innings , with the Surrey spin twins of Jim Laker and Tony Lock taking nine wickets between them . This left England 132 to win , something they achieved with eight wickets intact . Lindwall was unable to remove any of the Englishmen .
The 1 – 0 loss was Australia 's first series defeat since the notorious Bodyline series twenty years earlier that had motivated Lindwall to take up fast bowling . Despite Australia 's troubles , Lindwall maintained his high standards , taking 26 wickets at an average of only 18 @.@ 84 , as well as contributing two fifties for a total of 159 runs at 17 @.@ 66 . For the entire tour , he had taken 85 wickets at 16 @.@ 40 , only one less than in 1948 . At 32 years of age , Lindwall still maintained his high pace , but had developed more subtleties and an inswinger . Fingleton , now a journalist said " One wonders once more at Lindwall 's amazing capacity to bowl this ball whenever he feels like it " .
= = Transfer to Queensland = =
In November 1953 , Lindwall was given employment in Brisbane for the bus company Cobb and Co . , but continued to play for New South Wales for the remainder of the 1953 – 54 season before being dropped for the final match of the domestic season . The move generated criticism from the cricketing community who felt that Lindwall 's service merited a more dignified farewell . Lindwall had a mediocre season by his standards , taking only 22 wickets at 30 @.@ 14 . His batting was even more ineffective , scoring only 14 runs in six innings . Such performances led to media speculation that Lindwall was in decline . Lindwall began his career for Queensland at the start of the 1954 – 55 season and did well enough to retain his place for the First Test of England 's Ashes tour . In front of his adopted home crowd , Lindwall returned to form with the bat , scoring an unbeaten 64 as Australia amassed 8 / 601 after being sent in by Hutton . Lindwall compounded Hutton 's match by removing him for four and finished with 3 / 27 as England were skittled for 190 and forced to follow on . He took two further wickets as England fell to an innings victory . After the match , English paceman Frank Tyson asked Lindwall for advice on how to bowl a more effective bouncer . Lindwall promised that he would show Tyson on their next meeting , which happened to be the Second Test in Sydney . Lindwall bowled Tyson in the first innings and in the second innings , Lindwall gave him a bouncer which skidded towards Tyson 's throat . Tyson turned his head and was hit the back of the skull , His batting partner Bill Edrich shouting " My God , Lindy , you 've killed him ! " . Tyson was taken to hospital for X @-@ rays and was bowled upon his return by Lindwall . He later said " thanks so much for showing me the bouncer " . Lindwall took five wickets for the match but Tyson returned to win the low scoring match for England . Lindwall struggled in the Third Test while carrying a leg strain and a bout of hepatitis , taking only 1 / 111 for the match as England won again . He then pulled a muscle in the Sheffield Shield match and was sidelined as England sealed the series with a third consecutive win . Lindwall returned for the Fifth Test and dismissed Hutton early , before ending with 3 / 77 . The third of his wickets was Bailey , giving Lindwall his 100th wicket in Ashes Tests . England amassed their highest total of the series but Australia managed to hang on for a draw after being forced to follow on . Lindwall ended with 14 wickets at 27 @.@ 21 for the season , which was below his usual standards as Australia were convincingly defeated 3 – 1 . The critics called for sweeping changes to the team . O 'Reilly , Lindwall 's mentor , was now a journalist and called for new selectors , claiming that Australia was at its worst for four decades .
Lindwall had no intentions to retire . He continued onto the early 1955 tour of the West Indies , the first by an Australian team to the Caribbean . Lindwall was determined to enjoy himself , having recovered from his recent illness . By day , he and Miller battled with the three W 's but at night they socialised . However , Lindwall needed respite and dietary discipline in order to completely ward off his hepatitis . He was no longer the reveller that Miller once knew . After Australia had made 9 / 515 , Lindwall took a match total of 6 / 124 , as the hosts were forced to follow on in the First Test at Sabina Park in Kingston , Jamaica . Australia went on to win by nine wickets . The team 's travelled to Queen 's Park in Trinidad for the Second Test , where the West Indies batted first and made 382 . This time Lindwall bowled a long spell of 24 @.@ 5 overs , and eventually prized out six of the West Indians for the cost of 95 runs . The culmination of this was a spell of 4 / 16 . Australia replied with 9 / 600 , with Lindwall contributing an unbeaten 37 with the bat . Lindwall 's match soured in the second innings when he broke down with an achilles tendon problem as the match ended in a draw . Lindwall recovered for the start of the Third Test at Bourda in Georgetown , Guyana . Lindwall had a quiet time in a spin dominated game , taking two wickets in an eight @-@ wicket Australian victory . Australia won the toss and batted in the Fourth Test at Bridgetown , Barbados . Australia had already reached 6 / 439 when Lindwall came to the crease . In a highly aggressive innings , he reached his fifty in 69 minutes and was unbeaten on 80 at stumps . The next morning , he went on the make his second Test century , scoring 118 with two sixes and 16 fours . It was his second century at Test level , eight years after his first , but showed the same counter @-@ attacking aggression . Lindwall had another quiet match with two wickets in another high scoring draw with both teams amassing more than 500 in the first innings . Lindwall finished the series with four wickets in the Fifth Test in Jamaica as Australia completed a 3 – 0 series win with another innings triumph . In a high scoring series , Lindwall had taken 20 wicket at 31 @.@ 85 while also scoring 187 runs at 37 @.@ 40 , a strong all round performance .
Lindwall performed steadily during the 1955 – 56 , which was purely domestic . Lindwall was appointed the Queensland captain , and he took 30 wickets at 28 @.@ 97 and made 383 runs at 32 @.@ 55 . Lindwall was duly selected for the 1956 Ashes tour . Like the rest of the team , Lindwall had a poor tour on a series of dry and underprepared pitches designed to favour the Surrey spin twins of Laker and Lock . Lindwall 's tour was further compounded by a recurrence of his groin injury . He took 0 / 43 in the first innings of the opening Test at Trent Bridge and broke down , being unable to bowl in the second innings . This forced him to miss the Second Test at Lord 's , and he returned for a disastrous Third Test at Headingley . Although Lindwall took 3 / 67 in the first innings , Australia was forced to follow on and fell to its first innings loss since 1938 , as Laker and Lock ravaged the Australians . Lindwall took two wickets in the Fourth Test at Old Trafford but the results were the same ; Australia suffered another innings defeat in what was known as " Laker 's Test " – the off @-@ spinner took 19 of the Australian wickets to fall . Lindwall bade farewell to Test cricket in England at The Oval , taking two wickets . Overall , it had been a disappointing tour ; Lindwall had been fit for three and a half Tests and managed only seven wickets at 34 @.@ 14 Lindwall 's performance reignited calls for the aging paceman to be axed from the team . Lindwall however , had other ideas .
Following the England tour , the Australians returned home via a tour to the Indian subcontinent . The first stop was Karachi , where Australia played its first ever Test against Pakistan . Lindwall 's poor run continued , scoring two and a duck and taking match figures of 1 / 64 as Australia fell to a nine wicket defeat . The team travelled to Madras for the first of three Tests in India . Lindwall briefly bowled on the first morning without success before succumbing to a severe stomach bug . He took no further part in the first innings and spent the next two days in bed . Lindwall briefly got out of his bed on day three to bat , making only eight as Australia took a 158 run first innings lead . He hauled himself out of bed on the fourth day , and cut through the Indians in three spells , taking 7 / 43 in an innings victory .
The Second Test in Bombay was the only time that Lindwall was to captain Australia in a Test match . Captain Johnson and his deputy Miller were both injured , leaving the bowling depleted . Ron Archer was injured and unavailable as Australia bowled first in extremely hot conditions . The situation worsened throughout the match as pacemen Alan Davidson and Pat Crawford were hindered by stomach bugs and hip strains respectively during the game . Leg spinner Richie Benaud could not bowl for part of the match after being affected by a fever and left arm orthodox spinner John Wilson pulled a muscle midway through his debut . This left Lindwall and batting all rounder Ken Mackay as the only fully fit bowling options . Australia bowled out India for 251 , before a strong batting effort led by Neil Harvey and Jim Burke , both of whom made centuries , saw Australia make 7 / 523 . Lindwall contributed a hard @-@ hitting unbeaten 48 at the end . Australia 's depleted bowling told in the home side 's second innings , as the visitors were only able to prise out five wickets and match ended in a draw , with Indian captain Polly Umrigar batting for six hours for a defiant 78 . Lindwall finished the tour with scores of eight and 28 in the Third Test in Madras . In a low scoring match in which all four innings finished under 190 , Lindwall took match figures of 3 / 41 in a 94 run victory . It was a successful series for Lindwall , taking 12 wickets at 16 @.@ 58 and scoring 92 runs at 30 @.@ 66 .
= = Omission and comeback = =
The end of the tour represented a changing of the guard in Australian cricket . In their late 30s , Johnson and Miller retired from first @-@ class cricket . In the 1956 – 57 season , Lindwall took 27 wickets at 23 @.@ 74 and made 243 runs at 27 @.@ 00 . Having had a successful series in the most recent international fixtures , Lindwall had no reason to expect anything but a continuation of his senior role in the team . Furthermore , having captained the team in the absence of Johnson and Miller , Lindwall was the now the player with the most seniority in terms of leadership . However , when the team for the 1957 – 58 South African tour was announced , Lindwall 's name was omitted altogether . Lindwall heard the news on the radio while he was working , having not being given prior notice . After three consecutive Ashes defeats during Australia 's decline in the mid @-@ 1950s , the selectors had turned to a radical youth policy in an attempt to reverse the slide . Ian Craig was made youngest Australia 's captain at the age of 22 , having played only six Tests without securing a regular place in the team . The pacemen selected were Davidson , Ian Meckiff , Ron Gaunt and John Drennan . Davidson had managed only 16 wickets at 34 @.@ 06 in 12 Tests , while the remaining three had yet to play a Test . While Craig 's men defeated South Africa 3 – 0 , Lindwall continued his consistent performances for Queensland in the Sheffield Shield , with 26 wickets at 25 @.@ 77 and 274 runs at 34 @.@ 25 . During the seasons , Lindwall broke Ernie Jones ' record of 209 wickets in Shield competitions in his 54th match in the competition .
During the winter of 1958 , nearing his 37th birthday , Lindwall stepped up his bid to reclaim his Test place . He committed him to an intense fitness program that included a 5 km daily run followed by vigorous exercises to increase his abdominal and back strength . He set up equipment in his garage . Lindwall was determined to add to his Test tally of 212 wickets , which was just four behind the Australian record of Clarrie Grimmett . He was unmoved by a 6000 @-@ pound offer from an English newspaper to cover the 1958 – 59 Ashes series as a journalist , instead wanting to play in the series .
The fruit of Lindwall 's fitness regime ripened in the early Shield matches of the 1958 – 59 season and he sent a message to the selectors when England arrived in Brisbane for a tour match before the First Test . Lindwall took 5 / 57 in the first innings , dismissing Watson , Milton , Colin Cowdrey , Trevor Bailey and Jim Laker . He removed both openers for seven in the second innings before rain curtailed the match , leaving Lindwall with match figures of 7 / 73 . Unfortunately from his point of view , none of the selection committee attended the match . Lindwall was overlooked as the selectors persisted with the winning combination that toured South Africa . His prospects of a recall appeared even more remote after Australia won both of the first two Tests , with Davidson and Meckiff skittling England for 87 in the second innings of the Second Test , taking nine wickets each for the match . Meckiff was injured during the Third Test , leaving him in doubt for the Fourth Test . In the meantime , Lindwall had a Shield match away against South Australia to make a final claim for a recall . The hosts batted first in stifling heat around 42 degrees on a batting pitch , and Lindwall delivered 41 eight @-@ ball overs to take 7 / 92 . Lindwall received a standing ovation for his performances in unfavourable conditions and was greeted by Bradman , the chairman of selectors . Lindwall avoided Bradman 's inquiries as to whether he had any injury worries , fearing it would hinder his chances of selection .
Lindwall was rewarded with a recall for the Fourth Test at the Adelaide Oval at the age of 37 . After scoring 19 in Australia 's first innings of 476 , Lindwall was restored to his role of opening the bowling , this time with Davidson . He took match figures of 3 / 136 as Australia took a 3 – 0 lead . This left Lindwall one wicket short of Grimmett , with Meckiff recovered and ready to resume his place in the Fifth Test in Melbourne . The selectors retained Lindwall for the final match , instead dropping batsman Les Favell to accommodate Meckiff . Australia bowled first and Lindwall equalled Grimmett 's record by having Bailey caught in the slips by Davidson . He took two difficult low slips catches but could not take the wicket that would move him ahead of Grimmett , finishing with 1 / 36 . Lindwall opened the bowling in the second innings with 28 @,@ 000 fans awaiting a new record . He beat Bailey with two outswingers in his first over before bowling him for a duck to move ahead of Grimmett . Lindwall took two further wickets to end with 3 / 37 as Australia completed a 4 – 0 series victory . Lindwall finished his resurgent season with 40 wickets at 20 @.@ 55 .
At the age of 38 , Lindwall made his final appearances for Australia during the 1959 – 60 tour of the Indian subcontinent , which saw three and five Tests against Pakistan and India respectively . The tour was marred by illness and injury , allowing him to play in only half of the Tests . Lindwall played in two Tests against either nation with only moderate results : he took nine wickets at 38 @.@ 22 and scored 38 runs at 12 @.@ 66 . Lindwall finished with 228 Test wickets , eight wickets behind Alec Bedser 's then world record of 236 wickets . In his last Test innings , Lindwall scored ten , which took his tally to 1502 runs , making him the first player to score 1500 runs and take 200 wickets in Test cricket .
= = Style = =
Lindwall , widely regarded as one of the greatest fast bowlers of all time , bowled with a classical and artistic side @-@ on bowling action . David Frith wrote that " there was a balance , rhythmic run , a build @-@ up " and an " ecstasy " in his smooth delivery action . Richie Benaud said that Lindwall was " technically the best fast bowler " that he ever saw . During the 1950s , Lindwall 's action was copied by young children and a number of first @-@ class Australian bowlers , including Ron Gaunt , John Power and Barry Fisher consciously copied his action . Alan Davidson , who succeeded Lindwall as Australia 's pace spearhead , labelled him as " the best fast bowler I ever saw " . Lindwall 's childhood hero Harold Larwood rated Dennis Lillee to be equal to Lindwall " but not ahead of him " . Following Lindwall 's tour of England in 1953 , his English counterpart Alec Bedser said that Lindwall was " the best fast bowler I 've seen , because of his variety and control " . Lindwall was particularly known for his trademark outswinger , which swung late and at high pace . Fred Trueman believed that Lindwall 's ability to simultaneously swing the ball and at such pace and accuracy was matched only by himself and Wes Hall . Frank Tyson wrote that " he appears to be just jogging his fifteen yards up to the stumps - until the last couple of strides of his approach , when he suddenly explodes into his delivery stride ... when he releases the ball , his bowling arm is so low that it borders on the round @-@ arm " . Lindwall 's ability to swing the ball at high pace allowed him to repeatedly breach the defences of his opponents ; of his 228 Test wickets , 98 were bowled and another 31 were leg before wicket . Lindwall 's repertoire was reinforced with a dangerous yorker and bouncer , and changes of pace . As Tyson said " who is not ' Lindy 's bunny ' when he slots his yorker in the right spot ? " . In 1952 he developed an inswinger and then coupled it with his yorker , which homed into the feet of batsmen at high pace . Denis Compton said that Lindwall had the subtleties of a slow bowler , saying that he " raised what is considered to be the labouring force of cricket [ fast bowling ] to an artform with his tactical shrewdness , control and variations " . Lindwall 's emergence after the Second World War along with his new ball partner Keith Miller heralded a new era in cricket . The pair were regarded as the two best fast bowlers of their era , and signalled a change in the cricket landscape , which had been dominated during the interwar period by batsmen . Together the pair formed a new ball fast @-@ bowling combination regarded as one of the best in Test history . During the 1948 tour of England , the hosts had agreed to have a new ball available every 55 overs , and the Australians used this to unleash Lindwall and Miller on the Englishmen with a shiny new ball . The pair often targeted the leading opposition batsmen , particular England 's Len Hutton and Denis Compton with large amounts of short @-@ pitched bowling , raising fast bowling to a new standard . Hutton 's battles with Lindwall were regarded as one of the key match @-@ ups in Anglo @-@ Australian battles of the time , and Hutton said his opponent had the ability to " strike at will " . Hutton felt that Lindwall 's bouncers were the best that he faced , saying of their accuracy : " You had to play them or be hit " . Lindwall refused to bowl bouncers at tailenders , saying that " If the day ever came when I have to bowl bouncers at tailenders then I won 't deserve to play for Australia " . When England developed quality pace bowlers of their own in the 1950s , Hutton was captain and he implemented a similar strategy to that executed by Lindwall and Miller . In retirement , Lindwall went on to mentor Lillee , who went on to break the Test world record for wicket @-@ taking .
= = Later years = =
Upon returning to Australia , Lindwall played in Queensland 's final Shield match of the season , before retiring from representative cricket . However , he continued to play for Northern Districts in Brisbane 's district competition , as well as making sporadic first class appearances for private teams , which played in New Zealand , the West Indies , Rhodesia , Kenya and Pakistan .
Lindwall , Miller and Arthur Morris were the first beneficiaries of the New South Wales Cricket Association players ' benefit payment plan , set up to reward New South Welshmen who had played for Australia in Tests . Lindwall was a Queensland selector for five seasons and an Australian selector from 1979 – 80 to 1982 – 83 . He was given life membership of the Marylebone Cricket Club in 1960 , the NSWCA is 1979 and the Queensland Cricket Association in 1991 . In 1965 , he received an MBE for his services to cricket . In retirement , he and his wife Peggy ran a florist 's business after 1965 . He and Peggy had two children , a son and a daughter . In the early 1970s , Lindwall mentored upcoming Western Australian paceman Dennis Lillee , who went on to hold the world record for Test wickets . After the Seventh Test in the 1970 @-@ 71 Ashes series Lillee asked Keith Miller for Lindwall 's address as " He might just be able to teach me how to bowl " . He published two books , Flying Stumps in 1954 and The Challenging Tests in 1961 . Lindwall died at age 74 at Greenslopes , Brisbane , Queensland . Lindwall was inducted into the Australian Cricket Hall of Fame in 1996 as one of the ten inaugural members . In 2000 , he was named in the Australian Cricket Board 's Team of the Century as one of its opening bowlers .
= = Personal life = =
Lindwall was married to Peg , with one son and one daughter . He died following a stroke aged 74 .
= = Test match performance = =
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= French cruiser Waldeck @-@ Rousseau =
Waldeck @-@ Rousseau was an armored cruiser built for the French Navy in the first decade of the 20th century . She was the second and final member of the Edgar Quinet class , the last class of armored cruiser to be built by the French Navy . She was laid down at the Arsenal de Lorient in June 1906 , launched in March 1908 , and commissioned in August 1911 . Armed with a main battery of fourteen 194 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) guns , she was more powerful than most other armored cruisers , but she had entered service more than two years after the first battlecruiser — HMS Invincible — had rendered the armored cruiser obsolescent . Waldeck @-@ Rousseau nevertheless proved to be a workhorse of the French Mediterranean Fleet .
After the outbreak of World War I , Waldeck @-@ Rousseau joined the main French fleet that blockaded the southern end of the Adriatic to prevent the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy from operating in the Mediterranean . In October and November , Waldeck @-@ Rousseau was twice attacked by Austro @-@ Hungarian U @-@ boats but she escaped unscathed in both engagements . She thereafter alternated between stints in the southern Adriatic and patrols in the eastern Mediterranean once the Ottoman Empire joined the war in November .
After the war , the British and French intervened in the Russian Civil War ; this included a major naval deployment to the Baltic Sea , which included Waldeck @-@ Rousseau . Shortly after arriving , her crew mutinied due to poor living conditions and a desire to return to France . The unrest was quickly suppressed , and Waldeck @-@ Rousseau joined the effort to support the Whites against the Red Bolsheviks . In May 1929 , the ship was sent to French Indochina to serve as the flagship of the Far East squadron . She remained there until May 1932 , when she returned to France , where she was decommissioned and hulked . Waldeck @-@ Rousseau was ultimately scrapped in 1941 – 44 .
= = Description = =
Waldeck @-@ Rousseau was 158 @.@ 9 meters ( 521 ft ) long overall , with a beam of 21 @.@ 51 m ( 70 @.@ 6 ft ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 41 m ( 27 @.@ 6 ft ) . She displaced 13 @,@ 995 metric tons ( 13 @,@ 774 long tons ; 15 @,@ 427 short tons ) . Her power plant consisted of three triple @-@ expansion engines powered by forty coal @-@ fired Niclausse boilers , which were trunked into six funnels in two groups of three . Her engines were rated at 36 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and produced a top speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) . She had a crew of between 859 and 892 officers and enlisted men .
Waldeck @-@ Rousseau was armed with a main battery of fourteen 194 mm ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) 50 @-@ caliber M1902 guns ; four were in twin gun turrets forward and aft , with three single gun turrets on either broadside . The last four guns were mounted in casemates abreast the main and aft conning towers . Close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats was provided by a battery of twenty 9 @-@ pounder guns in casemates in the ship 's hull . She was also equipped with two 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes submerged in the hull . She was protected with a armored belt that was 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick amidships . The gun turrets had 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick plating , while the casemates had marginally thinner protection , at 194 mm . The main conning tower had 200 mm thick sides .
During World War I , several 14 @-@ pounder and 9 @-@ pounder anti @-@ aircraft guns were added , with the older 9 @-@ pounder guns being removed to keep displacement down . In 1930 , she was modified to carry a reconnaissance seaplane .
= = Service history = =
Waldeck @-@ Rousseau , named for the recently deceased Prime Minister of France , Pierre Waldeck @-@ Rousseau , was ordered on 31 July 1905 and was laid down at the Arsenal de Lorient on 16 June 1906 . She was launched on 4 March 1908 , and fitting out work was completed in time to begin sea trials in January 1911 . While on her acceptance trials on 2 February , she struck a submerged object that bent her port propeller shaft and damaged the screw . Waldeck @-@ Rousseau was completed in August ; the ship was the most powerful armored cruiser completed by France , but she entered service two years after the British battlecruiser HMS Invincible , which rendered the armored cruiser obsolescent as a warship type . Her lengthy construction interfered with the scheduled keel @-@ laying for the new predreadnought battleship Mirabeau , which could not be started until Waldeck @-@ Rousseau was launched . After entering service the new cruiser was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet , based in Toulon .
= = = World War I = = =
At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Waldeck @-@ Rousseau was under repair at Toulon owing to a grounding incident off Golfe @-@ Juan during a hurricane on 22 February . Work was completed by 5 September , and by the end of the month she had joined the French fleet blockading the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy at the southern end of the Adriatic Sea . On 17 October she briefly engaged Austro @-@ Hungarian forces off Cattaro ; she fired at the Austro @-@ Hungarian U @-@ boat SM U @-@ 4 that had tried to torpedo her and engaged several destroyers that were supported by an airplane before she broke off the action to rejoin the French fleet . She was unsuccessfully attacked a second time by an Austro @-@ Hungarian U @-@ boat while on patrol on 4 November . On this occasion , she was patrolling with the cruiser Ernest Renan ; Waldeck @-@ Rousseau engaged the submarine and forced it to withdraw .
On 30 November , the cruiser was transferred to the Ionian Sea and was based in Salonika . While there , Waldeck @-@ Rousseau patrolled the eastern Mediterranean and the coast of the Levant . She returned to Malta on 13 December , where she resumed patrols in the southern Adriatic . In early March 1915 Waldeck @-@ Rousseau returned to the Ionian . From 25 April to 1 May she briefly patrolled in the Strait of Otranto at the southern end of the Adriatic , before returning to her station in the Ionian . On 8 January 1916 , Waldeck @-@ Rousseau , her sister Edgar Quinet , Ernest Renan and Jules Ferry embarked a contingent of Chasseurs Alpins ( mountain troops ) to seize the Greek island of Corfu . The cruisers sent the troops ashore on the night of 10 January ; the Greek officials on the island protested the move but offered no resistance . For the rest of the war , she patrolled in the Ionian and eastern Mediterranean but did not see further action .
= = = Black Sea operations , 1919 – 1920 = = =
Starting in 1919 , the French Navy joined the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War in the Black Sea to support the Whites against the Red Bolsheviks . Waldeck @-@ Rousseau arrived in early 1919 , flying the flag of Admiral Caubet . While in Odessa on 26 – 29 April 1919 , sailors aboard Waldeck @-@ Rousseau mutinied ; the ship , which had just arrived from France with a fresh crew , had not yet had contact with Russian revolutionaries . Nevertheless , the crew had quickly grown weary of poor living conditions and wanted to return to France . After three days , the unrest was suppressed and she returned to service , though Caubet was relieved of command for failing to control his crew . The Vietnamese communist Tôn Đức Thắng , who was at that time serving in the French Navy , claimed to have participated in the mutiny , but French records do not list him as having been aboard Waldeck @-@ Rousseau at the time . At the same time , the crews of other French ships in Constantinople became restive , and so Admiral Jean @-@ Françoise @-@ Charles Amet refused to allow Waldeck @-@ Rousseau to join the rest of the fleet there , owing to her crew 's earlier mutiny .
On 26 March 1920 , Waldeck @-@ Rousseau provided gunfire support to White Russian forces outside Novorossiysk , along with the British dreadnought battleship Emperor of India . The Anglo @-@ French fleet then evacuated the White Russians from the city to the Crimean peninsula . Later in the year , she assisted in the evacuation of General Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel 's army . The motley collection of ships departed the Crimea on 14 November ; Waldeck @-@ Rousseau steamed at the rear of the fleet as it made its way to Constantinople .
Waldeck @-@ Rousseau remained in the Black Sea while the fleet continued on into the Mediterranean and eventually to internment at Bizerte in Algeria . On 16 December 1922 , the French transport SS Vinh Long caught fire while in the Sea of Marmara . The United States destroyer USS Bainbridge arrived on the scene first and took off the survivors , which numbered 482 of the 495 crew and passengers that had been aboard . Waldeck @-@ Rousseau arrived shortly thereafter , and the survivors were transferred to the larger cruiser , since she could better accommodate them . For his part in the rescue operations , the commander of Bainbridge — Lieutenant Commander Walter Edwards — was awarded the Medal of Honor , the French Legion of Honour , and the British Distinguished Service Order .
= = = Fate = = =
She later served as the flagship of the French Far East squadron , having left France on 10 May 1929 . She arrived on 22 June and replaced the cruiser Jules Michelet as the flagship . Waldeck @-@ Rousseau served there until May 1932 , when she departed for France , having been replaced by the light cruiser Primauguet . Waldeck @-@ Rousseau reached France on 3 July . After returning to France , she was decommissioned and placed in reserve . On 14 June 1936 , she was stricken and subsequently converted into a hulk at Landévennec , outside Brest . Waldeck @-@ Rousseau was scuttled on 18 June 1940 at Brest and ultimately broken up for scrap between 1941 and 1944 .
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= John of Brittany , Earl of Richmond =
John of Brittany , called in French Jean de Bretagne ( c . 1266 – 17 January 1334 ) , 4th Earl of Richmond , was an English nobleman and a member of the Ducal house of Brittany , the House of Dreux . He entered royal service in England under his uncle Edward I , and also served Edward II . On 15 October 1306 he received his father 's title of Earl of Richmond . He was named Guardian of Scotland in the midst of England 's conflicts with Scotland and in 1311 Lord Ordainer during the baronial rebellion against Edward II .
John of Brittany served England as a soldier and as a diplomat but was otherwise politically inactive in comparison to other Earls of his time . He was a capable diplomat , valued by both Edward I and Edward II for his negotiating skills . John was never married , and upon his death his title and estates fell to his nephew , John III , Duke of Brittany . Although he was generally loyal to his first cousin Edward II during the times of baronial rebellion , he eventually supported the coup of Isabella and Mortimer . After Edward II abdicated in favour of his son Edward III of England , John retired to his estates in France and died in his native Brittany in 1334 with no known issue .
= = Early life = =
John was the second surviving son of John II , Duke of Brittany , and his wife Beatrice , who together had three sons and three daughters who survived to adulthood . Beatrice was the daughter of Henry III of England , which made John the nephew of Henry 's son and heir Edward I. His father held the title of Earl of Richmond , but was little involved in English political affairs . John was raised at the English court together with Edward I 's son Henry , who died in 1274 . He participated in tournaments in his youth. but never distinguished himself in his early roles as a soldier .
= = Service to Edward I = =
When in 1294 the French king confiscated King Edward 's Duchy of Aquitaine , John travelled to France but failed to take Bordeaux . During Easter of 1295 he had to flee the town of Rions . In January 1297 he shared defeat at the siege of Bellegarde with Henry de Lacy , Earl of Lincoln . After this defeat , he returned to England .
Despite his poor results in France he remained highly regarded by his uncle King Edward I , who treated him almost as a son . After his return to England John became involved in the Scottish Wars . He was probably at the Battle of Falkirk in 1298 . He was certainly at the Siege of Caerlaverock in 1300 . The nobles who joined Edward I at the Siege of Caerlaverock , including John of Brittany , were commemorated in the Roll of Caerlaverock which named each noble and described their banner . In this roll , the banner and description of John of Brittany immediately follows that of his uncle King Edward I
His father , the Duke of Brittany , died in 1305 , and was succeeded as Duke by John 's elder brother , Arthur . The following year Edward I invested John with his father 's other title , Earl of Richmond . In addition Edward I appointed him Guardian of Scotland , a position which was confirmed upon the accession of Edward II in 1307 .
= = Service to Edward II = =
The English court viewed John of Brittany as a trusted diplomat . He was a skilled negotiator , and his French connections were a useful asset . By 1307 he was also one of the kingdom 's oldest earls . As the relationship between Edward II and his nobility deteriorated , Richmond remained loyal to the king ; in 1309 he went on an embassy to Pope Clement V on behalf of Edward 's favourite Piers Gaveston . John was allegedly Gaveston 's close personal friend , and did not share the antagonistic attitudes held by certain other earls .
= = = Lord Ordainers = = =
By 1310 the relationship between Edward II and his earls had deteriorated to the point where a committee of earls took control of government from the king . The earls disobeyed a royal order not to carry arms to parliament , and in full military attire presented a demand to the king for the appointment of a commission of reform . At the heart of the deteriorating situation was the peers ' opinion of Edward II 's relationship with Piers Gaveston , and his reputedly outrageous behavior . On 16 March 1310 , the king agreed to the appointment of Ordainers , who were to be in charge of the reform of the royal household . John of Brittany was one of eight earls appointed to this committee of 21 , referred to as the Lords Ordainers . He was among the Ordainers considered loyal to Edward II and was also by this time one of the older remaining earls .
John then travelled to France for diplomatic negotiations , before returning to England . Gaveston was exiled by the Ordainers but later made an irregular return . Gaveston was killed in June 1312 by Thomas of Lancaster and other nobles . It fell upon John , together with Gilbert de Clare , Earl of Gloucester , to reconcile the two parties after this event . In 1313 he followed Edward II on a state visit to France , and thereafter generally remained a trusted subject . In 1318 he witnessed the Treaty of Leake , which restored Edward to full power .
= = = War with Scotland = = =
In 1320 he again accompanied Edward II to France , and the next year he carried out peace negotiations with the Scots . When in 1322 Thomas of Lancaster rebelled and was defeated at the Battle of Boroughbridge , Richmond was present at his trial , and when Lancaster was sentenced to death . After this , the English invaded Scotland only to have their army starved when Robert the Bruce burned the country before them . The Bruce brought his army into England and crossed the Solway Firth in the west , making his way in a south @-@ easterly direction towards Yorkshire ; he brought many troops recruited in Argyll and the Isles . The boldness and speed of the attack soon exposed Edward II to danger , even in his own land . On his return from Scotland , the king had taken up residence at Rievaulx Abbey with Queen Isabella . His peace was interrupted when the Scots made a sudden and unexpected approach in mid @-@ October . All that stood between them and a royal prize was a large English force under the command of John of Brittany . John had taken up a position on Scawton Moor , between Rievaulx and Byland Abbey . To dislodge John from his strong position on the high ground , Bruce used the same tactics that brought victory at the earlier Battle of the Pass of Brander . As Moray and Douglas charged uphill a party of Highlanders scaled the cliffs on the English flank and charged downhill into John of Brittany 's rearguard . Resistance crumbled , and the Battle of Old Byland turned into a rout . John himself was taken prisoner and given a tongue lashing for his cowardice by Robert the Bruce . John remained in captivity until 1324 , when he was released for a ransom of 14 @,@ 000 marks .
After his release , he continued his diplomatic activities in Scotland and France .
= = Final Years = =
In March 1325 John of Brittany made a final return to France , where for the first time he made himself a clear opponent of Edward II . His lands in England were confiscated by the Crown . In France , John aligned himself with Queen Isabella , Edward II 's wife , who had been sent on a diplomatic mission to France , and had disobeyed her husband 's orders to return to England . . Later when Edward II was forced to abdicate and his son Edward III ascended to the English throne , John of Brittany 's English lands were restored . He spent his last years on his French estates , and he remained largely cut off from English political affairs . He died on 17 January 1334 , and was buried in the church of the Franciscans in Nantes .
John of Brittany never married and as far as is known had no issue . He was succeeded as Earl of Richmond by his nephew John ( Arthur 's son ) .
= = Ancestry = =
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= Dino Crisis =
Dino Crisis is a survival horror video game developed and produced by Capcom originally for the PlayStation console in 1999 . It is the first installment in the Dino Crisis series and was developed by the same team behind Capcom 's Resident Evil series , including director Shinji Mikami , and shares many similarities with it . The story follows Regina , a special operations agent sent with a team to investigate a secluded island research facility . Finding the place overrun with dinosaurs , Regina must fight through the facility to discover its secrets and ultimately escape alive .
Instead of the pre @-@ rendered backgrounds of the Resident Evil games that preceded it , Dino Crisis uses an original real @-@ time engine with 3D environments . Gameplay features traditional survival horror mechanics including action and puzzles , and it was developed to have more consistent visceral terror with the dinosaurs being quick , intelligent , and violent . Capcom would later market the game as " panic horror " as opposed to " survival horror " due to these design changes . The team used carnivorous animals as references for animating the dinosaurs and programming their behaviors . Mikami 's vision for the game was not completely fulfilled , as he wanted to develop more complex dinosaur artificial intelligence . However , he did believe the team was able to create sufficiently detailed environments despite hardware limitations .
Dino Crisis was a critical and commercial success , with the PlayStation version selling over 2 @.@ 4 million copies . Critics drew heavy comparisons to Resident Evil , with some describing it as " Resident Evil with dinosaurs . " They also praised the game 's intensity , graphics , and gameplay . Some criticism was directed towards the lack of dinosaur variety , repetitive environments , and tedious puzzles . Dino Crisis was ported to the Sega Dreamcast and Microsoft Windows in 2000 , and was re @-@ released for the PlayStation Network in 2006 . Two different versions for the Game Boy Color were in development , but both were cancelled .
= = Gameplay = =
Dino Crisis features survival horror gameplay that is very similar to Capcom 's early Resident Evil titles . Regina can walk , run , turn , backpedal , push and climb objects , and perform a 180 @-@ degree turn . A map is available which will show Regina 's location , destination , save points , and locked doors . Save points are rooms which will prompt the player to save upon exiting them . Some doors are locked by a D.D.K. ( digital disk key ) device . To open these doors , the player will need both a code disc and input disc which can then be used to decipher a code and unlock the door . There are also force fields of red beams throughout the complex which can be activated to block access to intruders .
Regina 's inventory may include key items , weapons , ammo , and medical supplies — the latter two of which she can only hold a limited amount . She can also mix certain items in order to upgrade them or make completely new ones , such as anesthetic darts . These items can be stored in " emergency boxes " , which need be unlocked with special items called " plugs " before they are usable . Each emergency box is color coded as either red , green , or yellow . Each box can access the contents of any other unlocked box of the same color .
The player can move with weapons drawn and use automatic targeting functions . Enemies can knock Regina 's weapon out of her hand , at which point she 'll have to retrieve it . Sometimes " DANGER " may flash on the screen in perilous situations , at which point the player should push all the controller buttons as rapidly as possible to survive . If Regina becomes injured , she will hold her arm or struggle to walk . Med Paks can be used to heal Regina 's health . Sometimes a trail of blood may appear , indicating that Regina is bleeding and will continue to lose health . Hemostats can be used to stop bleeding injuries . Two types of medical supplies are available in the game : Med Paks , which heals player health , and Hemostats , which stop bleeding injuries . If Regina dies , the player may continue from the room she died in . After five " Continues " are exhausted , the player must continue from their last save point .
= = Plot = =
The story of Dino Crisis takes place on a fictional location known as Ibis Island in the year 2009 . The Secret Operation Raid Team ( SORT ) has sent an agent , Tom , to investigate a research facility . During the recon mission , he learns that Dr. Edward Kirk , a world @-@ renowned scientist who was reported dead three years ago , is leading a secret weapons project within the facility . SORT sends four agents ( Regina , Gail , Rick , and Cooper ) to acquire Kirk and return him to custody . The team arrives on the island under cover of darkness , dropping in via parachute . Cooper is blown off course and lands in the jungle away from the others . Lost in the dark , he is chased down by a Tyrannosaurus rex and eaten . The other three agents , unaware of his death , proceed with the mission .
Once inside the base , the agents discover the eviscerated and partially devoured corpses of security personnel and scientists . After splitting up to restore power to the facility , Gail goes missing . Whilst searching for him , Regina is confronted by a Velociraptor . Re @-@ uniting with Rick , the two determine it was the dinosaurs that caused the bloodbath at the base . Although their mission to recover Dr. Kirk still stands , it is now more important to signal for a rescue . Regina sets out to activate the main antenna to contact their airlift . On her way , she is attacked by another Velociraptor and is rescued by Gail , who then leaves to continue searching for Dr. Kirk . After restoring communications , Regina heads back to the control room and they receive a signal on their communicators . Believing it might be Cooper or Tom in trouble , Rick wants to investigate . Gail shoots down the idea , wanting to follow up on a closed @-@ circuit television sighting that might have been Kirk . The player must choose which course of action to follow .
If the player follows Gail , they go after an unknown man , but end up losing him . Rick then tells Regina that Tom 's dead . If the player follows Rick , they come across Tom , badly injured and near death . Rick takes him to the medical room , however a Velociraptor attacks them , but Tom sacrifices himself to kill it and save Rick . Later , Regina and the team manage to locate Kirk and apprehend him . As they are preparing to leave via helicopter , the T. rex returns and destroys the helicopter , forcing them to flee back into the base while Kirk manages to escape . Regina and Rick flee into the facility and locate keys to a watercraft , but find a vortex in the way of getting to it . Rick speculates this is the spacetime distortion that brought the dinosaurs back . The two split up to find an alternate route off the island , and Regina ends up being held at gunpoint by Dr. Kirk . He is about to kill her when the gun is shot out of his hand by Gail , and they arrest him again .
Kirk reveals that the dinosaurs were brought to their time by an experiment he was running using his Third Energy technology . A rift in space was created and a pocket of the island from their time was exchanged with the same from the past , bringing dinosaurs back into their time . Kirk then tells them that if the reactors are set to overload , the energy coming from them and the vortex should cancel each other out if they come into contact . After Regina gets the stabilizer and initializer and uses them to overload the reactors , the energy shakes the base , causing a vent to fall on Gail allowing Kirk to get free again . The team heads towards the waterway to escape the blast , but Gail says they still need to capture the doctor . He starts to hobble away on his gun to go after Kirk , and orders Regina and Rick to leave without him if he does not return in thirty minutes . Regina is given the choice to either go after Dr. Kirk with Gail , or escape with Rick . The story then takes one of three endings .
= = = Endings = = =
The three possible endings are based on choices made by the player . Near the end of the game , the player has the option to either go after Kirk or find a way off the island .
Chase Kirk : Regina and Gail chase and are successful in capturing Kirk . As a twist , Gail reveals that the whole mission was a front and the government did not want Kirk , but instead wanted the Third Energy to use in warfare . Gail gives Regina a disk containing all the data on the Third Energy . Shortly afterward , Gail dies from injuries suffered when the vent fell on him . Regina , Rick , and Kirk , during their departure in a watercraft , battle with the T. rex . Regina kills it using a remote explosive , and they escape .
Escape the island : Regina , Gail , and Rick manage to escape without Kirk . During the final battle , Rick fires a rocket from a watercraft . The rocket hits a fuel tank , causing a massive overload in the Third Energy generator and completely disintegrating a portion of Ibis Island in the process killing the T. rex and all of the other dinosaurs . The three agents escape safely , however the status of Kirk is unknown although it 's likely he escaped .
The third ending can be achieved by choosing to escape the island , but instead chasing Kirk . Regina and Gail locate Kirk in a hangar , preparing a helicopter to escape in ( which becomes their only way of escape because the T. rex destroyed the hovercraft while she chased Kirk ) . Regina knocks Kirk out , and informs Rick of the situation . The T. rex chases Rick to Regina 's location . Then Regina , Gail and Rick board the helicopter and flee . During their escape , Rick drops a bomb from the helicopter onto the dinosaur , killing it . All three agents get out alive with Kirk .
= = Development = =
Dino Crisis was directed and produced by Shinji Mikami , and developed by a team that would later become part of Capcom Production Studio 4 . It is a pseudo @-@ sequel to Mikami 's popular Resident Evil series , which Mikami and his team wanted to move away from the fantasy elements of and make something more real . He cited The Lost World : Jurassic Park and Aliens as influences , and liked dinosaurs because they were large , strong , fearsome , and violent . The game was developed and marketed as " panic horror " as opposed to the " survival horror " branding of Resident Evil . It was made to have more consistent fright , with the dinosaurs being more intelligent , quick , and able to chase the player room @-@ to @-@ room . Mikami described Resident Evil as " horror in the fun house " and Dino Crisis as more visceral horror akin to riding a roller coaster .
Dino Crisis utilizes an original 3D engine with real @-@ time environments , as opposed to the pre @-@ rendered backgrounds of the Resident Evil series . Mikami chose a real @-@ time engine to enable better cinematic action and more dramatic character depictions that would otherwise be impossible . However , with the real @-@ time engine came the challenge of hardware limitations , making it difficult for the team to create detailed environments . The team had to forego a jungle scene because of this issue . Mikami did however believe the team was able to create sufficiently detailed environments despite the hardware 's polygon limitations . Like Resident Evil , the game takes place indoors in an enclosed environment . Mikami wanted to keep the claustrophobic feelings , thinking it was better to build fear .
Since it is unknown how dinosaurs moved in real life , the team had to use their imagination and animals such as crocodiles and dogs as reference . The animators first scanned in drawings , then used animation tools to see what was possible to animate . The dinosaur artificial intelligence was based on lions , tigers , and other carnivores that are not afraid of humans . Mikami 's vision for the dinosaurs was not completely fulfilled . He wanted to include more complex dinosaur artificial intelligence , with the dinosaurs each having individual personalities that could understand the player 's condition and ambush them . The dinosaur animations and cries also did not turn out as he originally envisioned them . The number of dinosaurs in the North American version was increased from the Japanese version , although the number of species remained the same .
Dino Crisis was first revealed at the 1999 Spring Tokyo Game Show . The game was initially released in Japan in July 1999 , two months before Resident Evil 3 : Nemesis . Ports were released for the Sega Dreamcast console and Microsoft Windows platform in 2000 . A top @-@ down interpretation of Dino Crisis was in development by UK company M4 for the Game Boy Color , but was cancelled . M4 would later develop Resident Evil Gaiden for the system instead . Another UK firm called Fluid Studios was also developing a version of the game for the Game Boy Color . It would have contained all four characters from the original version , as well as seven maps , a hundred different rooms , and five types of dinosaurs . However , this game was also canceled .
= = Reception = =
Dino Crisis was met with mostly positive reviews . Critics compared Dino Crisis to the Resident Evil series while also drawing comparisons to Jurassic Park and describing the game as " Resident Evil with dinosaurs " . Despite these similarities , reviewers found the game " enhances and alters " the Resident Evil formula with " strength of its own merits . " The game was a commercial success , being a bestseller in Japan . The PlayStation version of the game has sold 2 @.@ 4 million copies worldwide , and is listed as the 19th best @-@ selling Capcom game of all @-@ time as of May 2016 .
Critics generally praised the action and intensity of the game , which was heightened by the real @-@ time engine and soundtrack . GamePro found the game to have a great mix of action and strategy , with dinosaur AI that keeps the action fresh . IGN described the game as " vicious , flesh @-@ tearing fright , " noting the fast @-@ paced gameplay during action sequences . Some praise was directed towards the realism of the game , with the dinosaur behaviors and bleeding mechanics noted . The real @-@ time graphics were generally liked , with critics describing them as " sharp " , " sterile " , and " clean " . GameSpot praised the character models , lighting effects , and found " the use of polygonal backgrounds enhances the feeling of fear even more than Resident Evil . " The dinosaurs were a consistent point of discussion among critics . GamePro found the dinosaurs " imbued with an excellent AI that keeps the action fresh and exciting " , although some found the variety of dinosaurs to be lacking . Despite the game being " 90 % Raptors " , which IGN found not as scary as monsters from Resident Evil , they found the dinosaur sound effects to be well done .
Game Revolution had a more critical review of Dino Crisis than others , saying the game expanded on the worse elements of Resident Evil while also ruining the good elements . They were impressed by the graphics but thought the environments looked too similar and got boring after a short time . Overall , they believed the game to be worse than Resident Evil 2 , pointing out the game 's shorter length , more tedious puzzles , weaker action , and lesser scare factor .
The Dreamcast and Windows ports received mixed reviews from multiple sources , criticized for adding very little enhancements to take advantage of their superior hardware . The graphics were viewed as dated on Windows , with IGN calling it " choppy " and pointing out the poor resolution upscaling . On the Dreamcast , Resident Evil - Code : Veronica , another Capcom survival horror game , was viewed as a superior experience .
= = Legacy = =
An action @-@ shooter sequel titled Dino Crisis 2 was released for the PlayStation in 2000 to positive reception . In 2002 , Capcom released Dino Stalker , a lightgun game for the PlayStation 2 to mixed reviews . Finally , an action @-@ based game , Dino Crisis 3 , was released in 2003 for the Xbox to mixed reviews . The protagonist of Dino Crisis , Regina , has been featured as a playable character in the tactical role @-@ playing game Namco x Capcom for the PlayStation 2 . Her outfit is also available to wear in Resident Evil 3 : Nemesis and in Dead Rising 3 via downloadable content .
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= Isaac B. Desha =
Isaac Bledsoe Desha ( January 1 , 1802 – August 13 , 1828 ) was a 19th @-@ century American tanner who was convicted of murdering one man in Kentucky , and confessed to murdering another in Texas . He was notable as the son of the Kentucky Governor , Joseph Desha . Shortly after his father 's election as governor in 1824 , Desha was accused of robbing and killing a man named Francis Baker , who was passing through Kentucky . Circumstantial evidence implicated Desha , who denied the crime .
Given the heated political environment of the Old Court @-@ New Court controversy , allies of his father claimed that the governor 's political enemies had framed his son . The governor 's legislative allies passed legislation providing for a favorable change of venue for the trial , and the governor used his appointment power to ensure that sympathetic judges would hear the case . Isaac Desha was twice convicted , but both times , the judge in the case set aside the verdict on procedural grounds . While awaiting a third trial , Desha attempted suicide by slitting his throat , but doctors saved his life , reconnecting his severed windpipe with a silver tube . Shortly after the suicide attempt , Governor Desha issued a pardon for his son .
Isaac Desha left Kentucky and assumed an alias . He went to New Orleans . From there , he traveled with a man named Thomas Early to San Antonio , Texas . When Early went missing during their travels , Desha fell under suspicion . A former Kentuckian living in Texas recognized Desha . Arrested soon after Early 's body was found , Desha confessed to the murder after being recognized by a second man from Kentucky . A day before his trial was to start , Desha died of a fever . A legend soon arose that he had faked his death and fled to Hawaii , where he married a native woman and fathered several children . Later historians have debunked that myth .
= = Early life and education = =
Isaac Bledsoe Desha was born January 1 , 1802 ; he was one of thirteen children of Margaret ( Bledsoe ) and Joseph Desha . He was named for his maternal grandfather . Educated mostly in the local ( Maysville , Kentucky ) schools , for a time Isaac attended a school run by Mr. Bailey and boarded with Bailey 's father . In October 1817 , he was apprenticed to Archibald Logan , a tanner . He lived and studied with Logan until May 1821 .
= = Marriage and family = =
In November 1823 , the young man married Cornelia Pickett . Desha 's sister Ellen had previously married Pickett 's brother James .
= = Political environment = =
Desha 's father Joseph was elected as governor of Kentucky in August 1824 . The primary issue in the campaign was relief for the state 's large debtor class , still reeling from the Panic of 1819 . The state 's voters split between those supporting laws favorable to debtors – called the Relief Party – and those supporting laws that protected creditors – called the Anti @-@ Relief Party . Shortly before Desha 's election , the Kentucky Court of Appeals had struck down some legislation as unconstitutional that had been passed by the Relief Party , then a majority in the Assembly .
After Desha was elected , Relief legislators , who held majorities in both houses of the General Assembly , attempted to remove the offending judges from office . Failing to achieve the needed two @-@ thirds majority , the legislature passed a reorganization act abolishing the Court of Appeals and replacing it with a new court . Desha appointed justices favoring relief . The original court continued to claim authority as the court of last resort in the state ; during what became known as the Old Court @-@ New Court controversy , both courts operated simultaneously , with both claiming legitimacy . It was a politically tumultuous time .
= = Murder of Francis Baker = =
On the night of November 1 , 1824 , Desha attended a celebration at a neighbor 's house . He later stayed the night at Doggate 's Tavern in Fairview , just over the county line in Fleming County . The next morning , he ate breakfast at the tavern , joined by eight other men , including Francis Baker . Editor of the Mississippian newspaper in Natchez , Baker was returning to his hometown of Trenton , New Jersey to marry a young woman there . Over breakfast , Baker mentioned wanting to visit a friend , Captain John Bickley , who lived in the area . Desha remarked that he knew where Bickley lived and , intending to ride in that direction , asked if Baker wanted to join him . Baker accepted , and the two men left about 8 a.m. toward Maysville . Desha rode his bay mare and Baker his gray mare , a fine horse that had already attracted much attention during his travel through Kentucky .
About 10 a.m. , one of Desha 's neighbors encountered the riderless gray mare , still rigged with saddle and bridle . Catching the horse , he rode it up the road , shortly finding Desha 's riderless bay ( which he recognized ) , with a saddle but no bridle . He noticed blood on the neck and withers of Desha 's horse . Further along , the neighbor encountered Desha on foot , carrying two saddlebags . Desha said that he had just accepted the gray mare as payment from a man who owed him money . He did not volunteer how the two horses had escaped his control , but mounted the gray mare and returned home . Later that day , friends at Desha 's tannery noticed that he was unusually quiet and repeatedly asked what was wrong . He said that he had been kicked by a horse and severely cut his finger in separate incidents the previous day .
His unusual behavior continued to the point that Desha 's pregnant wife Cornelia moved out of the house and refused to return . She later gave birth to their daughter and only child , who she named after her mother . She never returned to Desha .
Over the next few days , neighbors began to discover items along the route Desha and Baker had taken from Doggate 's Tavern to Maysville . These included a bloody glove , a pair of saddlebags with the bottoms cut out , and Desha 's missing horse bridle . On November 8 , three men discovered a man 's body – its upper half covered by a log – about 50 yards ( 46 m ) off the road on the Fleming County side . The men did not move the body , but reported it to local authorities , who returned to recover it . The victim had four or five bludgeon wounds to the head , stab wounds in the chest and shoulder , and his throat had been slit , severing his windpipe . The man wore a shirt , waistcoat , socks , and a single glove ; a search of the area yielded pantaloons and a coat . Authorities brought the body to town , where Captain John Bickley ( whom Baker had been riding to visit ) identified it as Francis Baker .
Investigators examined the body for several days before burying it on November 11 in a local church cemetery . Returning to search the area again , authorities found several changes of clothes and other accoutrements , all with marks identifying the owner cut out . Also located were several pieces of paper – one with the name " Baker " written on it – a hat , a pocketbook similar to the one Desha was known to carry , and lead and a cap from a riding whip , which Desha was also known to use .
= = Arrest and trials = =
With evidence strongly pointing to Desha as the murderer , General William Reed summoned Desha to his house on November 9 and ordered him to remain until an examining trial could be held . Desha complied , showed no emotion when viewing Baker 's body , and did not attempt to flee although left unguarded in the house . The examining trial resulted in Desha 's formal arrest , and he was imprisoned in Flemingsburg , Kentucky . Relief Party partisans said that Desha was innocent and his arrest was fabricated by the Anti @-@ Relief Party to embarrass his father Governor Desha and weaken him politically .
On November 24 , State Representative John Rowan – a Relief partisan – introduced legislation in the Kentucky General Assembly ordering the Fleming Circuit Court to convene a special session in December for Desha 's trial ; it provided that , at the trial , Desha would be given the option of a change of venue from Fleming County , where he lived and the murder was committed , to Harrison County , where his father lived . Governor Desha appeared before the committee reviewing the bill to advocate its passage . The bill was reported favorably by the committee , passed by both houses of the General Assembly , and signed by the governor on December 4 , 1824 . On December 20 , 1824 , the Fleming Circuit Court returned an indictment against Desha for the murder of Francis Baker . At that time , Desha requested the change of venue .
Judge John Trimble , the circuit court judge in Harrison County who would have presided over the case , was appointed before the trial by Governor Desha to a seat on the " New " Court of Appeals authorized by the Assembly . Trimble personally selected Judge George Shannon of Lexington to preside in his stead .
Desha 's trial began January 17 , 1825 , in Cynthiana . William K. Wall , Commonwealth 's Attorney for Harrison County , was the prosecutor , assisted by Fleming County Commonwealth 's Attorney ( and future Congressman ) John Chambers and Martin P. Marshall . Rowan , who had just been elected to the U.S. Senate , was Desha 's primary defense counsel , assisted by the governor 's Secretary of State ( and later U.S. Senator ) William T. Barry , former Congressman William Brown , T. P. Taul , and James Crawford . It took two days to empanel a jury . Witness testimony consumed the next week , and Governor Desha attended each day of the trial . The closing statements of Rowan and Barry , both known as outstanding orators , took several days , and Chambers spoke last .
The defense maintained that the evidence against Desha was largely circumstantial . They said that Desha 's personal items could easily have been planted where they were found . They pointed out that , despite the stab wounds on Baker 's body , no blood was found on the ground near the road or on the path along which the murderer had dragged the body to conceal it . Finally , they contended that , although the days had been unusually warm and wild boars were known to inhabit the area , Baker 's body showed no obvious signs of decomposition or disturbance by animals , as might have been expected had it been there for six days , as the prosecution had charged .
On January 31 , 1825 , Desha was found guilty and sentenced to death by hanging . The next day , Rowan filed a motion for a new trial , citing jury tampering , and Judge Shannon sustained Rowan 's motion . Throughout the court 's March and June terms , a jury was unable to be empaneled due to the extreme publicity the case received .
During the September term , a jury was finally selected , and the trial consumed the rest of the term . Much of the same evidence was presented , and the second jury also voted for a guilty verdict . The date for Desha 's execution was set for July 14 , 1826 . Harry O. Brown , the judge in the case , had been temporarily appointed by Governor Desha to fill a vacancy . He set aside the verdict , ruling that the prosecution had failed to prove that the murder occurred in Fleming County , as charged in the indictment . The prosecution unsuccessfully argued that because a change of venue had already been granted , the place of the murder was immaterial .
The process of selecting a third jury consumed a year and a half . During the delay , Desha attempted suicide by cutting his throat and severed his windpipe . Doctors used a silver tube to repair his windpipe , and Desha survived . On the last day of the court 's term in June 1827 , the judge announced another continuance , since the court had not yet empaneled a jury . Governor Desha stood and produced a pardon for his son . Although legend holds that Governor Desha resigned immediately after issuing the pardon , records show that he served out the rest of his term . The pardon damaged the governor 's reputation and that of the Relief Party , which lost a number of legislative seats in the subsequent elections .
= = Departure of Isaac Desha = =
Freed , Desha left Kentucky , traveling down the Ohio and Mississippi rivers . According to legend , he attempted to rob a flatboat skipper near Vicksburg , Mississippi . It happened the skipper was a longtime acquaintance of Desha , named G. W. Crawford . Crawford recognized Desha and asked why he would try to rob him . Desha confessed that he had been living as an outlaw since his father 's pardon . Crawford urged Desha to abandon his illegal activities and offered to give him free passage to New Orleans , Louisiana . Desha accepted , telling Crawford that he planned to travel on to a distant place , assume a new name , and seek a fresh start .
In New Orleans , Desha assumed the name John Parker . Meeting an Ohio native named Thomas Early , he learned the man was carrying a substantial amount of money and was on his way to Texas to purchase some horses and mules . Desha joined Early , traveling with him on a schooner dubbed the Rights of Man across the Gulf of Mexico into Galveston Bay . In April 1828 , Desha and Early disembarked at Rightors Point ( now Morgan 's Point , Texas ) , and from there , they traveled to San Felipe de Austin , arriving in early May . After a brief stay , the two set out on horseback toward San Antonio . By the time Desha reached Gonzales , he was traveling alone .
Desha continued on to San Antonio , where he lost a substantial amount of money playing Monte Bank . He decided to return to San Felipe . Meeting two Americans and a Mexican cigar maker travelling that way , with their permission , he traveled with them . After his return to San Felipe , the citizens began to suspect Desha of murdering Early . A few days after Desha 's arrival , Early 's clothing was found in a nearby creek . Scattered nearby , a search party located skeletal remains believed to be Early 's .
Thomas Duke Marshall , a nephew of Chief Justice John Marshall and former resident of Washington County , Kentucky , was living in San Felipe . He noticed that the man called John Parker bore a strong resemblance to the Desha family of Kentucky and that he breathed through a silver tube like the one used by Isaac Desha . Marshall arrested Desha . After another former Kentuckian in the area also said he believed the suspect was Isaac Desha , Desha admitted his identity and confessed to murdering Early . He said he had intended to rob the Americans who had traveled with him from San Antonio , but the Mexican had watched him too closely . Although there was no jail in the town , a local blacksmith was commissioned to construct irons to restrain Desha until his trial .
= = Death and legend of escape to Hawaii = =
Desha 's trial for Early 's murder was set for August 14 , 1828 , but he died of a fever the day before the trial was to start . He was buried in San Felipe de Austin .
After his death , a legend arose that he had not died , that his funeral was staged , and that he had escaped to Hawaii , married a native woman , and fathered several children with her . Andrew Forest Muir , writing in 1956 in the Filson Club History Quarterly , debunked this legend . He documented that the first Deshas in Hawaii did not arrive until nearly two decades after Isaac Desha 's death . At the time of Baker 's murder , the progenitor of the Hawaiian Desha family had been four years old . That progenitor was John R. Langherne Desha , a grandson of Governor Joseph Desha and nephew of Isaac Desha . In Honolulu , he helped establish Queen 's Hospital and worked there until his death .
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= Burning Up ( Madonna song ) =
" Burning Up " is a song written and recorded by American singer Madonna from her eponymous debut studio album Madonna ( 1983 ) . It was released as the album 's second single on March 9 , 1983 , in some countries as a double @-@ A side single with " Physical Attraction " . The song was presented as an early recorded demo by Madonna to Sire Records who green @-@ lighted the recording of the single after the first single " Everybody " became a dance hit . Madonna collaborated with Reggie Lucas , who produced the single while John Benitez provided the guitar riffs and backing vocals . Musically , the song incorporates instrumentation from bass guitar , synthesizers and drums , and the lyrics talk of the singer 's lack of shame in declaring her passion for her lover .
Released with " Physical Attraction " on the B side , the song was given mixed reviews from contemporary critics and authors , who noted the song 's darker , urgent composition while praising its dance beats . The single failed to do well commercially anywhere , except the dance chart in the United States , where it peaked at three , and the Australian charts , where it was a top 20 hit . After a number of live appearances in clubs to promote the single , it was added to the set @-@ list of the 1985 Virgin Tour . An electric guitar version was performed on the 2004 Re @-@ Invention World Tour and the 2015 – 16 Rebel Heart Tour .
The accompanying music video of the song portrayed Madonna in the classic submissive female positions , while writhing in passion on an empty road , for her lover who appeared to come from her behind on a car . The video ended showing Madonna driving the car instead , thereby concluding that she was always in charge . Many authors noted that the " Burning Up " music video was a beginning of Madonna 's depiction of her taking control of a destabilized male sexuality .
= = Background = =
In 1982 , Madonna was living in New York and trying to launch her musical career . Her Detroit boyfriend , Steve Bray , became the drummer for her band . Abandoning hard rock , they were signed by a music management company , Gotham records , and decided to pursue music in the funk genre . They soon dropped those plans . Madonna carried rough tapes of three songs with her : " Everybody " , " Ain 't No Big Deal " and " Burning Up " . Madonna presented " Everybody " to the DJ Mark Kamins who , after hearing the song , took her to Sire Records , where she was signed for a single deal . When " Everybody " became a dance hit , Sire Records decided to follow up with an album for her . However , Madonna chose not to work with either Bray or Kamins , opting instead for Warner Brothers producer Reggie Lucas . Michael Rosenblatt , the A & R director of Sire Records , explained to Kamins that they wanted a producer who had more experience in directing singers ; hence they appointed Lucas . He pushed Madonna in a more pop direction and produced " Burning Up " and " Physical Attraction " for her .
While producing the tracks , Lucas radically changed their structure from the original demo versions . Madonna did not accept the changes , so John " Jellybean " Benitez , a DJ at the Funhouse Disco , was called in to remix the tracks . He added some extra guitar riffs and vocals to " Burning Up " . Sire Records backed up the single by sending Madonna on a series of personal appearances in clubs around New York , where she performed the single . They also hired a stylist and jewelry designer called Maripol , who helped Madonna with the single cover . The cover for the 12 @-@ inch dance single for " Burning Up " was designed by Martin Burgoyne .
= = Composition = =
Musically , " Burning Up " has a starker arrangement brought about by bass , single guitar and drum machine . The guitar riffs in the songs were not characteristics of Madonna 's later records . The tom @-@ tom drum beats used in the song were reminiscent to the records of singer Phil Collins . It also incorporated electric guitars and the most state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art synthesizers of that time . The chorus is a repetition of the same three lines of the lyrics , while the bridge consists of a series of double entendres in regards to the lyrics of the song which describes what she is prepared to do for her lover and that she is individualistic and shameless .
According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Alfred Publishing , " Burning Up " is written in the time signature of common time with a dance beat tempo of 138 beats per minute . The song is composed in the key of B minor , with Madonna 's vocals ranging from the tonal nodes of A3 to B4 . " Burning Up " follows a basic sequence of Bm – Bm – A – E as its chord progression .
= = Release and reception = =
" Burning Up " was released on March 9 , 1983 . Like its predecessor " Everybody " , the song failed to enter the Billboard Hot 100 chart , and " Burning Up " also did not chart in the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart . It did manage to peak at number three on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play , staying on the chart for 16 weeks . The song was a top 20 hit in Australia in June 1984 , peaking at number 13 , after having originally charted in the lower reaches of the top 100 in November 1983 . The song was also used as background music for a scene in the 1984 film The Wild Life .
Author Rikky Rooksby , in his book The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna , commented that the song was noticeably weaker compared to other singles like " Lucky Star " and " Borderline " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine denoted the track as edgy and punk @-@ infused . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic commented that " Burning Up " and B side " Physical Attraction " had a darker , carnal urgency in their composition . Don Shewey from Rolling Stone called the song " simple stuff " while complimenting the B side , saying : " ' Physical Attraction ' is practically a capsule history of high @-@ school proms , with its sly references to The Association 's " Cherish " and Olivia Newton @-@ John 's " Physical . " Robert Christgau called the 12 @-@ inch pair of " Burning Up " and " Physical Attraction " electroporn . Santiago Fouz @-@ Hernández in his book Madonna 's drowned worlds complimented the song for having upbeat dance music . Jim Farber from Entertainment Weekly commented that " Burning Up " proved that Madonna could rock also .
= = Music video = =
Sire Records commissioned a music video for the song to be directed by Steve Barron . Madonna 's friend Debi Mazar was hired as the make @-@ up artist for the video while Maripol was the stylist with Madonna 's then boyfriend Ken Compton appearing as her onscreen lover . By the time the video was released , MTV had begun to show dance music videos . Hence the music video of " Burning Up " became a minor hit on the channel . The narrative of the video shows Madonna in a white dress , as she sings the song proclaiming her helpless passion for her lover . She wore her famous rubber bracelets which were actually typewriter belts . Her love for the boy portrayed her as a helpless victim like the stereotyped female portrayed in many silent movies . At one point in the video Madonna is shown being hit by a car driven by a young man , played by Compton . By the end of the song Madonna is shown driving the car , with a knowing , defiant smile on her lips and has ditched the man , thereby giving the message that she was in charge , a theme recurrent throughout her career . Baron explained the development process behind the video :
I went to New York to meet ( Madonna ) , begrudgingly , and showed up at an address at SoHo , which turned out to be a squat basically . Madonna was scantily clad , working out to a massive disco track . She was charismatic . She kept putting her head down on the table and talking to me , very flirtatious , and that gave me the idea for the scene in " burning up " , where her face is on the road , and the camera 's really low and close .
Though the lyrics of the song like " Do you want to see me down on my knees ? " portray female helplessness , the video performance acts as a counter @-@ text to it . When this line is sung , Madonna is shown kneeling on the road in front of the advancing car , then turns her head back while exposing her throat back in a posture of submission . However , her voice tone and her look at the camera portray a hardness and defiance that contradict the submissiveness of her body posture and turn the question of the line into a challenge for her lover .
Author Andrew Morton , in his biography on Madonna , commented that the video was America 's first introduction to Madonna 's sexual politics . Author Robert Clyde Allen in his book Channels of Discourse compared the video with that of " Material Girl " . According to him both the videos have an undermining ending , while employing a consistent series of puns and exhibiting a parodic amount of excess associated with Madonna 's style . The discourses included in the video are those of sexuality and religion . Allen wrote that Madonna 's image of kneeling and singing about ' burning in love ' performed the traditional ideological work of using the subordination and powerlessness of women in Christianity to naturalize their equally submissive position in patriarchy . Author Georges @-@ Claude Guilbert in his book Madonna as postmodern myth commented that the representation of the male character becomes irrelevant as Madonna destabilizes the fixing and categorization of male sexuality in the video . Her utterance of having " no shame " was interpreted by author James B. Twitchell , in his book For Shame , as an attempt to separate herself from contemporary female artists of that era .
= = Live performances and covers = =
Before its release , Madonna promoted the single by performing at different clubs around New York . Madonna was a professional performer by that time and was assisted by dancers Erika Belle and Bags Rilez to promote it . After promoting in New York in numerous nightclubs and pubs , she traveled to London to promote it in clubs like Heaven , Camden Palace , Beatroot Club as well as The Haçienda in Manchester . However , those performances were not well received by the British audience . The song was performed on The Virgin Tour in 1985 but was omitted from the Madonna Live : The Virgin Tour VHS released by Warner Home Video . Jon Pareles from The New York Times felt that Madonna posed like Marilyn Monroe during the performance of the song . Mikel Longoria from The Dallas Morning News called the performance as " crisp and energetic " .
Madonna included the song on the set @-@ list of her 2004 Re @-@ Invention World Tour in the military segment . She was dressed in military garments and played the electric guitar for the performance . As she sang the song , the backdrops displayed scenes of war and sex which were scrambled to appear as if they have been shot with a camcorder . Kelefa Sanneh from The New York Times described the performance and the video backdrops as being reminiscent of the prisons in Abu Ghraib . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine commented that " it was a hoot to see her [ Madonna ] strap on an electric guitar and sing classics like ' Burning Up ' . " Madonna also included a remixed version of the song on the 2015 Rebel Heart Tour . Similar to the Re @-@ Invention World Tour , the singer played the electric guitar during the performance , dressed in a black short nun 's outfit .
During Madonna 's induction at the 2008 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , " Burning Up " was performed by Iggy Pop and the punk rock band The Stooges , along with " Ray of Light " . In 2010 , Jonathan Groff covered the song for American television show Glee . His version was included in the extended play titled Glee : The Music , The Power of Madonna , and it was also released as a bonus track to the iTunes Store . Singer Britney Spears covered " Burning Up " in 2011 during select shows , for her Femme Fatale Tour . The performance featured her straddling a giant , glittering guitar , ten feet high and twice as long . However , Barry Walters from Rolling Stone felt that the cover she sung on the tour , " lacked Madge 's [ Madonna 's ] authority . " Studio recording of the cover , described by Sarah Maloy of Billboard as " glammed @-@ up without a hint of the ' 80s to be found " , leaked on June 10 , 2011 . Singer Isadar included a cover of " Burning Up " as a bonus track on his 2006 compilation album , Scratching The Surface : Vol 2 Electro @-@ Voice Sampler .
= = Track listing and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – vocals , writer
Reggie Lucas – producer , guitars , drum programming
Butch Jones – synthesizer
John " Jellybean " Benitez – remixing
Fred Zarr – synthesizer , electric and acoustic piano
Dean Gant – electric and acoustic piano
Bobby Malach – tenor saxophone
Ed Walsh – synthesizer
Gwen Guthrie – background vocals
Brenda White – background vocals
Chrissy Faith – background vocals
Martin Burgoyne - artwork
Credits adapted from the album and the single liner notes .
= = Charts = =
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= Getty Research Institute =
The Getty Research Institute ( GRI ) , located at the Getty Center in Los Angeles , California , is " dedicated to furthering knowledge and advancing understanding of the visual arts " . A program of the J. Paul Getty Trust , GRI maintains a research library , organizes exhibitions and other events , sponsors a residential scholars program , publishes books , and produces electronic databases ( Getty Publications ) .
= = History = =
The GRI was originally called the " Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humanities " , and was first discussed in 1983 . Located in Santa Monica , its first director ( beginning in 1985 ) was Kurt W. Forster . GRI 's library had 30 @,@ 000 volumes in 1983 , but grew to 450 @,@ 000 volumes by 1986 .
In a statement upon his departure in 1992 , Forster summarized his tenure as " Beginning with the rudiments of a small museum library ... the center grew ... to become one of the nation 's preeminent research centers for arts and culture ... " . In 1994 , Salvatore Settis , a professor of the history of classical art and archeology in Italy , became the director of the Center . By 1996 , the Center 's name had been changed to " Getty Research Institute for the History of Art and the Humanities " , and by 1999 it was known simply as " Getty Research Institute " .
Among GRI 's special projects was " L.A. as Subject : The Transformative Culture of Los Angeles Communities " conducted between 1995 and 1999 , whose purposes included " enhanc [ ing ] existing resources and develop new resources that support new research scholarship on LA and also encourag [ ing ] the preservation , conservation , and display of local material culture " . In collaboration with local organizations , GRI published Cultural Inheritance / L.A. : A Resource Directory of Less Visible Archives and Collections in the Los Angeles Region in 1999 . In 2000 , the L.A. as Subject project was transferred to the University of Southern California , which continues to update and expand an online version of the resource directory .
When the Getty Information Institute ( formerly the Art History Information Program , established in 1983 ) was dissolved in 1999 as a " result of a change of leadership at the Getty Trust " , GRI absorbed " many of its functions " .
In 2000 , Thomas E. Crow was selected as GRI director to replace Settis who had resigned in 1999 . Crow announced in October 2006 that he would be leaving for New York University . Since November 2007 Thomas W. Gaehtgens has been GRI 's director ; he was previously ( 1985 – 86 ) a visiting scholar with the Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humanities .
= = Programs = =
= = = Library = = =
Among other holdings , GRI 's research library contains over 1 million volumes of books , periodicals , and auction catalogs ; special collections ; and two million photographs of art and architecture .
Already by 1985 , the Getty had acquired the complete archive of the American sculptor Malvina Hoffman . In 2011 , it acquired Harald Szeemann ’ s substantial archive , consisting of more than 1 @,@ 000 boxes of correspondence , research files , drawings , and ephemera , as well as some 28 @,@ 000 books and 36 @,@ 000 photographs . It also owns several art dealers ' archives , including records for the Goupil & Cie and Boussod Valadon galleries , Knoedler Gallery , and the Duveen Brothers .
The library is located at the Getty Center , and does not circulate its collections , but does extend library privileges to any visitor .
= = = Exhibitions and other events = = =
GRI holds two public exhibitions per year in its two galleries which " focus primarily on the special collections of the Research Library or on work produced by artists in residence " . For example , in 2005 – 2006 GRI held an exhibition entitled " Julius Shulman , Modernity and the Metropolis " . The exhibition traveled to the National Building Museum and to the Art Institute of Chicago .
In addition to exhibitions , GRI organizes lectures ( open to the public ) , colloquia ( most open to the public ) , workshops ( by invitation only ) , and screenings of films and videos ( open to the public ) .
= = = Residential scholars program = = =
The residential scholars program seeks to " integrate the often isolated territory of art history into the wider sphere of the humanities " . The first class of scholars arrived in 1985 – 1986 ; they had their salaries paid for and their housing provided but were under " absolutely no obligation to produce " . Among the notable scholars was German writer Christa Wolf in 1993 – 1994 , who wrote the novel Medea : a modern retelling during her year at GRI .
Each year the scholars are invited to work on projects related to an annual theme . In 2008 – 2009 , the theme for the Getty Center was " Networks and Boundaries " and for the Getty Villa " The Power and Function of Ancient Images " . The lengths of stay vary : Getty scholars are in residence for three , six or nine months , visiting scholars for one to three months , and predoctoral and postdoctoral fellows for a nine @-@ month academic year . In 2011 – 12 , the theme was " Artistic Practice " .
= = = Publications = = =
GRI publishes " Series Imprints " books in the categories of " Issues and Debates " , " Texts & Documents " , " Introduction To " ( on " cultural heritage information in electronic form " ) , and " ReSources " ( on the library 's special collections ) . In addition , GRI publishes exhibition catalogs and other materials in hardcopy form .
Here are selected books published by GRI , by the Getty Research Institute for the History of Art and the Humanities , by the Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humanities , by the Getty Information Institute , or by the Art History Information Program .
Bakewell , Elizabeth , et al . Object , image , inquiry : the art historian at work : report on a collaborative study by the Getty Art History Information Program ( AHIP ) and the Institute for Research in Information and Scholarship ( IRIS ) , Brown University . Santa Monica , CA : AHIP , 1988 . ISBN 0 @-@ 89236 @-@ 135 @-@ 2
Gaehtgens , Thomas W. , and Heinz Ickstadt . American icons : transatlantic perspectives on eighteenth- and nineteenth @-@ century American art . Santa Monica , CA : Getty Center for the History of Art and Humanities , 1992 . ISBN 0 @-@ 89236 @-@ 246 @-@ 4
Necipoglu , Gülru , and Mohammad Al @-@ Asad . The Topkapi scroll : geometry and ornament in Islamic architecture : Topkapi Palace Museum Library MS H. 1956 . Santa Monica , CA : Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humanities , 1995 . ISBN 0 @-@ 89236 @-@ 335 @-@ 5
Roth , Michael S. , Claire L. Lyons , and Charles Merewether . Irresistible decay : ruins reclaimed . Los Angeles , CA : Getty Research Institute for the History of Art and the Humanities , 1997 . ISBN 0 @-@ 89236 @-@ 468 @-@ 8
Baca , Murtha . Introduction to metadata : pathways to digital information . Los Angeles , CA : Getty Information Institute , 1998 . ISBN 0 @-@ 89236 @-@ 533 @-@ 1
Warburg , Aby . The renewal of pagan antiquity : contributions to the cultural history of the European Renaissance . Los Angeles , CA : Getty Research Institute for the History of Art and the Humanities , 1999 . ISBN 0 @-@ 89236 @-@ 537 @-@ 4
Paul , Carole , and Alberta Campitelli . Making a prince 's museum : drawings for the late @-@ eighteenth @-@ century redecoration of the Villa Borghese . Los Angeles , CA : Getty Research Institute , 2000 . ISBN 0 @-@ 89236 @-@ 539 @-@ 0
Phillips , Glenn , and Thomas E. Crow . Seeing Rothko . Los Angeles : Getty Research Institute , 2005 . ISBN 0 @-@ 89236 @-@ 734 @-@ 2
Reed , Marcia , and Paola Demattè . China on paper : European and Chinese works from the late sixteenth to the early nineteenth century . Los Angeles : Getty Research Institute , 2007 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 89236 @-@ 869 @-@ 3
= = = Electronic databases = = =
Among the electronic databases from the former Getty Information Institute that GRI continues to produce are :
Getty Vocabulary Program databases ( Art & Architecture Thesaurus ( AAT ) , Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names ( TGN ) , and Union List of Artist Names ( ULAN ) )
Bibliography of the History of Art
Getty Provenance Index which holds records of collections , auction sales and other information for researching the art market and the provenance of works .
The Getty Research Portal provides free access to fully digitized art history texts in the public domain . The database launched in 2012 and is a collaboration with libraries that are digitizing art history books . Initial contributors include the Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library at Columbia University , the Biblioteca de la Universidad de Málaga , the Frick Art Reference Library , the Getty Research Institute , the Heidelberg University Library , the Institut national d 'histoire de l 'art , members of the New York Art Resources Consortium , and the Thomas J. Watson Library at the Metropolitan Museum of Art .
In 2006 , GRI and the OCLC Online Computer Library Center announced that the Getty Vocabularies ( Art & Architecture Thesaurus , Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names , and Union List of Artist Names ) will be available as a Web service .
Until July 1 , 2009 , the Getty Information Institute and later GRI co @-@ produced the Avery Index to Architectural Periodicals with the Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library . On that date , GRI transferred the database back to Columbia University , which continues to maintain it .
= = Senior staff = =
GRI 's senior staff includes :
Thomas W. Gaehtgens , Director
Andrew Perchuk , Deputy Director
Gail Feigenbaum , Associate Director
David Farneth , Assistant Director
Kathleen Salomon , Assistant Director
Marcia Reed , Chief Curator
= = Employees and budget = =
During the period July 2006 – June 2007 , GRI had approximately 200 full @-@ time and part @-@ time employees , and a budget of $ 63 @.@ 7 million .
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= St Botolph 's Church , Quarrington =
St Botolph 's Church is an Anglican place of worship in the village of Quarrington , part of the civil parish of Sleaford in Lincolnshire , England . The area has been settled since at least the Anglo @-@ Saxon period and a church existed there by the time Domesday was compiled in 1086 , when it formed part of Ramsey Abbey 's fee . It was granted to Haverholme Priory in c . 1165 , but the Bishop of Lincoln presented the rector during the early 16th century , before it passed to Robert Carre and his descendants . With capacity for 124 people , the church serves the ecclesiastic parish of Quarrington with Old Sleaford and , as of 2009 , has an average congregation of 50 .
Recognised for its age and tracery , the church has been designated a grade II * listed building . It consists of a tower and spire with a nave and north aisle spanning eastwards and ending at a chancel . The oldest parts of the building date to the 13th century , although substantial rebuilding took place over the following century . Renovations followed and the local architect Charles Kirk the younger carried out restoration work in 1862 – 63 , when he added the chancel in his parents ' memory . The high interior spans three bays of arcading which complement the windows along either side of the nave 's south wall and north aisle ; those on the south wall are particularly unusual for their incorporation of hexagons and trefoils into the reticulated designs .
= = Description = =
St Botolph 's Church is the parish church of the benefice of Quarrington with Old Sleaford , which encompasses most of the village of Quarrington in the English non @-@ metropolitan county of Lincolnshire . The benefice is a rectory and falls within the deanery of Lafford and the archdeaconry and diocese of Lincoln ; the present priest @-@ in @-@ charge is Rev. Mark Stephen Thomson , who took over from Rev. Sandra Rhys Benham in 2016 . Dedicated to St Botolph , the church is on Town Road . The rectory was constructed in c . 2000 and has a study area used as the parish office . As of 2015 , services are scheduled for Sundays and Wednesdays : Holy Communion from 11 : 00 am on every second , third and fourth Sunday and every Wednesday at 10 : 00 am ; a family service on every first Sunday of the month at 11 : 00 am .
Along with 20 spaces in the choir stalls , the nave and aisle pews can comfortably seat 124 adults and " 149 at a pinch " ; as of 2009 , the average congregation size for the main Sunday service was 50 , about half of whom were retired and 1 – 3 were under 16 . In 2004 a log cabin @-@ style building was constructed by Pinelog Ltd using funds from the Parochial Church Council . It serves as a robing space for choristers and can be used as a meeting room for up to 30 people . Equipped with disabled toilet facilities , the building also serves as a Sunday School .
= = History = =
= = = Background , origins and advowson = = =
There is little evidence for prehistoric activity in the area and , despite the presence of Late Iron Age and Roman communities in Sleaford , only scattered Roman coins and pottery sherds have been uncovered around Quarrington . The first written record of the village occurs in the Domesday Book of 1086 , but the remains of an early and middle Anglo @-@ Saxon rural community have been discovered beneath fields around the village , along with evidence for pig and sheep @-@ rearing and metalworking . Ramsey Abbey possessed a manor at Quarrington from c . 1051 and , by the time Domesday was compiled , this included two churches . The antiquarian James Creasey suggested that the missing church was All Saints ' in Old Sleaford , where the Abbey held a manor as sokeland of Quarrington , while the antiquarian Edward Trollope thought it had been lost , buried " probably in a farm yard now occupied by Mrs. Cubley " . In 1909 , two amateur local historians , H. Greenval and F. Cenlices , reckoned that both churches were lost and had stood on land marked by stone crosses near Tellgate on the Sleaford – Folkingham road and on Stump Cross Hill . But in 1979 , the local historians Christine Mahany and David Roffe reassessed the Domesday evidence and , after analysing the manorial structure , documentary evidence and the history of the advowson of All Saints ' , concluded that it was the second church in the Abbey 's manor of Quarrington .
Henry Selvein , a knight , held Quarrington of the Abbey and in c . 1165 granted it to Haverholme Priory , who presented Alexander de Brauncewell as rector in 1218 . The priory are known to have presented rectors in 1248 and 1269 as well . The Bishop of Lincoln , who had held a manor at Quarrington since Domesday , claimed the right to present its rector in the early 16th century . Bishop Holbeach alienated the manor to the Crown in 1547 and it was eventually purchased by the Sleaford merchant Robert Carre , but the Bishop still tried to present the rector ; Carre protested and the dispute was settled when Lord Chief Justice Coke ruled that Carre would present in future .
= = = Construction and later history = = =
A " very narrow " chancel arch existed until the mid @-@ 19th century and might have been pre @-@ Conquest , but the earliest visible part of the church is the 13th century north arcade , which may have been added to an earlier , now @-@ lost nave . The spire and tower date to the middle of the next century , roughly when the nave was rebuilt . Many of the windows are reticulated in a fashion popular during the early 14th century . Several medieval bequests are known : Olivia , wife of John Rossen of Quarrington left 12 pence to the rector and church each in 1412 ; a donation of wool was made by another parishioner , Joan , wife of William Ward , around the same time . Later , 8 pence was left to the churchwardens by an unknown resident .
In the latter half of the 16th century , the living of Old Sleaford became " extremely poor " and the church probably fell out of use . Some time afterwards , the rector of Quarrington obtained a presentation to Old Sleaford , but , discovering the lack of tithes , he left . Robert Carre convinced him to take in the parishioners of Old Sleaford at Quarrington in return for a yearly payment ; as of 2015 , the parishes are still combined . Amendments to the fabric of the church were made in the early modern period , beginning when the chancel was rebuilt on a smaller scale some time after the restoration and inset with 12th and 13th century stonework , the whole thing described as " very miserable " by Edward Trollope . This was replaced in 1812 by a Georgian @-@ style building , constructed under the guidance of the rector , Charles Blomfield . The North Aisle was rebuilt in 1848 and a new pulpit , screen and pews were added the following year .
The Victorian period witnessed extensive restoration work at Quarrington , where most of the nave 's windows were altered , and the chancel and part of the vestry were rebuilt by Charles Kirk in 1862 – 63 ; parts of the tower and spire were remodelled 24 years later . The Census of Religious Worship ( 1851 ) reveals that the Church had 120 sittings , attendances of 20 and 40 in the morning and afternoon respectively and 20 Sunday scholars . As Sleaford expanded , houses were built along London and Station Roads , pushing the town inside the Quarrington parish boundaries in what became New Quarrington . To deal with the growing population , a second church was designed in the early 1900s on donated land in the parish , to be built closer to Sleaford . Disruption during World War I , parish boundary changes in 1928 , and rising costs delayed the plans . Instead a church hall was built in 1932 on Grantham Road and is now used as a community centre . An extension to the Church was added in 2001 , providing a kitchen , disabled toilet and other facilities ; built in matching stone , it incorporated a stained glass window from the north aisle .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
St Botolph 's Church consists of a west tower adjoining a nave with a north aisle ; at the end of the nave is a chancel with a chapel on the north side . Owing to its age , the " excellent " tracery and a " very good " 14th century door , the church has been listed at grade II * on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest in the United Kingdom since 1949 , recognising it as " particularly important ... of more than special interest " .
Incorporating a window and two @-@ light openings for the bell , the tower and its spire have been dated to the mid @-@ 14th century , although its pinnacles were replaced in 1887 . Trollope did not like the spire 's design , saying that it " looks as if it had slipped down " . Built in a Decorated Gothic style , the tower joins to the nave with a triple @-@ chamferred arch . The nave has been heavily restored and contains elements from a range of periods . The architectural historian Sir Nikolaus Pevsner refers to the south wall as " puzzling " because of the tracery — it is unclear what is " Victorian fancy " and what is " correct restoration " . The wall itself is 14th century ( Pevsner suggests c . 1300 ) and incorporates a priest 's doorway with mouldings , capitals and a bust of a man ; the windows to its east have been restored , but follow a 14th @-@ century reticulated style , although unusually they feature hexagons with pointed trefoils : " the oddest patterns " , as Pevsner puts it . The north aisle is from the 13th century , although a 12th @-@ century doorway sits between its late @-@ 14th @-@ century windows . At the eastern end of the nave is the chancel , which has a polygonal ( quingualgular ) apse and was constructed between 1862 and 1863 by Charles Kirk the younger in memory of his parents , the elder Charles Kirk and his wife Elizabeth . Its windows were made by Ward and Hughes .
Both Pevsner and Historic England regard the interior as high relative to the Church 's small size . The nave has arcading across three bays with chamfered arches and capitals ; the arcades on the north side are Early English and , dating to the 13th century , are the earliest visible parts of the church . Historic England suggest that this nave was likely added to an earlier , now @-@ lost nave . The westernmost arch is wider and shorter than the rest , giving what Trollope called " a very awkward appearance " . The chancel arch follows a 13th @-@ century style , although it was built with the 1862 – 63 work . Inside the chancel , shafts with floral capitals adorn the walls , while the tiled flooring and painted roof give it a " rich " appearance . The nave includes 19th and 20th century windows by H. Hughes ( 1877 ) and Burlison and Grylls , while another ( dated 1917 ) commemorates the Barrett family . Morris and Co. worked on a window in the north aisle in 1935 .
The church 's fixtures include a 19th @-@ century pulpit and choir stalls , and chancel screen in a Decorated style ; a font from the 14th century has foliage designs on the bowl , but lacks a base . The earliest record of an organ at St Botolph 's is from 1867 , when one was opened for the chancel by Bevington ; it has since been moved to Pointon . In 1915 , the church paid for organ bought from N. E. Snow to be fixed by Cousans at the cost of £ 130 . The present organ , however , was built in 1929 by J. J. Binns and has two manuals and a pedalboard . Some of the memorials in St Botolph 's date to the 18th and 19th century , although a plaque commemorating one Thomas Appleby dates to 1683 and several other 17th century tablets were noted by Gervase Holles . A tablet to Romaine Hervey ( d . 1837 ) by J. J. Saunders is inside the church ; elsewhere in the grounds are tombstones belonging to the Sharpe and Kirk families and markers to the Shannons , including the artist Charles Haslewood Shannon ( d . 1937 ) , whose father , Rev. Frederick William Shannon , was rector of Quarrington and Old Sleaford from 1861 to 1910 .
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= No. 2 Elementary Flying Training School RAAF =
No. 2 Elementary Flying Training School ( No. 2 EFTS ) was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) pilot training unit that operated during World War II . It was one of twelve elementary flying training schools employed by the RAAF to provide introductory flight instruction to new pilots as part of Australia 's contribution to the Empire Air Training Scheme . No. 2 EFTS was established in November 1939 as No. 3 Flying Training School at Archerfield , Queensland , and partially utilised aircraft and facilities of the civilian air training organisations based there . The school was renamed No. 2 EFTS in January 1940 . It was disbanded in March 1942 , and its operations transferred to No. 5 Elementary Flying School at Narromine , New South Wales , and No. 11 Elementary Flying School at Benalla , Victoria .
= = History = =
Flying instruction in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) underwent major changes following the outbreak of World War II , in response to a vast increase in the number of aircrew volunteers and the commencement of Australia 's participation in the Empire Air Training Scheme ( EATS ) . The Air Force 's pre @-@ war pilot training facility , No. 1 Flying Training School at RAAF Station Point Cook , Victoria , was supplanted in 1940 – 41 by twelve elementary flying training schools ( EFTS ) and eight service flying training schools ( SFTS ) . The EFTS provided a twelve @-@ week introductory flying course to personnel who had graduated from one of the RAAF 's initial training schools . Flying training was undertaken in two stages : the first involved four weeks of instruction ( including ten hours of flying ) to determine trainees ' suitability to become pilots . Those that passed this grading process then received a further eight weeks of training ( including sixty @-@ five hours of flying ) at the EFTS . Pilots who successfully completed this course were posted to an SFTS in either Australia or Canada for the next stage of their instruction as military aviators .
No. 2 Elementary Flying Training School was formed as No. 3 Flying Training School at Archerfield , Queensland , on 6 November 1939 . Its inaugural commanding officer was Flight Lieutenant T.C. Curnow . Archerfield was home to private aviation clubs and schools including the Queensland Aero Club and Airwork Ltd , and it was the airfield 's position as the hub of civilian flight instruction in the state that led to it becoming the base for the second flying school the RAAF raised during World War II . The same principle was followed in establishing No. 2 Flying Training School ( later renamed No. 1 Elementary Flying Training School ) at Parafield , South Australia , No. 3 Elementary Flying Training School at Essendon , Victoria , and No. 4 Elementary Flying Training School at Mascot , New South Wales .
No. 3 Flying Training School was renamed No. 2 Elementary Flying Training School on 2 January 1940 . Its first fifteen de Havilland Tiger Moth training aircraft were delivered three days later . These were augmented by privately owned Tiger Moths and Gipsy Moths pressed into military service . The first training course , lasting eight weeks , began on 10 January ; twenty @-@ one students graduated . By the end of the month , the school 's strength included 105 officers and men , one civilian instructor , and twenty @-@ six students . The unit log book reported the lack of a telephone system , kitchen facilities , beds , desks , hot water , blackboards , typewriters , flags , maps , charts , and " clothing other than stockings " . A second civilian instructor , from the Queensland Aero Club , joined the school on 12 February 1940 . Later that month , No. 2 EFTS was assigned to the control of the proposed Northern Area Command , which was eventually formed in May 1941 . In the interim , all units in Queensland came under the control of Central Area Command , headquartered in Sydney .
The school 's inaugural EATS course consisted of thirty @-@ one students , who arrived at Archerfield on 29 April 1940 ; twenty @-@ four of the students graduated . The second EATS course commenced on 27 June ; eighteen of the twenty @-@ four students graduated . As of 15 July , responsibility for all aircraft maintenance at the school was assigned to the Queensland Aero Club . Squadron Leader Roy Phillipps , a fighter ace with the Australian Flying Corps in World War I , assumed command of No. 2 EFTS on 20 October 1940 . Phillipps died on 21 May 1941 , when a private plane in which he was a passenger crashed after taking off from Archerfield . Operations at No. 2 EFTS were increased twofold in August 1941 ; by 30 September its strength included 202 officers and men , 1 civilian , and 91 trainees . Cross @-@ country exercises could take students as far as Dalby and Coolangatta . Training accidents at the school were frequent , particularly from heavy landings , but did not result in any fatalities .
EATS training was put on hold in January 1942 , following the outbreak of war in the Pacific , but resumed the next month . Owing to urgent requirements to house other RAAF units and elements of the United States Army Forces in Australia ( USAFIA ) , No. 2 EFTS was disbanded on 31 March 1942 , and its operations transferred to No. 5 Elementary Flying School at Narromine , New South Wales , and No. 11 Elementary Flying School at Benalla , Victoria . By the time it closed , No. 2 EFTS had trained 806 EATS students , 610 of whom had gone on to SFTSs .
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= The Last Story =
The Last Story ( Japanese : ラストストーリー , Hepburn : Rasuto Sutōrī ) is a Japanese action role @-@ playing game , developed by Mistwalker and AQ Interactive for the Wii video game console . Nintendo published the title in all regions except for North America , where it was published by Xseed Games . Initially released in Japan in 2011 , the game was released in western territories through 2012 . The Last Story takes place upon the island @-@ like fortress of Lazulis , in a world that is slowly being drained of life by an unknown force . The story focuses on a group of mercenaries looking for work on Lazulis ; one of their number , Zael , dreams of becoming a knight . After receiving the mystical " Mark of the Outsider " , Zael becomes involved with a noblewoman named Calista in an ongoing war between humans and the beast @-@ like Gorak . During gameplay , the player controls protagonist Zael as he and the mercenary group to which he belongs undertake missions on Lazulis . Zael can command the rest of the mercenary squad during missions , and fights in battles that involve action , tactical and stealth elements . Multiple online multiplayer modes are also present .
The game was directed and co @-@ written by Hironobu Sakaguchi , the original creator of Final Fantasy , who had the initial idea for the title after seeing the mixed responses to Blue Dragon and Lost Odyssey . Together with designer Takuya Matsumoto , Sakaguchi decided to make a game that would be different from his previous work and most other role @-@ playing games . Development took between three and four years according to different sources . Its story was originally based in science fiction , but at Nintendo 's insistence it was changed to be primarily based around fantasy . Among the staff were regular Final Fantasy composer Nobuo Uematsu , and illustrator Kimihiko Fujisaka . It was originally going to be exclusive to Japan , and later its North American release was in doubt after being announced for release in Europe and Australia . During this time , a fan campaign called Operation Rainfall drew considerable attention to the title . The title was a commercial success , and received generally positive reviews worldwide : while the gameplay generally met with praise , opinions varied on the story and graphics .
= = Gameplay = =
The Last Story is an action role @-@ playing game ( ARPG ) incorporating elements of tactical and stealth gameplay . The player controls main protagonist Zael for the majority of the game . Zael is primarily controlled using the Wii Remote from a fixed third @-@ person view . The game can be controlled using the Wii Remote and Nunchuk , or the Classic Controller . The game 's main hub is a public house on Lazulis Island , which also houses a save point for players . Lazulis City is the main setting for most of the game , which provides the player with story @-@ related and side quests . In addition to environments within missions such as ruins and forests where enemies are encountered and fought , there is an arena where the player can improve the party and their combat abilities . If the party is victorious , the party can pick up money and items from non @-@ playable characters betting on the fight .
In battle , the player controls Zael alone , with the rest of the party being controlled by the game 's artificial intelligence ( AI ) and directed by player commands . Parties are composed of up to six characters , each with five " lives " , with them automatically reviving after a certain time if Zael cannot revive them manually . The attack directions of both party characters and enemies are represented by lines connecting the different characters . Combat plays out in real @-@ time , with attacks either happening automatically when a character is within range or manually . Actions such as dodging and movement are done manually . Blocking and actions such as vaulting over low obstacles are performed by holding the B button . Zael can also move to take cover behind objects , which allows them to break an enemy 's line of sight on them or creep along walls . During combat , a character 's Tension gauge will fill , enabling the performance of special moves : these can vary from dealing damage to enemies across a wide area to reviving unconscious allies .
A skill unique to Zael is Gathering : when activated , all enemies within an area will focus their attention on him , allowing other team members to act without interruption . As the game progresses , Zael can issue commands to the other team members , with the perspective switching to a top @-@ down view for this action . In addition to standard combat , players can switch to a behind @-@ the @-@ shoulder perspective for manually firing Zael 's crossbow , which can launch a variety of ammunition at enemies and objects . Enemies in Zael 's sights will have their weaknesses and abilities revealed . In battle , destructible objects in the environment can be used by the party to defeat enemies ; these objects regenerate after a time rather than remaining destroyed . Magic cast by characters with that ability leave the casting area temporarily imbued with a spell 's elemental properties . These circles ' environmental effects can be combined and spread by using another spell , such as Zael using his " Wind " magic to spread the area of effect while the magic circle is active . In addition , characters can imbue their weapons with elemental properties from the circles .
In addition to the single @-@ player campaign , players have access to online multiplayer through the game 's main menu . The multiplayer features two modes : a competitive mode where players face each other in various stages , and a co @-@ op mode where a team of players face bosses from the single @-@ player campaign . For the competitive match , the player can choose from multiple allied and enemy characters , and all boons granted by equipment or experience levels are removed to level the playing field . Teams of up to six players can be formed for team matches . Players gain or lose points when they defeat or are defeated by an opponent , and defeated enemies respawn in the battlefield . When all opponents have been defeated , all players are awarded with items and equipment that can carry over into the single @-@ player campaign : those who performed the best receive higher @-@ quality equipment and " titles " ti distinguish them from other players . The co @-@ op battles allow players to carry over their equipment and character levels from single @-@ player , with the available characters being restricted to Zael 's mercenary group . Defeating a boss earns players items themed around it . In both modes , players communicate using a stock of scripted responses both taken from the single @-@ player campaign and specially created for multiplayer .
= = Synopsis = =
The Last Story is set on Lazulis Island , a vast seaborne fortress ruled by Count Arganan and allied to an unnamed human empire in the midst of crisis as the land decays and dies . The game begins with Dagran , the leader of a mercenary band , traveling to Lazulis in search of employment with fellow mercenaries Zael , Syrenne , Yurick , Lowell and Mirania . During the journey , Zael , who dreams of becoming a knight , encounters a mysterious force and is branded on the hand , granting him magical power . While on an errand in Lazulis , Zael runs into a woman named " Lisa " and helps her escape from pursuit by city guards . Employed as guards to Arganan for the royal wedding of Lady Calista and Lord Jirall , Zael encounters Calista and recognizes her as " Lisa " . The group also meet General Ashtar and his protegee Therius when Syrenne picks a fight with Therius . After revealing to Zael in private that hers is an arranged marriage , Lazulis is attacked by the Gurak , a race once banished from Lazulis by humans and now united under their ruler Zangurak . Zael , Calista and the rest of the mercenary group are forced to leave Lazulis in their pursuit of Zangurak . Zangurak escapes them , and the group are returned to Lazulis by the island 's knights . On Lazulis , the mercenaries are accused of aiding the Gurak by Jirall , but Dagran persuades Arganan to release them after showing him Zael 's mark , which is revealed to be a mystical " Mark of the Outsider " destined to save Lazulis from disaster .
Using Zael 's wish to become a knight as leverage , Arganan attempts to get Zael onto his side , including offering Calista 's hand in marriage . Zael reluctantly swears allegiance to Arganan , who orders Zael to direct Lazulis towards the Gurak lands , despite protests from Calista and reservations from Ashtar and Therius . During this time , Ashtar accepts him as a new pupal and gives him a medal following a successful sparring . Shortly after this , Gurak assassins attack and Ashtar is killed , warning Zael of a traitor before dying . Zael is accused of Ashtar 's murder by Jirall and imprisoned , but Calista frees him and , with secret help from Dagran , reveals that Jirall orchestrated Ashtar 's death . During these events , Calista and Zael come to love each other . When Lazulis arrives in Gurak lands and the attack begins , Zael is shocked to see the human troops killing Gurak women and children , and that the Gurak are suffering the same degradation of the land as humans are . While being comforted by Calista after the battle , his brand reacts with her blood and Ashtar 's medal to reveal a secret location on Lazulis .
Joined by Therius , they travel to the location and meet a Sorceress , who reveals the truth behind the land 's decay : the " Outsider " is an extraterrestrial being who crashed onto the planet , becoming split into two halves , now respectively controlled by humans and the Gurak . The death of the land is due to the Outsider absorbing its energy , and the two halves must be reunited and released to save the world . With this news , Zael refuses his knighthood and flees with Calista to free the Outsider . A Gurak attack reveals Lazulis ' half of the Outsider inside the island 's canon . Arganan first provokes into creating a great monster , then is killed when he attempts to absorb its power . The cannon 's firing having left Lazulis defenseless , Zael and the mercenaries aid the people while Therius holds off the attacking Gurak . Zael then heads out with Calista and the mercenaries to retrieve Zangurak 's half of the Outsider . Zael defeats Jirall , revealed to be a Gurak sympathizer , and then Zangurak ; during the latter battle , Lowell suffers fatal injuries . The group then find Dagran with the Outsider : claiming he used the mercenaries in his own quest for revenge against the Lazulis knights who killed his family , he absorbs the Outsider 's power . When defeated , he reconciles with the group before dying , then his spirit uses the Outsider 's energy to resurrect Lowell . Zael and Calista then free and reunite the two halves of the Outsider , which leaves the planet . Through Zael and Calista 's efforts , humans and Gurak manage to begin coexisting , sharing their technology and using Lazulis as a neutral land where the two races freely interact . In the epilogue , Therius decides to train new knights in the empire while leaving Lazulis in Zael 's care ; Zael and Calista are married in her ancient family home ; the mercenaries hold a ceremony for Dagran ; and Zael is finally made a knight by Calista .
= = Development = =
The initial concepts for The Last Story came to Hironobu Sakaguchi after his departure from Square ( now Square Enix ) in 2003 . After a period working on games at his new studio Mistwalker , Sakaguchi realized that his style of game were not in tune with current gaming trends . Later , he elaborated that The Last Story was primarily born from reflecting on the design mistakes he made during the development of Blue Dragon ( 2006 ) and Lost Odyssey ( 2007 ) : while they tried to innovate with the story , they kept the gameplay very traditional . Sakaguchi drew up a design document for the game , and around that time met up with Takuya Matsumoto , a designer from AQ Interactive who had worked with Sakaguchi on Blue Dragon . They both realized that they held the same views on what was holding their games back in the current market , and decided to collaborate on the game with the goal of creating something new . In an interview with IGN , Sakaguchi said that development took three years : the first year was devoted to a trial @-@ and @-@ error development process devoted to the battle system . A longer development time of four years was reported by Matsumoto in a different interview with Gamasutra . According to Matsumoto , the team leads went to the Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) each year and were assured that their game was in @-@ step with current gameplay trends . Production of The Last Story was a collaboration between Mistwalker , AQ Interactive and Nintendo , and was Sakaguchi 's first work as a director since Final Fantasy V ( 1992 ) . The game was going through its final development stages by April 2010 , and according to Sakaguchi was " complete " by December that year .
Although Sakaguchi 's previous RPGs from Mistwalker had been released for the Xbox 360 , The Last Story was created for the Wii . According to Sakaguchi , this was because Nintendo 's Shinji Hatano shared their vision of a role @-@ playing game that did not follow genre conversions , and so Sakaguchi accepted his offer of collaboration . After being contacted regarding both The Last Story and fellow Wii ARPG Xenoblade Chronicles , Hatano said that the games should be made for a wide audience and using a " romanticist approach " . When explaining why The Last Story was exclusive to the Wii , Sakaguchi said that it was because a large proportion of the late development staff , including the testers , came from Nintendo . In a later interview , he said that working with the Wii , which did not use high @-@ definition graphics , presented challenges as some of his ideas could not be implemented due to technical restrictions . Despite this , the team aimed to create a game that would look good when compared to games on high @-@ definition consoles . Matsumoto stated that Nintendo had a strong influence on the game , which did not always sit well with him despite their suggestions ultimately improving the game . He also stated that Nintendo 's creative and development aid in fine @-@ tuning the game was the reason for its extended development .
The basic story was conceived by Sakaguchi and Matsumoto , while the script was written by Sakaguchi , Masaru Hatano and Takatoshi Aoki . The story was contributed to by multiple staff members , which sometimes annoyed Sakaguchi when they suggested something that would be out of character for one of the cast . According to Sakaguchi , the initial version featuring a science fiction storyline was " shot down " by Nintendo , forcing the team to begin all over again with a new setting and characters . Despite the story still using science fiction elements , the team worked to distance the setting from those elements by focusing on bright , natural colors for the environments . The biographies of the main cast were put together during the story 's creation . Originally , according to Hatano , the game 's theme was to have been the " all @-@ important drama that takes place between a man and a woman " , but as development progressed it was changed to a theme of general companionship , although the original story remained the same . Hatano suggested incorporating dialogue into the gameplay rather than restricting it to cutscenes . This approach was inspired by both Uncharted and television series The West Wing . The concept was initially put forward as a joke about Zael 's habit of kicking doors open , and how his companions would comment on how he always did this . After receiving positive feedback , they implemented it and kept in Zael 's behavior . Sakaguchi used this in @-@ game dialogue to help convey the characters ' personalities : as part of this , adlibs from the actors were included , and continual adjustments were made to the script . The characters ' artwork also prompted Sakaguchi to make changes so the characters better fitted their presentation . The game 's voiced dialogue was estimated at 12 @,@ 000 lines . The option for players to skip through dialogue was a feature that Sakaguchi did not like , but he knew that some players would not like necessary long cutscenes , so gave them the option of going through them while still following the story . This meant that all the cutscenes needed to be done using the in @-@ game engine rather than pre @-@ rendered graphics .
The characters were designed by Kimihiko Fujisaka . Fujisaka , who was acquainted with Sakaguchi , was brought on board the project at the beginning . At that point , only a simple plot outline had been created , and Sakaguchi showed this to Fujisaka and asked what he visualized from it . Due to this , Fujisaka had a lot of leeway in his designs . Due to Sakaguchi living in Hawaii while the game was being developed , Fujisaka was initially nervous about working with him on the project , but ultimately he found their working relationship to be a positive one . An aspect that worried Fujisaka during the early stages was the decision to have the characters able to change their clothing : their original appearances had been designed in relation to their lines , and while designing extra outfits proved difficult , he ultimately enjoyed the experience . Fujisaka also worked as a world designer , initially feeling restricted by the console 's limited graphics . According to Fujisaka , the city hub began taking shape in 2009 , relatively early in development . The world design he initially created was fairly bleak , but after Nintendo insisted on the scenario being changed , he redesigned it around a brighter fantasy aesthetic .
Developing the gameplay began at the start of development , with a test environment being built to develop and refine the basics of the battle system . Work within the test build spanned approximately one and a half years . While creating the battle system , the staff decided that the key words should be " order " and " chaos " : whoever gained order on the battlefield would be the victor . One of the concepts that emerged from this was Gathering , Zael 's ability to direct all enemies ' attention towards him . At first , Gathering ended up generating an unwanted amount of chaos on the battlefield , and this resulted in the trial @-@ and @-@ error period for it running on for a long time . The biggest challenge , once the concept had been finalized , was adjusting its effectiveness on the battlefield depending on the situation and enemy types . A concept that did not make it into the final game was " Replay " : after an enemy successfully cast a spell , players could rewatch the last few seconds of battle from an overhead view to see what type it was and take that into their strategy . This slowed the pace of combat down too much , so the concept was entirely removed . Hangovers of it include the ability to freeze time during certain actions , and the overhead perspective when commanding party members The cover system was designed around the limitations of the camera control born from the Wii Remote 's control scheme .
Matsumoto was responsible for the level design . While preparing destructible elements within the environment , the staff took care that they could be easily recognized by the player . So as to create a more direct experience than other Japanese RPGs , the camera view was deliberately restricted around Zael , so the player would be kept within his point of view . A difficult part of development was balancing story and gameplay , which sometimes caused clashes between Sakaguchi and Matsumoto , as Matsumoto would upset the balance and necessitate Sakaguchi re @-@ balancing it . The battle system and AI was refined by what Matsumoto described as " chaotic battles royal between over 20 people wielding swords , magic and guns or ally command systems " . The ability to fire projectiles had a big impact on the battle system 's design . This concept was a hangover from the game 's origins as a science fiction story . For the multiplayer , Sakaguchi avoided the potential for players to be rude to one @-@ another by restricting their dialogue to segments from the single @-@ player campaign . This was possible given the large amount of ambient dialogue in the game .
The game 's music was composed by Nobuo Uematsu , a long @-@ time collaborator with Sakaguchi who had worked on the Final Fantasy series , Blue Dragon and Lost Odyssey . Uematsu initially had a rough time : the first three pieces of music he sent were rejected , and then Uematsu did not respond for some time . Sakaguchi worried that Uematsu might quit the project altogether . In fact , Uematsu realized Sakaguchi 's wishes for the title and had to rethink his approach entirely . With the second submission , Uematsu stated that he might leave if his music still did not fit , but it did and he remained as composer . In contrast to the majority of his earlier works , which made heavy use of purely melodic pieces and " jogging music " , Uematsu concentrated on a mixture between video game and film music to emphasize emotion and ambient sounds . He also worked to avoid creating signature jingles and fanfares . The most difficult pieces for him were battle tracks : the main battle theme was seven minutes long , but broken into small pieces that varied depending on situations and could be cued in depending on what was happening on the battlefield . The game 's theme song , " Toberu Mono " ( 翔べるもの , lit . " The Flying One " ) , was composed by Uematsu with lyrics by Sakaguchi . Its lyrics are about the world someone is in not being where they are meant to be , with the phrase " going home " being used progressively through the song . According to Sakaguchi , the theme was quite personal for him , and also displays the " foreignness " of the game .
= = Release = =
Sakaguchi revealed that he was working on a new game in July 2009 . Initially targeted for a reveal that year , this was delayed for unknown reasons into 2010 . The game was announced by Nintendo in January 2010 , alongside its platform and logo . It was released on January 27 , 2011 . Despite prompting interest from genre fans in the west since its official announcement , shortly before its Japanese release , Nintendo announced that The Last Story would remain exclusive to Japan . Nintendo explained that the effort involved in bringing The Last Story overseas would be too much work on top of other important releases such as Kirby 's Epic Yarn and titles for the Nintendo 3DS . Despite this , Nintendo stated that there was a strong possibility of it releasing in the United Kingdom due to its growing RPG market . It was officially announced for Europe in June 2011 . The European localization was handled by Nintendo of Europe , using the same team that had done Xenoblade Chronicles . British voice actors were used for the dubbing , making use of various accents for the different characters . Some of the original programmers helped with the implementation of the localization , and it underwent unspecified adjustments . The game released in Europe on February 24 , 2012 . It received a limited edition , featuring a CD with seven music tracks and an artbook . It was also released in Australia on February 23 .
After a continued lack of confirmation of a North American release , including it not being included in Nintendo 's 2011 release schedule , a fan @-@ based movement called Operation Rainfall started a campaign to raise awareness for The Last Story , Xenoblade Chronicles , and another Wii RPG titled Pandora 's Tower . This campaign included letter writing to Nintendo and petitions for its overseas release . Despite acknowledging the effort , Nintendo stated that there were no plans for a North American release . Matsumoto was severely disappointed by this decision and thought The Last Story would never make it to North America . At this point , Xseed Games , who had developed a reputation for publishing niche Japanese games , took an interest in publishing the title . Initially approaching Nintendo in 2011 , Nintendo confirmed that they had no plans to publish the title themselves . After playing through a Japanese copy of the game , and the staff were favorably impressed and decided to pitch to Nintendo for the game 's North American publishing rights . They were helped by the connections between parent company AQ Interactive and Mistwalker . Xseed Games were the first publisher to ask Nintendo about The Last Story , and after being favorably impressed by their proposal , Nintendo granted Xseed Games publishing rights . While a new localization for North America was considered , it was decided to use Nintendo of Europe 's localization as it better fitted the game 's atmosphere and aesthetic . It officially released in North America on August 14 , but problems with stock caused Amazon and GameStop to put orders on hold and push their release dates forward .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The story received mixed to positive reactions from critics . While they did not comment much on the story , Famitsu called The Last Story " very classical RPG " . Eurogamer 's Martin Robinson found the characters the most appealing part of the game , an opinion shared by Francesco Dagostino of 1UP.com , who particularly cited Syrenne 's portrayal . GameSpot 's Mark Walton shared this opinion while also praising the story 's epic scale . IGN 's Keza MacDonald said that it presented a good story and characters within familiar themes and settings . Edge Magazine found the story fairly traditional despite a strong cast and emotional power , while Matthew Castle of Computer and Video Games praised the effort made to flesh out the party members in side @-@ missions despite referring to the main narrative as " tedious " . GameTrailers , while noting the familiar plotlines the game explored , said that The Last Story handled its plot better than others of its kind , praising its character development . Game Informer 's Joe Juba was fairly critical , finding the story overly predictable and the characters shallow . Jason Wishnov of G4 was also critical of the characters and plot , calling the former " one @-@ note " despite convincing camaraderie and well @-@ written in @-@ game dialogue , and the latter impeded by problems with formulaic writing despite some late @-@ game twists . Simon Parkin , writing for Official Nintendo Magazine , found the characters likable despite a predictable story ; Nintendo Power shared points of praise with other reviewers , in addition to praising Zael and Calista 's romance , saying that it held the game together during some mid @-@ game stumbles . RPGamer 's Alex Fuller said that the story was great despite it using well @-@ worn cliches . Multiple critics gave high praise to the British @-@ voiced localization .
The gameplay was generally well received . Famitsu praised the battle system , saying that it was friendly towards casual gamers . MacDonald likewise praised the battle system as " one of the best combat systems I 've played with in any RPG , Japanese or otherwise " . Walton found the battle system fun and enjoyed the amount of side quests , while Dagostino was highly positive about the game 's successful efforts in moving away from genre tradition . Juba enjoyed the multiplayer and praised the game for moving away from the genre 's traditional battle systems despite faults with their overall implementation , while Robinson found the gameplay suffered from the design goals that had fueled its creation . Castle was positive about the variety of gameplay and tactical elements despite some stiff combat mechanics , but noted the inability to alter difficulty being a point against the game . Wishnov praised the fast pace and variety of the combat , but found that more cumbersome RPG elements and a lack of overall control negatively impacted the experience . GameTrailers generally praised about the way gameplay and combat was handled despite some " clunky " moments , but was less positive the multiplayer option 's balance and variety . Edge , while noting multiple core similarities with other games within the genre , found that other elements came together to make it a more fast @-@ paced cinematic experience than other traditional RPGs ; Fuller enjoyed the battle system , but thought that it lacked challenge and had difficulties with the camera . Parkin was generally positive about combat , particularly about the blending and gradual growth of character abilities , while Nintendo Power called the battle system " satisfying " and the multiplayer " surprisingly worthwhile " . Multiple reviewers commented on the game 's linear structure , with opinions ranging from indifferent to negative .
Opinions on the game 's visual style varied . Walton called the game 's visuals " some of the best ever seen on the Wii " , which was echoed to a degree by MacDonald . Castle was generally positive about the game 's aesthetics , citing the water effects as particularly good . Edge was fairly mixed , saying that well @-@ done environmental effects or the world @-@ building through character banter were spoiled by low @-@ quality textures and stilted character animations . Juba praised the character models , but found environments to be " ugly and muddy in comparison " ; Fuller , while not actively criticizing them , said that players used to high @-@ definition consoles would be disappointed . GameTrailers found the amount of detail put into environments " remarkable " for the Wii hardware despite a lack of scale , while Parkin found the visuals generally unimpressive despite a few stand @-@ out moments . Nintendo Power said that the graphics gave the game 's setting an " authentic " appearance despite some low @-@ resolution textures , while Eurogamer praised them for their " sepia tone " . Frame rate drops during moments of high activity were generally noted by reviewers . Uematsu 's incidental scoring also received praise from multiple critics .
= = = Sales and accolades = = =
Upon release , The Last Story topped Japanese gaming charts , selling 114 @,@ 722 units . Assessments by Media Create stated that while the game had achieved higher sales than Xenoblade Chronicles due to higher interest in the title , Wii hardware sales remained low , indicating that the title was mostly bought by gamers who already owned a Wii console . By the end of 2011 , the game sold just over 157 @,@ 000 units . Upon its release in the UK , it debuted at # 15 . After the release of The Last Story in North America , Xseed Games released a statement saying that The Last Story was their most successful title to date , with its Premium Edition selling out quickly and needing to be replaced with a different special edition .
Upon its release , the game received critical acclaim , earning an aggregate score of 80 / 100 on Metacritic based on 61 critic reviews . It was cited by GamesRadar and Forbes as one of the best games of the year . Similarly , 1UP.com named it as one of the top ten best RPGs on the Wii . In addition it was nominated for " Best Wii / Wii U Game " at the 2012 Spike Video Game Awards , and " RPG of the Year " in GameSpot 's RPG of the Year award category . In IGN 's " Best of 2012 " awards , it was awarded as " Best Wii U / Wii Sound " .
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= Auriscalpium vulgare =
Auriscalpium vulgare , commonly known as the pinecone mushroom , the cone tooth , or the ear @-@ pick fungus , is a species of fungus in the family Auriscalpiaceae of the order Russulales . It was first described in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus , who included it as a member of the tooth fungi genus Hydnum , but British mycologist Samuel Frederick Gray recognized its uniqueness and in 1821 transferred it to the genus Auriscalpium that he created to contain it . The fungus is widely distributed in Europe , Central America , North America , and temperate Asia . Although common , its small size and nondescript colors lead it to be easily overlooked in the pine woods where it grows . A. vulgare is not generally considered edible because of its tough texture , but some historical literature says it used to be consumed in France and Italy .
The fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) grow on conifer litter or on conifer cones that may be partially or completely buried in soil . The dark brown cap of the small , spoon @-@ shaped mushroom is covered with fine brown hairs , and reaches a diameter of up to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) . On the underside of the cap are a crowded array of tiny tooth @-@ shaped protrusions ( " teeth " ) up to 3 mm long ; they are initially whitish to purplish @-@ pink before turning brown in age . The dark brown and hairy stem , up to 55 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) long and 2 mm thick , attaches to one edge of the cap . The mushroom produces a white spore print out of roughly spherical spores .
High levels of humidity are essential for optimum fruit body development , and growth is inhibited by excesses of either light or darkness . Fruit bodies change their geotropic response three times during their development , which helps ensure that the teeth ultimately point downward for optimum spore release . The pure culture , cell division and the ultrastructure of A. vulgare 's hyphae and mycelia have been studied and described in search of potentially useful characters for phylogenetic analysis . When grown in culture , the fungus can be induced to produce fruit bodies under suitable conditions .
= = History , taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The species was first described in the scientific literature by Carl Linnaeus under the name Hydnum auriscalpium in his 1753 Species Plantarum . Linnaeus placed three other tooth fungi in the genus Hydnum : H. imbricatum , H. repandum , and H. tomentosum . In 1821 Samuel Frederick Gray considered H. auriscalpium to be sufficiently distinct from the other Hydnum species to warrant the creation of a new genus , Auriscalpium , to contain it . In the process , its name was changed to Auriscalpium vulgare .
Otto Kuntze and Howard James Banker later independently sought to restore Linnaeus ' species name , but the resulting combination ( Auriscalpium auriscalpium ) is a tautonym and disallowed under the rules for botanical nomenclature ( ICBN 2005 rule 23 @.@ 4 ) , and these combinations are therefore no longer validly published . Other names given to the fungus and now considered synonyms include Hydnum fechtneri , named by Josef Velenovský in 1922 , and later combinations based on this name . A. vulgare is the type species of the widely distributed genus of eight species that it belongs to .
Despite vast differences in appearance and morphology , A. vulgare is related to such varied taxa as the gilled fungi of Lentinus , the poroid genus Albatrellus , the coral @-@ like Clavicorona , and fellow tooth fungus Hericium . The relationship of all of these taxa — members of the Auriscalpiaceae family of the order Russulales — has been demonstrated through molecular phylogenetics .
Auriscalpium vulgare is commonly known as the " pinecone mushroom " , the " cone tooth " , " pine cone tooth " , or the " ear @-@ pick fungus " . Gray called it the " common earpick @-@ stool " ; it was also referred to as the " fir @-@ cone Hydnum " , when it was still considered to be a member of that genus . The specific epithet vulgare means " common " . The generic name Auriscalpium is Latin for " ear pick " and refers to a small , scoop @-@ shaped instrument used to remove foreign matter from the ear .
= = Description = =
The fruit body of A. vulgare is fibrous when fresh and becomes stiff when dry . It is small species rarely exceeding 55 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) in height , with a cap usually smaller than an adult 's fingernails : 0 @.@ 5 to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 8 in ) — although it has been known to reach up to 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) .
Auriscalpium vulgare usually has a single stem , but occasionally several stems arise from a thick common base . It attaches to the side of the cap and is cylindrical or slightly flattened with a bulbous base . Its surface is covered with hairy fibers ( especially near the base ) , and its mature color is a dark chestnut brown . The cap is semicircular or kidney @-@ shaped , flat on the lower surface and rounded on the top . The surface is at first much like the stem : covered with bristles and dark chestnut brown . However , it becomes smooth with maturity and can darken to the point of being almost black . The cap margin is usually buff to light brown – roughly the same color as the spines and lighter in color than the center . It becomes rolled inward ( revolute ) and often wavy in maturity . The spines on the underside of the cap are a few millimeters long and cylindrical down to their sharp tips . White to light brown when young , they later become covered with a white spore mass and then turn an ashy gray . Occasionally , fruit bodies are produced that lack a cap entirely .
The cap flesh is composed of two distinct layers : a thin , compact , black @-@ brown and hairy upper layer , and a thick , soft , white to light brown lower layer that is made of thin , thread @-@ like filaments arranged in a roughly parallel fashion . The stem is similarly divided , with a thin , dark and hairy cortical layer covered by hairs , which encircles inner ochre @-@ colored flesh . A drop of potassium hydroxide applied to the surface of the mushroom will cause it to instantly stain black .
The mushroom , which has no distinct taste or odor , is generally considered inedible because of its toughness and diminutive size . An 1887 textbook noted , however , that it was " commonly eaten in France and Italy " .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
Spore deposits are white . Viewed under a light microscope , the spores appear hyaline ( translucent ) , covered with minute wart @-@ like bumps , and are spherical or nearly so , with dimensions of 4 @.@ 6 – 5 @.@ 5 by 4 – 5 µm . They are amyloid ( reacting to Melzer 's reagent ) and cyanophilous ( staining in methyl blue ) . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells of the hymenium ) are four @-@ spored with basal clamps , and measure 15 – 24 by 3 – 4 µm , and sterigmata ( extensions of the basidia that bear the spores ) are swollen at the base and roughly 3 µm long . The hyphal system is dimitic , comprising both generative ( undifferentiated ) and skeletal ( structural ) hyphae . The thin @-@ walled generative hyphae are hyaline , and have clamp connections ; the thick @-@ walled skeletal hyphae are thicker overall and lack such connections . The cortex ( the tougher outer layer of flesh ) is made of parallel unbranched generative hyphae that are brown , thick @-@ walled , clumped together , and frequently clamped . The internal flesh is made of interwoven generative and skeletal hyphae . Gloeoplerous hyphae ( containing oily or granular contents ) are also present , protruding into the hymenium as club @-@ like or sharp @-@ pointed gloeocystidia .
The hyphae of basidiomycetous fungi are partitioned by cross @-@ walls called septa , and these septa have pores that permit the passage of cytoplasm or protoplasm between adjacent hyphal compartments . In an effort to determine ultrastructural characters useful for systematic and phylogenetic analyses of the Agaricomycotina , Gail Celio and colleagues used electron microscopy to examine both the structure of the septal pore , and nuclear division in A. vulgare . They determined that septa found in hyphae of the hymenium have bell @-@ shaped pore " caps " with multiple perforations . Each cap extends along the length of the septum , along with a zone surrounding the pore that is free of organelles . Due to the scarcity of similar data from other Agaricomycotina species , it is unknown whether the extended septal pore cap margins of A. vulgare are phylogenetically informative . Regarding nuclear division , the process of metaphase I of meiosis is similar to the metaphase of mitosis . Spherical spindle pole bodies containing electron @-@ opaque inclusions are set within gaps on opposite ends of the nuclear membrane . This membrane has occasional gaps but is largely continuous . Fragments of endoplasmic reticulum occur near the spindle pole bodies , but do not form a cap .
= = Growth in culture = =
Auriscalpium vulgare can be grown in pure culture on agar @-@ containing plates supplemented with nutrients . The colonies that grow are white to pale cream , and cover the agar surface within six weeks from the initial inoculation . The mycelium is made of bent @-@ over hyphae , without any aerial hyphae ( hyphae that extend above the surface of the agar ) . Typically , two indistinct zones develop at about 6 mm and 15 mm from the initial inoculum spot , with each zone roughly 4 mm wide . The zones appear somewhat lighter in color because the hyphae are more closely packed and form crystalline substances that deposit into the agar .
The mature mycelium consists of thin @-@ walled , densely packed hyphae that are 1 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 2 µm in diameter . They are often gnarled or somewhat spiral ( subhelicoid ) , and frequently branched at an angle of about 45 ° , with a clamp at the base of the branch . They contain amorphous granules that appear refractive when viewed under phase contrast microscopy , and their walls are often encrusted with tiny granules . Gloeocystidia ( thin @-@ walled cystidia with refractive , frequently granular contents ) are common ; they measure 50 – 85 by 6 @.@ 5 – 8 @.@ 5 µm , and are club @-@ shaped ( sometimes elongated ) , thin @-@ walled , and often have one or two lobes with rounded tips . Containing foamy and pale yellow contents , they are a refractive yellow color under phase contrast . Initially they are erect but they soon fall under their own weight to lie on the agar surface . Crystalline deposits are abundant as small , randomly scattered plate @-@ like or star @-@ like crystals .
Fruiting begins about six weeks after the initial inoculation on the agar plate , but only when portions of fruit bodies ( spines or stem sections ) are used as the inoculum to initiate growth ; the use of mycelium as the inoculum precludes subsequent fruiting . Mature fruit bodies grow very close to the initial site of inoculation — within 3 mm — and take about 60 days to mature after they first start to form .
= = Fruit body development = =
Fruit body primordia first appear between the scales of the cones , and require 9 to 35 days to reach their final height . They consist of an inner core of thin @-@ walled generative hyphae enclosed by an outer coat of skeletal hyphae . Immature fruit bodies are white and delicate , but gradually become brown as they mature . Because the cap is grown from the stem tip after it bends , cap development interrupts stem growth , and this shift to centrifugal growth ( that is , growth outward from the stem ) results in the typical kidney @-@ shaped or semicircular cap . Although the fruit body takes at least 9 days to mature , spores production begins within 48 – 72 hours of the start of cap growth . Spines start out as minute protuberances on the part of the stem adjoining the undersurface of the cap . As the cap enlarges , these spines are spread horizontally , and more protuberances are formed , which elongate vertically downwards .
When grown in favorable conditions of high water availability and humidity , the fruit body can proliferate by growing additional ( secondary ) fruit bodies on all parts of its upper and lower surfaces . These secondary growths typically number between four and seven ; some may be aborted as the nutrients from the pine cone substrate are depleted , resulting in stems lacking caps . In one instance , a complete secondary proliferation was noted ( i.e. , growing from a primary proliferation ) that developed completely so as to produce viable spores . Humidity is a limiting factor for optimum fruit body development . Removal of incompletely mature laboratory @-@ grown specimens from a relative humidity ( R.H. ) of over 98 % to one of 65 – 75 % causes the fruit bodies to brown and stop growing . When transferred to an even lower R.H. of about 50 % , the stems quickly begin to collapse . Light also affects fruit body development : both continuous illumination and complete darkness inhibit growth .
When a stem is developing , the fungus is negatively geotropic , so that if the axis of the stem is tilted by 90 degrees , it will return to a vertical position within 24 hours . The extending hyphae that form the cap are themselves diageotropic — they will grow at right angles to the direction of gravity . Finally , the spines are positively geotropic , and will re @-@ orient themselves to point downward if the mushroom orientation changes . Because the second ( cap formation ) and third ( spine formation ) geotropic responses overlap , there is a brief period where two different geotropic responses are operating simultaneously . These geotropic transitions help ensure that the final alignment results in optimum spore dispersal .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Auriscalpium vulgare is a saprobic species . Its mushrooms grow solitary or clustered on fallen pine cones , especially those that are fully or partially buried . It typically favors Scots Pine ( Pinus sylvestris ) , but has also been reported on spruce cones , and in California grows primarily on Douglas @-@ fir cones . One author noted finding the mushroom on spruce needles on top of squirrel dens where cone bracts were present in the forest floor . In a study conducted in the Laojun Mountain region of Yunnan Province , China , A. vulgare was found to be one of the most dominant species collected from mixed forest at an altitude of 2 @,@ 600 – 3 @,@ 000 m ( 8 @,@ 500 – 9 @,@ 800 ft ) . A study on the effect of slash and burn practices in northeast India showed that the fungus prefers to fruit on burned cones of the Khasi Pine , and that the number of fruit bodies on unburned cones increases with cone girth .
The fungus is widely distributed in Europe , Central and North America , temperate Asia , and Turkey . In North America , its range extends from Canada to the Trans @-@ Mexican Volcanic Belt south of Mexico City . The mushroom is common , appearing in the summer and autumn , although it is easily overlooked because of its small size and nondescript coloration . A. vulgare is the only representative of its genus in temperate areas of the Northern Hemisphere .
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= German cruiser Köln =
Köln was a light cruiser , the third member of the Königsberg class that was operated between 1929 and March 1945 , including service in World War II . She was operated by two German navies , the Reichsmarine and the Kriegsmarine . She had two sister ships , Königsberg and Karlsruhe . Köln was built by the Deutsche Werke shipyard in Kiel ; she was laid down in August 1926 , launched in May 1928 , and commissioned into the Reichsmarine in January 1930 . She was armed with a main battery of nine 15 cm SK C / 25 guns in three triple turrets and had a top speed of 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) .
Like her sister ships , Köln served as a training ship for naval cadets in the 1930s , and joined the non @-@ intervention patrols during the Spanish Civil War during the latter part of the decade . After the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 , she conducted several operations in the North Sea , but did not encounter any British warships . She participated in the attack on Bergen during Operation Weserübung in April 1940 , and she was the only member of her class to survive the operation . In 1942 , she was modified to carry a Flettner Fl 282 helicopter experimentally . Later in 1942 , she returned to Norway , but did not see significant action . She remained there until early 1945 , when she returned to Germany ; in March , she was sunk by American bombers in Wilhelmshaven . She remained on an even keel , with her gun turrets above water ; this allowed her to provide gunfire support to defenders of the city until the end of the war in May 1945 .
= = Characteristics = =
Köln was 174 meters ( 571 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 15 @.@ 2 m ( 50 ft ) and a maximum draft of 6 @.@ 28 m ( 20 @.@ 6 ft ) . She displaced 7 @,@ 700 long tons ( 7 @,@ 800 t ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of four steam turbines and a pair of 10 @-@ cylinder four @-@ stroke diesel engines . Steam for the turbines was provided by six Marine @-@ type double @-@ ended oil @-@ fired boilers . The ship 's propulsion system provided a top speed of 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) and a range of approximately 5 @,@ 700 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 600 km ; 6 @,@ 600 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . Köln had a crew of 21 officers and 493 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with nine 15 cm SK C / 25 guns mounted in three triple gun turrets . One was located forward , and two were placed in a superfiring pair aft . The rear gun turrets were offset to increase their arc of fire . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 080 rounds of ammunition , for 120 shells per gun . The ship was also equipped with two 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns in single mounts ; they had 400 rounds of ammunition each . Köln also carried four triple torpedo tube mounts located amidships ; they were supplied with twenty @-@ four 50 cm ( 20 in ) torpedoes . She was also capable of carrying 120 naval mines . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick amidships and an armored belt that was 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
Köln was ordered as " Cruiser D " under the contract name Ersatz Arcona , as a replacement for the old cruiser Arcona . The keel for Köln was laid on 7 August 1926 at the Kriegsmarinewerft shipyard in Wilhelmshaven . She was launched on 23 May 1928 , and commissioned into the Reichsmarine on 15 January 1930 , the last member of her class to be completed . She spent the year conducting sea trials and training in the Baltic Sea . In 1931 , she was modified with dual 8 @.@ 8 cm anti @-@ aircraft guns to replace the original single mounts , the rear superstructure was enlarged , and a fire control system was installed aft . Köln departed on a cruise into the Atlantic in early 1932 for more extensive sea trials . After returning to Germany , she took on her first crew of naval cadets for a world cruise , departing Germany in late 1932 . The tour lasted a full year ; she stopped in ports across the globe , including in the Atlantic , Pacific , and Indian Oceans , and the Mediterranean Sea .
In 1935 , the ship had an aircraft catapult installed , along with cranes to handle float planes . A pole mast was also installed on the rear side of the aft funnel . Köln continued to serve as a training ship until early 1936 , when she was transferred to fishery protection duty . Later that year , she joined the non @-@ intervention patrols off Spain during the Spanish Civil War . After the German heavy cruiser Deutschland was attacked by Republican bombers in the so @-@ called " Deutschland incident " , Köln transported wounded crew members from Deutschland back to Germany . Köln conducted a further four patrols off Spain before returning to fishery protection in the North Sea in 1938 . Late in the year , she went into drydock for a refit in Kiel .
= = = World War II = = =
In March 1939 , Köln participated in the annexation of Memel which Germany had demanded from Lithuania . Later in the year , she joined the battleship Gneisenau and the heavy cruisers Deutschland , Admiral Scheer , and Admiral Graf Spee for a major series of maneuvers in the Atlantic . In the final days of August , Köln was stationed in the western Baltic to prevent Polish vessels from fleeing after the German invasion of Poland on 1 September ; she was unsuccessful in this task . She thereafter joined her sister ships in laying a series of defensive minefields .
Köln joined Gneisenau and nine destroyers for a sortie into the North Sea on 7 – 9 October . The goal was to draw units of the Royal Navy over a U @-@ boat line and into range of the Luftwaffe , though it failed on both counts . The British launched an air attack consisting of 12 Wellington bombers , though it too failed to hit any of the German warships . On 20 – 22 November , Köln and the cruiser Leipzig escorted the battleships Gneisenau and Scharnhorst on the first leg of their sortie into the North Atlantic . On the 22nd , Köln and Leipzig were detached to join an unsuccessful patrol for Allied merchant ships in the Skagerrak along with Deutschland and three torpedo boats . The patrol lasted until 25 November , and failed to locate any Allied freighters . On 13 December , Köln , Leipzig , and Nürnberg covered the return of several destroyers that had laid an offensive minefield off Newcastle .
Köln took part in Operation Weserübung , the invasion of Norway , in April 1940 . She was assigned Group 3 , tasked with the assault on Bergen , along with her sister Königsberg . She reached the harbor unscathed , but Königsberg was not so lucky ; she was badly damaged by Norwegian coastal guns . Köln nevertheless supported the German infantry ashore with her main guns . After the port was secured , she returned to Germany , along with a pair of destroyers . In late 1940 , she went into drydock for further modifications . A degaussing coil was installed , along with a helicopter landing platform on top of turret " Bruno " . She thereafter served as a testbed for the Flettner Fl 282 helicopter , a task she performed until 1942 .
While still conducting experiments with the FI 282 in September 1941 , Köln provided gunfire support to ground troops attacking Soviet positions on Dagö in the Gulf of Riga . She also bombarded Soviet positions on Ristna . She joined the battleship Tirpitz , Admiral Scheer , Nürnberg , and several destroyers and torpedo boats formed the Baltic Fleet , which was intended to block any Soviet warships from fleeing the eastern Baltic . No Soviet vessels attempted to do so , however . On 13 July , the Soviet submarine Shch @-@ 322 tried to attack Köln , but the cruiser 's escorts forced the Soviet submarine to break off the attack .
Toward the end of 1941 , she was transferred to the North Sea , and went into drydock for her last major modification . This consisted of the installation of a FuMO 21 radar set on the forward command center roof . In July 1942 , Köln departed Germany to join the growing naval presence in Norway , though she saw no major action there . On 13 September , she and the heavy cruisers Admiral Scheer and Admiral Hipper and two destroyers attempted to attack Convoy PQ 18 . While en route from Narvik to Altenfjord , the flotilla was attacked by the British submarine HMS Tigris , but the torpedoes passed behind the German ships . The convoy was instead attacked by U @-@ boats and long @-@ range bombers , which sank thirteen freighters . She returned to Germany in January 1943 , where she was decommissioned in Kiel on 17 February . She was sent to drydock in early 1944 for an overhaul to prepare her to return to combat duty ; this was completed by 1 July . The cruiser served briefly as a training ship before escorting German merchant vessels in Norway . While en route from Kristiansand on 7 July , the ship laid a defensive minefield in the Skagerrak . She and three destroyers laid another minefield on 14 – 15 July , before steaming to Trondheim .
On the night of 13 – 14 December , Köln was attacked by British bombers in Oslofjord ; several near misses caused damage to her propulsion system that required repair in Germany . She departed Norway on 23 January 1945 in company with Admiral Hipper and a destroyer , and arrived in Kiel on 8 February . She then proceeded to Wilhelmshaven , where she was again attacked by Allied bombers repeatedly . On 30 March , B @-@ 24 Liberators from the Eighth Air Force attacked the harbor ; Köln was hit and sank on an even keel . Since her guns remained above water , the ship was used as an artillery battery to defend the city from advancing Allied forces . She served in this capacity until the end of the war in May . She was partially dismantled in situ after the end of the war , and finally raised in 1956 for scrapping .
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= Rosendale Theatre =
The Rosendale Theatre is a three @-@ story , 260 @-@ seat movie theater and performance venue in Rosendale Village , a hamlet and former village in the town of Rosendale in Ulster County , New York . The building was opened as a casino in 1905 , and began showing films in the 1920s . By the 1930s , a stage had been installed for live vaudeville and burlesque acts . The casino was eventually taken over by the local government , and used to house the town 's fire department .
A tile setter , Anthony Cacchio Sr. , rented the building in 1949 and converted it into a movie theater ; it opened on February 18 , 1949 with a screening of the film Blood on the Moon . Cacchio owned the building outright by the mid @-@ 1950s . During this time , a severe flood damaged the Theatre 's interior , and all the equipment had to be replaced . In its early years , the Theatre showed about 300 different movies each year , making it unpopular with film distributors . Denied easy access to first run films , the Theatre turned to independent movies and art films , and eventually began exhibiting live performances . Cacchio 's entire family helped run the Theatre ; his wife Fannie sold tickets and determined the Theatre 's movie selection , while their sons Anthony Jr. and Rocco , and grandson Michael , ran the projector and eventually managed the day @-@ to @-@ day operation of the business .
After more than 60 years of continuous operation , the Cacchio family decided to sell the Theatre . Rather than sell to real estate developers , the Cacchios preferred to transfer the property to the Rosendale Theatre Collective , a nonprofit formed in late 2009 for the sole purpose of buying and preserving the Theatre . The group spent months raising funds for a down payment on the building , with the bulk of its money coming from small individual donations . About 60 fundraisers were held , and a large grant was provided by PepsiCo after the Theatre Collective ran a successful social networking campaign for the April 2010 Pepsi Refresh Project . The Cacchios transferred ownership of the property to the Theatre Collective on August 19 , 2010 . Since its purchase , the Theatre has had several equipment upgrades , including a move to digital cinema .
= = History = =
= = = Construction and early use = = =
The first building constructed on the site now occupied by the Theatre was reputedly a blacksmith shop , erected during the 19th century to service the town 's cement mills and the Delaware and Hudson Canal . The current three @-@ story structure was opened in 1905 as the Rosendale Casino . As a casino , the building doubled as a theater , screening movies in the 1920s on 16 mm film .
The following decade , the casino began exhibiting burlesque and vaudeville acts to draw crowds , and a raised stage was installed for the live performances . The building eventually became village property , and housed the town 's fire house . Known as Firemen 's Hall , the building was also used by the town 's fire department as a basketball court . Basketball was extremely popular in Rosendale in the 1940s . On Friday nights the Firemen 's Hall became a dance hall , and people would sometimes square dance in formal attire .
= = = Ownership by the Cacchios = = =
Anthony Cacchio Sr. , a tile setter from Poughkeepsie who bore a strong resemblance to filmmaker Otto Preminger , received permission to rent the building from the village 's mayor , who strongly desired a movie theater in Rosendale . Cacchio opened the former casino as a one @-@ room , 300 @-@ seat movie theater on February 18 , 1949 . Critics of the venture , wary of out @-@ of @-@ towners , claimed it would not be profitable , and that the Theatre ( which the Cacchios pronounced " thee @-@ ate @-@ er " , with a long " a " sound ) would be closed within six months .
Tickets were sold for 50 cents apiece for adults and 25 cents for children , and the first film shown on opening night was a western , Blood on the Moon . Cacchio 's sons , Anthony " Uncle Tony " Cacchio Jr. and Rocco " Rocky " Cacchio , worked with him at the Theatre , serving as ushers on opening night , and eventually running the Theatre . Cacchio 's wife , Fannie , sold tickets to moviegoers . She had never held such a job before the Theatre 's opening , but continued to sell tickets and work at the Theatre for over five decades without requesting a single paycheck . The Theatre continued to house the town 's fire department for some time ; one Rosendale resident , Bill Brooks , later recalled walking around a fire truck to reach the bathroom .
The Cacchio family owned the building outright by 1954 , and in 1955 the Rondout Creek flooded , filling the Theatre with 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) of water and destroying its contents . The Cacchios took out loans and received relief funds from the government to rebuild . A new 35 mm projector and sound equipment were installed , along with " pull @-@ handle vending machines " . A popcorn machine was added , but broke down in 1965 and was not replaced . While most movie theaters at the time generated profit by selling concessions , Anthony Cacchio Jr. made the " daring move " of banning popcorn in the Theatre in 1964 because it was " too smelly , messy on the seats , and crackling paper bags disrupted quiet scenes " .
Anthony Cacchio Jr. was trained to operate the Theatre 's equipment by one of his employees , a union projectionist who left in 1966 to work at a different theater in Kingston . By 1980 , the cost of tickets was half that of competing , larger theaters , and annual attendance was between 40 @,@ 000 and 50 @,@ 000 people .
For several years following its 1949 opening , the Theatre would only screen a movie for two days , with double features twice a week ; about 300 different movies were shown each year . By rapidly introducing and removing movies from circulation , the Theatre became unpopular with film distributors , and was often forced to wait until after a film had been shown in nearby Kingston . This proved beneficial at times ; the Theatre screened Chariots of Fire the same week it won the 1981 Academy Award for Best Picture . To compensate for its lack of first run films , the Theatre began showing independent films , films by local artists , and foreign art films . Longstanding patrons , dissatisfied with mainstream , sensationalist cinema , were generally receptive to the " more eclectic stuff " . Avoiding first @-@ run films for several weeks also allowed the Theatre to pay distributors a lower percentage of its gross profits on each film .
Anthony Cacchio Sr. had had a stroke by the late 1990s , but continued to work at the Theatre . He wore a suit to work each day , including the day before his death in 1998 . That same year his grandson , Michael Cacchio , began to help run the Theatre . Michael Cacchio supported the introduction of live performances , and was the primary reason the Theatre began exhibiting art films , though his grandmother Fannie Cacchio remained the " power broker " who determined which movies were shown . She reputedly warned moviegoers if a film was of poor quality or obscene , and continued to work at the Theatre until her death in 2004 .
The history of the Theatre was documented in an 8 @-@ minute , 26 @-@ second film by four local teenagers . The four were attending a screening of Fahrenheit 9 / 11 at the Theatre , during which a member of the audience announced that it was Fannie Cacchio 's 93rd birthday . The teens , enrolled in a summer film camp , were seeking to create a documentary and decided to make the Theatre their subject . Filming took six weeks , wrapping around August 2004 . In what a Daily Freeman reporter described as " [ p ] erhaps the most precious moment " of the film , Fannie Cacchio got out of her son 's car and walked through the Theatre 's doors , two weeks before her death . The documentary was shown in 2005 , and again during the Theatre 's 60th anniversary celebration in 2009 .
By this time , the price of tickets had risen to $ 6 each , and popcorn was available for $ 1 per bag . Drinks , as well as brownies baked by Anthony Cacchio Jr . , were also $ 1 each . The Theatre served as one of three screening locations for the Woodstock Film Festival , along with theaters in Rhinebeck and Woodstock . After years of resisting live entertainment , the Theatre allowed its stage to be used as a platform for a John Kerry rally on October 26 , 2004 . It was the first time there had been such an event in the building in over 55 years . By 2005 , live performances were commonplace at the Theatre . The acoustics of the building also made it suitable for musical performances , beginning in autumn 2006 with a jazz performance by Kevin Mahogany .
= = = Preservation campaign = = =
The unexpected November 2008 death of Rocco Cacchio prompted the family to sell the business . In November 2009 , a real estate developer offered to purchase the Theatre from the Cacchios , who sought between $ 400 @,@ 000 and $ 500 @,@ 000 for the property . A private local group , the Rosendale Theatre Collective ( RTC ) , had formed in October 2009 to purchase and preserve the Theatre . The RTC was advised by a committee of 17 people , which included actors Aidan Quinn , David Strathairn , Melissa Leo , Denny Dillon , Mandy Patinkin , radio personality Bruce Morrow , screenwriter Ron Nyswaner , and author Kim Wozencraft .
The group planned to raise a total of $ 100 @,@ 000 for a down payment on the Theatre before a March 15 , 2010 deadline , raising $ 13 @,@ 000 by December 9 , and reaching $ 25 @,@ 000 by December 18 . New York State Assemblyman Kevin Cahill indicated support for the group in his January 2010 newsletter . Cahill had enjoyed the Theatre as a child , and urged the RTC to " hang onto the vintage candy machine at all costs " .
The Cacchios expressed a desire to sell the Theatre to the RTC rather than to developers , because the RTC consisted of friends of the family and other residents whom the Cacchios trusted to maintain and preserve the Theatre . To make the transfer of ownership easier , the Cacchios agreed to continue operating the Theatre until such a deal could be reached , and to assist in the operation of the Theatre after its sale to the RTC . By late February 2010 the RTC had raised $ 45 @,@ 000 , and needed to reach a total of $ 600 @,@ 000 . After a down payment of $ 160 @,@ 000 , and paying the full cost of the property , the remaining funds would cover renovations to the building . Over $ 8 @,@ 000 was raised in a silent auction on February 28 . More than 100 people attended the auction , including Congressman Maurice Hinchey .
By March 2010 the RTC had been approved as a 501 ( c ) nonprofit organization . The group managed to raise between $ 55 @,@ 000 and $ 80 @,@ 000 , less than half the amount required for the down payment , and the deadline was extended to May 15 . A benefit on March 28 was expected to raise $ 5 @,@ 000 . One local newspaper , the Blue Stone Press , speculated that the RTC 's 501 ( c ) status would benefit the group financially . New York Times reporter Peter Applebome , feeling that " [ o ] ne of the best barometers of whether a small town has a pulse is the [ condition of its ] old downtown movie house " , speculated that the effort to preserve the Theatre bode well for Rosendale .
The RTC entered the Pepsi Refresh Project on March 1 , hoping to receive between $ 5 @,@ 000 and $ 25 @,@ 000 during the April competition . Created by PepsiCo in 2010 as a way to distribute $ 33 million that would otherwise fund its Super Bowl ads , the contest sought to provide funding for community projects . The ten projects receiving the most votes would each receive $ 50 @,@ 000 grants . By April , the RTC was courting large institutions , such as IBM , for funding . Other planned activities designed to raise funds in April and May were a series of potlucks , a writing workshop , a music benefit , an online auction , and a screening of rare 1970s films at activist Jay Blotcher 's house . Most of the RTC 's funding came from individual donations between $ 25 and $ 100 , and roughly 60 fundraisers were held in total .
The Theatre outpaced 362 other Pepsi Refresh entrants , and was in first place by the middle of April . The RTC attributed its success in the contest to its use of social networking services , notably Facebook . The group considered moving to a digital projector with the forthcoming grant to replace the existing projector , an expected cost of $ 100 @,@ 000 . By late May , the group had won the April competition and was waiting for the Pepsi funds , before tendering a down payment on the Theatre , initially planned for June 10 . The closing date of the sale was pushed back to allow time to finalize the deal . In mid @-@ June , the Playback Theatre planned a benefit for the RTC in which improv actors would perform skits based on audience members ' stories of experiences they had at the Theatre .
= = = Ownership by the Theatre Collective = = =
That July , the RTC took out a $ 385 @,@ 000 mortgage on the Theatre from two banks , the Rondout Savings Bank and the Ulster Savings Bank . After being run by the Cacchios for 61 years , the RTC assumed ownership of the Theatre on August 19 , 2010 . Announcing its intent to show the same kind of movies that the Theatre screened during the Cacchio 's tenure , the group also agreed to continue exhibiting live acts , continue participating in the Woodstock Film Festival , renovate the building , and add digital equipment . The second and third floors may be renovated and used for offices , and as space for rehearsals and performances .
The RTC secured a new retractable screen by October 2010 , from a New Windsor – based entertainment supplier , to replace the fixed screen that had obscured access to the Theatre 's 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) stage . The new screen opened the stage by 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) , allowing live acts . Under the Cacchios , the screen had been replaced once a decade , with an engineer performing maintenance once every six months . Eight Behringer stereo surround sound speakers and two subwoofers were installed in the building in December 2010 . By February 2011 , the RTC also added a digital projector , a stage thrust , a server for digital programming , and a new phone system . The group announced plans to add a concession stand , an additional server , and an uninterruptible power supply . The group also intended to move the ticket booth outside during warm months .
In late February 2011 , Assemblyman Cahill helped the RTC secure a $ 175 @,@ 000 state grant to pay for part of the $ 250 @,@ 000 worth of renovations to the building . The renovations included improvements to the ticket and concession stands , and repairs to the Theatre 's lighting system , roof , ceiling , and bathroom . It would also allow the RTC to buy new curtains and wall coverings , and to restore the building 's exterior . That March , the town began applying for $ 300 @,@ 000 to $ 500 @,@ 000 in state grants to restore buildings on Main Street . The agency responsible for distributing the grants reported that the Theatre may be eligible for up to $ 250 @,@ 000 in state funding to " help establish or expand [ it ] as a cultural or business anchor that is key to local revitalization efforts " .
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= Who 's That Girl ( soundtrack ) =
Who 's That Girl : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack is a soundtrack album by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna , from the film of the same name , and was released on July 21 , 1987 by Sire Records . It also contains songs by her label mates Scritti Politti , Duncan Faure , Club Nouveau , Coati Mundi and Michael Davidson . The soundtrack is credited as a Madonna album , despite her only performing four of the nine tracks on the album . After the commercial success of her film Desperately Seeking Susan ( 1985 ) , Madonna wanted to act in another comedy film titled Slammer , about a woman named Nikki Finn who was falsely accused of homicide . However , due to the critical and commercial failure of her adventure film Shanghai Surprise ( 1986 ) , Warner Bros. were initially reluctant to green light the project , but later agreed , after Madonna convinced them and also because they wanted to cash in on Madonna 's success with soundtracks .
Madonna began working on the soundtrack in December 1986 , and contacted Patrick Leonard and Stephen Bray , who had worked as producers on her third studio album True Blue ( 1986 ) . She felt that an uptempo song and a downtempo song were needed for the album . Leonard composed the music for the uptempo song , with Madonna providing the melody and lyrics . The singer named the track " Who 's That Girl " and , believing this to be a better title than Slammer , changed the name of the film to the same . Together , Madonna and Leonard also developed the downtempo ballad " The Look of Love " . Two more songs were composed for the film with Bray , the first being the dance @-@ y tune " Causing a Commotion " , and the other being " Can 't Stop " , a track inspired by Sixties Motown and the group Martha and the Vandellas .
After its release , the Who 's That Girl soundtrack received a mostly negative response from critics . Some reviews described the album as plain and incomplete , although the title track and " The Look of Love " were praised as its highlights . The soundtrack was a commercial success , reaching the top ten of the album charts of the United States , Austria , Canada , France , Italy , New Zealand , Sweden and the United Kingdom , while topping the charts of Germany , and European Album chart . The album went on to sell six million copies worldwide .
Three of the Madonna tracks were released as singles . The title track became her sixth number one single on the Billboard Hot 100 , making her the first artist to accumulate six number @-@ one singles in the 1980s , and the first female performer to get that many number @-@ ones as a solo act . " Causing a Commotion " was released as the second single , and reached number two on the Hot 100 . " The Look of Love " was a European market @-@ only release , reaching the top ten in United Kingdom . Another track , " Turn It Up " was a promotional release in United States , reaching number 15 on the dance charts . Who 's That Girl received further promotion from the successful Who 's That Girl World Tour .
= = Background = =
Madonna 's 1985 comedy film Desperately Seeking Susan was a commercial success , prompting her to take further interest in acting . For her next screen project , she picked another comedy , initially titled Slammer , but later named Who 's That Girl . Madonna played the character of Nikki Finn , a young woman accused of homicide who insisted that she was innocent . Released on parole , she was determined to clear her name . Along with a character named Loudon Trott ( played by Griffin Dunne ) , she gets caught up in 36 hours of high adventure , culminating in a scene where Nikki interrupts a wedding to reveal the identity of the real murderer . Regarding the character Nikki , Madonna commented ,
" I had a lot in common with Nikki . She 's courageous and sweet and funny and misjudged . But she clears her name in the end , and that 's always good to do . I 'm continuously doing that with the public . I liked Nikki 's tough side and her sweet side . The toughness is only a mask for the vulnerability she feels inside . "
However , in the light of the bad publicity surrounding Madonna and her then husband Sean Penn , coupled with the fact that their drama film Shanghai Surprise had failed commercially , she had to fight hard to persuade Warner Bros. to green light the project . She also wanted her close friend James Foley to direct the film , proclaiming him to be a " genius " . Foley had previously directed the music videos of her songs " Live to Tell " , " Papa Don 't Preach " and " True Blue " . Warner Bros. were looking for another way to cash in upon Madonna 's success with soundtracks , and felt that her name alone might be enough to guarantee the success of the film as well as its soundtrack . So they felt that they had no choice , but to green light the project . Filming began in October 1986 , in New York , but it was not until January that Madonna started working on the soundtrack .
= = Development = =
Having some specific ideas in her mind about the music of the film , Madonna contacted Patrick Leonard and Stephen Bray , who had helped to write and produce her third studio album True Blue in 1986 . Madonna explained to them that she needed an uptempo song and a downtempo song . As per her demands , Leonard developed the uptempo song . Madonna came to the recording studio one Thursday , and Leonard handed her a cassette of a recording of the chorus , which he had just finished working on . Madonna went to the backroom and completed the melody and the lyrics of the song , while Leonard worked on the other parts of it . After finishing the lyrics , Madonna decided to name the song " Who 's That Girl " , and changed the title of Slammer to the same , considering it to be a better name . In Fred Bronson 's book The Billboard Book of Number 1 Hits , Leonard explained that the song was recorded in one day with Madonna recording her vocals only once . Additional guitar and percussion tracks were added later by Leonard and Bray .
The downtempo song was developed on the following day , with Madonna writing the lyrics and Leonard composing the melody . Named " The Look of Love " , the song contains the line " No where to run , no place to hide . From the look of love , from the eyes of pride " . After " The Look of Love " , Madonna went on to develop two further songs with Bray as the producer . The first was called " Causing a Commotion " , and was inspired by Penn and the couple 's often tumultuous relationship . Madonna felt that her marriage to Penn was on the verge of breaking @-@ up , due to Penn 's abusive and violent nature . In a Rolling Stone article dated September 10 , 1987 , Madonna spoke about Penn 's impact on her life and the song : " I don 't like violence . I never condone hitting anyone , and I never thought that any violence should have taken place . But on the other hand , I understood Sean 's anger and believe me , I have wanted to hit him many times . I never would you know , because I realize that it would just make things worse . [ ... ] I felt like he was ' Causing a Commotion ' to purposefully distract me . I wrote this song and vented my frustration in it . " The last song developed was " Can 't Stop " , a track inspired by Sixties Motown and the group Martha and the Vandellas . In addition to this , the album also included tracks by some acts on Warner Bros. Records , namely Club Nouveau , Scritti Politti and Michael Davidson . Commercially unsuccessful and unknown in the US , these groups needed a platform to project their songs , and including them in a Madonna album seemed like the right thing to do for Warner . Two tracks by Duncan Faure and Coati Mundi were included on the soundtrack at the request of Madonna since they were her friends . Despite her only performing four of the nine tracks on the album , Who 's That Girl was marketed as a Madonna album , with only her face and name appearing on the cover art .
= = Composition = =
The title track is composed in Madonna 's typical style — mixing a drum machine , bubbling bass synth line , and the sound of stringed instruments . According to Rikky Rooksby , author of The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna , the three parts of the song , namely the bridge , where Madonna sings " what can help me now " , the chorus and the verse flow together in a coherent manner , with the chorus incorporating a haunting effect . The song epitomized Madonna 's interest with Hispanic culture that continued after the release of her 1987 single " La Isla Bonita " . Leonard and Madonna had added Spanish phrases in the chorus , over the trumpets of the second verse , and also in the added instrumental break in the middle . " Who 's That Girl " also makes use of the sonic effect brought about by the combination of multiple vocal lines , which had been previously used by groups like The Beach Boys in their singles " God Only Knows " ( 1966 ) and " I Get Around " ( 1964 ) as well as R.E.M. ' s singles " Fall on Me " ( 1986 ) and " Near Wild Heaven " ( 1991 ) . " Who 's That Girl " employs this effect on the last chorus where three or four different vocal hooks are intertwined .
The second track " Causing a Commotion " has a danceable , up @-@ tempo groove . The musical arrangement consists of a number of hooks interpolating with each other . It begins with the chorus , where Madonna sings the line " I 've got the moves baby , You 've got the motions , If we got together we be causing a commotion . " The verses are accompanied by a four @-@ note descending bassline and interjecting staccato chords . The lyrics make reference to Madonna 's 1985 single " Into the Groove " and have three parts to the vocal harmony . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Walt Disney Music Company , the song is set in the time signature of common time with a tempo of 192 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of B ♭ major with Madonna 's voice spanning from the high @-@ note of C3 to B5 . The song has a basic sequence of B ♭ – Fm7 – B ♭ – F9 – B ♭ 6 as its chord progression .
" The Look of Love " starts off with a low bass synth line and a slow backing track . It is followed by the sound of percussion and a high register note , contrasting with the bassline . The song continues in this way until the last verse , which is backed by the sound of an acoustic guitar . A two @-@ part vocal is found in the line " No where to run , no place to hide " . Rooksby felt that Madonna 's voice sounded " expressive " when she sings the line " From the look of love " and utters the word " look " over the D minor chord present underneath . The word is sung in a higher note of the musical scale , thus giving an impression of the suspension like quality of the minor ninth chord , dissociating it from the harmony of the other notes . The song is set in the time signature of common time , with a moderate tempo of 80 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of D minor , with Madonna 's voice spanning the notes C5 to B ♭ 3 . " The Look of Love " has a basic sequence of C – Dm – Fm – B as its chord progression .
" Can 't Stop " has a high pitched keyboard sound embedded in between the sound of a drum machine and clarinet . The lyrics essentially refer to the idea that " I want my man and I am going to get him whatever " . Rooksby noticed that the instrumental break in the song repeats the chorus , with a synth line added on the top . He felt that " Can 't Stop " , at 4 : 45 length , was a good example of the division of Madonna 's songs between dance music — where the length is important — and the requirement of classic pop songs , which can vary from two minutes to four minutes . J. Randy Taraborrelli , in his book Madonna : An Intimate Biography , described Faure 's song " 24 Hours " as a slow track which fails to build up momentum . Joe Brown from The Washington Post described Davidson 's " Turn it Up " as consisting of a slow background synth , that transforms into a rapidly progressing beat , with Davidson 's singing reminiscent of the Beastie Boys .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Tour = = =
Madonna performed " Who 's That Girl " , " Causing a Commotion , " and " The Look of Love " on her 1987 Who 's That Girl World Tour . It was her second concert tour and supported her third studio album , True Blue ( 1986 ) , as well as the soundtrack . It was Madonna 's first world tour , reaching Asia , North America and Europe . Musically and technically superior to her previous Virgin Tour , the Who 's That Girl tour incorporated multimedia components to make the show more appealing . Madonna trained herself physically with aerobics , jogging and weight @-@ lifting , to cope with the choreography and the dance routines . For the costumes , she collaborated with designer Marlene Stewart , expanding on the idea of bringing her popular video characters to life onstage , reworking scenes from " True Blue " , " Open Your Heart " , " Papa Don 't Preach " and " La Isla Bonita " . The stage was huge , with four video screens , multimedia projectors and a flight of stairs in the middle . Leonard became the music director and encouraged Madonna to go with the idea of rearranging her older songs and presenting them in a new format . Madonna named the tour ' Who 's That Girl ' , after looking up at a gigantic image of herself projected on a screen on the stage during rehearsals .
The show consisted of seven costume changes , with song @-@ and @-@ dance routines and theatrics with an encore consisting of the title song " Who 's That Girl " and " Holiday " . The tour also addressed social causes like AIDS , during " Papa Don 't Preach " . Who 's That Girl was critically appreciated , with reviewers commenting on the extravagant nature of the concert and complimenting Madonna for her dancing , costume changes and dynamic pacing . Who 's That Girl was a commercial success , grossing a total of US $ 25 million , with Madonna playing in front of 1 @.@ 5 million people over the course of the tour . According to Pollstar , it was the second top female concert tour of 1987 , behind Tina Turner 's Break Every Rule Tour . Two concerts from the Who 's That Girl tour were later released on the VHS , including Ciao Italia : Live from Italy . Taraborrelli commented that " Many female artists behave like a diva for a period when they reach superstar status , and the ' Who 's That Girl ? ' tour marked the beginning of Madonna 's . " The tour is also noted for giving rise to the term " new Madonna " , a stronger and more intelligent sexual image of her former self which had given rise to the term Madonna wannabe . A statue of Madonna , wearing a conical bra was erected in her name , at the center of the town of Pacentro in Italy , where her ancestors used to live .
= = = Singles = = =
" Who 's That Girl " was released as the lead single from the soundtrack , on June 30 , 1987 . A latin pop influenced song , it became Madonna 's sixth single to top the Billboard Hot 100 chart , making her the first artist to accumulate six number @-@ one singles in the 1980s , and the first female performer to get that many number @-@ ones as a solo act . It also reached the top the charts in United Kingdom , Canada , Netherlands , Ireland and Belgium . In the music video Madonna did not portray her film character Nikki Finn , instead she continued with her Hispanic look from the " La Isla Bonita " music video . This time she appeared dressed boyishly in a wide @-@ brimmed Spanish hat and bolero jacket — a combination which would later become a fashion trend . " Who 's That Girl " was nominated for " Best Song From A Motion Picture " at the 1988 Grammy Awards and " Best Original Song " at the 1988 Golden Globe Awards .
The album 's second single , " Causing a Commotion " , was released on August 25 , 1987 . It was criticized by music reviewers for being a sub @-@ standard Madonna single , but enjoyed commercial success , reaching the top ten in New Zealand , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . In the United States , the single quickly climbed up the chart , ultimately peaking at number two in the week of October 24 , 1987 , the same week Michael Jackson 's " Bad " advanced to the pole position . It remained in second position for three weeks , before descending from the chart . " Causing a Commotion " reached the top of the Hot Dance Club Play chart .
The third song released from the album was the European single , " The Look of Love " . In the United Kingdom , " The Look of Love " was released on December 12 , 1987 , and entered the UK Singles Chart at number 15 . The next week , it reached a peak of nine on the chart , her first single to miss the top five since " Lucky Star " ( 1984 ) . The song was present for a total of seven weeks on the chart . In Germany , the song peaked on the Media Control Charts at number 34 , and was present for a total of seven weeks on the chart . In Ireland , the song reached the top ten and peaked at six . Across Europe , the song charted peaked at nine in Belgium , 23 in France , eight in Netherlands and 20 in Switzerland . On the Eurochart Hot 100 Singles of Billboard , the song reached 17 . " Turn It Up " was released as a promotional single from the album in early 1988 . Described by Joe Brown of The Washington Post as " gratingly banal " and its singer as " one of Madonna 's photogenic protegés " , the song was a success on the Dance Club charts of Billboard , peaking at number 15 .
= = Critical reception = =
The soundtrack album was not well received by music critics , some of whom went on comment that the title track is the record 's highlight . Jim Farber from Entertainment Weekly gave a negative review , though Noah Robischon from the same magazine complimented the title track , saying that Madonna had " pushed synergy over the borderline . " Bill Lamb from About.com said that the songs were not among Madonna 's best music . Taraborrelli commented that " the soundtrack was once again the reminder of Madonna 's power and status as one of the most important singers of the 80s , because it was only her songs which gained prominence , albeit not being her best , though ' The Look of Love ' is an exotic ballad . " Author Mary Cross , in her biography Madonna : A Biography said that " the soundtrack slips up because of the film . " Allen Metz and Carol Benson , authors of The Madonna Companion : Two Decades of Commentary , said that " Who 's That Girl has done what it was released for , put money in Warner 's pockets , but [ adds ] nothing in Madonna 's catalogue " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine noted in his review for Allmusic that " In the strictest sense [ the record ] isn 't a Madonna album — it 's a soundtrack album " , adding that it features " competent but uninspiring dance @-@ pop by [ various artists ] " . David Denby from New York magazine commented that " there 's nothing absolutely wrong with the soundtrack . But it 's just that it has the misfortune of being associated with such an unfortunate movie , that the album actually does not hold up to you well . " He added that " The Look of Love " was a hidden gem in Madonna 's catalogue . Don Shewey from Rolling Stone commented that " although essentially a Madonna album , the soundtrack does not boast a truly memorable song , rather there is the inclusion of the failed Warner artist songs , like the Coati Mundi song ' El Coco Loco ' and Duncan Faure 's uncannily Beatles @-@ esque " 24 Hours " . For most buyers though this album is the new Madonna album . "
Robert Christgau gave the album a ( C – ) and said " From Scritti Politti and Coati Mundi you expect trickier spin , but they 're outsiders , and outsiders times soundtrack equals contract work . For her own movie , though , the decade 's purest pop icon should do better than sloppy seconds . Or neat seconds — worse still . " Ed Blank from Pittsburgh Press commented : " It feels like the sole purpose to create the soundtrack was to show it in the film . " Jay Boyar from Orlando Sentinel praised the songs on the soundtrack , claiming that " Madonna brings forth a heart @-@ breaking warmth in ' The Look of Love ' and a club stomping feel with ' Causing a Commotion ' . With the movie 's fate being sealed , luckily for her Madonna can sing . " Gyan Singh from The Miami Herald , while reviewing the film , said that the " Only solace of the movie is the soundtrack , the songs — especially those by Madonna — are actually good . " Don McLeese from Chicago Sun @-@ Times , while reviewing Madonna 's Who 's That Girl World Tour , said that " the soundtrack 's songs sound good live " . Larry Geller from The Advocate gave a positive review , saying that " Who 's That Girl will be the soundtrack album of the summer . " Stephen Holden from The New York Times gave an equally positive review , saying that the " soundtrack album is full of engaging pop fluff . One of the hottest singles of the year , Madonna 's bilingual title song has the buoyant bounce of an acrobat doing somersaults on a trampoline . ' The Look of Love ' is as memorable a ballad as [ Madonna 's 1986 single ] ' Live to Tell ' , and ' 24 Hours ' , sung by Duncan Faure , skillfully fuses Beatles @-@ styled vocals with 80 's synthesizer @-@ pop underpinnings . " Daniel Brogan from Chicago Tribune said that " since this soundtrack isn 't really a Madonna album , this is no surprise that it appears as incomplete . "
= = Commercial response = =
After its release , the album debuted on the Billboard 200 at number forty @-@ six on August 15 , 1987 , the same week that the title song " Who 's That Girl " reached the top of the Billboard Hot 100 . In the week ending September 12 , 1987 , the record reached its peak position at number seven . It remained on the chart for twenty @-@ eight weeks , and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of one million copies across the United States . Who 's That Girl sold 1 @.@ 5 million copies across the nation . In Canada , the album debuted at eighty @-@ five on the RPM Albums Chart , on August 1 , 1987 . After seven weeks , the soundtrack climbed to its peak of four on the chart . The soundtrack was placed at position thirty @-@ seven , on the RPM Top 100 Albums for 1987 chart and was present on the chart for thirty weeks .
In the United Kingdom , the album debuted and peaked at number four on the UK Albums Chart on August 1 , 1987 , becoming the highest debut of the week . It fell out one place the next week , where it stayed for other three weeks . Who 's That Girl was present on the chart for twenty @-@ five weeks and was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipments of 300 @,@ 000 copies across the United Kingdom and eventually sold 320 @,@ 000 in the country . The album was less successful in Australia , where it debuted and peaked at number twenty @-@ four , and was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , for shipments of 35 @,@ 000 copies . It entered the New Zealand Album chart at twelve on September 6 , 1987 . After two weeks , the album reached its peak at number six . In Austria , Who 's That Girl became the best selling debut of the week , charting at number seven , on August 15 , 1987 , ultimately reaching number five . In Germany , Who 's That Girl debuted at the top of the charts , remaining there for two weeks and earning a gold certification from BVMI . The album also reached the top of the charts on the European Top 100 Albums chart . The album also reached the top @-@ ten of the charts in France , Italy , Japan , Netherlands , Norway , Spain , Sweden and Switzerland . The album went on to sell six million copies worldwide .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Blow ( Kesha song ) =
" Blow " is a song by American recording artist and songwriter Kesha from her first extended play ( EP ) , Cannibal ( 2010 ) . The song was released on February 8 , 2011 . It was written by Kesha , along with Klas Åhlund , Lukasz Gottwald , Allan Grigg , Benjamin Levin and Max Martin , with production done by Dr. Luke , Max Martin , Benny Blanco and Kool Kojak . According to Kesha the song 's lyrics are representative of herself and her fans . " Blow " is dominantly an electropop and dance @-@ pop song and is described as a party anthem as it portrays a simple message of having a desire to have a good time at a club .
Critical reception of " Blow " has been generally positive , with most critics praising the song 's hook , opening , and party anthem vibe , though some found the chorus uninspiring and ordinary . Kesha 's vocal work throughout the song was met with mixed reaction : some critics felt that she was both sassy and brash , while other critics felt that her personality was missing from the song . Commercially , " Blow " reached the top ten in the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States and Australia , becoming her sixth consecutive top @-@ ten hit in both countries as a solo artist . The song also reached the top ten in New Zealand , and the top 20 in Canadian Hot 100 in Canada .
The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Chris Marrs Piliero and was released February 25 , 2011 . The video co @-@ stars actor James Van Der Beek , who plays Kesha 's nemesis . Piliero and Kesha came up with the video 's concept and is intended to be simplistic , a video that is cool and random . Reception of the video by critics were positive , with the mid @-@ video dialogue scene 's humor being highlighted .
= = Writing and composition = =
" Blow " was written by Kesha alongside Klas Åhlund , Lukasz Gottwald , Alan Grigg , Benjamin Levin and Max Martin . Production of the song was completed by Dr. Luke , Max Martin , Benny Blanco and Kool Kojak . According to Kesha the line " We ’ re taking over " is representative of herself and her fans , which she explained during an interview with Beatweek Magazine , " I love that I say ‘ we ’ re taking over ’ in it because my fans and me have started a cult . We ’ re misfits of society but we ’ ve banded together and we ’ re starting a revolution . We are taking over . So get used to it . "
" Blow " is a electropop and dance @-@ pop song that uses a synth infused beat as a backing . The song opens with laughing followed by a command to dance . As the chorus of the song starts in , Kesha 's vocals change into an auto @-@ tuned " stuttering " as she repeats " This place about to blow " four times over an electro beat . During the song 's bridge , Kesha 's vocals change pace into a rap @-@ sing style as she tells her listeners to " Go insane , go insane / Throw some glitter / Make it rain on ' em / Let me see them Hanes . " Kesha uses layered vocals that are enhanced in some parts with the use of Auto @-@ Tune . Lyrically , " Blow " portrays a simple message , described as a party @-@ anthem , the song speaks of having a desire to have a good time at the club . According to Robert Cospey from Digital Spy , the track is of similar character to Benny Benassi 's track , " Satisfaction " ( 2002 ) .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
While reviewing Cannibal , Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine positively wrote that " Blow " was an undeniable " stuttery club track " . Daniel Brockman from The Phoenix wrote that the song was a " club banger " and that Kesha portrayed a bratty and cultural irritant attitude throughout the song referencing to the line , " We are taking over — get used to it ! " Brockman commented that the song " sends a shiver down your spine " further complimenting the production of Dr. Luke . Jocelyn Vena from MTV News wrote that the song featured common Kesha elements citing her carpe diem attitude and grinding beats but noted that the lyrics also portrayed a darker side of Kesha , referring to the line , " We get what we want / We do what you don 't . " Vena also wrote that the song contained a " scream @-@ along party @-@ anthem chorus " . Scott Shetler from AOL Radio felt that Kesha 's lyrical delivery was both sassy and brash . In a separate review from AOL Radio , the song was ranked at position nine on the website 's list of " 10 Best Songs of 2011 " . The review concluded that Kesha 's strongest songwriting skills pertained to party anthems . The review compared the song to previous singles , " Tik Tok " and " We R Who We R " .
Robert Copsey from Digital Spy gave the single five out of a possible five stars . Cospey felt that the song was representative of Kesha , writing the track " sums up everything [ Kesha ] – for all her scrubbiness , Auto @-@ Tuning and boozy antics – is all about . " The song 's chorus was praised in the review with Cospey writing that the song contained a " hooky , robotic and all @-@ round stonkingly huge chorus . " Cospey concluded his review on the song writing that " Blow " was the " Jägermeister of pop singles : sweet , potent and guaranteed to leave you buzzing for hours after . " The A.V. Club editors Steven Hyden and Genevieve Koski were positive of the song , giving it a B and a B + , respectively , with Hyden complimenting its " top @-@ notch bubblegum production " while noting that it was more " safe " than many of Kesha 's other hits . Koski , on the other hand , said that , due to the song 's " big , bold , and bumping production , " it allowed her to overlook Kesha 's usual " trashiness . "
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Blow " was originally released exclusively to the iTunes Store as part of a " Countdown to Cannibal " promotion , and thus originally entered the Billboard Hot 100 on the issue date titled December 4 , 2010 , reaching position 97 and dropping off the chart the following week . After being released as a single , the song re @-@ entered the chart on the issue date titled February 12 , 2011 , reaching a new peak of 96 . The following week the song jumped 30 positions reaching position 66 . The song continued to steadily ascend the charts eventually reaching a peak of seven on the week of March 19 , 2011 . On the song 's peak week it sold 164 @,@ 000 digital copies and was listed at position six on Billboards Hot Digital Songs . Charting within the top ten , the song became Kesha 's sixth straight top ten single as a solo artist . On Billboard 's Pop chart , the song reached a peak of number three . In June 2011 , " Blow " surpassed 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 digital copies in the United States . With the song passing two million in sales it became her sixth consecutive single to sell more than two million copies . As of August 2012 , the song has sold over 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies in the U.S alone , her fourth song to achieve this .
In Canada , " Blow " entered the Canadian Hot 100 on the issue date February 5 , 2011 , at 100 . The following week the song jumped 31 positions to attain position 69 . On its third week " Blow " once again rose this time to position 54 . The song continued to steadily ascended the chart eventually reaching a peak of 12 . In New Zealand , " Blow " entered the charts at position 20 where it became that week 's highest debut . The following week it rose nine positions attaining position 11 . On the song 's third week on the chart " Blow " reached its peak at number eight . The song became her second straight top ten hit and her fourth overall . It has since been certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for sales of 7 @,@ 500 units . On February 27 , 2011 , " Blow " entered the Australian chart at position 24 . On the issue date of March 13 , 2011 , the song reached position 13 , where it held the spot for two weeks . The following week the song reached its peak at position 10 , becoming her sixth straight top ten single , but her first to miss the top five . It has since been certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for sales of 70 @,@ 000 units . In the United Kingdom , " Blow " entered the charts on the week of April 2 , 2011 , at position 80 , later peaking at number 32 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Blow " was directed by Chris Marrs Piliero . The video was released on February 25 , 2011 . Kesha wanted the video to be " different , a video that was cool and random " . The director , Piliero , came up with the idea for the video 's mythological aspect saying , " I had this idea running in my head with just the idea of unicorns , If I massacred unicorns , they could bleed rainbows . I 'm a fan of violence and I 'm always trying to find a way to make it OK . " While being interviewed Piliero spoke of the collaboration with Kesha , explaining her point of view on the video , " Before we started filming , we had quite a few talks . She was adamant you can 't back away from the crazy ; everything about the idea she loved and she enforced the fact that she wanted to embrace every aspect of it and really go for it , On set , she was having fun . She was like , ' I want to lick a unicorn . ' It was rad working with her because there definitely wasn 't a sense of her feeling awkward about stuff or detached ; no ego . It felt like we had worked together before . "
Opening with the disclaimer " No mythological creatures were harmed in the making of this video " , Kesha appears sitting next to two unicorns pouring champagne while having a conversation on how she was elected to the parliament of Uzbekistan , " So I grabbed the bear by the throat and I looked him right in the eyes , and I said , ' Bear , you have till the count of zero to put some pants on and apologize to the president . ' " The music begins and Kesha makes eyes at James Van Der Beek . After the eye contact Kesha grabs one of the unicorns and kisses him then removes her bra and throws it across the room , Van Der Beek then does the same with his bra , puzzling Kesha as to why he was wearing a bra . The music fades in the background as the two then make their way to the center of the dance floor and exchange words ( " Well , well , well . If it isn ’ t James Van Der Douche . " , " I don 't appreciate you slander @-@ Beeking my name , Ke dollar sign ha . " ) before engaging in a gun fight . They begin shooting lasers at one another , killing multiple unicorns . Van Der Beek gets hit in the shoulder and falls . Kesha steps on his arm to stop him from reaching for his gun , as he begs for mercy , which Kesha denies . At the end of the video , it is revealed that Kesha killed Van Der Beek and that she has mounted his head on her wall with the plaque reading , " James Van Der Dead " , as she sits with two unicorns laughing . She then frowns at the camera and it switches to Van Der Beek one more time before the screen goes black .
Willa Paskin from New York Magazine opened her review of the video writing , " Maybe it ’ s exhaustion , maybe it ’ s acquiescence , maybe it 's just time , but Ke $ ha and her whole glam @-@ wasted shtick are starting to charm us . " Paskin felt that Kesha had a great " functioning sense of humor " writing that she " enjoyed her new video " . Peter Gaston from Spin , referring to Kesha , wrote that he was able to " continually find something massively entertaining about this tartlet " and wrote that the video was " provocative " . Rolling Stone 's Matthew Perpetua wrote " You know you 're in for a great video when the very first thing you see is a disclaimer reading " No mythological creatures were harmed in the making of this video . " Perpetua wrote that " Blow " had it all , from unicorns to James Van der Beek and laser gun battles . Becky Bain of Idolator said the video included " the best mid @-@ video dialogue scene in all of music video history . "
= = Promotion = =
" Blow " was performed on television for the first time on April 22 , 2011 , for the Nickelodeon sitcom Victorious , in the episode , " Ice Cream for Ke $ ha . " The storyline for the episode saw the show 's stars competing in a contest to win a private concert by Kesha . In order to win the contest the cast had to spell out Kesha 's name through letters found at the bottom of ice cream containers . Kesha 's younger brother , Louie also guest starred in the episode . " Blow " was performed live on May 22 , 2011 , at the 2011 Billboard Music Awards . The performance was opened with " Animal " as Kesha sang suspended over the stage in a structure shaped like a diamond . Midway through the performance she dropped backwards into her crowd of background dancers then transitioned into " Blow " . The performance featured glitter cannons and the dancers wore orange unicorn heads .
American rapper B.o.B is featured on an official remix of " Blow " that was released to iTunes on May 17 , 2011 . B.o.B opens the track with a minute @-@ long rapped verse about himself then adds to the song 's dominant party theme , rapping : " Night starts out at the ATM / It probably won ’ t end til 8 am . " Following this verse Kesha proclaims " We are taking over " , before the track resumes as it normally would without B.o.B 's addition . Scott Shetler from PopCrush criticized the remix for not technically being a remix , rather being just the original song with added verses . Shetler wrote " the term ' remix ' makes us imagine all the ways the song could be creatively re @-@ arranged . And a fun song like ‘ Blow , ’ with its brash lyrics and skittering beat , holds endless remix possibilities . But this version doesn ’ t substantially improve the original . " He went on to give the song three and a half stars out of a possible five .
= = Formats and track listings = =
Digital download
" Blow " – 3 : 40
Remix
" Blow " ( Remix ) ( featuring . B.o.B ) – 4 : 31
Germany CD single
" Blow " – 3 : 40
" The Sleazy Remix " ( featuring . André 3000 ) – 3 : 48
UK digital EP
" Blow " – 3 : 40
" Fuck Him He 's A DJ " – 3 : 40
" Blow " ( Cirkut Remix ) – 4 : 05
" Animal " ( Switch Remix ) – 4 : 46
= = Credits and personnel = =
Background Vocals - Ke $ ha
Lead Vocals - Ke $ ha
Songwriting – Kesha Sebert , Klas Ahlund , Lukasz Gottwald , Alan Grigg , Benjamin Levin , Max Martin
Production – Dr. Luke , Max Martin , Benny Blanco , Kool Kojak
Instruments and programming – Dr. Luke , Max Martin , Benny Blanco , Kool Kojak
Engineering – Emily Wright , Sam Holland , Chris " TEK " O 'Ryan
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Cannibal , Dynamite Cop Music / Where Da Kasz at BMI .
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Jim Kilburn =
James Maurice " Jim " Kilburn ( 8 July 1909 – 28 August 1993 ) was a British sports journalist who wrote for the Yorkshire Post between 1934 and 1976 . Well @-@ regarded for the style of his writing and his refusal to write about off @-@ field events , Kilburn wrote primarily about Yorkshire County Cricket Club . After a brief career in teaching , and having spent time in Finland , Kilburn was appointed cricket correspondent at the Yorkshire Post after impressing the editor with his writing . A serious man , he had an unusual way of writing his reports , but his editors refused to change his copy , so highly did they value his impact .
= = Early life and career = =
Kilburn was born in Sheffield in 1909 , and attended Holgate Grammar School in Barnsley , before completing a degree in economics at the university there . From an early age , he showed interest in cricket ; as a boy he received coaching from former Yorkshire cricketer George Hirst at Scarborough , and played for Barnsley in Yorkshire Council matches and for Bradford in the Bradford League . Bowling fast @-@ paced off spin , Kilburn was successful enough with bat and ball to win medals for Bradford and have his achievements reported in the press . He worked briefly as a teacher in a Harrogate preparatory school . While in Bradford , he met the vice @-@ consul for Finland ; as a result , he went to live in Finland for a year .
= = Cricket correspondent = =
During his time in Finland , Kilburn sent travel articles to the Barnsley Chronicle and the Yorkshire Post . The editor of the latter , Arthur Mann , was impressed by Kilburn 's work , and arranged to meet him in 1934 . Learning of his interest in cricket , and recognising his name from his success in the Bradford League , Mann gave Kilburn a trial as the newspaper 's cricket correspondent ; the position had been vacant since Alfred Pullin had retired in 1931 . An initial three @-@ month period , with a salary of £ 3 per week , resulted in a written commendation from Neville Cardus , and he was appointed permanently with responsibility for cricket and rugby .
Now paid £ 6 per week plus expenses , and initially writing under the by @-@ line " Our Cricket Correspondent " , Kilburn quickly established his reputation . Soon after he took the position , he was given the byline " J. M. Kilburn " ; his reports were often among the few not anonymised . He continued in the position until 1976 , when he retired .
= = Style and personality = =
As cricket correspondent for the Yorkshire Post , Kilburn wrote primarily about Yorkshire County Cricket Club . His obituary in Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack described his writing style : he wrote " with a fountain pen on press telegram forms at 60 or 80 words a shilling . At the close of play he immediately concluded his essay ; he hardly ever crossed anything out . His cricketing judgments were assured and rigorous , his style exact but sometimes elegant : Leyland 's bowling is a joke but it is an extremely practical joke . " The Times stated that his reports were " always precise , frequently elegant , sometimes stern and invariably fair and accurate . He never wrote an unpolished piece or an unidentifiable one , although he was only occasionally analytical . " The speed and ease with which he produced his reports , and his refusal to use a typewriter — which he described as " the devil 's own invention " — were envied by other journalists . Kilburn 's writing was printed exactly as he wrote it ; sub @-@ editors did not touch anything , even if he had made a mistake , as his employers valued his style so greatly . He refused to write about off @-@ field events which caused consternation for his editors as Yorkshire cricket was turbulent behind the scenes at the time he wrote . Nor would he write about the wider aspects of cricket , confident that his reputation made it impossible to sack him . This attitude made him popular with the players , and he became particularly close to Len Hutton and Donald Bradman . His position at the Yorkshire Post gave him freedom to write about whatever he chose , and he refused several offers to move to national newspapers . But his obituary in The Times suggested that , had he worked for a London publication , he would have been as well @-@ known and respected as Cardus , E. W. Swanton and R. C. Robertson @-@ Glasgow .
The press @-@ boxes of Kilburn 's time , particularly in Yorkshire , were unfriendly and serious places . According to Wisden , " [ Kilburn ] was a tall , austere man who had little truck with press @-@ box banter . " According to writer Derek Hodgson , Kilburn was shy . However , his views and methods were regarded as old @-@ fashioned in the later stages of his career . Kilburn was often compared to his contemporary from Lancashire , Neville Cardus , but his style was dissimilar . Cardus wrote in a romantic style whereas Kilburn preferred factual accuracy ; according to Wisden , Kilburn was " harder , less flashy , more punctilious " . Journalist Frank Keating writes : " Neville Cardus was acclaimed the Wordsworth of cricket writing , while across the Pennines they hailed Kilburn as the Coleridge . With good reason . " Kilburn 's writings on the Yorkshire players of the 1930s and 1940s made them well @-@ known to the public as personalities , and he wrote several pieces for the Yorkshire Post which became famous . Kilburn had a deep love of cricket , and worried it was losing its way in embracing one @-@ day matches and sponsorship , although he did not believe that progress was necessarily bad . He believed that cricketers should be chivalrous , and greatly admired stylish play . He severely criticised anything on the field which he believed fell short of acceptable standards , including the occasion in 1967 when Yorkshire won the County Championship after engaging in time @-@ wasting tactics to avoid losing a game . He retired in 1976 , but continued to follow the sport very closely .
= = Legacy and death = =
Kilburn twice accompanied the England team on overseas tours to Australia : in 1946 – 47 and 1954 – 55 . During the former tour , he became a founder member of the Cricket Writers ' Club . He served as its secretary , chairman and later became an Honorary Life Member . He also became the only journalist elected as a life member at Yorkshire , and opened the newly built press box at Headingley Cricket Ground in 1988 . In his final years , he became blind — his sight began to fail shortly after his retirement — but according to Wisden , " Jim Kilburn remained an upright , dignified man until he died " . Outside of his work , Kilburn played golf to a reasonable standard , and was married with three children . Derek Hodgson writes : " All his work will be valued as an accurate insight into social attitudes in the first half of this century . Jim Kilburn intended always to write about cricket but in fact he told us all so much more . " He wrote ten books on cricket , and contributed regularly to The Cricketer magazine and to Wisden .
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= Una @-@ class submarine =
The Una @-@ class submarine ( also known as Type 911 ) was a class of six midget submarines built for the Yugoslav Navy at the Brodogradilište specijalnih objekata ( English : Special objects shipyard ) during the 1980s . They were designed with the purpose of laying small minefields and transporting naval special forces , with or without their submersibles , in shallow waters that were inaccessible for larger submarines . Due to their mission profile that called for a small design as well as the need to stay undetected , they lacked torpedo armament and a generator for battery recharging .
During the Croatian War of Independence and the dissolution of SFR Yugoslavia , five of the six boats were relocated to Boka Kotorska where they served with the SR Yugoslav Navy . One , Soča ( P @-@ 914 ) , was captured in drydock by Croatian forces . It was later modified and entered service with the Croatian Navy as Velebit ( P @-@ 01 ) . All of the boats have since been decommissioned .
= = Development = =
During the 1970s the Brodarski Institute ( BI ) from Zagreb started working on a new class of submarines for the Yugoslav Navy ( JRM ) . The project , designated B @-@ 91 and led by Lieutenant Colonel Davorin Kajić , was tasked with developing a class of midget submarines capable of operating in the shallow waters of the northern Adriatic . Using their small dimensions , the submarines were to be able to maneuver in depths as shallow as 10 metres ( 33 ft ) ; such abilities were needed to conduct offensive minelaying near the enemy coastline , reconnaissance , and transporting naval special forces in hostile waters .
All six boats were completed from 1985 to 1989 at the Brodogradilište Specijalnih Objekata ( BSO ) in Split , SR Croatia and named after rivers in SFR Yugoslavia : Tisa ( P @-@ 911 ) , Una ( P @-@ 912 ) , Zeta ( P @-@ 913 ) , Soča ( P @-@ 914 ) , Kupa ( P @-@ 915 ) and Vardar ( P @-@ 916 ) . Further planned improvements included the addition of a Stirling engine , either by refitting the existing boats or building a new , seventh one , but the imminent breakup of Yugoslavia happened before anything was realized .
= = Description = =
The Una @-@ class featured a single @-@ hulled design , measuring 18 @.@ 82 m ( 61 ft 9 in ) in length with an average draught of 2 @.@ 4 m ( 7 ft 10 in ) . The boats displaced 76 @.@ 1 tonnes ( 74 @.@ 9 long tons ) when surfaced and 87 @.@ 6 tonnes ( 86 @.@ 2 long tons ) when submerged . Because deploying naval commandos was one of their main tasks , they were equipped with an underwater exit / re @-@ entry chamber .
Propulsion consisted of two 18 @-@ kilowatt ( 24 hp ) electric motors , mounted on a single shaft and powered by two battery groups with 128 cells each . The class lacked the ability to recharge during surface drive making them dependent on external power sources such as harbours and depot ships . Maximum achievable speed was 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 mph ) underwater and 7 knots ( 13 km / h ; 8 mph ) surfaced . Traveling at a speed of 3 knots ( 6 km / h ; 3 mph ) they had a range of 250 – 270 nautical miles ( 460 – 500 km ; 290 – 310 mi ) . Maximum diving depth was 120 m ( 390 ft ) . The sensor suite included an active / passive Krupp Atlas sonar .
In accordance with their expected mission , the boats could transport up to six naval commandos armed with 6 – 12 M @-@ 66 or M @-@ 71 limpet mines . Also at their disposal were four large AIM @-@ 70 / 71 bottom mines mounted on the outside of the submarines . Four R @-@ 1 swimmer delivery vehicles could be carried in place of the AIM @-@ 70 / 71 mines . With a full crew of six members the boats had an underwater endurance of 160 hours which was reduced to 96 hours if the complement numbered ten personnel ( four crew members and six naval commandos ) .
= = Boats = =
= = History = =
= = = Service and decommissioning = = =
All six boats were in service with the 88th submarine flotilla of the JRM with Lora Naval Base being their homeport . At the start of the Croatian War of Independence all boats except Soča were relocated to Montenegro without participating in combat operations . Croatian forces captured Soča in drydock at the BSO where it was undergoing an overhaul . Soča underwent a modification program that improved its autonomy by installing a diesel generator . It was recommissioned , now with the Croatian Navy , in 1996 as Velebit ( P @-@ 01 ) and remained in service until the early 2000s when it was declared redundant . The remaining boats entered service with the new SR Yugoslav Navy . The first ones to be decommissioned sometime between 1997 and 2001 were Tisa and Una . In 2003 a decision was made that the ongoing major overhaul of Kupa would stop ; the boat was decommissioned and broken up in 2008 . It appears that the last Una @-@ class boats in service with the SR Yugoslav Navy were Zeta and Vardar , both of them being decommissioned in 2005 .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Ownership of the decommissioned boats passed on to Montenegro after the country declared independence in 2006 , ending the state of Serbia and Montenegro and its joint armed forces . In 2009 the Ministry of Defence announced that it is willing to donate three Una @-@ class submarines to former SFR Yugoslav republics of Slovenia , Croatia and Serbia . Although the " Submariner " society from Pula was interested in accepting the donation and exhibiting it in a museum , the Croatian MoD responded with a statement that accepting the donation is against national interests ; since most of the fleet of the former Yugoslav Navy was relocated to Montenegro at the beginning of the Croatian War of Independence , Croatia claims the military equipment of the former joint armed forces was stolen , and should be a subject of succession . The MoD further explains that the state interest is in compensation for that equipment , not returning " obsolete , damaged and corroded equipment which nowadays Serbia and Montenegro are unsuccessfully trying to sell " .
Slovenia on the other hand reacted positively to the offer ; in 2011 Zeta was loaded on a truck and transported by road through Serbia and Hungary . Although longer and thus more expensive , sea routes and roads that included crossing the Croatian border were avoided in fear of Croatian authorities confiscating the submarine . P @-@ 913 was restored with the help of the " Slovenian Submariners Society " and the Slovenian Army , being officially opened on 17 September 2011 at the Pivka Military History Park .
In 2013 , Una and a Heroj @-@ class attack submarine , Heroj ( P @-@ 821 ) , were restored and opened to the public in the museum section of the Porto Montenegro marina . The project was initiated by the " Submariner " Society from Tivat and was , after approval by the Montenegro MoD , financed by Porto Montenegro . The donation of one of the submarines to Serbia was initiated by the " Submariner " society from Belgrade in 2009 . However it wasn 't until five years later in June 2014 that the Government of Montenegro officially accepted the proposal and agreed to cede Tisa ( P @-@ 911 ) to Serbia . The submarine will be exhibited at the Museum of Science and Technology in Belgrade .
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= Stuart Clarence Graham =
Major General Stuart Clarence Graham AO , DSO , OBE , MC ( 23 October 1920 – 20 July 1996 ) was a senior officer in the Australian Army , seeing service during the Second World War , the Occupation of Japan and the Vietnam War . Born in 1920 , he graduated from the Royal Military College , Duntroon in 1940 . Graham subsequently held a series of regimental and staff appointments , serving in a number of infantry and armoured units during the Second World War . In the post @-@ war period he served in the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in Japan , and held a number of staff and command positions in the Armoured Corps . In the late 1950s he was posted to Army Headquarters , and later served as Director of Military Intelligence . Commanding the 1st Australian Task Force ( 1 ATF ) during fighting in South Vietnam during 1967 , he was responsible for establishing the controversial barrier minefield from Dat Do to the coast . Later , Graham filled a range of senior command , staff and diplomatic roles in Australia and overseas , including the position of Deputy Chief of the General Staff ( DCGS ) , before retiring in 1977 . He died in 1996 .
= = Early life = =
Graham was born in Ulmarra , New South Wales , on 23 October 1920 , and was educated at Grafton High School . Highly intelligent , he did well at school and achieved a high position in the Leaving Certificate . After joining the Australian Army in January 1938 , at the age of 19 he graduated from the Royal Military College , Duntroon ( RMC ) in August 1940 , following the outbreak of the Second World War . He was subsequently allocated to the Armoured Corps as a regular officer in the Permanent Military Force ( PMF ) with the rank of lieutenant . At Duntroon Graham had excelled academically and was known for his unorthodox and innovative tactical solutions to military problems . Top of his graduating class , he received the Kings Medal for his achievements . Shortly after his commissioning he married Joyce Lawrence of Canberra on 20 August 1940 , and the couple later had two sons — Stuart born in 1941 , and Ray born in 1944 .
= = Military career = =
= = = Second World War = = =
Graham subsequently held a series of regimental and staff appointments , serving in a number of infantry and armoured units . Volunteering for overseas service , he transferred to the Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) on 26 July 1941 . He was subsequently posted to the 2 / 11th Armoured Car Regiment as the adjutant , followed by attendance at the Staff School . Promoted to captain in September 1942 , Graham briefly served on the headquarters of the 1st Armoured Division before being attached to the British Army . Serving with the British 7th Armoured Division , he saw action with them in the North Africa and Italy 1943 – 44 . Coming ashore on the first day of the Allied landing at Salerno , he was wounded but remained on duty . During this period he gained valuable operational experience in armoured warfare ; while his service in North Africa may also have shaped his thinking about the use of tactical minefields which had been used extensively during the mobile infantry and armoured battles of 1941 – 42 .
After returning to Australia in February 1944 , following a short period in staff positions Graham spent the remainder of the war in the South @-@ West Pacific . Seconded to the infantry , in December 1944 he was given command of a company from the 24th Battalion and went on to distinguish himself during the Bougainville campaign in 1945 . During an action on the morning of 17 April C Company , under Graham 's command , encountered heavy resistance in thick jungle while attacking strong Japanese positions around Andersons Junction , astride Dawe Creek . Personally leading the attack , he placed a number of anti @-@ tank guns to cover a river crossing and following heavy fighting the Australians finally secured a foothold by late in the afternoon which allowed a bridge to be erected across the creek for the tanks to move forward in support . After repelling a Japanese counter @-@ attack overnight , the following morning Graham led his company forward and succeeded in seizing the high ground after another day of bitter fighting that resulted in heavy Japanese casualties . He was immediately awarded the Military Cross ( MC ) for his leadership . Graham was later wounded amid heavy fighting in difficult terrain as the Australian advance continued along the Buin Road in May . Promoted temporary major in October 1945 , he finished the war posted to the 2 / 4th Armoured Regiment .
= = = Post @-@ war period = = =
Following the war , Graham served in various staff positions in Eastern Command based in New South Wales , and in 1946 he was posted to Japan on the Headquarters of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force . Promoted to lieutenant colonel in the Interim Army , he later briefly commanded the 2nd Battalion , Australian Regiment ( 2 AR ) between 23 November 1948 and 10 January 1949 . In 1949 Graham was again attached to Headquarters Eastern Command , before subsequently being posted as a tactics instructor to RMC during 1950 – 51 . He later completed further training in the United Kingdom and Germany in 1952 . Considered one of Australia 's foremost tank experts , Graham commanded the 1st Armoured Regiment during 1952 – 53 . He subsequently served as commandant of the Armoured School between 1953 and 1956 , and filled the position of Director of Armour during the same period . He later wrote an influential paper on the successful use of armour in jungle warfare and its ability to reduce casualties among the infantry . Graham attended the United States Armed Forces Staff College and subsequently filled the role of Assistant Military Attaché in Washington , D.C. as an intelligence officer in 1957 – 58 . His exposure to US military culture and intelligence during this period affected his own military thinking and would be influential during his later service . Graham was subsequently posted to Army Headquarters in Canberra in the Directorate of Military Operations and Plans in 1959 .
After being promoted to colonel , he served as Director of Military Intelligence between 1960 and 1964 , and while the Australian Army was developing its own doctrine on counter @-@ revolutionary warfare , Graham 's ideas on counter @-@ insurgency were influenced by a visit to South Vietnam in November 1961 . Graham 's understanding of the challenges of the prevailing Cold War environment allowed him to reform Australia 's nascent military intelligence apparatus , encouraging developments in joint intelligence arrangements with Australia 's allies and fostering liaison with his British and US counterparts , as well as establishing relationships with countries in South @-@ East Asia . In recognition of his service to the Australian Staff Corps he was appointed as an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in 1963 . He then took up an appointment as commandant of the Jungle Training Centre ( JTC ) at Canungra , Queensland in 1964 . The Australian Army Training Team Vietnam ( AATTV ) was being prepared for deployment during this time , and Army officers were learning new tactics , techniques and procedures . Promoted to brigadier in 1965 he then commanded the 6th Task Force in southern Queensland , supervising the training of 2 RAR and 6 RAR , both battalions which would later serve under his command in Vietnam . In 1966 , Graham studied at the Imperial Defence College in London .
= = = Vietnam War = = =
On 1 January 1967 Graham was appointed Commander 1st Australian Task Force ( 1 ATF ) which was based in Phuoc Tuy Province , South Vietnam , taking over from Brigadier David Jackson . According to Ian McNeill and Ashley Ekins , the official historians of Australian involvement in the Vietnam War , Graham quickly established himself , and developed a sound operational concept , yet the Viet Cong succeeded in preventing him from implementing it as he had intended . With just two battalions 1 ATF 's ability to generate combat power was severely limited , while its location at Nui Dat isolated it from the main population centres and increased the burden of self @-@ protection . During February 1967 1 ATF had sustained its heaviest casualties in the war to that point , losing 16 men killed and 55 wounded in a single week , the majority during Operation Bribie after 6 RAR had clashed with two companies from the Viet Cong D445 Battalion reinforced by North Vietnamese regulars , north @-@ west of Hoi My on 17 February . To Graham such losses underscored the need for a third infantry battalion and tanks , yet with the Australian government unable to provide additional military resources at that time , they confirmed in his mind the need to establish a physical barrier to deny the Viet Cong freedom of movement . Graham subsequently established an 11 @-@ kilometre ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) long barrier minefield from Dat Do to the coast during Operation Leeton ( 6 March – 1 June ) in an attempt to regain the initiative .
While largely forced on Graham by the inadequate forces available and the inherent contradictions of Australian strategic policy , his decision was contrary to the advice of the senior task force engineer , Major Brian Florence . A number of senior infantry officers had also resisted the idea , including one of Graham 's battalion commanders , Lieutenant Colonel John Warr , commanding officer 5 RAR , who had served in the Korean War where the Australians had suffered a large number of casualties from mines originally laid by other UN forces . Yet unlike many of his colleagues , as an Armoured Corps officer Graham had not served in Korea , and many of the assumptions he developed about mine warfare in North Africa had remained unchallenged . For the first six months the barrier minefield had resulted in a dramatic decline in Viet Cong infiltration , reducing re @-@ supply movement by up to 80 percent . However , recognising the threat the obstacle posed to them , the Viet Cong had immediately begun attempting to penetrate it , cutting gaps in the fence and clearing lanes through the minefield to restore the flow of supplies , as well as lifting mines for their own use . Conceived to hinder the movement of the Viet Cong between their jungle bases and the villages on which they relied for supplies , the failure of South Vietnamese forces to protect the barrier minefield ultimately allowed the Viet Cong to remove thousands of mines , many of which were subsequently used against 1 ATF . While in keeping with the orthodoxy of Australian counter @-@ insurgency doctrine , Graham 's strategy ultimately proved both controversial and costly , and despite initial success , the minefield became a source of munitions for the Viet Cong and later the decision was made to remove it amid growing casualties .
Yet such flaws were not immediately obvious and by the second half of 1967 the Viet Cong in Phuoc Tuy Province seemed to have melted away , abandoning many of their bunker systems and avoiding the main roads and towns . The Battle of Long Tan and Operation Bribie had weakened the communist forces in the province , while further operations had restricted their movement and logistics . This prompted Graham to speculate that the Viet Cong may have fled to the border , perhaps leaving the province altogether . He reasoned that a succession of operations in the south @-@ east of the province and the completion of the barrier minefield at Dat Do meant that no single , sizable threat remained to the populated areas of Phuoc Tuy . Meanwhile , despite allegations of corruption and ballot rigging by the ruling military junta , South Vietnam 's presidential elections in September had been unhampered by security concerns and were largely considered successful , with 83 percent of eligible voters turning out nationwide ; in Phuoc Tuy this number was higher still at over 90 percent . Graham believed that the large public turnout in Phuoc Tuy had been due to the long @-@ term effects of Australian operations in the province which had increased the population 's sense of security . During his tour of duty the task force had conducted 32 operations before he handed over command in October 1967 . He was later awarded the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) .
= = = Senior command = = =
After returning to Australia , Graham was subsequently appointed Chief of Staff , Northern Command in December 1967 . By 1969 a large percentage of Australian casualties in Vietnam were being caused by mines , including significant quantities of M16 anti @-@ personnel devices removed by the Viet Cong from the barrier minefield at Dat Do . Total Australian casualties from such mines were later estimated as 55 killed and 250 wounded , a figure which constituted approximately 11 percent of those killed during the war . These losses increasingly became a political issue as support for the war in Australia waned , and the efficacy of the decision was later criticised , both within the military and in the media . As the controversy surrounding the minefield grew , in February 1969 Graham was promoted to major general and appointed Deputy Chief of the General Staff ( DCGS ) and Fifth Military Member of the Military Board , positions he held until 1972 . Meanwhile , after visiting Phuoc Tuy Province respected journalist Denis Warner concluded that although the original concept in laying the minefield had been sound , it was ultimately one of the greatest Australian mistakes of the war . By August 1969 work had begun to remove the minefield .
Graham was forced to publicly defend his decision , while questions were raised about the knowledge and approval of his decision as the tactical commander by a number of senior Army officers , including then Commander Australian Forces Vietnam , Major General Tim Vincent , the Chief of General Staff ( CGS ) , Lieutenant General Thomas Daly , and the Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee , General John Wilton , all of whom had acquiesced to its construction . Meanwhile , as DCGS Graham was second only to Daly in the daily running of the Australian Army . During this time Graham unsuccessfully sought the retention of national service following the eventual Australian withdrawal from Vietnam , arguing that it was necessary to further expand the Regular Army . He later managed the draw @-@ down of Australian forces in Vietnam , and played a leading role in shaping the post @-@ war Army . Graham was appointed General Officer Commanding ( GOC ) Northern Command in 1973 and later Commander 1st Division . He subsequently filled the position of head of the Australian Defence Staff in London over the period 1974 – 76 . Graham was made an Officer of the Order of Australia ( AO ) in the 1975 Queen 's Birthday Honours . He retired in March 1977 .
= = Later life = =
In his later life Graham and his wife settled on the Gold Coast in Queensland and were involved in community activities and fundraising . He enjoyed swimming and fishing and was involved in work to help the blind . He died at his home on the Isle of Capri on 20 July 1996 and was survived by his widow and two sons . Despite the debate surrounding the laying of the barrier minefield , McNeill and Ekins later described Graham as a " clever and imaginative " commander , who was " widely regarded as having one of the best minds in the army " , and whose " broad knowledge and fair approach earned him the respect of his subordinates . " Yet even in death Graham remained a controversial figure . In his book , The Minefield , published in 2007 , author and former Army officer Greg Lockhart argued that the decision to establish the minefield had been " reckless " ; the product of a failure to understand the prevailing nature of the insurgency in Phuoc Tuy Province , it had ended in " strategic disaster " . Lockhart argued that the decision ultimately cost Graham the position of CGS , even though he had been seen by some as being the likely candidate to replace Daly . He went on to describe Graham as ambitious and career @-@ driven , " ... a talented man who rose to a position of some importance and was undone by inescapable personal flaws . "
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= Oklahoma State Highway 58 =
State Highway 58 ( abbreviated SH @-@ 58 ) is the name of two state highways in Oklahoma . One of them runs for 72 @.@ 7 miles ( 117 @.@ 0 km ) from Medicine Park to the Blaine – Custer County line near Hydro , and the other connects US @-@ 270 / 281 / SH @-@ 3 / 33 to the Kansas state line , a length of 105 @.@ 9 mi ( 170 @.@ 4 km ) . The northern section has one lettered spur route , SH @-@ 58A .
SH @-@ 58 was originally a part of US @-@ 164 . When US @-@ 164 was decommissioned in 1930 , a section of the road in Major County that was left without a designation became SH @-@ 58 . Since then , the highway has grown toward both the north and the south . With the designation and extension of the southern section of the highway , SH @-@ 58 is present in five counties in the western part of the state .
= = Route description = =
= = = Southern section = = =
The southern SH @-@ 58 begins at an intersection with State Highway 49 in Medicine Park in Comanche County . It heads north , passing Lake Lawtonka before meeting State Highway 19 , which it overlaps for four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) . After splitting off , it meets State Highway 9 in Carnegie . It passes through the unincorporated community of Alfalfa , after which it has a two @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) concurrency with State Highway 152 .
After splitting from SH @-@ 152 near Eakly , SH @-@ 58 heads north to an interchange with Interstate 40 , then passes through Hydro . Nine miles ( 14 @.@ 5 km ) later , it terminates at the Custer County line to become a county road , which eventually connects to State Highway 54 .
= = = Northern section = = =
The northern SH @-@ 58 begins at US @-@ 270 / 281 / SH @-@ 3 / 33 west of Watonga . It meets State Highway 51 near Canton and continues north through Longdale . In Fairview , the county seat of Major County , it shares a brief concurrency with U.S. Highway 60 . Beginning in Fairview and heading east , SH @-@ 58 has a concurrency with State Highway 8 , with which it switches places ( south of the concurrency SH @-@ 8 runs to the east of SH @-@ 58 , and north of it , SH @-@ 8 runs to the west of SH @-@ 58 ) .
SH @-@ 58 continues north , meeting US @-@ 60 again near Ringwood . It then has a brief concurrency with State Highway 45 near Helena . Near Jet , it overlaps U.S. Highway 64 and SH @-@ 8 . North of Cherokee , the Alfalfa County seat , US @-@ 64 splits off and State Highway 11 joins the three @-@ route concurrency . North of Driftwood , SH @-@ 58 splits off on its own and passes through Byron and Amorita . It terminates at the Kansas state line , where it becomes a county road .
= = History = =
SH @-@ 58 was first commissioned some time between March 1 , 1930 and December 1 , 1931 . The original extent of the route was much shorter than the present highway . In 1931 , SH @-@ 58 was a dirt road extending from SH @-@ 8 east of Fairview north to Ringwood . Prior to receiving the SH @-@ 58 designation , this section of road was part of US @-@ 164 and the first SH @-@ 13 . On May 29 , 1930 , AASHO approved an extension of US @-@ 60 that replaced US @-@ 164 . When US @-@ 60 replaced US @-@ 164 through the area , it was changed to the more westerly route it takes in the present day . The section of old U.S. highway that no longer had a designation became SH @-@ 58 .
Throughout the 1930s , SH @-@ 58 was expanded in both directions . The first addition to the highway came during the first half of 1932 , when the highway was extended north to Helena . No east – west highway existed at this point yet , leading to a spur end . The highway was extended to the south , replacing SH @-@ 44 , to Canton on March 29 , 1937 . SH @-@ 58 was extended north to the Kansas state line sometime between April 1937 and April 1938 . This final extension brought SH @-@ 58 's northern section to its present @-@ day termini , and no major changes to the northern section have occurred since .
SH @-@ 58 's southern section was first established on October 16 , 1945 , when SH @-@ 54 was given a new alignment further to the west ; its old alignment was redesignated as SH @-@ 58 . The original routing of SH @-@ 58 's southern section began at US @-@ 277 in Cyril , continued west through Apache , and turned north at the present @-@ day western intersection of with SH @-@ 19 . SH @-@ 58 continued north along its present alignment to Hydro , where it ended at US @-@ 66 / SH @-@ 1 .
In 1955 , SH @-@ 19 was established through southern Caddo County , taking over the east – west section of SH @-@ 58 . Thus , SH @-@ 58 was truncated to where it intersected with SH @-@ 19 ( the present day western end of their concurrency ) . SH @-@ 58 was extended to its present terminus north of Hydro the next year . The highway was further extended in 1964 , bringing the southern terminus to its present location near Medicine Park . No further routing changes have occurred since then .
= = SH @-@ 58A = =
SH @-@ 58 has one spur , SH @-@ 58A , a 5 @.@ 33 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 58 km ) route in Blaine County . The route begins at SH @-@ 58 near Longdale , and travels to Canton Lake . There , the highway runs across the dam impounding the lake . The highway then turns south and ends at SH @-@ 51 west of Canton .
= = Junction list = =
= = = Southern section = = =
= = = Northern section = = =
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= One Voice ( Andrew Johnston album ) =
One Voice is the debut album by British boy soprano Andrew Johnston , who rose to fame in 2008 after his appearance on the second series of Britain 's Got Talent . The album was released on 29 September 2008 by Syco Music , Britain 's Got Talent judge Simon Cowell 's record label . Recorded in London , the album features both classical and popular songs , some of which had been previously performed by Johnston , including a duet with Faryl Smith . Johnston made a number of media appearances to publicise the album 's launch , and appeared in his hometown of Carlisle on the day of the release , where the album sold out . Upon release , One Voice debuted at number five in the British album charts , finishing the week at number four . It also charted in Ireland , reaching number six . Critics responded positively to the album , favourably comparing Johnston to Aled Jones , and One Voice was rated gold in the UK .
= = Background = =
Johnston first rose to fame when he tried out for the second series of reality show Britain 's Got Talent . Johnston reached the final , held on 31 May 2008 , and finished in third place . Despite this , it was announced that he had been signed by judge Simon Cowell 's label Syco Music in June , and that his debut album would be released in late 2008 . It was on the show that Johnston first performed a rendition of " Pie Jesu " , later described as " the song that made him famous " , as well as a cover of Eric Clapton 's " Tears in Heaven " . Both of these songs were recorded for One Voice , and so was a duet of " Walking in the Air " with fellow contestant Faryl Smith , first performed on the Britain 's Got Talent Live Tour .
= = Recording and release = =
The album was recorded immediately after Johnston finished the Britain 's Got Talent live tour over a six @-@ week period in London . The track listing , which contained both religious and popular songs , was chosen by Cowell ; Johnston said " I hadn 't sung many of the tracks before . But I knew them all and , anyway , I like a challenge . " Johnston described recording the album as " great " , and said " All I ’ ve ever wanted to do is go into a studio and record an album and it was everything I ’ ve ever dreamed of . " Johnson recorded " Walking in the Air " as a duet with fellow Britain 's Got Talent contestant Faryl Smith , and the song was tipped as a potential Christmas number @-@ one . The recording was finished by September 2008 , after which Johnston began to make appearances to publicise the release , including appearances on GMTV , Channel 5 News , BBC Breakfast , This Morning and Radio 2 's Friday Night Is Music Night . In preparation for the album 's promotion , Johnston received confidence tutoring . He said that " I 've got no confidence and sometimes people get on at me for being moody so I 've had some help with that . " Johnston also received vocal training from Yvie Burnett , who was , at the time , coaching Leona Lewis and Leon Jackson , and with whom Smith trained during Britain 's Got Talent . The album was produced by Nigel Wright .
The release of One Voice was highly anticipated , and demand was so great that it charted on both Amazon 's pre @-@ sales chart and the easy listening chart before its release . The album was released on 29 September , later than first announced , and was Syco 's first release in the fourth quarter . Johnston made an appearance at the city @-@ centre Woolworths store in his home town of Carlisle to celebrate the album launch on 1 October , and spoke to reporters for the local paper The Cumberland News , saying " I am really grateful to my local supporters and it is great to take part in my first signing here in Carlisle . " In February 2009 , the album was released in South Korea .
= = Reception and performance = =
Critics responded positively to the album . Writing for the United Kingdom 's Daily Express , Robert Spellman said that " anyone missing Aled Jones since nature had its way will lap up Andrew 's butter @-@ wouldn 't @-@ melt renditions of Pie Jesu , Agnus Dei and One Voice . " Kate Leaver , writing for South Korea 's JoongAng Daily , said Johnston " has truer talent than hoards of his musical elders " and that " the vulnerability of this One Voice makes for a haunting musical experience . "
One Voice entered the UK Album Chart at number five , and finished the week at number four . It stayed in the top 75 for five weeks . Demand for the album in Johnston 's local area was so great that many Carlisle stores had sold out of the album the day after its release . In an interview published in the Daily Record , Johnston said " Thanks to everyone that has bought the album . You 've made my dreams come true " . The album has sold over 120 @,@ 000 copies , and was rated gold in the UK . Johnston was presented a gold disk by Penny Smith , and said that " it was such a surprise to see how well the album did " . The album also charted in the Irish Album Charts , entering at ten , peaking at six and spending a total of seven weeks in the top 75 .
= = Credits = =
= = = Choir = = =
= = = Music = = =
= = = Production and publicity = = =
= = Track listing = =
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= Kumba ( roller coaster ) =
Kumba is a Bolliger & Mabillard sit down roller coaster located at Busch Gardens Tampa Bay , in Tampa , Florida . Opened in 1993 , it stands 143 feet ( 44 m ) tall and has a top speed of 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) . Kumba features a total of seven inversions across the 3 @-@ minute ride .
= = History = =
Kumba was officially announced in November 1992 as a record @-@ breaking Bolliger & Mabillard roller coaster set to become the park 's signature attraction . The ride officially opened to the public on April 20 , 1993 . When Kumba opened , it featured the world 's tallest vertical loop , and was also the tallest , fastest and longest roller coaster in Florida . In 1995 , Kumba conceded the title of ride with the world 's tallest vertical loop to Dragon Khan at PortAventura which features a 118 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 36 m ) vertical loop . In 1996 , it conceded Florida 's titles of tallest and longest roller coaster to Montu , a Bolliger & Mabillard roller coaster in the Egypt section of the park . In 1999 , it conceded the fastest title to Islands of Adventure 's The Incredible Hulk , yet another Bolliger & Mabillard roller coaster .
= = Characteristics = =
The 3 @,@ 978 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 1 @,@ 212 m ) Kumba stands 143 feet ( 44 m ) tall . With a top speed of 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) , the ride features seven inversions including a 114 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 35 m ) vertical loop , a dive loop , a zero @-@ g roll , a cobra roll and two interlocking corkscrews . The vertical loop featured on Kumba wraps around the lift hill . Kumba was the first ride in the world to feature a number of now @-@ common roller coaster elements , including interlocking corkscrews and a dive loop . Riders of Kumba experience up to 3 @.@ 8 times the force of gravity on the 3 minute ride .
Kumba features four steel and fiberglass trains , each containing eight cars . Each car seats four riders in a single row for a total of 32 riders per train . The block sections only allow for three trains to be on the track at any one time , meaning the ride can still operate at full capacity when one train is receiving maintenance . Under three train operation , the ride caters for 1 @,@ 700 riders per hour .
The name Kumba was derived from the translation of " Roar " in the African Kongo Language .
= = Ride experience = =
The ride begins with a right @-@ hand , 90 @-@ degree turn out of the station which leads into the 143 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 44 m ) chain lift hill . After reaching the peak , trains go through a small pre @-@ drop . The ride then goes down a 135 @-@ foot ( 41 m ) drop to the left into a 114 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 35 m ) vertical loop that wraps around the lift hill . After leaving the vertical loop , the ride rises up into a diving loop , followed by a zero @-@ g roll , where riders experience a feeling of weightlessness . A straight section of track and a small hill leads to a Cobra roll . After exiting the cobra roll , the trains rise up into the mid @-@ course brake run . The exit from the brake run leads into a pair of interlocking corkscrews . The train then dives into a tunnel , and exits into an upward clockwise helix . The train then hits the final brake run , before making a right hand turn and returning to the station .
= = Reception = =
Kumba has generally been well received . Robb Alvey of Theme Park Review stated Kumba was his favourite ride in the Florida area , describing it as " an old @-@ school , intense ride " that he has been on hundreds of times . Dewayne Bevil of the Orlando Sentinel gives Kumba ratings of 4 out of 5 for both thrill and theming . Keith Kohn , also of the Sentinel , described the ride as " an amazing experience " .
The opening of Kumba had a significant impact on park attendance figures . In its debut year , park attendance increased approximately 15 % to an estimated 3 @.@ 8 million visitors . The park expected that trend to continue into 1994 . In 1995 , Joe Fincher , Busch Gardens Tampa Bay 's general manager , described Kumba as a " superstar roller coaster " that " has been terrific for us " .
In Amusement Today 's annual Golden Ticket Awards , Kumba has consistently ranked highly . It is also one of only seven roller coasters to appear in the top 50 every year since the award 's inception in 1998 . It debuted at position 4 in 1998 , before dropping to a low of 31 in 2011 , and rising to 23 the following year .
In Mitch Hawker 's worldwide Best Roller Coaster Poll , Kumba entered at position 7 in 1999 , before dropping to a low of 39 in 2004 . The ride 's ranking in subsequent polls is shown in the table below .
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= Jacob van Ruisdael =
Jacob Isaackszoon van Ruisdael ( Dutch pronunciation : [ ˈjaːkɔp fɑn ˈrœyzdaːl ] ; c . 1629 – 10 March 1682 ) was a Dutch painter , draughtsman , and etcher . He is generally considered the pre @-@ eminent landscape painter of the Dutch Golden Age , a period of great wealth and cultural achievement when Dutch painting became highly popular .
Prolific and versatile , Ruisdael depicted a wide variety of landscape subjects . From 1646 he painted Dutch countryside scenes of remarkable quality for a young man . After a trip to Germany in 1650 , his landscapes took on a more heroic character . In his late work , conducted when he lived and worked in Amsterdam , he added city panoramas and seascapes to his regular repertoire . In these , the sky often took up two @-@ thirds of the canvas . In total he produced more than 150 Scandinavian views featuring waterfalls .
Ruisdael 's only registered pupil was Meindert Hobbema , one of several artists who painted figures in his landscapes . Hobbema 's work has at times been confused with Ruisdael 's . There is difficulty in attributing Ruisdael 's work , which has not been helped by the fact that three members of his family were also landscape painters , some of whom spelled their name " Ruysdael " : his father Isaack van Ruisdael , his well @-@ known uncle Salomon van Ruysdael , and his cousin , confusingly called Jacob van Ruysdael .
Ruisdael 's work was in demand in the Dutch Republic during his lifetime . Today it is spread across private and institutional collections around the world ; the National Gallery in London , the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam , and the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg hold the largest collections . Ruisdael shaped landscape painting traditions worldwide , from the English Romantics to the Barbizon school in France , and the Hudson River School in the US , and influenced generations of Dutch landscape artists .
= = Life = =
Jacob Isaackszoon van Ruisdael was born in Haarlem in 1628 or 1629 into a family of painters , all landscapists . The number of painters in the family , and the multiple spellings of the Ruisdael name , have hampered attempts to document his life and attribute his works .
The name Ruisdael is connected to a castle , now lost , in the village of Blaricum . The village was the home of Jacob 's grandfather , the furniture maker Jacob de Goyer . When De Goyer moved away to Naarden , three of his sons changed their name to Ruysdael or Ruisdael , probably to indicate their origin . Two of De Goyer 's sons became painters : Jacob 's father Isaack van Ruisdael and his well @-@ known uncle Salomon van Ruysdael . Jacob himself always spelled his name with an " i " , while his cousin , Salomon 's son Jacob Salomonszoon van Ruysdael , also a landscape artist , spelled his name with a " y " . Jacob 's earliest biographer , Arnold Houbraken , called him Jakob Ruisdaal , and claimed the name resulted from his specialty in waterfalls , namely the " ruis " ( rustling noise of water ) falling into a " daal " ( dale ) where it foams out into a pond or wider river .
It is not known whether Ruisdael 's mother was Isaack van Ruisdael 's first wife , whose name is unknown , or his second wife , Maycken Cornelisdochter . Isaack and Maycken married on 12 November 1628 .
Ruisdael 's teacher is also unknown . It is often assumed Ruisdael studied with his father and uncle , but there is no archival evidence for this . He appears to have been strongly influenced by other contemporary local Haarlem landscapists , most notably Cornelis Vroom and Allaert van Everdingen .
The earliest date that appears on Ruisdael 's paintings and etchings is 1646 . Two years after this date he was admitted to membership of the Haarlem Guild of St. Luke . By this time landscape paintings were as popular as history paintings in Dutch households , though at the time of Ruisdael 's birth , history paintings appeared far more frequently . This growth in popularity of landscapes continued throughout Ruisdael 's career .
Around 1657 , Ruisdael moved to Amsterdam , by then a prosperous city which was likely to have offered a bigger market for his work . His fellow Haarlem painter Allaert van Everdingen had already moved to Amsterdam and found a market there . Ruisdael lived and worked in Amsterdam for the rest of his life . In 1668 , his name appears as a witness to the marriage of Meindert Hobbema , his only registered pupil , a painter whose works have been confused with Ruisdael 's own .
For a landscape artist , it seems Ruisdael travelled relatively little : to Blaricum , Egmond aan Zee , and Rhenen in the 1640s , with Nicolaes Berchem to Bentheim and Steinfurt just across the border in Germany in 1650 , and possibly with Hobbema across the German border again in 1661 , via the Veluwe , Deventer and Ootmarsum . Despite Ruisdael 's numerous Norwegian landscapes , there is no record of him having travelled to Scandinavia .
There is some speculation that Ruisdael was also a doctor . In 1718 , his biographer Houbraken reports that he studied medicine and performed surgery in Amsterdam . Archival records of the 17th century show the name " Jacobus Ruijsdael " on a list of Amsterdam doctors , albeit crossed out , with the added remark that he earned his medical degree on 15 October 1676 in Caen , northern France . Various art historians have speculated that this was a case of mistaken identity . Pieter Scheltema suggests it was Ruisdael 's cousin who appeared on the record . The Ruisdael expert Seymour Slive argues that the spelling " uij " is not consistent with Ruisdael 's own spelling of his name , that his unusually high production suggests there was little time to study medicine , and that there is no indication in any of his art that he visited northern France . However , Slive is willing to accept that Ruisdael may still have been a doctor . In 2013 , Jan Paul Hinrichs agreed that the evidence is inconclusive .
Ruisdael was not Jewish . Slive reports that , because of Ruisdael 's depiction of a Jewish cemetery and various biblical names in the Ruisdael family , he often heard speculation that Ruisdael must surely be Jewish . The evidence shows otherwise . Ruisdael requested that he be baptised at the Calvinist Reformed Church in Amsterdam , and he was buried in the Saint Bavo 's Church , Haarlem , a Protestant church at that time . His uncle Salomon van Ruysdael belonged to the Young Flemish subgroup of the Mennonite congregation , one of several types of Anabaptists in Haarlem , and it is probable that Ruisdael 's father was also a member there . His cousin Jacob was a registered Mennonite in Amsterdam .
Ruisdael did not marry . According to Houbraken this was " to reserve time to serve his old father " . It is not known what Ruisdael looked like , as no known portrait or self @-@ portrait of him exists .
The art historian Hendrik Frederik Wijnman disproved the myth that Ruisdael died a poor man , supposedly in the old men 's almshouse in Haarlem . Wijnman showed that the person who died there was in fact Ruisdael 's cousin , Jacob Salomonszoon . Although there is no record of Ruisdael owning land or shares , he appears to have lived comfortably , even after the economic downturn of the disaster year 1672 . His paintings were valued fairly highly . In a large sample of inventories between 1650 and 1679 the average price for a Ruisdael was 40 guilders , compared to an average of 19 guilders for all attributed paintings . In a ranking of contemporary Dutch painters based on price @-@ weighted frequency in these inventories , Ruisdael ranks seventh ; Rembrandt ranks first .
Ruisdael died in Amsterdam on 10 March 1682 . He was buried 14 March 1682 in Saint Bavo 's Church , Haarlem .
= = Work = =
= = = Early years = = =
Ruisdael 's work from c . 1646 to the early 1650s , when he was living in Haarlem , is characterised by simple motifs and careful and laborious study of nature : dunes , woods , and atmospheric effects . By applying heavier paint than his predecessors , Ruisdael gave his foliage a rich quality , conveying a sense of sap flowing through branches and leaves . His accurate rendering of trees was unprecedented at the time : the genera of his trees are the first to be unequivocally recognisable by modern @-@ day botanists . His early sketches introduce motifs that would return in all his work : a sense of spaciousness and luminosity , and an airy atmosphere achieved through pointillist @-@ like touches of chalk . Most of his thirty black chalk sketches that survive date from this period .
An exemplar of Ruisdael 's early style is Dune Landscape , one of the earliest works , dated 1646 . It breaks with the classic Dutch tradition of depicting broad views of dunes that include houses and trees flanked by distant vistas . Instead , Ruisdael places tree @-@ covered dunes prominently at centre stage , with a cloudscape concentrating strong light on a sandy path . The resulting heroic effect is enhanced by the large size of the canvas , " so unexpected in the work of an inexperienced painter " according to Irina Sokolova , curator at the Hermitage Museum . The art historian Hofstede de Groot said of Dune Landscape : " It is hardly credible that it should be the work of a boy of seventeen " .
Ruisdael 's first panoramic landscape , View of Naarden with the Church at Muiderberg in the Distance , dates from 1647 . The theme of an overwhelming sky and a distant town , in this case the birthplace of his father , is one he returned to in his later years .
For unknown reasons , Ruisdael almost entirely stopped dating his work from 1653 . Only five works from the 1660s have a , partially obscured , year next to his signature ; none from the 1670s and 1680s have a date . Dating subsequent work has therefore been largely based on detective work and speculation .
All thirteen known Ruisdael etchings come from his early period , with the first one dated 1646 . It is unknown who taught him the art of etching . No etchings exist signed by his father , his uncle , or his fellow Haarlem landscapist Cornelis Vroom , who influenced his other work . His etchings show little influence from Rembrandt , either in style or technique . Few original impressions exist ; five etchings survive in only a single impression . The rarity of prints suggests that Ruisdael considered them trial essays , which did not warrant large editions . The etching expert Georges Duplessis singled out Grainfield at the Edge of a Wood and The Travellers as unrivalled illustrations of Ruisdael 's genius .
= = = Middle period = = =
Following Ruisdael 's trip to Germany , his landscapes took on a more heroic character , with forms becoming larger and more prominent . A view of Bentheim Castle , dated 1653 , is just one of a dozen of Ruisdael 's depictions of a particular castle in Germany , almost all of which pronounce its position on a hilltop . Significantly , Ruisdael made numerous changes to the castle 's setting ( it is actually on an unimposing low hill ) culminating in a 1653 version which shows it on a wooded mountain . These variations are considered by art historians to be evidence of Ruisdael 's compositional skills .
On his trip to Germany , Ruisdael encountered water mills which he turned into a principal subject for painting , the first artist to ever do so . Two Water Mills with an Open Sluice , dated 1653 , is a prime example . The ruins of Egmont Castle near Alkmaar were another favourite subject of Ruisdael 's and feature in The Jewish Cemetery , of which he painted two versions . With these , Ruisdael pits the natural world against the built environment , which has been overrun by the trees and shrubs surrounding the cemetery .
Ruisdael 's first Scandinavian views contain big firs , rugged mountains , large boulders and rushing torrents . Though convincingly realistic , they are based on previous art works , rather than on direct experience . There is no record that Ruisdael made any trip to Scandinavia , although fellow Haarlem painter van Everdingen had travelled there in 1644 and had popularised the subgenre . Ruisdael 's work soon outstripped van Everdingen 's finest efforts . In total Ruisdael produced more than 150 Scandinavian views featuring waterfalls , of which Waterfall in a Mountainous Landscape with a Ruined Castle , c . 1665 – 1670 , is seen as his greatest by Slive .
In this period Ruisdael started painting coastal scenes and sea @-@ pieces , influenced by Simon de Vlieger and Jan Porcellis . Among the most dramatic is Rough Sea at a Jetty , with a restricted palette of only black , white , blue and a few brown earth colours . However , forest scenes remain a subject of choice , such as the Hermitage 's most famous Ruisdael , A Wooded Marsh , dated c . 1665 , which depicts a primeval scene with broken birches and oaks , and branches reaching for the sky amidst an overgrown pond .
= = = Later years = = =
During Ruisdael 's last period he began to depict mountain scenes , such as Mountainous and Wooded Landscape with a River , dateable to the late 1670s . This portrays a rugged range with the highest peak in the clouds . Ruisdael 's subjects became unusually varied . The art historian Wolfgang Stechow identified thirteen themes within the Dutch Golden Age landscape genre , and Ruisdael 's work encompasses all but two of them , excelling at most : forests , rivers , dunes and country roads , panoramas , imaginary landscapes , Scandinavian waterfalls , marines , beachscapes , winter scenes , town views , and nocturnes . Only the Italianate and foreign landscapes other than Scandinavian are absent from his oeuvre .
Slive finds it appropriate that a windmill is the subject of one of Ruisdael 's most famous works . Windmill at Wijk bij Duurstede , dated 1670 , shows Wijk bij Duurstede , a riverside town about 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) from Utrecht , with a dominant cylindrical windmill . In this composition , Ruisdael united typical Dutch elements of low @-@ lying land , water and expansive sky , so that they converge on the equally characteristic Dutch windmill . The painting 's enduring popularity is evidenced by card sales in the Rijksmuseum , with the Windmill ranking third after Rembrandt 's Night Watch and Vermeer 's View of Delft . Windmills featured throughout Ruisdael 's entire career .
Various panoramic views of the Haarlem skyline and its bleaching grounds appear during this stage , a specific genre called Haerlempjes , with the clouds creating various gradations of alternating bands of light and shadow towards the horizon . The paintings are often dominated by Saint Bavo 's Church , in which Ruisdael would one day be buried .
While Amsterdam does feature in his work , it does so relatively rarely given that Ruisdael lived there for over 25 years . It does feature in his only known architectural subject , a drawing of the interior of the Old Church , as well as in views of the Dam , and the Panoramic view of the Amstel looking toward Amsterdam , one of Ruisdael 's last paintings .
Figures are introduced sparingly into Ruisdael 's compositions , and are by this period rarely from his own hand but executed by various artists , including his pupil Meindert Hobbema , Nicolaes Berchem , Adriaen van de Velde , Philips Wouwerman , Jan Vonck , Thomas de Keyser , Gerard van Battum and Jan Lingelbach .
= = = Attributions = = =
In his 2001 catalogue raisonné , Slive attributes 694 paintings to Ruisdael and lists another 163 paintings with dubious or , he believes , incorrect attribution . There are three main reasons why there is uncertainty over whose hand painted various Ruisdael @-@ style landscapes . Firstly , four members of the Ruysdael family were landscapists with similar signatures , some of which were later fraudulently altered into Jacob 's . This is further complicated by the fact that Ruisdael used variations of his signature . This typically reads " JvRuisdael " or the monogram " JVR " , sometimes using a small italic ' s ' and sometimes a Gothic long ' s ' , such as on Landscape with Waterfall . Secondly , many 17th century landscape paintings are unsigned and could be from pupils or copyists . Finally , fraudsters imitated Ruisdaels for financial gain , with the earliest case reported by Houbraken in 1718 : a certain Jan Griffier the Elder could imitate Ruisdael 's style so well that he often sold them for real Ruisdaels , especially with figurines added in the style of the artist Wouwerman . There is no large @-@ scale systematic approach to ascertaining Ruisdael 's attributions , unlike the forensic science used to find the correct attributions of Rembrandt 's paintings through the Rembrandt Research Project .
= = = Legacy = = =
Ruisdael has shaped landscape painting traditions from the English Romantics to the Barbizon school in France , and the Hudson River School in the US , as well as generations of Dutch landscape artists . Among the English artists influenced by Ruisdael are Thomas Gainsborough , J. M. W. Turner , and John Constable . Gainsborough drew , in black chalk and grey wash , a replica of a Ruisdael in the 1740s — now both paintings are housed in the Louvre in Paris . Turner made many copies of Ruisdaels and even painted fantasy views of a nonexistent port he called Port Ruysdael . Constable also copied various drawings , etchings and paintings by Ruisdael , and was a great admirer from a young age . " It haunts my mind and clings to my heart " , he wrote after seeing a Ruisdael . However , he thought Jewish Cemetery was a failure , because he considered that it attempted to convey something outside the reach of art .
In the 19th century , Vincent van Gogh acknowledged Ruisdael as a major influence , calling him sublime , but at the same time saying it would be a mistake to try to copy him . Van Gogh had two Ruisdael prints , The Bush and a Haerlempje , on his wall , and thought the Ruisdaels in the Louvre were " magnificent , especially The Bush , The Breakwater and The Ray of Light " . His experience of the French countryside was informed by his memory of Ruisdael 's art . Van Gogh 's contemporary Claude Monet is also said to be indebted to Ruisdael . Even Piet Mondriaan 's minimalism has been traced back to Ruisdael 's panoramas .
Among art historians and critics , Ruisdael 's reputation has had its ups and downs over the centuries . The first account , in 1718 , is from Houbraken , who waxed lyrical over the technical mastery which allowed Ruisdael to realistically depict water in waterfalls and the sea . In 1781 , Sir Joshua Reynolds , founder of the Royal Academy , admired the freshness and force of Ruisdael 's landscapes . A couple of decades later other English critics were less impressed . In 1801 , Henry Fuseli , professor at the Royal Academy , expressed his contempt for the entire Dutch School of Landscape , dismissing it as no more than a " transcript of the spot " , a mere " enumeration of hill and dale , clumps of trees " . Of note is that one of Fuseli 's students was Constable , whose admiration for Ruisdael remained unchanged . Around the same time in Germany , the writer , statesman and scientist Johann Wolfgang von Goethe lauded Ruisdael as a thinking artist , even a poet , saying " he demonstrates remarkable skill in locating the exact point at which the creative faculty comes into contact with a lucid mind " . John Ruskin however , in 1860 , raged against Ruisdael and other Dutch Golden Age landscapists , calling their landscapes places where " we lose not only all faith in religion but all remembrance of it " . In 1915 , the Dutch art historian Abraham Bredius called his compatriot not so much a painter as a poet .
More recent art historians have rated Ruisdael highly . Kenneth Clark described him as " the greatest master of the natural vision before Constable " . Waldemar Januszczak finds him a marvellous storyteller . Januszczak does not consider Ruisdael the greatest landscape artist of all time , but is especially impressed by his works as a teenager : " a prodigy whom we should rank at number 8 or 9 on the Mozart scale " . Slive states Ruisdael is acknowledged " by general consent , as the pre @-@ eminent landscapist of the Golden Age of Dutch art " .
Ruisdael is now seen as the leading artist of the " classical " phase in Dutch landscape art , which built upon the realism of the previous " tonal " phase . The tonal phase suggested atmosphere through the use of tonality , while the classical phase strived for a more grandiose effect , with paintings built up through a serious of vigorous contrasts of solid form against the sky , and of light against shade , with a tree , animal , or windmill often singled out .
Although many of Ruisdael 's works were on show in the Art Treasures Exhibition , Manchester 1857 , and various other grand exhibitions across the world since , it was not until 1981 that an exhibition was solely dedicated to Ruisdael . Over fifty paintings and thirty @-@ five drawings and etchings were exhibited , first at the Mauritshuis in The Hague , then , in 1982 , at the Fogg Museum in Cambridge , Massachusetts . In 2006 , the Royal Academy in London hosted a Ruisdael Master of Landscape exhibition , displaying works from over fifty collections .
= = = Interpretation = = =
There are no 17th century documents to indicate , either at first or second hand , what Ruisdael intended to convey through his art . While The Jewish Cemetery is universally accepted as an allegory for the fragility of life , how other works should be interpreted is much disputed . At one end of the spectrum is Henry Fuseli , who contends they have no meaning at all , and are simply a depiction of nature . At the other end is Franz Theodor Kugler who sees meaning in almost everything : " They all display the silent power of Nature , who opposes with her mighty hand the petty activity of man , and with a solemn warning as it were , repels his encroachments " .
In the middle of the spectrum are scholars such as E. John Walford , who sees the works as " not so much bearers of narrative or emblematic meanings but rather as images reflecting the fact that the visible world was essentially perceived as manifesting inherent spiritual significance " . Walford advocates abandoning the notion of " disguised symbolism " . All of Ruisdael 's work can be interpreted according to the religious world view of his time : nature serves as the " first book " of God , both because of its inherent divine qualities and because of God 's obvious concern for man and the world . The intention is spiritual , not moral .
Andrew Graham @-@ Dixon asserts all Dutch Golden Age landscapists could not help but search everywhere for meaning . He says of the windmill in The Windmill at Wijk bij Duurstede that it symbolises " the sheer hard work needed to keep Holland above water and to safeguard the future of the nation 's children " . The symmetries in the landscapes are " reminders to fellow citizens always to remain on the straight and narrow " . Slive is more reluctant to read too much into the work , but does put The Windmill in its contemporary religious context of man 's dependence on the " spirit of the Lord for life " . With regards to interpreting Ruisdael 's Scandinavian paintings , he says " My own view is that it strains credulity to the breaking point to propose that he himself conceived of all his depictions of waterfalls , torrents and rushing streams and dead trees as visual sermons on the themes of transcience and vanitas " .
= = = Collections = = =
Ruisdaels are scattered across collections globally , both private and institutional . The most notable collections are at the National Gallery in London , which holds twenty paintings ; the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam , which holds sixteen paintings ; and the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg , which holds nine . In the US , the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York has five Ruisdaels in its collection , and the J. Paul Getty Museum in California has three .
On occasion a Ruisdael changes hands . In 2014 , Dunes by the Sea was auctioned at Christie 's in New York , and realised a price of $ 1 @,@ 805 @,@ 000 . Of his surviving drawings , 140 in total , the Rijksmuseum , the Teylers Museum in Haarlem , Dresden 's Kupferstich @-@ Kabinett , and the Hermitage each hold significant collections . Ruisdael 's rare etchings are spread across institutions . No collection holds a print of each of the thirteen etchings . Of the five unique prints , the British Museum holds two , two are in the Albertina in Vienna , and one is in Amsterdam .
= = Context = =
Ruisdael and his art should not be considered apart from the context of the incredible wealth and significant changes to the land that occurred during the Dutch Golden Age . In his study on 17th @-@ century Dutch art and culture , Simon Schama remarks that " it can never be overemphasized that the period between 1550 and 1650 , when the political identity of an independent Netherlands nation was being established , was also a time of dramatic physical alteration of its landscape " . Ruisdael 's depiction of nature and emergent Dutch technology are wrapped up in this . Christopher Joby places Ruisdael in the religious context of the Calvinism of the Dutch Republic . He states that landscape painting does conform to Calvin 's requirement that only what is visible may be depicted in art , and that landscape paintings such as those of Ruisdael have an epistemological value which provides further support for their use within Reformed Churches .
The art historian Yuri Kuznetsov places Ruisdael 's art in the context of the war of independence against Spain . Dutch landscape painters " were called upon to make a portrait of their homeland , twice rewon by the Dutch people – first from the sea and later from foreign invaders " . Jonathan Israel , in his study of the Dutch Republic , calls the period between 1647 and 1672 the third phase of Dutch Golden Age art , in which wealthy merchants wanted large , opulent and refined paintings , and civic leaders filled their town halls with grand displays containing republican messages .
As well , ordinary middle class Dutch people began buying art for the first time , creating a high demand for paintings of all kinds . This demand was met by enormous painter guilds . Master painters set up studios to produce large numbers of paintings quickly . Under the master 's direction , studio members would specialise in parts of a painting , such as figures in landscapes , or costumes in portraits and history paintings . Masters would sometimes add a few touches to authenticate a work mostly done by pupils , to maximise both speed and price . Numerous art dealers organised commissions on behalf of patrons , as well as buying uncommissioned stock to sell on . Landscape artists did not depend on commissions in the way most painters had to do , and could therefore paint for stock . In Ruisdael 's case , it is not known whether he kept stock to sell directly to customers , or sold his work through dealers , or both . Art historians only know of one commission , a work for the wealthy Amsterdam burgomaster Cornelis de Graeff , jointly painted with Thomas de Keyser .
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= Zimbabwe =
Zimbabwe ( / zɪmˈbɑːbweɪ / ) , officially the Republic of Zimbabwe , is a landlocked sovereign state located in southern Africa , between the Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers . It borders South Africa to the south , Botswana to the west , Zambia to the northwest , and Mozambique to the east and northeast . The capital and largest city is Harare . A country of roughly 13 million people , Zimbabwe has 16 official languages , with English , Shona , and Ndebele the most commonly used .
Since the 11th century , present @-@ day Zimbabwe has been the site of several organised states and kingdoms as well as a major route for migration and trade . The British South Africa Company of Cecil Rhodes first demarcated the present territory during the 1890s ; it became the self @-@ governing British colony of Southern Rhodesia in 1923 . In 1965 , the conservative white minority government unilaterally declared independence as Rhodesia . The state endured international isolation and a 15 @-@ year guerrilla war with black nationalist forces ; this culminated in a peace agreement that established universal enfranchisement and de jure sovereignty in April 1980 . Zimbabwe then rejoined the Commonwealth of Nations — which it withdrew from in 2003 — and became a member of the United Nations and the Southern African Development Community ( SADC ) .
Robert Mugabe became Prime Minister of Zimbabwe in 1980 , when his ZANU @-@ PF party won the elections following the end of white minority rule ; he has been the president of Zimbabwe since 1987 . Under Mugabe 's authoritarian regime , the state security apparatus has dominated the country and been responsible for widespread human rights violations . Mugabe has maintained the revolutionary socialist rhetoric from the Cold War era , blaming Zimbabwe 's economic woes on conspiring Western capitalist countries . Burnished by his anti @-@ imperialist credentials , contemporary African political leaders have been reluctant to criticise Mugabe , though Archbishop Desmond Tutu has called him " a cartoon figure of an archetypal African dictator . "
= = Etymology = =
The name " Zimbabwe " is based on a Shona term for Great Zimbabwe , an ancient ruined city in the country 's south @-@ east whose remains are now a protected site . There are two theories on the origin of the word . Many sources hold that the word is derived from dzimba @-@ dza @-@ mabwe , translated from the Karanga dialect of Shona as " large houses of stone " ( dzimba |
= plural of imba , " house " ; mabwe =
plural of bwe , " stone " ) . The Karanga @-@ speaking Shona people are found around Great Zimbabwe in the modern @-@ day province of Masvingo . Archaeologist Peter Garlake claims that " Zimbabwe " is a contracted form of dzimba @-@ hwe which means " venerated houses " in the Zezuru dialect of Shona , and is usually applied to chiefs ' houses or graves .
Zimbabwe was formerly known as Southern Rhodesia ( 1898 ) , Rhodesia ( 1965 ) , and Zimbabwe Rhodesia ( 1979 ) . The first recorded use of " Zimbabwe " as a term of national reference was in 1960 , when it was coined by the black nationalist Michael Mawema , whose Zimbabwe National Party became the first to officially use the name in 1961 . The term Rhodesia — derived from the surname of Cecil Rhodes , the primary instigator of British colonisation of the territory during the late 19th century — was perceived as inappropriate because of its colonial origin and connotations .
According to Mawema , black nationalists held a meeting in 1960 to choose an alternative name for the country , and names including Machobana and Monomotapa were proposed before his suggestion , Zimbabwe , prevailed . A further alternative , put forward by nationalists in Matabeleland , had been " Matopos " , referring to the Matopos Hills to the south of Bulawayo .
It was initially unclear how the chosen term was to be used — a letter written by Mawema in 1961 refers to " Zimbabweland " — but " Zimbabwe " was sufficiently established by 1962 to become the generally preferred term of the black nationalist movement . In a 2001 interview , black nationalist Edson Zvobgo recalled that the name was mentioned by Mawema during a political rally , " and it caught hold , and that was that " . The name was subsequently used by the black nationalist factions during the Second Chimurenga campaigns against the Rhodesian government during the Rhodesian Bush War . The most major of these were the Zimbabwe African National Union ( led by Robert Mugabe from 1975 ) , and the Zimbabwe African People 's Union , led by Joshua Nkomo from its founding in the early 1960s .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ colonial era ( 1000 – 1886 ) = = =
Proto @-@ Shona speaking societies first emerged in the middle Limpopo valley in the 9th century before moving on to the Zimbabwean highlands . The Zimbabwean plateau eventually became the centre of subsequent Shona states , beginning around the 10th century . Around the early 10th century , trade developed with Arab merchants on the Indian Ocean coast , helping to develop the Kingdom of Mapungubwe in the 11th century . This was the precursor to the more impressive Shona civilisations that would dominate the region during the 13th to 15th centuries , evidenced by ruins at Great Zimbabwe , near Masvingo , and other smaller sites . The main archaeological site uses a unique dry stone architecture .
The Kingdom of Mapungubwe was the first in a series of sophisticated trade states developed in Zimbabwe by the time of the first European explorers from Portugal . They traded in gold , ivory , and copper for cloth and glass .
From about 1300 until 1600 , Mapungubwe was eclipsed by the Kingdom of Zimbabwe . This Shona state further refined and expanded upon Mapungubwe 's stone architecture , which survives to this day at the ruins of the kingdom 's capital of Great Zimbabwe . From c . 1450 – 1760 , Zimbabwe gave way to the Kingdom of Mutapa . This Shona state ruled much of the area that is known as Zimbabwe today , and parts of central Mozambique . It is known by many names including the Mutapa Empire , also known as Mwene Mutapa or Monomotapa as well as " Munhumutapa , " and was renowned for its strategic trade routes with the Arabs and Portugal . The Portuguese sought to monopolise this influence and began a series of wars which left the empire in near collapse in the early 17th century .
As a direct response to increased European presence in the interior , a new Shona state emerged , known as the Rozwi Empire . Relying on centuries of military , political and religious development , the Rozwi ( meaning " destroyers " ) expelled the Portuguese from the Zimbabwean plateau by force of arms . They continued the stone building traditions of the Zimbabwe and Mapungubwe kingdoms while adding muskets to their arsenal and recruiting a professional army to defend recent conquests .
Around 1821 , the Zulu general Mzilikazi of the Khumalo clan successfully rebelled against King Shaka and created his own clan , the Ndebele . The Ndebele fought their way northwards into the Transvaal , leaving a trail of destruction in their wake and beginning an era of widespread devastation known as the Mfecane . When Dutch trekboers converged on the Transvaal in 1836 , they drove the tribe even further northward . By 1838 , the Rozwi Empire , along with the other smaller Shona states were conquered by the Ndebele and reduced to vassaldom .
After losing their remaining South African lands in 1840 , Mzilikazi and his tribe permanently settled in the southwest of present @-@ day Zimbabwe in what became known as Matabeleland , establishing Bulawayo as their capital . Mzilikazi then organised his society into a military system with regimental kraals , similar to those of Shaka , which was stable enough to repel further Boer incursions . Mzilikazi died in 1868 and , following a violent power struggle , was succeeded by his son , Lobengula .
= = = Colonial era ( 1888 – 1965 ) = = =
In the 1880s , white colonists arrived with Cecil Rhodes 's British South Africa Company ( BSAC ) . In 1888 , Rhodes obtained a concession for mining rights from King Lobengula of the Ndebele peoples . He presented this concession to persuade the government of the United Kingdom to grant a royal charter to the company over Matabeleland , and its subject states such as Mashonaland as well .
Rhodes used this document in 1890 to justify sending the Pioneer Column , a group of Europeans protected by well @-@ armed British South Africa Police ( BSAP ) through Matabeleland and into Shona territory to establish Fort Salisbury ( now Harare ) , and thereby establish company rule over the area . In 1893 and 1894 , with the help of their new Maxim guns , the BSAP would go on to defeat the Ndebele in the First Matabele War . Rhodes additionally sought permission to negotiate similar concessions covering all territory between the Limpopo River and Lake Tanganyika , then known as " Zambesia " .
In accordance with the terms of aforementioned concessions and treaties , mass settlement was encouraged , with the British maintaining control over labour as well as precious metals and other mineral resources .
In 1895 , the BSAC adopted the name " Rhodesia " for the territory , in honour of Rhodes . In 1898 " Southern Rhodesia " became the official name for the region south of the Zambezi , which later became Zimbabwe . The region to the north was administered separately and later termed Northern Rhodesia ( now Zambia ) . Shortly after Rhodes ' disastrous Jameson Raid on the South African Republic , the Ndebele rebelled against white rule , led by their charismatic religious leader , Mlimo . The Second Matabele War lasted in Matabeleland until 1896 , when Mlimo was assassinated . Shona agitators staged unsuccessful revolts ( known as Chimurenga ) against company rule during 1896 and 1897 .
Following these failed insurrections , the Ndebele and Shona groups were finally subdued by the Rhodes administration , which organised the land with a disproportionate bias favouring Europeans , thus displacing many indigenous peoples .
Southern Rhodesia was annexed by the United Kingdom on 12 September 1923 . Shortly after annexation , on 1 October 1923 , the first constitution for the new Colony of Southern Rhodesia came into force .
Under the new constitution , Southern Rhodesia became a self @-@ governing British colony , subsequent to a 1922 referendum . Rhodesians of all races served on behalf of the United Kingdom during the two World Wars . Proportional to the white population , Southern Rhodesia contributed more per capita to both the First and Second World Wars than any other part of the Empire , including Britain itself .
In 1953 , in the face of African opposition , Britain consolidated the two Rhodesias with Nyasaland ( Malawi ) in the ill @-@ fated Central African Federation , which was essentially dominated by Southern Rhodesia . Growing African nationalism and general dissent , particularly in Nyasaland , persuaded Britain to dissolve the Union in 1963 , forming three separate divisions . While multiracial democracy was finally introduced to Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland , however , Southern Rhodesians of European ancestry continued to enjoy minority rule .
With Zambian independence , Ian Smith 's Rhodesian Front ( RF ) dropped the designation " Southern " in 1964 and issued a Unilateral Declaration of Independence ( commonly abbreviated to " UDI " ) from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965 , intent on effectively repudiating the recently adopted British policy of " no independence before majority rule " . It was the first such course taken by a British colony since the American declaration of 1776 , which Smith and others indeed claimed provided a suitable precedent to their own actions .
= = = UDI and civil war ( 1965 – 1979 ) = = =
After the Unilateral Declaration of Independence ( UDI ) , the British government petitioned the United Nations for sanctions against Rhodesia pending unsuccessful talks with Smith 's administration in 1966 and 1968 . In December 1966 , the organisation complied , imposing the first mandatory trade embargo on an autonomous state . These sanctions were expanded again in 1968 .
The United Kingdom deemed the Rhodesian declaration an act of rebellion , but did not re @-@ establish control by force . A guerrilla war subsequently ensued when Joshua Nkomo 's Zimbabwe African People 's Union ( ZAPU ) and Robert Mugabe 's Zimbabwe African National Union ( ZANU ) , supported actively by communist powers and neighbouring African nations , initiated guerilla operations against Rhodesia 's predominantly white government . ZAPU was supported by the Soviet Union , the Warsaw Pact and associated nations such as Cuba , and adopted a Marxist – Leninist ideology ; ZANU meanwhile aligned itself with Maoism and the bloc headed by the People 's Republic of China . Smith declared Rhodesia a republic in 1970 , following the results of a referendum the previous year , but this went unrecognised internationally . Meanwhile , Rhodesia 's internal conflict intensified , eventually forcing him to open negotiations with the militant nationalists .
In March 1978 , Smith reached an accord with three African leaders , led by Bishop Abel Muzorewa , who offered to leave the white population comfortably entrenched in exchange for the establishment of a biracial democracy . As a result of the Internal Settlement , elections were held in April 1979 , concluding with the United African National Council ( UANC ) carrying a majority of parliamentary seats . On 1 June 1979 , Muzorewa , the UANC head , became prime minister and the country 's name was changed to Zimbabwe Rhodesia . The Internal Settlement left control of the Rhodesian Security Forces , civil service , judiciary , and a third of parliament seats to whites . On 12 June , the United States Senate voted to lift economic pressure on the former Rhodesia .
Following the fifth Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting ( CHOGM ) , held in Lusaka , Zambia from 1 to 7 August in 1979 , the British government invited Muzorewa , Mugabe , and Nkomo to participate in a constitutional conference at Lancaster House . The purpose of the conference was to discuss and reach an agreement on the terms of an independence constitution , and provide for elections supervised under British authority allowing Zimbabwe Rhodesia to proceed to legal independence .
With Lord Carrington , Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs of the United Kingdom , in the chair , these discussions were mounted from 10 September to 15 December in 1979 , producing a total of 47 plenary sessions . On 21 December 1979 , delegations from every major interest represented reached the Lancaster House Agreement , effectively ending the guerrilla war .
On 11 December 1979 , the Rhodesian House of Assembly voted 90 to nil to revert to British colonial status ( the ' aye ' votes included Ian Smith himself ) . The bill then passed the Senate and was assented to by the President . With the arrival of Lord Christopher Soames , the new Governor , just after 2 p.m. on 12 December 1979 , Britain formally took control of Zimbabwe Rhodesia as the Colony of Southern Rhodesia , although on 13 December Soames declared that during his mandate the name Rhodesia and Zimbabwe Rhodesia would continue to be used . Britain lifted sanctions on 12 December , and the United Nations on 16 December , before calling on its member states to do likewise on 21 December . Thus Zambia , Mozambique , Tanzania , Angola and Botswana lifted sanctions on 22 – 23 December ; Australia partly pre @-@ empted this , lifting all but trade sanctions on 18 December , and trade sanctions on 21 December .
= = = Independence era ( 1980 – present ) = = =
Zimbabwe 's first president after its independence was Canaan Banana in what was originally a mainly ceremonial role as Head of State . Robert Mugabe , leader of the ZANU party , was the country 's first Prime Minister and Head of Government . During the elections of February 1980 , Robert Mugabe and the ZANU party secured a landslide victory .
Opposition to what was perceived as a Shona takeover immediately erupted around Matabeleland . The Matabele unrest led to what has become known as Gukurahundi ( Shona : " the early rain which washes away the chaff before the spring rains " ) .
The Fifth Brigade , a North Korean @-@ trained elite unit that reported directly to the Zimbabwean Prime Minister , entered Matabeleland and massacred thousands of civilians accused of supporting " dissidents " .
Estimates for the number of deaths during the five @-@ year Gukurahundi campaign ranged from 10 @,@ 000 to 30 @,@ 000 . Thousands of others were tortured in military internment camps .
The campaign officially ended in 1987 after Nkomo and Mugabe reached a unity agreement that merged their respective parties , creating the Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front ( ZANU – PF ) .
Elections in March 1990 resulted in another victory for Mugabe and the Zanu @-@ PF party , which claimed 117 of the 120 contested seats .
During the 1990s , students , trade unionists , and other workers often demonstrated to express their growing discontent with Mugabe and Zanu @-@ PF party policies . In 1996 , civil servants , nurses , and junior doctors went on strike over salary issues . The general health of the population also began to significantly decline ; by 1997 an estimated 25 % of the population had been infected by HIV in a pandemic that was affecting most of southern Africa .
Land redistribution re @-@ emerged as the main issue for the Zanu @-@ PF government around 1997 . Despite the existence of a " willing @-@ buyer @-@ willing @-@ seller " land reform programme since the 1980s , the minority white Zimbabwean population of around 0 @.@ 6 % continued to hold 70 % of the country 's most fertile agricultural land .
In 2000 , the government pressed ahead with its Fast Track Land Reform programme , a policy involving compulsory land acquisition aimed at redistributing land from the minority white population to the majority black population . Confiscations of white farmland ( accompanied by brutality and corruption ) , continuous droughts , and a serious drop in external finance and other supports led to a sharp decline in agricultural exports , which were traditionally the country 's leading export @-@ producing sector . Some 58 @,@ 000 independent black farmers have since experienced limited success in reviving the gutted cash crop sectors through efforts on a smaller scale .
Accused of committing numerous human rights abuses and grossly mismanaging the economy , Mugabe and the Zanu @-@ PF party leadership found themselves beset by a wide range of international sanctions . In 2002 , the nation was suspended from the Commonwealth of Nations due to the reckless farm seizures and blatant election tampering . The following year , Zimbabwean officials voluntarily terminated its Commonwealth membership .
Following elections in 2005 , the government initiated " Operation Murambatsvina " , an effort to crack down on illegal markets and slums emerging in towns and cities , leaving a substantial section of urban poor homeless . The Zimbabwean government has described the operation as an attempt to provide decent housing to the population , although according to critics such as Amnesty International , authorities have yet to properly substantiate their claims .
On 29 March 2008 , Zimbabwe held a presidential election along with a parliamentary election . The results of this election were withheld for two weeks , after which it was generally acknowledged that the Movement for Democratic Change – Tsvangirai ( MDC @-@ T ) had achieved a majority of one seat in the lower house of parliament .
In a surprising moment of candour at the ZANU @-@ PF congress in December 2014 , President Robert Mugabe accidentally let slip that the opposition had in fact won the contentious 2008 polls by an astounding 73 % .
In late 2008 , problems in Zimbabwe reached crisis proportions in the areas of living standards , public health ( with a major cholera outbreak in December ) and various basic affairs .
In September 2008 , a power @-@ sharing agreement was reached between Tsvangirai and President Mugabe , permitting the former to hold the office of prime minister . Due to ministerial differences between their respective political parties , the agreement was not fully implemented until 13 February 2009 . By December 2010 , Mugabe was threatening to completely expropriate remaining privately owned companies in Zimbabwe unless " western sanctions " were lifted .
A 2011 survey by Freedom House suggests that living conditions have improved since the power @-@ sharing agreement . The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs states in its 2012 – 2013 planning document that the " humanitarian situation has improved in Zimbabwe since 2009 , but conditions remain precarious for many people " .
On 17 January 2013 , Vice President John Nkomo died of cancer at St Anne 's Hospital , Harare at the age of 78 . A new constitution approved in the Zimbabwean constitutional referendum , 2013 curtails presidential powers .
Mugabe was re @-@ elected president in the July 2013 Zimbabwean general election which The Economist described as " rigged . " ) . The Movement for Democratic Change alleged massive fraud and tried to seek relief through the courts . After winning the election , the Mugabe government doubled the civil service and , according to The Economist , embarked on " ... misrule and dazzling corruption . "
In July 2016 nationwide protests took place regarding the economic collapse in the country and the finance minister admitted " Right now we literally have nothing . "
= = Geography and environment = =
Zimbabwe is a landlocked country in southern Africa , lying between latitudes 15 ° and 23 ° S , and longitudes 25 ° and 34 ° E. Most of the country is elevated , consisting of a central plateau ( high veld ) stretching from the southwest northwards with altitudes between 1 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 600 m . The country 's extreme east is mountainous , this area being known as the Eastern Highlands , with Mount Nyangani as the highest point at 2 @,@ 592 m .
These highlands are renowned for their great natural beauty , with famous tourist destinations such as Nyanga , Troutbeck , Chimanimani , Vumba and Chirinda Forest at Mount Selinda . About 20 % of the country consists of low @-@ lying areas , ( the low veld ) under 900m . Victoria Falls , one of the world 's biggest and most spectacular waterfalls , is located in the country 's extreme northwest and is part of the Zambezi river .
= = = Climate = = =
Zimbabwe has a tropical climate with many local variations . The southern areas are known for their heat and aridity , parts of the central plateau receive frost in winter , the Zambezi valley is also known for its extreme heat and the Eastern Highlands usually experience cool temperatures and the highest rainfall in the country . The country 's rainy season generally runs from late October to March and the hot climate is moderated by increasing altitude . Zimbabwe is faced with recurring droughts , the latest one commencing early in 2015 and ongoing into 2016 . Severe storms are rare .
= = = Flora and fauna = = =
The country is mostly savannah , although the moist and mountainous eastern highlands support areas of tropical evergreen and hardwood forests . Trees found in these Eastern Highlands include teak , mahogany , enormous specimens of strangling fig , forest newtonia , big leaf , white stinkwood , chirinda stinkwood , knobthorn and many others .
In the low @-@ lying parts of the country fever trees , mopane , combretum and baobabs abound . Much of the country is covered by miombo woodland , dominated by brachystegia species and others . Among the numerous flowers and shrubs are hibiscus , flame lily , snake lily , spider lily , leonotus , cassia , tree wisteria and dombeya . There are around 350 species of mammals that can be found in Zimbabwe . There are also many snakes and lizards , over 500 bird species , and 131 fish species .
= = = Environmental issues = = =
Large parts of Zimbabwe were once covered by forests with abundant wildlife . Deforestation and poaching has reduced the amount of wildlife . Woodland degradation and deforestation , due to population growth , urban expansion and lack of fuel , are major concerns and have led to erosion and land degradation which diminish the amount of fertile soil . Local farmers have also been criticised by environmentalists for burning off vegetation to heat their tobacco barns .
At the current rate of deforestation , Zimbabwe 's natural woodland is expected to disappear by 2065 .
= = Government and politics = =
Zimbabwe is a republic with a presidential system of government . The semi @-@ presidential system was done away with the adoption of a new constitution after a referendum in March 2013 . Under the constitutional changes in 2005 , an upper chamber , the Senate , was reinstated . The House of Assembly is the lower chamber of Parliament . President Robert Mugabe 's Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front ( commonly abbreviated ZANU @-@ PF ) has been the dominant political party in Zimbabwe since independence .
In 1987 then @-@ prime minister Mugabe revised the constitution , abolishing the ceremonial presidency and the prime ministerial posts to form an executive president , a Presidential system . His ZANU party has won every election since independence , in the 1990 election the second @-@ placed party , Edgar Tekere 's Zimbabwe Unity Movement , won only 20 % of the vote .
During the 1995 parliamentary elections most opposition parties , including the ZUM , boycotted the voting , resulting in a near @-@ sweep by the ruling party . When the opposition returned to the polls in 2000 , they won 57 seats , only five fewer than ZANU .
Presidential elections were again held in 2002 amid allegations of vote @-@ rigging , intimidation and fraud . The 2005 Zimbabwe parliamentary elections were held on 31 March and multiple claims of vote rigging , election fraud and intimidation were made by the MDC and Jonathan Moyo , calling for investigations into 32 of the 120 constituencies . Jonathan Moyo participated in the elections despite the allegations and won a seat as an independent member of Parliament .
General elections were again held in Zimbabwe on 30 March 2008 . The official results required a runoff between Mugabe and Morgan Tsvangirai , the opposition leader ; the MDC challenged these results , claiming widespread election fraud by the Mugabe government .
The run @-@ off was scheduled for 27 June 2008 . On 22 June , citing the continuing unfairness of the process and refusing to participate in a " violent , illegitimate sham of an election process " , Tsvangirai pulled out of the presidential run @-@ off , the ZEC held the run @-@ off and President Mugabe received a landslide majority .
The MDC @-@ T led by Morgan Tsvangirai is now the majority in the Lower chamber of Parliament . The MDC split into two factions . One faction ( MDC @-@ M ) , now led by Arthur Mutambara contested the elections to the Senate , while the other , led by Tsvangirai , opposed to contesting the elections , stating that participation in a rigged election is tantamount to endorsing Mugabe 's claim that past elections were free and fair . The opposition parties have resumed participation in national and local elections as recently as 2006 . The two MDC camps had their congresses in 2006 with Tsvangirai being elected to lead MDC @-@ T , which has become more popular than the other group .
Mutambara , a robotics professor and former NASA robotics specialist has replaced Welshman Ncube who was the interim leader of MDC @-@ M after the split . Morgan Tsvangirai did not participate in the Senate elections , while the Mutambara faction participated and won five seats in the senate . The Mutambara formation has been weakened by defections from MPs and individuals who are disillusioned by their manifesto . As of 2008 , the Movement for Democratic Change has become the most popular , with crowds as large as 20 @,@ 000 attending their rallies as compared to between 500 – 5 @,@ 000 for the other formation .
On 28 April 2008 , Tsvangirai and Mutambara announced at a joint news conference in Johannesburg that the two MDC formations were co @-@ operating , enabling the MDC to have a clear parliamentary majority . Tsvangirai said that Mugabe could not remain President without a parliamentary majority . On the same day , Silaigwana announced that the recounts for the final five constituencies had been completed , that the results were being collated and that they would be published on 29 April .
In mid @-@ September 2008 , after protracted negotiations overseen by the leaders of South Africa and Mozambique , Mugabe and Tsvangirai signed a power @-@ sharing deal which would see Mugabe retain control over the army . Donor nations have adopted a ' wait @-@ and @-@ see ' attitude , wanting to see real change being brought about by this merger before committing themselves to funding rebuilding efforts , which are estimated to take at least five years . On 11 February 2009 Tsvangirai was sworn in as Prime Minister by President Mugabe .
In November 2008 , the government of Zimbabwe spent US $ 7 @.@ 3 million donated by the Global Fund to Fight AIDS , Tuberculosis and Malaria . A representative of the organisation declined to speculate on how the money was spent , except that it was not for the intended purpose , and the government has failed to honour requests to return the money .
In February 2013 , Zimbabwe 's election chief , Simpson Mtambanengwe , resigned due to ill health . His resignation came months before the country 's constitutional referendum and elections .
= = = Human rights = = =
There are widespread reports of systematic and escalating violations of human rights in Zimbabwe under the Mugabe administration and his party , the ZANU @-@ PF .
In 2011 , there were reports of 640 corpses having been recovered from the Monkey William Mine in Chibondo . They were allegedly authenticated by the Fallen Heroes Trust of Zimbabwe and the Department of National Museums and Monuments who are leading the exhumation process as victims of the Ian Smith regime during the liberation war . One body was identified as a ZANLA cadre , Cde Rauya , by the Fallen Heroes Trust Chief exhumer .
Government Minister Saviour Kasukuwere admitted the remains were discovered in 2008 , but claimed the remains were decades old despite clear evidence the exhumed skeletons still had hair and clothes . Solidarity Peace Trust said that the presence of soft tissues " is not necessarily an indicator that these bones entered the grave more recently , although it could be . "
Journalists found a body in the mine with ' what appeared to be blood and fluids dripping onto the skulls below ' . The opposition MDC called for research on all violence that included killings of its supporters during disputed elections in 2008 . Amnesty International ( AI ) expressed concern that " international best practice on exhumations is not being adhered to ... [ M ] ishandling of these mass graves has serious implications on potential exhumations of other sites in Zimbabwe . Thousands of civilians were also killed in Matabeleland and Midlands provinces in the mid 1980s and are allegedly buried in mine shafts and mass graves in these regions " , AI added .
According to human rights organisations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch the government of Zimbabwe violates the rights to shelter , food , freedom of movement and residence , freedom of assembly and the protection of the law . There have been alleged assaults on the media , the political opposition , civil society activists , and human rights defenders .
Opposition gatherings are frequently the subject of brutal attacks by the police force , such as the crackdown on an 11 March 2007 Movement for Democratic Change ( MDC ) rally and several others during the 2008 election campaign .
In the attacks of 2007 , party leader Morgan Tsvangirai and 49 other opposition activists were arrested and severely beaten by the police . After his release , Morgan Tsvangirai told the BBC that he suffered head injuries and blows to the arms , knees and back , and that he lost a significant amount of blood .
Police action was strongly condemned by the UN Secretary @-@ General , Ban Ki @-@ moon , the European Union and the United States . While noting that the activists had suffered injuries , but not mentioning the cause of them , the Zimbabwean government @-@ controlled daily newspaper The Herald claimed the police had intervened after demonstrators " ran amok looting shops , destroying property , mugging civilians , and assaulting police officers and innocent members of the public " . The newspaper argued that the opposition had been " willfully violating the ban on political rallies " .
There are also abuses of media rights and access . The Zimbabwean government suppresses freedom of the press and freedom of speech . It has been repeatedly accused of using the public broadcaster , the Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation , as a propaganda tool . Newspapers critical of the government , such as the Daily News , closed after bombs exploded at their offices and the government refused to renew their license . BBC News , Sky News , and CNN were banned from filming or reporting from Zimbabwe . In 2009 reporting restrictions on the BBC and CNN were lifted . Sky News continue to report on happenings within Zimbabwe from neighbouring countries like South Africa .
= = = Armed forces = = =
The Zimbabwe Defence Forces were set up by the integration of three belligerent forces – the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army ( ZANLA ) , the Zimbabwe People 's Revolutionary Army ( ZIPRA ) , and the Rhodesian Security Forces ( RSF ) – after the Second Chimurenga and Zimbabwean independence in 1980 . The integration period saw the formation of The Zimbabwe National Army ( ZNA ) and Air Force of Zimbabwe ( AFZ ) as separate entities under the command of Rtd General Solomon Mujuru and Air Marshal Norman Walsh who retired in 1982 , and was replaced by Air Marshal Azim Daudpota who handed over command to the late Rtd Air Chief Marshal Josiah Tungamirai in 1985 .
In December 2003 , General Constantine Chiwenga , was promoted and appointed Commander of the Zimbabwe Defence Forces . Lieutenant General P. V. Sibanda replaced him as Commander of the Army .
The ZNA currently has an active duty strength of 30 @,@ 000 . The Air Force has about 5 @,@ 139 men assigned . The Zimbabwe Republic Police ( includes Police Support Unit , Paramilitary Police ) is part of the defence force of Zimbabwe and numbers 25 @,@ 000 .
Following majority rule in early 1980 , British Army trainers oversaw the integration of guerrilla fighters into a battalion structure overlaid on the existing Rhodesian armed forces . For the first year , a system was followed where the top @-@ performing candidate became battalion commander . If he or she was from ZANLA , then his or her second @-@ in @-@ command was the top @-@ performing ZIPRA candidate , and vice versa . This ensured a balance between the two movements in the command structure . From early 1981 , this system was abandoned in favour of political appointments , and ZANLA and ZANU fighters consequently quickly formed the majority of battalion commanders in the ZNA .
The ZNA was originally formed into four brigades , composed of a total of 28 battalions . The brigade support units were composed almost entirely of specialists of the former Rhodesian Army , while unintegrated battalions of the Rhodesian African Rifles were assigned to the 1st , 3rd and 4th Brigades . The Fifth Brigade was formed in 1981 and disbanded in 1988 after the demonstration of mass brutality and murder during the brigade 's occupation of Matabeleland in what has become known as Gukurahundi ( Shona : " the early rain which washes away the chaff before the spring rains " ) , the campaign which finished off Mugabe 's liberation struggle . The Brigade had been reformed by 2006 , with its commander , Brigadier @-@ General John Mupande praising its " rich history " .
= = = Administrative divisions = = =
Zimbabwe has a centralised government and is divided into eight provinces and two cities with provincial status , for administrative purposes . Each province has a provincial capital from where official business is usually carried out .
The names of most of the provinces were generated from the Mashonaland and Matabeleland divide at the time of colonisation : Mashonaland was the territory occupied first by the British South Africa Company Pioneer Column and Matabeleland the territory conquered during the First Matabele War . This corresponds roughly to the precolonial territory of the Shona people and the Matabele people , although there are significant ethnic minorities in most provinces . Each province is headed by a Provincial Governor , appointed by the President .
The provincial government is run by a Provincial Administrator , appointed by the Public Service Commission . Other government functions at provincial level are carried out by provincial offices of national government departments .
The provinces are subdivided into 59 districts and 1 @,@ 200 wards ( sometimes referred to as municipalities ) . Each district is headed by a District Administrator , appointed by the Public Service Commission . There is also a Rural District Council , which appoints a chief executive officer . The Rural District Council is composed of elected ward councillors , the District Administrator and one representative of the chiefs ( traditional leaders appointed under customary law ) in the district . Other government functions at district level are carried out by district offices of national government departments .
At the ward level there is a Ward Development Committee , comprising the elected ward councillor , the kraalheads ( traditional leaders subordinate to chiefs ) and representatives of Village Development Committees . Wards are subdivided into villages , each of which has an elected Village Development Committee and a Headman ( traditional leader subordinate to the kraalhead ) .
= = Economy = =
Mineral exports , gold , agriculture , and tourism are the main foreign currency earners of Zimbabwe .
The mining sector remains very lucrative , with some of the world 's largest platinum reserves being mined by Anglo American plc and Impala Platinum . The Marange diamond fields , discovered in 2006 , are considered the biggest diamond find in over a century . They have the potential to improve the fiscal situation of the country considerably , but almost all revenues from the field have disappeared into the pockets of army officers and ZANU @-@ PF politicians .
In terms of carats produced , the Marange field is one of the largest diamond producing projects in the world , estimated to produce 12 million carats in 2014 worth over $ 350 million . Zimbabwe is the biggest trading partner of South Africa on the continent .
Taxes and tariffs are high for private enterprises , while state enterprises are strongly subsidised . State regulation is costly to companies ; starting or closing a business is slow and costly . Government spending was predicted to reach 67 % of GDP in 2007 .
Tourism was an important industry for the country , but has been failing in recent years . The Zimbabwe Conservation Task Force released a report in June 2007 , estimating 60 % of Zimbabwe 's wildlife has died since 2000 due to poaching and deforestation . The report warns that the loss of life combined with widespread deforestation is potentially disastrous for the tourist industry .
The ICT sector of Zimbabwe has been growing at a fast pace . A report by the mobile internet browser company , Opera , in June / July 2011 has ranked Zimbabwe as Africa 's fastest growing market .
Since 1 January 2002 , the government of Zimbabwe has had its lines of credit at international financial institutions frozen , through US legislation called the Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act of 2001 ( ZDERA ) . Section 4C instructs the Secretary of the Treasury to direct directors at international financial institutions to veto the extension of loans and credit to the Zimbabwean government . According to the United States , these sanctions target only seven specific businesses owned or controlled by government officials and not ordinary citizens .
An independent study has shown that the sanctions have adversely affected the welfare of ordinary citizens .
Zimbabwe maintained positive economic growth throughout the 1980s ( 5 % GDP growth per year ) and 1990s ( 4 @.@ 3 % GDP growth per year ) . The economy declined from 2000 : 5 % decline in 2000 , 8 % in 2001 , 12 % in 2002 and 18 % in 2003 . Zimbabwe 's involvement from 1998 to 2002 in the war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo drained hundreds of millions of dollars from the economy .
The downward spiral of the economy has been attributed mainly to mismanagement and corruption by the government and the eviction of more than 4 @,@ 000 white farmers in the controversial land confiscations of 2000 . The Zimbabwean government and its supporters attest that it was Western policies to avenge the expulsion of their kin that sabotaged the economy .
By 2005 , the purchasing power of the average Zimbabwean had dropped to the same levels in real terms as 1953 . In 2005 , the government , led by central bank governor Gideon Gono , started making overtures that white farmers could come back . There were 400 to 500 still left in the country , but much of the land that had been confiscated was no longer productive .
In January 2007 , the government issued long term leases to some white farmers . At the same time , however , the government also continued to demand that all remaining white farmers , who were given eviction notices earlier , vacate the land or risk being arrested . Mugabe pointed to foreign governments and alleged " sabotage " as the cause of the fall of the Zimbabwean economy , as well as the country 's 80 % formal unemployment rate .
Inflation rose from an annual rate of 32 % in 1998 , to an official estimated high of 11 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 % in August 2008 according to the country 's Central Statistical Office . This represented a state of hyperinflation , and the central bank introduced a new 100 billion dollar note .
On 29 January 2009 , in an effort to counteract runaway inflation , acting Finance Minister Patrick Chinamasa announced that Zimbabweans will be permitted to use other , more stable currencies to do business , alongside the Zimbabwe dollar . In an effort to combat inflation and foster economic growth the Zimbabwean Dollar was suspended indefinitely on 12 April 2009 . Zimbabwe now allows trade in the United States dollar and various other currencies such as the rand ( South Africa ) , the pula ( Botswana ) , the euro , and the Pound Sterling ( UK ) .
Since the formation of the Unity Government in 2009 , the Zimbabwean economy has been on the rebound . GDP grew by more than 5 % in the years 2009 and 2011 . In November 2010 , the IMF described the Zimbabwean economy as " completing its second year of buoyant economic growth " .
Zimplats , the nation 's largest platinum company , has proceeded with US $ 500 million in expansions , and is also continuing a separate US $ 2 billion project , despite threats by Mugabe to nationalise the company . The pan @-@ African investment bank IMARA released a favourable report in February 2011 on investment prospects in Zimbabwe , citing an improved revenue base and higher tax receipts .
In late January 2013 , the Zimbabwean finance ministry reported that they had only $ 217 in their treasury and would apply for donations to finance the coming elections that is estimated to cost 107 million USD .
= = = Agriculture = = =
Zimbabwe 's commercial farming sector was traditionally a source of exports and foreign exchange , and provided 400 @,@ 000 jobs . However , the government 's land reform program badly damaged the sector , turning Zimbabwe into a net importer of food products .
For the past ten years , the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi @-@ Arid Tropics ( ICRISAT ) has been assisting Zimbabwe 's farmers to adopt conservation agriculture techniques , a sustainable method of farming that can help increase yields . By applying the three principles of minimum soil disturbance , legume @-@ based cropping and the use of organic mulch , farmers can improve infiltration , reduce evaporation and soil erosion , and build up organic soil content .
Between 2005 @-@ 11 , the number of smallholders practising conservation agriculture in Zimbabwe increased from 5000 to more than 150000 . Cereal yields rose between 15 and 100 per cent across different regions .
= = = Tourism = = =
Since the land reform programme in 2000 , tourism in Zimbabwe has steadily declined . After rising during the 1990s , ( 1 @.@ 4 million tourists in 1999 ) industry figures described a 75 % fall in visitors to Zimbabwe in 2000 . By December , less than 20 % of hotel rooms had been occupied . This has had a huge impact on the Zimbabwean economy . Thousands of jobs have been lost in the industry due to companies closing down or simply being unable to pay staff wages due to the decreasing number of tourists .
Several airlines have also pulled out of Zimbabwe . Australia 's Qantas , Germany 's Lufthansa , and Austrian Airlines were among the first to pull out and most recently British Airways suspended all direct flights to Harare . The country 's flagship airline Air Zimbabwe , which operated flights throughout Africa and a few destinations in Europe and Asia , ceased operations in February 2012 .
Zimbabwe has several major tourist attractions . Victoria Falls on the Zambezi , which are shared with Zambia , are located in the north west of Zimbabwe . Before the economic changes , much of the tourism for these locations came to the Zimbabwe side but now Zambia is the main beneficiary . The Victoria Falls National Park is also in this area and is one of the eight main national parks in Zimbabwe , the largest of which is Hwange National Park .
The Eastern Highlands are a series of mountainous areas near the border with Mozambique . The highest peak in Zimbabwe , Mount Nyangani at 2 @,@ 593 m ( 8 @,@ 507 ft ) is located here as well as the Bvumba Mountains and the Nyanga National Park . World 's View is in these mountains and it is from here that places as far away as 60 – 70 km ( 37 – 43 mi ) are visible and , on clear days , the town of Rusape can be seen .
Zimbabwe is unusual in Africa in that there are a number of ancient ruined cities built in a unique dry stone style . The most famous of these are the Great Zimbabwe ruins in Masvingo . Other ruins include Khami Ruins , Zimbabwe , Dhlo @-@ Dhlo and Naletale , although none of these is as famous as Great Zimbabwe .
The Matobo Hills are an area of granite kopjes and wooded valleys commencing some 22 miles ( 35 km ) south of Bulawayo in southern Zimbabwe . The Hills were formed over 2 @,@ 000 million years ago with granite being forced to the surface , then being eroded to produce smooth " whaleback dwalas " and broken kopjes , strewn with boulders and interspersed with thickets of vegetation . Mzilikazi , founder of the Ndebele nation , gave the area its name , meaning ' Bald Heads ' . They have become famous and a tourist attraction due to their ancient shapes and local wildlife . Cecil Rhodes and other early white pioneers like Leander Starr Jameson are buried in these hills at a site named World 's View .
= = = Water supply and sanitation = = =
Water supply and sanitation in Zimbabwe is defined by many small scale successful programs but also by a general lack of improved water and Sanitation systems for the majority of Zimbabwe . According to the World Health Organization in 2012 , 80 % of Zimbabweans had access to improved , i.e. clean , drinking @-@ water sources , and only 40 % of Zimbabweans had access to improved sanitation facilities . Access to improved water supply and sanitation is distinctly less in rural areas .
There are many factors which continue to determine the nature , for the foreseeable future , of water supply and sanitation in Zimbabwe . Three major factors are the severely depressed state of the Zimbabwean economy , the willingness of foreign aid organizations to build and finance infrastructure projects , and the political stability of the Zimbabwean state .
= = Demographics = =
Zimbabwe 's total population is 12 @.@ 97 million . According to the United Nations World Health Organisation , the life expectancy for men was 56 years and the life expectancy for women was 60 years of age ( 2012 ) . An association of doctors in Zimbabwe has made calls for President Mugabe to make moves to assist the ailing health service . The HIV infection rate in Zimbabwe was estimated to be 14 % for people aged 15 – 49 in 2009 . UNESCO reported a decline in HIV prevalence among pregnant women from 26 % in 2002 to 21 % in 2004 .
Some 85 % of Zimbabweans are Christian ; 62 % of the population attends religious services regularly . The largest Christian churches are Anglican , Roman Catholic , Seventh @-@ day Adventist and Methodist .
As in other African countries , Christianity may be mixed with enduring traditional beliefs . Besides Christianity , ancestral worship is the most practised non @-@ Christian religion , involving spiritual intercession ; the Mbira Dza Vadzimu , which means " Voice of the Ancestors " , an instrument related to many lamellophones ubiquitous throughout Africa , is central to many ceremonial proceedings . Mwari simply means " God the Creator " ( musika vanhu in Shona ) . Around 1 % of the population is Muslim .
Bantu @-@ speaking ethnic groups make up 98 % of the population . The majority people , the Shona , comprise 70 % . The Ndebele are the second most populous with 20 % of the population .
The Ndebele descended from Zulu migrations in the 19th century and the other tribes with which they intermarried . Up to one million Ndebele may have left the country over the last five years , mainly for South Africa . Other Bantu ethnic groups make up the third largest with 2 to 5 % : these are Venda , Tonga , Shangaan , Kalanga , Sotho , Ndau , Nambya , Tswana , Xhosa and Lozi .
Minority ethnic groups include white Zimbabweans , who make up less than 1 % of the total population . White Zimbabweans are mostly of British origin , but there are also Afrikaner , Greek , Portuguese , French and Dutch communities . The white population dropped from a peak of around 278 @,@ 000 or 4 @.@ 3 % of the population in 1975 to possibly 120 @,@ 000 in 1999 , and was estimated to be no more than 50 @,@ 000 in 2002 , and possibly much less . The 2012 census lists the total white population at 28 @,@ 782 ( roughly 0 @.@ 22 % of the population ) , one @-@ tenth of its 1975 estimated size . Most emigration has been to the United Kingdom ( between 200 @,@ 000 and 500 @,@ 000 Britons are of Rhodesian or Zimbabwean origin ) , South Africa , Botswana , Zambia , Canada , Australia and New Zealand . Coloureds form 0 @.@ 5 % of the population , and various Asian ethnic groups , mostly of Indian and Chinese origin , are also 0 @.@ 5 % .
According to 2012 Census report , 99 @.@ 7 % of the population is of African origin . Official fertility rates over the last decade were 3 @.@ 6 ( 2002 Census ) , 3 @.@ 8 ( 2006 ) and 3 @.@ 8 ( 2012 Census ) .
= = = Largest cities = = =
= = = Language = = =
English is the main language used in the education and judiciary systems . The Bantu languages Shona and Sindebele are the principal indigenous languages of Zimbabwe . Shona is spoken by 70 % of the population , Sindebele by 20 % . Other minority Bantu languages include Venda , Tsonga , Shangaan , Kalanga , Sotho , Ndau and Nambya . Less than 2 @.@ 5 % , mainly the white and " coloured " ( mixed race ) minorities , consider English their native language . Shona has a rich oral tradition , which was incorporated into the first Shona novel , Feso by Solomon Mutswairo , published in 1956 . English is spoken primarily in the cities , but less so in rural areas . Radio and television news now broadcast in Shona , Sindebele and English .
Zimbabwe has 16 official languages and under the constitution , an Act of Parliament may prescribe other languages as officially recognised languages .
= = = Refugee crisis = = =
The economic meltdown and repressive political measures in Zimbabwe have led to a flood of refugees into neighbouring countries . An estimated 3 @.@ 4 million Zimbabweans , a quarter of the population , had fled abroad by mid @-@ 2007 . Some 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 of these left for South Africa and Botswana .
Apart from the people who fled into the neighbouring countries , there are approximately 36 @,@ 000 internally displaced persons ( IDPs ) . There is no current comprehensive survey , although the following figures are available :
The above surveys do not include people displaced by Operation Chikorokoza Chapera or beneficiaries of the fast @-@ track land reform programme but who have since been evicted .
= = = Religion = = =
An estimated 80 % of the country 's citizens identify themselves as Christians . Protestants ( mostly followers of Pentecostal African Churches ) are around 63 % of the population . Estimates from 2005 said there were 1 @,@ 145 @,@ 000 Roman Catholics in Zimbabwe . This is about 9 % of the total population . The followers of ethnic religions are around 11 % . Around 1 % are Muslims , mainly from Mozambique and Malawi , 0 @.@ 1 % are Hindus and 0 @.@ 3 % are Baha 'is . Approximately 7 % of citizens have no religious practice or are atheist .
= = Culture = =
Zimbabwe has many different cultures which may include beliefs and ceremonies , one of them being Shona , Zimbabwe 's largest ethnic group . The Shona people have many sculptures and carvings which are made with the finest materials available .
Zimbabwe first celebrated its independence on 18 April 1980 . Celebrations are held at either the National Sports Stadium or Rufaro Stadium in Harare . The first independence celebrations were held in 1980 at the Zimbabwe Grounds . At these celebrations doves are released to symbolise peace and fighter jets fly over and the national anthem is sung . The flame of independence is lit by the president after parades by the presidential family and members of the armed forces of Zimbabwe . The president also gives a speech to the people of Zimbabwe which is televised for those unable to attend the stadium .
= = = Arts = = =
Traditional arts in Zimbabwe include pottery , basketry , textiles , jewellery and carving . Among the distinctive qualities are symmetrically patterned woven baskets and stools carved out of a single piece of wood . Shona sculpture has become world famous in recent years having found popularity in the 1940s . Most subjects of carved figures of stylised birds and human figures among others are made with sedimentary rocks such as soapstone , as well as harder igneous rocks such as serpentine and the rare stone verdite . Zimbabwean artefacts can be found in countries like Singapore , China and Canada. i.e. Dominic Benhura 's statue in the Singapore botanic gardens .
Shona sculpture in has survived through the ages and the modern style is a fusion of African folklore with European influences . World @-@ renowned Zimbabwean sculptors include Nicholas , Nesbert and Anderson Mukomberanwa , Tapfuma Gutsa , Henry Munyaradzi and Locardia Ndandarika . Internationally , Zimbabwean sculptors have managed to influence a new generation of artists , particularly Black Americans , through lengthy apprenticeships with master sculptors in Zimbabwe . Contemporary artists like New York sculptor M. Scott Johnson and California sculptor Russel Albans have learned to fuse both African and Afro @-@ diasporic aesthetics in a way that travels beyond the simplistic mimicry of African Art by some Black artists of past generations in the United States .
Several authors are well known within Zimbabwe and abroad . Charles Mungoshi is renowned in Zimbabwe for writing traditional stories in English and in Shona and his poems and books have sold well with both the black and white communities . Catherine Buckle has achieved international recognition with her two books African Tears and Beyond Tears which tell of the ordeal she went through under the 2000 Land Reform . The first Prime Minister of Rhodesia , Ian Smith , wrote two books – The Great Betrayal and Bitter Harvest . The book The House of Hunger by Dambudzo Marechera won an award in the UK in 1979 and the Nobel Prize @-@ winning author Doris Lessing 's first novel The Grass Is Singing , the first four volumes of The Children of Violence sequence , as well as the collection of short stories African Stories are set in Rhodesia . In 2013 NoViolet Bulawayo 's novel We Need New Names was shortlisted for the Booker Prize . The novel tells the story of the devastation and emigration caused by the brutal suppression of Zimbabwean civilians during the Gukurahundi in the early 1980s .
Internationally famous artists include Henry Mudzengerere and Nicolas Mukomberanwa . A recurring theme in Zimbabwean art is the metamorphosis of man into beast . Zimbabwean musicians like Thomas Mapfumo , Oliver Mtukudzi , the Bhundu Boys ; Alick Macheso and Audius Mtawarira have achieved international recognition . Among members of the white minority community , Theatre has a large following , with numerous theatrical companies performing in Zimbabwe 's urban areas .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Like in many African countries , the majority of Zimbabweans depend on a few staple foods . " Mealie meal " , also known as cornmeal , is used to prepare sadza or isitshwala , as well as porridge known as bota or ilambazi . Sadza is made by mixing the cornmeal with water to produce a thick paste / porridge . After the paste has been cooking for several minutes , more cornmeal is added to thicken the paste .
This is usually eaten as lunch or dinner , usually with sides such as gravy , vegetables ( spinach , chomolia , or spring greens / collard greens ) , beans , and meat ( stewed , grilled , roasted , or sundried ) . Sadza is also commonly eaten with curdled milk ( sour milk ) , commonly known as " lacto " ( mukaka wakakora ) , or dried Tanganyika sardine , known locally as kapenta or matemba . Bota is a thinner porridge , cooked without the additional cornmeal and usually flavoured with peanut butter , milk , butter , or jam . Bota is usually eaten for breakfast .
Graduations , weddings , and any other family gatherings will usually be celebrated with the killing of a goat or cow , which will be barbecued or roasted by the family .
Even though the Afrikaners are a small group ( 10 % ) within the white minority group , Afrikaner recipes are popular . Biltong , a type of jerky , is a popular snack , prepared by hanging bits of spiced raw meat to dry in the shade . Boerewors is served with sadza . It is a long sausage , often well @-@ spiced , composed of beef rather than pork , and barbecued . As Zimbabwe was a British colony , some people there have adopted some colonial @-@ era English eating habits . For example , most people will have porridge in the morning , as well as 10 o 'clock tea ( midday tea ) . They will have lunch , often leftovers from the night before , freshly cooked sadza , or sandwiches ( which is more common in the cities ) . After lunch , there is usually 4 o 'clock tea ( afternoon tea ) , which is served before dinner . It is not uncommon for tea to be had after dinner .
Rice , pasta , and potato @-@ based foods ( french fries and mashed potato ) also make up part of Zimbabwean cuisine . A local favourite is rice cooked with peanut butter , which is taken with thick gravy , mixed vegetables and meat . A potpourri of peanuts known as nzungu , boiled and sundried maize , black @-@ eyed peas known as nyemba , and bambara groundnuts known as nyimo makes a traditional dish called mutakura . Mutakura can also be the above ingredients cooked individually . One can also find local snacks , such as maputi ( roasted / popped maize kernels similar to popcorn ) , roasted and salted peanuts , sugar cane , sweet potato , pumpkin , and indigenous fruits , such as horned melon , gaka , adansonia , mawuyu , uapaca kirkiana , mazhanje ( sugar plum ) , and many others .
= = = Sports = = =
Football is the most popular sport in Zimbabwe . The Warriors have qualified for the Africa Cup of Nations two times ( 2004 , 2006 ) . The Warriors are also 4 Time Cossafa cup Champions ( 2000 , 2003 , 2005 , 2009 ) and 3 Times Runners @-@ Up . , rugby union also has a very strong following and cricket also has a following , traditionally among the white minority . Zimbabwe has won eight Olympic medals , one in field hockey at the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow , and seven in swimming , three at the 2004 Summer Olympics and four at the 2008 Summer Olympics , all by Kirsty Coventry .
Rugby union is a significant sport in Zimbabwe . The national side have represented the country at 2 Rugby World Cup tournaments in 1987 and 1991 . The team are currently ranked 26 in the world by World Rugby .
Zimbabwe has also done well in the Commonwealth Games and All @-@ Africa Games in swimming with Kirsty Coventry obtaining 11 gold medals in the different competitions . Zimbabwe has also competed at Wimbledon and the Davis Cup in tennis , most notably with the Black family , which comprises Wayne Black , Byron Black and Cara Black . Zimbabwe has also done well in golf . The Zimbabwean Nick Price held the official World Number 1 status longer than any player from Africa has ever done in the 24 @-@ year history of the ranking .
Other sports played in Zimbabwe are basketball , volleyball , netball , and water polo , as well as squash , motorsport , martial arts , chess , cycling , polocrosse , kayaking and horse racing . However , most of these sports don 't have international representatives but instead stay at a junior or national level . Notable cricket players from Zimbabwe include Andy Flower , the former coach of the England Cricket Team .
= = = Media = = =
The media of Zimbabwe is now once again diverse , having come under tight restriction between 2002 and 2008 by the government during the growing economic and political crisis in the country . The Zimbabwean constitution promises freedom of the media and expression . Since the appointment of a new media and information minister in 2013 the media is currently facing less political interference and the supreme court has ruled some sections of the strict media laws as unconstitutional . In July 2009 the BBC and CNN were able to resume operations and report legally and openly from Zimbabwe . CNN welcomed the move . The Zimbabwe Ministry of Media , Information and Publicity stated that , " the Zimbabwe government never banned the BBC from carrying out lawful activities inside Zimbabwe " . The BBC also welcomed the move saying , " we 're pleased at being able to operate openly in Zimbabwe once again " .
In 2010 the Zimbabwe Media Commission was established by the inclusive , power @-@ sharing government . In May 2010 the Commission licensed three new privately owned newspapers , including the previously banned Daily News , for publication . Reporters Without Borders described the decisions as a " major advance " . In June 2010 NewsDay became the first independent daily newspaper to be published in Zimbabwe in seven years .
ZBC 's monopoly in the broadcasting sector was ended with the licensing of two private radio stations in 2012 .
Since the 2002 Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act ( AIPPA ) was passed , a number of privately owned news outlets were shut down by the government , including Daily News whose managing director Wilf Mbanga went on to form the influential The Zimbabwean . As a result , many press organisations have been set up in both neighbouring and Western countries by exiled Zimbabweans . Because the internet is currently unrestricted , many Zimbabweans are allowed to access online news sites set up by exiled journalists . Reporters Without Borders claims the media environment in Zimbabwe involves " surveillance , threats , imprisonment , censorship , blackmail , abuse of power and denial of justice are all brought to bear to keep firm control over the news . " The main published newspapers are The Herald and The Chronicle which are printed in Harare and Bulawayo respectively . The heavy @-@ handedness on the media has progressively relaxed since 2009 .
In its 2008 report , Reporters Without Borders ranked the Zimbabwean media as 151st out of 173 . The government also bans many foreign broadcasting stations from Zimbabwe , including the CBC , Sky News , Channel 4 , American Broadcasting Company , Australian Broadcasting Corporation ( ABC ) , and Fox News . News agencies and newspapers from other Western countries and South Africa have also been banned from the country .
= = = Scouting = = =
It was in the Matabeleland region in Zimbabwe that , during the Second Matabele War , Robert Baden @-@ Powell , the founder of Scouting , and Frederick Russell Burnham , the American born Chief of Scouts for the British Army , first met and began their lifelong friendship . In mid @-@ June 1896 , during a scouting patrol in the Matobo Hills , Burnham began teaching Baden @-@ Powell woodcraft . Baden @-@ Powell and Burnham discussed the concept of a broad training programme in woodcraft for young men , rich in exploration , tracking , fieldcraft , and self @-@ reliance . It was also during this time in the Matobo Hills that Baden @-@ Powell first started to wear his signature campaign hat like the one worn by Burnham .
Scouting in the former Rhodesia and Nyasaland started in 1909 when the first Boy Scout troop was registered . Scouting grew quickly and in 1924 Rhodesia and Nyasaland sent a large contingent to the second World Scout Jamboree in Ermelunden , Denmark . In 1959 , Rhodesia hosted the Central African Jamboree at Ruwa . In 2009 , Scouts celebrated 100 years of Scouting in Zimbabwe and hundreds of Scouts camped at Gordon Park , a Scout campground and training area , as part of these celebrations .
Besides scouting , there are also leadership , life skills and general knowledge courses and training experiences mainly for school children ranging from pre @-@ school to final year high school students and some times those beyond High school . These courses and outings , are held at places like Lasting Impressions ( Lasting Impressions ~ Zimbabwe on YouTube ) , Far and Wide Zimbabwe ( Far and wide . ) and Chimanimani Outward Bound ( Outwardbound Zimbabwe at the Wayback Machine ( archived 16 June 2007 ) ) , Just to name a few .
= = = National symbols = = =
The stone @-@ carved Zimbabwe Bird appears on the national flags and the coats of arms of both Zimbabwe and Rhodesia , as well as on banknotes and coins ( first on Rhodesian pound and then Rhodesian dollar ) . It probably represents the bateleur eagle or the African fish eagle .
The famous soapstone bird carvings stood on walls and monoliths of the ancient city of Great Zimbabwe , built , it is believed , sometime between the 13th and 16th centuries by ancestors of the Shona . The ruins , which gave their name to modern Zimbabwe , cover some 1 @,@ 800 acres ( 7 @.@ 3 km2 ) and are the largest ancient stone construction in Zimbabwe .
Balancing Rocks are geological formations all over Zimbabwe . The rocks are perfectly balanced without other supports . They are created when ancient granite intrusions are exposed to weathering , as softer rocks surrounding them erode away . They are often remarked on and have been depicted on both the banknotes of Zimbabwe and the Rhodesian dollar banknotes . The ones found on the current notes of Zimbabwe , named the Banknote Rocks , are located in Epworth , approximately 9 miles ( 14 km ) south east of Harare . There are many different formations of the rocks , incorporating single and paired columns of 3 or more rocks . These formations are a feature of south and east tropical Africa from northern South Africa northwards to Sudan . The most notable formations in Zimbabwe are located in the Matobo National Park in Matabeleland .
The National Anthem of Zimbabwe is " Blessed be the Land of Zimbabwe " ( Shona : " Simudzai Mureza wedu WeZimbabwe " ; Zimbabwean Ndebele : " Kalibusiswe Ilizwe leZimbabwe " ) . It was introduced in March 1994 after a nationwide competition to replace " Ishe Komborera Africa " as a distinctly Zimbabwean song . The winning entry was a song written by Professor Solomon Mutswairo and composed by Fred Changundega . It has been translated into all three of the main languages of Zimbabwe .
= = Health = =
At independence , the policies of racial inequality were reflected in the disease patterns of the black majority . The first five years after independence saw rapid gains in areas such as immunisation coverage , access to health care , and contraceptive prevalence rate . Zimbabwe was thus considered internationally to have an achieved a good record of health development .
Zimbabwe suffered occasional outbreaks of acute diseases ( such as plague in 1994 ) . The gains on the national health were eroded by structural adjustment in the 1990s , the impact of the HIV / AIDS pandemic and the economic crisis since the year 2000 . In 2006 , Zimbabwe had one of the lowest life expectancies according to UN figure – 44 for men and 43 for women , down from 60 in 1990 , but this has since recovered to 53 and 54 respectively . The rapid drop was ascribed mainly to the HIV / AIDS pandemic . Infant mortality rose from 6 % in the late 1990s to 12 @.@ 3 % by 2004 .
The health system has more or less collapsed . At the end of November 2008 , some operations at three of Zimbabwe 's four major referral hospitals had shut down , along with the Zimbabwe Medical School , and the fourth major hospital had two wards and no operating theatres working . Due to hyperinflation , those hospitals still open were not able to obtain basic drugs and medicines . The situation changed drastically after the Unity Government and the introduction of the multi @-@ currency system in February 2009 although the political and economic crisis also contributed to the emigration of the doctors and people with medical knowledge .
In August 2008 large areas of Zimbabwe were struck by the ongoing cholera epidemic . By December 2008 more than 10 @,@ 000 people had been infected in all but one of Zimbabwe 's provinces and the outbreak had spread to Botswana , Mozambique , South Africa and Zambia . On 4 December 2008 the Zimbabwe government declared the outbreak to be a national emergency and asked for international aid .
By 9 March 2009 The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimated that 4 @,@ 011 people had succumbed to the waterborne disease since the outbreak began in August 2008 , and the total number of cases recorded had reached 89 @,@ 018 . In Harare , the city council offered free graves to cholera victims . There have been signs that the disease is abating , with cholera infections down by about 50 % to around 4 @,@ 000 cases a week .
The 2010 maternal mortality rate per 100 @,@ 000 births for Zimbabwe is 790 . This is compared with 624 @.@ 3 in 2008 and 231 @.@ 8 in 1990 . The under 5 mortality rate , per 1 @,@ 000 births is 93 and the neonatal mortality as a percentage of under 5 's mortality is 32 . In Zimbabwe the number of midwives per 1 @,@ 000 live births is unavailable and the lifetime risk of death for pregnant women 1 in 42 .
= = Education = =
Due to large investments in education since independence Zimbabwe has the highest adult literacy rate in Africa which in 2013 was 90 @.@ 70 % . This is lower than the 92 % recorded in 2010 by the United Nations Development Programme and the 97 @.@ 0 % recorded in the 2002 census , while still substantially higher than 80 @.@ 4 % recorded in the 1992 census .
The education department has stated that 20 @,@ 000 teachers have left Zimbabwe since 2007 and that half of Zimbabwe 's children have not progressed beyond primary school .
The wealthier portion of the population usually send their children to independent schools as opposed to the government @-@ run schools which are attended by the majority as these are subsidized by the government . School education was made free in 1980 , but since 1988 , the government has steadily increased the charges attached to school enrollment until they now greatly exceed the real value of fees in 1980 . The Ministry of Education of Zimbabwe maintains and operates the government schools but the fees charged by independent schools are regulated by the cabinet of Zimbabwe .
Zimbabwe 's education system consists of 2 years of pre @-@ school , 7 years of primary and 6 years of secondary schooling before students can enter university in the country or abroad . The academic year in Zimbabwe runs from January to December , with three terms , broken up by one month holidays , with a total of 40 weeks of school per year . National examinations are written during the third term in November , with " O " level and " A " level subjects also offered in June .
There are seven public ( Government ) universities as well as four church @-@ related universities in Zimbabwe that are fully internationally accredited . The University of Zimbabwe , the first and largest , was built in 1952 and is located in the Harare suburb of Mount Pleasant . Notable alumni from Zimbabwean universities include Welshman Ncube ; Peter Moyo ( of Amabhubesi ) ; Tendai Biti , Secretary @-@ General for the MDC ; Chenjerai Hove , Zimbabwean poet , novelist and essayist ; and Arthur Mutambara , President of one faction of the MDC . Many of the current politicians in the government of Zimbabwe have obtained degrees from universities in USA or other universities abroad .
National University of Science and Technology ( NUST ) is the second largest public research university in Zimbabwe located in Bulawayo . It was established in 1991 . The National University of Science and Technology strives to become a flourishing and reputable institution not only in Zimbabwe and in Southern Africa but also among the international fraternity of Universities . Its guidance , cultural values is the encouragement of all its members and society of those attitudes of fair mindedness , understanding , tolerance and respect for people and views which are essential for the attainment and maintenance of justice , peace and harmony at all times .
Africa University is a United Methodist related university institution located in Manicaland which attracts students from at least 36 African countries . The institution has been growing steadily and has steady study material and learning facilities . The highest professional board for accountants is the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Zimbabwe ( ICAZ ) with direct relationships with similar bodies in South Africa , Canada , the UK and Australia . A qualified Chartered Accountant from Zimbabwe is also a member of similar bodies in these countries after writing a conversion paper . In addition , Zimbabwean @-@ trained doctors only require one year of residence to be fully licensed doctors in the United States . The Zimbabwe Institution of Engineers ( ZIE ) is the highest professional board for engineers .
Education in Zimbabwe became under threat since the economic changes in 2000 with teachers going on strike because of low pay , students unable to concentrate because of hunger and the price of uniforms soaring making this standard a luxury . Teachers were also one of the main targets of Mugabe 's attacks because he thought they were not strong supporters .
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= Joseph Berrios =
Joseph " Joe " Berrios ( born February 14 , 1952 ) is a Democratic politician who is the Assessor of Cook County , Illinois and a Illinois state government lobbyist . One of seven children of Puerto Rican native parents , and raised in the Cabrini @-@ Green public housing project , he became the first Hispanic American to serve in the Illinois General Assembly and the first and only Hispanic American to chair the Cook County Democratic Party . He was a Commissioner on the Cook County Board of Review , a property tax assessment appeal panel .
Throughout his career , Berrios combined government sector jobs , elected office , unpaid political party leadership positions , and private sector proprietorships in lobbying , consulting and insurance sales . His political campaign strategies included ballot access challenges to potential opponents . He has been the focus of investigations into allegations of ethics violations and political corruption with respect to campaign fund @-@ raising and nepotism . In the press and in the courts , Berrios has repeatedly defended his right as an elected official to hire relatives and to accept campaign contributions from those with business before his office .
= = Early life , education , and early political career = =
Berrios was born on February 14 , 1952 , oldest of seven children . Berrios ' parents were Puerto Rican natives . When he was six , his family moved into the Cabrini @-@ Green public housing high @-@ rises . At 13 Berrios got a job as a dishwasher in the Tower Club , a private restaurant on the 39th floor of the Civic Opera House , worked there for seven years , and eventually become a waiter . Berrios graduated from Lane Technical College Prep High School in Chicago , and received a bachelor 's degree in accounting from the University of Illinois Chicago .
Berrios ' first political role was the unpaid position of a precinct captain in the 31st Ward political organization of Alderman Thomas Keane , Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley 's chief ally on the Chicago City Council . Berrios first met Keane when as student at the University of Illinois Chicago , Berrios was ticketed for speeding on the Kennedy Expressway and called on his alderman and committeeman Keane . In October 1974 , Keane was convicted of conspiracy and mail fraud for using his elected office to profit from illegal real estate deals . His wife , Adeline succeeded him as alderman and Edward Nedza as committeeman . In 1978 Nedza won the Illinois state Senate seat from the 5th Senate district , which encompasses the Humboldt Park neighborhood of Chicago , and much of the 31st ward . Nedza , a Polish @-@ American , recognized the growing Puerto Rican population in his district , and groomed Hispanics within the Democratic Party . Nedza 's political proteges included Alderman Miguel Santiago of the 31st ward , the only Hispanic on the Chicago City Council at the time , and Berrios .
= = Illinois State Representative = =
Chicago @-@ area Latino groups contested the legislative district map of the Illinois General Assembly in United States federal court . The panel of judges that decided the case ordered a new map that gave Hispanics a majority in two Illinois House of Representatives districts in Chicago , the 9th , which is predominantly Puerto Rican , and the 20th , which is predominantly Mexican American . In 1982 , Nedza sponsored Berrios , at the time chief clerk to Cook County Board of ( Tax ) Appeals Commissioner Harry Semrow , in the 9th district . Berrios was one of three candidates who filed nominating petitions to run in the Democratic primary , but Berrios ran unopposed when the petitions of the other two candidates were successfully challenged . Republicans fielded no candidate in their primary , so Berrios ran unopposed in the general election , and at the age of 30 became the first Hispanic American to serve in the Illinois General Assembly . Berrios ran for re @-@ election unopposed in the Fall 1986 general election . He won re @-@ election twice , serving three two @-@ year terms .
Berrios maintained his job in Chicago as chief clerk of the Cook County Board of ( Tax ) Appeals while serving part @-@ time as a legislator in the state capital in downstate Springfield , Illinois . In December , 1985 he was one of 21 state legislators criticised for holding a second , taxpayer @-@ salaried government job in a report issued by the Coalition for Political Honesty , founded by Board of ( Tax ) Appeals Commissioner Patrick Quinn , later Illinois Treasurer , Lieutenant Governor and Governor .
= = Democratic party posts = =
= = = 31st ward Democratic committeeman = = =
In March 1987 then former State Senator Edward Nedza , Berrios ' mentor , was indicted in a federal investigation of bribes allegedly paid to city licensing officials . In April , 1987 Nedza resigned his position as committeeman of the 31st ward in Chicago and named Berrios as his replacement . In August , 1987 , Nedza was convicted on federal charges of using his political office for illegal financial gain .
Berrios allied with Alderman Edward Vrdolyak , during Chicago Mayor Harold Washington 's first term , the Council Wars era . In 1987 Raymond Figueroa , with Washington 's backing , defeated Berrios 's candidate for alderman , Miguel Santiago , which helped close the Council Wars . A year later Figueroa defeated Berrios for committeeman . In 1991 , Figueroa decided not to run for re @-@ election as alderman , and left the committeeman 's job the following year . Berrios regained the committeeman 's post , a role he has held ever since .
= = = Chairman , Cook County Democratic Party = = =
Thomas G. Lyons , a veteran 45th Ward committeeman who had held the unpaid party position of chairman of the Cook County Democratic Party for nearly 17 years , was seriously ill and announced his retirement in January 2007 , and died on January 12 at age 75 . Democrats met in Chicago on February 1 to fill the vacancy and elected Berrios as their new chairman . Berrios was the first Hispanic to hold the post , which he has held ever since .
“ If they want to be independent , go ahead and form your own party , " Berrios said in 2014 , referring to candidates in Democratic primaries running without benefit of slating by the Cook County Democratic Party .
= = Commissioner on the Cook County Board of ( Tax ) Appeals = =
Berrios ' boss at the Cook County Board of ( Tax ) Appeals , Harry H. Semrow , died November 23 , 1987 at age 72 . In accordance with state law , the Chief Judge of the Cook County Circuit Court appointed a temporary replacement , attorney Thomas A. Jaconetty , 34 , a deputy assessor with the Board of ( Tax ) Appeals since 1981 . Jaconnetty was a 31st ward resident and the secretary of Berrios ' 31st ward Democratic organization with whom Berrios had been a precinct captain in the 31st Ward under Alderman Keane . Berrios ran for the vacancy with the backing of the Democratic party organization . In the Democratic primary , Berrios won the nomination with a sizable margin over Jeffrey Paul Smith , an assistant corporation counsel with the City of Chicago whose candidacy was sponsored by Quinn , by then a former Commissioner .
When first elected to the Board of ( Tax ) Appeals in 1988 , Berrios was paid about $ 56 @,@ 000 a year . In October 1990 , Berrios added a part @-@ time job as a legislative aide to a political ally , Democratic State Representative Miguel Santiago . The job paid Berrios nearly $ 10 @,@ 000 over the next two years . Also while working at the tax appeals board , Berrios worked as a lobbyist and a consultant to the state government , sometimes in association with his longtime business partner , Sam Panayotovich . From 1988 to 1993 , Panayotovich and Berrios won a $ 185 @,@ 000 no @-@ bid contract as the Illinois Department of Transportation 's ( IDOT 's ) liaison with lawmakers and municipal officials .
On March 11 , 1994 FBI agents executed a search warrant to confiscate records from the Cook County Board of ( Tax ) Appeals as part of an ongoing investigation . Weeks later , federal agents investigating ghost payrolling subpoenaed financial records regarding several past and current employees of the Board , including Berrios and Panayotovich . The US Treasury Department investigated the IDOT contracts with Berrios and Panayotovich , and a federal grand jury subpoenaed the contracts . A federal grand jury in Chicago subpoenaed records documenting the recipients of tuition waivers to state universities request by three current and two former state legislators , including Berrios and Panayotovich . The scholarship program , begun in 1905 , allowed each state legislator to waive the tuition and fees of any of the state 's 12 public universities , for any two students who live within the legislator 's district , without regard to academic achievement or financial need . No charges were filed against anyone in the Cook County Board of ( Tax ) Appeals . The Cook County Board of ( Tax ) Appeals was reconstituted and renamed the Cook County Board of Review in 1998 .
= = = Hiring of relatives and friends = = =
While Commissioner on the Board of Review , Berrios ' sister , sister @-@ in @-@ law , son and daughter worked for the county at annual salaries ranging from $ 48 @,@ 000 to $ 86 @,@ 000 . " Let me see , one , two , three … yeah , four , ” Berrios told the Associated Press . Berrios also hired , as a deputy chief commissioner , election law attorney Jaconetty , who wrote the chapter on ballot access in the courseware of the Illinois Institute for Continuing Legal Education . Berrios responded to criticisms of his hiring of relatives and friends , said ,
What you 're basically saying is that Joe Berrios should get out of politics . If my brothers or whoever wants to come and work in government , they shouldn 't be allowed to work in government . If you want to pass a law that says one individual is in government , then none of their friends or relatives can work in government , then you should pass that law .
= = = Political fundraising from tax appeal lawyers = = =
Board of ( Tax ) Appeals Commissioner Berrios regularly accepted hundreds of thousands of dollars a year in campaign contributions from lawyers who appealed property tax assessments before the Board . Berrios controls five personal political action committees , not including the fund for the Cook County Democratic Party , which he also controls . Berrios collected more than $ 3 million in political contributions between 2000 and 2010 , 64 percent from property tax appeal lawyers . About one @-@ third of Berrios ’ campaign contributions in that decade came from the 15 property tax appeal law firms that gained the most for their clients between 2006 and 2008 , contributing almost $ 1 million to six political action committees controlled by Berrios and his daughter , Illinois State Representative Maria Antonia Berrios , Democrat of the 39th Illinois House district on Chicago 's northwest side . Berrios started 2008 with $ 1 @.@ 2 million in just one of his several campaign funds , much of it from attorneys who appeared before him .
Several of the most successful property tax appeal law firms in Cook County have strong political connections . From 2006 to 2008 , the tax appeal law firms that received the largest reductions for their clients were those of Representative Michael J. Madigan ( the Illinois House Speaker , a Chicago Democrat and close ally of Berrios ) , Patrick J. Cullerton ( the brother of Illinois State Senator John Cullerton , the president of the Illinois Senate ) , and Chicago Alderman Edward M. Burke . Simultaneously , Berrios worked as a registered lobbyist to Illinois state government on issues such as legalizing video poker . Berrios lobbies Madigan and Cullerton in Springfield , while the Assessor is critical to the lucrative commercial real @-@ estate tax appeals practices of law firms , including those of Madigan and Cullerton . " Illinois , thy name is conflict of interest , " wrote Better Government Association Executive Director Andy Shaw in the Chicago Tribune in 2009 . " Even by Illinois ’ s loose conflict of interest standards , the obviousness of the Madigan @-@ Berrios connection is stupefying , " wrote Chicago Magazine in 2013 .
= = Cook County Assessor = =
= = = Campaign and election = = =
Cook County Assessor James Houlihan announced that he would not seek re @-@ election in 2010 . Within hours , Berrios said he planned to announce his candidacy for assessor . On February 2 , 2010 Berrios won the three @-@ way Democratic primary with 39 % of the vote , in a primary with the lowest turn @-@ out since 1958 .
Berrios ' candidacy was denounced by local editorial boards . The Chicago Tribune editorial board described Berrios as " a terrible candidate for the powerful office of assessor " and called the Democratic Party of Cook County 's slating of Berrios for Assessor a " miserable mistake , " citing " his disregard for basic ethical principles " and " patent conflicts of interest . " The Chicago Sun @-@ Times editorial board called the slating a " tragedy , " describing Berrios as " a fine example , in fact , of why Illinois needs serious campaign finance reform with teeth in it , " and citing Berrios ' lack of transparency on the Board of Review , his record of hiring family and friends , and his " cozy " relationship with Madigan . The Daily Herald editorial board called Berrios " the very antithesis of what the office needs . " A profile in Chicago Magazine described him as " a consummate insider in Illinois politics " and " a vivid example of the clout @-@ infested politics for which Illinois is famous . "
On Monday morning , September 13 , 2010 , while candidate Berrios was at a campaign fund @-@ raising breakfast , the Finance Committee of the Cook County Board met and approved a package of ethics reforms in response to Berrios , including a measure that required candidates for Assessor or the Board of Review to return contributions from property tax appeal lawyers of more than $ 1 @,@ 500 , and prohibiting public officials from conducting political activities while at work for the county or using county resources . " The law stinks , bottom line , " Berrios said .
Cook County Commissioner Forrest Claypool filed nominating petitions to run as an independent candidate for assessor . Berrios dropped a challenge to Claypool 's nominating petitions after Berrios ' lawyers examined Claypool 's 90 @,@ 000 signatures , 65 @,@ 000 more than required . Berrios prevailed in the November 2010 general election with 46 percent of the vote in a field that also included Republican Sharon Strobeck @-@ Eckersall . Claypool attributed his defeat to his failure to get enough suburban support to offset Berrios ' organization in Chicago .
= = = Campaign fundraising in excess of County limits = = =
Assessor Berrios was investigated by the Cook County Board of Ethics for allegedly accepting excessive political contributions from attorneys who argued property @-@ tax appeals before the Assessor and Board of Review . The Board of Ethics sent letters to 15 tax attorneys , warning that their donations to Berrios during the 2010 election cycle had exceeded the county campaign contribution limits . Berrios ' attorney objected that the regulation was " illegal " , and Berrios sought an advisory opinion from the Cook County State ’ s Attorney . In February 2011 , a Cook County Deputy State ’ s Attorney wrote an advisory opinion that the County Board lacked the home rule authority to limit campaign contributions to the Assessor and that state campaign finance law prevails . The County Board 's legal counsel issued an opinion that the new contribution limits were unconstitutional . Cook County commissioners scaled back the campaign finance reform law and the Cook County Board of Ethics dropped its investigation of Berrios ' campaign contributions .
= = = Hiring and promoting relatives and friends = = =
Days after taking office , Berrios hired his son , sister and Jaconetty to work for him , bringing them over from the property tax appeals board . The family members received raises in their new positions . Berrios also brought over from the property tax appeals board veteran staff member , Felix Cardona Jr . , the treasurer for Citizens for Maria A. Berrios , Berrios ' daughter 's campaign committee . Asked if the hirings confirmed past criticisms , Berrios said : " I still won the election . "
Patrick Blanchard , the county ’ s Inspector General , and MaryNic Foster , Executive Director of the Cook County Board of Ethics , the County ’ s top two government watchpersons , issued a joint advisory memo to County Board President Toni Preckwinkle , all 17 Cook County commissioners , and nine other elected county officials , including Berrios , warning them that hiring relatives violated county ethics laws . The Cook County Board of Ethics initiated an investigation of Berrios . The federal @-@ court appointed attorneys monitoring City of Chicago and Cook County compliance with the Shakman decrees , designed to prevent politics from influencing most personnel decisions , raised objections to as many as 27 hirings and firings in the first month of the Berrios administration of the Assessor 's office . On January 28 , 2011 , to comply with County Board President Preckwinkle ’ s request for across @-@ the @-@ board 16 percent budget cuts to help close an estimated $ 487 million budget shortfall , Berrios laid off 53 employees , of which 48 were members of unions , but Berrios ' relatives remained on the payroll . On July 17 , 2013 , the Cook County Board approved $ 529 @,@ 000 in settlements to 11 former employees of the Assessor 's office that the court @-@ appointed Shakman decree monitor had determined had been fired unlawfully by Berrios for political reasons .
While the Cook County Board of Ethics consideration of Berrios ' possible violations of County nepotism ordinances was pending , reports by WGN @-@ TV , the Better Government Association , and Chicago Magazine questioned Berrios ' relationship to John J. Pikarski , the Board 's chairman , and also a prominent , long @-@ time real estate zoning attorney . Pikarski 's law firm had represented clients before the County Board of Review on which Berrios served , and had donated thousands of dollars to Berrios ' political campaigns . One day after the release of the joint investigations , Pikarski resigned .
In its final determination dated June 20 , 2012 the Cook County Board of Ethics recommended that Berrios remove his son and sister from the County payroll and fined Berrios $ 10 @,@ 000 total ( $ 5 @,@ 000 for each of two relatives he hired ) . " To me it ’ s not big deal , because I ’ ve been told by the state ’ s attorney they have no power over us , " Berrios said . A Chicago Tribune editorial called Berrios ' hiring of his relatives " a flagrant violation of the county 's ethics rules . " County Board President Preckwinkle said ,
I 've always said throughout my political career that if you 're in public office , you should not hire your relatives . This is not appropriate . And it leads to the perception that government is only for friends and family . And that 's neither good nor right .
Preckwinkle fired Foster in May , 2013 . " Joe is a political ally , " Preckwinkle said .
Cook County State 's Attorney Anita Alvarez declined to represent Berrios or the Board of Ethics in the nepotism issue , citing conflict of interest . A Cook County Circuit Court judge appointed an outside lawyer to represent Berrios before the Board of Ethics beginning in April 2011 , and the firm billed the county $ 4 @,@ 773 for its work as of September , 2012 . The Board of Ethics rejected Berrios ' appeal of the final determination . By November , 2012 , 15 members of Berrios ' family were on state or county payrolls or receiving state or county pensions . Berrios topped the " Hall of Shame " category in " Chicago ’ s Best and Worst Politicians of 2012 " in Chicago Magazine 's December , 2012 issue . The Board of Ethics petitioned the courts for a special prosecutor , and a judge appointed attorney and former Chicago Inspector General David H. Hoffman . By March , 2013 , Berrios had billed the County $ 24 @,@ 716 for his defense against the Board of Ethics ' ruling . In April , 2015 the judge ruled that the Board of Ethics had no authority to impose fines on the Assessor .
Cook County homeowners are eligible for a property @-@ tax break on their primary residence , but a manager in Assessor 's office was granted the homeowner 's exemption on two homes . In 2012 Cook County Inspector General Blanchard subpoenaed the Assessor 's office seeking documents related to the exemptions . Berrios ignored the subpoena , claiming that the County Inspector General has no authority over him . Blanchard filed suit against Berrios . Berrios is represented in the suit by Cook County State 's Attorney Alvarez . On January , 15 , 2014 , a Cook County circuit court judge ruled that the County Inspector General had the authority to investigate the Assessor and all other independently elected County offices . On August 21 , 2014 , the judge ruled the Assessor must comply with the Inspector General 's subpoena .
= = Business interests and personal life = =
Berrios is a partner with Sam Panayotovich in , and secretary of , a lobbying firm , B @-@ P Consulting , Inc. with offices in Springfield and downtown Chicago . Lobbying clients include the Illinois Licensed Beverage Association and the Illinois Coin Machine Operators Association , manufacturers and distributors of video poker machines . Berrios is President of an insurance agency , J B Insurance - Consulting Inc. with an office in downtown Chicago .
Berrios lives in the Belmont Cragin neighborhood on Chicago 's Northwest Side . He is the father of three children , including former Illinois State Representative Maria Antonia " Toni " Berrios .
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= Bye Bye ( Mariah Carey song ) =
" Bye Bye " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Mariah Carey , taken from her eleventh studio album , E = MC ² ( 2008 ) . It was written by Carey , Mikkel S. Eriksen , Tor Erik Hermansen and Johntá Austin , and produced by the former three . It was released as the album 's second single on April 15 , 2008 . The song is influenced by pop and R & B music genres , and features a piano and keyboard @-@ driven melody . Lyrically , the song is a dialogue in between Carey and her deceased father throughout the verses , and a universal salute to departed loved ones on the chorus .
The song received generally positive reviews , with many critics considering it a highlight from the album . Though expected by critics to have surely become Carey 's 19th chart @-@ topping single in the United States , following the success of " Touch My Body " , the track only managed to reach a peak position of number 19 on the Billboard Hot 100 . In the other countries the song achieved relatively weak charting , peaking within the top ten in New Zealand , and the top @-@ fifty in Canada , Ireland , Slovakia , and the United Kingdom .
" Bye Bye " was performed on few live televised appearances , in comparison to the large promotional boost given to " Touch My Body " . Carey first performed the song on T4 , followed by Good Morning America and The Oprah Winfrey Show . Carey performed " Bye Bye " for the final time on the seventh season of American Idol , where she was featured as a mentor for the top @-@ seven week . The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Justin Francis on the island of Antigua in the Caribbean . The video features behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage of Carey and her then fiancé Nick Cannon , the singer promoting the album in the United Kingdom , as well as photos of several of Carey 's close friends , family and past collaborators .
= = Background = =
During the conception of her ninth studio album Charmbracelet in 2002 , Carey 's estranged father , Alfred Roy , was diagnosed with cancer . After divorcing from Patricia , Carey 's mother , when the singer was only three , he kept only limited contact with her throughout the years , as Patricia continuously moved due to their poverty . During this period of Carey 's life , when she was just recovering from a breakdown and career slouch , she began reconnecting with her father during his short time in hospital care . In a song titled " Sunflowers for Alfred Roy " , present on Charmbracelet , Carey refers to a moment she shared with him on his death @-@ bed . Critics described the song as " the album 's most lyrically personal song " and appreciated its simple piano accompaniment , while Carey retells of a visit she shared with her father in his hospital room , " Strange to feel that proud , strong man / Grip tightly to my hand . "
After the release of Charmbracelet and its succeeding album , The Emancipation of Mimi ( 2005 ) , Carey began working on material for her eleventh studio effort , the yet untitled E = MC ² ( 2008 ) . It was one of the most anticipated albums of 2008 , with many critics weighing their opinions on whether Carey would be able to deliver significant success , following her achievements with The Emancipation of Mimi . " Bye Bye " was released as the album 's second single , following " Touch My Body " , and premiered on radio on April 7 , 2008 , and became available to download at iTunes on April 15 , 2008 . The single officially went for adds on April 22 , 2008 on Mainstream and Rhythm / Crossover stations . Carey recalled in an interview with MTV :
" Sometimes when I 'm writing a song , it does come from such a raw place that I 'm actually crying while writing it , " Mariah admitted . Her second single , a tribute to her late father , is also meant to reach anyone else who has suffered a loss of a loved one . " Sometimes I hear it and feel that this is going to touch a lot of people , and that 's why it 's important that no matter what 's ever happened to me over my career , that I stay the course and continue to write and try and reach people who need . " Anyone who manages to do the reverse , and touch Mariah with one of their songs , " I 'm indebted to them forever . "
= = Composition = =
" Bye Bye " is a slow @-@ tempo " inspirational power ballad " , which is influenced by R & B and pop music genres . The song is built on an understated and simple piano @-@ driven melody , that is decorated with a soft bass @-@ line . Written by Carey , Mikkel S. Eriksen , Tor Erik Hermansen and Johntá Austin , and produced by the former three , the song drew comparisons to several of Carey 's previous musical arrangements featured in both " We Belong Together " and " Don 't Forget About Us " . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " Bye Bye " is set in common time with a tempo of 68 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of B @-@ flat major , with Carey 's vocal range spanning from the low @-@ note of F3 to the high @-@ note of F6 in whistle register , and F5 in chest voice . The song follows in the chord progression of Bm7 – Am7 – Gmaj7 .
Lyrically , the song was described by critics as a " larger than life anthem " , and an " inspirational lighter @-@ in @-@ the @-@ air ballad " , where Carey remembers both her father , as well as any lost loved ones . " Bye Bye " begins with an understated chorus , then working into the first verse , in which Carey retells her childhood , and her relationship with her father years ago : " As a child there were them times / I didn 't get it , but you kept me alive / I didn 't know why you didn 't show up sometimes / And its more than saying ' I miss you ' / But I 'm glad we talked through / All them grown full things separation brings / You never let me know it , you never let it show " . Then , the pre @-@ chorus continues describing Carey 's emotions in the present , " And everyday life goes on / I wish I could talk to you for a while " , and how the loss of her father still affects her day @-@ to @-@ day life .
While the verses are dedicated to him , the chorus was written in a third @-@ person point of view , for her fans : " This is for my peoples who just lost somebody / Your best friend , your baby , your man or your lady / Put your hand way up high / We will never say bye / Mamas , daddies , sisters , brothers , friends and cousins / This is for my peoples who lost their grandmothers / Lift your hands to the sky / Because we won 't ever say bye bye " . As Carey sings the second chorus , she reverts to the singular conversation with her deceased father , however now revisiting 2005 , " And you never got a chance to see how good I 've done / And you never got to see me back at No. 1 " , referencing her return to the top of music with The Emancipation of Mimi . The song does not feature a bridge , instead repeating the chorus twice , once in the same key as the rest of the song , while the other in a raised octave . During the last chorus , Carey 's voice is doubled , with her regular tone voice singing softly over the piano chords , while her more prominent and higher pitched vocals are laid over it .
= = Critical reception = =
" Bye Bye " received mostly positive reviews from music critics , and was heavily speculated to have become Carey 's 19th number @-@ one single on the Billboard Hot 100 . Many reviewers complimented its simple and understated musical arrangement and personalized lyrics , while some felt the song was too simple for an artist of Carey 's stature . Jeffrey Mitchell from The Hollywood Reporter described it as a " high point " on the album , and wrote " Mariah softly and sweetly lamenting the loss of any kind of loved one on the truly touching ' Bye Bye ' . Mitchell concluded his review put stock in the song 's success , and ended with " Thankfully , it looks like we won ’ t be saying “ bye ” to Mariah for a long time . " An anonymous journalist writing in for MTV UK called " Bye Bye " a " tear jerking ode to people who have passed away " , and assumed it would " have reality pop contestants singing away for decades to come ! " The Houston Chronicle 's Goey Guerra highlighted the song as " truly trademark Mimi " , and described it as " a lighters @-@ and @-@ hands @-@ in @-@ the @-@ air tribute to deceased loved ones " . Dan Hinkley of Daily News branded it " the album 's most potentially personal song " , and assured it would become Carey 's 19th chart @-@ topping single in the United States . The song received positive response from both Rolling Stone 's Christian Hoard and Yahoo ! Music writer Dann Gennoe , who describes the track as a " piano @-@ based big @-@ voiced " and " lighter @-@ friendly " ballad . In his review of E = MC ² , a writer from the Los Angeles Times described the song 's lyrics and production in detail :
When Carey tries to open up a bit more , her sentiments are the equivalent of a Hallmark Precious Moments figurine . In a ballad ' Bye Bye ' , Carey isn 't taking chances , designing the lyrics for mass appeal by dedicating them to anyone who ever lost somebody , be it ' your best friend , your baby , your man or your lady ' . But Carey gracefully pulls off the universality of the lyrics , and the tune will likely be a massive hit .
A columnist from the British newspaper New ! described " Bye Bye " as their " favorite track " and wrote , " the delicious ' Bye Bye ' is a classic slushy Mariah ballad , with a swoonsome chorus . " Jonathan Reyes from Rap @-@ Up felt the track would get listeners " teary eyed " , and due to it being a " song everyone can relate too " , assure it would become Carey 's next number @-@ one single . While ABC News writer , Steve Jones , described how " Bye Bye " packed the bum with " an emotional wallop " , The Washington Post 's Freedom De Luc compared it heavily to " Don 't Forget About Us " , Carey 's 2005 single . De Luc wrote how both shared similar piano instrumentation , however different lyrical settings ; " Don 't Forget About Us " finds Carey playing a " broken @-@ hearted lover " , while " Bye Bye " an " inspirational song that comes with its own set of suggested demographics and instructions . " Some reviewers felt the song was a sub @-@ par effort from an artist of Carey 's stature , with many describing it as unoriginal and not a good follow @-@ up single to " Touch My Body " . Entertainment Weekly 's Margeaux Watsman felt " Bye Bye " was an " odd choice " for a second single , and called it " somber edgy " . Nick Levine from Digital Spy described the track as a " shmaltzy ballad " , while an anonymous VH1 critic wrote " with the “ We Belong Together ” sonic template and lyrics tailored appeal to everyone on such a basic level seems like too easy of a combination for someone as established as Mimi . This one ’ s like insurance – in case nothing else is a hit , here ’ s a sure @-@ shot . But ultimately , it turns out that the album is too good for that . "
= = Chart performance = =
" Bye Bye " served as the second single from the album E = MC ² . Though released in the United States , the United Kingdom , Australasia and other select parts of Europe , the song was not sent to radio stations in countries like the Netherlands , France , Norway and Switzerland , where " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " , the album 's third official single , was released instead . " Bye Bye " debuted at number twenty @-@ three on the Billboard Hot 100 as the " Hot Shot Debut " , selling 60 @,@ 000 downloads . Following her performance of the song on American Idol and The Oprah Winfrey Show , it eventually peaked at number nineteen on the Hot 100 , and at number thirty @-@ three on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs . The track eventually peaked at number thirty @-@ four on the Canadian Hot 100 , and stayed within the chart for a total of twelve weeks . As of February 2014 , " Bye Bye " had sold 598 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
On the main chart in Europe , " Bye Bye " peaked at number eighty @-@ four on the European Hot 100 . It debuted and peaked at number seventy in Germany , and debuted at number eighty @-@ eight on the UK Singles Chart . Six weeks later , on July 5 , 2008 , the song peaked at number thirty , due to the release of the song 's music video . In Asia , " Bye Bye " charted on the Japan Hot 100 , peaking at number seventy @-@ three . In New Zealand , the song achieved its highest peak , reaching number seven in its third week . After a total of eight weeks , the song dropped out of the top 40 . The song achieved relatively low peaks throughout each country it charted , including number forty @-@ three in Australia , forty in Ireland and number fifty in Slovakia .
= = Remixes = =
The main official remix , the " So So Def Remix " , produced by Carey and Jermaine Dupri , features a verse by Jay @-@ Z ( Carey provided new background vocals on his verse ) and Jermaine Dupri on background vocals . In an interview with MTV News , Dupri described the remix as " crazy " , and said " Young Hov and Mariah crank it up , and myself , JD — a.k.a. Barry Bonds — cleans up . " When asked if it would sound awkward due to the song 's melancholy nature , he answered " we 'll forget about the sad sentiments " . A writer from Rap @-@ Up gave the remix a positive review , calling it " FIRE ! " . An additional remix was released , titled the " R & B Remix " , and features vocals from Akon , and an under @-@ stated rap from Lil Wayne .
= = Music video = =
The music video was directed by Justin Francis , and co @-@ directed by Nick Cannon on the island of Eleuthera in the Bahamas . The video became notable for the pair , due to the fact that it was during its conception and recording that they began dating , and eventually wed two months later . The video was shot in early April 2008 , but was delayed until May , with several critics suggesting it because of the couples engagement . In an interview with Fox News , Cannon spoke of his feelings when first speaking with Carey regarding the video : " From the first time we sat down to discuss the video at the Beverly Hills Hotel , we connected . We had so much in common spiritually , and we laugh at the same things . I didn 't have to put on my Mac Daddy suave mode . I was able to be myself with her . We are both eternally 12 years old . " The pair eloped in the Bahamas , at Carey 's private estate in Eleuthera , and wed on April 30 , 2008 . The couple stayed on the island for over two weeks after the nuptials for their honeymoon , which is why the video was delayed until mid @-@ May , so Carey would be able to promote it in time .
The video consists of multiple scenes with Carey and ( now husband ) Cannon , who plays her love interest . This is shown along with various behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage of Carey at various promotional events in the United Kingdom . The video begins with grainy footage of a plane landing in the Bahamas , with Carey and Cannon exiting the aircraft with her dog . Throughout the video , scenes of Carey laying on a sofa , writing lyrics and tearing , as well as the singer in a darkened stage are shown . Several behind @-@ the @-@ scenes clips of Carey promoting the album in the United Kingdom are shown , as she arrives at a CD signing , and connects with fans . Following the signing , Carey is shown at a fashion show , as well as modelling in several outfits . Other scenes that intermingle are of Carey looking out of her hotel suite window in London , as well as candles being put out . During the second verse , the couple is seen spending time together on the island , spending time with friends at a small gathering at the pool , as well as moments of Carey modeling for her bikini photo shoot for the June issue of Vibe . The video 's final segment is of Carey performing the song at a concert in a large theatre , while several photos are sporadically shown . Photographs of several of Carey 's deceased friends and family members are shown , including her dog , Jack , her father Alfred Roy , her grandmother , David Cole , Luciano Pavarotti , Ol ' Dirty Bastard , and Luther Vandross , all of whom Carey had collaborated with during her career . Critics complimented the inclusion of the photos with both Pavarotti and Vandross , and considered it Carey 's way of honoring them . The music video peaked at # 4 on Billboard 's Hot Videoclip Tracks chart .
= = Live performances = =
On the seventh season of the popular talent competition American Idol , Carey was featured as a mentor for the top @-@ seven week . Titled " Mariah Carey Week " and airing live on April 14 , 2008 , the contestants were to perform a song from Carey 's catalog . After all seven contestants sang their individual songs , they all came together for a live rendition of Carey 's 1996 collaboration with Boyz II Men , " One Sweet Day " . Overall , critics noted how a Carey themed week would be extremely difficult for the performers , due to their vocally strenuous nature . Following their joint performance , Carey emerged onto the stage in a black mini @-@ dress , and performed " Bye Bye " live , while backed by a trio of supporting vocalists . Tamara Jones of The Washington Post jokingly commented on Carey 's flailing hand movements during the performance , writing how she was " waving like a malevolent homecoming queen " . Gil Kaufman from MTV News complimented Carey 's performance , commenting on her " barely there micro @-@ dress " and writing how she " serenaded the audience with her homage to lost ones . " The Calgary Sun 's Lindsey Ward described it as a " less @-@ than @-@ fab performance " , although complimenting on Carey 's leaner figure , " Oh , who am I kidding ? She would look hot in a paper bag . "
On April 25 , 2008 , Carey opened the Good Morning America " Summer Concert Series " with a live performance in Times Square . Carey , wearing a pink mini @-@ skirt , began the set with " Touch My Body " in front of thousands of fans . During the song , Carey 's backing vocals began to malfunction , causing it to repeat phrases and play during her main vocal moments . In order to let the sound engineer know of the problem , she substituted part of the lyrics for " stop singing my part now baby " , and completed the final chorus . She continued on with " I 'm That Chick " , and completed the three @-@ song set @-@ list with her follow @-@ up single , " Bye Bye " . After marking the album 's stateside launch with her appearance on Good Morning America , Carey took to Europe to perform on several programs , one of which included a live rendition of " Bye Bye " . She began with an interview on the British radio station , BBC Radio 1 , and continued onto a live performance of the song on T4 . On April 12 , 2008 , Carey made an appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show . Winfrey interviewed the singer on her weight loss , E = MC ² , and even showed footage of Carey in her New York apartment , showing off her lingerie closet . Following the interview , Carey , dressed in a purple and black ensemble , performed a live rendition of " Bye Bye " for the audience , with three background vocalists assisting her . Kevin Johnson from St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch described the performance as " touching " , and complimented the song 's appeal .
= = Track listings and formats = =
European CD single
" Bye Bye " ( Album Version ) – 4 : 26
" Bye Bye " ( So So Def Remix feat . Jay @-@ Z ) – 3 : 57
UK CD single
" Bye Bye " ( Album Version ) – 4 : 26
" Bye Bye " ( So So Def Remix feat . Jay @-@ Z ) – 3 : 57
US CD maxi @-@ single
" Bye Bye " ( Album Version feat . Akon & Lil Wayne ) – 4 : 35
" Bye Bye " ( R & B Remix ) – 4 : 26
" Bye Bye " ( Video )
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for E = MC ² adapted from the album 's liner notes .
Mariah Carey – songwriting , producer , vocals , background vocals
Mikkel S. Eriksen – songwriting , producer
Tor Erik Hermansen – songwriting , producer
Christopher Stewart – songwriting , producer
Johntá Austin – songwriting
Josh Houghkirk – audio mixing
Bernie Grundman – mastering
Maryann Tatum – background vocals
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Cartman 's Mom Is a Dirty Slut =
" Cartman 's Mom Is a Dirty Slut " is the first season finale of the American animated television series South Park . It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on February 25 , 1998 . The episode is the highest viewed episode in the entire South Park series , with 6 @.@ 4 million views . It is part one of a two @-@ episode story arc , which concluded with " Cartman 's Mom Is Still a Dirty Slut " . The episode follows Eric Cartman , one of the show 's child protagonists , becoming curious about the identity of his father . He discovers that his father is most likely a man his mother had sexual intercourse with during an annual party called " The Drunken Barn Dance " . Meanwhile , his friends Stan , Kyle and Kenny participate on America 's Stupidest Home Videos , after filming Cartman playing in his yard with plush toys .
The episode was written by Trey Parker and staff writer David A. Goodman , and directed by Parker . It featured a guest appearance by comedian Jay Leno , who provided cat sounds for Cartman 's cat . " Cartman 's Mom is a Dirty Slut " had a cliffhanger ending ; the identity of Cartman 's father was intended to be revealed in the second season premiere , but Parker and co @-@ creator Matt Stone wrote an unrelated April Fool 's Day episode instead . This was much to the dismay of South Park viewers . This episode was met with positive responses from critics .
In the summer of 2013 , fans voted " Cartman 's Mom Is a Dirty Slut " as the best episode of season one .
= = Plot = =
Stan , Kyle and Kenny decide to check on Cartman when he does not show up for school . They discover that he is having a tea party with his stuffed animals in his backyard . Their school counselor Mr. Mackey advises them to videotape Cartman , so he can study him psychologically .
Meanwhile , Cartman does not have a father to take to the annual father @-@ and @-@ son dance and asks his mother who he is . His mother explains that she met his father , a Native American named Chief Running Water , at the 12th annual " Drunken Barn Dance " . However , Chief Running Water informs him that his mother dumped him for Chef . Chef tells Cartman that his mother preferred Mr. Garrison over him . Mr. Garrison admits that he had slept with Mrs. Cartman , but then argues " But who here didn 't ! ? " , to which Mayor McDaniels , Principal Victoria , Jesus and Father Maxi share guilty glances with each other . Dr. Mephisto is willing to perform DNA testing to resolve the issue , but requires $ 3 @,@ 000 for the test . Cartman gets depressed , as he does not have the money .
In the meantime , Kyle , Stan and Kenny watch America 's Stupidest Home Videos ; they hear there 's a $ 10 @,@ 000 grand prize for the stupidest home video . They decide to enter the competition with the video they made of Cartman . Cartman approaches Kyle and Stan ( Kenny was dragged to a train track by Stan 's go @-@ cart and killed by an oncoming train ) with the depressing news about his lack of funds to find out his real father . Stan and Kyle agree that if they win the video contest they will give Cartman the $ 3 @,@ 000 needed for the DNA testing . Cartman is overjoyed , but quickly becomes extremely angry after seeing the aired video . Though they do not win the competition , as Stan 's grandfather wins with a videotape he made of Kenny 's death , they receive a $ 3 @,@ 000 runner @-@ up prize instead , which is still enough for the DNA test . Dr. Mephesto calls together Cartman , his mother and all potential fathers ( including the 1989 Denver Broncos ) , when he gets the test results which is where Kenny comes back to life . When he is about to reveal the identity of Cartman 's father , a narrator states that the answer will be revealed in the new South Park episode four weeks later , much to Cartman 's annoyance and anger .
= = Production = =
" Cartman 's Mom is a Dirty Slut " was written by South Park co @-@ creator Trey Parker and staff writer David R. Goodman , and directed by Parker . South Park would sometimes have guest appearances by celebrities , but they would usually voice a supporting or minor character ; Academy Award winning actor George Clooney had previously provided dog barks for the episode " Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride " . Comedian and talk @-@ show host Jay Leno provided the sounds of Cartman 's cat Mr. Kitty in the episode . Leno would return later as himself in the season two episode " City on the Edge of Forever " . Toddy Walters provided the vocals for the song used at " The Drunken Barn Dance " ( which is a parody of " My Heart Will Go On " ) . Walters was romantically involved with Parker at the time the episode was being produced . She would continue to write and sing for the show throughout its third season .
The episode was to conclude with the first episode of the second season , on April 1 , 1998 , four weeks after " Cartman 's Mom is a Dirty Slut " was first broadcast . However , instead of continuing the episode 's storyline , Parker and co @-@ creator Matt Stone made an episode regarding the South Park minor characters Terrance and Philip , as an April Fool 's Day prank on viewers of the show . Upset fans wrote more than 2 @,@ 000 angry e @-@ mail complaints to Comedy Central within a week of the episode 's original broadcast , and media outlets said some fans harbored a grudge against the show more than five years after the episode was broadcast .
= = Theme = =
Writing for Newsday , television critic Tom Carson stated he felt the episode was " a really plaintive story about craving something , anything , to hold onto " , as Cartman tries to adapt the culture of each man he believes to be his father . Jeffrey Andrew Weinstock , author of the book Taking South Park Seriously , also felt the episode was a good example of a " kind of equivalency between ethnic , racial and sexual identities " , but felt " the humor lies partly in Cartman 's parody of mass culture 's stereotypes of Native Americans and African Americans " . In his book American politics and society today , Robert Singh noted that the episode gives the most prominent example of how Cartman 's rude behaviour is the result of being raised without a father . This correlated with a theory by Paul Cantor , author of the book The Simpsons : Atomistic Politics and the Nuclear Family , regarding Homer Simpson , of FOX 's The Simpsons , " that merely by being present , a dutiful and attached father can provide a meaningful influence , despite his dysfunctional behaviour and errant educational ways . "
= = Release and reception = =
The episode was first aired in the United States on the cable television channel Comedy Central on February 25 , 1998 . It received a Nielsen rating in the 8 @.@ 0 range . In Canada , the episode premiered on The Comedy Channel on August 20 , 1998 , it was the last of a three @-@ week South Park marathon aired by the network . A little over 300 @,@ 000 viewers watched the episode , which was a record for the channel , which had only been part of Canada 's cable networks for ten months . The complete three @-@ week marathon was watched by an average 186 @,@ 307 viewers per minute per day .
When first broadcast in the United States , " Cartman 's Mom is a Dirty Slut " gained positive responses from critics . Writing for The Vancouver Sun , Brian Lowry and Alex Strachan defined " Cartman 's Mom is a Dirty Slut " , as well as " Damien " , " Mecha Streisand " and " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " , as season one 's " classic episodes " , commenting that " Cartman 's Mom is a Dirty Slut " was " a heart @-@ warming , tender episode " . Carson also praised the episode for its " hilarious sex @-@ jokes " . In a top ten list of South Park 's best episodes , compiled by Chicago Tribune reporter Allan Johnson , " Cartman 's Mom is a Dirty Slut " was ranked third , behind " Osama bin Laden Has Farty Pants " and " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " .
On April 27 , 1999 , " Cartman 's Mom is a Dirty Slut " was released on the " South Park : Volume 7 " VHS tape which also contained " Cartman 's Mom is Still a Dirty Slut " , in a third series of South Park home video releases . Volume 7 was sold along with Volume 8 , which contained " Chickenlover " and " Ike 's Wee Wee " , and Volume 9 , which contained " Conjoined Fetus Lady " and " The Mexican Staring Frog of Southern Sri Lanka " . All thirteen episodes of the first season , including " Cartman 's Mom is a Dirty Slut " , were released on a DVD box set on November 12 , 2002 . Parker and Stone recorded commentary tracks for each episode , but the tracks were not included on the DVDs due to " standards " issues with some of the statements ; refusing to allow the tracks to be censored or edited , Parker and Stone 's commentary tracks were released on a separate CD .
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= Bacon : A Love Story =
Bacon : A Love Story , A Salty Survey of Everybody 's Favorite Meat is a 2009 non @-@ fiction book about bacon.Written by American writer Heather Lauer . Lauer started the blog Bacon Unwrapped and a social networking site about bacon in 2005 , after the idea came to her while she was out drinking with her two brothers ; her online success inspired her to write the book , which describes curing and cooking bacon , gives over 20 bacon recipes , and analyzes the impact of bacon on popular culture . The text is interspersed with facts about bacon and bacon @-@ related quips from comedian Jim Gaffigan .
The book had a generally positive reception ; The Sacramento Bee called it " entertaining and informational " . The Toronto Star and The Sacramento Bee recommended it as a Father 's Day gift . The Portsmouth Herald and The Arizona Republic highlighted the book on lists of summer reading recommendations . Publishers Weekly wrote that bacon lovers would enjoy the book , but other readers may not so much .
= = Content summary = =
Bacon : A Love Story contains information on cooking and curing bacon , including " time @-@ honored methods and traditions " . The book analyzes how bacon has affected popular culture . Lauer includes information on chefs who love of bacon and venues that serve the product throughout the United States . The book contains over 20 recipes for dishes made with bacon , including Bacon Bloody Mary , Bacon @-@ Wrapped Tater Tots , Bacon Bleu Salad , and bacon brownies . Another recipe is Bristol Bacon by chef Duncan Bristol , who owns the restaurant Brick 29 in Nampa , Idaho . Interspersed throughout the book are bits about bacon from comedian Jim Gaffigan , and random information such as that " Cracker Barrel serves 124 million slices of bacon per year " . Lauer notes , " Speck is the direct German translation of the word ' bacon ' " , and observes that the word " creates cross @-@ cultural confusion " . The book 's " Bacon 411 " section provides further information on the product .
= = Background = =
Before the book 's publication , Heather Lauer was a public affairs consultant in Arizona . She hatched the idea to write a book about bacon after going out for cocktails with her two brothers in 2005 . Lauer explained to The Arizona Republic : " I was out drinking with my brothers one night , and the topic of bacon came up . We had eaten bacon as kids , and bacon was a special thing on Sunday mornings . Somehow , the idea came up about how funny it would be to start a blog about bacon ... I took it and ran with it . " She began the blog Bacon Unwrapped , at www.baconunwrapped.com , and a social networking site about bacon at baconnation.ning.com in 2005 .
Lauer thought that the surge in interest in bacon products prior to the book 's publication was " media driven " . She noted that a response to political correctness as related to cooking and food consumption may have driven interest in the product . Lauer said that bacon seems to be " the one thing that people are unwilling to give up " . In a post of her blog in March 2009 , Lauer lamented those that were willing to posit an end to the trend of interest in bacon . She commented , " Bacon is something that everybody is familiar with and most people grew up eating . It has a comfort aspect to it and a familiarity . It 's also got an addictive aspect to it — that sweet and salty combination of flavors . " She asserted that interest in the product is as much due to the culture surrounding it as to bacon itself . " Current food trends focus on eating real and eating local , and there 's nothing more real than a delicious strip of bacon . In many U.S. cities , local producers and chefs are making a name for themselves because of bacon , " said Lauer . She stated that " most chefs would admit that bacon has long been one of their secret weapons in the kitchen . " The book was marketed as the " most comprehensive book about bacon to date " . Lauer promoted her book in a September 2009 appearance as a co @-@ host at the Blue Ribbon Bacon Tour in Pennsylvania , hosted by fellow bacon blogger Jason Mosley ( Mr. Baconpants , at mrbaconpants.com ) .
= = Reception = =
Writing for The Sacramento Bee , Allen Pierleoni recommended the book as a gift for Father 's Day , and called the work " entertaining and informational , full of anecdotes , history , recipes and explanations of what pork belly has brought to the popular culture " . Rita Zekas of the Toronto Star also recommended the book as a Father 's Day gift . Kerry J. Byrne noted that the book covers " everything from bacon @-@ curing methods to bacon blogs " and includes " easy recipes " . Publishers Weekly reviewed called the book a " voluminous look at all things bacon " ; the review concluded , " Readers who , like Lauer , possess a borderline @-@ obsessive love for bacon are likely to embrace this as their new Bible , but anyone else will quickly get their fill . " Rachel Forrest of The Portsmouth Herald recommended the book in her " Annual Summer Reading List for Foodies " . " Another of my favorites this year is ' Bacon : A Love Story : A Salty Survey of Everybody 's Favorite Meat ' by Heather Lauer . A book all about bacon ... she profiles chefs that use it , odd finds across the nation and plenty of recipes , " commented Forrest . The Arizona Republic highlighted the book among its selection of " Books to help turn pages of summer " .
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= Battle off Endau =
The Battle off Endau was a Second World War battle that took place off Endau on 26 – 27 January 1942 . Part of the Battle of Malaya , it was the first notable naval engagement since the sinking of the battleship Prince of Wales and the battlecruiser Repulse on 10 December 1941 , and the last effort by the Royal Navy to intercept Japanese convoy shipping around the Malay Peninsula .
A Japanese convoy approaching Endau was detected by reconnaissance aircraft on 26 January and was ineffectually attacked multiple times by Allied aircraft as it was landing its troops . The Allies suffered heavy casualties , while the Japanese lost only a single aircraft . The Royal Navy committed two destroyers later that day to break up the Japanese landings , despite the much larger Japanese escort force . Sailing under the cover of darkness , they were able to locate the convoy anchored there without being detected , but could not find the troopships in the darkness . The ships attempted to disengage , but were fired upon by the convoy 's escorts and one destroyer was sunk in the early morning hours of 27 January .
= = Background = =
The sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse in the opening stages of the Malayan Campaign left the task of intercepting Japanese convoys in the Gulf of Siam to the submarines of the Royal Netherlands Navy as the surface ships were occupied escorting Allied convoys to and from Ceylon and the Dutch East Indies . The Dutch recorded their first success when the troopship Awazisan Maru was sunk off Kota Bharu on 12 December 1941 , probably by HNLMS K XII . On 24 December , HNLMS K XVI sank the destroyer Sagiri off the coast of Kuching , Borneo . Several other vessels were also damaged or sunk during the early weeks , but losses were high for the Dutch submarines and they could do little to stem the Japanese advance .
= = Endau = =
An amphibious landing at Mersing was originally planned by the Japanese to sever the lines of communication between the British forces and Singapore , but the Southern Expeditionary Army Group decided to land the rest of the 18th Division at Singora instead , believing that the Allied defences at Mersing were too formidable . Although ground forces captured Endau on 21 January , they lacked the strength to break through the Australian defences at Sungei @-@ Mersing .
On 20 January 1942 , a convoy of eleven troopships departed Cam Ranh Bay , Indochina , to unload ground forces at Singora , of which two would proceed to Endau . The two transports , Kansai Maru and Canberra Maru , were carrying troops of the 96th Airfield Battalion , assigned to bring the airfields of Kahang and Kluang into operation . They were escorted by the 1st Escort Unit , which was formed around Torpedo Squadron 3 , which consisted of the light cruiser Sendai , flagship of Rear @-@ Admiral Shintarō Hashimoto , and six Fubuki @-@ class destroyers , Fubuki , Hatsuyuki , Shirayuki , Asagiri , Amagiri , and Yūgiri . The squadron was augmented with the five W @-@ 1 @-@ class minesweepers of the 1st Minesweeper Division , three CH @-@ 4 @-@ class submarine chasers of the 11th Submarine Chaser Division , and four converted patrol boats .
= = = Air attacks = = =
Malaya Command anticipated that the Japanese force would soon be reinforced by a naval convoy , a suspicion confirmed on 26 January when two Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) Lockheed Hudson aircraft sighted them 20 miles ( 32 km ) north of Endau . Although they spotted the Japanese convoy at 07 : 45 , their radio transmissions were jammed , and news did not reach higher command until they landed in Singapore at 09 : 20 . The RAF decided to attack the convoy with all available aircraft . The attack had to be delayed until that afternoon , however , to allow the crews of the Vickers Vildebeest and Fairey Albacore torpedo bombers of No. 36 Squadron RAF and No. 100 Squadron RAF to rest after their night missions . The decision to use the elderly Vildebeest biplanes against the ships in daylight came as a shock to the pilots , who had been restricted to the relative safety of night sorties following the first day of the invasion .
The first air attack was carried out by the Vildebeests of Nos. 36 and 100 Squadrons and the Hudsons of Nos. 1 and 8 Squadron RAAF . Twelve Vildebeests and nine Hudson bombers took off from Singapore in the early afternoon of January 26 , with a fighter escort composed of twelve Brewster F2A Buffalos and nine Hawker Hurricanes . The Japanese landings on Endau had been in progress for over four hours by the time the planes arrived at 15 : 00 . The Japanese naval force had air cover consisting of 19 Nakajima Ki @-@ 27s from the 1st and 11th Squadrons and a single Nakajima Ki @-@ 44 fighter . Despite heavy opposition , the two transports were bombed , and men and equipment on the beach were strafed . Five Vildebeests were lost in the attack , including the commanding officer of No. 100 Squadron , while one Ki @-@ 27 was shot down .
A second wave set off from Singapore at 16 : 15 , consisting of seven Vildebeests and three Albacores of No. 36 Squadron and two Vildebeests of No. 100 Squadron . They arrived over Endau at 17 : 30 , but their escort of seven Hurricanes and four Buffalos were late and the British biplanes were set upon by ten Ki @-@ 27s and two Ki @-@ 44s before their escorts could reach them . Five Vildebeests , two Albacores and one Hurricane were lost from this wave . Of the 72 aircrew from Nos. 36 and 100 Squadrons who participated in the raids , 27 were killed , seven were wounded and two were captured . The returning pilots were congratulated by Air Vice @-@ Marshal Paul Maltby , who promised them that further daylight attacks were unnecessary .
A third raid , consisting of six unescorted Hudsons of No. 62 Squadron RAF , flying from Palembang , Sumatra , attacked shortly afterwards , losing two of their number , with their entire crews , to six Ki @-@ 27s . A fourth raid , made up of five Bristol Blenheims of No. 27 Squadron RAF , set off from Palembang later in the day , but had only got as far as Singapore by sunset , so aborted the mission . Despite claims to have scored multiple hits on both transports and a cruiser , neither the transports , nor any of their escorts were damaged ; the former were hit by splinters that killed 8 and wounded 18 , but Sendai and the smaller ships were untouched .
= = = Naval battle = = =
Rear @-@ Admiral Ernest Spooner , commander of naval forces at Singapore , ordered his only combat @-@ ready warships , the elderly destroyers HMS Thanet and HMAS Vampire , to attack the shipping off Endau later that night . Commander William Moran was captain of Vampire while Thanet was under the command of Lieutenant Commander Bernard Davies . The destroyers departed Singapore at 16 : 30 with Moran in charge of the two ships and headed north . Initial intelligence reports assessed the Japanese strength defending the convoy as a dozen destroyers , but this was revised downward to a pair of destroyers at 22 : 55 , based on inaccurate reporting by surviving RAF aircrew . The 1st Escort Unit was prepared for a surface attack based on an incorrect intelligence report that two British light cruisers were at sea and Hashimoto oriented his ships ' patrol sectors to the north .
Moran led his ships between the Seribuat Archipelago and the coast of Johor in brilliant moonlight and then altered course northeast to search the area north of the archipelago . When dark clouds obscured the moon at 01 : 51 , he turned southwestwards at a speed of 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) for Endau , keeping Tioman Island behind him to ensure that his ships were not silhouetted against the horizon . At 02 : 37 , Vampire saw a Japanese destroyer ( probably Amagiri ) , but was not spotted in return and the Allied ships continued on their course . Three minutes later , they located another Japanese ship ( the minesweeper W @-@ 4 ) dead ahead at point @-@ blank range . Moran decided to attack , as discovery was inevitable at such short range , and increased his speed to 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) , simultaneously firing two of his three torpedoes at a distance of 600 metres ( 660 yd ) . One torpedo missed ahead by 15 – 20 yards ( 14 – 18 m ) and the other passed underneath the minesweeper . W @-@ 4 , in the middle patrol zone , was trying to identify the two destroyers when Moran attacked , but failed to alert any other Japanese ships to the Allied presence in their midst for 20 minutes before giving a location six nautical miles ( 11 km ; 6 @.@ 9 mi ) away . W @-@ 4 did not return fire and Moran resumed his search for the transports , reducing his speed again to 15 knots to reduce the visibility of his wakes . A half @-@ hour later , with shallow water approaching , and no transports spotted , the Allied destroyers altered course to the north to clear the shallows and increased speed to 25 knots at 03 : 13 before turning southeast by east .
At 03 : 18 , Vampire sighted the destroyer Shirayuki off the port bow and another ship astern . Vampire and Thanet made minor course adjustments to fire their torpedoes at Shirayuki at a range of 1 @,@ 500 yards ( 1 @,@ 400 m ) – one from Vampire and all four of Thanet 's – but all missed as Shirayuki , having spotted the Allied ships at the same time , altered course to come behind the Allied destroyers and then signalled to confirm their identities . Not receiving a reply , the Japanese ship illuminated the Allied ships with her searchlight and finally opened fire at 03 : 31 despite the smoke screen being laid by both ships . Moran ordered both his ships to return fire with their four @-@ inch guns while retiring southeast at maximum speed . Thanet only fired three volleys from her guns before she was hit in the engine room . The hit fractured both the main and auxiliary steam lines to the engines , causing the ship to go dead in the water and lose all electrical power . Constantly making small changes of course to throw off Japanese gun layers , neither ship hit any Japanese ships during the battle .
Allied and Japanese accounts of the gunnery action are difficult to reconcile , particularly as neither of the Allied destroyers recorded any times after firing their torpedoes at 03 : 18 . Shirayuki fired 18 rounds at Vampire at a range of 4 @,@ 500 yards ( 4 @,@ 100 m ) before the muzzle blast from her rear gun mounts tripped the circuit breakers in her main electrical switchboard , causing complete electrical failure throughout the ship . While electrical service was restored within two minutes , the ship had a series of smaller electrical failures that bedeviled her for the next 15 minutes . When she resumed firing , Vampire was no longer visible and Shirayuki targeted Thanet instead at a range of 3 @,@ 050 metres ( 10 @,@ 010 ft ) , firing 82 rounds at her . Yugiri opened fire at 03 : 38 at Thanet 4 @,@ 500 yards ( 4 @,@ 100 m ) away and both ships observed their target slowing down at 03 : 45 . At that same time , Yugiri radioed Hashimoto that " The enemy is two destroyers " so she had spotted Vampire as she fled , although Yugiri lost sight of Vampire 10 minutes later . Sendai , Fubuki , Asagiri , Amagiri , Hatsuyuki and W @-@ 1 all subsequently opened fire , mostly at Thanet , although Vampire reported being under fire for a considerable time . All told , the Japanese ships fired 469 rounds at the Allied destroyers , failing to hit Vampire even once . Shirayuki reported that Thanet had sunk at 04 : 18 and rescued an officer and 30 ratings from the water ; another officer and 11 ratings died in the battle . The Japanese did not pursue and Vampire reached Singapore at 10 : 00 that morning .
= = Aftermath = =
Shirayuki handed over the rescued seamen to troops on Endau the following day . They were never seen again , but are believed to have been executed in retaliation for losses sustained by the Japanese in an ambush by the Australian 2 / 18th Battalion , which occurred south of Mersing about the same time as the naval action off Endau . Davies , four other officers , and 61 ratings from Thanet managed to reach shore and made their way to Singapore , together with shot down aircrew .
The Japanese were able to finish landing their troops , which may have contributed to the impression of significant forces in front of the Australian defenders and their subsequent withdrawal . The heavy losses suffered by the Allied aircraft and aircrew virtually eliminated their ability to influence the subsequent ground battles . Moran 's report on Japanese incompetence at night fighting was the most important result of the battle . Since few details about the subsequent night combats off Java survived , Moran 's assessment influenced Allied thinking about the IJN until the stunning victory during the nighttime Battle of Savo Island in August flipped the Allied beliefs about the Japanese ability at night fighting on their heads .
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