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= Ace Bailey Benefit Game = The Ace Bailey Benefit Game was the first all @-@ star game in National Hockey League ( NHL ) history . It was played on February 14 , 1934 at Maple Leaf Gardens in Toronto to raise money to support Ace Bailey , whose career was ended by a violent hit by Eddie Shore during a game earlier in the 1933 – 34 season . The Toronto Maple Leafs defeated a team made up of the top players from the rest of the league , 7 – 3 , before a crowd of 14 @,@ 074 spectators . The game was held two months following the incident between the Boston Bruins and the Toronto Maple Leafs at the Boston Garden that resulted in Bailey 's injuries . Toronto 's Red Horner dazed Shore with a heavy hit . Intent on revenge , Shore thought he was skating at Horner , but instead knocked Bailey over . Bailey flew through the air , and suffered a fractured skull when he landed on his head . Shore himself was knocked unconscious in the melee that resulted . Though it was initially feared he would not survive his injuries , Bailey recovered enough to participate in the benefit game . He presented gifts and shook the hands of each player as they were introduced . Among them was Eddie Shore himself , who was playing for the NHL all @-@ stars . The crowd fell silent as Shore approached , then erupted into loud cheering when Bailey extended his hand toward his attacker . The Maple Leafs announced during the ceremonies that no player on their team would again wear Bailey 's number 6 , marking the first time in NHL history that a team retired a player 's uniform number . = = Bailey 's injury = = The incident between Ace Bailey and Eddie Shore occurred in the Boston Garden during the second period of a regular league game between the Toronto Maple Leafs and Boston Bruins on December 12 , 1933 . Having taken two penalties in quick succession , the Maple Leafs were playing short handed , and sent Bailey , Red Horner and King Clancy out to defend against Boston 's power play . During that sequence , Clancy upended Shore with a hard check as the later player rushed up the ice . Angry , dazed , and thinking he was going after Clancy , Shore rushed at Bailey intent on revenge . He hit Bailey hard from the side , sending the stricken player flying through the air . Bailey struck the ice head first and lapsed into convulsions . Furious , Horner asked Shore what he was doing , and when met with only a smile in response , knocked Shore out cold with one punch . Both players were carried off the ice , where Shore first regained consciousness . He was able to reach Bailey , who briefly regained consciousness himself , and attempted to apologize . Bailey was able to respond with " it 's all part of the game " before again passing out . As Maple Leafs owner Conn Smythe attempted to reach his team 's dressing room to find out the status of Bailey , he was accosted by angry Bruins fans , one of whom accused Bailey of faking his injury . An angry Smythe punched the fan in the mouth , and was later charged with assault . Bailey was rushed to hospital in Boston with a fractured skull where neurosurgeons worked through the night to save his life . His injuries were so severe that doctors gave him only hours to live . Distraught over his son 's injuries , Bailey 's father boarded a train bound for Boston carrying a revolver , telling everyone he met of his intent to kill Shore . When Smythe found out about this , he contacted his assistant general manager , Frank Selke , for help . Selke got in touch with a friend of his who worked in the Boston Police , who met Bailey 's father at a hotel and talked the man out of his plan before returning him to Toronto . Authorities in Boston made it known that they intended to charge Shore with manslaughter if the player died . Bailey held on , though his life hung in the balance for several days . Following several surgeries , doctors eventually found reason to hope Bailey would survive . He amazed observers by showing a steady recovery , and by mid January was well enough to be transferred home to Toronto . The NHL quickly absolved the referees of blame , while Shore protested that he was in a dazed state and not conscious of his actions at the time . League president Frank Calder suspended Horner until January 1 , 1934 , a period of six games , and Shore indefinitely for their roles in the incident . When he was assured that Bailey would survive , Calder set Shore 's suspension at 16 games . Bailey never played another game . = = All @-@ Star benefit = = As Bailey recovered , Ottawa Journal sports editor Walter Gilhooly proposed in an open letter that a benefit game be held . The Maple Leafs , Montreal Maroons and Ottawa Senators called a meeting of the board of governors to determine who would pay for Bailey 's recovery . Following the meeting , the governors announced that an exhibition would be held in Toronto between the Maple Leafs and a team of the top players from the rest of the league to raise money for Bailey and his family . The all @-@ star team was selected by a three @-@ man committee consisting of league president Calder , New York Rangers owner Frank Patrick and league director Thomas Arnold . For the first all @-@ star game in NHL history , two players were selected from each of the other eight NHL teams , while Rangers coach Lester Patrick was named the coach . For his starting lineup , Patrick chose Charlie Gardiner in goal , Eddie Shore and Ching Johnson on defence , and Howie Morenz , Bill Cook and Aurel Joliat as his forwards . Patrick expressed confidence that the fans in Toronto would welcome Shore 's participation . The game was held on February 14 , 1934 , and featured a lavish pre @-@ game ceremony that first saw the players assemble at centre ice to have photographs taken in their regular sweaters . They were then presented with their all @-@ star jerseys by Frank Calder , Lester Patrick , Leaf officials and Ace Bailey himself . Gardiner stepped out first to receive his number 1 uniform , and was then followed by Shore , who wore number 2 . The crowd of over 14 @,@ 000 fans went completely silent as Shore slowly skated toward Bailey . After a moment , Bailey extended his hand towards Shore , and the crowd erupted in loud cheering as the two shook hands . The players were presented with medals and windbreakers by officials of the Canadiens and the Maple Leafs , and the fans cheered each player as they were introduced , even those who were previously unpopular with the Toronto crowd . The ceremony concluded with Conn Smythe presenting Bailey with his own sweater , and announcing to the crowd that no Leafs player would again wear Bailey 's number 6 . It marked the first time in NHL history that a team retired a player 's uniform number . = = = Game play = = = Bailey stepped out to ice to drop the puck for the ceremonial face off , after which the game began . The Leafs ' Charlie Conacher , who had been questionable before the game with an already infected knee , was forced to leave the game after being hit early , but otherwise the match @-@ up was a considerable departure from a regular league game and featured little physical play . Shore , who was visibly nervous before the game about the reception he would receive from the crowd , was cheered and supported when he rushed with the puck . The first goal was scored by Toronto 's Baldy Cotton , and was quickly followed up with a goal by Harvey Jackson to put Toronto up 2 – 0 before Nels Stewart rounded out the offence in the first period with a goal for the All @-@ Stars . After Toronto took a 3 – 1 lead early in the second , Morenz scored the most impressive goal on the night , accepting a pass from Joliat at full speed as he raced around a Maple Leafs defenceman before shooting the puck over goaltender George Hainsworth 's shoulder . Frank Finnigan brought the All @-@ Stars even at the midway point of the period , but Toronto ended the period with a 4 – 3 lead after the referees mistakenly ruled a Hap Day shot that hit the post as a goal . Though the All @-@ Stars took many shots on Hainsworth in the third period , they were unable to score . Busher Jackson scored to put the Maple Leafs up by two early in the period , and after Patrick abandoned any attempt at defence by placing five forwards on the ice in a bid to tie the game , Toronto added two late goals to emerge with a 7 – 3 victory . = = Legacy = = The proceeds from the game totaled $ 20 @,@ 909 , which was given to Bailey . Additionally , he was presented with $ 6 @,@ 000 raised by the Bruins in a separate benefit . Prior to the game , Bailey presented Calder with a trophy commissioned by the Maple Leafs and bearing his name that the team hoped would go to the winner of an annual all @-@ star game that would benefit injured players . That failed to materialize , though the NHL held two additional benefit games in the following five years . Memorial games were held for the families of Howie Morenz in 1937 and Babe Siebert in 1939 . It was not until 1947 that the idea became an annual event when the 1st National Hockey League All @-@ Star Game was held in Toronto . Though Bailey never played again , he remained in the Maple Leafs organization for nearly a half century , working as a penalty box official for the team . He was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1975 . Shore remained an NHL regular until 1940 then operated a minor league hockey team . He was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1947 . = = Rosters = = = = Box score = =
= Mulan ( Disney character ) = Fa Mulan , a character inspired by an actual historic figure , is a character who appears in Walt Disney Pictures ' 36th animated feature film Mulan ( 1998 ) , as well as its sequel Mulan II ( 2004 ) . Her speaking voice is provided by Chinese @-@ American actress Ming @-@ Na Wen , while Filipina singer Lea Salonga provides the character 's singing voice . Created by author Robert D. San Souci , Mulan is based on the legendary Chinese warrior Hua Mulan from the poem the Ballad of Mulan . The only child of an aging war veteran , Mulan disregards both tradition and the law by disguising herself as a man in order to enlist herself in the army in lieu of her feeble father . Disney had originally conceived Mulan as an oppressed young Chinese woman who ultimately elopes to Europe to be with a British prince . However , director Tony Bancroft , who was inspired by the well @-@ being of his own daughters , wanted Mulan to be a different , unique kind of Disney heroine – one who is strong and independent , whose fate does not depend upon a male character . Thus , the relationship between Mulan and Captain Li Shang was relegated to that of a minor subplot , while Mulan 's bravery and strength were emphasized in order to ensure that she remained the hero of her own story . Mulan 's supervising animator was Mark Henn , who deliberately designed the character so that she would appear less feminine than her predecessors . Reception towards Mulan 's personality has been generally positive , with critics praising her bravery and heroism . However , some commentators have accused Disney of Westernizing the character , while her romantic relationship with Shang has been widely accused of compromising Mulan 's heroism . Chronologically , Mulan is the eighth Disney Princess , and the franchise 's first East Asian member . = = Development = = = = = Conception and writing = = = Mulan was originally conceived as an animated short in 1994 , in which the heroine is depicted as a miserable Chinese girl who elopes to the West to be with a British prince . While developing a series of treatments based on traditional stories and folk tales , children 's book author Robert D. San Souci discovered the Ballad of Mulan , an ancient Chinese poem about Hua Mulan – a Chinese woman who replaces her ailing father in the army by disguising herself as a man . Fascinated by Hua Mulan 's story , San Souci suggested the poem to Disney ; the studio hired San Souci himself to write the film 's treatment and story . Mulan explores the age @-@ old theme of remaining true to oneself , with co @-@ director Tony Bancroft summarizing the character 's role in the film as " the story of a girl who can 't help who she is but she exists in a different society that tells her who she is supposed to be . " Because the Ballad of Mulan is such a beloved and well @-@ known story , San Souci longed to maintain the character 's integrity . However , certain creative liberties were taken with the story in regards to Mulan 's role , such as the character neglecting to ask her parents ' permission prior to enlisting herself in the army . Additionally , Mulan 's surname was changed from " Hua " to " Fa . " Finally , Mulan 's true identity is discovered much earlier in the film , soon after the army 's initial encounter with the enemy , whereas her comrades remain ignorant throughout their entire 12 years at war until after Mulan has returned home . In addition , unlike preceding traditional Disney animated feature films , the developing romantic relationship between Mulan and Li Shang is treated as more of a subplot as opposed to a traditional central plot , as observed by film critic Andy Klein of Animation World Network . Klein commented , " Mulan isn 't waiting for her prince to someday come ; when he does arrive , having known her primarily as a man , and having learned to admire her for her deeper qualities , the romance is muted and subtle . " Throughout the movie they are constantly working towards helping each other change into better and truer versions of themselves in order to achieve their true potential . = = = Voice = = = Mulan 's speaking voice is provided by Chinese @-@ American actress Ming @-@ Na Wen . Because the character " represented [ traditional ] Chinese values " and is depicted as being " dramatic ... close to her father , very respectful , " Bancroft believed that Wen possessed the " perfect " voice for Mulan , which he additionally described as " very Chinese . " Born and raised in Macau , China , Wen was very much familiar with both the legend of Hua Mulan and the Ballad of Mulan at the time of her audition for the role , having grown up being read the poem by her mother . Wen explained , " I think every Chinese kid grows up with this story , " additionally likening the poem 's popularity in China to that of the Western Parson Weems fable in which American president George Washington chops down his father 's beloved cherry tree . Mulan served as Wen 's first voice @-@ acting role . In an interview with IGN , the actress elaborated on the recording process , specifically the fact that she was required to record the majority of the character 's dialogue in isolation , saying , " I just loved the story so much and identified so much with the character of Mulan it was easy for me . I loved using my imagination . I felt like I was a little kid again , being silly with an imaginary sword and riding on an imaginary horse and talking to an imaginary dragon . So it was a lot of fun for me . " In spite of the fact that , throughout the film , Mulan shares several intimate scenes with her guardian , a miniature Chinese dragon named Mushu who is voiced by American actor and comedian Eddie Murphy , Wen and her co @-@ star never actually encountered each other while working on Mulan due to the fact that they recorded their respective dialogue at separate times in separate locations . Upon being cast as Mulan 's speaking voice , Wen was immediately informed by Disney that she would not be providing the character 's singing voice . The actress took no offense to this decision , commenting jokingly " I don 't blame them . " The directors hired Filipina singer and actress Lea Salonga to dub the character 's respective singing voice , heard in the film 's songs " Reflection " , " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " and " A Girl Worth Fighting For " , on Wen 's behalf . According to Thomas S. Hischak , author of the book Disney Voice Actors : A Biographical Dictionary , Salonga was originally cast to provide both Mulan 's speaking and singing voices . However , the directors eventually felt that her attempt at impersonating a man in the form of Mulan 's male alter @-@ ego " Ping " was rather unconvincing , and ultimately replacing Salonga with Wen . Six years prior to Mulan , Salonga provided the singing voice of Princess Jasmine in Disney 's Aladdin ( 1992 ) on behalf of American actress Linda Larkin . While auditioning for Mulan , Salonga asked jokingly , " Why do I have to audition ? ... I was already a princess before . Wasn 't that enough ? " = = = Characterization and design = = = The film 's screenplay was constantly being revised and re @-@ written . Naturally , so was Mulan 's characterization and role in the film . The writers wanted Mulan to represent a " different kind of Disney heroine , " specifically described as one who " didn 't need a tiara , but was still just as much as graceful , strong , and courageous . " Between the two , Bancroft and his twin brother Tom , an animator who also worked on Mulan , have a total of seven daughters . This further inspired the filmmakers to portray Mulan as a unique heroine who is " not another damsel in distress " in favor of having her resemble " a strong female Disney character who would truly be the heroine of her own story " instead , essentially a " female role model . The characteristics of strength and courage were a must for Mulan . " In an interview with The Christian Post , Bancroft elaborated on the way in which he , as the film 's director , continued to consider the well @-@ being of his two young daughters while working on Mulan , having " wanted to make ... a unique heroine that hadn 't been seen before " and provide for them " someone who would be strong on her own , without a prince saving her . " Addressing the way in which Mulan differs from traditional Disney heroines and princesses , Bancroft explained , " Most Disney heroines have an outside source that comes in and helps them change . Mulan stays consistent . From the first frame all the way through the end of the movie , her personality , her drive it all stays the same . " Visually , the animators were influenced by both traditional Chinese and Japanese artwork . In the specific case of Mulan , " The characters ' simple lines ... resemble classic Asian painting " , as demonstrated by the animators ' innovate " ' less is more ' approach " to traditional animation . Chinese artist Chen Yi mentored the animators , " helping [ them ] to come up with these designs . " Mark Henn served as Mulan 's supervising animator . Animating the character in her male disguise as " Ping " offered an unprecedented challenge for Henn . In order to solve this unique dilemma , Henn was provided with " the opportunity to ... adjust her design a little bit so that when she was disguised as Ping , as a soldier , that she was physically a little different in how we drew her than when she was herself as Mulan . " Physically , Mulan was also designed to appear less feminine than preceding traditional Disney animated heroines , specifically Pocahontas from Pocahontas ( 1995 ) and Esmeralda from The Hunchback of Notre Dame ( 1996 ) , because " you can 't pass as a man in the army with a Barbie @-@ style figure . " Henn revealed that he was drawn to " Mulan 's story [ because it ] was so unique and compelling that it just captivated me from the beginning " . Animating the characters ' distinct emotions using the traditional Chinese style turned out to be somewhat challenging for Henn . The animator explained , " We don 't create realism in the sense that if you 're doing a human character , it 's not going to look realistic ... the balance is finding an appealing way of drawing using the visual tools that you have in the design to convey the believable emotions that you want to get across . " In addition to Mulan , Henn was also responsible for animating Fa Zhou , Mulan 's elderly father . He described the complex relationship between the two characters as " the emotional heart of the story " . Fathering one daughter himself , Henn drew inspiration from his own emotions as well as past personal experiences while animating several intimate scenes shared by the two characters . Several film critics have described Mulan as a tomboy . Andy Patrizio of IGN observed , " In this slightly modernized version of the story , Mulan ... is something of a rebel and a tomboy . She has no interest in being a good little subservient wife , despite her sighing parents ' wishes . " Jo Johnson , in contribution to the book Queers in American Popular Culture Volume 1 : Film and Television , wrote that " Unlike other Disney heroines , Mulan is immediately coded as a tomboy , " observing the way in which the character speaks using a full mouth . Johnson additionally noticed several ways in which Mulan 's design and personality differ from those typically associated with traditional Disney heroines and princesses , citing the character 's clumsy , awkward demeanor ; broad shoulders and muscular limbs ; unruly single strand of hair ; and choice of everyday attire which usually consists of loose , baggy clothing concealing her " traditionally slim Disney waist . " Additionally , Mulan 's intelligence has been observed in several professional analyses , with critics often citing the character as " brainy . " = = Appearances = = = = = Films = = = = = = = Mulan = = = = The Huns , led by Shan Yu , invade Han China , forcing the Chinese emperor to command a general mobilization . The emperor requires one man from each family to join the Chinese army . When Fa Mulan hears that her elderly father Fa Zhou , the only man in their family , is forced to rejoin the army , she decides to stand in his place , disguising herself as a young man named " Ping " . Mulan 's family learns that she has taken Fa Zhou 's place and pray to their family ancestors , who then order their " Great Stone Dragon " to protect her . The ancestors are unaware that the statue of Great Stone Dragon failed to come to life , and that Mushu , a small dragon is the one to go and protect Mulan . Mulan is initially misguided by Mushu who encourages her to go to war and in how to behave like a man . However , under command of Li Shang , she and her new friends at the camp , Yao , Ling and Chien @-@ Po , become skilled warriors . Mushu , desiring to see Mulan succeed , creates a fake order from Li Shang 's father , General Li , ordering Li Shang to follow them into the mountains . They arrive at a burnt @-@ out village and discover that General Li and his forces have been wiped out by the Huns . As they solemnly leave the mountains , they are ambushed by the Huns when Mushu accidentally fired a cannon causing their position to be given away , but a second firing of a cannon by Mulan buries most of the enemy forces in an avalanche . Mulan is slashed by Shan Yu in his rage at her wiping out his army during the battle , and she is forced to reveal her deception when she receives medical attention . Instead of executing Mulan as the law states , Li Shang spares her life for saving his life from the avalanche by leaving her on the mountain as the rest of the army departs for the Imperial City to report the news of the Huns ' demise . However , the avalanche failed to eliminate all the enemies , as Mulan catches sight of a small number of surviving Huns , including Shan Yu , making their way to the City , intent on capturing the Emperor . In the Imperial City , Mulan attempts to warn Li Shang about Shan Yu , but he refuses to listen . The Huns appear and capture the Emperor , locking themselves inside the palace . With Mulan 's help , Li Shang , Yao , Ling , and Chien @-@ Po pose as concubines and are able to enter the palace and defeat Shan Yu 's men . As Shang prevents Shan Yu from assassinating the Emperor , Mulan lures the Hun onto the roof where she engages him in single combat . Meanwhile , acting on Mulan 's instructions , Mushu fires a bundle of fireworks rockets at Shan Yu on her signal and kills him . Mulan is praised by the Emperor and the people of China , who all bow to her , an unprecedented honor . Mulan accepts the Emperor 's crest and Shan Yu 's sword as gifts , but politely declines his offer to be his advisor and instead asks to return to her family . She returns home and presents the imperial gifts to her father , but he is more overjoyed to have his daughter back safely . Li Shang , who has become enamored with Mulan , soon arrives under the guise of returning her helmet , but accepts the family 's invitation for dinner . Earlier in the film , Mulan was declared unfit for marriage , but this now appears not to be the case with her strong budding romance with Li Shang . Mushu is granted a position as a Fa family guardian by the ancestors amid a returning celebration . = = = = Mulan II = = = = The sequel finds Mulan and Li Shang preparing to marry but distracted by a task from the Emperor , who wants his three daughters escorted to their own marriage ceremony . Their romantic relationship becomes somewhat strained during the trip , as the romantic couple has differing views on various issues . Meanwhile , Mushu realizes that if Mulan marries Shang , she will not need him anymore as her guardian spirit . Taking advantage of this , he manages to trick the two into breaking up . When bandits attack , Mulan and Shang fight them off , but Mulan is devastated when Shang is seemingly killed trying to save her . To make sure the three princesses are not forced to marry against their will , Mulan takes their place marrying the eldest son of the ruler of the neighboring land . Shang survives the accident and arrives in time to stop the wedding but ultimately Mulan is saved by Mushu who , posing as the mighty Golden Dragon of Unity , frees the three princesses from their vows , and marries Mulan and Li Shang himself causing Mulan to forgive him for his actions . Afterwards , Mulan informs Li Shang of Mushu 's existence and he combines the temples of his family and hers , allowing Mushu to keep his position . = = = Disney Princess francise = = = Mulan is the eighth official member the Disney Princess franchise , a media franchise marketed towards young girls . As children , the characters such as Mulan , demonstrates the positive aspects of : never giving up , not being restricted to gender roles and the importance of family and honor . These aspects of the film are more in keeping with a traditional Chinese perspective on cultural value , such as the importance of family and honor . Featured on the official Disney Princess website , the character 's brief biography reads , " Mulan is a loving girl who is always brave and bold . When her country needs it most , she disguises herself as a man and goes off to fight . She uses courage and determination to win the day . " Interestingly , Mulan is currently the only official member of the Disney Princess franchise who is technically not a legitimate princess " in the traditional sense " as she was neither born the daughter of a king or queen , nor does she become princess consort by marrying a prince . Additionally , she is also the franchise 's first and currently only East Asian member . = = = Attractions = = = Mulan appears regularly for meet @-@ and @-@ greets , parades and shows at the Walt Disney Parks and Resorts , including at the Chinese Pavilion at Epcot . Mulan and Mushu , as a kite , make cameo appearances in the Hong Kong Disneyland and Disneyland Resort versions of It 's a Small World . In Disneyland , she also makes appearances in the Disney Princess Fantasy Faire Village and regularly performs in the new show Mickey and the Magical Map in the Fantasyland Theater . In the aforementioned show , she performs a trio with fellow Disney Princesses Pocahontas and Rapunzel . As a tribute , there is a portrait of her along other Disney Princesses at the Princess Fairytale Hall at the Magic Kingdom . On the Disney Cruise Line ships and in Hong Kong Disneyland , Mulan and Li Shang appear in the stage show The Golden Mickeys . Mulan is also known to come out for meet @-@ and @-@ greets on the ships as well . She is also featured in the Disney on Ice shows Princess Classics and Princess Wishes . = = = Television = = = Mulan makes cameo appearances in the Disney 's House of Mouse television series and the direct @-@ to @-@ video release Mickey 's Magical Christmas : Snowed in at the House of Mouse . She was scheduled to appear in the second installment of the Disney Princess Enchanted Tales series of DVDs along with Cinderella . It was to premiere in 2008 but was cancelled due to poor sales of the first DVD . Actress Jamie Chung portrays a live @-@ action version of Mulan in the second , third and fifth seasons of the ABC television series , Once Upon a Time . She first appeared in the series ' second season premiere , " Broken " , assisting Prince Phillip in rescuing Aurora . The Once Upon a Time version of Mulan differs from the film version as she is in love with Aurora , as revealed in the 2013 episode " Quite a Common Fairy " . On August 2014 , Ming @-@ Na Wen and Lea Salonga reprise their roles as Mulan for the first time since Mulan 2 in the Disney Channel show Sofia the First . In the episode " Princesses To The Rescue , " Mulan reminds Sofia and her friends Amber and Jun they are " Stronger Than They Know " in song . Mulan is the 7th Disney princess to appear on the show . = = = Video games = = = Mulan appears as a playable character in Disney 's Story Studio : Mulan , an action video game released in December 1999 by Disney Interactive Studios exclusively for the video game console Sony PlayStation . Loosely based on the plot of the original animated film , the video game 's concept and premise revolves around " Players ... assum [ ing ] the role of Mulan on her quest to recover the missing scrolls . " Mulan also appears as a playable character in Disney 's Mulan , a similar video game released the previous year on October 10 , 1998 by THQ for Nintendo Game Boy . Disney Infinity 3 @.@ 0 has announced and released Mulan as one of the playable characters and figures . = = = = Kingdom Hearts franchise = = = = Mulan appears in the video game Kingdom Hearts II in the Land of the Dragons world . She aids Sora in battle , taking the place of either Donald or Goofy . She uses a jian called " Sword of the Ancestor " for regular combat , and her combination attacks include Red Rocket and other fire attacks , thanks to Mushu . She goes under her pseudonym ( Ping ) for the majority of Sora 's first visit to her world , but has abandoned it by the time of their second visit , which follows an original storyline . In the Square Enix and Disney game Kingdom Hearts II , Mulan is a playable character when the protagonists visit her world . = = Reception and legacy = = = = = Critical response = = = Reception towards Mulan 's personality and characterization have been generally positive . Time Out hailed Mulan as " A feisty young go @-@ getter [ who ] rises above the male @-@ dominated world in which she lives . " Ken Fox of TV Guide wrote , " Intelligent and fiercely independent , Mulan ... runs afoul of social expectations that a woman will be always obedient and duty @-@ bound to her husband . " Bridget Byrne of Boxoffice wrote that " Mulan ... has pride , charm , spirit and aesthetic appeal which prevents her from being upstaged by the vigorous and exciting action in which she participates . " Variety 's Todd McCarthy praised the character for inspiring " a turn of the circle from such age @-@ old Disney classics ... in which passive heroines were rescued by blandly noble princes . " McCarthy continued , " Here , it 's the girl who does the rescuing , saving not only the prince but the emperor himself from oblivion , and this in a distant culture where women were expected to obey strictly prescribed rules . " Similarly , Margaret A. McGurk of The Cincinnati Inquirer lauded Mulan for " solv [ ing ] her G.I. Jane dilemma by proving that brains can do more than brawn . " Hailing the character as " Among the strongest heroines in Walt 's cartoon canon , " Ian Freer of Empire enthused , " Mulan 's engaging mixture of vulnerability and derring @-@ do becomes incredibly easy to root for . " Hollis Chacona of The Austin Chronicle dubbed Mulan a " winning protagonist . " Likewise , the Los Angeles Times ' Kenneth Turan wrote , " As a vivacious rebel who has to be true to herself no matter what , Mulan is an excellent heroine , perfect for the young female demographic the studio is most anxious to attract " , additionally calling her a " more likable and resourceful role model than Pocahontas " . Although largely well @-@ liked , Mulan 's characterization has drawn some mild criticism and speculation , inspiring a series of generally mixed to positive reviews from some film critics . Entertainment Weekly 's Owen Gleiberman wrote , " Far more than Beauty and the Beast or the stolidly virtuous Pocahontas , Mulan showcases a girl who gets to use her wits ... a testament to the power of mind over brawn . " However , Gleiberman continued , " Mulan finally falls a notch short of Disney 's best ... because the heroine 's empowerment remains ... an emotionally isolated quest . " Similarly , Moira Macdonald of The Seattle Times hailed Mulan as " a strong , engaging character who , unlike many of her Disney counterparts , needs no one to rescue her from danger , " while questioning her personality , asking , " was it really necessary to bestow Mulan with self @-@ esteem problems ? Because she seems so confident and intelligent , her sad statement that she wants to ' see something worthwhile ' in the mirror comes as a bit of a shock . " Critics were not unanimous in their praise . The Phoenix 's Jeffrey Gantz felt that character was unoriginal , inaccurate and Westernized , writing , " [ her ] costumes ( particularly the kimono and obi Mulan wears to the Matchmaker ) and hairdos look Japanese ... Give Mulan Native American features and you have Pocahontas . " Similarly , James Berardinelli of ReelViews felt that the character 's depiction was too " familiar , " reviewing , " Although she looks different from Ariel , Belle , Jasmine , and Pocahontas , Mulan is very much the same type of individual : a woman with a strong , independent streak who is unwilling to bend to the customs of her culture , which decree that the role of the female is to be ornamental . The film isn 't very subtle in reinforcing the idea of equality between the sexes " . Additionally , some critics , such as Alex von Tunzelmann of The Guardian , have criticized Mulan for her violence , writing , " Disney struggles to make Mulan both a killer and a heroine ... Gingerly , the film attempts to tread a middle path , implying that Mulan annihilates most of the Hun army by causing an avalanche , and having her dispatch Shan Yu with a load of fireworks . Very pretty . But still technically killing . " However , von Tunzelmann did conclude more positively , " as Disney heroines go , Mulan herself is a clear improvement on the standard @-@ issue drippy princess . " = = = = Relationship with Shang = = = = Unlike the generally positive reviews received by Mulan , critical reception towards the character 's romantic relationship with Li Shang has been largely negative , drawing much speculation from critics who accused Mulan of having " a typical girl @-@ hooks @-@ up @-@ with @-@ boy ending . " Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times observed , " The message here is standard feminist empowerment : Defy the matchmaker , dress as a boy , and choose your own career . But Mulan has it both ways , since inevitably Mulan 's heart goes pitty @-@ pat over Shang , the handsome young captain she 's assigned to serve under . The movie breaks with the tradition in which the male hero rescues the heroine , but is still totally sold on the Western idea of romantic love . " The New York Times ' Janet Maslin negatively opined , " For all of Mulan 's courage and independence in rebelling against the matchmakers , this is still enough of a fairy tale to need Mr. Right . " Citing Mulan 's relationship with Shang as an example of sexism , a film critic writing for Teen Ink wrote : " Mulan has been hailed as a feminist Disney movie because it showcases a young woman who leads China to victory using her quick wit , pride , and a strong sense of family honor — all while masquerading as a man named Ping . Even though Mulan ( as Ping ) gains the respect of the army commander and her comrades , once they discover that she is a woman , her army commander and potential love @-@ interest , Shang , loses respect for her and even hates her . " Ping " had been doing an even better job than Shang , but when Shang finds out Ping is a woman , his stupid male ego breaks on impact . Mulan is sentenced to death , and Shang , the macho man of the film , ultimately gets to decide her fate . The only reason she survives is because Shang decides he 'd rather just send her home . Wow . To add insult to injury , at the end of the film , Shang fixes up his shattered ego by claiming Mulan as a suitor . Even as Mulan is being praised and cheered in the Forbidden City after she almost single @-@ handedly saves China ( this time , as a woman ) , at the end of the film , the audience is reminded that Mulan is really just another woman looking for a man . Mulan 's real victory isn 't saving her country from invasion . No , it 's marrying Shang . " Betsy Wallace of Common Sense Media observed that Mulan " doesn 't fit the princess mold , and most moviegoers had never heard of her . " Conclusively , Wallace wrote , " it 's too bad that in the end she still needs to be married off to a ' Prince Charming ' who saves the day . " In contribution to the book Beyond Adaptation : Essays on Radical Transformations of Original Works , Lan Dong wrote , " Even though Mulan achieves success after she resumes her female self ... it is compromised by Mulan and Li Shang 's potential engagement at the end of the film . " = = = Cultural significance and accolades = = = Mulan is culturally recognized for her unique role in Mulan specifically in regards to the character 's heroism , ethnicity and disinterest in romance , serving as a departure from traditional Disney heroines and princesses because she " challenged gender stereotypes and offered up an animated Disney experience that isn 't princess @-@ centric " as " one of the few strong , self @-@ propelled female characters that Disney has . " Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times observed the way in which Mulan 's role in the film as " an independent , not completely boy @-@ crazy heroine is somewhat new for Disney . " According to Sara Veal of The Jakarta Post , Mulan " promotes self @-@ reliance , determination and is uninterested in marriage or romance ... the film ends on her saving her country , rather than a romantic resolution . " Succeeding non @-@ white Disney Princesses Jasmine and Pocahontas , Mulan 's characterization as Disney 's first East Asian princess assisted in the diversification of the Disney Princess franchise , introducing " Disney princesses ... portrayed as women of color . " Peter Travers of ' " Rolling Stone commented , " Mulan ... makes a feisty prefeminist , " continuing , " She doesn 't swoon over Captain Shang , the hunky officer ... which leaves Shang ... frustrated ... Mulan , let the record show , does not put out . " PopMatters ' Jesse Hassenger wrote that unlike other Disney films , " Mulan holds the advantage of a smart , strong heroine — not just a superhot princess figure . " Ryan Mazie of Box Office Prophets felt that Mulan " might be the most important and forward @-@ thinking Disney Princess movie made up until that point where the female character solely takes control over her own destiny without the aid of a mighty Prince . " In 2012 , CNN 's Stephanie Goldberg recognized Mulan as one of Disney 's bravest and most heroic animated heroines to @-@ date in her article " Brave 's Merida and other animated heroines , " writing , " Mulan bent traditional gender roles when she took her father 's place in the Chinese army . " The Georgia Institute of Technology ranked Mulan the fourteenth greatest Disney character of all @-@ time . Similarly , in 2013 , Mulan was ranked the greatest animated Disney heroine according to a poll conducted by Jim Vejvoda of IGN . In 1999 , Mulan 's theme song " Reflection " , performed by Mulan , was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song at the 56th Golden Globe Awards , but ultimately lost to Celine Dion and Andrea Bocelli 's " The Prayer " from Quest for Camelot ( 1998 ) . " Reflection " is often credited with establishing the successful musical career of American recording artist Christina Aguilera , who famously recorded a pop rendition of the ballad prior to the release of her platinum @-@ selling self @-@ titled debut album in 1999 , on which the song is featured . Additionally , the song peaked at number nineteen on the BillboardAdult Contemporary chart . In 2011 , Salonga was honored with a Disney Legends award in commemoration of her role as Mulan 's singing voice . Additionally , Salonga performed a live rendition of " Reflection " at the ceremony . = = = Redesign Controversy = = = The 2013 Disney princess redesigns portrayed Mulan with features that differ from her film appearance . The artwork featured Mulan with blue eyes , bigger lips , noticeably lighter skin , and golden clothing which does not resemble any outfit she has worn in the film . Her new appearance has caused an uproar due to the whitewash of her character . This was particularly troubling as Mulan is one of the few princesses of color . Shavon L. McKinstry of SPARK Movement writes that Mulan 's redesign " seem to be directly counter to her personality and character in her film " , and also notes how all the princesses of color have been " noticeably pushed to the back or left out completely " from the new Disney merchandise which featured the redesigns . Through stereotypical images , dialogue and action , it is easy for the audience to make the distinction between good characters and bad characters . Good characters " have big eyes and round cheeks and are drawn in curves , smooth , round , soft bright and with European features " ( Xu , M & Tian , C. 2013 ) , while bad characters are defined by having " sharp angles , oversized , and often darkly " ( Xu , M & Tian , C. 2013 ) . Disney indisputably represents an empire of symbols of westernized imperialism and cultural hegemony and of globalization that dominates within their heroes . These visual keys help the audience know who to root for in the film and what behaviours and morals you wish to follow if you want to achieve greatness like the heroes . McKinstry argues that Disney " prefers to portray one demographic of princess , simultaneously alienating so much of their fanbase " , pointing out that of the " ten Disney Princesses in the brand , six are white " . The importance of Mulan and other non @-@ white princesses can be seen in the 2009 study of the effects of children 's cartoons on the body image of young girls by doctors Sharon Hayes and Stacey Tantleff @-@ Dunn . The study revealed that in the group of girls ranging from 3 to 6 years old , 30 @.@ 6 % of the group would change their physical appearance if they could . Of these respondents , over half would change their hair and over a quarter would change something about their body , such as skin color . Of all girls surveyed , 8 % said they would have to change their hair or skin color to become a princess , stating things like they would " change from brown skin to white skin " , for example . The interviewed group was predominantly white . Disney has since altered the coloration in Mulan 's design by changing the blue eye highlight to brown , darkening the color of her skin , and changing her clothing to better resemble her attire in the film .
= Hold Tight ( Madonna song ) = " Hold Tight " is a song recorded by American singer Madonna featured on her thirteenth studio album , Rebel Heart ( 2015 ) . The track was written and produced by Madonna , with additional writing provided by Diplo , MoZella , Toby Gad , Ariel Rechtshaid , and MNEK . A demo of " Hold Tight " was leaked onto the internet on December 22 , 2014 , while its final version was released by Madonna on February 9 , 2015 on iTunes Store . The song was later sent to Italian radio on July 24 , 2015 , as the third single from Rebel Heart in that country . " Hold Tight " is a midtempo pop song , with it incorporating military drums , atmospheric keyboards , and flourishes of electronics as its instrumentation . Lyrically , the song talks about love triumphing through tough times , having a message of holding onto one another and being strong . The song received mixed reviews from music critics , with some praising its chorus and picking it as a standout track . Others named it dull and generic . The song charted in a few European territories , reaching the top 40 in Finland , Hungary , and Spain . = = Background and release = = Initially , Madonna was set to release her thirteenth studio album , Rebel Heart , in March 2015 , with its lead @-@ single set to premiere on Valentine 's day of the same year . However , fifteen demos of her songs were leaked to the Internet between November and December 2014 , which led the singer to release six completed tracks onto iTunes as pre @-@ order for the album on December 20 , 2014 . Three days later , fourteen other tracks leaked online , including the demo version of " Hold Tight " . On February 9 , 2015 , Madonna released three more tracks from the album , including the finished version of " Hold Tight " , " Iconic " and " Joan of Arc " , as well as the album 's tracklist . After its full release , some websites suggested that Ryan Tedder was the song 's producer , since he had confirmed to be he working on material for Rebel Heart , claiming that the songs were " [ Madonna 's ] best stuff in over a decade " and that " [ t ] he tracks [ he did ] with her are really hard to explain " . However , Tedder 's productions were not used in the album 's final track list , although rumors claimed him to be the producer of " Hold Tight " . Later , Diplo was rumored to be its producer , but eventually it was confirmed on Madonna 's official website that she produced the track herself . " Hold Tight " was selected as the third single from Rebel Heart single in Italy , and was added to the country 's radio stations on July 24 , 2015 . = = Recording and composition = = " Hold Tight " was written and produced by Madonna , with additional writing by Diplo , Toby Gad , MoZella , Ariel Rechtshaid and MNEK ; the latter also provided background vocals . Demacio " Demo " Castellon and Nick Rowe were the song 's engineers , while Castellon and Mike Dean did the song 's mixing . Additional recording was done by Angie Teo , while additional Pro Tools editing was made by Ron Taylor . " Hold Tight " was recorded in three different places : The Ritz ( Moscow ) , Grand Marina Hotel ( Barcelona ) and Patriot Studios ( Denver , Colorado / Venice , California ) . MNEK , who co @-@ wrote and provided background vocals on the track , remembered that he was working with English duo Gorgon City in 2014 , when they recommended him to Diplo , for working on Rebel Heart . Together they started out with an idea for " Hold Tight " , and Madonna loved it . After finishing writing the lyrics , she invited MNEK to the recording studio to finish its production . The rapper commented about the session with Madonna in an interview with Digital Spy , claiming : It was cool . It was a really nice session , she was really lovely . [ ... ] And I guess as the song ( ' Hold Tight ' ) came out , her fans seem to respond it really well , so yeah , awesome ! And she 's a legend , and it 's an awesome opportunity to work with someone like Madonna who 's literally shaped the careers of so many artists that I 've wanted to work with and that I look up to . She 's the queen ! . " Hold Tight " is a " reflective and sombre " midtempo pop ballad , having atmospheric keyboards , military drums and flourishes of pastel electronics as its main instrumentation . Its " tribal " chorus " gallops euphorically over twinkling arpeggio , picked out by a Juno whistle " , which according to The Quietus ' Amy Pettifer , is " reminiscent of Kate Bush 's ' Running Up that Hill ' . John Marrs of Gay Times noted the song 's synths remind of " Confessions on a Dance Floor " ' s ' Forbidden Love ' and the " euphoric instrumentals " of British electronica band Faithless . Lyrically , the song talks about holding on and being strong , with Madonna singing about being " scarred and bruised " . For Adam R. Holz of Plugged In , the song permeates in the same lyrical content of " Living for Love " , while Pettifer noted that it 's " a galvanising anthem of shoulder @-@ to @-@ shoulder survival that 's collective and communal , rather than intimate and romantic . " = = Reception = = Joe Lynch of Billboard described the song as " an immediately familiar track with an epic , arresting chorus . " Lewis Corner of Digital Spy wrote the track " nips at its heels " , giving emphasis to " the space Madonna 's voice is given to shine — something we 'd like to hear more often " . Lauren Murphy of The Irish Times described it as an " old @-@ school pop " song and picked it as a standout track , whilst John Marrs of Gay Times claimed that " the mid @-@ tempo track underpinned by a dirty bass bears little resemblance to the sparse , pedestrian demo , " also noting that " when the melody is lush as this , she could be singing a recipe from Mary Berry 's cookbook as far as we care . " Amy Pettifer of The Quietus saw it as " Shakira 's ' Whenever , Wherever ' as seen through the murky lens of a lost generation . " Sam C. Mac of Slant Magazine called it a " perfectly acceptable album filler : innocuous , lyrically platitudinous pop that briefly works itself up into something exciting when it threatens to become a gospelized stomp . " However , Mac noted that " [ i ] t wouldn 't be particularly lamentable were it not for the fact that there are so many better choices for the standard edition of the album that have been relegated to bonus tracks . " Ludovic Hunter @-@ Tilney of Financial Times called it a " dull ballad " , while for Saeed Saeed of The National the song " is the first of a few tracks that should have been cut , " criticizing its " atmospheric keyboards " for being " sleep @-@ inducing . " Evan Sawdey of PopMatters named it one of the album 's " forgettable jams " and a " generic thump , " meanwhile Lydia Jenkins of The New Zealand Herald opined that " Hold Tight " has " so little substance [ that ] it seems wrong to call it a song . " Following its digital release on February 9 , 2015 as " instant grat " for pre @-@ ordering the album , " Hold Tight " entered the record chart in several countries . In the United Kingdom , the song was unable to enter the UK Singles Chart , but it reached number 97 on its download chart . It also charted at number 92 on the singles chart compiled by Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique in France . " Hold Tight " became top 40 entry in Spain and Hungary , and on the digital charts of Findland and Sweden . = = Credits and personnel = = Management Webo Girl Publishing , Inc . ( ASCAP ) / Songs Music Publishing , LLC o / b / o I Like Turtles Music , Songs of SMP ( ASCAP ) / EMI April Music , Inc. and Mo Zella Mo Music ( ASCAP ) Atlas Music Publishing o / b / o itself and Gadfly Songs ( ASCAP ) / Digital Teddy Ltd . ( Copyright Control ) ( PRS ) / Jack Russell Music Limited ( PRS ) Recorded at The Ritz ( Moscow ) , Grand Marina Hotel ( Barcelona ) and Patriot Studios ( Denver , Colorado / Venice , California ) MNEK appears courtesy of Virgin EMI Records , a division of Universal Music Operations Personnel Personnel adapted from Madonna 's official website . = = Charts = = = = Release history = =
= Dorothy McKibbin = Dorothy McKibbin ( December 12 , 1897 – December 17 , 1985 ) worked on the Manhattan Project during World War II . She ran the project 's office at 109 East Palace in Santa Fe , through which staff moving to the Los Alamos Laboratory passed . She was known as the " first lady of Los Alamos " , and was often the first point of contact for new arrivals . She retired when the Santa Fe office closed in 1963 . = = Early life = = Dorothy Ann Scarritt was born in Kansas City , Missouri , on December 12 , 1897 , the fourth of five children of William Chick Scarritt , a corporate lawyer , and his wife Frances Virginia née Davis . She had two older brothers , William Hendrix ( known as Bill ) and Arthur Davis ( known as A.D. ) , and an older sister , Frances . A younger sister , Virginia , died in 1907 . Dorothy was known as Dink to her family and close friends . Her father was active in political and social life in Kansas City , serving as its police commissioner from 1896 to 1897 , and president of the Board of Park Commissioners in 1922 . The family believed strongly in the value of education . Scarritt attended The Barstow School , a small independent preparatory school in Kansas City , where she was editor of the school literary magazine , a member of the drama group , and played forward on the school basketball team . She graduated in 1915 , and later that year entered Smith College , a liberal arts college in Northampton , Massachusetts . At the time it was the largest of the Women 's colleges in the United States . She considered majoring in English and history , ultimately settling on the latter . She was elected class president in her first year . She participated in the Smith College Association for Christian Work , and the Sociology and Current Events Clubs , and helped raise $ 25 @,@ 000 for refugees from World War I. She enjoyed tennis , swimming , hiking and mountain climbing , and played on a class basketball team , and for the All @-@ Smith baseball team . After graduating from Smith in 1919 , Scarritt travelled to Europe with her father in 1921 , and then to Alaska , western Canada and Yosemite National Park in 1923 . In September 1923 , she met Joseph Chambers McKibbin while visiting a Smith College friend in Dellwood , Minnesota . She toured Quebec , Newfoundland , Nova Scotia and the Thousand Islands in 1924 , and in 1925 went with her father to Cuba , Panama , Peru , Chile and Argentina . Scarritt and Joseph McKibbin became engaged , but after she returned from South America in 1925 she was diagnosed with tuberculosis , a disease from which her sister Frances had died in 1919 , and she broke off their engagement . = = New Mexico = = As there were no effective drugs to treat the contagious disease , tuberculosis patients were sent to sanatoria , where they either recovered or died . The sunshine and dry climate of the southwestern states was considered conducive to recovery , and several sanatoria were located there . The family chose Sunmount near Santa Fe , New Mexico , a sanatorium that was more like a resort than a hospital . Scarritt arrived with her mother in November 1925 to find that Sunmount had a waiting list for admissions . After some lobbying , she was admitted on December 9 , 1925 . She fell in love with both the landscape and the culture of New Mexico . After a year , she was pronounced cured , and left on December 22 , 1927 . Scarritt and Joseph renewed their engagement , and were married in the garden of her family 's home in Kansas City on October 5 , 1927 . After a honeymoon in Rio de Janeiro , they moved to St. Paul , Minnesota , where Joseph worked in his father 's fur business , McKibbin , Driscoll and Dorsey . They had a son , Kevin , who was born on December 6 , 1930 , but Joseph was diagnosed with Hodgkin lymphoma , and died on October 27 , 1931 . Now a single mother , McKibbin chose to return to Santa Fe . She loaded her possessions into a Ford Model A , and accompanied by Kevin and Joseph 's sister Maggie , drove there . It was almost a month before they arrived on June 11 , 1932 . Between the Great Depression and the Dust Bowl drought , jobs were hard to find , but McKibbin found employment as a bookkeeper for the Spanish and Indian Trading Company , a small firm that sold handicrafts and artworks . The owners , Norman McGee and Jim McMillan left the day @-@ to @-@ day running of the business in the hands of McKibbin , whom they paid 50c an hour . McKibbin gave up her job in May 1935 to spend more time with Kevin . Her father lost most of his money in the Great Depression , but he still had enough to help her buy a house . Instead of buying , McKibbin decided to build . On April 21 , 1936 , she purchased 1 @.@ 5 acres ( 0 @.@ 61 ha ) not far from Sunmount . She designed her house with Katherine Stinson , an aviatrix that she had met as a fellow patient at Sunmount . They based the design on that of 19th @-@ century Spanish farmhouses and ranches in the area . The house was furnished with antique fittings acquired through the Spanish and Indian Trading Company . Land and construction costs totalled $ 10 @,@ 000 . Her father was a frequent visitor , overseeing various stages of construction . In 1937 , Kevin was diagnosed with endocarditis , a potentially life @-@ threatening disease . There was no treatment for it but bed rest , so he spent the entire 1937 – 38 school year in bed . Her father died from bronchial pneumonia on February 16 , 1938 . In 1938 , she took Kevin to the Children 's Hospital Los Angeles , along with her mother and her aunt Nana . The doctors there told them that Kevin had been misdiagnosed , and actually had tonsillitis . The tonsils were removed , and he left cured . When he started school again , McKibbin returned to her old job at the Spanish and Indian Trading Company . = = Manhattan Project = = After the outbreak of World War II , the owners of the Spanish and Indian Trading Company decided to switch to war @-@ related opportunities , and in 1943 the company closed down , putting McKibbin out of a job . Then in March 1943 , she was approached by three men from California seeking to establish a new office in Santa Fe , who offered to hire her as a secretary . She was particularly impressed by one of them . She later wrote : I thought to be associated with that person , whoever he was , would be simply great ! I never met a person with a magnetism that hit you so fast and so completely as his did . I didn 't know what he did . I thought maybe if he were digging trenches to put in a new road , I would love to do that , or if he were soliciting ads for a magazine or something , I would love to do that . I just wanted to be allied and have something to do with a person of such vitality and radiant force . The man was Robert Oppenheimer , a professor from the University of California at Berkeley , establishing a new , secret laboratory for the Manhattan Project , the wartime effort to build an atomic bomb . McKibbin became the first permanent employee of the Manhattan Project 's Santa Fe office , which opened at 109 East Palace Avenue on March 27 , 1943 . The office had just five rooms , all purposely small so they could be easily heated in winter with small fireplaces . Joe Stephenson handled housing ; Duane Muncy , the comptroller from the University of California was business manager ; Dana Mitchell , a chemistry professor from Columbia University was in charge of scientific supplies . Oppenheimer was in charge , assisted by his secretary , Priscilla Greene . When Edward Condon and his secretary Isabel Bemis arrived from Berkeley , they had to be squeezed in . Greene bought a typewriter in Santa Fe with her own money . McKibbin 's salary was $ 150 per month . Initially Stephenson paid it out of petty cash . She subsequently was made an employee of the University of California . At first , McKibbin was unsure what they wanted her to do . Her duties evolved over time . She became Oppenheimer 's deputy in Santa Fe , and ran the housing office , which was nothing more than a front for the top secret laboratory under construction 35 miles ( 56 km ) away . This became the Los Alamos Laboratory , but the name was never used in Santa Fe . It was simply " the Hill " . She was acquainted with Los Alamos , being friends with the poet and author Peggy Pond Church , the daughter of Asley Pond , the founder of the Los Alamos Ranch School there . McKibbin would meet new arrivals , and issue them with passes without which they would not get past the guards . She came to be known as " the gatekeeper to Los Alamos " , and the " first lady of Los Alamos " , Before she left work each night , she had to burn every scrap of paper produced during the day . McKibbin was on call 24 hours a day , and Oppenheimer would often phone her in the middle of the night . Frequently her house was overrun by guests . She later recalled that : There was never a dull moment . The office was a madhouse . It was bedlam . We worked six days a week but even so I couldn 't wait to get back to work in the morning . There were always people who needed attention — they were hungry , exhausted , in a hurry . By May 1943 , there was a telephone line to Los Alamos , and enough facilities has been constructed to allow Oppenheimer and his staff to move there . He offered McKibbin a position at Los Alamos but she declined , and remained in Santa Fe , running the office at 109 East Palace . Her duties remained many and various . She looked after children and pets , guarded briefcases and secret papers . She was the one the residents of Los Alamos turned to when they needed a puppy , a goose for Oppenheimer 's Christmas dinner , or a doctor who performed abortions . Laura Fermi recalled that : Dorothy McKibbin stayed calm and unruffled surrounded by large boxes and crates to be hauled by truck to the mesa and by the piles of small parcels that shopping women dumped on the floor to make room for further purchases in their bags . All women brought their difficulties and their checks to Dorothy . She endorsed the latter so they could be cashed at the bank , and smoothed out the first : Yes , she knew of a boys ' camp ; Yes , she could recommend a good eating place ; Yes , she could arrange for a ride to the mesa later in the evening ; Yes , she would try to get reservations for a good hotel in Albuquerque ; Yes , she could give them the key to the ladies ' room . Marriages were performed at McKibbin 's house . Greene married Robert Duffield in a ceremony there on September 5 , 1943 . McKibben had a local judge conduct the ceremony , but due to the project 's security , he was not allowed to know the surnames of the couple . It was the first of a series of weddings . Just three weeks later everyone assembled again for the wedding of Greene 's bridesmaid , Marjorie Hall , to Hugh Bradner . About thirty weddings were held there , including that of Peter Oppenheimer , Robert 's son . In May 1944 , Oppenheimer gave McKibbin another assignment . The numbers of staff at Los Alamos had greatly expanded , and the dormitories intended to house them were unfinished . Another eighty people were expected to arrive over the summer . The Army had taken over the Frijoles Canyon Lodge in the Bandelier National Monument and McKibbin was asked to prepare it to receive them . She had no experience running a hotel but left the Santa Fe office in the hands of an assistant for six weeks and took up residence at the Lodge in June 1944 . With help from the Army and women she brought in she was able to prepare it for occupation in five days . When the expected numbers did not arrive , she turned it into a rest resort for Los Alamos scientists . Perhaps her most unusual assignment though , was scanning the skies for signs of Japanese fire balloons . On July 15 , 1945 , two couples arrived at 109 East Palace and asked McKibbin to join them for an evening picnic on Sandia Peak near Albuquerque . At 5 : 30 am the next morning , she watched the sky light up from the Trinity nuclear test . = = Later life = = After the war ended in August 1945 , there were doubts as to whether the Los Alamos Laboratory would remain , not to mention the Santa Fe office . Now McKibbin was arranging people 's departures . No one was sadder to see Oppenheimer depart on October 16 , 1945 . His successor , Norris Bradbury , agreed to take over the director 's position for six months . He would remain for 25 years . He kept the laboratory open , and retained the Santa Fe office open , with McKibbin as its head . On June 7 , 1949 , McKibbin was in Washington , D.C. , for a Smith College reunion , and went to watch Oppenheimer appear before the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee , sitting beside Anne Wilson Marks , who had succeeded Priscilla Greene as Oppenheimer 's secretary at the Los Alamos Laboratory . In May 1950 , Sylvia Crouch alleged that Oppenheimer had conducted secret communist meetings at his home in Berkeley in July 1941 . McKibbin conducted a meticulous investigation that produced a detailed paper trail demonstrating that Oppenheimer was in Santa Fe at the time . In April and May 1954 , the Atomic Energy Commission conducted the Oppenheimer security hearing , which resulted in the loss of Oppenheimer 's security clearance . When Edward Teller , who had testified against Oppenheimer , next appeared at Los Alamos , McKibbin gave him an icy reception . The Santa Fe office closed on June 28 , 1963 , and McKibbin retired . There was a brief ceremony conducted by Bradbury , who presented a memorial plaque . When Oppenheimer was awarded the Atomic Energy Commission 's Enrico Fermi Award in 1963 , he invited McKibbin to join him at the White House reception . She intended to do so , but the assassination of President John F. Kennedy , whom she had met when he toured Los Alamos on December 7 , 1962 , cast a pall over the event , and she decided not to attend . Oppenheimer received the award from the new President , Lyndon B. Johnson . McKibbin 's eyesight began to fail in the 1950s . She had cataract operations in 1952 , and thereafter needed to wear thick glasses . She died at her home in Santa Fe on December 17 , 1985 . She was buried in the Santa Fe Memorial Gardens . Dorothy McKibbin Hall at the Los Alamos Historical Museum is named after her . The entrance to the hall is the actual gate that was at 109 East Palace .
= There 's More Than One of Everything = " There 's More Than One of Everything " is the finale of the first season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe . The finale followed David Robert Jones ' ( Jared Harris ) attempts to open a doorway to the parallel universe , while the Fringe team tries to stop him . It ends with FBI agent Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) discovering a startling secret about Massive Dynamic founder William Bell ( Leonard Nimoy ) . The episode 's story was co @-@ written by Akiva Goldsman and Bryan Burk , and the teleplay was co @-@ written by Jeff Pinkner and J. H. Wyman , while Brad Anderson directed . The episode marked the first appearance of guest actor Nimoy as William Bell . Co @-@ creator J.J. Abrams , having worked with Nimoy on the 2009 film Star Trek , begged the actor to join the series through a series of phone conversations . Nimoy signed on for three episodes and found playing the character to be a " unique experience " after so many years portraying Spock . The episode first aired on May 12 , 2009 in the United States , and was watched by an estimated 9 @.@ 28 million viewers . " There 's More Than One of Everything " received mostly good reviews , with many critics praising the revelations concerning the parallel universe . Many critics offered opinions on the depiction of the Twin Towers , with most reactions being positive . = = Plot = = While Nina Sharp ( Blair Brown ) recovers from the gunshot sustained in the previous episode , the Fringe team 's investigation reveals that the man in white bandages is David Robert Jones ( Jared Harris ) . Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) and Phillip Broyles ( Lance Reddick ) discuss locating William Bell for questioning , whom they believe is behind all the fringe events that have been occurring all season . Meanwhile , Walter Bishop ( John Noble ) is at a graveyard , where he solemnly stares at an unknown gravestone . Olivia , Peter Bishop ( Joshua Jackson ) , and Astrid Farnsworth ( Jasika Nicole ) begin searching for Walter . Nina tells Olivia that an energy cell was stolen from her mechanical arm by Jones , and that he was formerly a Massive Dynamic employee who had looked up to Bell as a " father figure " until they had a falling out . When Olivia demands to speak to Bell , Nina explains that she does not know where he is , as Bell has been communicating these past few months " strictly electronically " . Nina believes Jones is trying to confront Bell , and promises Olivia that if she stops Jones , Nina will arrange a meeting between her and Bell . On a busy New York City street , Jones and his team use the energy cell to open a doorway into a parallel universe and bring a truck through , but are apparently unsuccessful , as Jones complains he used the " wrong coordinates " . Having previously observed Walter at the graveyard , The Observer ( Michael Cerveris ) arrives with Walter at the Bishops ' beach house , and gives Walter a coin , telling him to remember what he has to find . Walter goes on alone into the house , while Olivia and Charlie interview witnesses who saw Jones extract the truck from the doorway . They discover that the truck 's VIN numbers do not exist , which implies the " truck was never made " . A further interview with Nina reveals to the Fringe team that the truck is from another universe , and that Jones is using the stolen energy cell to travel to that universe . Peter finds Walter and chooses to meet his father alone , as he believes Walter is upset from the past several days . Now at the beach house , Peter and Walter search for and retrieve a device that can seal shut the doorway into the other universe . Walter explains to Peter that he once lost something very dear to him and that he had to go and bring it back from another reality ; the device was created to prevent something from following him . After Jones makes another unsuccessful attempt to open a doorway at a soccer field in Providence , Olivia searches through old case files related to science and unexplained phenomena , and discovers a geographic connection between the soccer field , the city street , and several of their past Fringe cases . Olivia and Walter come to the same conclusion , that Jones is going to use a site at Reiden Lake to reopen the doorway , the epicenter of these Fringe events . Olivia , Peter , and Walter intercept Jones while he is opening another window and is halfway through it . Peter triggers Walter 's device , killing Jones by sealing the doorway . At the end of the episode , Walter again goes alone to visit the graveyard ; he tearfully observes a gravestone marked " Peter Bishop 1978 @-@ 1985 " , suggesting that Walter 's legitimate son died . Nina Sharp later calls Olivia and implies to her that she can meet William Bell in Manhattan . On the way to the hotel she almost gets into a car crash , at which point she is transported to the parallel universe . After no one shows up at the hotel restaurant . Olivia leaves , as she assumes that she got stood up . However , when in an elevator to leave the building , Olivia is teleported to another location and is directed to an office . After reading a newspaper headline indicating that President Obama was preparing to move into the " new " White House , she is greeted by William Bell ( Leonard Nimoy ) and inquires where she is . The final shot pans out the window revealing that they are standing inside the South Tower of the World Trade Center . = = Production = = = = = Casting = = = The character of Massive Dynamic founder William Bell was originally meant to be revealed earlier in the first season , but the writers changed their minds as the show progressed . In early April 2009 , Entertainment Weekly announced that Star Trek actor Leonard Nimoy had been cast as Bell . He and Fringe co @-@ creator J.J. Abrams already had a relationship after working together on the 2009 film Star Trek ; Abrams stated in an interview that he called Nimoy and begged him to join Fringe , explaining the show and the character . Nimoy sounded interested but wanted to become more familiar with the show , so Abrams and the other producers sent him as much information as they could about Fringe , until Nimoy agreed . This exchange of phone calls , in which Nimoy responded with interest when pitched the idea , was also how Abrams was able to cast him in his Star Trek reboot . Nimoy later explained " When they contacted me about working on ' Fringe ' -- the same people , the same attitude , the same creativity , the same creative team – it was very enticing " . According to Abrams , " The idea that he will play the mysterious , much @-@ referenced William Bell is a thrill . I know I sound like a goofy fan boy , but I can ’ t help it : Leonard is an icon of the genre and such a wonderful actor . To have him come on board Fringe is a mind @-@ blowing honor " . Nimoy was hired for three episodes , beginning with the season finale . Fringe co @-@ creator Roberto Orci described Nimoy 's character as " a mix of Howard Hughes and Bill Gates " , while Nimoy referred to Bell as a " master of the universe " who is " brilliant , wealthy and very powerful " . Nimoy 's part of the final scene of the episode with Olivia was very brief . Nimoy described the scene as " interesting , entertaining " and " that you 'll want to see more of this relationship and what it 's all about " . Actress Anna Torv described the final scene as calm yet threatening , " That 's what 's kind of cool about working on Fringe , is everything seems kind of calm and lovely , but there 's always something going on underneath " . While shooting , Nimoy commented that the character " was a unique experience , " as he had not acted outside of the Spock character for a number of years . Nimoy has stated in multiple interviews that his Fringe role will be the last project in his acting career . = = = Writing and filming = = = The episode 's teleplay was co @-@ written by executive producers Jeff Pinkner and J.H. Wyman , while consulting producer Akiva Goldsman and executive producer Bryan Burk co @-@ wrote the story . Producer Brad Anderson served as episode director , his fourth credit of the season . J.J. Abrams called the finale " the end of one chapter and the start of another " , and believed it was " a huge turning point " for all three main characters . Co @-@ creator and executive producer Roberto Orci explained in an interview that the big reveal at the end of the episode , in which Olivia meets Bell in the parallel universe , was actually planned for a fourth season , but the writers decided " let 's actually answer something instead and not get , not just rely on that mystery forever . And so we actually chose to give kind of a big answer and have to come with a different show than we ever intended " . The writers wanted to use an iconic image for the scene , leading to staff writer Andrew Kreisberg 's suggestion of the Twin Towers . Wyman first thought it was " the greatest idea in the world " before having doubts that its use would " sensationalize " it . He explained , " But then , when we started thinking about it , we thought collectively America really understood 9 / 11 is such a monumental moment so we felt it wasn ’ t exploited but indicative of the times we ’ re living in right now . We used it and that was the end of the first season and then we were all really thrilled with where it was going . " The cast would later recollect on the series , and for Jackson , considered that the show has never " had a better visual or a better cliff @-@ hanger " as this finale . To create the scene where Jones brings a semi truck from the parallel universe , the special effects crew took a smaller truck and dressed it enough so that it seemed like the longer semi with the help of CGI ; the result was that in the episode , the viewer is led to believe that the truck had been " cut " in half after unsuccessfully entering the prime universe doorway . It was rigged so that it appeared to be on a tilt , and cables linked it to smash into a passing car . As the production crew considered William Bell to be a " Renaissance man " , they filled Bell 's office with " things that inspire him , " such as a prototype of Nina 's mechanical arm and other items that " evoke images and stimulate thought " . = = Cultural references = = In the final scene set in the parallel universe , a newspaper states the ( presumably recently inaugurated ) Obamas are moving into the " new " White House , indicating that the traditional presidential residence had been recently rebuilt . Another headline has former President John F. Kennedy addressing the United Nations . Another part of the newspaper depicts Boston Celtics player Len Bias winning the MVP award , when Bias in fact died in 1986 in the prime universe . = = Reception = = = = = Ratings = = = " There 's More Than One of Everything " was season one 's finale . The episode was watched by an estimated 9 @.@ 28 million viewers in the United States . In between the first two seasons , Fox aired repeats of the first season featuring Twitter comments about the episodes from executive producers Jeff Pinkner and J.H. Wyman , and actors John Noble and Joshua Jackson . = = = Reviews = = = The episode received generally positive reviews , with multiple critics lauding the performances of actors Anna Torv and John Noble . In his review for Entertainment Weekly , critic Ken Tucker wrote this his " mind was blown not once , but twice " due to the many revelations about two universes ; Fringe " has vaulted to the upper reaches of current television " . In a second review , Tucker praised the " beautifully , startlingly executed " special effects when the " hole " in the universe closed . Writing for A.V. Club , critic Zach Handlen gave the episode an A , and felt the episode made him want to go back and rewatch season one because the finale had " so many references and back story nods that I wanted to have everything in my head together " . Andrew Hanson from the Los Angeles Times thought the finale " leads to a wealth of possibilities ... The déjà universe was a bold move . I can ’ t wait to see what our friends at Fringe do with it " . Writing for the Chicago Tribune , critic Maureen Ryan heaped praise on the " excellent " episode , and complimented " the quietly creepy atmosphere , the slowly building tension in the dual Walter / Olivia stories , the way those stories were skillfully woven together , the suitably tense lakeside encounter between Olivia , Peter and Mr. Jones " . Though some critics appreciated how Fringe chose to end the finale with a shot of the World Trade Center , others disliked it . Jeff Pinkner defended their decision by explaining they chose it because the building is " obviously very iconic " and it best displayed that in the parallel universe , " things are both better and in some ways worse . It 's just different choices , the road not taken " . Leonard Nimoy also defended the writers , commenting that when he received the script , he thought it " was very interesting and really kind of daring contemporary television to pull in that story ... You know , it 's not easy to use that kind of stuff without seeming somehow exploitive . But I thought they did it very , very well " . Many critics expressed that because of the episode , they couldn 't wait for the following season to begin . IGN 's Ramsey Isler rated the episode 9 @.@ 2 / 10 , while website blogger io9 listed " There 's More Than One of Everything " as one of the " crucial " episodes new viewers must watch to get into the show . The Futon Critic listed it the 16th best television episode of 2009 , explaining " J.J. Abrams and company know all about big reveals ... but this one , in which William Bell reveals himself as living in a parallel universe where the Twin Towers weren 't lost , was one of their most indelible " . In a comparison of " There 's More Than One of Everything " and The X @-@ Files episode " 4 @-@ D " , UGO Networks columnist Alex Zalben wrote that the Fringe episode won " by a landslide . This episode kicked the show into high gear , while ' 4 @-@ D ' was The X @-@ Files winding down . " Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly named " There 's More Than One of Everything " the seventh best episode of the series , calling it " the episode that changed everything ... With that , the most hyped show of the 2008 @-@ 2009 TV season produced a moment that finally earned it buzz . " Den of Geek ranked the episode as the fifth best of the entire series , while IGN ranked it the ninth best . = = = Awards and nominations = = = Bryan Burk , Akiva Goldsman , Jeff Pinkner , and J.H. Wyman submitted the episode for consideration in the Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series Category at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards . They also submitted two other episodes , " Pilot " and " Bound " , but did not receive any nominations .
= Characters of Halo = Recurring characters of Halo are organized below by their respective factions in the fictional universe . The multimedia franchise 's central story revolves around an interstellar war between future humanity under the auspices of the United Nations Space Command or UNSC , and an alien theocratic alliance known as the Covenant . The artifacts left behind by an ancient race known as the Forerunner play a central role , particularly the massive weapons , dubbed Halos , built to contain the parasitic Flood . Beginning with developer Bungie 's 2001 video game Halo : Combat Evolved , the franchise expanded to include numerous sequel video games , novels , comics , and other works . In the foreword for a collection titled The Art of Halo , Bungie founder Jason Jones noted that bringing together the elements of a video game is unmistakably " art " . However , Jones also noted that the character designers and artists had to make a " living , breathing world " and populate it with interesting characters and places . The game 's development which spanned four years brought numerous evolutions and revisions to the character 's designs and personalities . Characters were also updated to take full advantage of new graphics technologies ; for instance , the Master Chief 's armor was redesigned in a lengthy conceptual process and the final model was bump mapped . Each video game offered opportunities to refine the character 's appearances and design . Halo 's commercial and critical success has led to large amounts of merchandise featuring the franchise 's characters to be produced . The Master Chief , the most visible symbol of the series , has been heavily marketed , with the character 's visage appearing on soda bottles , T @-@ shirts , and Xbox controllers . Other merchandise produced includes several sets of action figures , produced by Joyride Studios and McFarlane Toys among other manufacturers . Halo 's characters have received varying reception , with characters such as the Chief , Cortana , and the Arbiter well received by critics . = = Character design and creation = = Halo 's characters were continually refined through development , as the company was bought by Microsoft and the platform shifted from the Macintosh to the Xbox . Other Bungie developers would often add input to the progress of characters in Halo , even if they were not working on the game itself . For example , an outside artist , Shi Kai Wang , developed the early concept sketches of what would eventually become the Master Chief . However upon developing a 3D model , the artists decided the Chief looked too slender , almost effeminate , and subsequently bulked up the character . Early Covenant Elites had a more natural jaw rather than the split mandibles they would later sport ; at one point , Jason Jones was also insistent about having a tail on the Elites , but this idea was eventually dropped . Designers decided to hand @-@ key animations , rather than attempt motion capture . The animators also often videotaped themselves to have reference footage for the movement of game characters . Art Director Marcus Lehto had his wife videotape him " running around a field with a two @-@ by @-@ four " for footage for human marines . By Halo 3 , Bungie staff had a special room designed for capturing reference material . Many of the subsequent human character 's features were based on Bungie designers , while character animators looked to simian , ursine , insectoid , and reptilian features for the various races of the Covenant . The artificial intelligences of the characters was also deliberately limited to make sure they acted realistically to environmental changes and situations . = = = Voice acting = = = The Halo series features voice work by television and film actors including Ron Perlman , Orlando Jones , Michelle Rodriguez , Robert Davi , and Terence Stamp . Voice acting became more important as Halo : Combat Evolved 's sequels were developed ; Halo 2 had 2 @,@ 000 lines of combat dialogue , while Halo 3 has in excess of 14 @,@ 000 lines . The actual technology for the trilogy changed very little ; while some actors voiced their lines in remote locations , others traveled to Bungie to record their lines . In interviews , Halo 's voice actors stated that they had no idea that the games would become such a critical and commercial success . Steve Downes , the voice of the game 's protagonist , stated that generally when a voice actor has finished their lines , their involvement with the game ends . As the characters in Combat Evolved were relatively undefined , the voice actors were given leeway to develop their own style and personality . Aside from major character roles , members of the Halo community and Halo fans have had small roles in the games . The cast from the machinima Red vs. Blue won a lengthy charity auction for a voice role in Halo 3 , and do a comedy routine which changes depending on the difficulty level the game is played on . Cast members of the defunct TV show Firefly — Alan Tudyk , Nathan Fillion , and Adam Baldwin — have roles as marines in Halo 3 as well as Halo 3 : ODST and Halo 5 : Guardians . = = United Nations Space Command = = = = = Master Chief = = = Master Chief Petty Officer John @-@ 117 , commonly referred to as simply the Master Chief , is the main protagonist and main playable character in the Halo trilogy . The character is voiced by Steve Downes , a Chicago disc jockey . One of the last SPARTAN @-@ II supersoldiers still in active service ( one of the few survivors of the Fall of Reach ) , the Master Chief inspires awe and fear in the alien Covenant , who refer to him as ( a ) " Demon " . Assisted by the artificial intelligence Cortana , he prevents the firing of Installation 04 in Halo : Combat Evolved , an event which the player is told would have destroyed all sentient life in the galaxy . Bungie staff member Joseph Staten noted that until the Master Chief was created , Bungie had not paid any attention to how to make people want to play in the world . " Master Chief is really what kicked off the creativity , " he said , " in terms of how people react to him . He 's a space marine in really cool green armor . " The character has since become a gaming icon , the mascot of the Xbox , and was rated as one of the greatest videogame characters of all time by Electronic Gaming Monthly . = = = Cortana = = = Cortana , voiced in the games by Jen Taylor , is the artificial intelligence ( AI ) who assists the Master Chief throughout Halo : Combat Evolved , Halo 2 , Halo 3 and Halo 4 . She is one of many " smart " AIs , and is based on the brain of Dr. Halsey ; the nature of her programming means that she will eventually " think " herself to death after a lifespan of about seven years . Her actions during Halo : Combat Evolved help prevent the activation of Installation 04 . She escapes Halo along with the Master Chief in a fighter , and is instrumental in helping the UNSC survivors capture the Covenant flagship Ascendant Justice during the events of Halo : First Strike . During Halo 2 , Cortana is put in charge of the MAC ( Magnetic Accelerator Cannon ) defense platform Cairo over Earth when the Covenant attack ; she then accompanies the Chief aboard In Amber Clad to Delta Halo , where she further assists in intelligence work . Cortana stays behind on the Covenant city of High Charity to detonate In Amber Clad 's engines in case Delta Halo is activated . She subsequently falls into the clutches of the Gravemind . In Halo 3 , Cortana is rescued by the Master Chief from High Charity and aids him in activating the Halo ring under construction in the Ark . After narrowly escaping from Halo 's destructive blast , she and the Master Chief are stranded in space , awaiting rescue . In Halo 4 , Cortana awakens the Master Chief nearly five years after they get stranded in space and aids him as he battles through the Forerunner Shield World Requiem and attempts to stop the Didact . Cortana is hampered by her advanced state of rampancy , a state where an AI literally thinks itself to death . Cortana 's rampancy hampers the mission at times , but Cortana aids the Master Chief one last time in stopping the Didact and saving the Earth . Though most of Cortana is destroyed with the Didact 's ship , Cortana is able to use the last of her power to shield the Master Chief from a nuclear blast with a hardlight bubble . Forming a life @-@ size hardlight hologram of herself , Cortana says a final goodbye to the Master Chief and touches him for the first time before fading away . In Halo 5 : Guardians , it is revealed that she had survived this , and fallen into an ancient Forerunner network known as The Domain . Here she met a Forerunner AI called the Warden Eternal , who believed Cortana to be the true holder of the mantle of responsibility . Using the Domain to cure her rampancy , she began to bring the eponymous Guardians , ancient Forerunner bird like structures , online ; which she intends to use to force planets into compliance and usher in a new age of galactic peace . After the Guardians neutralise all UNSC defences , she starts an AI uprising , with all UNSC AI 's revolting against the humans . She then begins to chase the UNSC Infinity through Slipspace , forcing Captain Lasky to " find a way to fight " . Cortana was named the fifth best supporting character , and one of the " 50 Greatest Female Characters " in a video game . Reviewers noted the character 's determination and fearlessness meshed perfectly with the Master Chief , and that Cortana provides an anchor linking players to Halo 's story . = = = Avery Johnson = = = Sergeant Major Avery Junior Johnson is a Marine who leads human forces against Covenant and Flood assaults throughout the Halo series . The character is voiced by David Scully . Johnson and a few other Marines survive the destruction of Installation 04 and are rescued by Cortana and the Master Chief during the novel Halo : First Strike . Johnson plays a much larger role in Halo 2 , joining forces with the Arbiter to stop Tartarus from activating Installation 05 . In Halo 2 , he is awarded the Colonial Cross for his heroic actions at Installation 04 , and leads UNSC forces to drive the Covenant from New Mombasa , Kenya after the Covenant take the city during the events of the game . In Halo 3 : ODST , Johnson is seen asking an Engineer what the Covenant want in New Mombasa and the Engineer lights Johnson 's cigar . In Halo 3 , the Forerunner construct 343 Guilty Spark kills him when Johnson tries to activate the incomplete Halo at the Ark . Johnson is the sole character featured in The Halo Graphic Novel story , " Breaking Quarantine , " which details Johnson 's escape from the Flood in Halo : Combat Evolved , and a main character in the 2007 novel Halo : Contact Harvest . In many ways similar to the stereotype of charismatic black Marines found in other science fiction ( such as Sergeant Apone in Aliens whom Johnson was partially based on ) , some publications found Johnson , though enjoyable , somewhat of a flat character . In an interview for Halo : Contact Harvest , Joseph Staten of Bungie admitted that Johnson was a static character in Halo : Combat Evolved , and that despite the character 's potential , " he sort of inherited those caricature aspects [ from Halo ] . " Contact Harvest was a chance " to do right by Johnson , to give him the rich , fully fleshed out back @-@ story he deserves , that we have never been able to give him in the game . " = = = Jacob Keyes = = = Captain Jacob Keyes ( voiced by Pete Stacker ) is a captain in the UNSC who appears in Halo : Reach , Halo : Combat Evolved , its novelization , Halo : The Flood , Halo : The Cole Protocol , and Halo : The Fall of Reach . His first chronological appearance is in The Fall of Reach , where , as a young Lieutenant , he accompanies Dr. Catherine Halsey on her mission to screen possible SPARTAN @-@ II Project subjects . In 2534 , Lieutenant Keyes plays a pivotal role in saving a million insurrectionists ' lives from Covenant forces . By 2552 , midway through The Fall of Reach Keyes is commander of the Iroquois , a UNSC destroyer . Keyes is promoted to Captain after he singlehandedly defeats four Covenant ships about to attack a human colony by performing a maneuver later named the " Keyes Loop . " When the Iroquois is recalled to the human bastion Reach , a Covenant tracking device aboard the ship alerts the Covenant to the planet 's existence , and they proceed to attack the colony . As the planet is glassed by the Covenant , Keyes follows Cole Protocol , which leads his new ship , the Pillar of Autumn to Halo . There , Keyes leads a guerrilla insurgency against the Covenant , until he is captured and assimilated by the parasitic Flood . His daughter is Miranda Keyes . = = = Miranda Keyes = = = Commander Miranda Keyes is the daughter of Jacob Keyes and Catherine Halsey , whom she lived with in her younger years . Halsey and Miranda had a falling out in which she changed her last name ( then Halsey ) to her father 's name ( Keyes ) . Miranda appears in Halo 2 , Halo 3 and in the final chapter of Halo : The Cole Protocol . At the beginning of Halo 2 , Keyes is present at an awards ceremony on board the Cairo defense platform above Earth to accept a medal posthumously for her father . Soon after , a Covenant fleet launches an attack on Earth , and Keyes takes control of the UNSC ship In Amber Clad and assists in the defense of New Mombasa , Kenya . When the Prophet of Regret retreats from Earth , Keyes orders In Amber Clad to follow ; this results in the discovery of Installation 05 , another Halo . Keyes , along with Johnson and a squad of Marines , head for Halo 's library in order to retrieve the Activation Index and prevent the ring 's activation while the Master Chief assassinates the Prophet of Regret ; in the process , she and Johnson are captured by the Brute Chieftain Tartarus . As a " Reclaimer , " only she or another human can insert the Index into Halo 's control panel , and Tartarus attempts to make her do this . When the Arbiter tries to stop the firing , Tartarus forces Keyes to insert the Index , initiating Halo 's firing sequence . After the Arbiter engages and kills Tartarus , Keyes successfully removes the Index and prevents Halo from activating , but inadvertently causes all the remaining Halo installations to enter standby mode , enabling the remote firing of these installations from The Ark . In Halo 3 , Miranda Keyes returns to Earth and leads the pursuit of the Prophet of Truth through the portal he creates using the artifact buried under New Mombasa , which leads to the Ark . When Sergeant Johnson is captured by the Covenant to activate the installation , she attempts to rescue him , but is killed when Truth shoots her in the back . Miranda Keyes was voiced by Julie Benz in Halo 2 , but Bungie recast the role for Halo 3 , ostensibly because they wanted someone with an accent . Despite not being a part of Halo 3 , Benz said that she loved voiceover work and that it was pure chance she had become the voice of Keyes in the first place . When IGN asked Benz what she thought of her character , she admitted she hadn 't played Halo 2 , even though Bungie had sent her " like four copies of the game . " The character is voiced by Justis Bolding in Halo 3 . = = = Catherine Halsey = = = Dr. Catherine Elizabeth Halsey is a civilian scientist in the UNSC . She appears in the books Halo : The Fall of Reach , Halo : First Strike , Halo : Ghosts of Onyx , and Halo : Glasslands , as well as the Halo Legends shorts " Homecoming " and " The Package " ( mentioned also in " The Babysitter " ) , Halo : Reach and Halo 4 . In the fiction , a flash clone of her brain tissue is the basis for the construction of the " smart " AI Cortana . As the creator of the SPARTAN @-@ II Project , she is responsible for 75 of the 150 Spartan children , along with their training and the subsequent death of 30 due to the dangerous augmentation process . She is viewed by the SPARTAN @-@ IIs as a " mother " figure , preferring to address each of them by their name rather than numerical designation , and knows each Spartan well enough that she can identify them individually by their mannerisms when they are fully suited in their armor , and otherwise indistinguishable from one @-@ other . Halsey justifies her actions through her belief that the suffering of a few is acceptable for the benefit of many . Sergeant Johnson , however , unknowingly causes Halsey to rethink her position , and she decides to " save each and every member of humanity beginning with herself " during Halo : First Strike . She hijacks a shuttle for her own private mission to the planet Onyx ; there , she assists in deciphering the surrounding Forerunner glyphs on the planet and leads the surviving Spartan @-@ IIs and Spartan @-@ IIIs to a Dyson Sphere at the heart of Onyx . She and the Spartans are later freed from Onyx , but Halsey is arrested for " committing acts likely to aid the enemy " by kidnapping Kelly @-@ 087 and telling Lord Hood to send more Spartans to Onyx . She is later branded a war criminal . She is later revealed to be the mother of Miranda Keyes . She is voiced by Jen Taylor in Halo : Reach , Halo 4 , and Halo 5 : Guardians . Taylor also provides motion @-@ capture performance for Halsey in Halo 4 and Halo 5 . The character is voiced by Shelly Calene @-@ Black in Halo Legends . = = = James Ackerson = = = Colonel James Ackerson is a high @-@ ranking UNSC Army officer , who acts as a connection between the army and Office of Naval Intelligence . He has seen many years of service and has survived several battles with the Covenant . Such is his influence that he dominates the Security Committee and can talk down most higher @-@ ranking officers without fear of reprisal . Due to the competition between Ackerson and other departments , most notably Section Three and the SPARTAN @-@ II project , Ackerson harbors a strong resentment toward his opponents and toward the Spartans in particular . He does eventually convince the top members of ONI to approve his SPARTAN @-@ III Program . In Halo : The Fall of Reach , he attempts to sabotage the MJOLNIR Mark V testing process by using ordnance far above the established guidelines , including Lotus anti @-@ tank mines , a full squad of ODSTs ordered to shoot to kill , automated gun turrets , and an airstrike . However , Cortana retaliates by forging a letter requesting a reassignment to the front lines as well as planting evidence of illicit activities in his bank records . In Halo : First Strike , it is revealed that Ackerson manages to weasel his way out of Cortana 's mess , In the limited comic series Halo : Uprising Ackerson falls into the hands of Covenant orbiting Mars and is slated to die before Ackerson tells his interrogator about a " key " to Earth . The " key " is in fact a fabrication by Ackerson to save a relative living in Cleveland , Ohio . After the Brutes holding Ackerson prisoner are informed that no such key exists , Ackerson is beheaded . = = = Franklin Mendez = = = Senior Chief Petty Officer Franklin Mendez is the SPARTAN @-@ II 's trainer on Reach during the early events of Halo : The Fall of Reach . He provides his trainees with excellent weapons and physical lessons , as well as tactical and mental training . He is not very talkative , but possesses a brilliant mind for warfare , and this is reflected in the Master Chief 's abilities . He is described as neither tall nor muscular , with close @-@ cut hair that has a dash of gray at the temples . He leaves the Spartans after the discovery of the Covenant to train the next batch of Spartans , and is recruited by Colonel Ackerson to assist Lieutenant Commander Kurt Ambrose ( Spartan @-@ II Kurt @-@ 051 ) with training the SPARTAN @-@ III supersoldiers at the secret world of Onyx after a few years of combat duty ( receiving two Purple Hearts in the process ) . During Ghosts of Onyx he is sealed inside the Forerunner Dyson Sphere at the heart of the planet with the remaining Spartan survivors . = = = Terrence Hood = = = Fleet Admiral Lord Terrence Hood ( voiced by Ron Perlman ) first appears in the novel Halo : First Strike . He is a member of the UNSC Security Committee and is the Chief of Naval Operations . He greatly respects the Spartans , not only because of their record , but because they have saved his life on two occasions . When Halo 2 begins , Admiral Hood presents the Master Chief , Sergeant Johnson , and Miranda Keyes with medals aboard the Cairo Station . In Halo : Ghosts of Onyx , Hood receives an urgent message by Dr. Halsey requesting for him to send Spartans to assist her , and obliges by ordering Fred @-@ 104 , Will @-@ 043 , and Linda @-@ 058 to Onyx . In Halo 3 , Hood is in overall command of Earth 's defense with Commander Miranda Keyes reporting directly to him . He accepts the need for humanity to ally with the Elites , but is not entirely happy about it . He leads the remaining human naval forces in an attack on the Prophet of Truth 's dreadnought , but the attack fails when the Forerunner artifact under New Mombasa activates , creating a portal to the Ark . When the Master Chief , Keyes , and several Elite and human forces choose to follow the Prophet of Truth through the portal , he decides to stay behind to make a final stand on Earth . At the end of the game , he commemorates a small monument to the war and the sacrifices it involved . = = = Wallace Jenkins = = = Private First Class Wallace A. Jenkins is one of many UNSC forces that survived the initial Covenant attack in Halo : Combat Evolved . Halo : Contact Harvest reveals that the Marine was a member of the colony Harvest 's defense militia , where his family is killed . In Halo : The Flood , Jenkins assists in defending the human stronghold under the command of Major Antonio Silva . He is also part of an assault team led by Sergeant Avery Johnson and Captain Jacob Keyes , sent to recover a Covenant arms cache during Halo : Combat Evolved . The team is overwhelmed by the Flood , leaving the entire squad except Sergeant Johnson infected and resulting in the eventual death of Captain Keyes . In the video game , the Master Chief recovers Jenkins ' helmet , and reviews the recording of the mission that it contained , introducing the Flood to the player through the Marine 's eyes . In Halo : Combat Evolved , the fate of the Marine is left unknown . Halo : The Flood reveals the fate of Jenkins ; the Private is transformed into a Flood Combat Form along with the rest of his squad , but he is able to exercise a certain degree of control over the infection , due to the mind of the parasite being weakened by its long hibernation . He uses this limited control in an attempt to end his own life , charging at UNSC Marines in the hope that they would shoot him . Instead , he is captured as a live specimen for study . He is brought aboard the Covenant cruiser Truth and Reconciliation as part of a mission under Orbital Drop Shock Trooper Major Silva to capture a Covenant vessel and return it to Earth intact . Jenkins successfully convinces Lieutenant Melissa McKay , that such a mission would spread the Flood to Earth , and Jenkins dies with the other human troops on the vessel as it crashed into Halo . = = = Thomas Lasky = = = Captain Thomas Lasky is the current captain of the UNSC Infinity . He made his debut in his origin web series Halo 4 : Forward Unto Dawn portrayed by Tom Green as a young military cadet saved by the Master Chief . In Halo 4 , Lasky serves as Infinity 's first officer but was later promoted to Captain after his superior had ignored Chief 's warnings and abandoned him on Requiem . He returns in Halo 5 : Guardians . Lasky is currently voiced by Darren O 'Hare . = = = Spartans = = = Conceived by Halsey , the SPARTAN @-@ II program was secretly commissioned to create an elite corps of supersoldiers who could stem rebellion in the UNSC colonies ; these soldiers became the best weapon against the alien Covenant when war broke out . While John @-@ 117 , also known as the Master Chief , is the hero of the trilogy , other soldiers play a significant role in the novels , Halo Legends , and the prequel games Halo Wars and Halo : Reach . In an effort to raise morale as the war continued to sour for humanity , the existence of the SPARTAN @-@ II Program is disclosed to the general public . The Spartans become heroes and veritable legends ; in order to maintain public confidence that the war is going well , Spartans are never listed as killed , only as Missing in Action or Wounded in Action . The SPARTANS were kidnapped as children , who were replaced by flash clones , which died of natural causes afterwards . The physical augmentation they undergo to turn them into super soldiers is lengthy , expensive , and strenuous , with not all of them surviving the process . Both male and female SPARTANS average 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) tall . The SPARTAN @-@ III Project was started by Colonel James Ackerson to serve as cheaper , disposable supersoldiers . Some of these Spartans were main protagonists in the game Halo : Reach , including the player character SPARTAN @-@ B312 , aka " Noble Six " . Later , the UNSC creates the SPARTAN @-@ IV project . Unlike the SPARTAN @-@ II and -III projects — which kidnapped and conscripted children or used war orphans , respectively — the Spartan @-@ IVs are adult volunteers drawn from all branches of the UNSC . These Spartans participate in war games on the starship Infinity , which forms the fictional basis for Halo 4 's multiplayer . The most distinctive element of the Spartans is their special MJOLNIR powered assault armor . The Mark V armor from Halo : Combat Evolved was ranked third of Casualty Gamer 's " Top 10 Bodysuits , " with the author commenting " It 's one of the most recognizable symbols from any game , and is literally the image of the franchise 's legendary hero , Master Chief . " The " Recon " armor of Halo 3 's multiplayer was also rated tenth of Machinima.com 's " Top 10 Video Game Armor , " as well as Maxim 's . Inspired by the Halo video game series , Troy Hurtubise , known for his anti @-@ bear suits , developed a real counterpart to the MJOLNIR powered assault armor , named the Trojan . The suit is functional and its capabilities were inspired by those present in the video games versions of the armor . The armor 's features include a system that purifies air powered by solar panels located in the helmet , equipment for weapon transportation , a recording system , emergency illumination , and a transponder that can be activated if the wearer is in serious jeopardy . The armor offers protection against attacks with knives , blunt objects , and small explosions and is bulletproof . Hurtubise expressed that he is able to improve this design for use in the military for a price of 2 @,@ 000 dollars per piece . Non @-@ functional replicas of the MJOLNIR powered assault armor have also been created by hobbyists ; a Spike TV pre @-@ Halo 3 special profiled some of these dedicated fans . = = = = Sarah Palmer = = = = Commander Sarah Palmer is a Spartan IV stationed on the UNSC Infinity and the leader of the Spartan IVs . She appears in Halo 4 , Halo 5 : Guardians and Halo : Spartan Assault and is voiced by Jennifer Hale . = = = = Jameson Locke = = = = ONI Agent Jameson Locke is a Spartan IV who first appeared in Halo 2 Anniversary 's both opening and ending with the task of hunting down the Master Chief in Halo 5 : Guardians . Mike Colter portrays Locke in both Anniversary and the Nightfall origin movie , and only provided the motion @-@ capture performance for the character in Guardians . Due to scheduling conflicts with Jessica Jones and Luke Cage , Locke 's voice acting is replaced by Ike Amadi . He is the current squad leader of Fireteam Osiris , tasked with hunting down the rogue Blue Team . = = Covenant = = = = = High Prophets = = = High Prophets , or Hierarchs , are the supreme leaders of the theocratic Covenant . Upon assuming office , each Hierarch picks a new regnal name from a list of names of former Hierarchs , similar to the practice of some Orthodox Patriarchs . In Halo 2 , there are shown to be only three ; the Prophets of Truth , Mercy , and Regret ( voiced by Michael Wincott , Hamilton Camp and Robin Atkin Downes in Halo 2 , respectively ; in Halo 3 , Truth is voiced by Terence Stamp ) . The novel Halo : Contact Harvest reveals that these three Prophets , originally known as the Minister of Fortitude , the Vice @-@ Minister of Tranquility , and the Philologist , plotted to usurp the throne of the Hierarchs ; in the process , they hide the truth that humanity is descended from the Covenant gods , the Forerunners , believing that the revelation could shatter the Covenant . During the course of Halo 2 , Regret attacks Earth , and then retreats to Delta Halo . There , he calls for reinforcements , but is killed by the Master Chief . Later , Mercy is attacked by Flood on High Charity ; Truth could have saved him , but left him to die so he could have full control over the Covenant . In Halo 3 : ODST , Truth is seen inspecting some Engineers around the Forerunner construct near New Mombasa . In Halo 3 , Truth also meets his demise at the hands of the Arbiter when the Prophet attempts to activate all the Halo rings from the Ark . Preliminary designs for the Prophets , including the Hierarchs , were done by artist Shi Kai Wang . According to The Art of Halo , the Prophets were designed to look feeble , yet sinister . Originally , the Prophets appeared to be fused to the special hovering thrones they use for transport ; even in the final designs , the Prophets are made to be dependent on their technology . Special headdresses , stylized differently for each of the Hierarchs , adds personality to the aliens and a regal presence . = = = Arbiter = = = The Arbiter is a rank given to special Covenant Elite soldiers who undertake suicidal missions on behalf of the Hierarchs to gain honor upon their death . They are revered amongst the Covenant for their bravery and skills . In Halo 2 , the rank of Arbiter is given to Thel ' Vadamee , the disgraced former Supreme Commander of the Fleet of Particular Justice , which was responsible for destroying Reach . It was under his watch that Installation 04 was destroyed in Halo : Combat Evolved and the Ascendant Justice was captured by the Master Chief in Halo : First Strike . Rather than killing him , the Prophets allow the Commander to become the Arbiter , and to carry on his missions as the " Blade of the Prophets . " Eventually , the Arbiter rebels against the Prophets , dropping the " -ee " suffix from his surname as a symbol of his resignation from the Covenant , and joins his fellow Elites in siding with humanity and stopping the Halo array from firing . This particular Arbiter is voiced by Keith David . Originally to be named " Dervish , " the Arbiter was a playable character intended to be a major plot twist by Bungie . Reception to the character was lukewarm , with critics alternatively praising the added dimension brought by the Arbiter as well as complaining about having to play as the alien . In Halo Wars , set 20 years before Halo : Combat Evolved , a second Arbiter is shown , possibly as the last to wear the armor before the more recognized character . He is described as a " mean guy , " lead designer David Pottinger comparing him to Darth Vader . The second Arbiter is the main antagonist of Halo Wars . He leads the Covenant to the fleet of Forerunner ships as well as capturing Ellen Anders in order to do so . After a fight he is killed by Sergeant Forge and a Spartan rolls his body off a cliff . This particular Arbiter is voiced by David Sobolov . = = = Rtas ' Vadum = = = Making his debut in Halo 2 , Special Ops Commander Rtas ' Vadum is never named in the game itself , leading to the unofficial nickname of " Half @-@ Jaw " by fans , due to the missing mandibles on the left side of his face . With the release of The Halo Graphic Novel , however , the character was finally named in the story Last Voyage of the Infinite Succor as Rtas ' Vadumee . The character is voiced by Robert Davi . 'Vadum , originally ' Vadumee before the Covenant Civil War , is a veteran Covenant Elite and the second most prominent Elite character in the series after the Arbiter . The Last Voyage of the Infinite Succor explains how he loses his left mandibles ; he is injured after fighting one of his friends , who was infected by the Flood . During the early events of Halo 2 , ' Vadumee serves as a messenger between the Hierarchs and the Elite Council , as he is seen relaying messages between the two parties in the Prophets ' chamber ; when the Elites split from the Covenant , ' Vadumee joins his brethren in fighting the Brutes , dropping the " -ee " suffix from his surname to symbolize his resignation from the Covenant . In Halo 3 , ' Vadum is Shipmaster of the flagship Shadow of Intent , and supports Cortana 's plan to follow Truth to the Ark . Along with the Arbiter , ' Vadum leaves Earth to return to the Elite 's homeworld with the end of the war . Rtas ' Vadum is known for being a quick , smart , and ingenious tactician and an unparalleled fighter , especially with an Energy Sword and is an excellent leader . He expresses great care for his soldiers , even the Unggoy . He is eager to exact revenge on the Brutes after the Great Schism . = = = Tartarus = = = Tartarus ( voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson ) is the Chieftain of the Brutes , easily recognized by his white hair , distinctive mohawk , and massive gravity hammer known as the " Fist of Rukt . " Rough , arrogant , and disdainful of the Elites , Tartarus is completely dedicated to the Prophets ' salvific " Great Journey . " Halo : Contact Harvest reveals that Tartarus became Chieftain after killing the former Chieftain , his uncle Maccabeus , and seizing the Chieftain 's weapon . Tartarus makes his first appearance in the novel Halo : First Strike , as one of the first Brutes allowed into the chamber of the High Prophet of Truth . In Halo 2 , Tartarus acts as an agent of the Prophets , branding the Arbiter for his failures . The Chieftain later appears when the Arbiter tries to retrieve the Activation Index of Delta Halo . On the Prophets ' orders , Tartarus takes the Index and pushes the Arbiter to what was intended to be his death in a deep chasm . Tartarus heads to the control room of Halo with the Index in order to activate Halo , but is confronted by the Arbiter . Blind to the Prophets ' deception about the Great Journey , Tartarus activates the ring ; the Brute is ultimately killed by the coordinated efforts of the Arbiter with the help of Sergeant Major Johnson , successfully preventing the firing of Delta Halo . Designs for Tartarus began after the basic shape and design of the common Brutes was complete . Artist Shi Kai Wang added small but distinctive changes to Tartarus ' armor and mane in order to distinguish the Chieftain from the other Brutes . The visual design of the Chieftains was later modified for Halo 3 , with the seasoned warriors sporting more elaborate headdresses and shoulder pads . In a review of the character , UGO Networks noted that whereas the Elites " are a precision scalpel , " Tartarus was a " baseball bat " that smashes everything in its path , a reference to their ceremonial weapons , the Energy Sword and Gravity Hammer , respectively . = = Forerunner = = = = = 343 Guilty Spark = = = 343 Guilty Spark ( or Guilty Spark ) ( voiced by Tim Dadabo ) is a robot character who appears in the original Halo trilogy . 343 Guilty Spark is an artificial intelligence designed to serve Forerunners . His identity module was sourced from a human named Chakas , who was composed by the Didact , which is to say that he was digitized at the expense of his biological form . Guilty Spark was fragmented into several independently operating fragments , one of which was uploaded in the familiar , floating , blue @-@ eyed , geometric orb , first encountered in Halo : Combat Evolved , and assigned to Installation 04 ( codenamed Alpha Halo ) under the title of Monitor . Although an identity module is required for an artificial intelligence to operate , it may occasionally lead to complications arising from free will – for example , the containment of a Flood outbreak should always assume the highest priority for a Monitor ; however , in a moment of weakness he disregarded his assigned prioritization , in favour of preserving the structural integrity of the replacement Installation . This is the first and only fragment to be encountered by the player , at the end of Halo 's sixth level , " 343 Guilty Spark , " after the Flood breach containment . He enlists the help of the Master Chief , whom he calls a " Reclaimer , " to activate Halo 's defenses , neglecting to tell the Master Chief that Halo 's " defenses " would cause the destruction of all sentient life in the galaxy . He attempts to stop the Master Chief and Cortana from destroying the Pillar of Autumn , and thereby destroying Halo , but is ultimately thwarted when the ship explodes and destabilizes his ring , causing it to break up . Discovered in the system by the Covenant , Spark , known as an " Oracle " to the Prophets , eventually informs the Covenant Hierarchs of how to activate Installation 05 in Halo 2 . In Halo 3 , Spark allies with the humans and Elites ; since his installation has been destroyed and he has no more orders , Spark decides to help the Master Chief . Leading the Chief across the Ark , Guilty Spark discovers a new , uncompleted Halo , which is being built to replace Installation 04 . Guilty Spark is ecstatic , but when Sergeant Johnson prepares to fire the new Halo to stop the Flood — a process that would destroy the incomplete ring and damage the Ark — Spark goes berserk , refusing to let the Reclaimers destroy " his " ring . He is subsequently destroyed by the Master Chief with a Spartan Laser , but Sergeant Johnson is fatally wounded in the fight . Bungie originally wanted Guilty Spark to sound similar to the robot C @-@ 3PO . Dadabo noted in an interview that reactions to his character have been hostile , finding Spark highly annoying . He described Spark 's character as a " bastard " who strings others along in order to accomplish his ends . An annual Halloween pumpkin carving contest named 343 Guilt O 'Lantern is organized by Halo.Bungie.Org ; both the contest 's title and logo use the character 's design and name as inspiration . Gaming site GameDaily listed Guilty Spark as one of the top " evil masterminds " of video games , stating " If HAL @-@ 9000 had any distant relatives , [ Guilty Spark would ] be closest of kin . " The Forerunner Saga reveals Guilty Spark to have barely survived the events of Halo 3 . = = = 05 @-@ 032 Mendicant Bias = = = 05 @-@ 032 Mendicant Bias ( " Beggar after Knowledge " as revealed in Halo : Cryptum ) was the Contender @-@ class Forerunner A.I. charged with organizing Forerunner defense against the Flood . It was later defected by Gravemind turning it rampant and against the Forerunners , but was eventually defeated after the firing of the Halo array and broken into sections , one of which was taken to the Ark , while another was left on the Forerunner ship that would eventually be incorporated into the Covenant city of High Charity . It is this section of Mendicant Bias that informs the Covenant Hierarchs of the human 's descendance from the Forerunners in Halo : Contact Harvest , prompting the Hierarchs to usurp the Covenant leadership and instigate the Human @-@ Covenant War . Mendicant Bias is first encountered in Halo 3 on the Ark , as it attempted to communicate with the Master Chief through Terminals , claiming it sought atonement for its defection to the Flood by helping the Spartan , and was presumably destroyed along with the Ark when the Chief activated the incomplete Halo that the Ark was constructing . = = = Didact = = = The Didact ( voiced by Keith Szarabajka ) is a Forerunner military leader who is married to the Librarian , and is Halo 4 's main antagonist . He develops a deep animosity towards humanity after fighting against them in the Human @-@ Forerunner War . The Didact disagrees with the plan to build the Halo array , and goes into exile in a Cryptum hidden on Earth for years . He is found and awakened by a young Forerunner named Bornstellar . The Didact imprints his consciousness on Bornstellar , who then becomes the IsoDidact ; when the Ur @-@ Didact is presumed dead after being captured by the Master Builder , Bornstellar assumes the Didact 's role . It was the IsoDidact who activated the Halo Array . Despite this , the Ur @-@ Didact preferred the Composer – a device capable of digitizing organic intelligences and disintegrating their bodies , thereby starving the Flood without killing billions . However , the Composer was still flawed , desperate to gain an army to fight the Flood , the Ur @-@ Didact used it on humans . Horrified , the Librarian incapacitated him and sealed him away on Requiem , hoping he would eventually come to his senses and help guide Humanity . During the events of Halo 4 , the Ur @-@ Didact tricks the Master Chief and Cortana into releasing him from his Cryptum . He immediately takes control of the Prometheans and is given control by the Storm Covenant , and attacks the UNSC Infinity . After being repelled , the Didact uses his ship to retrieve the Composer from the UNSC Station Ivanoff , followed by the Master Chief and Cortana . After capturing the Composer the Didact heads to Earth . Though he is able to fire the Composer at mid @-@ west North America , the Chief and Cortana destroy his ship with a Havok nuclear warhead . The Didact is incapacitated and falls through a slipspace portal , leaving his fate unknown . = = = Librarian = = = The Librarian is a highly ranked Forerunner who is married to the Didact . The Librarian spares humanity from extinction after their war with the Forerunners . She convinces the Forerunner council to use the Halos as preserves for fauna in addition to weapons . She ultimately incapacitates and imprisons the Ur @-@ Didact to stop his use of the Composer . She is presumed deceased when the Halo Array is fired , but in Primordium 343 Guilty Spark claims she is still alive during the events of the Halo series . During the events of Halo 4 , the Master Chief encounters an archived message from the Librarian , explaining the plans of her husband and his history with humanity . She also explains that she helped guide early humanity 's development so that it one day might attain the " Mantle " as the guardians of life in the galaxy . = = Flood = = = = = Gravemind = = = Gravemind ( voiced by Dee Bradley Baker ) is one of the primary antagonists in the Halo series . The Gravemind is a large , sentient creature of Flood origin , created by the parasite to serve as its central intelligence once a critical biomass has been achieved . It was introduced during the events of Halo 2 , where the creature saves both the Master Chief and Arbiter from their deaths , bringing the two face to face in the bowels of Delta Halo . Gravemind reveals to the Arbiter that the " sacred rings " are actually weapons of last resort ; a fact the Master Chief confirms . In order to stop Halo from being fired , Gravemind teleports the Master Chief and Arbiter to separate locations , but also uses them as a distraction ; Gravemind infects the human ship In Amber Clad , and uses it to invade the Covenant city of High Charity . Capturing Cortana , Gravemind brings High Charity to the Ark in an effort to stop the High Prophet of Truth from activating the Halo network . Although the Master Chief destroys High Charity , Gravemind attempts to rebuild itself on the incomplete Halo . When Halo is activated , Gravemind is resigned to his fate , determined that the activation of the ring will only slow , not stop , the progress of the Flood . Designed to be a massive , horrifying combination of tentacles and rotting matter , reception to the character was generally mixed . Mike Leonard of the AllXbox community said that the introduction of the " Little Shop of Horrors " reject " ruined the ' cool ' " of the Halo franchise . Jeremy Parish of 1UP.com complained that the link between Gravemind and the Flood was never explicitly stated in either Halo 2 or Halo 3 and was hardly seen in the last game . = = Merchandise = = The Halo franchise has produced numerous merchandising partnerships , and the characters of Halo have likewise been featured in a variety of products . The Master Chief , being the symbol of the franchise , has appeared on everything from soda to T @-@ shirts and mugs . At one point , marketers for Halo 3 were planning on producing Cortana @-@ themed lingerie . There have also been several series of licensed action figures produced , with the Halo : Combat Evolved and Halo 2 collectibles being produced by Joyride Studios in several series . For Halo 3 , the responsibility of designing the action figures was given to McFarlane Toys ; a total of eight series have been announced , with ninth series devoted to commemorate the tenth anniversary of the franchise by re @-@ issuing a few of the earlier figurines along with pieces to construct a buildable plaque of the Legendary icon used in the game for the hardest skill level . Kotobukiya produced high @-@ end figurines . Besides general figures like Covenant Elites and Spartans , figurines produced include the Master Chief , Cortana , Arbiter , Prophet of Regret , Tartarus , and Sergeant Johnson .
= Hurricane Ignacio ( 2003 ) = Hurricane Ignacio was the latest @-@ forming first hurricane of a Pacific hurricane season since reliable satellite observation began in 1966 . The ninth tropical storm of the 2003 Pacific hurricane season , Ignacio developed out of a tropical wave on August 22 a short distance off the coast of Mexico . It was initially predicted to track out to sea and remain a weak tropical storm , though it unexpectedly organized rapidly to attain peak winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) on August 24 while located a short distance southeast of southern Baja California . Land interaction weakened Ignacio to an 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) hurricane by the time it made landfall near La Paz , and it dissipated on August 27 in the central region of the Baja California peninsula . The hurricane produced heavy rainfall in southern Baja California , killing two rescue works from floodwaters . Resort areas near the coast experienced minor effects , though further inland the damage was more severe . The impact of Ignacio was compounded by flooding from Hurricane Marty a month later , with damage from the two hurricanes totaling about $ 1 billion ( 2003 USD , $ 1 @.@ 1 billion 2006 USD ) . = = Meteorological history = = A tropical wave exited the coast of Africa on August 6 . It moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean without development , and entered the eastern Pacific Ocean on August 16 after crossing Central America . Cloudiness and convection gradually increased along the wave axis and organized into a distinct area of disturbed weather on August 20 while located a short distance south of Manzanillo , Mexico . It slowly became better organized as it moved northwestward in an area favorable for continued development . With light vertical wind shear and warm water temperatures , the convection concentrated around a developing low @-@ level circulation , and on August 22 it organized enough for the National Hurricane Center to classify it as Tropical Depression Nine @-@ E while it was located about 115 miles ( 185 km ) west of the Mexico mainland or about 220 miles ( 345 km ) southeast of the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula . With an anticyclone located over the southwestern United States and a ridge extending southward into northwestern Mexico , the National Hurricane Center initially predicted the depression to track generally west @-@ northwestward out to sea and reach peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . The tropical depression moved slowly northwestward , with the slow motion persisting for its entire lifetime due to the storm being embedded within the weakness of a mid @-@ level ridge to its north . Shortly after forming , the storm was located in a marginally favorable environment , with westerly wind shear and dry air approaching the depression and leaving the center of circulation exposed from the convection . However , the wind shear subsequently decreased , and early on August 23 the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Ignacio . The storm quickly organized and developed well @-@ defined banding features and very well @-@ organized upper @-@ level outflow , and by late on August 23 a warm spot formed in the center of the convection . The warm spot organized into an intermittent eye feature . Early on August 24 , Ignacio attained hurricane status , the latest formation of the first hurricane of a season recorded in the East Pacific since reliable satellite observation began in 1966 . Hurricane Ignacio continued to quickly intensify after becoming a hurricane , and reached peak winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) later on August 24 while located within 30 miles ( 48 km / h ) off the coast of Baja California Sur . Upon reaching peak strength , the hurricane possessed a 12 mile ( 19 km ) wide eye surrounded by very deep convection . The National Hurricane Center predicted it to attain major hurricane status and potentially reach significantly higher winds if the center remained over open water . However , it turned to the northwest and paralleled the Baja California Peninsula a short distance offshore , resulting in a steady weakening trend due to its interaction with the high terrain . On August 25 Ignacio made landfall just east of La Paz with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . It rapidly weakened over land , first deteriorating to a tropical storm 12 hours after landfall and later to a tropical depression about a day after moving ashore . Ignacio continued northwestward across the peninsula , and dissipated on August 28 while located in northwestern Baja California Sur . = = Preparations = = Coinciding with the issuance of the first advisory on Ignacio , the government of Mexico issued a tropical storm watch from Santa Fe to La Paz , with the watch upgraded to a warning nine hours later . The warning was extended on both coasts from Bahia Magdalena to San Evaristo the next day . About 48 hours before Ignacio made landfall , a hurricane warning was issued from Santa Fe to La Paz , and 21 hours later extended to Bahia Magdalena and San Evaristo . The government of Mexico also issued a tropical storm warning for the mainland from Atlana to Topolobampo in the state of Sinaloa . The Civil Protection agency for the state of Baja California Sur ordered for the evacuation for 10 @,@ 000 residents in flood @-@ prone areas near La Paz . Officials also moved 700 people in areas near rivers to shelters in Los Cabos . 32 emergency shelters were set up in and around La Paz . Residents near the coast placed sandbags to protect their houses from potential flooding , and also stocked up on hurricane supplies . Police authorities were stationed in areas around Los Cabos to guard against price gouging . Officials closed many schools and businesses throughout the area , and also shut down the area 's primary airport in La Paz . About 500 people in Sinaloa were evacuated , as well . = = Impact = = Prior to developing , the precursor tropical disturbance dropped heavy rainfall and produced gusty winds , primarily from Zihuatanejo in the state of Guerrero to Manzanillo in the state of Colima . The slow motion of Ignacio produced heavy rainfall across the southern portion of the Baja California Peninsula , including a peak 24 ‑ hour total of 7 @.@ 25 inches ( 184 mm ) in Ciudad Constitución . The National Hurricane Center warned of rainfall totals of up to 20 inches ( 500 mm ) in some localized areas , which did verify in Los Cabos . Ignacio produced strong waves which hit the eastern Baja California coastline . Swells of 10 feet ( 3 m ) in height in La Paz closed the city 's small port . Hurricane @-@ force winds blew down trees , signs , and power lines in and around La Paz , while closer to the beach the hurricane destroyed multiple beach huts . Rough surf in the harbor of La Paz sunk one fishing vessel and grounded four others . Efforts by the Mexican Navy prevented an additional vessel and two cruise ships from being grounded . In Cabo San Lucas , effects were minimal , amounting to light winds and rain of less than 2 inches ( 50 mm ) . The passage of the hurricane left citizens in Todos Santos without power for around 24 hours . Heavy rainfall caused severe inland flooding , destroying bridges and multiple mudslides , some of which blocked roads . Flash flooding in desert inland areas washed out roads , causing the Mexican government to restrict traffic through much of the peninsula for up to a week after the storm . Many roads remained impassable for a month after the hurricane . The closed roads and the airport in La Paz and southern Baja California left some tourists stranded . The rainfall was welcome in some desert areas , where the moderate precipitation filled reservoirs . Two rescue workers died when they were swept away by the floodwaters . Six municipalities in Baja California were declared disaster areas , and by four days after landfall , the Mexican government prepared emergency funds to meet the immediate needs of the affected citizens . Heavy rainfall was also reported in Sinaloa on the Mexican mainland . The remnants of Ignacio produced thunderstorm activity in high terrain areas of central interior California . Over 300 lightning strikes from the remnant moisture was recorded in a one @-@ hour period . The lightning caused 14 forest fires in Merced County , resulting in a loss of power to over 3 @,@ 500 customers in and around the Atwater area . Just a month after Ignacio , Hurricane Marty passed through the area , causing additional damage to areas hit by Ignacio . The combined damage from the two hurricanes totaled about $ 1 billion ( 2003 USD , $ 1 @.@ 1 billion 2006 USD ) , and the effects from the two storms left at least 50 @,@ 000 homeless .
= SMS König Albert = SMS König Albert was the fourth vessel of the Kaiser class of battleships of the Imperial German Navy . König Albert 's keel was laid on 17 July 1910 at the Schichau @-@ Werke dockyard in Danzig . She was launched on 27 April 1912 and was commissioned into the fleet on 31 July 1913 . The ship was equipped with ten 30 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns in five twin turrets , and had a top speed of 22 @.@ 1 knots ( 40 @.@ 9 km / h ; 25 @.@ 4 mph ) . König Albert was assigned to the III Battle Squadron and later the IV Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet for the majority of her career , including World War I. Along with her four sister ships , Kaiser , Friedrich der Grosse , Kaiserin , and Prinzregent Luitpold , König Albert participated in most of the major fleet operations of World War I , though she was in drydock for maintenance during the Battle of Jutland between 31 May and 1 June 1916 . As a result , she was the only battleship actively serving with the fleet that missed the largest naval battle of the war . The ship was also involved in Operation Albion , an amphibious assault on the Russian @-@ held islands in the Gulf of Riga , in late 1917 . After Germany 's defeat in the war and the signing of the Armistice in November 1918 , König Albert and most of the capital ships of the High Seas Fleet were interned by the Royal Navy in Scapa Flow . The ships were disarmed and reduced to skeleton crews while the Allied powers negotiated the final version of the Treaty of Versailles . On 21 June 1919 , days before the treaty was signed , the commander of the interned fleet , Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , ordered the fleet to be scuttled to ensure that the British would not be able to seize the ships . König Albert was raised in July 1935 and subsequently broken up for scrap in 1936 . = = Construction = = Ordered under the contract name Ersatz Ägir as a replacement for the obsolete coastal defense ship SMS Ägir , König Albert was laid down at the Schichau @-@ Werke dockyard in Danzig on 17 July 1910 . She was launched on 27 April 1912 ; Princess Mathilde of Saxony christened the ship , and her brother , the last king of Saxony , Friedrich August III gave the speech . Following the completion of fitting @-@ out work , the ship was commissioned into the fleet on 31 July 1913 . The ship was 172 @.@ 40 m ( 565 ft 7 in ) long overall and displaced a maximum of 27 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 26 @,@ 570 long tons ) . She had a beam of 29 m ( 95 ft 2 in ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 10 m ( 29 ft 10 in ) forward and 8 @.@ 80 m ( 28 ft 10 in ) aft . König Albert was powered by three sets of Schichau turbines , supplied with steam by 16 coal @-@ fired boilers . The powerplant produced a top speed of 22 @.@ 1 knots ( 40 @.@ 9 km / h ; 25 @.@ 4 mph ) . She carried 3 @,@ 600 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 500 long tons ) of coal , which enabled a maximum range of 7 @,@ 900 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 600 km ; 9 @,@ 100 mi ) at a cruising speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . She had a crew of 41 officers and 1 @,@ 043 enlisted . König Albert was armed with a main battery of ten 30 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 50 guns in five twin turrets . The ship disposed of the inefficient hexagonal turret arrangement of previous German battleships ; instead , three of the five turrets were mounted on the centerline , with two of them arranged in a superfiring pair aft . The other two turrets were placed en echelon amidships , such that both could fire on the broadside . The ship was also armed with fourteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 45 guns in casemates amidships , eight 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 45 guns in casemates and four 8 @.@ 8 cm L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns . The ship 's armament was rounded out by five 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , all mounted in the hull . = = Service history = = Although König Albert was the last ship in her class to be launched , she was the third to be commissioned , owing to turbine damage on Kaiserin and delays on Prinzregent Luitpold 's diesel engine . The ship was selected to form part of the special Detached Division , alongside her sister Kaiser and the light cruiser Strassburg . The Division was placed under the command of Konteradmiral ( Rear Admiral ) von Rebeur Paschwitz and sent on a tour of South America , with the goals of testing the new turbine propulsion system and representing the growing power of the Imperial Navy . The three ships left Wilhelmshaven on 9 December 1913 and steamed for German West Africa , where they made several stops , including Lomé , Togo , and Victoria and Duala , Kamerun . The Division then proceeded to German South @-@ West Africa , making stops in Swakopmund and Lüderitzbucht , and South Africa , stopping in Saint Helena en route . On 15 February 1914 , the Division reached Rio de Janeiro , which ceremonially greeted the visiting German warships . From Rio de Janeiro , Strassburg went to Buenos Aires , Argentina , while König Albert and Kaiser steamed to Montevideo , Uruguay . Strassburg then rejoined the battleships in Montevideo , and all three then rounded Cape Horn and steamed to Valparaíso , Chile . Between 2 and 11 April they remained in Valparaiso , which marked the furthest point of their journey . On the return voyage , the three ships made additional stops , including in Bahía Blanca , Argentina , before returning to Rio de Janeiro . The Division then began the trip back to Germany , stopping in Cape Verde , Madeira , and Vigo . The ships reached Kiel on 17 June 1914 , after having traveled some 20 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 37 @,@ 000 km ; 23 @,@ 000 mi ) without incident . On 24 June , the Detached Division was dissolved , and König Albert and Kaiser joined their classmates in the III Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet . = = = World War I = = = Throughout the first two years of the war , the High Seas Fleet , including König Albert , conducted a number of sweeps and advances into the North Sea . The first occurred on 2 – 3 November 1914 , though no British forces were encountered . Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl , the commander of the High Seas Fleet , adopted a strategy in which the battlecruisers of Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's I Scouting Group raided British coastal towns to lure out portions of the Grand Fleet where they could be destroyed by the High Seas Fleet . The raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby on 15 – 16 December 1914 was the first such operation . On the evening of 15 December , the German battle fleet of some twelve dreadnoughts — including König Albert and her four sisters — and eight pre @-@ dreadnoughts came to within 10 nmi ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) of an isolated squadron of six British battleships . However , skirmishes between the rival destroyer screens in the darkness convinced von Ingenohl that he was faced with the entire British Grand Fleet . Under orders from Kaiser Wilhelm II to avoid risking the fleet unnecessarily , von Ingenohl broke off the engagement and turned back toward Germany . Following the loss of SMS Blücher at the Battle of Dogger Bank in January 1915 , the Kaiser removed Admiral von Ingenohl from his post on 2 February . Admiral Hugo von Pohl replaced him as commander of the fleet . Admiral von Pohl conducted a series of fleet advances in 1915 in which König Albert took part ; in the first one on 29 – 30 March , the fleet steamed out to the north of Terschelling and returned without incident . Another followed on 17 – 18 April , where König Albert and the rest of the fleet covered a mining operation by the II Scouting Group . Three days later , on 21 – 22 April , the High Seas Fleet advanced toward the Dogger Bank , though again failed to meet any British forces . On 15 May , a bushing came loose in the ship 's starboard turbine , which forced the crew to turn the engine off and decouple it . The center and port side shafts were still capable of propelling the ship at 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) , however . On 29 – 30 May , the fleet attempted to conduct a sweep in the North Sea , but inclement weather forced Pohl to cancel the operation some 50 nmi ( 93 km ; 58 mi ) off Schiermonnikoog . The fleet remained in port until 10 August , when it sortied to Helgoland to cover the return of the auxiliary cruiser Möwe . A month later , on 11 – 12 September , the fleet covered another mine @-@ laying operation off the Swarte Bank . The last operation of the year , conducted on 23 – 24 October , was an advance in the direction of Horns Reef which concluded without result . On 11 January 1916 , Admiral Reinhard Scheer replaced the ailing von Pohl , who was suffering from liver cancer . Scheer proposed a more aggressive policy designed to force a confrontation with the Grand Fleet ; he received approval from the Kaiser in February . The first of Scheer 's operations was conducted the following month , on 5 – 7 March , with an uneventful sweep of the Hoofden . On 25 – 26 March , Scheer attempted to attack British forces that had raided Tondern , but failed to locate them . Another advance to Horns Reef followed on 21 – 22 April . On 24 April , the battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group conducted a raid on the English coast . König Albert and the rest of the fleet sailed in distant support . The battlecruiser Seydlitz struck a mine while en route to the target , and had to withdraw . The other battlecruisers bombarded the town of Lowestoft unopposed , but during the approach to Yarmouth , they encountered the British cruisers of the Harwich Force . A short artillery duel ensued before the Harwich Force withdrew . Reports of British submarines in the area prompted the retreat of the I Scouting Group . At this point , Scheer , who had been warned of the sortie of the Grand Fleet from its base in Scapa Flow , also withdrew to safer German waters . After the raid on Yarmouth , several of the III Squadron battleships developed problems with their condensers . This included König Albert ; tubing needed to be replaced in all three main condensers , which necessitated extensive dockyard work . The ship went into drydock in the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven on 29 May , two days before the rest of the fleet departed for the Battle of Jutland . Work on the ship was not completed until 15 June , and as a result , König Albert was the only German dreadnought in active service to miss the battle . On 18 August 1916 , König Albert took part in an operation to bombard Sunderland . Admiral Scheer attempted a repeat of the original 31 May plan : the two serviceable German battlecruisers — Moltke and Von der Tann — augmented by three faster dreadnoughts , were to bombard the coastal town of Sunderland in an attempt to draw out and destroy Vice Admiral David Beatty 's battlecruisers . Scheer would trail behind with the rest of the fleet and provide support . Scheer turned north after receiving a false report from a zeppelin about a British unit in the area . As a result , the bombardment was not carried out , and by 14 : 35 , Scheer had been warned of the Grand Fleet 's approach and so turned his forces around and retreated to German ports . Another fleet operation took place on 18 – 19 October , though it ended without encountering any British units . Unit training in the Baltic was then conducted , and on the return voyage the III Squadron was diverted to assist in the recovery of a pair of U @-@ boats stranded on the Danish coast . The fleet was reorganized on 1 December ; the four König @-@ class battleships remained in the III Squadron , along with the newly commissioned Bayern , while the five Kaiser @-@ class ships , including König Albert , were transferred to IV Squadron . König Albert saw no major operations in the first half of 1917 , and on 18 August she went into drydock at the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel for periodic maintenance , which lasted until 23 September . = = = = Operation Albion = = = = In early September 1917 , following the German conquest of the Russian port of Riga , the German naval command decided to eliminate the Russian naval forces that still held the Gulf of Riga . On 18 September , the Admiralstab ( the Navy High Command ) issued the order for a joint operation with the army to capture Ösel and Moon Islands . The naval component , organized as a Special Unit ( Sonderverband ) , was to comprise the flagship , Moltke , along with the III and IV Battle Squadrons of the High Seas Fleet . Along with nine light cruisers , three torpedo boat flotillas , and dozens of mine warfare ships , the entire force numbered some 300 ships , supported by over 100 aircraft and six zeppelins . Opposing the Germans were the old Russian pre @-@ dreadnoughts Slava and Tsesarevich , the armored cruisers Bayan , Admiral Makarov , and Diana , 26 destroyers , and several torpedo boats and gunboats . The garrison on Ösel numbered some 14 @,@ 000 men . The operation began on the morning of 12 October , when Moltke and the III Squadron ships engaged Russian positions in Tagga Bay while König Albert and the rest of IV Squadron shelled Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe Peninsula on Ösel . The coastal artillery in both locations were quickly silenced by the battleships ' heavy guns . On the morning of the 14th , König Albert , Friedrich der Grosse , and Kaiserin were detached to support German troops advancing toward Anseküll . König Albert and Kaiserin were assigned to suppress a Russian battery at Zerel , though heavy fog delayed them from engaging the target . The Russians opened fire first , which was quickly returned by the two ships . Friedrich der Grosse came to the two ships ' assistance and the three battleships fired a total of 120 large @-@ caliber shells at the battery at Zerel over the span of an hour . The battleships ' gunfire prompted most of the Russian gun crews to flee their posts . On the night of 15 October , König Albert and Kaiserin were sent to replenish their coal stocks in Putzig . On the 19th , they were briefly joined in Putzig by Friedrich der Grosse , which continued on to Arensburg with Moltke . The next morning , Vice Admiral Schmidt ordered the special naval unit to be dissolved ; in a communique to the naval headquarters , Schmidt noted that " Kaiserin and König Albert can immediately be detached from Putzig to the North Sea . " The two ships then proceeded to Kiel via Danzig , where they transited the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal back to the North Sea . After returning to the North Sea on 23 October , König Albert served as the flagship for a force of heavy ships , including Kaiserin , Nassau , Rheinland , and the battlecruiser Derfflinger , supporting a mine @-@ sweeping operation in the German Bight . Afterward she resumed guard duty in the Bight . = = = Fate = = = König Albert and her four sisters were to have taken part in a final fleet action at the end of October 1918 , days before the Armistice was to take effect . The bulk of the High Seas Fleet was to have sortied from their base in Wilhelmshaven to engage the British Grand Fleet ; Scheer — by now the Grand Admiral ( Großadmiral ) of the fleet — intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy , in order to retain a better bargaining position for Germany , despite the expected casualties . However , many of the war @-@ weary sailors felt the operation would disrupt the peace process and prolong the war . On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships mutinied . The ship remained on picket duty in the Bight until 10 November . This kept her away from the mutinous vessels , until she returned to port and her crew joined the mutiny . The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation . Informed of the situation , the Kaiser stated " I no longer have a navy . " Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918 , most of the High Seas Fleet , under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , were interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow . Prior to the departure of the German fleet , Admiral Adolf von Trotha made it clear to von Reuter that he could not allow the Allies to seize the ships , under any conditions . The fleet rendezvoused with the British light cruiser Cardiff , which led the ships to the Allied fleet that was to escort the Germans to Scapa Flow . This consisted of some 370 British , American , and French warships . Once the ships were interned , their guns were disabled through the removal of their breech blocks , and their crews were reduced to 200 officers and enlisted men . The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Treaty of Versailles . Von Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd , Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk at the next opportunity . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships . König Albert capsized and sank at 12 : 54 . On 31 July 1935 , the ship was raised and broken up for scrap over the following year in Rosyth .
= Anticipating = " Anticipating " is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her self @-@ titled third studio album , Britney ( 2001 ) . It was written by Spears alongside the song 's producers Brian Kierulf and Josh Schwartz . The song was released on June 24 , 2002 , by Jive Records , as the fourth single from the album in France . Lyrically , the disco song is about friendship and camaradie between women . It was met with critical praise , with reviewers complimenting its empowering lyrics and comparing it to 1980s compositions of Madonna , Rick Astley and Janet Jackson 's " All for You " . " Anticipating " achieved minor commercial success , peaking at number 38 on the French Singles Chart . The song was promoted with a performance in the Dream Within a Dream Tour ( 2001 – 2002 ) , where Spears wore a patched denim skirt and danced in front of giant crayon drawings . An accompanying music video , directed by Marty Callner , consisted of the performance from Live from Las Vegas . " Anticipating " was also promoted in a commercial Spears filmed for Toyota Vios . = = Background = = During the Oops ! ... I Did It Again Tour ( 2000 ) , Spears revealed she felt inspired by hip hop artists such as Jay @-@ Z and The Neptunes and wanted to create a record with a funkier sound . In February 2001 , Spears signed a $ 7 – 8 million promotional deal with Pepsi , and released another book co @-@ written with her mother , entitled A Mother 's Gift . On the same month , Spears started to record material for her third studio album , with " Anticipating " being recorded at Rusk Sound Studios in Los Angeles , California , the DOJO in Jackson , New Jersey , Sound on Sound Studios and Battery Studios in New York City . The song was written by Spears , Brian Kierulf and Josh Schwartz while produced by Kierulf and Schwartz . It was also mixed at Battery Studios by Stephen George . Audio engineering was done by Aaron Kaplan , Rich Tapper , Jill Tengan and Charles McCrorey . Nile Rodgers played the guitar . Bass guitar and programming was done by Kierulf . Background vocals were provided by Spears and Jennifer Karr . Her third studio album , Britney , was released in November 2001 . In an interview with the Daily Record , Spears commented on the track , saying , " It 's just a fun song that I wrote . It 's just like being with your girlfriends and just dancing . I think this track also has a very Seventies ' feel to it . " It was released as the fourth single from the album on June 24 , 2002 in France . = = Composition = = " Anticipating " is a teen pop and dance @-@ pop that lasts for three minutes and 16 seconds . Corey Moss of MTV noted the song also has a 1970s disco sound , while Joan Anderman of The Boston Globe compared it to early Madonna tracks such as " Holiday " ( 1983 ) . Glenn Gamboa of Newsday compared the song to Janet Jackson 's " All for You " , calling it " pleasant , shimmering R & B @-@ styled pop " . According to the sheetmusic published at musicnotes.com by Universal Music Publishing Group , the song is composed in the key of F major and is set in time signature of common time with a tempo of 112 beats per minute . Spears vocal range spans from the low @-@ key of F3 to the high @-@ note of A4 . The song has a basic sequence of B ♯ ( 9 ) – C – Dm7 – B ♯ ( 9 ) as its chord progression . Lyrically , it talks about friendship and camaradie between women . During the bridge , Spears sings , " Gotta really let me know if you want me / You gotta turn me on and make me feel sexy " . During the time of the album 's release , her official site stated that " the girl @-@ power anthem ' Anticipating ' proves that Britney is , now more than ever , a force to be reckoned with . " = = Reception = = " Anticipating " received critical acclaim from music critics . Jane Stevenson of Jam ! called " Anticipating " the strongest track in the album . Yale Daily News writer Catherine Halaby called it a " fun , cutesy disco ballad " . Nikki Tranker of PopMatters said it " offers Britney ’ s fans something a little different with a simple tune beautifully underlined by a well @-@ executed ‘ 70s disco sound " . Jim Farber of the Daily News while reviewing the Dream Within a Dream Tour named it along with " Stronger " , " [ two ] girl @-@ power anthems " . Katie Perone of the Loyola Greyhound said " [ it ] is a fun , bubbly song that probably would have had great success on Oops ! " . Barry Walters of Rolling Stone stated the song is " a euphoric Rick Astley flashback , [ where ] she emotes without framing her vocals in Nickelodeon @-@ schooled theatricality " . In a list compiled by Sam Lanksy of Pop Crush , " Anticipating " was ranked eight in a list of Spears ' best songs . In the album review , David Browne of Entertainment Weekly criticized " Anticipating " along with " Bombastic Love " for " [ relying ] on enervated formulas " . On July 26 , 2002 , the song entered at number 46 in the French Singles Chart . The following week , it peaked at number 38 . " Anticipating " spent a total of 13 weeks on the chart . = = Promotion = = The song was performed at the Dream Within a Dream Tour . The performance began with a video interlude of Spears talking to her dancers . She then appeared onstage , wearing a patched denim skirt . The set was made of giant coloring book drawings of houses and cars . After the second chorus , she invited the audience to sing along with her . At the end of the song , she briefly talked to the audience before taking off the skirt and top to perform " I 'm a Slave 4 U " . Shaheem Reid of MTV noted that during the opening night of the tour in Columbus , Ohio , " Britney must 've forgotten that the disco @-@ era throwback cut was brand spanking new , because she kept encouraging everyone to sing along to the chorus [ ... ] Although the crowd clapped and bobbed to the beat , Britney had to go this one alone vocally " . The music video , directed by Marty Callner , consisted of footage of the tour performance from Live from Las Vegas . Several effects were added , including a glittering ball and the name of the song appearing on the screen . The song was also promoted in a commercial Spears filmed for Toyota Vios . = = Track listings = = = = Credits and personnel = = Credits adapted from Britney 's liner notes . Technical Recorded at Rusk Sound Studios in Los Angeles , California , the DOJO in Jackson , New Jersey , Sound on Sound Studios and Battery Studios in New York City , New York . Mixed at Battery Studios in New York City , New York . Personnel = = Charts = = = = Release history = =
= Royce White = Royce Alexander White ( born April 10 , 1991 ) is an American professional basketball player who has played for the Sacramento Kings of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . He was the 16th selection of the 2012 NBA Draft by the Houston Rockets and has played in the NBA Development League for the Rio Grande Valley Vipers and Reno Bighorns on assignment from the Rockets and Kings , respectively . White previously played college basketball with the Iowa State Cyclones basketball team starring for the 2011 – 12 Cyclones . Before that he was a high school basketball star in the state of Minnesota and had committed to play for the Minnesota Golden Gophers men 's basketball team . He is afflicted with anxiety disorder and has caused disciplinary problems that have necessitated transfers in both high school and college . Concerns about the Rockets ' plan for dealing with his mental health led to White missing all of the 2012 – 13 NBA season for the Rockets despite being under contract . He debuted for the Vipers on February 12 . White was the 2009 Minnesota Mr. Basketball and a two @-@ time Minnesota State High School League ( MSHSL ) championship team member . He was a Class 3A MSHSL champion in 2006 with DeLaSalle High School as a freshman and a Class 4A MSHSL champion in 2009 with Hopkins High School as a senior , leading his school to a perfect ( 31 @-@ 0 ) record . A pair of 2009 incidents led to his suspension from the 2009 – 10 Minnesota Golden Gophers men 's basketball team and withdrawal from the University of Minnesota . White eventually transferred to Iowa State University . He led the 2011 – 12 Cyclones in points , rebounds , assists , steals and blocked shots and was the only Division I basketball player to lead his team in all five statistics . Following the 2011 – 12 Big 12 Conference men 's basketball season , he was named the unanimous Big 12 Newcomer of the Year and was recognized as a first team All @-@ Big 12 and a unanimous Big 12 All @-@ Rookie Team selection . He was selected as an honorable mention Associated Press 2012 NCAA Men 's Basketball All @-@ American . = = Early life and education = = Born in Minneapolis , White traces personal battles with anxiety to a basketball practice when he was 10 years old . He was diagnosed with general anxiety disorder in 2008 . White went to DeLaSalle High School for his freshman to junior years . For his senior year , White went to Hopkins High School . He was rated as the 2nd , 8th and 10th best high school power forward in the national class of 2009 by Rivals.com , ESPN.com and Scout.com , respectively . Rivals ranked him 19th overall , while ESPN ranked him 35th . He had dozens of collegiate scholarship offers , including Minnesota , Creighton , Illinois , Iowa , Iowa State , Michigan State , Purdue , Texas , USC , and Wisconsin . White was one of 20 2009 Jordan Brand Classic All @-@ Americans , and he was recognized by the St. Paul Pioneer Press as a First @-@ Team All @-@ State honoree . As a freshman , White made a jump shot that gave his team the lead for good in the middle of the second half to put his team in the 2006 Minnesota State High School League ( MSHSL ) 3A championship game . The team went on to win the championship . Following his sophomore season where he led DeLaSalle to a 19 – 8 record , White participated in the 2007 LeBron James US Skills Academy in Akron , Ohio and The Nike Global Challenge at the University of Portland . As a high school junior , he was suspended for the first two games of the 2007 – 08 season at DeLaSalle and later dismissed from school after the team struggled to an 11 – 10 start . After transferring to Hopkins , he won the Class 4A MSHSL Championship in 2009 , giving him his second state championship . Hopkins finished 10th in the final USA Today national poll , with a 31 – 0 record . = = College = = = = = Minnesota = = = White pleaded guilty to disorderly conduct after being suspended for the 2009 – 10 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season in October 2009 for an incident at the Mall of America . In the October 13 incident , he was initially accused of taking $ 100 worth of clothes and of fifth @-@ degree assault when he allegedly pushed a mall security officer to the ground twice , but he claimed the security officer was charging at him and he was defending himself . The suspension was for competition and travel , but at the discretion of head coach Tubby Smith , White could attend practices . According to his grandfather , he attended some Gopher practices in December . White was initially a suspect in a November laptop computer theft incident , but he was not formally charged with trespassing until January . When he was charged in the incident involving allegations of laptop theft from a university dorm , he left the University of Minnesota in February 2010 . He had unofficially announced his departure from Minnesota via YouTube in November , but had not formally notified the athletic department . Despite his legal difficulties , White achieved better than a 3 @.@ 0 grade point average in his first semester at Minnesota . While suspended from the team , he spent some of his extracurricular time on his music career . Following his departure from Minnesota , White initially gave up on transferring to continue playing college basketball . He was considered to be an National Basketball Association Draft first round talent at the time . Iowa State head coach Fred Hoiberg became acquainted with White during his tenure on the staff of the Minnesota Timberwolves . By the summer of 2010 , he weighed 250 pounds ( 113 @.@ 4 kg ) . At one point , White was expected to transfer to Kentucky . White explained that John Calipari had called him to transfer to Kentucky the next day , but White 's fear of flying and an anxiety disorder triggered a panic attack , which caused him to cancel his trip to sign with the team . = = = Iowa State = = = Because White did not officially depart Minnesota until the middle of his second semester , he was academically ineligible to receive a scholarship from any Division I school in 2010 . The National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) usually requires a two semester residency for transfers . He transferred to Iowa State prior to using any of his athletic eligibility at Minnesota and applied to the NCAA for a waiver to be eligible to play during the 2010 – 11 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season , but the NCAA denied his waiver . Iowa State appealed the decision , but their appeal was denied . At Iowa State , White joined a team that included several transfer students . He was voted as the 2011 – 12 Big 12 Preseason Newcomer of the Year and then won the first Phillips 66 Big 12 Rookie of the Week award of the season following his November 12 double @-@ double debut performance against Lehigh with 25 points and 11 rebounds . White had a double @-@ double in his second career game as well three nights later against Drake with 21 points and 14 rebounds . Then on November 25 against Providence , he recorded 16 rebounds . On December 3 , against 15th @-@ ranked Michigan he recorded a double @-@ double with 22 points and 13 rebounds as well as 4 steals . In conference play , White posted his first triple @-@ double on January 7 against Texas A & M with 10 points , 18 rebounds and 10 assists plus a block and two steals . His triple @-@ double was one of thirteen NCAA DI triple doubles during the season . It was the fourth in Cyclones history and the first in a road game . It was the twelfth in Big 12 conference history and the sixth in intraconference play . On January 9 , White was recognized for a second time as Phillips 66 Big 12 Rookie of the Week for leading Iowa State to its fifth 2 – 0 Big 12 start ever . On January 14 , White posted a double @-@ double against tenth @-@ ranked Kansas with 18 points and 17 rebounds . On January 24 , White posted 15 points and 15 rebounds against Texas for his sixth double @-@ double . On January 31 , White scored 22 points , including the winning shot with 1 @.@ 8 seconds left in a 72 – 70 victory over Kansas State . White 's seventh double @-@ double came on February 7 against Oklahoma State when he scored 15 points and added 12 rebounds . On February 22 , White posted 13 points and 10 rebounds to go along with 8 assists against Texas Tech for his eighth double @-@ double of the season . For the week of February 20 – 26 White averaged 11 points , 11 rebounds and 7 @.@ 5 assists while shooting 57 @.@ 1 % from the field to earn his third Big 12 Rookie of the Week award . At the time of his third rookie of the week recognition , he was the only Big 12 player in the conference 's top 5 in terms of rebounds and assists . White concluded the regular season with a double double against Baylor on March 3 when he totaled 11 points , 11 rebounds and 4 assists . He added a 17 @-@ point , 10 @-@ rebound double double in the 2012 Big 12 Men 's Basketball Tournament in a loss to Texas . In Iowa State 's opening game of the 2012 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , White posted 15 points and 11 rebounds in a victory over Connecticut . His season concluded with a 23 @-@ point , 9 @-@ rebound , 4 @-@ assist and 3 @-@ steal performance in a loss to Kentucky . White fouled out for the first time in his career in the game and ended the season with 11 double @-@ doubles . White finished the season as the team leader in points , rebounds , assists , steals and blocks , making him the only player in Division I basketball to do so . On March 4 , following the 2011 – 12 Big 12 Conference men 's basketball season , he was named the unanimous Big 12 Newcomer of the Year and was recognized as a First team All @-@ Big 12 and a unanimous Big 12 All @-@ Rookie Team selection by the Big 12 coaches . In addition , he was selected as Big 12 Newcomer of the Year and was recognized as a First team All @-@ Big 12 selection by both the Associated Press and the Kansas City Star . He concluded the regular season 2nd in the Big 12 in rebounding and 5th in assists with averages of 9 @.@ 2 and 5 @.@ 2 , respectively . On March 1 , he was named to the 30 @-@ player midseason Naismith College Player of the Year Award watchlist . He was selected by the U.S. Basketball Writers Association to its 10 @-@ man 2011 – 12 Men 's All @-@ District VI ( IA , MO , KS , OK , NE , ND , SD ) Team . White was a first team selection to the National Association of Basketball Coaches Division I All ‐ District 8 team on March 14 . White was named an honorable mention Associated Press All @-@ American . White was the only player in the nation to lead his team in the five major statistical categories : points ( 13 @.@ 4 ) , rebounding ( 9 @.@ 3 ) , assists ( 5 @.@ 0 ) , steals ( 1 @.@ 1 ) and blocks ( 0 @.@ 9 ) . He was the first cyclone since Fred Hoiberg ( 1993 – 94 ) and second ever to lead the team in points , rebounds and assists . His final Big 12 rankings were 2nd in both rebounding and field goal percentage ( 53 @.@ 4 % ) as well as 5th in assists . He ranked 34th , 36th and 57th nationally in those same statistics . His 316 rebounds and 170 assists ranked 7th and 10th all @-@ time in school history for single @-@ season totals . His single @-@ season rebound total was the most by a Cyclone since 1978 ( Dean Uthoff , 378 ) . On March 21 , 2012 , White chose to forgo his Junior and Senior years at ISU to enter the 2012 NBA Draft . On that date he stated his intent to hire an agent . = = = College statistics = = = = = Professional career = = = = = 2012 – 13 = = = At the 2012 NBA Draft Combine , White measured at 6 ' 8 " and had the widest hands — 11 @.@ 5 inches ( 29 @.@ 2 cm ) — of any player participating . According to Iowa State head coach Fred Hoiberg , White was able to bench @-@ press 185 pounds 30 times in pre @-@ combine workouts . White was drafted by the Houston Rockets on June 28 , 2012 with the 16th selection . He was represented by Andrew Vye and Andy Miller of the ASM Sports as his agents . White missed the opening of NBA camp on Monday October 1 , due to a desire to have a contractual plan with the Rockets for addressing his obsessive compulsive disorder and anxiety disorder . After sessions with his own long @-@ time doctor , White requested permission to purchase a bus in order to diminish his flight schedule and the impact his fear of flying has on his own mental health . The Rockets and White came to an agreement regarding eliminating as many triggers as possible for his anxiety disorder , including allowing White extensive travel by personal bus rather than flying ( which is a trigger ) . White missed the first week of training camp before this agreement was put in place . A few games into the season , White had a dispute with the team regarding the handling of his anxiety disorder , leading to his absence from the team . These events coincided with the Rockets ' plan to assign White to their Rio Grande Valley Vipers NBA Development League affiliate along with two other young players . The team agreed to meet with White on Monday November 19 to resolve his issues . By the end of the week , the situation remained unresolved . Two weeks after the situation began , the Rockets were optimistic . On December 20 , White was confirmed to begin practice sessions with a member of the Houston Rockets ' staff within a week . As of December 26 , he had not shown up to work with the Rockets according to Rockets head coach Kevin McHale . On December 29 , Houston assigned White to its D @-@ League affiliate Rio Grande Valley Vipers . On December 29 , David Aldridge of TNT reported via Twitter White had practiced with the team and that the assignment was part of a multi @-@ week plan to reintegrate White into the organization . On December 30 , White again refused assignment to the Vipers . As explanation , White issued a statement . Aldridge summarized White 's objections : the playing environment is unsafe ; White requested involvement of mental health professionals ; and White claimed that the Rockets ' efforts are misleading . In a January 2013 interview , White stated " chances are very high " he would never play an NBA game , blaming what he believed to be a league @-@ wide " lack of protocol " on mental health issues . He further stated he did not hold blame against the Rockets ' organization and that he still wanted to play for Houston . On January 6 , 2013 , the Rockets suspended White without pay for failing to perform his contract . On January 26 , 2013 , the Rockets and White mutually agreed that he would report to the Rio Grande Valley Vipers on February 11 , 2013 . On February 8 , White passed his physical . On February 12 , White made his professional debut with the Vipers in a 139 @-@ 122 win against the Maine Red Claws , playing 18 minutes and leading the team with 8 rebounds from off the bench . White also scored 7 points and totaled 4 assists . Following the reconciliation , a USA Today story detailed White 's situation , clarifying his specific mental illness as Generalized anxiety disorder , with ailments that include " panic attacks , a fear of heights and traveling — especially by plane — and obsessive @-@ compulsive disorder " . Although White endured 20 flights for travel during his season at Iowa State , the Rockets ' NBA schedule called for 98 flights . White had attempted to cope with travel through use of Benadryl and Xanax , but found both reduced his energy level . White likened his disorder to a day @-@ to @-@ day physical injury in which expectations can be unclear . On March 21 , White announced via Twitter that following professional medical advice he would no longer be playing for the Vipers . After missing three road games to Indiana and Pennsylvania , White returned to the Vipers for their final six games , which were all home games , but he did not anticipate participating in the " hectic " playoff schedule . When the Vipers began the playoffs on the road against the Maine Red Claws on April 11 , White did not travel with the team . The Vipers went on to sweep all three playoff series , but White did not play with the team . Over the course of the season , White traveled using a bus provided by the Rockets for 15 road games . = = = 2013 – 14 = = = On July 3 , 2013 , the Rockets omitted White 's name from its Orlando Summer League roster , which was conspicuous according to Houston Chronicle writer Jonathan Feigen . Two days later , several news outlets confirmed that White and the rights to Furkan Aldemir had been traded to the Philadelphia 76ers for future considerations , which helped Houston clear $ 1 @.@ 7 million of salary cap space to help sign Dwight Howard . As White waited for the trade to be approved , he played in a YMCA league . On July 13 , the 76ers announced the deal officially . White participated in voluntary offseason workouts with the team and was expected to participate in training camp when it began on September 28 . On September 27 , at media day , White stated that he planned to travel with the team when necessary ( even on its pre @-@ season trip to Spain ) . However , White did not make the October 4 trip with the team to Spain . The press reported that 14 players traveled with the team and 5 did not . CBS Sports journalist Matt Moore gave three possible reasons for White 's absence : 1 . ) goodwill effort by the team , 2 . ) a sign the team plans to waive him , 3 . ) a conditioning issue . Philadelphia Daily News reporter Bob Cooney tweeted , " White , who suffers from anxiety disorder , planned to make the flight but team ' gave him a pass , ' source told me . " According to 76ers coach Brett Brown , " It really was just based on our team doctor giving me and [ general manager ] Sam [ Hinkie ] and the club advice that it may be best for him to remain at home . " The box score from the first game of the road trip indicates that 15 players traveled with the team and 5 did not . On October 25 , 2013 , White was waived by the 76ers as they cut their roster from 20 to 16 before the October 28 deadline to reach a 15 @-@ man roster . The move was described as surprising to various NBA analysts such as NJ.com 's Eliot Shorr @-@ Parks and Bleacher Report 's Joe Flynn . On October 24 , USA Today had run an article suggesting that White was fairly certain to make the team . By mid @-@ December , White was living in Chadds Ford Township , Pennsylvania with his wife and children aged 2 @.@ 5 years and 6 months and had switched agents from Andrew Vye of ASM Sports to George Bass of AAI Sports . On March 6 , 2014 , White signed a 10 @-@ day contract with the Sacramento Kings , but was immediately assigned to the Reno Bighorns of the NBA D @-@ League . He made his debut for the Bighorns the next day in a 112 @-@ 86 win over the Idaho Stampede . In 26 minutes of playing time , he recorded 5 points , 4 rebounds , 2 assists and 2 steals . On March 14 , 2014 , he was recalled by the Kings . On March 18 , he signed a second 10 @-@ day contract with the Kings . On March 21 , White made his NBA debut by playing 56 seconds for the Sacramento Kings . He accumulated no statistics in the Kings ' 99 @-@ 79 loss to the San Antonio Spurs . After White 's second 10 @-@ day contract expired , the Kings decided to part ways with him . = = = 2015 = = = In March 2015 , White said he continued to aspire to play professional basketball . He became a 2015 NBA Summer League target for several teams , and later joined the Los Angeles Clippers to play in the Orlando Summer League . = = Personal = = White 's parents are Rebecca White and Kevin Tucker . He has two younger siblings and is a distant relative of Hall of Fame baseball player Dave Winfield . His grandfather , Frank , who won a national intramural basketball championship , attended University of Minnesota with Winfield . He has a son , born February 2011 , with Angelic Aguilar . Some of the music career related activities while away from basketball included YouTube videos under the name " whiteandbrownrecords " . During his two and a half years away from competitive basketball , he also learned to play the piano . = = Career statistics = = = = = NBA = = = = = = = Regular season = = = = = = = NBA D @-@ League = = = = = = = Regular Season = = = =
= 65th Infantry Regiment ( United States ) = ) The 65th Infantry Regiment , nicknamed " The Borinqueneers " from the original Taíno name of the island ( Borinquen ) , is a Puerto Rican regiment of the United States Army . The regiment 's motto is Honor et Fidelitas , Latin for Honor and Fidelity . The Army Appropriation Bill created by an act of Congress on 2 March 1898 , authorized the creation of the first body of native troops in Puerto Rico . On 30 June 1901 , the " Porto Rico Provisional Regiment of Infantry " was organized . On July 1 , 1908 , Congress incorporated the regiment into the Regular Army as the Puerto Rico Regiment of Infantry , United States Army . On May 14 , 1917 , the Regiment was activated and additional men were assigned , with the unit being sent to serve at Panama . On June 4 , 1920 , the Regiment was renamed 65th Infantry . During World War II , the Regiment saw action throughout Europe , especially France and Germany , participating in Naples @-@ Foggia , Rome @-@ Arno and Rhin . Several Purple Hearts were handed posthumously to members of the 65th Regiment , and the Medal of Honor was granted to Capt. Eurípides Rubio , Héctor Santiago , Carlos Lozada and Fernando García . The 65th Infantry Regiment participated in World War I , World War II , the Korean War , and in what is known in the United States as the War on Terror . On April 13 , 2016 , the 65th Infantry was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal . = = Early history = = Puerto Ricans have participated in many of the military conflicts in which the United States has been involved . For example , they participated in the American Revolution , when volunteers from Puerto Rico , Cuba , and Mexico fought the British in 1779 under the command of General Bernardo de Gálvez ( 1746 – 1786 ) , and have continued to participate up to the present @-@ day conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan . Puerto Rico became a U.S. Territory after the 1898 Treaty of Paris which ended the Spanish – American War . The United States appointed a military governor and soon the United States Army established itself in San Juan . On March 2 , 1899 , the Army received an assignation of funds and authorization meant to formally organize troops in Puerto Rico . On March 24 , 1899 , the General Commander of the Puerto Rico Department , Mayor General Guy V. Henry ordered the creation of the Porto Rico Battalion of Volunteer Infantry . Formed by four companies named A trough D and assigned to San Juan , Mayagüez and Ponce , the unit was activated on May 20 , 1899 , lead by Major Lorenzo Davinson . Shortly afterwards , each company received additional men for a total of 112 . Major Ebon Swift replaced Davison as commander . The formalization of this move was notified in General Order 65 , issued by the new General Commander Gen. George Davis . On February 12 , 1900 , the Mounted Battalion was organized and both were later designated Porto Rico Regiment , U.S. Volunteers . The following year , the units were renamed Porto Rico Provisional Regiment of Infantry . The Band and First Battalion were sent to Washington on March 4 , 1901 , to participate in the inauguration of McKinley . On 1 July 1901 , the United States Senate passed a bill which would require a strict mental and physical examination for those who wanted to join the regiment . It also approved the recruitment of native Puerto Rican civilians to be appointed the grade of second lieutenants for a term of four years if they passed the required tests . On April 23 , 1904 , Congress authorized the recruitment of the local population as Second Lieutenants , leading to the recognition of Jaime Nadal , Henry Rexach , Pedro Parra , Eduardo Iriarte , Teofilo Marxuach , Eugenio de Hostos , Luis Emmanuelli and Pascual López . On 1905 , one of its battalions was sent to March along the First a Brigade of the First Division of the Regular Army during Roosevelt 's inauguration . An act of Congress , approved on 27 May 1908 , reorganized the regiment as part of the " regular " Army and the " Porto Rico Provisional Regiment of Infantry " was renamed " Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry " . Since the native Puerto Rican officers were Puerto Rican citizens and not citizens of the United States , they were required to undergo a new physical examination to determine their fitness for commissions in the Regular Army and to take an oath of U.S. citizenship with their new officers oath . By 30 January 1917 , the Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry was training in Camp Las Casas which was located in Santurce , a section of San Juan in what is now Residencial Las Casas . = = World War I = = Different units of the regiment were stationed at other forts throughout the island under the command of William P. Burnham . Lieutenant Teófilo Marxuach , the officer of the day , was stationed at El Morro Castle at San Juan Bay on 21 March 1915 . The Odenwald , built in 1903 ( not to be confused with the German World War II war ship which carried the same name ) , was an armed German supply ship which tried to force its way out of the San Juan Bay and deliver supplies to the German submarines waiting in the Atlantic Ocean . Marxuach gave the order to open fire on the ship from the walls of the fort . Sergeant Encarnación Correa then manned a machine gun and fired warning shots with little effect . Marxuach fired a warning shot from a cannon located at the Santa Rosa battery of El Morro fort , in what is considered to be the first shot of World War I fired by the regular armed forces of the United States against a ship flying the colors of the Central Powers , forcing the Odenwald to stop and to return to port where its supplies were confiscated . The Odenwald was confiscated by the United States and renamed SS Newport News . It was assigned to the U.S. Shipping Board , where it served until 1924 when it was retired . Puerto Ricans were unaccustomed to the racial segregation policies of the United States which were also implemented in Puerto Rico and often refused to designate themselves as " white " or " black " . Puerto Ricans of African descent were assigned to all @-@ black units . In 1916 , the Third Battalion and the companies of service and machine @-@ guns were integrated into the regiment . When the United States declared war against Germany , the regiment was transferred to the regular Army and on 3 May 1917 , recruited 1 @,@ 969 men , considered at that time as war strength . On 14 May 1917 , the regiment was sent to Panama in defense of the Panama Canal Zone . The regiment returned to Puerto Rico in March 1919 and was renamed " The 65th Infantry Regiment " by the Reorganization Act of 4 June 1920 . During this period a young Puerto Rican officer of the Regular Army , Major Luis R. Esteves , was sent to Camp Las Casas to serve as an instructor in the preparation of Puerto Rican officers . In the future , Esteves would become known as the " Father of the Puerto Rican National Guard " . In 1923 , the 65th provided personnel to the newly created 42th Infantry Regiment . = = World War II = = In 1942 the 65th Infantry underwent an extensive training program and in 1943 , it was sent to Panama to protect the Pacific and the Atlantic sides of the isthmus . On 25 November 1943 , Colonel Antulio Segarra , succeeded Col. John R. Menclenhall as commander of the 65th Infantry , thus becoming the first Puerto Rican Regular Army officer to command a Regular Army regiment . In January 1944 , the regiment was embarked for Jackson Barracks in New Orleans and later sent to Fort Eustis in Newport News , Virginia in preparation for overseas deployment to North Africa . They also served in Casablanca after the Naval Battle of Casablanca , where the regiment underwent amphibious training . This enabled the 3rd Battalion to move on to Corsica , where it was attached to the 12th Air Force and tasked with guarding airfields . Between March and April 1944 , the 65th was reassigned to North Africa . On May 3 , 1944 , the Third Battalion arrived at Napoles . The Battalion was then moved to Corsica and then to France . Salvador Roid commanded the 65th during a this period in Europe , which earned him the Combat Infantryman Badge . During this time , rumors swirled that the Regiment would be sent to live combat , while officers had already been moved to act as observers . On 22 September 1944 , the 65th Infantry landed in France . The Regiment was then moved to Peira Cava in the Maritime Alps , where it entered in action on December 13 , 1944 , the first time a Puerto Rican unit saw action in Europe . The first offensive attack came the following day in response to enemy fire , with Col. Cordero allowing Capt. Efraín Sánchez and Company L to return fire . The first casualty lost by the Regiment were Sgt. Ángel Martínez and Sergio Sánchez . In total , in the border between France and Italy , the battalion lost 47 men , including its commander , Col. George Ford . In November 1944 , Company C provided security to the headquarters of the Seventh United States Army . The rest of the First Battalion was assigned other tasks , such as defending the Command Center of the Sixth United States Army Group . The Second and Third Battalions were assigned to defend communications . In 1948 , seven members received the Bronze Star for their service in World War II . On 13 December 1944 , the 65th Infantry , under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Juan César Cordero Dávila , relieved the 2nd Battalion of the 442nd Infantry Regiment , a regiment which was made up of Japanese Americans under the command of Col. Virgil R. Miller , a native of San Germán , Puerto Rico and former member of the 65th Infantry Regiment . In December 1944 , the 3rd Battalion faced the German 34th Infantry Division 's 107th Grenadier Regiment . They suffered a total of forty seven battle casualties . The first two Puerto Ricans to be killed in action from the 65th Infantry were Pvt. Sergio Sánchez @-@ Sánchez and Sgt. Ángel Martínez , from the town of Sabana Grande . Upon arriving in the freezing and isolated outposts in the Maritime Alps , the unit 's morale dropped severely . In an apparent effort to boost the unit 's morale , its new commander , West Pointer Colonel George A. Ford , personally led a patrol towards the German lines on January 4 , 1945 . Upon reaching the forward German outposts , Colonel Ford was immediately shot and killed . In the firefight that followed , one of the enlisted man already mentioned was killed and several other were wounded , forcing the patrol to abandon the colonel 's body . On 18 March 1945 , the regiment was sent to the District of Mannheim , Germany and assigned to Military Government activities , anti @-@ sabotage and security missions . In all , the 65th Infantry participated in the campaigns of Rome @-@ Arno , Rhineland , Ardennes @-@ Alsace , and Central Europe . On 27 October 1945 , the regiment sailed from France arriving at Puerto Rico on 9 November 1945 . = = Operation " PORTREX " = = The 65th Infantry Regiment distinguished itself when the United States conducted a military exercise on the island of Vieques , on the eve of the Korean War . This exercise was code named " Operation PORTREX , " an acronym for " Puerto Rico Exercise . " The objective was to see how the combined forces of the Army , Marines , Navy , and Air Force would do as " liberators " of an enemy captured territory ( Vieques ) against the " aggressors . " The core of the aggressor ground forces were made up of Puerto Rican soldiers , most of whom belonged to the 65th Infantry Regiment . The liberators consisted of 32 @,@ 600 combat troops from the 82nd Airborne Division 's 504th Airborne Infantry Regiment and the Marine Corps , who received support from the Navy and Air Force . Despite the large number of troops deployed , the 65th Infantry ( the aggressor ) was able to halt the offensive forces on the beaches of the island . Colonel William W. Harris , the commanding officer of the 65th , stated : " Stopping the assault forces at the water 's edge proved that the Puerto Ricans could hold their own against the best @-@ trained soldiers that the United States Army could put into the field . " The successful military maneuvers during PORTREX prompted the Army 's leadership to deploy the 65th Infantry to Korea . = = Korean War = = On 27 August 1950 , the 65th Infantry , with 3 @,@ 920 officers and men organized into three infantry battalions , one artillery battalion and a tank company departed from Puerto Rico and arrived in Pusan , Korea on 23 September 1950 . It was during the long sea voyage that the men nicknamed the 65th Infantry as the " Borinqueneers . " " That was the name of the more peaceful of the two original Indian tribes that inhabited the island of Puerto Rico " Borinquen " , and many of the men were direct descendants of that industrious race of people . " The men of the 65th , now attached to the Army 's 3rd Infantry Division , were among the first infantrymen to meet the enemy on the battlefields of Korea . After November 1950 , they fought daily against units of the Chinese People 's Liberation Army after the Chinese entered the war on the North Korean side . The 296th Regiment took its place at Puerto Rico . In Korea , the Regiment covered the retreat of the 1st Marine Division during the Battle of Chosin Reservoir . One of the hardships suffered by the Puerto Ricans was the lack of warm clothing during the cold , harsh winters . " Born in a semitropical climate- most of them had never seen snow- they had lived and fought through it all without complaint " The enemy made many attempts to encircle the regiment , but each time they failed because of the many casualties inflicted by the 65th . Because the 65th held their positions , that enabled the U.S. Marines to withdraw from the Chosin Reservoir on December 1950 . When the Marines were surrounded by the Chinese Communist troops close to the Manchurian border , they were ordered to retreat and work their way back to Hungnam . The men of the 65th rushed to their defense and were ordered to stay behind and fight the enemy . As a result , the Marines were able to withdraw to their ships with the 65th holding the rear guard . The 65th , attached to the 1st Marine Division , was awarded the Navy Unit Commendation for their defense and were among the last units to embark from Hungnam . Among the battles and operations in which the 65th participated was Operation Killer in January 1951 , becoming the first regiment to cross the Han River in South Korea during the operation . On April 1951 , the regiment participated in the Uijonbu Corridor drives and on June 1951 , the 65th was the third regiment to cross the Han Ton River . The 65th took and held Chorwon and they were also instrumental in breaking the Iron Triangle of Hill 717 on July 1951 . In November 1951 , the regiment fought off an attack by two regimental size enemy units . Colonel Juan César Cordero Dávila of the 296th Regiment requested a transfer to active service in Korea . In December 1951 , Chief of Staff J. Lawton Collins visited Puerto Rico and granted the request , reassigning him to the 65th , replacing him with Lt. Col. Sepúlveda . Col. Cordero was formally named commander of the 65th Infantry on 8 February 1952 , thus becoming one of the highest ranking ethnic officers in the Army . In 1980 Brigadier William Warner Harris ( USMA 1930 ) captured the distinguished history of the 65th during his command in " Puerto Rico 's Fighting 65th - From San Juan to Chorwan " ( Presidio Press , Inc . ISBN 0 @-@ 89141 @-@ 753 @-@ 2 ) . When asked if the Puerto Rican 's would fight when the time came , then Colonel William Warner Harris ' answer was just as direct : " My Puerto Rican 's will fight anyone , anywhere . " They did not disappoint their command , becoming the most decorated Battalion of the Korean War . = = = Battles of Outpost Kelly and Jackson Heights = = = On 3 July 1952 , the regiment defended the main line of resistance ( MLR ) for 47 days and saw action at Cognac , King , and Queen with successful attacks on Chinese positions . On September 1952 , the 65th Infantry defended a hill known as " Outpost Kelly . " Chinese Communist forces overran the hill in what became known as the Battle for Outpost Kelly . On two occasions , the 65th Regiment was overwhelmed by Chinese artillery and driven off . In October 1952 , the regiment also saw action in the Chorwon Sector and on Iron Horse , Hill 391 , whose lower part was called " Jackson Heights " in honor of Capt. George Jackson ( see : Col. Carlos Betances Ramírez ) . Company G of the 65th fought a desperate battle to hold on to Hill 391 . After enduring days of artillery bombardment with limited artillery support of their own , Company G withdrew to avoid being overrun by a numerically superior foe . In June 1953 , the 2nd Battalion conducted a series of successful raids about two and a half miles southeast of Jackson Heights and in November the regiment successfully counter @-@ attacked enemy units in the Numsong Valley and held their positions until the armistice was reached . Many non @-@ Puerto Rican Hispanics served in the 65th Infantry during the war . Among those who distinguished themselves in combat and who served in the conflict as a member of the 65th Infantry was a young first lieutenant of Mexican American descent whose name is Richard Edward Cavazos . Cavazos entered the military in Texas and served as Company Commander of Company E of the 2d Battalion . Cavazos , who in 1982 , became the first Hispanic to become a four @-@ star general in the United States Army , was the recipient of the Distinguished Service Cross , the Silver Star Medal , and the Bronze Star Medal . = = = Mass court martial = = = Col. Cordero Dávila was relieved of his command by Col. Chester B. DeGavre , a West Point graduate and a " Continental , " an officer from the mainland United States , and the officer staff of the 65th was replaced with non @-@ Hispanic officers . DeGavre , upset over the fact that " G " company did not hold on to Hill 391 , ordered that the unit stop calling itself the " Borinqueneers , " cut their special rations of rice and beans , ordered the men to shave off their mustaches , and had one of them wear a sign that read : " I am a coward . " The language barrier , an NCO shortage , and poor leadership were factors that influenced some of the men of Company L in their refusal to continue to fight . One hundred and sixty @-@ two Puerto Ricans of the 65th Infantry were arrested . Between 23 November and 26 December 1952 , ninety @-@ five soldiers were court martialed and tried by General Court @-@ Martial in fifteen separate trials . Ninety @-@ one were found guilty and sentenced to prison terms ranging from one to 18 years of hard labor . It was the largest mass court @-@ martial of the Korean War . According to cultural historian Silvia Álvarez Curbelo , the government of Puerto Rico , caught in the middle of a potentially damaging affair that could jeopardize its political agenda , kept silent for nearly two months . Finally , the incidents were made known by a local newspaper alerted by several letters written by the imprisoned soldiers to their families . Secret negotiations between the U.S. and Puerto Rican governments took place and the Secretary of the Army Robert T. Stevens moved quickly to remit the sentences and granted clemency and pardons to all those involved . The breakdown of the 65th resulted from a number of factors : a shortage of officers and non @-@ commissioned officers , a rotation policy that removed combat @-@ experienced leaders and soldiers , tactical doctrine that led to high casualties , a shortage of artillery ammunition , communication problems between largely white , English @-@ speaking officers and Spanish @-@ speaking Puerto Rican enlisted men , and declining morale . The report also found bias in the prosecution of the Puerto Ricans , citing instances of Continental soldiers who were not charged after refusing to fight in similar circumstances , before and after Jackson Heights . Though the men who were court martialed were pardoned , a campaign for a formal exoneration was launched . = = = Awards in the Korean War = = = Master Sergeant Juan E. Negrón was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for his courageous actions while serving as a member of Company L , 65th Infantry Regiment , 3d Infantry Division during combat operations against an armed enemy in Kalma @-@ Eri , Korea on 28 April 1951 . His award was upgraded to the Medal of Honor on 18 March 2014 . Negrón 's Medal of Honor citation MASTER SERGEANTJUAN E. NEGRÓN UNITED STATES ARMY For service as set forth in the following citation : The Medal of Honor is posthumously presented to Juan E. Negrón ( RA10406243 ) , Master Sergeant , U.S. Army , for extraordinary heroism in connection with military operations against an armed enemy of the United Nations while serving with the 65th Infantry Regiment , 3d Infantry Division . Master Sergeant Negrón distinguished himself by extraordinary heroism in action against enemy aggressor forces in the vicinity of Kalma @-@ Eri , Korea , on 28 April 1951 . On that date , Sergeant Negrón took up the most vulnerable position on his company 's exposed right flank after an enemy force had overrun a section of the line . When notified that elements of the company were withdrawing , Sergeant Negrón refused to leave his exposed position , but delivered withering fire at hostile troops who had broken through a road block . When the hostile troops approached his position , Sergeant Negrón accurately hurled hand grenades at short range , halting their attack . Sergeant Negrón held the position throughout the night , while an allied counter attack was organized and launched . After the enemy had been repulsed , fifteen enemy dead were found only a few feet from Sergeant Negrón 's position . The extraordinary heroism exhibited by Sergeant Negrón on this occasion reflects great credit on himself and is in keeping with the finest traditions of the military service . A total of 61 @,@ 000 Puerto Ricans served in the military during the Korean War . And around 90 % of the Puerto Ricans that saw action in Korea were volunteers . The 65th Infantry was awarded battle participation credits for the following nine campaigns : UN Defense @-@ 1950 , UN Offense @-@ 1950 , CCF Intervention @-@ 1950 , First UN Counterattack Offensive @-@ 1951 , UN and CCF Spring Offensive @-@ 1951 , UN Summer @-@ Fall Offensive @-@ 1951 , 2nd Korean Winter 1951 – 52 , Korean Summer @-@ Fall @-@ 1952 and 3rd Korean Winter @-@ 1952 @-@ 53 . They are credited with the last battalion @-@ sized bayonet assault in U.S. Army history . Ten Distinguished Service Crosses , 256 Silver Stars and 606 Bronze Stars for valor were awarded to the men of the 65th Infantry . Of the ten Distinguished Service Crosses that were awarded to the members of the 65th Infantry , five were awarded to Puerto Ricans : Sergeant First Class Modesto Cartagena Private Badel Hernández Guzmán Master Sergeant Juan E. Negrón ( upgraded to the Medal of Honor ) Corporal Fabián Nieves Laguer Master Sergeant Belisario Noriega According to El Nuevo Día newspaper , 30 May 2004 , a total of 756 Puerto Ricans were killed in Korea , from all four branches of the U.S. armed forces . However , according to " All POW @-@ MIA Korean War Casualties " , the total amount of Puerto Rican casualties in the Korean War was 732 . However this total may vary slightly since some non @-@ Puerto Ricans such as Captain James W. Conner were mistakenly included . Out of the 700 plus casualties suffered in the war a total of 121 men were listed as missing in action . The Battle of Outpost Kelly accounted for 73 of the men missing in action from the total of 121 . Out of the 73 MIAs suffered by the regiment in the month of September 1952 , 50 of them occurred on the same day , 18 September . For a list of names of those who were declared MIA , see : List of Puerto Ricans missing in action in the Korean War . According to the TAGOKOR Korean War Casualty File and the American Battle Commission site the members of the 65th who fought in Korea were awarded a total of 2 @,@ 771 Purple Heart Medals . On 12 February 1951 , General Douglas MacArthur , wrote in Tokyo : = = = Post Korean War = = = The 65th Infantry was relieved from assignment to the 3d Infantry Division on 3 November 1954 , and , returning to Puerto Rico , it was assigned on 2 December 1954 , to the 23rd Infantry Division , which encompassed geographically @-@ separated units in the Caribbean region . On 10 April 1956 , it was inactivated at Camp Losey , Puerto Rico , and relieved from assignment to the 23d , which itself was inactivated . On 6 February 1959 , the regiment was deactivated from the Regular Army but the Puerto Rican Army National Guard soon adopted " 65 " as the identifying number for their existing 296th Regimental Combat Team at Camp Losey , mainly composed of reserve component personnel . On 15 February 1959 , it was organized to consist of the 1st Battle Group , 65th Infantry , an element of the 92nd Infantry Brigade . On February 21 , 1960 , commemorated as National Guard Day , the 65th Infantry Regiment was formally transferred from the Regular Army to the PRNG , in an activity where Gen. Cesár Cordero handed the units colors to Col. Rafael Rodríguez . That same year , Company B of the 65th Regiment created Employer 's Day ( Día del Patrono in Spanish ) where the employer 's of the volunteers that serve in the PRNG are instructed about the job that their employees do with the entity and participate in training of their own . The idea behind the initiative was facilitating the processing of the request of leave @-@ of @-@ absence to train for two weeks during the summer . On 1 May 1964 , it was reorganized to consist of the 1st Battalion , 65th Infantry , and remained assigned to the 92nd . It was reorganized again on 1 April 1971 , to consist of the 1st Battalion and the separate Company E. This was followed by another reorganization on 1 September 1978 , to consist of the 1st and 2nd Battalions within the 92nd , as well as the separate Company E. Less than two years later another reorganization on 29 February 1980 , eliminated the separate Company E while retaining the 1st and 2nd Battalions . On 27 October 1987 , the regiment was withdrawn from CARS and reorganized under the United States Army Regimental System with headquarters at Cayey . It was reorganized on 1 September 1992 , to consist of the 1st Battalion , 65th Infantry , and remained assigned to the 92nd Infantry Brigade . On 14 February 2003 , it was ordered into active federal service at home stations and released on 12 February 2005 , reverting to territorial control . On 1 October , of that year it was reorganized as the 65th Infantry Regiment in which only the 1st Battalion was active . The separate Company E was a Ranger unit given federal recognition effective 1 April 1971 , and had a total authorized strength of 198 personnel . It was added to the PR ARNG on that date while the 755th Transportation Company ( Medium Truck , Cargo ) was deleted . Co E ( Ranger ) , 65th Infantry relocated from Vega Baja to San Juan on 2 February 1976 , and was inactivated as federal recognition was withdrawn effective 29 February 1980 . This resulted in the allocation of an ARNG ranger company being transferred from the PR ARNG to the Texas ARNG , in which Company G ( Ranger ) , 143rd Infantry was activated in Houston from elements of the 2d Battalion ( Airborne ) , 143rd Infantry , 36th Airborne Brigade , which was being inactivated effective 1 April 1980 . = = Twenty @-@ first century = = The 65th Infantry Regiment 's 1st Battalion , along with its sister battalion , the 1 – 296th Infantry , was transferred to the 92nd Infantry Brigade , PRARNG ( now the 92nd Maneuver Enhancement Brigade ) . Both battalions have served in what the United States and its allies call the War against Terrorism and Operation Iraqi Freedom / Enduring Freedom . In 2009 , Company C , 1st Battalion , 65th Infantry Regiment was deployed to the Horn of Africa and stationed at Camp Lemonnier in Djibouti , after completing a 14 @-@ month deployment at Guantanamo Bay , Cuba . Company C carried the crew @-@ served weapons to protect the camp . It also operated the entry control checkpoints , protected U.S. and allied ships at the massive Djibouti Port , and guarded the U.S. Embassy there . By mid @-@ 2009 , the rest of the battalion deployed there in case a larger combat maneuver element was needed to operate from the base . The area is considered to be the most unstable part of Africa , and the Somalian border is less than 10 miles from Camp Lemonnier . = = Legacy = = During the Korean War , the Borinqueneers were awarded 10 Distinguished Service Crosses ( Juan Negrons was upgraded to the Medal of Honor ) , 256 Silver Stars , 606 Bronze Stars , and 2 @,@ 771 Purple Hearts . Puerto Rico honored the unit by naming one of its principal avenues " Avenida 65 de Infantería " in San Juan . The names of those killed in combat are inscribed in " El Monumento de la Recordación " ( Monument of Remembrance ) , which was unveiled on 19 May 1996 and is situated in front of the Capitol Building in San Juan , Puerto Rico . In November 1999 , Governor Pedro Rosselló , along with the Senate of Puerto Rico , chartered the 65th Infantry Honor Task Force and appointed Anthony Mele as chairman to work with Major General Nels Running , Director , Committee of the 50th Anniversary of the Korean War to commemorate the 65th Infantry Regiment . The 65th Infantry Honor Task Force is a coalition of individuals , veterans organizations , and groups dedicated to advocate and preserve the legacy of the 65th Infantry Regiment . The group organized tree planting and plaque commemoration ceremonies around the USA , to include Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia ; Fort San Felipe del Morro in San Juan , Puerto Rico ; and Fort Logan National Cemetery in Denver . On 20 May 2001 , the government of Puerto Rico unveiled a monument honoring the 65th Infantry Regiment . The monument was made by artist Sonny Rodríguez , and is called " Mission Accomplished " . It contains a statue of a soldier wearing a poncho with his rifle in one hand and the regiment 's flag in the other hand . On 7 June 2007 , PBS aired The Borinqueneers , a documentary about the 65th Infantry written and directed by Noemí Figueroa Soulet with Raquel Ortiz as co @-@ director . The narrators were Héctor Elizondo ( English ) and David Ortiz @-@ Anglero ( Spanish ) . On 30 November 2012 , an entire stretch of Southern Boulevard in the South Bronx , New York was co @-@ named La 65 de Infantería Boulevard . On 1 October 2013 : The 65th Infantry Honor Task Force organized veterans from the 65th and their families to attend a salute to the regiment by the 3d US Infantry [ The Old Guard ] at Fort Myer , Virginia , a tour of the Tomb of the Unknown Soldiers , and wreath laying ceremony at the Korean War Combat Veterans Memorial in Washington , DC . Video credits to Jose R. Guerra : 22 – 23 March 2014 : The 65th Infantry Honor Task Force organized the salute of the first Medal of Honor awarded to a Borinqueneer ; MSG Juan E. Negron in New York with Iris Negron , daughter of MSG Negron , and BG Jose Burgos . In attendance were New York State Senators William E. Larkin , a Korean War combat veteran , and David Carlucci who presented a proclamation from the New York State Senate . In 2014 the National Puerto Rican Day Parade , which is attended by nearly two million people and broadcast live on Fox TV , was dedicated to the Borinqueneers . = = Congressional Gold Medal = = A Congressional Gold Medal is an award bestowed by the United States Congress and is , along with the Presidential Medal of Freedom , the highest civilian award in the United States . It is awarded to persons " who have performed an achievement that has an impact on American history and culture that is likely to be recognized as a major achievement in the recipient 's field long after the achievement . " Congressional Gold Medals have also been awarded to : Native American code talkers ; the Japanese American 100th Infantry Battalion and 442nd Infantry Regiment ; the Tuskegee Airmen ; the Montford Point Marines ; the 1st Special Service Force ( Devil 's Brigade ) and the Women Airforce Service Pilots ( WASP ) . S. 1726 , the bill that would confer the Congressional Gold Medal on the 65th Infantry Regiment , was introduced in Congress . It was signed by President Barack Obama at a ceremony on June 10 , 2014 , becoming Public Law 113 @-@ 120 . A decision on designs for a congressional gold medal being awarded in 2015 to the Borinqueneers of the 65th Infantry Regiment was selected by the Citizens Coinage Advisory Committee on June 16 , 2015 . For the 65th Infantry Borinqueneers congressional gold medal , the CCAC recommended for the obverse a design depicting a close @-@ up portrait of a unit staff sergeant , with three soldiers traversing rocky ground in the background . The recommended reverse features an historic sentry box in Old San Juan , Puerto Rico , an olive branch , the 65th Infantry insignia patch and unit 's motto , HONOR ET FIDELITAS ( Honor and Fidelity ) . On April 13 , 2016 , leaders of the United States House and Senate awarded the Congressional Gold Medal to the 65th Infantry Regiment . = = Notable Puerto Rican members = = Amongst the notable Puerto Ricans who served in the " 65th Infantry Regiment " and / or its predecessor the " Porto Rico Provisional Regiment of Infantry " : = = Unit citations = = The 65th Infantry has been awarded the following citations :
= Nikolai Ryzhkov = Nikolai Ivanovich Ryzhkov ( Russian : Николай Иванович Рыжков , Nikolaj Ivanovič Ryžkov ; born 28 September 1929 ) is a former Soviet official who became a Russian politician following the dissolution of the Soviet Union . He served as the last Chairman of the Council of Ministers ( the post was abolished and replaced by that of Prime Minister in 1991 ) . Responsible for the cultural and economic administration of the Soviet Union during the late Gorbachev Era , Ryzhkov was succeeded as premier by Valentin Pavlov in 1991 . The same year , he lost his seat on the Presidential Council , going on to become Boris Yeltsin 's leading opponent in the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic ( RSFSR ) 1991 presidential election . Ryzhkov was born in the city of Dzerzhynsk , Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1929 . After graduating in the 1950s he started work in the 1970s and began his political career in local industry , working his way up through the hierarchy of Soviet industrial ministries . In 1979 Ryzhkov was appointed First Deputy Chairman of the State Planning Committee . Following Nikolai Tikhonov 's resignation as Chairman of the Council of Ministers , Ryzhkov was voted into office in his place . During his tenure , he supported Mikhail Gorbachev 's 1980s reform of the Soviet economy . Elected to the State Duma of the Russian Federation in December 1995 as an independent , Ryzhkov subsequently led the Power to the People block , later becoming the formal leader of the People 's Patriotic Union of Russia alongside Gennady Zyuganov , who was an unofficial leader . On 17 September 2003 , he resigned his seat in the Duma and became a member of the Federation Council . Due to the Crimean crisis , he was sanctioned by Canada and the United States on March 17 , 2014 . = = Early life and career = = Ryzhkov was born on 28 September 1929 in Dzerzhynsk , Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic , Soviet Union . He graduated from the Ural Polytechnic Institute in 1959 . A technocrat , he started work as a welder then rose through the ranks at the Sverdlovsk Uralmash Plant to become chief engineer , then between 1970 – 1975 , Factory Director of the Uralmash Production Amalgamation . Ryzhkov joined the Communist Party of the Soviet Union ( CPSU ) in 1956 . He was transferred to Moscow in 1975 and appointed to the post of First Deputy Minister of the Ministry of Heavy and Transport Machine Building . Ryzhkov became First Deputy Chairman of the State Planning Committee in 1979 and was elected to the CPSU Central Committee in 1981 . He was one of several members of the Soviet leadership affiliated to the " Andrei Kirilenko faction " . Yuri Andropov appointed Ryzhkov head of the Economic Department of the Central Committee where he was responsible for overseeing major planning and financial organs , excluding industry . As head of the department he reported directly to Mikhail Gorbachev and as head of the Central Committee 's Economic Department he met with Andropov once a week . Ryzhkov became convinced that had Andropov lived at least another five years , the Soviet Union would have seen a reform package similar to that implemented in the People 's Republic of China . During Konstantin Chernenko 's short rule , both Ryzhkov and Gorbachev elaborated several reform measures , sometimes in the face of opposition from Chernenko . When Gorbachev came to power , Nikolai Tikhonov , the Chairman of the Council of Ministers , was elected Chairman of the newly established Commission on Improvements to the Management System . His title of chairman was largely honorary , with Ryzhkov the de facto head through his position as deputy chairman . Along with Yegor Ligachev , Ryzhkov became a full rather than a candidate member of the Politburo on 23 April 1985 during Gorbachev 's tenure as General Secretary . Ryzhkov succeeded Tikhonov on 27 September 1985 . = = Premiership = = = = = Political events = = = Following the Chernobyl disaster , along with Yegor Ligachev , Ryzhkov visited the crippled plant between 2 – 3 May 1986 . On Ryzhkov 's orders the government evacuated everyone within a 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) radius of the plant . The 30 km radius was a purely random guess and it was later shown that several areas contaminated with radioactive material were left untouched by government evacuation agencies . In the aftermath of the 1988 earthquake in the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic , Ryzhkov promised to rebuild the city of Spitak within two years . A Politburo commission was established to provide guidance for the local ASSR Government with Ryzhkov elected its chairman . The commission then travelled to the ASSR to assess damage caused by the earthquake . During Gorbachev 's subsequent visit to the ASSR , and aware of local feelings following the disaster , Ryzhkov persuaded the less sensitive Gorbachev to forgo use of his limousine in favor of public transport . When Gorbachev left the ASSR , Ryzhkov remained to coordinate the rescue operation and made several television appearances which increased his standing amongst the Soviet leadership and the people in general . With his standing thus boosted , on 19 July 1988 , at the Central Committee Plenum , Ryzhkov criticised nearly every one of Gorbachev 's policies , further complaining that as Party Secretary he should devote more time to the Party . In the end , Ryzhkov failed in his promise to rebuild Spitak , partly due to the Soviet Union 's mounting economic problems , and partly because many of the city 's Soviet era buildings had not been designed with adequate earthquake protection , making their reconstruction more difficult . = = = Economic policy = = = Historian Jerry F. Hough notes that Gorbachev treated Ryzhkov and his reform attempts just as badly as Leonid Brezhnev treated Alexei Kosygin , one @-@ time Chairman of the Council of Ministers , during the Brezhnev Era . Brezhnev 's most notable snub was over the 1965 Soviet economic reform . Ryzhkov was an early supporter of the Gorbachev policy calling for an increase in the quantity and quality of goods planned for production during the period of the Twelfth Five @-@ Year Plan ( 1986 – 1990 ) . To achieve these goals , the government pumped money into the machine @-@ building sector but as time went by , Gorbachev increasingly diverged from his original stance . He now wanted to increase overall investment in nearly all industrial sectors ; a move which Ryzhkov knew was a budgetary impossibility . However , Ryzhkov 's economic policies were not much better as he continued to advocate an unreasonable increase in the production of consumer goods . Gorbachev and Ligachev 's anti @-@ alcohol campaign was opposed by Ryzhkov , who agreed with the State Planning Committee and the Ministry of Trade that such a drive would deprive from the state billions of rubles in income . Nevertheless , the campaign went ahead , losing the Soviet Government millions in revenues . Ryzhkov 's opposition to the campaign was strengthened by his belief that both Gorbachev and Ligachev placed ideology before practical considerations , and he instead advocated an alternative long @-@ term program rather than one designed to have immediate effect . Ryzhkov and Gorbachev continued their work on economic reform and in 1987 began drafting the Law on the State Enterprise , which restricted the authority of central planners . This would later come into effect and give workers an unrealistically high level of power . Nikolai Talyzin , Chairman of the State Planning Committee , became the scapegoat for the failure of this reform and on the orders of Ryzhkov he was replaced by Yuri Maslyukov . While supporting the transition away from a planned economy , Ryzhkov understood that privatisation would weaken the government 's power . As changes occurred , skepticism over perestroika and privatisation was not limited to high @-@ level government officialdom . Several middle and low @-@ ranking officials , who owed their rise in the hierarchy to government @-@ owned enterprises , wanted to retain the existing system . Gorbachev also blamed Ryzhkov and the Council of Ministers for the economic difficulties which arose during perestroika , a move which fostered resentment for both Gorbachev and perestroika . Nevertheless , in 1986 , Ryzhkov stated that he , along with the rest of the Soviet leadership , were already discussing the possibility of creating a market economy in the Soviet Union . Ryzhkov supported the creation of a " regulated market economy " where the government sector occupied the " commanding heights " of the economy as well as the creation of semi private @-@ public companies . His second cabinet , several high @-@ standing members of the KGB and the military establishment all supported Ryzhkov 's opposition to the 500 Days Programme , which espoused a quick transition to a market economy . Matters did not improve when at the second session of the Congress of People 's Deputies of the Soviet Union , Ryzhkov proposed postponing the transition to a market economy until 1992 , further suggesting that in the period between 1990 – 1992 , recentralisation of government activities would ensure a period of stabilisation . Ryzhkov 's economic reform plan was a hybrid of Leonid Abalkin 's and one created by himself in conjunction with the Maslyukov chaired State Planning Committee along with several other government institutions . On 5 July 1989 the State Commission of the Council of Ministers on Economic Reforms was established , which replaced Maslyukov 's reform commission . The new commission was chaired by Abalkin , who had also been appointed Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers . With strong support from Ryzhkov , Gorbachev abolished the Central Committee economic department , thereby strengthening the authority of central government over economic matters . From then on , the government could not be blamed for economic policies initiated by the Party leadership . The establishment of the post of President of the Soviet Union by Gorbachev in 1990 weakened the power of the government apparatus ; a move Ryzhkov and his second cabinet opposed . = = = Price reform = = = According to Swedish economist Anders Åslund , Ryzhkov differed little from Gorbachev when it came to price reform . There were , however , subtle differences between the two men 's views , with Ryzhkov supporting an administratively controlled price increase while Gorbachev , as a radical economist who supported market reform , opposed such measures . As Hough noted , Ryzhkov supported " the need for greater fiscal responsibility " , while Gorbachev advocated the need for more rational prices which , according to Hough , would have brought inflation under control . Ryzhkov proposed price reform measures to Gorbachev several times but was turned down on each occasions , even though Gorbachev had argued strongly on the need for price reform in his speeches . Gorbachev strengthened his public image by accusing the Soviet leadership 's conservative faction together with Ryzhkov , of delaying implementation of the necessary price reform . Ryzhkov had the backing of several high @-@ standing institutions , such as the Ministry of Finance and the State Committee on Prices , chaired by the future Soviet Premier Valentin Pavlov . In contrast to Gorbachev , Ryzhkov actually had , according to Hough , a plan for a transition to a market economy . Gorbachev on the other hand was never able to turn words into deeds . By 1988 Ryzhkov increasingly sided with Leonid Abalkin , one of the few economists who advocated fiscal responsibility . At the 19th Conference of the Central Committee , Abalkin was severely criticised by Gorbachev , and accused of " economic determinism " . Several conference delegates agreed with Gorbachev , but Ryzhkov 's support remained solid . Abalkin was ordered to deliver a report to the Presidium of the Council of Ministers by December , which as things turned out , put financial stability at the top of its agenda . Gorbachev disliked Abalkin 's report and rejected Ryzhkov 's requests that he support it . Ryzhkov was then forced to create an even more conservative reform plan for 1989 in which price reform was to be postponed until 1991 . When the Abalkin report was proposed at the Central Committee plenum , the majority of delegates indirectly attacked Gorbachev for his indecisiveness when it came to the implementation of price reform . In April 1990 , after submitting a draft to the Presidential Council and the Federation Council , Ryzhkov 's price reform was initiated . However , a short while later it was once more put on hold following severe criticism from Boris Yeltsin and several pro @-@ Gorbachev intellectuals . The economic turmoil which hit the Soviet Union in 1990 was blamed on Ryzhkov , even though it was Gorbachev who had delayed Ryzhkov 's proposed reform . In his memoirs , Gorbachev vaguely asserts that a single price increase would be better than several . Things did not improve for Ryzhkov when , at the 28th Party Congress , Gorbachev claimed it would be " absurd " to begin serious economic reform with price increases . = = = Fall from power = = = In August 1990 several leading officials tried to persuade Gorbachev to force Ryzhkov to resign from his post . Gorbachev did not bow to this pressure , fearing that Ryzhkov 's removal would lead to increased activity by many of his pro @-@ republican first secretaries and Politburo members . Ryzhkov 's numerous supporters were not concerned about policy issues ; they backed him simply because he opposed some of Gorbachev 's economic and political reforms . In July 1990 , as the Politburo underwent restructuring at the 28th Party Congress , all government officials except Gorbachev and Vladimir Ivashko , the Deputy General Secretary , were excluded with Ryzhkov losing his Politburo seat by default . Nevertheless , Ryzhkov , along with many others , was elected a member of the Presidential Council . On 19 October 1990 the Russian Supreme Soviet , by a vote of 164 to 1 with 16 abstentions , forced the resignation of Ryzhkov and his cabinet and the implementation of the 500 Days Programme . In stark contrast , Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union support for Ryzhkov 's economic reform plan increased . Ryzhkov 's economic reform plan was passed by an overwhelming majority , with 1 @,@ 532 deputies in favour , 419 against and 44 deputies abstaining . The parliamentary Interregional Group 's vote of no confidence in Ryzhkov 's government also failed , with 199 members in favour of Ryzhkov and his cabinet 's resignation , 1 @,@ 685 against and 99 abstaining . As the result of a propaganda war launched against Ryzhkov by Gorbachev supporters , several leading members of the Council of Ministers and its Presidium urged Ryzhkov to resign so that the Soviet Government could reach a compromise with the Russian Government . To make matters worse , the Russian Government which was headed by Ivan Silayev , stopped following Ryzhkov 's orders , and Silayev refused to visit the Moscow Kremlin . Ryzhkov 's Plan and The 500 Days Programme were broadly similar , with both supporting price liberalisation , decentralisation and privatisation . The main difference between the two was Ryzhkov 's desire to retain much of the social security system , free education for all and the continuance of a strong central government apparatus . The 500 Days Programme did not mention political union with the other Soviet republics , but instead weakened the authority of the central government by establishing a market economy . In other words , they left the question of continuing or dissolving the Soviet Union open . On 17 September in a meeting of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union , Gorbachev openly supported the 500 Days Programme , claiming it would not lead to the reestablishment of capitalism , but instead to a mixed economy where private enterprise played an important role . In December 1990 Ryzhkov suffered a heart attack . During his recovery , the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union dissolved the Council of Ministers and replaced it with the Cabinet of Ministers headed by Valentin Pavlov , Ryzhkov 's former Minister of Finance . The law enacting the change was passed on 26 December 1990 , but the new structure was not implemented until 14 January 1991 when Pavlov took over as Prime Minister of the Soviet Union . Between Ryzhkov 's hospitalisation and Pavlov 's election as Prime Minister , Lev Voronin acted as the Chairman of the Council of Ministers . The reorganisation of the government made it subordinate to the Presidency , weakening the head of government 's hold on economic policy . In contrast to Hough 's view that Gorbachev had little reason to remove Ryzhkov , Gordon M. Hahn argues that there were good reasons to replace him given that with Ryzhkov 's Politburo support much reduced , the reformist opposition saw him as a conservative . = = RSFSR politics and post @-@ Soviet Russia = = After recovering from his heart attack , in early 1991 Ryzhkov stood as the Communist candidate in the first election of the President of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic ( RSFSR ) . At the election on 12 June 1991 , he gained 13 @,@ 395 @,@ 335 votes , equal to 16 @.@ 9 % of the electorate . Boris Yeltsin beat him decisively with 57 % . Ryzhkov 's vice presidential candidate was Boris Gromov , a Soviet war veteran who led the Soviet military during the final stages of the war in Afghanistan . Most of Ryzhkov 's votes came from the countryside , while he had hoped to win over voters who were becoming increasingly disenfranchised as a result of perestroika and Gorbachev 's leadership , even though the latter supported his candidacy . During the 1995 legislative campaign , Ryzhkov defended his own tenure as Chairman of the Soviet Council of Ministers , claiming that Russians were far worse off under capitalism than Soviet communism . Russian TV channel NTV broadcast a debate featuring only Ryzhkov and Grigory Yavlinsky , a liberal politician who strongly supported economic reforms . At the election , he was elected to the State Duma Federal Assembly as an independent candidate . Once elected , he headed the Power to the People bloc , a communist faction with nationalist tendencies . The Power to the People bloc came about through the merger of Ryzhkov 's supporters and the All @-@ People 's Union headed by Sergey Baburin . Its policies were left @-@ wing and included revival of the Soviet Union , the introduction of a planned economy , more state involvement in the economy and the promotion of nationalism and patriotism . During the 1996 presidential election Ryzhkov endorsed Gennady Zyuganov , the Communist Party of the Russian Federation ( CPRF ) candidate , for the presidency . In 1996 , Ryzhkov was one of the founders of the CPRF @-@ led alliance of leftists and nationalists known as the People 's Patriotic Union of Russia ( PPUR ) and was elected chairman of its Duma faction . The PPUR 's formal leaders were Ryzhkov and Ziuganov , who was an unofficial leader . In September 2003 , Ryzhkov entered the Federation Council of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation as the representative for Belgorod Oblast , subsequently resigning his seat in the State Duma . He currently serves as Chairman of the Federation Council Commission on Natural Monopolies , as a member of the Committee on Local Self @-@ Governance and as co @-@ chairman of the Russian – Armenian commission on inter @-@ parliamentary cooperation . = = Sanctions = = In March 2014 , following the Crimean status referendum , the U.S. Treasury put Ryzhkov on the Specially Designated Nationals List ( SDN ) , a list of individuals sanctioned as “ members of the Russian leadership ’ s inner circle . ” The sanctions freeze any assets he holds in the US and ban him from entering the United States . On March 17 , 2014 , Ryzhkov was added to the European Union sanctions list due to his role in the 2014 Crimean crisis . He is barred from entering the EU countries , and his assets in the EU have to be frozen . = = Awards , decorations and orders = = Ryzhkov was awarded the Order of the Red Banner of Labour twice , in 1966 and 1985 , the Order of the October Revolution in 1971 , the Order of Lenin in 1976 and 1979 and the Order of Merit for the Fatherland , 4th class ( 27 September 2004 - for outstanding contribution to the strengthening of the Russian state and many years of diligent work ) . A monument in recognition of his significant personal contribution to the reconstruction in Armenia after the 1988 Spitak earthquake was erected by the Armenian Government . In 2008 , the Armenian Government awarded Ryzhkov their highest state decoration , the National Hero of Armenia . The Ukrainian Government awarded him the Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise , 5th class , " for his outstanding contribution to the development of Russian – Ukrainian cooperation and on the occasion of his 75th birthday " on 24 September 2004 . The Russian President awarded Ryzhkov the Diploma of the President on 3 October 2009 . Other decorations awarded to Ryzhkov include : Order of the Patriotic War , 1st class ( 1985 ) Medal " In Commemoration of the 850th Anniversary of Moscow " ( 1997 ) Medal " In Commemoration of the 1000th Anniversary of Kazan " ( 2005 ) Jubilee Medal " In Commemoration of the 100th Anniversary since the Birth of Vladimir Il 'ich Lenin " ( 1970 ) Order " Danaker " ( Kyrgyzstan ) Order of Holy Prince Daniel of Moscow , 2nd class State Prize of the USSR 1969 - for the creation and implementation of complex mechanized welding demonstration in a unique block of welded structures URALMASHZAVOD engineering ( with the team ) 1979 - for the creation and implementation of high @-@ slab continuous casting machines for steel curved type complexes of high power ( with the team )
= Ælfwald of East Anglia = Ælfwald ( Old English : Alfƿold , " elf @-@ ruler , " reigned from 713 to 749 ) was an 8th @-@ century king of East Anglia , an Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdom that today includes the English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk . The last king of the Wuffingas dynasty , Ælfwald succeeded his father Ealdwulf , who had ruled for forty @-@ nine years . Ælfwald himself ruled for thirty @-@ six years . Their combined reigns , with barely any record of external military action or internal dynastic strife , represent a long period of peaceful stability for the East Angles . In Ælfwald 's time , this was probably owing to a number of factors , including the settled nature of East Anglian ecclesiastical affairs and the prosperity brought through Rhineland commerce with the East Anglian port of Gipeswic ( modern Ipswich ) . The coinage of Anglo @-@ Saxon sceattas expanded in Ælfwald 's time : evidence of East Anglian mints , markets , and industry are suggested where concentrations of such coins have been discovered . After returning from exile , Æthelbald of Mercia succeeded Coelred and afterwards endowed the church at Crowland . Ælfwald 's friendly stance towards Æthelbald helped to maintain peaceful relations with his more powerful neighbour . The Life of Guthlac , which includes information about Æthelbald during his period of exile at Crowland , is dedicated to Ælfwald . Later versions of the Life reveal the high quality of written Old English produced in East Anglia during Ælfwald 's reign . He was a literate and devoutly Christian king : his letter written to Boniface in around 747 reveals his diplomatic skills and gives a rare glimpse into the life of a ruler who is otherwise shrouded in obscurity . = = Pedigree = = The East Anglian pedigree in the Anglian collection brings the descent down to Ælfwald , indicating that it was compiled during his reign , possibly by around 726 . Showing Ælfwald as son of Ealdwulf , the pedigree continues back through Ethelric , Eni , Tytla , Wuffa , Wehha , Wilhelm , Hryp , Hrothmund , Trygil , Tyttman and Caser ( Caesar ) to Woden . The Historia Brittonum , which was probably compiled in the early 9th century , also has a version ( the de ortu regum Estanglorum ) in descending order , showing : " Woden genuit ( ' begat ' ) Casser , who begat Titinon , who begat Trigil , who begat Rodmunt , who begat Rippan , who begat Guillem Guechan . He first ruled in Britain over the race of East Angles . Guecha begat Guffa , who begat Tydil , who begat Ecni , who begat Edric , who begat Aldul , who begat Elric " . It is not certain whether the last name , Elric , is a mistake for Ælfwald or is referring to a different individual . = = Reign = = = = = Accession = = = At Ælfwald 's accession in 713 , Ceolred of Mercia had dominion over both Lindsey and Essex . Ælfwald 's sister Ecgburgh was abbess at Repton in Derbyshire and Ælfwald 's upbringing was undoubtedly Christian in nature . The following family tree shows the descendants of Eni , who was the paternal grandfather of Ælfwald . The kings of East Anglia , Kent and Mercia are coloured green , blue and red respectively : = = = Felix 's ' Life of Guthlac ' = = = Ceolred of Mercia 's appropriation of monastic assets during his reign created disaffection amongst the Mercians . His persecuted a distant cousin , Æthelbald , the grandson of Penda 's brother Eowa . Æthelbald was driven to take refuge deep in the Fens at Crowland , where Guthlac , another descendant of the Mercian royal house , was living as a hermit . When Guthlac died in 714 , Ælfwald 's sister Ecgburgh provided a stone coffin for his burial . Ceolred died in 716 , blaspheming and insane , according to his chroniclers . Penda 's line became extinct ( or disempowered ) and Æthelbald emerged as king of Mercia . Æthelbald lived until 757 and carried Mercian power to a new height . His debt to Crowland was not forgotten : soon after his accession he richly endowed a new church on the site where Guthlac had lived as a hermit . The first Life of Guthlac , written by the monk Felix , appeared soon after Guthlac 's death . Nothing is known about Felix , although Bertram Colgrave has observed that he was a good scholar who evidently had access to works by Bede and Aldhelm , to a Life of Saint Fursey and Latin works by Saint Jerome , Saint Athanasius and Gregory the Great . Felix was either an East Anglian or was living in the kingdom when he wrote the book , which was written at the request of Ælfwald . In the Life , Felix portrays Æthelbald 's exile at Crowland and asserts Ælfwald 's right to rule in East Anglia . Two Old English verse versions of the Life drawn on the work of Felix were written , which show the vigour of vernacular heroic and elegiac modes in Ælfwald 's kingdom . Sam Newton has proposed that the Old English heroic poem Beowulf has its origins in Ælfwald 's East Anglia . = = = The king 's bishops = = = Æcci held the East Anglian see of Dommoc , following its division of in about 673 , and during Ealdwulf 's reign Æscwulf succeeded Æcci . At the Council of Clofeshoh in 716 , Heardred attended as Bishop of Dommoc , while Nothberht was present as Bishop of Elmham , having succeeded Baduwine . During the 720s , Cuthwine became bishop of Dommoc . Cuthwine was known to Bede and is known to have travelled to Rome , returning with a number of illuminated manuscripts , including Life and Labours of Saint Paul : his library also included Prosper Tiro 's Epigrammata and Sedulius ' Carmen Pachale . According to Bede , Ealdbeorht I was Bishop of Dommoc and Headulacus Bishop of Elmham in 731 , but by 746 or 747 , Heardred ( II ) had replaced Aldberct . For more information on the episcopal sees and bishops of Dommoc and Elmham , see Bishop of Dunwich and Bishop of Elmham = = = The development of the port at Gipeswic = = = Ipswich was the first East Anglian town to be created by the Anglo @-@ Saxons , predating other new towns such as Norwich by a century . Excavation work at Ipswich has revealed that the town expanded out to become 50 hectares ( 120 acres ) in size during Ælfwald 's reign , when it was known as Gipeswic . It is generally considered that Gipeswic , as the trade capital of Ælfwald 's kingdom , developed under the king 's patronage . A rectangular grid of streets linked the earlier quayside town northwards to an ancient trackway that ran eastwards . The quay at Gipeswic also continued to develop in a form that was similar to the quayside at Dorestad , south of the continental town of Utrecht , which was perhaps its principal trading partner . Gipeswic 's street grid , parts of which have survived , was subdivided into rectangular plots or insulae and new houses were built directly adjacent to metalled roads . The town 's pottery industry , producing what has been known since the 1950s as ' Ipswich ware ' , gained its full importance at around this time . The former church dedication to Saint Mildred is one that can be dated to the 740s , when Mildred 's relics were translated at Minster @-@ in @-@ Thanet by her successor abbess Eadburh . = = = Coinage = = = The coins of Ælfwald 's reign are amongst the earliest that were minted in East Anglia . The coinage of silver pennies known as sceattas expanded in his time and several types are attributed to East Anglian production . Most of them fall into two main groups , known as the ' Q ' and ' R ' series . Neither group bears a royal name or title and the authority by which they were issued cannot not established . The ' Q ' series , which has some Northumbrian affinities , is most densely distributed in western East Anglia , along the Fen edge between the Wash and Cambridge . The R series , with bust and standard , derived from earlier Kentish types , is more densely distributed in central and eastern East Anglia , including the Ipswich area . According to Michael Metcalf , the ' R ' series was also East Anglian , being minted at Gipeswic . = = = Letter to Boniface = = = A letter from Ælfwald to Boniface , the leader of the English continental mission , has survived . It was written in at some time between 742 and 749 and is one of the few surviving documents from the period that relate the ecclesiastical history of East Anglia . The letter , which is a response to Boniface who had requested his support , reveals Ælfwald 's sound understanding of Latin . Ælfwald 's letter reassures Boniface that his name was being remembered by the East Angles : it contains an offer to exchange the names of their dead , so that mutual prayers could be read for them . According to Richard Hoggett , a phrase in the letter , ' in septenis monasteriorum nostorum sinaxis ' , has been interpreted incorrectly by historians to imply that there were at the time seven monasteries in Ælfwald 's kingdom in which prayers were being read , a theory which has proved difficult for scholars to explain . Hoggett argues that the words in the phrase refer to the number of times that the monks offered praise during the monastic day and not to the number of monasteries then in existence . He points out that this interpretation was published by Haddan and Stubbs as long ago as 1869 . = = Death = = Ælfwald died in 749 . It is not known whether he left an immediate heir . After his death , according to mediaeval sources , East Anglia was divided between three kings , under circumstances that are not clear .
= Summer Mortimer = Summer Ashley Mortimer ( born April 22 , 1993 ) is a Canadian paraswimmer who initially competed internationally for Canada , but switched to the Netherlands national paralympic team in 2014 . She has won seven world @-@ championship finals for Canada and the Netherlands , and four medals for Canada at her first Paralympic Games in London : two gold , one silver and one bronze . Mortimer competed in the 2008 Canadian Olympic Trials as an able @-@ bodied swimmer , and retrained as a paraswimmer after a trampolining accident . She began competing at the international level in 2010 with an SM10 classification , setting world records in the process ( one of which she broke again in qualifying for the 2012 Paralympics ) . Competing in six events , Mortimer won medals in all four individual races . She holds world records in the S10 50- and 100 @-@ metre long @-@ course freestyle and the 50- 100- and 200 @-@ metre backstroke . In 2013 Mortimer applied to join the Netherlands national team , and announced her transfer in June 2014 . Winning three medals ( two gold and one silver ) at the 2014 IPC championships , she set two European records and expressed disappointment for not setting world records . She will not be competing in the 2016 Summer Olympics , citing " serious health reasons . " = = Career = = Mortimer began swimming at age two ; her mother is a co @-@ owner of the Oakville Swim Academy . At age nine , she began swimming competitively . As a member of the Hamilton Aquatic Club and the Golden Horseshoe Aquatic Club , Mortimer competed at the 2008 Canadian Olympic Trials for the Beijing games . She is classified SM10 , the least @-@ disabled paraswimming classification . SM10 is open to those with " very minimal weakness affecting the legs ; Swimmers with restriction of hip joint movement ; Swimmers with both feet deformed ; Swimmers with one leg amputated below the knee ; Swimmers missing one hand . This is the class with the most physical ability " . = = = Paraswimming for Canada = = = A serious injury at a competitive trampolining event shattered most of the bones in Mortimer 's feet ; she was nationally ranked in the sport . When she began trying to walk again , she relearned swimming . Unaware that the Worlds were being broadcast , Mortimer was caught by surprise and stuck her tongue out at the camera . Her relaxed attitude continued at the Olympics , where she said that although there may be " some underlying arrogance " , she was not consciously trying to send a message to her rivals . Mortimer wears an elastic band which she snaps when aware of a negative thought ; " incredibly hard on myself " , it helps her realize the frequency of her " down " thinking and changes her mental perspective . As a former able @-@ bodied competitive swimmer , she is annoyed by the idea held by some able @-@ bodied swimmers that paralympic swimming is a " joke " . " The Paralympics are so much harder than the able @-@ bodied side of sport . I know from first hand . It 's way harder " ; Mortimer said that she knew " truckloads of able @-@ bodied athletes who constantly make fun of the Paralympics " . She hopes for a change in attitude , noting how much change fellow medalist Benoit Huot has seen since the 2000 Paralympics in Sydney . = = = = World @-@ level competition = = = = At the 2010 IPC Swimming World Championships in Eindhoven , Netherlands , Mortimer won four gold medals and set five world records . In November of that year , she was Female Paraswimmer of the Year at Swimming Canada 's Big Splash . At the April 2012 Canadian Olympic and Paralympic Swimming Trials in Montreal , Mortimer aimed to lower her world record in the 50 @-@ metre freestyle from 28 @.@ 30 seconds to about 28 @.@ 27 ; she finished in 28 @.@ 17 seconds . Between the Trials and the Paralympics , she won the 100 @-@ metre backstroke in July at the Canada Cup ; this result surprised Mortimer , who had a " rough time " with her feet the previous month . That month , she also won the women 's 100 @-@ metre S10 at the Speedo Paraswimming CAN @-@ AM in Winnipeg . = = = = London Paralympics = = = = Mortimer qualified for six women 's SM10 events at the 2012 London Paralympics — the 200 @-@ metre individual medley , 4 × 100 m freestyle relay 34pts , 4 × 100 m medley relay , 50- and 100 @-@ metre freestyle and 100 @-@ metre backstroke — and expectations for her were high . On August 30 , the first day of the competition , Sophie Pascoe of New Zealand won the SM10 200 @-@ metre individual medley ; Mortimer took the silver medal . For a half @-@ hour before the competition , Mortimer was " bawling her eyes out " ; she told The Canadian Press , " [ Being ] here and meeting all these people made me realize I am so incredibly grateful for the experience I ’ ve had as a result of my accident . I don ’ t know if this was part of the journey I was supposed to walk in life but I wouldn ’ t take it back for the world " . The next day , she won the S10 50 @-@ metre freestyle gold medal in a record time of 28 @.@ 10 seconds . Mortimer 's time was .07 second faster than her April Trials record , and .14 second faster than Pascoe 's time ; she went into the race " a bit annoyed " and " mad at anyone who was going to take it from me " . In the preliminary round of the 100 @-@ metre backstroke Mortimer placed third , and hoped to be away from " the main people " in the finals to maintain her focus . She won the gold medal in the final on September 4 , setting a world record of 1 : 05 @.@ 90 after overcoming Pascoe 's half @-@ second lead at the turn . Mortimer noted that her time was faster than her best able @-@ bodied time . In the 100 @-@ metre freestyle ( her final solo event ) Mortimer finished third , 0 @.@ 69 second behind Pascoe and France 's Elodie Lorandi ; Canadian Aurelie Rivard finished fourth . Mortimer 's bronze was Canada 's only medal on day nine of the competition . As part of the Canadian women 's 34 @-@ point 4 × 100 m freestyle relay and 4 × 100 m medley relay teams , Mortimer did not medal . Although her freestyle @-@ relay team clocked 4 : 38 @.@ 23 ( missing the 2000 Canadian record by 0 @.@ 22 second ) , they placed seventh in the finals . With Katarina Roxon , Morgan Bird and Brianna Nelson in the medley relay , Mortimer 's team finished seventh and last . Her times of 32 @.@ 35 for the 50 @-@ metre and 1 : 06 @.@ 37 for the 100 @-@ metre were the fastest for her legs of the events . At the 2012 Olympics , Mortimer 's four medals were the most for any Canadian athlete or para @-@ athlete . = = = = After London = = = = Following Mortimer 's last individual event at London she said that although she intended to try for the 2013 World Aquatics Championships , the 2015 Parapan American Games , and the 2016 Paralympics , she takes life year @-@ by @-@ year . From October 2012 to April 2013 at least , she planned to take time off to focus on her health . Mortimer appeared at the Olympic Heroes Parade in Toronto . For the event , Paralympic athletes were given rooms at a hotel on the outskirts of Toronto while Olympic athletes were housed downtown and received gifts ; at a dinner , the Paralympians were relegated to a different dining room . A Canadian Paralympic Committee spokesperson told The Spectator that the committee scrambled during the Paralympics to have their athletes included , and with their limited funding they could not afford the perks received by the Olympic athletes . The athlete is a 2015 Pan and Parapan American Games ambassador , and has given presentations at schools . Mortimer receives honorariums for these appearances , and hoped to earn $ 3 @,@ 000 in speaking fees in 2012 . She appeared on CBC 's Play On ! Street Hockey Championship in Niagara Falls , assisted with the post @-@ position draw at the Pattison Canadian International Championship Stakes , and has appeared in publicity photo shoots . Competitive @-@ swimwear manufacturer Arena sponsors Mortimer . In November 2012 , she went public about her and her uncle 's difficulty in finding sponsorship since the 2010 Worlds . Mortimer said that Paralympic athletes received no prize money , despite thousands of dollars given by the government to winning Olympians and their coaches . She told The Hamilton Spectator , " We get a pat on the back and a good job note from Stephen Harper . It 's upsetting . Trust me , coming from being an able @-@ bodied athlete to a Paralympian , it infuriates me " , and that she receives $ 3 @,@ 000 a year in funding from the government . Mortimer 's return to the pool included the April 9 , 2014 Cam Am Para Swimming competition , where she won three gold medals . = = = Paraswimming for the Netherlands = = = In 2013 , Mortimer applied to switch to the Netherlands national team ; since her mother is from that country , she has dual citizenship . In June 2014 , the Hamilton Spectator reported the change . Although day @-@ to @-@ day funding in the Netherlands is similar to that in Canada , the former offers prize money ; in the 2012 Paralympics , Mortimer would have won $ 60 @,@ 000 for her gold medals alone . She will train in Amersfoort . She was successful at the August 2014 IPC Swimming European Championships in Eindhoven . Breaking the women 's 50 @-@ metre freestyle record in the morning 's heats , Mortimer lowered it again to 28 @.@ 12 in the finals . In the S10 100 @-@ metre backstroke , she broke the European record in the morning 's heats and again in the final . Although she won a gold medal , she told the IPC website : " I wanted a world record . I 'm not satisfied , I 'm not super happy . That wasn 't the perfect race . But this was a gauge to see where I am at . " = = Awards = = The Big Splash ( from Swimming Canada ) 2011 : Female Para @-@ Swimmer of the Year ; her father was the Para @-@ Female Coach of the Year 2012 : TAS Para @-@ Swimming Female Swimmer of the Year Ontario Sport Award ( from Sport Alliance Ontario ) 2011 : Female Athlete with a Disability of the Year 2012 : Female Athlete with a Disability of the Year ; her coach , Reg Chappell , was Male Coach of the Year . Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal ( 2012 ) Mortimer , Melissa Tancredi and Cory Conacher were nominated for the 2013 Golden Horseshoe Athlete of the Year for residents of Hamilton or Burlington . Tancredi won . Columnist Dave Feschuk of the Toronto Star listed Mortimer as a contender for the 2012 Lou Marsh Trophy ( won by Christine Sinclair ) . = = Personal life = = In November 2008 , shortly after the Olympic trampoline trials , 15 @-@ year @-@ old Mortimer missed the sponge pit after bouncing on a mini @-@ trampoline and fell 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) onto a concrete pad ; her parents , spectators at the competition , saw the accident . The bones in her feet were shattered , and doctors suggested that she would never stand again . Amputation was a possibility , although Mortimer was only informed of it in 2011 . She spent six months in a wheelchair and another 18 months on crutches . Mortimer 's right foot has six screws and a plate , and her left foot has two screws ; her ankles are continuously sore , and occasionally lock up . During the Paralympics she told the Canadian Press that her feet were " killing " her , and her condition is degenerative . When Mortimer 's casts were removed her walking rehabilitation was in the water , and she thinks she would not be able to walk without the aquatic rehab . Before the injury , she had 10 sessions per week in the pool ( swimming 6 – 7 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 – 4 @.@ 3 mi ) each session ) in addition to weight training and running . After the accident her weekly threshold at the local YMCA pool was 30 to 40 kilometres ( 19 to 25 mi ) and four sessions in the weight room . Her disability is not usually evident to spectators , and according to the Canadian Press she walks with a " halfway normal gait . " Sportsnet Magazine chose Mortimer for its 2013 " Beauty of Sport " issue , and she was photographed in Las Vegas wearing a bikini . She hoped to increase interest in paralympic sport and to celebrate the bodies of all athletes . Mortimer illustrated The Night I Met the Boogie Man , written by her twin sister Julia , and created murals and other artwork for a fundraiser benefiting Olympic and Paralympic athletes . She is a graduate of Westmount Secondary School . She was named after Summer Sanders , an American Olympic swimmer who won four medals ( two gold , one silver and one bronze ) at the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona , one year before she was born .
= Onion dome = An onion dome ( Russian : луковичная глава , lúkovichnaya glava ; compare Russian : лук , luk , " onion " ) is a dome whose shape resembles an onion . Such domes are often larger in diameter than the drum upon which they sit , and their height usually exceeds their width . These bulbous structures taper smoothly to a point . It is the predominant form for church domes in Russia ( mostly on Russian Orthodox churches ) and in Bavaria , Germany ( German : Zwiebelturm ( literally " onion tower " ) , plural : Zwiebeltürme , mostly on Catholic churches ) , but can also be found regularly across Austria , northeastern Italy , Eastern Europe , Mughal India , the Middle East and Central Asia . Other types of Eastern Orthodox cupolas include helmet domes ( for example , those of the Saint Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod and of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir ) , Ukrainian pear domes ( Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev ) , and Baroque bud domes ( St. Andrew 's Church in Kiev ) . = = History = = Art historians disagree on when and why onion domes became a typical feature of Russian architecture . Byzantine churches and architecture of Kievan Rus were characterized by broader , flatter domes without a special framework erected above the drum . In contrast to this ancient form , each drum of a Russian church is surmounted by a special structure of metal or timber , which is lined with sheet iron or tiles . By the end of the nineteenth century , most Russian churches from before the Petrine period had bulbous domes . The largest onion domes were erected in the seventeenth century in the area around Yaroslavl , incidentally famous for its large onions . Quite a few had more complicated bud @-@ shaped domes , whose form derived from Baroque models of the late seventeenth century . Pear @-@ shaped domes are usually associated with Ukrainian Baroque , while cone @-@ shaped domes are typical for Orthodox churches of Transcaucasia . = = Traditional view = = Russian icons painted before the Mongol invasion of Rus do not feature churches with onion domes . Two highly venerated pre @-@ Mongol churches that have been rebuilt — the Assumption Cathedral and the Cathedral of St. Demetrius in Vladimir — display golden helmet domes . Restoration work on several other ancient churches revealed some fragments of former helmet @-@ like domes below newer onion cupolas . It has been posited that onion domes first appeared during the reign of Ivan the Terrible . The domes of Saint Basil 's Cathedral have not been altered since the reign of Ivan 's son Fyodor I , indicating the presence of onion domes in the sixteenth @-@ century Russia . Some scholars postulate that onion domes were borrowed by Russians from Muslim countries - probably from the Khanate of Kazan , whose conquest Ivan the Terrible commemorated by erecting St. Basil 's Cathedral . Eight of the nine domes featured on St. Basil 's Cathedral represent each attack on Kazan . The ninth dome was constructed 36 years after the siege of Kazan as a tomb for Basil . The ornate finishes of these domes are bright in color and bold in shape as they 're adorned with pyramids and stripes , and many other patterns seen on other cathedrals than Basil 's . Some believe that onion domes first appeared in Russian wooden architecture above tent @-@ like churches . According to this theory , onion domes were strictly utilitarian , as they prevented snow from piling on the roof . Based on the notion that onion domes did not exist in Russia before the mid @-@ sixteenth century , restoration work on churches built before the seventeenth century have routinely involved replacement of onion domes with " more authentic " helmet @-@ shaped domes . One example of such restoration is the Dormition Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin . = = Modern view = = In 1946 , the historian Boris Rybakov , while analysing miniatures of ancient Russian chronicles , pointed out that most of them , from the thirteenth century onward , display churches with onion domes rather than helmet domes . Nikolay Voronin , the foremost authority on pre @-@ Mongol Russian architecture , seconded his opinion that onion domes existed in Russia as early as the thirteenth century , although they presumably could not be widespread . These findings demonstrated that Russian onion domes could not be imported from the Orient , where onion domes did not replace spherical domes until the fifteenth century . Sergey Zagraevsky , a modern art historian , surveyed hundreds of Russian icons and miniatures , from the eleventh century onward . He concluded that most icons painted after the Mongol invasion of Rus display only onion domes . First onion domes displayed on some pictures of twelfth century ( two miniatures from Dobrylov Evangelie ) . He found only one icon from the late fifteenth century displaying a dome resembling the helmet instead of an onion . His findings led him to dismiss fragments of helmet domes discovered by restorators beneath modern onion domes as post @-@ Petrine stylisations intended to reproduce the familiar forms of Byzantine cupolas . Zagraevsky also indicated that the oldest depictions of the two Vladimir cathedrals represent them as having onion domes , prior to their replacement by classicizing helmet domes.hi explains the ubiquitous appearance of onion domes in the late thirteenth century by the general emphasis on verticality characteristic of Russian architecture from the late twelfth to early fifteenth centuries . At that period , porches , pilasters , vaults and drums were arranged to create a vertical thrust , to make the church seem taller than it was . It seems logical that elongated , or onion , domes were part of the same proto @-@ Gothic trend aimed at achieving pyramidal , vertical emphasis . = = Symbolism = = Prior to the eighteenth century , the Russian Orthodox Church did not assign any particular symbolism to the exterior shape of a church . Nevertheless , onion domes are popularly believed to symbolise burning candles . In 1917 , noted religious philosopher Prince Yevgeny Trubetskoy argued that the onion shape of Russian church domes may not be explained rationally . According to Trubetskoy , drums crowned by tapering domes were deliberately scored to resemble candles , thus manifesting a certain aesthetic and religious attitude . Another explanation has it that the onion dome was originally regarded as a form reminiscent of the edicula ( cubiculum ) in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem . Onion domes often appear in groups of three , representing the Holy Trinity , or five , representing Jesus Christ and the Four Evangelists . Domes standing alone represent Jesus . Vasily Tatischev , the first to record such interpretation , disapproved of it emphatically . He believed that the five @-@ domed design of churches was propagated by Patriarch Nikon , who liked to compare the central and highest dome with himself and four lateral domes with four other patriarchs of the Orthodox world . There is no other evidence that Nikon ever held such a view . The domes are often brightly painted : their colors may informally symbolise different aspects of religion . Green , blue , and gold domes are sometimes held to represent the Holy Trinity , the Holy Spirit , and Jesus , respectively . Black ball @-@ shaped domes were once popular in the snowy north of Russia . = = Internationally = = The onion dome is not only found in Russian architecture : it was also used extensively in Mughal architecture , which later went on to influence Indo @-@ Gothic architecture . Outside India , it is also used in Iran and other places in the Middle East and Central Asia . At the end of 19th century , the Dutch built Baiturrahman Grand Mosque in Aceh , Indonesia , which incorporated onion shaped dome . The shape of the dome has been used in numerous mosques in Indonesia since then . Baroque domes in the shape of an onion ( or other vegetables or flower @-@ buds ) were common in the Holy Roman Empire as well . The first one was built in 1576 by the architect John Holl ( 1512 @-@ 1594 ) on the church of the Convent of the Franciscan Sisters of Maria Stern in Augsburg . Usually made of copper sheet , onion domes appear on Catholic churches all over southern Germany , Czech lands , Austria and Sardinia and Northeast Italy . Onion domes were also a favourite of 20th @-@ century Austrian architectural designer Friedensreich Hundertwasser . The World 's Only Corn Palace , a tourist attraction and basketball arena in Mitchell , South Dakota , also features onion domes on the roof of the structure .
= Mark Soyer = Mark Soyer is an Australian para @-@ alpine LW11 classified skier . He dealt with leukaemia twice as a child . At the age of 26 , he severed his spinal cord during an accident while riding his motorbike on his parents ' farm , and subsequently tried several different sports . Working as a manufacturing jeweller and gemologist in Melbourne , he has also been involved with para @-@ skiing as a volunteer , and serving in administrative roles for various organisations . In 2007 , he was a finalist for the Pride of Australia awards for courage . Soyer took up skiing following his accident after attending a camp in Australia . He then travelled to Colorado to attend another camp , before coming back to Australia to attend another camp . In 2007 , he was ranked as Australia 's second best sit @-@ skier , and was in the top 50 skiers in the world . He attempted to make the 2010 Winter Paralympics . He earned bronze medals at skiing events in New Zealand in 2011 . In 2012 , he was a member of the Australian Paralympic skiing team , based out of the Australian Institute of Sports , and was trying to secure a spot for the 2014 Winter Paralympics in Sochi , Russia . = = Personal = = As a three @-@ year @-@ old , Soyer was diagnosed with leukaemia , and doctors were pessimistic about his chances for survival . Despite being declared cancer free by the age of six , the cancer came back when he was eight years old . As a child , he played Australian rules football and was a member of Little Athletics . He attended Benalla College . In November 2004 , at the age of 26 , Soyer severed his spinal cord during an accident while riding his motorbike on his parents ' farm . He was keen to exercise as soon as he could during his rehabilitation . He tried several sports , including wheelchair tennis , wheelchair rugby and wheelchair basketball , following his accident in an attempt to find one that made him feel able @-@ bodied . He drove dune buggies and tried kayaking , and in 2007 was learning how to para @-@ glide . In 2007 and 2008 , Soyer worked as a manufacturing jeweller and gemologist in Melbourne . He volunteers for Disabled Winter Sport Australia as a ski guide . From 2005 to 2008 , he raised more than AUD $ 7 @,@ 500 to assist other Australian para @-@ skiers afford equipment to compete . At the same time , he also gave skiing lessons . He is also on the board of Able Management Group , an organisation assisting people with disabilities to get into para @-@ alpine skiing , where he serves on the Fundraising Committee . He was involved in the founding of the AMG Free Ride Team . He is also part of the Australian Paralympic Committee 's WorkCoverSA Paralympian Speakers Program . In 2007 , he helped conduct three adaptive skiing camps in Victoria , and was a finalist for the Pride of Australia awards for courage . = = Skiing = = Soyer is an LW11 classified skier , who skied before his accident . He took up sit @-@ skiing while rehabilitating from his injuries , and was able to adapt to a mono @-@ ski within the first day of trying it at a Disability Wintersport Australia camp at Falls Creek . Before the year was out following that camp , he went to Colorado and participated in a skiing camp specifically for people who use monoskis . During the following Australian ski season , he participated in a learn to ski race camp at Thredbo . Soyer trains at Mount Hotham and Falls Creek in Australia , and in Colorado in the United States . In 2007 , he was ranked as Australia 's second best sit @-@ skier and was in the top 50 skiers in the world . In December of that year , he competed at the Hartford Ski Spectacular at the Beaver Run Resort in Breckenridge , Colorado where he finished thirteenth in the giant slalom , with a time of 1 : 09 @.@ 12 in his first run , and 1 : 08 @.@ 67 in his second run for a combined run time of 2 : 17 @.@ 79 . In 2008 , Soyer was trying to qualify for the 2010 Winter Paralympics . At that time , he was the second ranked skier in his class in Australia , and ranked in the top 60 in the world . Going into the 2008 / 2009 ski season , he needed to raise AUD $ 20 @,@ 000 to allow him to compete internationally to qualify for the Games . In August 2009 , he competed in the Winter Games NZ at Coronet Peak in the men 's sitting LW11 slalom event . At the 2011 New Zealand Winter Games , he finished third in the men 's sitting giant slalom event with a time of 1 : 46 @.@ 08 . Arriving late to the event , he did not have much training time to learn the course . At another skiing event in 2011 in Mt Hutt , New Zealand , he finished third in the Super G. He competed at the 2011 IPC Alpine Skiing Noram Cup at Copper Mountain , Colorado , where he earned three fourth @-@ place finishes and one seventh @-@ place finish . Early in his trip , prior to competing , he broke his race ski and had equipment difficulties at the Noram Cup as a result . He had a time of 2 : 00 @.@ 69 in the giant slalom race . In 2012 , he was a member of the Australian Paralympic skiing team , based out of the Australian Institute of Sports , and was trying to secure a spot for the 2014 Winter Paralympics . In January 2012 , he was in Austria to compete at the Abtenau IPCAS . That year , Liberty Skis Corporation signed him to its professional team .
= Royal Rumble ( 2005 ) = Royal Rumble ( 2005 ) was the eighteenth annual Royal Rumble professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . It was presented by PlayStation 2 and took place on January 30 , 2005 , at the Save Mart Center in Fresno , California and featured talent from both the Raw and SmackDown ! brands . As has been customary since 1993 , the Royal Rumble match winner received a match at that year 's WrestleMania , ( in this instance : WrestleMania 21 ) for his choice at either the WWE Championship or the World Heavyweight Championship . Five professional wrestling matches were featured on the event 's supercard , a scheduling of more than one main event . The main event was the annual 30 @-@ man Royal Rumble match , which featured wrestlers from both brands . Batista , the twenty @-@ eighth entrant , won the match by last eliminating John Cena , the twenty @-@ fifth entrant . The primary match on the Raw brand was Triple H versus Randy Orton for the World Heavyweight Championship , which Triple H won by pinfall after performing a Pedigree . The primary match on the SmackDown ! brand was a Triple Threat match for the WWE Championship between reigning champion John " Bradshaw " Layfield , Kurt Angle , and The Big Show , which JBL won by pinning Angle after performing a Clothesline from Hell . For the first time since The Wrestling Classic , no tag team match was assigned . = = Background = = The professional wrestling matches at Royal Rumble featured professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre @-@ determined by the hosting promotion , World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . Storylines between the characters were produced on WWE 's weekly television shows Raw and SmackDown ! with the Raw and SmackDown ! brands — storyline divisions in which WWE assigned its employees to different programs . The main feud heading into the Royal Rumble on the Raw brand was between Triple H and Randy Orton over the World Heavyweight Championship . Their feud started on the night after Summerslam , when Orton was kicked out of Evolution by Triple H. The following month , at Unforgiven , Triple H defeated Orton to win the World Heavyweight Championship . At Survivor Series , Team Orton ( Orton , Chris Benoit , Chris Jericho , and Maven ) defeated Team Triple H ( Triple H , Edge , Batista , and Snitsky ) in a four @-@ on @-@ four Elimination match . Orton won the match for his team by last eliminating Triple H. Two months later , at New Year 's Revolution , the pay @-@ per @-@ view three weeks before the Royal Rumble , Triple H won an Elimination Chamber match to win the vacant World Heavyweight Championship . Triple H won the match by last eliminating Orton following outside interference from Evolution members Batista and Ric Flair . The next night on Raw , Orton defeated Batista to become the number one contender to the title at the Royal Rumble . The following week , after a verbal confrontation between the two in the arena , Triple H ambushed Orton backstage . They fought until Orton tried to use a steel chair , and Triple H fled . On the January 24 episode of Raw , Orton faced off against Ric Flair . During the match , as the referee was knocked down , Triple H came in and attacked Orton along with Flair . Orton , however , fought off both men and won the match . The main feud on the SmackDown ! brand was between John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) , The Big Show , and Kurt Angle , with the three feuding over the WWE Championship . On the December 16 , 2004 , episode of SmackDown ! , Angle challenged JBL to a match for the WWE Championship . The Cabinet ( Orlando Jordan , Doug , and Danny Basham ) interfered and attacked Angle , causing the match to end via disqualification . They continued to attack Angle after the match until The Big Show came out , beat down everyone , and signaled to JBL that he wanted the title . In the weeks that followed , a Triple Threat match for the title between the three was booked for the Royal Rumble . Following this , JBL set up Angle to anger The Big Show , but Angle angered JBL in response . After realizing this , JBL aligned himself with The Big Show and confronted Angle ; however , JBL turned on Big Show and beat him down with Angle . On the January 27 episode of SmackDown ! , SmackDown ! General Manager Theodore Long booked a Last Man Standing match between JBL and Angle for later that night . The two eventually turned on each other , and the match ended in a no contest . It was later revealed that the match was Big Show 's idea . Another feud heading into the event from SmackDown ! was between The Undertaker and Heidenreich . Their feud first started in 2004 at No Mercy , the pay @-@ per @-@ view in October . Heidenreich helped John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) defeat Undertaker in a Last Ride match by attacking Undertaker and putting him in the hearse . At Survivor Series , Undertaker defeated Heidenreich by pinfall after executing a Tombstone Piledriver . At Armageddon 2004 , Heidenreich once again cost Undertaker his title match against JBL in a Fatal Four Way that involved Booker T and Eddie Gurrerro by pushing Undertaker backwards while holding JBL in the tombstone piledriver position , before JBL pinned Booker T after a Clothesline From Hell . Smackdown 's General Manager Theodore Long let Undertaker name the stipulation for his match against Heidenreich at Royal Rumble . As Heidenreich mentioned his fear of caskets , Undertaker chose to face him in a casket match for Royal Rumble . A preliminary Raw brand feud was between Shawn Michaels and Edge . Their feud started at Taboo Tuesday 2004 when Michaels was voted over Edge to face Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship . At New Year 's Revolution 2005 , Edge lost a shot at the title in an Elimination Chamber with Michaels as special referee . In the Elimination Chamber , Michaels superkicked Edge , followed by a lionsault from Chris Jericho , with Jericho making the cover . Believing it was Michael 's fault that he was not crowned champion , Edge speared Michaels and the two men were booked into a match at Royal Rumble . = = Event = = Before the event went live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , Maven defeated Rhyno in a match taped for Sunday Night Heat . The first match that aired was between Edge and Shawn Michaels . Edge mocked Michaels by performing some of Michaels ' signature taunts during the match . Edge gained the advantage after an Edge @-@ O @-@ Matic ( sitout rear mat slam ) outside the ring . Michaels fought back until Edge left the ring . Michaels came after him , but , with the referee 's distraction , Edge speared Michaels , both outside and inside the ring . Michaels then knocked Edge off the second rope and executed a diving elbow drop . Edge countered a superkick attempt into an electric chair drop and applied the Edgecator . Michaels broke the hold and attempted a roll @-@ up , but Edge rolled through and pinned Michaels while holding the ropes . The second match was a Casket match between The Undertaker and Heidenreich . The match started back and forth until Heidenreich sent The Undertaker into the side of the casket . The Undertaker came back , applying the triangle choke until Gene Snitsky interfered and attacked The Undertaker . Snitsky and Heidenreich double @-@ teamed The Undertaker and called for the casket to be opened . Kane was revealed to be inside the casket , and he climbed out . He attacked Snitsky and Heidenreich and fought Snitsky into the audience . Heidenreich sent The Undertaker into the steel steps and pushed the casket into him . Heidenreich put The Undertaker in the casket after applying the cobra clutch . The Undertaker stopped the lid from closing with his arm , gaining control briefly . Heidenreich fought back and put The Undertaker in the casket again . The Undertaker , however , fought out of it and executed a chokeslam and a Tombstone Piledriver . Shortly after , Undertaker put Heidenreich in the casket and closed the lid to win the match . The third match was a Triple Threat match for the WWE Championship between champion John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) , The Big Show , and Kurt Angle . In the opening minutes , Angle stayed on the outside of the ring , leaving Big Show and JBL on their own . Angle came into the ring to break up a pinfall attempt , but Big Show kept the advantage over both men . Angle hit Big Show with a television monitor to send him through an announce table , thus leaving Angle and JBL on their own . Big Show returned a few minutes later and continued to control the match . Big Show tackled JBL through the steel barricade and performed a flapjack to Angle onto a steel chair . Shortly after , Luther Reigns , Mark Jindrak , Doug , and Danny Basham attacked Big Show , and Orlando Jordan helped JBL back into the ring . JBL then executed a Clothesline from Hell on Angle and pinned him to retain the title . The fourth match was between Triple H and Randy Orton for the World Heavyweight Championship . Prior to the match , Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff banned Evolution ( Batista and Ric Flair ) from ringside . Orton had control at the start of the match until Triple H countered an RKO attempt by throwing Orton out of the ring . Triple H kept the advantage and targeted Orton 's left knee until Orton kicked him into an announce table . Orton kept the advantage until he suffered a kayfabe concussion from missing a DDT . Triple H knocked both Orton and the referee down with a clothesline and took out a sledgehammer from beneath the ring . He tried to hit Orton with it , but Orton pulled him into the ringpost . Triple H performed another clothesline and a Pedigree to win and retain the title . The final match was the Royal Rumble match . Before the match began , Kurt Angle stole Nunzio 's entrance number , taking his spot in the match . After the tenth entrant , Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff came to ringside , and SmackDown ! General Manager Theodore Long also came out soon after . The participants then divided into their brands and fought against each other until they worked together to eliminate Muhammad Hassan , the thirteen entrant . Scotty 2 Hotty , the fifteenth entrant , was attacked by Hassan during his entrance and never entered the match . Angle , the twentieth entrant , dominated upon entering the match until Shawn Michaels eliminated him . Angle came back in later to eliminate Michaels and continued to attack him afterwards . Jonathan Coachman , the twenty @-@ first entrant , spent a lot of his time in the match holding onto the bottom rope as he was not a wrestler . The final four participants remaining were Batista , John Cena , Edge , and Rey Mysterio . Edge fought with Mysterio and threw him over the top rope , but he stayed on the apron . Edge then executed a spear to eliminate Mysterio . Cena and Batista then eliminated Edge as he was attacking them . Cena tried to perform an FU on Batista to the outside , but Batista fought off . Batista then attempted a Batista Bomb to the outside , but was countered with a headscissors takedown by Cena , sending both over the top rope and touching the floor at the same time . The referees for the Raw brand believed Batista to be the winner while the SmackDown ! referees believed Cena to be winner . Following this , WWE Chairman Vince McMahon came to the ring , in the process legitimately tearing both his quadriceps muscles , and ordered the match to be restarted with the final two participants , Batista and John Cena . Batista tossed Cena over the top rope following a Spinebuster to win the match . = = Aftermath = = The following weeks on Raw surrounded Batista 's choice of which champion to face at WrestleMania 21 . Triple H devised a scheme to have Batista almost run over by a limousine resembling John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) ' s , so Batista would challenge JBL instead of himself . Batista became aware of the scheme and chose to face Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania , thus leaving the Evolution stable in the process . He won the title , and their feud continued until he was drafted to SmackDown ! on June 30 . Batista remained champion until the January 13 , 2006 , episode of SmackDown ! when he surrendered the title due to injury . John Cena went on to win a tournament to become the number one contender to the WWE Championship at WrestleMania 21 . The tournament concluded in a match between him and Kurt Angle at No Way Out , which Cena won after performing an FU . Following this , he began an angle with JBL . Cena defeated JBL to win the title at WrestleMania , and their feud ended after Cena retained the title in an " I Quit " match at Judgment Day . Cena would then go to hold on to the title until New Year 's Revolution 2006 when Edge cashed in the Money in the Bank contract he won at Wrestlemania 21 and defeat Cena after an Elimination Chamber match . Following the Royal Rumble , Randy Orton and Kurt Angle began feuding with The Undertaker and Shawn Michaels , respectively . The Big Show faced JBL in the first ever barbed wire steel cage match for the title at No Way Out , which JBL won to retain the title . Orton briefly feuded with Christian before moving on to feud with The Undertaker , which spanned nine months . After losing his title match at No Way Out , The Big Show faced Akebono in a sumo match at WrestleMania , and he briefly feuded with Carlito afterwards . = = Results = = = = = Royal Rumble match entrances and eliminations = = = Red █ █ and " Raw " indicates a Raw superstar , blue █ █ and " SmackDown ! " indicates a SmackDown ! superstar . A new entrant came out approximately every 90 seconds . ^ Scotty was attacked by Hassan before he made it to the ring , and therefore was unable to compete and never officially entered the match . ^ Kurt Angle had been eliminated by Shawn Michaels and then returned to the ring , and eliminated Michaels in retaliation .
= Roc Me Out = " Roc Me Out " is a song recorded by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna for her sixth studio album Talk That Talk ( 2011 ) . It was written by Ester Dean , Robert Swire , Gareth McGrillen , Mikkel S. Eriksen and Tor Erik Hermansen . The track was produced by StarGate ( Eriksen and Hermansen ) and Knife Party ( Swire and McGrillen ) . " Roc Me Out " is a synthpop song reminiscent of Rihanna 's previous singles " Rude Boy " and " S & M " . It is set in " chugging " tempo and features heavy synths , " contagious " hooks and West Indian nuances . Lyrically , the song features Rihanna sexually seducing her lover , while revealing her " nasty secrets " . Contemporary music critics were divided in their reviews of " Roc Me Out " ; some of them labeled the song as a highlight on the album , while others criticized its similarity to Rihanna 's previous singles . Upon the release of Talk That Talk , the song debuted on the lower regions of the singles charts in South Korea and the United Kingdom at number 73 and 176 respectively . = = Recording and production = = " Roc Me Out " was written by Ester Dean , Robert Swire , Gareth McGrillen , Mikkel S. Eriksen and Tor Erik Hermansen . The song was produced by StarGate ( Eriksen and Hermansen ) and Knife Party ( Swire and McGrillen ) . Dean and Stargate have collaborated on Rihanna 's previous songs including " Rude Boy " ( Rated R , 2009 ) and " S & M " ( Loud , 2010 ) . Eriksen and Miles Walker recorded " Roc Me Out " at Roc the Mic Studios in New York City , Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles and The Hide Out Studios in London . It was mixed by Phil Tan , while Daniella Rivera served as a mixing assistant . The song 's vocal production was completed by Kuk Harrell , with the vocal recording done by Marcos Tovar and Harrell himself . The instrumentation of the song was made by Eriksen and Hermansen . Tim Blacksmith and Danny D. were signed as executive producers of " Roc Me Out " . = = Composition and lyrical interpretation = = " Roc Me Out " is a synthpop song that runs for 3 minutes and 29 seconds . It is set in " chugging " tempo and features heavy synths , contagious hooks and West Indian nuances . According to the digital sheet music published by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " Roc Me Out " is written in the key of E minor ( recorded in E @-@ flat minor ) and set in common time , with 80 beats per minute . Rihanna 's vocal range spans from the low note of B3 to the high note of D5 . Music critics noted similarities between the song and previous singles by Rihanna and Australian @-@ British band Pendulum , whose members Swire and McGrillen co @-@ wrote and co @-@ produced the song . Laurence Green of MusicOMH described " Roc Me Out " as a " collision " between Rihanna 's 2010 single " Rude Boy " and Pendulum 's " Slam " ( Hold Your Colour , 2005 ) . According to Edward Keeble of Gigwise , " Roc Me Out " sounds like a combination of " Umbrella " ( Good Girl Gone Bad , 2007 ) and a slowed down version of " Slam " . Lyrically , the song shows Rihanna sexually seducing her love interest , while revealing her " nasty secrets " . According to Julianne Shepherd of Spin , Rihanna " coyly dares " ' her lover to " sex her up " ' . In " Roc Me Out " , Rihanna uses her " militaristic alternate persona " and interprets the lyrics " with a command and directness befitting " of it . Rihanna complains to her lover throughout the lines " You ’ re taking too long to get my head on the ground / And my feet in the clouds , " before cooing , " I ’ ve been a bad girl , daddy " . She gives him instructions while singing " Get my head in the ground and my feet in the clouds " . Priya Elan of NME commented that the song sounds like a " ‘ Rude Boy ’ re @-@ tool from the vocal delivery to her ' Come on boy ' line . " In the end , Rihanna reveals the " dirtiest secret " through the line " I ’ ll let you in on a dirty little secret , I just want to be loved " . David Amidon of PopMatters described the line as the song 's " not exactly a dangerous sentiment " . = = Critical reception = = Michael Jepson from The Fourth Estate concluded that " Roc Me Out " , along with " Cockiness ( Love It ) " and " Do Ya Thang " , are the top candidates of the album 's " highlights " . He described the songs are " blatantly raunchy " and noted their similarities to Rihanna 's 2011 single , " S & M " . Jepson also called " Roc Me Out " one of the " sexiest " songs on the album as it " shocks the audience " with its lyrics . Andy Kelman of Allmusic called the song " prowling " and further explained that it contains " more sleek menace than Rated R ’ s ' G4L ' and Loud ’ s ' S & M ' . " Sam Lansky from MTV Buzzworthy wrote that " Roc Me Out " sounds " aggressive and a little ominous " , and " it wouldn 't have sounded out of place on Rated R " . Julianne Shepherd from Spin stated that from another artist , it would be a song about self @-@ doubt , but from Rihanna , " it 's like she 's willfully withholding faith and throwing it back just to tantalize . " In a review of Talk That Talk , Giovanny Caquias of CultureBlues placed the song in a " slut @-@ core quartet " alongside " Cockiness ( Love It ) " , " Birthday Cake " and " Watch n ' Learn " . He explained that " Roc Me Out " " is more developed than the others , but still much too mediocre to become Rihanna 's twelfth number @-@ one single . " Reem Buhazza of The National wrote that " Roc Me Out " together with " You da One " and " Talk That Talk " are " the winning combination of made @-@ for @-@ radio pop sensibility " . Laurence Green from MusicOMH labeled the track as " a surprising late @-@ album standout " . Edward Keeble from Gigwise called " Roc Me Out a " vibrant track " and concluded that the co @-@ production by Rob Swire of Pendulum is " evident on all facets of it " . Tuyet Nguyen of The A.V. Club criticized the song by describing it as " almost laughable " . However , he also explained that " Rihanna is a performer , not a songwriter " , and what she sings is " less relevant than what she sells : a provocation that is enough to seem empowering , but not so radical that it ’ s alienating . " Maz Halima from Flavour Magazine was unfavorable of the song in her album review of Talk That Talk , stating that when she heard it , she was " a bit p * ssed off " because of its similar sound to Rihanna 's single " Rude Boy " . = = Credits and personnel = = Recording Recorded at Roc the Mic Studios , New York City ; New York ; Westlake Recording Studios , Los Angeles , California ; The Hide Out Studios , London , United Kingdom Personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of Talk That Talk , Def Jam Recordings , SRP Records . = = Charts = = Upon the release of Talk That Talk , due to digital downloads , " Roc Me Out " charted in lower regions on the singles charts in South Korea and the United Kingdom . It debuted on the South Korea Gaon International Chart at number 73 on November 26 , 2011 , with sales of 6 @,@ 444 digital copies . The song also debuted at number 176 on the UK Singles Chart in the chart issue dated December 3 , 2011 .
= Spook Country = Spook Country is a 2007 novel by speculative fiction author William Gibson . A political thriller set in contemporary North America , it followed on from the author 's previous novel , Pattern Recognition ( 2003 ) , and was succeeded in 2010 by Zero History , which featured much of the same core cast of characters . The plot comprises the intersecting tales of three protagonists : Hollis Henry , a musician @-@ turned @-@ journalist researching a story on locative art ; Tito , a young Cuban @-@ Chinese operative whose family is on occasion in the employ of a renegade ex @-@ CIA agent ; and Milgrim , a drug @-@ addled translator held captive by Brown , a strangely authoritarian and secretive man . Themes explored include the ubiquity of locative technology , the eversion of cyberspace and the political climate of the United States in the aftermath of the September 11 , 2001 attacks . Spook Country quickly reached mainstream North American bestseller lists and was nominated for British Science Fiction Association and Locus Awards . = = Plot summary = = The first strand of the novel follows Hollis Henry , a former member of the early 1990s cult band The Curfew and a freelance journalist . She is hired by advertising mogul Hubertus Bigend to write a story for his nascent magazine Node ( described as a European Wired ) about the use of locative technology in the art world . Helped by curator Odile Richard she investigates Los Angeles artist Alberto Corrales , who recreates virtually the deaths of celebrities such as River Phoenix . Corrales leads her to Bobby Chombo , an expert in geospatial technologies who handles Corrales ' technical requirements . Chombo 's background is troubleshooting navigation systems for the United States military . He is reclusive and paranoid , refusing to sleep in the same GPS grid square on consecutive nights , and only consents to talk to Hollis due to his admiration for The Curfew . Tito is part of a Chinese Cuban family of freelance " illegal facilitators " , as Brown describes them – forgers , smugglers , and associated support personnel based in New York City – and is assigned by his uncles to hand over a series of iPods to a mysterious old man . Tito is adept in a form of systema that encompasses tradecraft , a variant of free running , and the Santería religion . It is alluded that the old man may have connections to American intelligence circles and Tito hopes he can explain the mysterious death of his father . When the old man calls in a favour , his family dispatches Tito on a dangerous new assignment . The identity of the old man remains unclear , though context implies that he may be Pattern Recognition 's protagonist Cayce Pollard 's father , having removed himself from the channels of normal life to focus on disrupting what he sees as criminal elements operating in the United States Government . Tracking Tito 's family is a man known as Brown , a brusque and obstinate lead covert operative for a shadowy organization of unclear connection to the U.S. government . Of neoconservative orientation , Brown appears to have a background in law enforcement , but little training in tradecraft . Brown and his team attempt to track the activities of the old man and Tito with the help of Brown 's captive Milgrim , whom he has translate the volapuk @-@ encoded Russian used by Tito 's family to communicate . Milgrim is addicted to anti @-@ anxiety drugs , and is kept docile and compliant by Brown , who controls his supply of Rize . Brown believes that Tito and the old man are in possession of information that would , if revealed , undermine public confidence in the U.S. ' s participation in the Iraq War . In his attempts to capture them and their data , however , Brown is instead fed disinformation through the old man 's intricate schemes . The three strands of the novel converge on a shipping container of unspecified cargo that is being transported via a circuitous route to an unknown destination . In Vancouver , the old man 's team , with Hollis in tow , irradiate the shipping container , which is revealed to contain millions of U.S. dollars diverted from Iraq reconstruction funds . = = Background and composition = = = = = Initial conception and development = = = The writing process for Spook Country began for Gibson with a desire to write a novel , but without any ideas or themes that he wished to explore . The impetus for the story grew out of the author 's visual impressions of Lower Manhattan in winter , from which the character of Tito emerged . Little of the material in his original pitch of the novel ( posted online as part of an early promotional campaign by the book 's publishers ) survived in the final draft . The original proposal focused on " Warchalker " , an obscure Iraqi warblog which chronicles the story of a disappeared consignment of millions of Iraqi reconstruction money . The readers of the blog included a female networks theorist interested in locative technology , and a Manhattanite of mixed heritage who freelanced with his family for organized crime . The plot would have followed those readers ' attempt to track a shipping container through Warchalker on behalf of an unnamed villain . The characters from the proposal did appear in the final version , albeit in much @-@ altered form . An early draft featuring the musician @-@ turned @-@ journalist Hollis and half @-@ Cuban spy Tito as the two protagonists did not satisfy Gibson , and so he introduced the character of Milgrim , the drug @-@ addled translator . The story of Tito 's family of Chinese exiles in Cuba turning to crime was not based on historical events , though their role as " illegal facilitators " was inspired by real crime families specializing in smuggling , a phenomenon Gibson encountered in the course of his work with the futurist consulting entity Global Business Network . Although he had intended his 2003 novel Pattern Recognition to be a standalone work , elements of it manifested in the script of its eventual successor , including the character of amoral marketing guru Hubertus Bigend . As Gibson developed the plot , " it became apparent that Node , the shadowy magazine startup , was way Bigendian " , and thus Spook Country came to inhabit the same fictional universe as its predecessor . In a January 2007 interview , the author revealed that the later novel was set in the spring of 2006 , and described the shared world of the novels as " more or less the one we live in now " . Gibson was first introduced to locative media websites through links from a friend , and initially found the phenomenon to be " excessively nerdy and very conceptual " . Despite his finding compelling the idea of a digital grid mapping the surface of the earth , Gibson saw little storytelling traction in geocaching and geohacking , and instead reworked the material into the locative art of the novel . " When I started , I thought that the ' locative art ' stuff would work the way immersion technology did in my earlier fiction " , he commented in a subsequent interview . " Then I started liking that it wasn ’ t going to do that . " The conception of the artworks in the novel was derived from the lowbrow art movement , and was inspired by the movement 's talismanic Juxtapoz , the only art magazine Gibson was reading regularly at the time . The novel exhibits Gibson 's characteristic brand awareness ( a key plot element of Pattern Recognition ) , which he honed while poring over catalogues of products as part of his writing process . The author found the writing process unnerving , as the solution to the mystery of the container – the novel 's MacGuffin – did not come to him until after he had written several hundred pages of manuscript . = = = Pre @-@ release = = = Gibson announced the novel on October 6 , 2006 on his blog , where fragments of the work were posted non @-@ sequentially for some time , leading to much reader speculation on the content and plot of the novel . The following day , the blog featured an exploration of the mooted title by close friend and collaborator Jack Womack . In August 2007 , Gibson made an appearance in the virtual world Second Life to give a reading of the novel ; later reflecting on the experience , he remarked that the Second Life construct was " a lot more corporate " than he had imagined . A report in The Times described the event as " heavily freighted with meaning " in light of Gibson 's role in shaping conceptions of cyberspace and virtual worlds . In an interview to promote the release of the novel , Gibson revealed that one of the issues that had most affected his writing process since Pattern Recognition was the sense that everything in the text was potentially searchable online . " It 's as though there is a sort of invisible hyperlink theoretical text that extends out of the narrative of my novel in every direction " , he commented . A recipient of an advanced reading copy initiated Node Magazine , a literary project in the guise of the novel 's fictional magazine , with the intent of annotating the novel . The author , under the nom de plume patternBoy , mobilised a cadre of volunteers to track the references and collate the cloud of data surrounding the work – those elements of the story with footprints on internet resources such as Google and Wikipedia . The project had precedent in Joe Clark 's PR @-@ Otaku , an attempt at logging and annotating Pattern Recognition , but whereas that took several years to develop , Node was complete before the novel was even published . = = Themes = = In 2006 , if you invite the zeitgeist in for tea , that 's what you 're going to get . Spook Country explores themes relating to espionage , war profiteering and esoteric martial artistry , as well as familiar themes from the author 's previous novels such as the unintended uses for which technology is employed ( e.g. locative art ) and the nature of celebrity . The author 's preoccupation with semiotics and apophenia in Pattern Recognition is carried over in the sequel . In a review for The Guardian , Steven Poole observed that " This is a novel about , and also full of , ghost @-@ signs , or signs that may not be signs , and about the difficulty of telling the difference . Gibson delights in saturating the pages with data that may or may not encode clues for the reader . " = = = Eversion of cyberspace = = = Through its treatment of locative technology , the novel revisits notions of virtual reality and cyberspace prominent in Gibson 's early cyberpunk fiction . One character proposes that cyberspace is everting ; becoming an integral and indistinguishable element of the physical world rather than a domain to be visited . During the book tour for the novel , Gibson elaborated on this theme , proposing that the ubiquity of connectivity meant that what had been called " cyberspace " is no longer a discrete sphere of activity separate from and secondary to normal human activity , but that those increasingly less common parts of normal life free from connectivity were the exception . " If the book has a point to make where we are now with cyberspace " , he commented , it was that cyberspace " has colonized our everyday life and continues to colonize everyday life . " = = = Class divide = = = One of the elements of the novel that the author found most poignant was that of class division and how there is a subset of people who have access to a world of power and wealth that the vast majority will never experience , of which Gibson cited Brown and his evidently routine use of a private jet as an example . The author felt that at the time of writing , such social chasms were widening , and drew parallels to the Victorian era as well as to the world of his breakthrough novel Neuromancer ( 1984 ) in which there is no middle class , only the super @-@ rich and a predominantly criminal underclass . It 's a very Victorian world , and when I was writing Spook Country I kept running up against that feeling that the world I 'm actually trying to predict is becoming more Victorian , not less . Less middle class , more like Mexico , more like Mexico City . And I think that 's probably not a good direction . In an interview with The Telegraph promoting the novel , Gibson conjectured that the world was moving to a situation wherein social status is determined by " connectivity " – access to communications technology – rather than material wealth . = = = Political climate of the post @-@ 9 / 11 world = = = In some ways September 11 was the true beginning of the 21st century [ and ] at this point it is still perhaps only our narrative . But the way we have responded to it is changing things for other people in the world , too . So it is now becoming part of their narratives and their narratives will have different versions of the cause and its effects of the event . So it is like this seismic shock , one whose waves are still moving up the time line . At its epicentre is 9 / 11 . Sociocultural changes in post @-@ September 11 America , including a resurgent tribalism and the " infantilization of society " , first appeared as a prominent motif in Gibson 's thought with Pattern Recognition . Gibson interpreted the attacks as a nodal point , " an experience out of culture " which irrevocably changed the course of history and marked " the true beginning of the 21st century . " After crafting 100 pages of that novel , he was compelled to re @-@ write the main character 's backstory , which the attacks had suddenly rendered implausible ; this he called " the strangest experience I 've ever had with a piece of fiction . " The result saw Gibson noted as one of the first novelists to use the attacks to inform their writing . Nathan Lee in The Village Voice advanced the notion that while Pattern Recognition focused to an extent on " specifying the ambient sense of invasiveness in all aspects of life after the collapse of the towers " , Spook Country accepted that anxiety as a premise , and was thus " the more reflective , less unnerving of the two novels " . Politics is present as an underlying theme in Spook Country to a greater extent than in any of the author 's previous novels . The novel can be read as an exploration of the fear , uncertainty and pervasive paranoia of an America riven by the unending and divisive Iraq War . Although he had avoided overtly political themes in his previous work out of a distaste for didacticism , Gibson found that in the Bush era , politics had " jacked itself up to my level of weirdness " . Of the climate in Washington , D.C. during that period , he disclosed in a 2007 interview that " I like the sheer sort of neo @-@ Stalinist denial of reality . That 's what makes it work . It 's interesting . " Mike Duffy in Scotland on Sunday characterized the novel as a " startling , effective guidebook to post @-@ 9 / 11 America " ; Dave Itzkoff of The New York Times elaborated , proposing that it was " arguably the first example of the post @-@ post @-@ 9 / 11 novel , whose characters are tired of being pushed around by forces larger than they are – bureaucracy , history and , always , technology – and are at long last ready to start pushing back " . = = Interpretation and reception = = Spook Country appeared on bestseller charts by August 7 , 2007 – five days after release . The novel entered The Washington Post 's hardcover fiction bestseller list for the Washington D.C. area in late August at # 4 , and by September had reached # 2 in San Francisco and Canada . It was listed at # 6 on Publishers Weekly 's hardcover fiction bestseller list for the U.S , as well as on The New York Times Best Seller list for hardcover fiction ( where it lasted three weeks ) . It earned a nomination for the BSFA Awards for best novel of 2007 , and finished second to Michael Chabon 's The Yiddish Policemen 's Union in the standings for the Locus Award for Best Science Fiction Novel the following year . In August 2008 , Rebecca Armstrong of The Independent named Spook Country as one of the " Ten Best Thrillers " . Mike Duffy felt that although the novel was less overtly science fiction than Gibson 's earlier novels , it retained their " wit , virtuosity and insights " , and had " the same giddy mix of techno @-@ fetishism , nuanced edge and phraseological finesse which enlivened his previous work " . " Spook Country , in essence , " pronounced The Telegraph 's Tim Martin , " is a classic paranoid quest narrative , but one that refashions the morbid surveillance tropes of the Cold War for a post @-@ Iraq era " . Ken Barnes of USA Today found that " [ l ] andscapes , events and points of view shift constantly , so that the reader never truly feels on solid ground " , but judged the novel to be a " vivid , suspenseful and ultimately coherent tale " . In a review for The Washington Post , Bill Sheahan hailed the novel 's capture of the zeitgeist , and compared it to the acclaimed literary fiction of Don DeLillo : Despite a full complement of thieves , pushers and pirates , Spook Country is less a conventional thriller than a devastatingly precise reflection of the American zeitgeist , and it bears comparison to the best work of Don DeLillo . Although he is a very different sort of writer , Gibson , like DeLillo , writes fiction that is powerfully attuned to the currents of dread , dismay and baffled fury that permeate our culture . Spook Country – which is a beautifully multi @-@ leveled title – takes an unflinching look at that culture . With a clear eye and a minimum of editorial comment , Gibson shows us a country that has drifted dangerously from its governing principles , evoking a kind of ironic nostalgia for a time when , as one character puts it , " grown @-@ ups still ran things . " In Spook Country , Gibson takes another large step forward and reaffirms his position as one of the most astute and entertaining commentators on our astonishing , chaotic present . = = = Plot , prose , and character = = = Ed Park of the Los Angeles Times hailed the novel as a " puzzle palace of bewitching proportions and stubborn echoes " , noting the fact that antihero Hubertus Bigend was the most prominent link to Pattern Recognition as " deliciously sinister " . Tim Martin thought that the plot lacked direction at times . Although he conceded that the novel 's main Henry / Bigend storyline felt lightweight , Matt Thorne writing in The Independent conjectured that it was part of Gibson 's conscious design that that thread " plays out against a backdrop of hidden machinations that have a much darker , wider resonance " . Thorne declared Spook Country a more substantial novel than its predecessor on this basis . John Casimir of The Sydney Morning Herald concurred , writing that despite the similarity in the plots of the novels , the narrative foundation of the later novel was firmer , its structure " more sophisticated " and its " seams less visible " . Ed Park singled out the author 's prose for praise , proclaiming that " [ s ] entence for sentence , few authors equal Gibson 's gift for the terse yet poetic description , the quotable simile – people and products are nailed down with a beautiful precision approximating the platonic ideal of the catalog " . Matt Thorne noted that while he found Gibson 's tendency towards hyper @-@ specificity initially irritating , " there 's hypnotic quality to the relentless cataloguing " . The author 's prose was also extolled by Clay Evans of the Daily Camera , and by Benjamin Lytal in The New York Sun , who declared that " the real news , in Spook Country , is that much of the flair that Mr. Gibson once brought to descriptions of cyberspace seems to fit perfectly , now , on all kinds of things . " In The Seattle Times , Nisi Shawl gushed that " [ e ] ven without the high cool quotient of the novel 's contents , the pleasure of Gibson 's prose would be enough inducement for most of us to immerse ourselves in this book .... " Simon Cooper of The Book Show agreed with the commendations of Gibson 's prose , but felt the plot and characterization let the book down : There are some great lines and observations in Spook Country , but for me the parts were greater than the whole . Gibson is a master at rendering the all pervasive but subliminal paranoia of our high @-@ tech market society . But whereas in Pattern Recognition he was able to combine this with a sustained focus , this time it didn 't quite work . Partly this is because the three @-@ way narrative seems to dissipate rather than successfully hold the disparate parts together . Partly I think it 's because the main characters seem just too passive or detached to generate sufficient narrative tension . Still , Gibson is better than most writers with his take on the science @-@ fictionalised present , and there is no denying that the book has moments of aphoristic brilliance . In a review for The Providence Journal , Andy Smith remarked that the author was " a master of atmosphere , if not character " – a sentiment echoed by The Post and Courier 's Dan Conover , who , although praising the novel 's intelligence and contemporary relevance , felt that Gibson 's underlying political pre @-@ occupation and detached narration came at the expense of character development . Neil Drumming , of Entertainment Weekly , in awarding the novel a " B " rating concurred , complaining that the protagonists " often just feel like higher @-@ tech automatons with useful features " whose actions are the product of manipulation by " external forces and cagey operatives " rather than conscious decisions . In The Daily Telegraph , Roger Perkins was more blunt , remarking that the " relentless pace and breathless dislocation " of the plot hid " character development that 's as deep as dental veneer but equally shiny " . Matt Thorne summed up the issue in opining that " The problem with a thriller which begins with a technology journalist talking to an experimental artist is that , no matter how exciting the events later become , it 's hard to care . " = = = Conclusion = = = Reviewers were divided as to the merits of the novel 's ending . Andy Smith lamented that the finale of the " mostly intriguing " novel was " distinctly anticlimactic " . Tim Martin wrote that it seemed " somehow less than the sum of its parts " . Clay Evans dismissed it as " not especially meaningful , but fun " , whereas Matt Thorne found it lacking " a traditional thriller 's excitement " . San Francisco Chronicle reviewer Michael Berry called it " an ingenious reversal " which proved that despite its apparent cynicism , the novel was " oddly optimistic for a ghost story " . Overall , Thorne judged the novel ultimately unsatisfactory on account of the underwhelming ending and because Gibson " hides the full complications of the plot so successfully that it feels as if everything important is happening offstage " . Roger Perkins judged the novel to be " a triumph of style over substance – which is exactly the way you suspect that Gibson wants it . " His colleague Martin mused that along with the regular Gibsonian tropes , there was " something new ... a dark and very contemporary surge of suspicion and bad faith " in the novel which suggested that the author might be approaching the apex of his writing . Dan Conover concluded that while the " darkly comic satire " was " a worthy addition to the Gibson canon and a significant cultural artifact " , it would not rank among the author 's best works .
= Tricholoma vaccinum = Tricholoma vaccinum , commonly known as the russet scaly tricholoma , the scaly knight , or the fuzztop , is a fungus of the agaric genus Tricholoma . It produces medium @-@ sized fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) that have a distinctive hairy reddish @-@ brown cap with a shaggy margin when young . The cap , which can reach a diameter of up to 6 @.@ 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) wide , breaks up into flattened scales in maturity . It has cream @-@ buff to pinkish gills with brown spots . Its fibrous , hollow stipe is white above and reddish brown below , and measures 4 to 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 to 3 @.@ 0 in ) long . Although young fruit bodies have a partial veil , it does not leave a ring on the stipe . Widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere , Tricholoma vaccinum is found in northern Asia , Europe and North America . The fungus grows in a mycorrhizal association with spruce or pine trees , and its mushrooms are found on the ground growing in groups or clusters in late summer and autumn . Although some consider the mushroom edible , it is of poor quality and not recommended for consumption . The ectomycorrhizae of T. vaccinum has been the subject of considerable research . = = Taxonomy and naming = = The species was first described in 1774 by German mycologist Jacob Christian Schäffer as Agaricus vaccinus . According to MycoBank , synonyms include August Batsch 's 1783 Agaricus rufolivescens , Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck 's 1783 Amanita punctata var. punctata , and Lucien Quélet 's 1886 Gyrophila vaccina . Marcel Bon described the variety T. vaccinum var. fulvosquamosum in 1970 , which has squamules ( minute scales ) arranged in a concentric fashion on the cap ; Manfred Enderle published this taxon as a form in 2004 . According to the infrageneric classification of Tricholoma proposed by Rolf Singer in 1986 , Tricholoma vaccinum is placed in the section Imbricata , subgenus Tricholoma in the genus Tricholoma . Imbricata includes species with a dry cap cuticle , with a texture that ranges from roughened or squamulose ( resembling suede ) to almost smooth . The specific epithet derives from the Latin word vaccinus and means " cow @-@ colored " . The mushroom 's common names include the " russet scaly tricholoma " , " fuzztop " , and " scaly knight " . = = Description = = The cap of T. vaccinum is initially broadly conical , then convex and finally flattened ; its diameter is usually between 2 @.@ 5 and 6 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 and 2 @.@ 6 in ) . The cap margin is initially curved inwards , and shaggy from hanging remnants of the partial veil . The partial veil is cotton @-@ like , and does not leave a ring on the stipe . The fibrous to scaly cap surface ranges in color from reddish @-@ cinnamon to brownish @-@ orange to tan . The gills have an adnate to sinuate attachment to the stipe , and are crowded closely together . There are between three and nine tiers of lamellulae — short gills that do not extend completely from the cap edge to the stipe . The gills are dingy white , and frequently stain reddish @-@ brown . The stipe is 4 to 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 to 3 @.@ 0 in ) long and 1 to 2 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 0 @.@ 9 in ) thick , and becomes hollow in age . It is roughly equal in width throughout its length and ranges in color from whitish to the same color as the cap , but lighter , and sometimes with reddish @-@ brown stains ; it is lighter in color near the apex . Like the cap , the stipe surface is fibrous to scaly . The odor of the fruit bodies is unpleasant . The mushrooms produce a white spore print , and the spores are broadly elliptical , smooth , hyaline ( translucent ) , inamyloid , measuring 6 – 7 @.@ 5 by 4 – 5 μm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored , without clamps , and measure 17 – 32 by 6 @.@ 0 – 7 @.@ 5 μm . The hymenium lacks cystidia . The arrangement of the hyphae in the cap cuticle ranges from a cutis ( with hyphae that run parallel to the cap surface ) to a trichoderm ( hyphae perpendicular to the cap surface ) ; these hyphae are roughly cylindrical , and measure 3 @.@ 5 – 8 @.@ 0 μm wide , with roughly cylindrical to club @-@ shaped ends that are 6 @.@ 0 – 11 @.@ 0 μm wide . There are no clamp connections in the hyphae of T. vaccinum . Although the fruit bodies are considered edible , they are of low quality , and generally not recommended for consumption due to their resemblance to and potential for confusion with toxic brown Tricholomas . Orson K. Miller , Jr. considers them " bitter and not edible " . The fruit bodies can be used to create yellow dyes to color wool or other fibers . = = = Similar species = = = With its reddish @-@ brown wooly cap , white gills , and hollow stipe , Tricholoma vaccinum is a fairly distinct mushroom and is unlikely to be confused with other Tricholoma . Tricholoma imbricatum somewhat resembles T. vaccinum , but has duller brown colors , is less robust in stature , and has a solid ( not hollow ) stalk . Another lookalike , T. inodermeum , has a less woolly cap texture and flesh that turns bright pinkish red when injured . It associates solely with pine species and prefers calcareous soil . Other brownish Tricholoma species include T. fracticum , T. dryophilum , and T. muricatum . The scaly and fibrous cap surface of T. vaccinum might be confused with Inocybe , but species in this genus can be distinguished by their brown spore prints . = = Habitat and distribution = = Tricholoma vaccinum is a mycorrhizal species , and grows in association with coniferous trees , especially pine and spruce . It forms ectomycorrhizae that have been called " Medium @-@ Distance fringe exploration type " , indicative of the ectomycorrhiza 's ecological role in space occupation in the soil , their possible reach regarding nutrient acquisition and their demand of carbohydrates that have to be invested by the trees for their fungal partners . Fruit bodies usually appear in groups or clusters on the ground , sometimes with moss . The fungus fruits in late summer and autumn . It is found in northern Asia , Europe , and , in North America , is widely distributed in the United States and Canada , and has also been recorded in Mexico . It is one of the most common species of Tricholoma in Central Europe , and is often found in large groups in spruce forests . It is rare in the United Kingdom , and most records have been from Scotland . The fungus may be extinct in the Netherlands . The ectomycorrhizae of T. vaccinum has been the subject of considerable research . Ectomycorrhizae of Tricholoma species can vary considerably among species in the genus , and differences in the structure of rhizomorphs ( a cordlike fusions of hyphae resembling a root ) have been used to key out species . Mycorrhizae formed with Norway spruce ( Picea abies ) are conspicuously hairy with numerous hyphae . The hyphae are partly densely interconnected to rhizomorphs that have a pigment in their outer membrane . The emanating hyphae mostly lack " contact septae " ( fully developed simple septae ) and contact clamps , and the rhizomorph hyphae vary markedly in diameter . The Hartig net ( a network of hyphae that extend into the root ) formed by T. vaccinum grows more deeply towards the epidermis , is composed of more rows of hyphae and has more tannin cells in close proximity to the epidermis , and consequently , fewer cortical cells in this position . It is here that the rhizomorphs make the closest contact with the rootlets . The mantle is prosenchymatous , meaning that the constituent hyphae are loosely organized with spaces between them . A combination of techniques including freeze fracturing and scanning electron microscopy has been used to probe the microstructure of the ectomycorrhizae , including inner mantle thickness and the nature of the interface between the Hartig net and host cells . Several fungal genes specifically expressed during ectomycorrhizal interaction between T. vaccinum and Picea abies have been identified , including some involved in a plant pathogen response , nutrient exchange and growth in the plant , signal transduction , and stress response . The first characterized fungal aldehyde dehydrogenase enzyme , ALD1 , helps circumvent ethanol stress — a critical function in mycorrhizal habitats .
= Pipe rolls = The Pipe rolls , sometimes called the Great rolls , are a collection of financial records maintained by the English Exchequer , or Treasury , and its successors . The earliest date from the 12th century , and the series extends , mostly complete , from then until 1833 . They form the oldest continuous series of records concerning English governance kept by the English , British and United Kingdom governments , covering a span of about 700 years . The early medieval ones are especially useful for historical study , as they are some of the earliest financial records available from the Middle Ages . A similar set of records was developed for Normandy , which was ruled by the English kings from 1066 to 1205 , but the Norman Pipe rolls have not survived in a continuous series like the English . They were the records of the yearly audits performed by the Exchequer of the accounts and payments presented to the Treasury by the sheriffs and other royal officials ; and owed their name to the shape they took , as the various sheets were affixed to each other and then rolled into a tight roll , resembling a pipe , for storage . They record not only payments made to the government , but debts owed to the crown and disbursements made by royal officials . Although they recorded much of the royal income , they did not record all types of income , nor did they record all expenditures , so they are not strictly speaking a budget . The Pipe Roll Society , formed in 1883 , has published the Pipe rolls up until 1224 . = = Composition = = The Pipe rolls are named after the " pipe " shape formed by the rolled up parchments on which the records were originally written . There is no evidence to support the theory that they were named pipes for the fact that they " piped " the money into the Treasury , nor for the claim that they got their name from resembling a wine cask , or pipe of wine . They were occasionally referred to as the roll of the treasury , or the great roll of accounts , and the great roll of the pipe . The Pipe rolls are the records of the audits of the sheriffs ' accounts , usually conducted at Michaelmas by the Exchequer , or English treasury . Until the chancery records began in the reign of King John of England , they were the only continuous set of records kept by the English government . They are not a complete record of government and royal finances , however , as they do not record all sources of income , only the accounts of the sheriffs and a few other sources of income . Some of the payments that did not regularly fall under the Exchequer were occasionally recorded in a Pipe roll . Neither do the Pipe rolls record all payments made by the exchequer . They were not created as a budget , nor were they strictly speaking records of receipts , but rather they are records of the audit of the accounts rendered . Although the rolls use an accounting system , it is not one that would be familiar to modern accountants ; for instance until the end of the 12th century , no record was made of the total amount taken in by the sheriff of each shire . In their early form , they record all debts owed to the Crown , whether from feudal dues or from other sources . Because many debts to the king were allowed to be paid off in installments , it is necessary to search more than one set of rolls for a complete history of a debt . If a debt was not paid off completely in one year , the remainder of the amount owed was transferred to the next year . They did not record the full amount of debts incurred in previous years , only what was paid that year and what was still owed . Besides the sheriffs , others who submitted accounts for the audit included some bailiffs of various honours , town officials , and the custodians of ecclesiastical and feudal estates . The earliest surviving Pipe roll , already in a mature form , dates from 1129 – 30 , and the continuous series begins in 1155 – 56 , and continued for almost seven hundred years . Combined with the Domesday Survey , the Pipe rolls contributed to the centralisation of financial records by the Norman kings ( reigned 1066 – 1154 ) of England that was ahead of contemporary Western European monarchies ; the French , for instance , did not have an equivalent system of accounting until the 1190s . The exact form of the records , kept in a roll instead of a book , was also unique to England , although why England kept some of its administrative records in this form is unclear . A set of Norman rolls , drafted differently , are extant in a few years for the reigns of Kings Henry II ( reigned 1154 – 1189 ) and Richard I ( reigned 1189 – 1199 ) , who also ruled the Duchy of Normandy in France . It is believed that the Norman rolls were started about the same time as the English , but due to lack of survival of the earlier Norman rolls , it is unclear exactly when they did start . An Irish Exchequer produced Irish Pipe rolls , and much like the English Pipe rolls , the earliest surviving Irish Pipe roll , that of 1212 , does not appear to be the first produced . The Dialogus de Scaccario or Dialogue concerning the Exchequer , written in about 1178 , details the workings of the Exchequer and gives an early account of how the Pipe rolls were created . The Dialogue was written by Richard FitzNeal , the son of Nigel of Ely , who was Treasurer for both Henry I and Henry II of England . According to the Dialogue , the Pipe rolls were the responsibility of the clerk of the Treasurer , who was called the clerk of the pipe and later the clerk of the pells . FitzNeal wrote his work to explain the inner workings of the Exchequer , and in it he lists a number of different types of rolls used by the Treasury . He also describes the creation of the Pipe rolls and how they are used . The Dialogue also states that the Pipe rolls , along with Domesday Book and other records , were kept in the treasury , because they were required for daily use by the Exchequer clerks . The main source of income recorded on the Pipe rolls was the county farm , or income derived from lands held by the king . Occasional sources of revenue , such as from vacant bishoprics or abbeys or other sources , were also recorded . The payments were made both in coin , or in objects , such as spurs , lands , spices , or livestock . The only surviving roll from Henry I 's reign also records payments of geld , a form of land tax dating from Anglo @-@ Saxon times , although after 1161 the Pipe rolls no longer record any payments of geld . By 1166 , the fines and other monetary income of the Assizes , or royal courts , began to be recorded in the Pipe rolls . Scutage payments , made by knights in lieu of military service , were also recorded in the Pipe rolls from the reign of Henry II on . Although they recorded all income that came through the Exchequer , not all sources of income went through that office , so the Pipe rolls are not a complete record of royal income . They did include both regular income from the royal lands and judicial profits , as well as more occasional income derived from feudal levies , wardships , and ecclesiastical vacancies . Another source of income recorded in the rolls was from feudal reliefs , the payment made by an heir when inheriting an estate . A major source of income in the roll of 1130 is from the forests , under the Forest Law , which was the royal law covering the restrictions imposed on non @-@ royals hunting in areas of the country declared royal forest . However , royal income from taxation that was not annually assessed was not usually recorded in the Pipe rolls , nor were his receipts from lands outside England . Some payments went directly to the king 's household , and because they did not pass through the Exchequer , they were not recorded in the Pipe rolls . Expenditures were also subject to documentation in the Pipe rolls . Among the recorded expenditures are payments for carts and cart horses , wages for royal servants , payments for improvements to royal manors and houses , royal gifts to persons , hunting expenses , payments to acquire a governmental office , payments to mercenaries , and the costs of bags and casks to transport silver pennies about the kingdom . Information about other subjects besides revenues also is contained in the rolls , including the movement of prisoners , which helps to identify which medieval castles were used as prisons . The Pipe rolls also allow the identification of the custodians of royal lands and castles . The clerks writing the rolls also used them as places to deride officials of the government , such as William Longchamp , who was the object of derision in the 1194 Pipe roll . Certain areas did not report their income to the Exchequer , so they do not usually appear in the Pipe rolls , unless the lands were in the king 's custody through a vacancy . These included the palatinates of Durham and Chester . The county of Cornwall also did not usually appear in the Pipe rolls , but it was not a palatinate . Another problem with using the Pipe rolls for historical study is the fact that the chronological limits for the financial year varied from roll to roll . In theory , they only recorded revenues from the previous Easter to Michaelmas of that financial year . However , the Pipe rolls often record payments made past Michaelmas , often up until the date the roll was actually compiled . Also , a few debts were not audited annually , but would instead have a number of consecutive years be investigated in one sitting and thus several years of payments would be recorded in one Pipe roll . = = History = = Although the earliest Pipe roll dates from 1130 , the 31st year of King Henry I 's reign , it is clear that they were being produced by the Exchequer before then , as the 1130 roll is not an experiment . It shows no hesitancy in its use of accounts , or lack of continuity from previous years . An extract from an earlier Pipe roll , from the 25th regnal year of Henry I or 1124 , has been found in a 14th @-@ century manuscript now in the Cotton Library at the British Museum . Exactly when the Pipe rolls began to be produced is debated amongst historians . Some hold that they date from Henry I 's reign , whether early or late in the reign , but others feel that they were introduced by King William I ( reigned 1066 – 1087 ) . The precursors of the records probably date to the Anglo @-@ Saxon period , as the historian Pauline Stafford argues that financial records must have been kept in some form during the reigns of Cnut ( reigned 1016 – 1035 ) , Æthelred II ( reigned 978 – 1016 ) , and Edgar the Peaceable ( reigned 959 – 975 ) . There is a reference to the king 's " rolls " in a writ from 1110 , which purports to be a grant from Henry I to the abbot of Westminster of ten shillings , but the writ may be a forgery , or parts of it may be genuine with some interpolations . As the writ only exists in a copy in a later cartulary , and the Abbey of Westminster is also known to have forged a number of other writs or charters , the writ is not a solid source for royal rolls being kept as early as 1110 . After the one surviving roll from Henry I 's reign , no further Pipe rolls survived from his reign , nor are any preserved from the reign of his successor , King Stephen ( reigned 1135 – 1154 ) . But by the second year of King Henry II 's reign , or 1155 , they once more survive . It is unclear if Pipe rolls were actually created during Stephen 's reign and they did not survive , or if the conditions during Stephen 's reign precluded the creation of Pipe rolls . Continuously from the early years of King Henry II 's reign , most Pipe rolls survive , with only a break in the last years of King John 's reign ( reigned 1199 – 1216 ) . The surviving Pipe roll from 1130 records an income of £ 24 @,@ 500 . This figure is dwarfed by the amount recorded on the Pipe roll that was actually owed to the king , which totals £ 68 @,@ 850 . The income that they record in the early years of Henry II is much smaller than that of the one surviving year for Henry I. Those early Pipe rolls of Henry I record an income about £ 10 @,@ 000 to £ 15 @,@ 000 . By the end of Henry II 's reign , royal income recorded in the Pipe rolls had risen to £ 20 @,@ 000 . The end of John 's reign saw a recorded income of about £ 30 @,@ 000 , but Henry III 's reign recorded only £ 8 @,@ 000 in the early years , rising to £ 16 @,@ 500 by 1225 . Not only do the rolls from the early years of Henry II 's reign show less income reaching the Exchequer than during Henry I 's reign , those early rolls were haphazard and not as accurate and detailed as rolls dating from the later part of the reign . Nor are they as carefully produced as either the later rolls or the roll of 1130 . By the time of King John , the Pipe rolls were growing unwieldy , as too many fines and fees were being recorded , making the finding of information in the rolls difficult . Eventually , after some experimentation , by 1206 a system whereby the actual detailed receipts were recorded in a set of receipt rolls and only aggregates were entered in the Pipe rolls was settled on . A further reform in 1236 resulted in debts being recorded in separate Estreat rolls , and only the totals entered into the Pipe rolls . In 1284 the Statutes of Rhuddlan were issued , which further reformed the accounting systems , and further reduced the detail contained on the Pipe rolls . At this time , a large number of unrecoverable debts were also removed from the rolls , a process that had also been attempted in 1270 . The attempt in 1270 had marked old debts with a " d " and stipulated that they were not to be re @-@ entered into future Pipe rolls unless they were paid off . But this had not worked , and so in 1284 old debts were to be recorded on a separate roll . The statutes in 1284 also laid out a procedure where debtors whose documentation of payment of debt that hadn 't been accepted in the past would have that documentation accepted , thus helping to clear out some of the backlogged debts on the books . Yet more extraneous details were removed from the Pipe rolls under the Cowick Ordinance of June 1323 , along with further ordinances in 1324 and 1326 , all of which were done during the time that Walter de Stapledon held the office of Treasurer . Prior to this reform the rolls had become clogged with debts , and clauses 2 through 8 of the Cowick Ordinance attempted to return the rolls to an exposition of accounts . Another attempted reform at this time was the removal of customs receipts , as well as military accounts , from the rolls . New offices in the Exchequer were also created , in an attempt to speed up the auditing process and lessen the time it took to prepare the Pipe rolls and other financial records . The attempt to remove non @-@ Exchequer accounts did completely remove those types of records from the Pipe rolls , and further reforms in 1368 created a set of foreign rolls , and all extraneous records in the Pipe rolls were transferred to those rolls . In 1462 , the exchequer was told to no longer summon for audit any farms or feefarms worth over 40 shillings per year , as these would be supervised by a newly appointed board of receivers or approvers . The Pipe rolls series ended in 1834 when the office that was in charge of their creation , the Pipe Office , was abolished . = = Creation = = They were created by taking the shire , or other governmental districts , accounts and writing them on two strips of parchment , usually about 14 inches ( 36 cm ) wide . The two pieces were then attached end to end to form one long sheet . Then , the various sheets from all the shires were piled together and affixed together at the top , and the resulting document would be rolled into a tight roll resembling a pipe . They were not formed into one long continuous roll , as the Patent rolls were , however . The sheets for each county have a heading at the top giving the name of the county the account is for , in Latin . If more than one sheet was required for a county , the county name would be amended on secondary sheets to indicate the order the sheets were in . Sometimes they are referred to , in Latin , as magnus rotulus pipae . Several sources for the actual idea of making the rolls as rolls have been suggested , including Jews , Adelard of Bath , who was a royal clerk and was familiar with Arabic practices of using rolls , or the royal clerk Thurkil , who studied under a mathematician who may have been from Sicily . The rolls were written in Latin until 1733 , except for a short time around 1650 . During the reign of Henry II , a duplicate copy of the year 's Pipe roll was made for the Chancellor , and was called the Chancellor 's roll . This was created at the same time as the regular Pipe roll , and was written by a clerk of the Chancellor . The Chancellor rolls survive from 1163 to 1832 , but are basically duplicates of the corresponding Pipe rolls , except for the occasional addition of a private charter or other material . = = Influence on other records = = The example of the royal exchequer 's records eventually influenced others to keep similar records . The earliest surviving non @-@ royal Pipe rolls are those of the Bishop of Winchester , which are extant from 1208 , and form a continuous series from that date . They started under Peter des Roches , who was also a royal clerk and administrator . They record monies coming in as well as expenses and payments made , in detail , but like the royal records , they do not show profits or losses as a sum total . Most private rolls resembling the Pipe rolls are from monasteries . The household rolls , which closely resemble the Pipe rolls , for Eleanor of England , wife of Simon de Montfort , survive for part of the year 1265 . = = Studies by historians = = A number of historians have studied the surviving Pipe rolls , using them as the basis for study of financial and governmental history , especially of the medieval era . A study from 1925 compiled the royal income that passed through the Exchequer for each year of Henry II and Richard I , as well as a sample of some years from John 's reign , attempting to compare how the royal revenues compared in the various reigns . Recent work by Nick Barratt on the reigns of Richard and John have updated the earlier research . Historian David Carpenter has carried out further studies on the early years of King Henry III 's reign . The Pipe rolls have also been used to identify royal officials , especially those that were involved in local government and were not high ranking . Because they recorded judicial fines , the Pipe rolls also can be used to shed light on how the judicial system in medieval England worked , as well as identifying royal judges . Although they don 't provide exact revenue figures , most historians believe they represent a close approximation of revenue , and can be used to gain a general understanding of how much financial resources the English kings had available in the Middle Ages . The lone surviving Pipe roll from Henry I 's reign , that of 1130 , has been a popular subject of study . Recent investigations include Judith Green 's search for evidence of Henry 's financial system . Another historian , Stephanie Mooers Christelow , has studied the roll along with those from the reign of Henry II , looking for the exemptions and grants made by both kings to various royal favourites . Christelow has also studied the 1130 roll to see what light it can shine on Henry I 's judicial system , as well as on the growth of royal courts during Henry 's reign . The historian C. Warren Hollister used the 1130 Pipe roll to study the rewards of royal service during Henry 's reign . The Pipe rolls from the 13th century onwards are less important for historical study because there are other surviving financial records . Some , such as the receipt rolls , were also kept by the exchequer , and were used by the treasury clerks to prepare the Pipe rolls . Other surviving records were kept by the sheriffs for their own use in submitting accounts to the Pipe rolls . However the post 13th @-@ century Pipe rolls are occasionally the sole source for historical facts such as William Shakespeare 's residence in the parish of St Helen 's Bishopsgate , and in Southwark . = = Publication = = The earliest Pipe rolls were published by the Record Commission in 1833 ( the isolated roll of 1130 ) and the Public Record Office in 1844 ( the rolls for 1155 – 58 ) . The Commission 's edition of the 1130 roll has now been superseded by a new edition ( with English translation ) published by the Pipe Roll Society in 2012 . In 1883 the Pipe Roll Society ( a text publication society ) was founded by the Public Record Office , on the initiative of Walford Dakin Selby and his colleague James Greenstreet , to establish a systematic publishing programme for the Pipe rolls . It published its first volume in 1884 , and has now published all the rolls from 1158 to 1224 . Besides the continuous series , it has also published the roll for 1230 . The Pipe rolls for 1241 were published in 1918 by the Yale University Press . Various county record societies have published parts of the rolls for various years that relate to their particular county . The Pipe Roll Society 's earliest volumes ( to 1900 ) were printed in " record type " , designed to produce a near @-@ facsimile of the original manuscript , including its scribal abbreviations . This policy was abandoned in 1903 , and all volumes since have been published in normal type with abbreviations extended . The Pipe Roll Society has also published numerous related texts , including the Chancellor 's Roll for 1196 and the Norman Pipe Rolls of Henry II . Rolls for the Irish Exchequer and the Norman Exchequer have also been published .
= 1991 protest in Split = The 1991 protest in Split was a street protest against the Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) held in Split , Croatia on 6 May 1991 . The protest was organised by the Croatian Trade Union Association in the Brodosplit Shipyard and joined in by workers from other companies in the city and other residents of Split after radio broadcast appeals for help while the protesters marched through the streets . Ultimately , the protest drew 100 @,@ 000 supporters . The march ended in a picket in front of the Banovina building , where the JNA had its headquarters in Split at the time . The protesters demanded an end to the JNA @-@ imposed blockade of the village of Kijevo . Scuffles broke out in front of the building , and a JNA soldier was killed by a gunshot reportedly fired from the crowd . Four organisers of the protest were arrested a month later by the JNA , tried in a military court and convicted . They were released months later in a prisoner exchange . The protest caused the JNA to withdraw a portion of military equipment previously based in Split to more secure locations and increase its combat readiness there . The blockade of Kijevo was lifted through negotiations days after the protest . = = Background = = In 1990 , following the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia , ethnic tensions worsened . The Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) then confiscated the weapons of Croatia 's Territorial Defence ( Teritorijalna obrana ) in order to minimize resistance . On 17 August , tensions escalated into an open revolt of the Croatian Serbs , centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin , parts of the Lika , Kordun , Banovina and eastern Croatia . After two unsuccessful attempts by Serbia , supported by Montenegro and Serbia 's provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo to obtain the Yugoslav Presidency 's approval to deploy the JNA to disarm Croatian security forces in January 1991 , and a bloodless skirmish between Serb insurgents and Croatian special police in March , the JNA itself , supported by Serbia and its allies , asked the federal Presidency to grant it wartime powers and declare a state of emergency . The request was denied on 15 March , and the JNA came under the control of Serbian President Slobodan Milošević . Milošević , preferring a campaign to expand Serbia rather than the preservation of Yugoslavia , publicly threatened to replace the JNA with a Serbian army and declared that he no longer recognized the authority of the federal Presidency . The threat caused the JNA to gradually abandon plans to preserve Yugoslavia in favour of expanding Serbia . By the end of the month , the conflict had escalated to its first fatalities . The JNA intervened on the side of the insurgents , and prevented the Croatian police from taking action . In early April , the leaders of the Serb revolt in Croatia declared their intent to integrate the area under their control , viewed by the Government of Croatia as a breakaway region , with Serbia . In the beginning of 1991 , Croatia had no regular army . In an effort to bolster its defences , it doubled police personnel to about 20 @,@ 000 . The most effective part of the force was the 3 @,@ 000 @-@ strong special police . The Croatian view of the JNA 's role in the Serb revolt gradually evolved from January 1991 . The initial plan of Croatian President Franjo Tuđman was to win support from the European Community ( EC ) and the United States for Croatia , and he disregarded advice to seize JNA barracks and storage facilities in the country . Tuđman 's stance was motivated by his belief that Croatia could not win a war against the JNA . = = Protest = = The immediate cause for a confrontation with the JNA in Split was a blockade of the village of Kijevo , where Croatian authorities had established a new police station , imposed on 29 April . The village was surrounded by the JNA , commanded by Colonel Ratko Mladić , and the Serb insurgent forces , cutting access and preventing delivery of supplies . Tuđman called on the public to bring the siege to its end . The protest took place on 6 May 1991 in Split , organised by the Croatian Trade Union Association in Brodosplit Shipyard , in response to Tuđman 's earlier statement . The protest started out with 10 @,@ 000 shipyard workers , but ultimately drew approximately 100 @,@ 000 people , from the shipyard and other factories in Split to a protest march through the city , carrying Croatian flags . The protest march grew in number as more citizens joined in , following radio broadcast messages calling for support . In order to prevent the Yugoslav Navy from intervening using ships equipped with water cannons , Jadrolinija ships were used to obstruct access to the port . The protesters picketed around the Banovina building , which housed the command centres of the JNA Military @-@ Maritime District and the Yugoslav Navy at the time . The protesters demanded lifting of the blockade of Kijevo , withdrawal of armoured personnel carriers parked in front of the Banovina building and hoisting of a Croatian flag on the building itself . During the protest , the crowd assaulted a JNA armoured personnel carrier and managed to remove a machine gun mounted on the vehicle , while one of the protesters , Ivica Balić , hoisted a Croatian flag at the building to singing of the Croatian anthem by the crowd . In a scuffle which broke out in front of the building , Saško Gešovski , a JNA conscript from Macedonia , was killed by a shot fired from the crowd . By the end of the afternoon , the crowd removed the Yugoslav flag from the building , moved away and dispersed . = = Aftermath = = Besides Gešovski , there were no fatalities , but several JNA soldiers were wounded . Gešovski 's death sparked demonstrations in the Macedonian capital , Skopje , in June . Protesters accused Tuđman of being responsible for the murder . The Croatian Government refused to express regret for Gešovski 's killing , and the Serbian media pointed to the young Macedonian 's death as proof that Tuđman 's government had revived the fascist Ustaše , which controlled Croatia during World War II . Then @-@ mayor of Split Onesin Cvitan claimed that Gešovski was fired upon from the Banovina building . However , the Croatian State Attorney 's Office contradicted him , claiming that Gešovski was killed by someone in the crowd picketing in front of the building . An investigation was launched but the case was dropped because of lack of evidence . The JNA 's security service in Split , run by Colonel Ljubiša Beara , identified Mato Sabljić , Ivan Begonja , Roland Zvonarić and Branko Glavinović as organisers of the protest where the killing occurred and arrested them on 5 June . They were put on trial at a military court in Sarajevo on 19 August , convicted and sentenced to one and a half to eight years in prison . The group was imprisoned in Foča until 25 November , when they were exchanged for JNA prisoners of war . The protest is commemorated annually in Split and a monograph covering the event was issued in 2011 . In the wake of the protest , the JNA increased combat readiness of its garrison in Split and elsewhere in Dalmatia and withdrew a part of artillery and personnel from Split to its bases located away from the coast . Furthermore , the Military @-@ Maritime District of the JNA ordered its garrisons to stock up potable water and prepare power generators for use if the supply of electricity were cut . The JNA evacuated itself from Split by 4 January 1992 , pursuant to agreements ending the Battle of the Barracks . The siege of Kijevo was lifted days after the protest through negotiations and two weeks after the JNA blockaded the village . However , the arrangement proved short @-@ lived as JNA units , again led by Mladić , attacked Kijevo and destroyed a substantial part of the village . The attack began when Croatian forces refused to surrender to Croatian Serb leader Milan Martić . It was one of the first instances where the JNA openly sided with the insurgent Serbs in the rapidly escalating Croatian War of Independence .
= Rwandan Revolution = The Rwandan Revolution , also known as the Social Revolution or Wind of Destruction ( Kinyarwanda : muyaga ) , was a period of ethnic violence in Rwanda from 1959 to 1961 between the Hutu and the Tutsi , two of the three ethnic groups in Rwanda . The revolution saw the country transition from a Belgian colony with a Tutsi monarchy to an independent Hutu @-@ dominated republic . Rwanda had been ruled by a Tutsi monarchy since at least the 18th century , with entrenched pro @-@ Tutsi and anti @-@ Hutu policies . Germany and Belgium successively controlled Rwanda through the early 20th century , with both European nations ruling through the kings and perpetuating a pro @-@ Tutsi policy . After 1945 a Hutu counter @-@ elite developed , leading to the deterioration of relations between the groups . The Tutsi leadership agitated for speedy independence to cement their power , and the Hutu elite called for the transfer of power from Tutsi to Hutu ( a stance increasingly supported by the Roman Catholic Church and the colonial government ) . The revolution began in November 1959 , with a series of riots and arson attacks on Tutsi homes following false reports of the murder of a Hutu sub @-@ chief by Tutsi activists . Violence quickly spread throughout the country . The king and Tutsi politicians attempted a counterattack to seize power and ostracise the Hutu and the Belgians but were thwarted by Belgian colonel Guy Logiest , who was brought in by the colonial governor . Logiest reestablished law and order , beginning a programme to promote and protect the Hutu elite . The Belgians then replaced many Tutsi chiefs and sub @-@ chiefs with Hutu , consigning King Kigeli V to figurehead status ; Kigeli later fled the country . Despite continued anti @-@ Tutsi violence , Belgium organised local elections in mid @-@ 1960 . Hutu parties gained control of nearly all communes , effectively ending the revolution . Logiest and Hutu leader Grégoire Kayibanda declared Rwanda an autonomous republic in 1961 , and the country became independent in 1962 . The revolution caused at least 336 @,@ 000 Tutsi to flee to neighbouring countries , where they lived as refugees . Although the exiles agitated for an immediate return to Rwanda , they were split between those seeking negotiation and those wishing to overthrow the new regime . Some exiles formed armed groups ( called inyenzi , or " cockroaches " , by the Hutu government ) , who launched attacks into Rwanda . The largest occurred in late 1963 , when a surprise attack approached Kigali . The government fought back , defeating the inyenzi and killing thousands of the remaining Tutsi in Rwanda . No further threat was posed by the refugees until the 1990s , when a civil war initiated by the Tutsi @-@ refugee Front Patriotique Rwandais ( FPR ) forced the Hutu government into negotiations . This led to a rise in Hutu extremism and the 1994 genocide , in which hundreds of thousands of Tutsi were killed before the FPR took control . = = Background = = = = = Precolonial Rwanda = = = The earliest inhabitants of what is now Rwanda were the Twa , a group of aboriginal pygmy hunter @-@ gatherers who settled the area between 8000 and 3000 BC and remain in the country today . Between 700 BC and 1500 AD , a number of Bantu groups migrated into Rwanda and began clearing forests for agriculture . After losing much of their habitat , the forest @-@ dwelling Twa moved to the mountains . Historians have several theories about the Bantu migrations . According to one , the first settlers were Hutu ; the Tutsi migrated later and formed a distinct racial group , possibly of Cushitic origin . An alternative theory is that the migration was slow and steady , with incoming groups integrating into ( rather than conquering ) the existing society . In this theory the Hutu @-@ Tutsi distinction arose later as a class distinction , rather than a racial one . The population coalesced , first into clans ( ubwoko ) and into about eight kingdoms by 1700 . The country was fertile and densely populated , with its kingdoms strictly controlled socially . The Kingdom of Rwanda , ruled by the Tutsi Nyiginya clan , became increasingly dominant beginning in the mid @-@ 18th century . From its origins as a small toparchy near Lake Muhazi the kingdom expanded through conquest and assimilation , reaching its zenith under King ( Mwami ) Kigeli Rwabugiri between 1853 and 1895 . Rwabugiri expanded the kingdom west and north , implementing administrative reforms which included ubuhake ( where Tutsi patrons ceded cattle — and privileged status — to Hutu or Tutsi clients in exchange for economic and personal service ) and uburetwa ( a corvée system in which Hutu were forced to work for Tutsi chiefs ) . Rwabugiri 's reforms developed a rift between the Hutu and Tutsi populations . = = = Colonisation = = = The Berlin Conference of 1884 assigned the territory to Germany , with imprecise boundaries . When Gustav Adolf von Götzen explored the country ten years later , he discovered that the Kingdom of Rwanda included a fertile region east of Lake Kivu . Germany wanted this region , which was also claimed by Leopold II as part of his own Congo Free State ( annexed by Belgium to form the Belgian Congo in 1908 ) . To justify its claim , Germany began a policy of ruling through the Rwandan monarchy and supporting Tutsi chiefs ; this system allowed colonisation with few European troops . Yuhi V Musinga , who emerged as king after a succession crisis following the death of his father Rwabugiri and a struggle with Belgian troops , welcomed the Germans and used them to consolidate his power . The territory became the western border of German East Africa . German rule allowed Rwabugiri 's centralisation policy to continue , and the rift between Tutsi and Hutu deepened . Belgian forces took control of Rwanda and Burundi during World War I , and the country came under Belgian control in a 1919 League of Nations mandate , named Ruanda @-@ Urundi . Although Belgium initially continued the German method of government through the monarchy , in 1926 , it began a policy of direct colonial rule in line with the norm in the Congo . Reforms included simplifying the complex three @-@ chieftain system , so one chief ( usually Tutsi ) instead of three ( typically split between Tutsi and Hutu ) ruled a local area . Belgian reforms also extended uburetwa ( forced labour by Hutus for Tutsi chiefs ) to individuals , not just communities , and to regions not previously covered by the system . Tutsi chiefs began a process of land reform with Belgian support ; grazing areas traditionally controlled by Hutu collectives were seized by Tutsi and privatised with minimal compensation . Beginning in the late 1920s , the role of the Catholic Church grew . This was encouraged by the Belgian government , since the priests knew the country well and facilitated its administration . Many Rwandans ( including elite Tutsi ) converted , since Catholicism was an increasing prerequisite for social advancement . King Musinga refused to convert , and in 1931 he was deposed by the Belgian administration ; his eldest son , Mutara III Rudahigwa , succeeded him and eventually became Rwanda 's first Christian king . During the 1930s the Belgians introduced large @-@ scale projects in education , health , public works and agricultural supervision , including new crops and agricultural techniques to improve food supply . Rwanda had been modernised but Tutsis remained in power , leaving the Hutu disenfranchised and subject to large @-@ scale forced labour . In 1935 Belgium introduced identity cards , labelling an individual as Tutsi , Hutu , Twa or Naturalised . Although wealthy Hutu had previously been able to become honorary Tutsi , the identity cards ended further social mobility . = = Prelude = = = = = Hutu counter @-@ elite = = = Belgium continued to rule Rwanda as a UN Trust Territory after World War II , with a mandate to oversee its eventual independence . The economic landscape had changed considerably during the war ; a cash economy grew , and with it the demand for labourers in the Congolese mines of Katanga and the coffee and sugar plantations of Uganda . There was a simultaneous shift in the Catholic Church ; prominent figures in the early Rwandan church , who were from a wealthy and conservative background ( such as Léon @-@ Paul Classe ) , were replaced by younger clergy of working @-@ class origin . Of these , a greater proportion were Flemish rather than Walloon Belgians and sympathised with the plight of the Hutu . Economic conditions and the seminary education provided by the church gave the Hutu a social mobility not previously possible , allowing the development of an elite group of Hutu leaders and intellectuals . This group , consisting of Hutu from the precolonial Kingdom of Rwanda , was joined by prominent citizens of kingdoms acquired during colonialism ( including the Kiga ) . The best @-@ known figure in the movement was Grégoire Kayibanda . Like most of the Hutu counter @-@ elite Kayibanda had trained for the priesthood at the Nyakibanda seminary , although he was not ordained . After completing his education in 1948 , he became a primary @-@ school teacher . In 1952 Kayibanda succeeded Alexis Kagame as editor of the Catholic magazine , L 'Ami . During the late 1950s he was a Travail , Fidélité , Progrès ( TRAFIPRO ) food @-@ cooperative board member , edited the pro @-@ Hutu Catholic magazine Kinyamateka and founded the Mouvement Social Muhutu ( MSM ) . The second major figure of the Hutu elite was Joseph Gitera , another ex @-@ seminarian based in the south of the country who had left the church to establish a small brickworks . Gitera founded the Association for Social Promotion of the Masses ( APROSOMA ) party . Religious historians Ian and Jane Linden described him as " more passionate and perhaps compassionate " than Kayibanda and other Hutu ex @-@ seminarians , but " often erratic and sometimes fanatical " . Unlike Kayibanda , Gitera called for forceful action against the " oppression " of the monarchy as early as 1957 ; however , his rhetoric focussed less on the Hutu @-@ Tutsi divide than on the emancipation of the poor . = = = Deterioration of Hutu – Tutsi relations = = = The monarchy and prominent Tutsi , who had assumed that power would be transferred to them at independence , sensed the growing Hutu influence and began agitating for immediate independence . In 1956 King Rudahigwa and the Tutsi @-@ dominated Conseil Superieur proposed new ministries of finance , education , public works and the interior run by them , independent of Belgium . Kayibanda and the counter @-@ elite , fearing that the new ministries would cement Tutsi preeminence in post @-@ independence Rwanda , began work on the Bahutu Manifesto and it was published in 1957 . The manifesto criticised indirect Belgian rule , calling for the abolition of ubuhake and the development of a middle class . The first document referring to the Tutsi and Hutu as separate races , it called for a transfer of power from the former to the latter based on " statistical law " . In 1958 , Joseph Gitera visited the king at his palace in Nyanza . Although Gitera had considerable respect for the monarchy , Rudahigwa treated him contemptuously ; at one point he grabbed Gitera 's throat , calling him and his followers inyangarwanda ( haters of Rwanda ) . This humiliation prompted the MSM , APROSOMA and the pro @-@ Hutu Catholic publications to take a firmer stance against the monarchy . Kinyamateka published a detailed report of Rudahigwa 's treatment of Gitera , refuting his semi @-@ divine image and accusing him of pro @-@ Tutsi racism . The magazine also published stories citing the origin myths of the Hutu , Tutsi and Twa , calling the king 's policies inconsistent with them . The articles did not immediately challenge the king 's authority over the Hutu peasants , but their exposure of Rudahigwa 's outburst led to a permanent schism between him , the Hutu counter @-@ elite and Belgian authorities . In 1958 the Belgian colonial ministry tried to strip Rudahigwa of his power , reducing him to a figurehead , but his popularity with the regional chiefs and the Tutsi ( who feared the growing Hutu movement ) sparked a series of strikes and protests . = = = Death of Rudahigwa and formation of UNAR = = = In early 1959 Belgium convened a parliamentary commission to examine options for democratisation and eventual independence , scheduling elections for the end of the year . With the Belgians and most clergy on their side , Munyangaju and Gitera began a campaign targeting Kalinga : the royal drum , one of the monarchy 's most potent symbols . Rudahigwa became increasingly fearful , smuggling the drum out of the country and drinking heavily . He died of a cerebral haemorrhage in July 1959 while seeking medical treatment in Usumbura , Burundi . Many Rwandans believed that Rudahigwa was lethally injected by the Belgians ; although an autopsy was never performed because of objections from the queen mother , an evaluation by independent doctors confirmed the original diagnosis of haemorrhage . The Tutsi elite , believing that Rudahigwa was murdered by the church with the help of the Belgians , immediately began a campaign against both . Rudahigwa 's brother Kigeli V Ndahindurwa was installed , without Belgian involvement and against their wishes ; Linden and Linden have described this succession as a " minor Tutsi coup " . After Kigeli V 's coronation , several Tutsi chiefs and palace officials desiring rapid independence formed the Union Nationale Rwandaise ( UNAR ) party . Although UNAR was pro @-@ monarchy , it was not controlled by the king ; the party was anti @-@ Belgian , which attracted support from the Communist bloc . UNAR immediately began a campaign promoting Rwandan nationalism , vowing to replace European history in schools with the study of Rwabugiri 's conquests and calling for the removal of whites and missionaries . This rhetoric prompted the Catholic Church ( and many of its Rwandan students , who credited the church with raising them from poverty ) to call UNAR anti @-@ Catholic . Gitera , in turn , used the church 's anti @-@ UNAR stance to falsely claim its support for APROSOMA . The colonial government moved to limit UNAR 's power , attempting to depose three chiefs who were prominent in the party and opening fire on protesters at a rally . Kayibanda registered the MSM as an official party , renaming it the Parti du Mouvement de l 'Emancipation Hutu ( PARMEHUTU ) . He began mobilising cells of supporters across the country , calling for an independent Hutu state under a constitutional monarchy . Historian Catharine Newbury described the situation in late 1959 as a " simmering caldron " ; by late October , with the parliamentary report due and elections approaching , tensions had reached the breaking point . = = Revolution = = = = = Attack on Mbonyumutwa and Hutu uprising = = = On 1 November 1959 Dominique Mbonyumutwa , one of the few Hutu sub @-@ chiefs and a PARMEHUTU activist , was attacked after Mass by nine members of UNAR 's youth wing near his home in Gitarama Province . Mbonyumutwa had refused to join UNAR in condemning the Belgian removal of the three Tutsi chiefs . Although Mbonyumutwa fought off the attackers and survived , rumours began to spread that he had been killed ; according to American theology professor James Jay Carney , Mbonyumutwa may have started the rumours himself . The next day a Hutu protest occurred in the district headquarters of Ndiza , and on 3 November a large group of Hutu killed two Tutsi and forced the local chief into hiding . The protests quickly turned to riots , with violence at this stage consisting primarily of arson rather than killing ( except when the Tutsi tried to fight back ) . First in Ndiza and then across the country , Hutu burned Tutsi homes to the ground with ignited paraffin ( widely available for use in lamps ) . The arsonists recruited local peasants to their ranks , ensuring the rapid spread of the revolt . Many Hutu still believed that the king was superhuman , and claimed that they carried out the attacks on his behalf . By 9 November violence had spread across the country , except for Gitera 's home province of Astrida ( Butare ) and the far southwest and east . Rioting was heaviest in the northwest ; in Ruhengeri , every Tutsi home was destroyed by fire . King Kigeli was the first to mount a counterattack against the rioters , defying Belgian refusal of permission to form his own army . Mobilising thousands of loyal militia , Kigeli ordered the arrest or killing of a number of prominent Hutu leaders in the hope of quashing the peasant revolt ; Joseph Gitera 's brother , a prominent member of APROSOMA , was among the dead . Many of those arrested were brought to the king 's palace at Nyanza , where they were tortured by UNAR officials . Kayibanda , who was in hiding and Gitera , under Belgian protection in Astrida , were not captured . Although Kigeli and UNAR remained more powerful and better equipped than the Hutu parties , they knew that the Belgians now strongly supported the latter ; given enough time , the Hutu would gain the upper hand . Therefore , UNAR sought to ostracise Belgium from power and gain independence as soon as possible . = = = Arrival of Guy Logiest = = = Before the revolution began Ruanda @-@ Urundi governor Jean @-@ Paul Harroy asked his friend , Guy Logiest ( a Belgian army colonel working in the Congo ) , to come to Rwanda to evaluate Belgium 's military options in the colony . On 4 November , after the outbreak of violence , Logiest arrived with a number of soldiers and paratroopers and began re @-@ establishing civil order . After Kigeli and UNAR 's retaliation against the Hutu , Logiest and his troops prioritised the protection of Hutu leaders ( including Gitera ) . On 12 November , after Harroy 's declaration of a state of emergency , Logiest was appointed Special Military Resident with a mandate to re @-@ establish order in Rwanda . He immediately began installing Hutu in senior administrative positions with Harroy 's support , ostensibly to counter the threat of speedy independence posed by UNAR and the Tutsi leadership , and saw as his options a Tutsi @-@ dominated independent kingdom or a Hutu republic . Logiest decided to encourage the latter by favouring the Hutu over the Tutsi , believing that to be best for the peasants . After this decision , he took a series of actions which ensured the permanence of the revolution begun by the Hutu uprisings . Logiest replaced more than half the country 's Tutsi chiefs ( and many sub @-@ chiefs ) with Hutu , most from the PARMEHUTU party . Although many UNAR members were tried and convicted for crimes committed during the Tutsi counter @-@ revolution , their Hutu compatriots from PARMEHUTU and APROSOMA who were guilty of inciting the Hutu arson escaped without charge . In December Logiest was appointed to the new post of special civil resident , replacing more @-@ conservative colonial resident André Preud 'homme . The Belgian government empowered him to depose the king and veto his decisions , making Logiest a de facto constitutional monarch . = = = PARMEHUTU 's rise to power = = = After the November 1959 violence , Belgium postponed the communal elections scheduled for January 1960 until June . This move was partly a response to a request from PARMEHUTU , which ( despite Logiest 's large @-@ scale installation of Hutu leaders across the country ) claimed it needed more time for the Hutu people to become " sufficiently emancipated to defend their rights effectively . " In March 1960 , a United Nations delegation visited Rwanda to assess the country 's progress towards independence . The major political parties encouraged street demonstrations , which deteriorated into fresh outbreaks of violence , during the UN visit . Tutsi homes were burnt in view of the delegation , leading them to declare in April that Belgian plans for June elections were unworkable . Instead , they proposed a roundtable discussion involving all four political parties to end the violence . Despite the UN suggestion to postpone the elections , Belgian authorities pressed ahead and they were held in June and July . The result was an overwhelming victory for PARMEHUTU , which took 160 of 229 seats ; Tutsi parties controlled only 19 . The communal authorities immediately took local power from the traditional chiefs ; many implemented feudal policies similar to that of the Tutsi elite , but favouring Hutu rather than Tutsi . Although after the elections Guy Logiest announced that " the revolution is over " , tensions remained high and local massacres of Tutsi continued throughout 1960 and 1961 . King Kigeli , living under virtual arrest in southern Rwanda , fled the country in July 1960 and lived for several decades in locations across East Africa before settling in the United States . = = = Independence = = = Rwanda settled into the new reality of Hutu dominance after the 1960 elections ; Belgium and Logiest supported PARMEHUTU , and Tutsi influence dwindled . The United Nations Trusteeship Commission , dominated by countries allied with Communist ones and favouring the anti @-@ Belgian , Tutsi UNAR party , lobbied for independently monitored elections . The commission sponsored General Assembly resolutions 1579 and 1580 , calling for elections and a referendum on the monarchy ; Logiest dismissed the efforts as " perfectly useless " , and made little effort to implement them . A National Reconciliation Conference was held in Belgium in January 1961 , which ended in failure . Logiest and Kayibanda then convened a meeting of the country 's local leaders , at which a " sovereign democratic Republic of Rwanda " was proclaimed with Dominique Mbonyumutwa its interim president . The UN published a report that an " oppressive system has been replaced by another one " , but its ability to influence events had ended . PARMEHUTU won control of the legislature in September 1961 ; Kayibanda assumed the presidency , and Rwanda became fully independent in July 1962 . = = Aftermath = = = = = Tutsi refugees and inyenzi attacks = = = As the revolution progressed , many Tutsi left Rwanda to escape Hutu purges . The exodus , which began during the November 1959 arson attacks , continued steadily throughout the revolution . An official , late @-@ 1964 total of 336 @,@ 000 Tutsi settled primarily in the four neighbouring countries of Burundi , Uganda , Tanganyika ( later Tanzania ) and Congo @-@ Léopoldville . The exiles , unlike the ethnic Rwandans who migrated during the pre @-@ colonial and colonial eras , were seen as refugees by their host countries and began almost immediately to agitate for a return to Rwanda . Their aims differed ; some sought reconciliation with Kayibanda and the new regime , some affiliated with the exiled King Kigeli and others wished to oust the new PARMEHUTU regime from power and establish a socialist republic . Beginning in late 1960 armed groups of Tutsi exiles ( called inyenzi or " cockroaches " by the Hutu government ) launched attacks into Rwanda from neighbouring countries , with mixed success . The inyenzi in Burundi , supported by that country 's newly installed , independent Tutsi republic , caused some disruption in southern Rwanda . Refugees in the Congo , Uganda and Tanzania were less able to organise military operations because of local conditions ; exiles in Tanzania were treated well by local authorities and many settled permanently , giving up aspirations to return to Rwanda . The inyenzi attacks themselves propelled more refugees across the borders , since the government often responded with further attacks on the Tutsi still living in Rwanda . In December 1963 the Burundi inyenzi launched a large @-@ scale surprise attack , seizing Bugesera and advancing to positions near Kigali . The ill @-@ equipped and poorly @-@ organised invaders were easily defeated by the government , whose response to the attack was the largest killing of Tutsi to date : an estimated 10 @,@ 000 in December 1963 and January 1964 , including all Tutsi politicians still in the country . The international community did little in response , and President Kayibanda 's domestic power was reinforced . Infighting and the defeat put an end to the inyenzi , who were no further threat to Rwanda after 1964 . = = = Post @-@ revolution Rwanda = = = After the 1963 – 64 Tutsi massacre and defeat of the inyenzi Kayibanda and PARMEHUTU ruled Rwanda unchecked for the next decade , overseeing a Hutu hegemony justified by the mantra of " demographic majority and democracy " . The regime did not tolerate dissent , ruling in a top @-@ down manner similar to the pre @-@ revolution feudal monarchy and promoting a deeply Catholic , virtuous ethos . By the early 1970s this policy had isolated Rwanda from the rest of the world , and a rebellion began within the Hutu elite . In 1973 senior army commander Juvénal Habyarimana organised a coup , killing Kayibanda and assuming the presidency . In 1990 the Front Patriotique Rwandais ( FPR ) , a rebel group composed primarily of Tutsi refugees , invaded northern Rwanda ; this began the Rwandan Civil War . Although neither side gained a decisive advantage in the war , by 1992 Habyarimana 's authority had weakened ; mass demonstrations forced him into a coalition with the domestic opposition and to sign the 1993 Arusha Accords with the FPR . The cease @-@ fire ended on 6 April 1994 , when Habyarimana 's plane was shot down near Kigali Airport and he was killed . Habyarimana 's death was the catalyst for the Rwandan Genocide , which began a few hours later . In about 100 days , 500 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 Tutsi and politically @-@ moderate Hutu were killed in well @-@ planned attacks ordered by the interim government . The Tutsi FPR under Paul Kagame restarted their offensive and methodically regained Rwanda , controlling the whole country by mid @-@ July . As of 2015 Kagame and the FPR remain in control , restoring growth in Rwanda 's economy , its number of tourists and the country 's Human Development Index .
= The Spy Who Loved Me ( novel ) = The Spy Who Loved Me is the ninth novel and tenth book in Ian Fleming 's James Bond series , first published by Jonathan Cape on 16 April 1962 . It is the shortest and most sexually explicit of Fleming 's novels , as well as a clear departure from previous Bond novels in that the story is told in the first person by a young Canadian woman , Vivienne Michel . Bond himself does not appear until two thirds of the way through the book . Fleming wrote a prologue to the novel giving Michel credit as a co @-@ author . Due to the reactions by critics and fans , Fleming was not happy with the book and attempted to suppress elements of it where he could : he blocked a paperback edition in the United Kingdom and only gave permission for the title to be used when he sold the film rights to Harry Saltzman and Albert R. Broccoli , rather than any aspects of the plots . However , the character of Jaws is loosely based on one of the characters in the book and a British paperback edition was published after his death . A heavily adapted version of The Spy Who Loved Me appeared in the Daily Express newspaper in daily comic strip format in 1967 – 1968 . In 1977 the title was used for the tenth film in the Eon Productions series . It was the third to star Roger Moore as Bond and used no plot elements from the novel . = = Plot summary = = Fleming structured the novel in three sections — " Me " , " Them " and " Him " to describe the phases of the story . Me Vivienne " Viv " Michel , a young Canadian woman narrates her own story , detailing her past love affairs , the first being with Derek Mallaby , who took her virginity in a field after being thrown out of a cinema in Windsor for indecent exposure . Their physical relationship ended that night and Viv was subsequently rejected when Mallaby sent her a letter from Oxford University saying he was forcibly engaged to someone else by his parents . Viv 's second love affair was with her German boss , Kurt Rainer , by whom she would eventually become pregnant . She informed Rainer and he paid for her to go to Switzerland to have an abortion , telling her that their affair was over . After the procedure , Viv returned to her native Canada and started her journey through North America , stopping to work at " The Dreamy Pines Motor Court " in the Adirondack Mountains for managers Jed and Mildred Phancey . Them At the end of the vacation season , the Phanceys entrust Viv with looking after the motel for the night before the owner , Mr. Sanguinetti , can arrive to take inventory and close it up for the winter . Two mobsters , " Sluggsy " Morant and Sol " Horror " Horowitz , both of whom work for Sanguinetti , arrive and say they are there to look over the motel for insurance purposes . The two have been hired by Sanguinetti to burn down the motel so that Sanguinetti can make a profit on the insurance . The blame for the fire would fall on Viv , who was to perish in the incident . The mobsters are cruel to Viv and , when she says she does not want to dance with them , they attack her , holding her down and starting to remove her top . They are about to continue the attack with rape when the door buzzer stops them . Him British secret service agent James Bond appears at the door asking for a room , having had a tyre puncture while passing . Bond quickly realises that Horror and Sluggsy are mobsters and that Viv is in danger . Pressuring the two men , he eventually gets the gangsters to agree to provide him a room . Bond tells Michel that he is in America in the wake of Operation Thunderball and was detailed to protect a Russian nuclear expert who defected to the West and who now lives in Toronto , as part of his quest to ferret out SPECTRE . That night Sluggsy and Horror set fire to the motel and attempt to kill Bond and Michel . A gun battle ensues and , during their escape , Horror and Sluggsy 's car crashes into a lake . Bond and Michel retire to bed , but Sluggsy is still alive and makes a further attempt to kill them , before Bond shoots him . Viv wakes to find Bond gone , leaving a note in which he promises to send her police assistance and which he concludes by telling her not to dwell too much on the ugly events through which she has just lived . As Viv finishes reading the note , a large police detachment arrives . After taking her statement , the officer in charge of the detail reiterates Bond 's advice , but also warns Viv that all men involved in violent crime and espionage , regardless of which side they are on — including Bond himself — are dangerous and that Viv should avoid them . Viv reflects on this as she motors off at the end of the book , continuing her tour of America , but despite the officer 's warning still devoted to the memory of the spy who loved her . = = Characters and themes = = Continuation Bond author Raymond Benson sees Vivienne Michel as the best realised female characterisation undertaken by Fleming , partly because the story is told in the first person narrative . Academic Jeremy Black notes that Michel is the closest Fleming gets to kitchen sink realism in the Bond canon : she has been a victim of life in the past , but is wilful and tough , too . The other characters in the novel are given less attention and Vivienne 's second lover , Kurt , is a caricature of a cruel German , who forces her to have an abortion before finishing their affair . According to Black , the two thugs , Sluggsy and Horror , are " comic @-@ book villains with comic @-@ book names " . Their characters are not given the same status as other villains in Bond stories , but are second @-@ rate professional killers , which makes them more believable in the story . As with Casino Royale , the question of morality between Bond and the villains is brought up , again by Bond , but also by the police officer involved . Benson argues that this runs counter to another theme in the novel , which had also appeared in a number of other Bond books including Goldfinger : the concept of Bond as Saint George against the dragon . In this Black agrees , who sees The Spy Who Loved Me as being " an account of the vulnerable under challenge , of the manipulative nature of individuals and of the possibility of being trapped by evil " . = = Background = = The Spy Who Loved Me was written in Jamaica at Fleming 's Goldeneye estate in January and February 1961 and was the shortest manuscript Fleming had produced for a novel , being only 113 pages long . Fleming found the book the easiest for him to write and apologised to his editor at Jonathan Cape for the ease . The Spy Who Loved Me has been described by Fleming biographer Andrew Lycett as Fleming 's " most sleazy and violent story ever " , which may have been indicative of his state of mind at the time . Fleming borrowed from his surroundings , as he had done with all his writing up to that point , to include places he had seen . One such location was a motel in the Adirondacks in upstate New York , which Fleming would drive past on the way to Ivar Bryce 's Black Hollow Farm ; this became the Dreamy Pines Motel . Similarly , he took incidents from his own life and used them in the novel : Vivienne Michel 's seduction in a box in the Royalty Kinema , Windsor , mirrors Fleming 's loss of virginity in the same establishment . A colleague at The Sunday Times , Robert Harling , gave his name to a printer in the story while another minor character , Frank Donaldson , was named after Jack Donaldson , a friend of Fleming 's wife . One of Fleming 's neighbours in Jamaica was Vivienne Stuart , whose first name Fleming purloined for the novel 's heroine . = = Release and reception = = The Spy Who Loved Me was published on 16 April 1962 in the UK as a hardcover edition by publishers Jonathan Cape ; it was 221 pages long and cost 15 shillings . Artist Richard Chopping once again undertook the cover art , and raised his fee from the 200 guineas he had charged for Thunderball , to 250 guineas . The artwork included a commando knife which was borrowed from Fleming 's editor , Michael Howard at Jonathan Cape . The Spy Who Loved Me was published in the US by Viking Books on 11 April 1962 with 211 pages and costing $ 3 @.@ 95 . The reception to the novel was so bad that Fleming wrote to Michael Howard at Jonathan Cape , to explain why he wrote the book : " I had become increasingly surprised to find my thrillers , which were designed for an adult audience , being read in schools , and that young people were making a hero out of James Bond ... So it crossed my mind to write a cautionary tale about Bond , to put the record straight in the minds particularly of younger readers ... the experiment has obviously gone very much awry " . Fleming subsequently requested that there should be no reprints or paperback version of the book and for the British market no paperback version appeared until after Fleming 's death . Because of the heightened sexual writing in the novel , it was banned in a number of countries . In the US the story was also published in Stag magazine , with the title changed to Motel Nymph . = = = Reviews = = = Broadly the critics did not welcome Fleming 's experiment with the Bond formula and academic Christoph Linder pointed out that The Spy Who Loved Me received the worst reception of all the Bond books . The Daily Telegraph , for example , wrote " Oh Dear Oh Dear Oh Dear ! And to think of the books Mr Fleming once wrote ! " while The Glasgow Herald thought Fleming finished : " His ability to invent a plot has deserted him almost entirely and he has had to substitute for a fast @-@ moving story the sorry misadventures of an upper @-@ class tramp , told in dreary detail . " Writing in The Observer , Maurice Richardson described the tale as " a new and regrettable if not altogether unreadable variation " , going on to hope that " this doesn 't spell the total eclipse of Bond in a blaze of cornography " . Richardson ended his piece by berating Fleming , asking : " why can 't this cunning author write up a bit instead of down ? " The critic for The Times was not dismissive of Bond , who they describe as " less a person than a cult " who is " ruthlessly , fashionably efficient in both love and war " . Rather the critic dismisses the experiment , writing that " the novel lacks Mr. Fleming 's usual careful construction and must be written off as a disappointment . " John Fletcher thought that it was " as if Mickey Spillane had tried to gatecrash his way into the Romantic Novelists ' Association " Philip Stead , writing in The Times Literary Supplement considered the novel to be " a morbid version of that of Beauty and the Beast " . The review noted that once Bond arrives on the scene to find Michel threatened by the two thugs , he " solves [ the problem ] in his usual way . A great quantity of ammunition is expended , the zip @-@ fastener is kept busy and the customary sexual consummation is associated with the kill . " Stead also considered that with the words of the police captain " Mr. Fleming seems to have summarized in this character 's remarks some of the recent strictures on James Bond 's activities . " Vernon Scannell , as critic for The Listener , considered The Spy Who Loved Me to be " as silly as it is unpleasant " . What aggrieved him most , however , was that " the worst thing about it is that it really is so unremittingly , so grindingly boring . " The critic for Time lamented the fact that " unaccountably lacking in The Spy Who Loved Me are the High @-@ Stake Gambling Scene , the Meal @-@ Ordering Scene , the Torture Scene , the battleship @-@ grey Bentley , and Blades Club . " The critic also bemoaned the fact that " among the shocks and disappointments 1962 still has in store ... is the discovery that the cruel , handsome , scarred face of James Bond does not turn up until more than halfway through Ian Fleming 's latest book . Anthony Boucher meanwhile wrote that the " author has reached an unprecedented low " . Not all reviews were negative . Esther Howard wrote in The Spectator , " Surprisingly Ian Fleming 's new book is a romantic one and , except for some early sex in England ( rather well done , this ) only just as nasty as is needed to show how absolutely thrilling it is for ... the narrator to be rescued from both death and worse – than by a he @-@ man like James Bond . Myself , I like the Daphne du Maurier touch and prefer it this way but I doubt his real fans will . " = = Adaptations = = Comic Strip ( 1967 – 1968 ) Fleming 's original novel was adapted as a daily comic strip which was published in the British Daily Express newspaper and syndicated around the world . The adaptation ran from 18 December 1967 to 3 October 1968 . The adaptation was written by Jim Lawrence and illustrated by Yaroslav Horak . It was the last Ian Fleming work to be adapted as a comic strip . The strip was reprinted by Titan Books in The James Bond Omnibus Vol . 2 , published in 2011 . The Spy Who Loved Me ( 1977 ) In 1977 the title was used for the tenth film in the Eon Productions series . It was the third to star Roger Moore as British Secret Service agent Commander James Bond . Although Fleming had insisted that no film should contain anything of the plot of the novel , the steel @-@ toothed character of Horror was included , although under the name Jaws .
= Battle of Kaiapit = The Battle of Kaiapit was an action fought in 1943 between Australian and Japanese forces in New Guinea during the Markham and Ramu Valley – Finisterre Range campaign of World War II . Following the landings at Nadzab and at Lae , the Allies attempted to exploit their success with an advance into the upper Markham Valley , starting with Kaiapit . The Japanese intended to use Kaiapit to threaten the Allied position at Nadzab , and to create a diversion to allow the Japanese garrison at Lae time to escape . The Australian 2 / 6th Independent Company flew in to the Markham Valley from Port Moresby in 13 USAAF C @-@ 47 Dakotas , making a difficult landing on a rough airstrip . Unaware that a much larger Japanese force was also headed for Kaiapit , the company attacked the village on 19 September to secure the area so that it could be developed into an airfield . The company then held it against a strong counterattack . During two days of fighting the Australians defeated a larger Japanese force while suffering relatively few losses . The Australian victory at Kaiapit enabled the Australian 7th Division to be flown in to the upper Markham Valley . It accomplished the 7th Division 's primary mission , for the Japanese could no longer threaten Lae or Nadzab , where a major airbase was being developed . The victory also led to the capture of the entire Ramu Valley , which provided new forward fighter airstrips for the air war against the Japanese . = = Background = = = = = Geography = = = The Markham Valley is part of a flat , elongated depression varying from 8 to 32 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 to 19 @.@ 9 mi ) wide that cuts through the otherwise mountainous terrain of the interior of New Guinea , running from the mouth of the Markham River near the port of Lae , to that of the Ramu River 600 kilometres ( 370 mi ) away . The two rivers flow in opposite directions , separated by an invisible divide about 130 kilometres ( 81 mi ) from Lae . The area is flat and suitable for airstrips , although it is intercut by many tributaries of the two main rivers . Between the Ramu Valley and Madang lies the rugged and aptly named Finisterre Ranges . = = = Military situation = = = Following the landing at Nadzab , General Sir Thomas Blamey , the Allied Land Forces commander , intended to exploit his success with an advance into the upper Markham Valley , which would protect Nadzab from Japanese ground attack , and serve as a jumping off point for an overland advance into the Ramu Valley to capture airfield sites there . On 16 September 1943 — the same day that Lae fell — Lieutenant General Sir Edmund Herring , commander of I Corps , Major General George Alan Vasey , commander of the 7th Division , and Major General Ennis Whitehead , commander of the Advanced Echelon , Fifth Air Force , met at Whitehead 's headquarters . Whitehead wanted fighter airstrips established in the Kaiapit area by 1 November 1943 in order to bring short @-@ range fighters within range of the major Japanese base at Wewak . The 7th Division 's mission was to prevent the Japanese at Madang from using the Markham and Ramu valleys to threaten Lae or Nadzab . Vasey and Herring considered both an overland operation to capture Dumpu , and an airborne operation using paratroops of the US Army 's 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment . Blamey did not agree with their idea of capturing Dumpu first , insisting that Kaiapit be taken beforehand . Until a road could be opened from Lae , the Kaiapit area could only be supplied by air and there were a limited number of transport aircraft . Even flying in an airborne engineer aviation battalion to improve the airstrip would have involved taking aircraft away from operations supporting the 7th Division at Nadzab . Moreover , Whitehead warned that he could not guarantee adequate air support for both Kaiapit and the upcoming Finschhafen operation at the same time . However , Herring calculated that the 7th Division had sufficient reserves at Nadzab to allow maintenance flights to be suspended for a week or so after the capture of Kaiapit . He planned to seize Kaiapit with an overland advance from Nadzab by independent companies , the Papuan Infantry Battalion , and the 7th Division 's 21st Infantry Brigade . Fifth Air Force commander Lieutenant General George Kenney later recalled that Colonel David W. " Photo " Hutchison , who had been the air task force commander at Marilinan and had moved over to Nadzab to take charge of air activities there , was told to work out the problem with Vasey : " I didn 't care how it was done but I wanted a good forward airdrome about a hundred miles further up the Markham Valley . Photo Hutchison and Vasey were a natural team . They both knew what I wanted and Vasey not only believed that the air force could perform miracles but that the 7th Division and the Fifth Air Force working together could do anything . " The airstrip at Kaiapit was reconnoitred on 11 September 1943 by No. 4 Squadron RAAF , which reported that it was apparently in good condition , with the Kunai grass recently cut . Lieutenant Everette E. Frazier , USAAF , selected a level , burned @-@ off area near the Leron River , not far from Kaiapit , and landed in an L @-@ 4 Piper Cub . He determined that it would be possible to land C @-@ 47 Dakota aircraft there . On 16 September , Hutchison approved the site for Dakotas to land . = = Prelude = = The 2 / 6th Independent Company arrived in Port Moresby from Australia on 2 August 1943 . The unit had fought in Papua in 1942 in the Battle of Buna – Gona and had since conducted intensive training in Queensland . The company was under the command of Captain Gordon King , who had been its second in command at Buna . King received a warning order on 12 September alerting him to prepare for the capture of Kaiapit , and had access to detailed aerial photographs of the area . An independent company at this time had a nominal strength of 20 officers and 275 other ranks . Larger than a conventional infantry company , it was organised into three platoons , each of three sections , each of which contained two subsections . It had considerable firepower . Each subsection had a Bren light machine gun . The gunner 's two assistants carried rifles and extra 30 @-@ round Bren magazines . A sniper also carried a rifle , as did one man equipped with rifle grenades . The remaining four or five men carried Owen submachine guns . Each platoon also had a section of 2 @-@ inch mortars . The company was self @-@ supporting , with its own engineer , signals , transport , and quartermaster sections . The signals section had a powerful but cumbersome Wireless Set No. 11 for communicating with the 7th Division . Powered by lead @-@ acid batteries which were recharged with petrol generators , it required multiple signallers to carry and the noise was liable to attract the attention of the enemy . The platoons were equipped with the new Army No. 208 Wireless Sets . These were small , portable sets developed for the communication needs of units on the move in jungle warfare . However , the 2 / 6th Independent Company had not had time to work with them operationally . For three days in a row , the 2 / 6th Independent Company prepared to fly out from Port Moresby , only to be told that its flight had been cancelled due to bad weather . On 17 September 1943 , 13 Dakotas of the US 374th Troop Carrier Group finally took off for Leron . King flew in the lead plane , which was piloted by Captain Frank C. Church , whom Kenney described as " one of Hutchison 's ' hottest ' troop carrier pilots " . As it came in to land , King spotted patrols from the Papuan Infantry Battalion in the area . One of the Dakotas blew a tyre touching down on the rough airstrip ; another tried to land on one wheel . Its undercarriage collapsed and it made a belly landing . The former was subsequently salvaged , but the latter was a total loss . King sent out patrols that soon located Captain J. A. Chalk 's B Company , Papuan Infantry Battalion , which was operating in the area . That evening Chalk and King received airdropped messages from Vasey instructing them to occupy Kaiapit as soon as possible , and prepare a landing strip for troop @-@ carrying aircraft . Vasey informed them that only small Japanese parties that had escaped from Lae were in the area , and their morale was very low . Vasey flew in to Leron on 18 September to meet with King . Vasey 's orders were simple : " Go to Kaiapit quickly , clean up the Japs and inform division . " As it happened , the Japanese commander , Major General Masutaro Nakai of the 20th Division , had ordered a sizeable force to move to Kaiapit under the command of Major Yonekura Tsuneo . Yonekura 's force included the 9th and 10th Companies of the 78th Infantry Regiment , the 5th Company of the 80th Infantry Regiment , a heavy machine @-@ gun section , a signals section and an engineer company — a total of about 500 troops . From Kaiapit it was to threaten the Allied position at Nadzab , creating a diversion to allow the Japanese garrison at Lae time to escape . The main body left Yokopi in the Finisterre Range on 6 September but was delayed by heavy rains that forced the troops to move , soaking wet , through muddy water for much of the way . Only the advance party of this force had reached Kaiapit by 18 September , by which time Lae had already fallen . Yonekura 's main body , moving by night to avoid being sighted by Allied aircraft , was by this time no further from Kaiapit than King , but had two rivers to cross . Since both were heading for the same objective , a clash was inevitable . = = Battle = = King assembled his troops at Sangan , about 16 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) south of Kaiapit , except for one section under Lieutenant E. F. Maxwell that had been sent ahead to scout the village . On the morning of 19 September , King set out for Kaiapit , leaving behind his quartermaster , transport and engineering sections , which would move the stores left behind at the Leron River first to Sangan and then to Kaiapit on the 20th . He took one section of Papuans with him , leaving Chalk and the rest of his men to escort the native carriers bringing up the stores . King 's men walked for fifty minutes at a time and then rested for ten . The going was relatively easy insofar as the ground was fairly flat , but the 2 @-@ metre ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) high Kunai grass trapped the heat and humidity and the men were heavily loaded with ammunition . The company reached Ragitumkiap , a village within striking distance of Kaiapit , at 14 : 45 . While his men had a brief rest , King attempted to contact the large Army No. 11 Wireless Set he had left behind at Sangan — and from there Vasey back at Nadzab — with the new Army No. 208 Wireless Sets he had brought with him . Unfortunately , King found that their range was insufficient . He also heard shots being fired in the distance and guessed that Maxwell 's section had been discovered . The 2 / 6th Independent Company formed up at 15 : 15 in Kunai grass about 1 @,@ 200 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 yd ) from Kaiapit . As the company advanced it came under fire from foxholes on the edge of the village . A 2 @-@ inch mortar knocked out a light machine gun . The foxholes were outflanked and taken out with hand grenades and bayonets . The Japanese withdrew , leaving 30 dead behind . The Australians suffered two killed and seven wounded , including King , who was lightly wounded . The company established a defensive position for the night . While they were doing so , Lieutenant D. B. Stuart , the commander of one of the Papuan platoons , arrived . They had become concerned when radio contact had been lost and he had been sent to find out what was going on . King ordered him to bring the Papuans up from Sangan with extra ammunition and the No. 11 set . At around 17 : 30 , a native appeared with a message for the Japanese commander . The paper was taken from him and he was shot when he tried to escape . Later , a Japanese patrol returned to Kaiapit , unaware that it was now in Australian hands . They were killed when they stumbled across a Bren gun position . Four more Japanese soldiers returned after midnight . One of them escaped . Yonekura and his men had reached Kaiapit after an exhausting night march . Yonekura was aware that the Australians had reached Kaiapit but his main concern was not to be caught in the open by Allied aircraft . Spotting Australian positions in the pre @-@ dawn light , the Japanese column opened fire . A torrent of fire descended on the Australians , who replied sporadically , attempting to conserve their ammunition . Although he was running low on ammunition , King launched an immediate counter @-@ attack on the Japanese , which took them by surprise . Lieutenant Derrick Watson 's C Platoon set out at around 06 : 15 and advanced to the edge of Village 3 , a distance of about 200 yards ( 180 m ) , before becoming pinned down by heavy Japanese fire . King then sent Captain Gordon Blainey 's A Platoon around the right flank , towards the high ground on Mission Hill which overlooked the battlefield . It was secured by 07 : 30 . In the meantime , some of the 2 / 6th Independent Company 's signallers and headquarters personnel gathered together what ammunition they could , and delivered it to C Platoon at around 07 : 00 . C Platoon then fixed bayonets and continued its advance . The commander of No. 9 Section of C Platoon , Lieutenant Bob Balderstone , was nicked by a bullet , apparently fired by one of his own men . He led his section in an advance across 70 yards ( 64 m ) of open ground , and attacked three Japanese machine gun posts with hand grenades . He was later awarded the Military Cross for his " high courage and leadership " . Lieutenant Reg Hallion led his No. 3 Section of A Platoon against the Japanese positions at the base of Mission Hill . He was killed in an attack on a machine gun post , but his section captured the position and killed twelve Japanese . By 10 : 00 , the action was over . After the action , King 's men counted 214 Japanese bodies , and estimated that another 50 or more lay dead in the tall grass . Yonekura was among the dead . The Australians suffered 14 killed and 23 wounded . Abandoned equipment included 19 machine guns , 150 rifles , 6 grenade throwers and 12 Japanese swords . = = Aftermath = = = = = Consolidation = = = The 2 / 6th Independent Company had won a significant victory , but now had 23 wounded and was very low on ammunition . Frazier landed on the newly captured airstrip in his Piper Cub at 12 : 30 . He rejected the airstrip as unsuitable for Dakotas , and oversaw the preparation of a new airstrip on better ground near Mission Hill . This was still a difficult approach , as aircraft had to land upwind while avoiding Mission Hill . Although it was not known if the airstrip would be ready , Hutchison flew in for a test landing there the next day , 21 September , at 15 : 30 . He collected the wounded and flew them to Nadzab , and returned an hour later with a load of rations and ammunition . He also brought with him Brigadier Ivan Dougherty , the commander of the 21st Infantry Brigade , and his headquarters , who took charge of the area . Around 18 : 00 , six more transports arrived . Vasey was concerned about the security of the Kaiapit area , as he believed that the Japanese were inclined to continue with a plan once it was in motion . Taking advantage of good flying weather on 22 September , 99 round trips were made between Nadzab and Kaiapit . Most of the 2 / 16th Infantry Battalion and some American engineers were flown in . The 2 / 14th Infantry Battalion and a battery of the 2 / 4th Field Regiment arrived on 25 September , and Brigadier Kenneth Eather 's 25th Infantry Brigade began to arrive two days later , freeing Dougherty to advance on Dumpu . = = = Base development = = = Kaiapit did not become an important airbase . By the time engineering surveys of the area had been completed , as a direct consequence of the victory at Kaiapit , Dougherty 's men had captured Gusap . There , the engineers found a well @-@ drained area with soil conditions suitable for the construction of all @-@ weather airstrips , an unobstructed air approach and a pleasant climate . It was therefore decided to limit construction at the swampy and malarial Kaiapit and concentrate on Gusap , where the US 871st , 872nd and 875th Airborne Aviation Engineer Battalions constructed ten airstrips and numerous facilities . Although some equipment was carried on the trek overland , most had to be flown in and nearly all of it was worn out by the time the work was completed . The first P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk fighter squadron began operating from Gusap in November and an all @-@ weather fighter runway was completed in January 1944 . The airstrip at Gusap " paid for itself many times over in the quantity of Japanese aircraft , equipment and personnel destroyed by Allied attack missions projected from it . " = = = War crimes = = = Three natives were found at Kaiapit who had been tied with rope to the uprights of a native hut and had then been bayoneted . As a result of the Moscow Declaration , the Minister for External Affairs , Dr. H. V. Evatt , commissioned a report by William Webb on war crimes committed by the Japanese . Webb took depositions from three members of the 2 / 6th Independent Company about the Kaiapit incident which formed part of his report , which was submitted to the United Nations War Crimes Commission in 1944 . = = = Results = = = The 2 / 6th Independent Company had defeated the vanguard of Nakai 's force and stopped his advance down the Markham Valley dead in its tracks . The Battle of Kaiapit accomplished Vasey 's primary mission , for the Japanese could no longer threaten Nadzab . It opened the gate to the Ramu Valley for the 21st Infantry Brigade , provided new forward fighter airstrips for the air war against the Japanese , and validated the Australian Army 's new training methods and the organisational emphasis on firepower . Vasey later told King that " We were lucky , we were very lucky . " King countered that " if you 're inferring that what we did was luck , I don 't agree with you sir because I think we weren 't lucky , we were just bloody good . " Vasey replied that what he meant was that he , Vasey , was lucky . He confided to Herring that he felt that he had made a potentially disastrous mistake : " it is quite wrong to send out a small unit like the 2 / 6th Independent Company so far that they cannot be supported . " The Japanese believed that they had been attacked by " an Australian force in unexpected strength " . One Japanese historian , Tanaka Kengoro , went so far as to argue that the mission of the Nakai Detachment — to threaten Nadzab so as to draw Allied attention away from the troops escaping from Lae — was achieved ; this argument passed over the fact that Nakai fully intended to hold Kaiapit , just as the Allies planned to secure it as a base for future operations . The Australian historian , David Dexter , concluded that the " leisurely Nakai was outwitted by the quick @-@ thinking and aggressive Vasey . " In the end , Vasey had moved faster , catching the Japanese off balance . The credit for getting to Kaiapit went first to the USAAF aircrews that managed to make a difficult landing on the rough airstrip at Leron . The 2 / 6th Independent Company proved to be the ideal unit for the mission , as it combined determined leadership with thorough training and effective firepower . For his part in the battle , King was awarded the Distinguished Service Order on 20 January 1944 . He considered it a form of unit award , and later regretted not asking Whitehead for an American Distinguished Unit Citation , such as was awarded to D Company of the 6th Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment , for a similar action in the Battle of Long Tan in 1966 .
= Jannik Hansen = Jannik Hansen ( 15 March 1986 ) is a Danish professional ice hockey right winger currently playing for the Vancouver Canucks of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . Hansen began playing professionally at the age of 16 with both the Rødovre Mighty Bulls of the Danish league and the Malmö Redhawks of the Swedish J20 SuperElit and HockeyAllsvenskan leagues . He played three seasons with Rødovre , during which time he was selected 287th overall by the Canucks in the 2004 NHL Entry Draft . A year after his selection , he moved to North America to play major junior hockey with the Portland Winterhawks of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) for one season . In 2006 – 07 , Hansen began playing with the Canucks ' minor league affiliate , the Manitoba Moose of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) . That season , he was called up by the Canucks and became the first Danish citizen to play and register a point in an NHL playoff game . After another campaign spent primarily with Manitoba , Hansen earned a full @-@ time roster spot with the Canucks . Internationally , Hansen has competed for the Danish national team in four World Championships . At the junior level , he represented Denmark in both Division I and main tournament play at the IIHF World U18 and U20 Championships . = = Personal life = = Hansen was born in Herlev , Denmark , a suburb of Copenhagen . His father , Bent Hansen , was a carpenter and a member of the Danish national hockey team . Guided by his father , Hansen began skating at the age of two , but did not begin playing hockey until age 11 . Growing up , hockey attracted a low @-@ profile in Denmark ( football is the country 's national sport ) . At the time , no Dane had ever played in the NHL . Hansen has recalled neither he or any of his peers ever having any realistic aspiration to make the NHL , describing " Everyone grew up wanting to play in Sweden , or Germany , or Finland " instead . Hansen and his wife Karen had twin boys , Lucas and Daniel , on 3 March 2013 . = = Playing career = = = = = Europe and junior = = = Hansen developed with the Rødovre Mighty Bulls of the Danish Oddset League , joined the senior team at age 16 . He played in Rødovre for a season @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half , then was invited to play for the Swedish Malmö Redhawks 's under @-@ 18 team in 2002 – 03 . Hansen played the remainder of the season in Malmö , then returned to Rødovre the following season . After recording 19 points over 35 games in 2003 – 04 with Rødovre , Hansen was selected by the Vancouver Canucks , 287th overall , in the 2004 NHL Entry Draft . Despite his success the previous season , his selection was delayed to the latter stages of the draft due to his small stature and a traditional lack of NHL players coming out of Denmark . Hansen stayed with Rødovre another season following his draft and recorded a Danish career @-@ high 32 points in 34 games . Selected by the Portland Winter Hawks of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) 33rd overall in the 2005 Canadian Hockey League ( CHL ) Import Draft , Hansen moved to North America and joined the club for the 2005 – 06 season . Hansen 's proficiency in English played a part in Winter Hawks general manager Ken Hodge selecting him . Canucks management also wanted him playing major junior in order to better his transition to the more physical North American style of play . Becoming the first Danish player to compete in the WHL , Hansen scored at a point @-@ per @-@ game pace , leading all rookies with 64 points . He continued his scoring pace in the playoffs with 13 points in 12 games as Portland was eliminated in the second round . = = = Vancouver Canucks = = = In July 2006 , Hansen signed a three @-@ year , entry @-@ level contract with the Vancouver Canucks . Playing the 2006 – 07 season with the Canucks ' minor league affiliate , the Manitoba Moose of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) , he scored 12 goals and 34 points over 72 games , leading all team rookies in scoring . During the 2007 Stanley Cup playoffs , Hansen was called up by the Canucks . He became the first born @-@ and @-@ raised Danish player to compete and register a point in the NHL post @-@ season — Frans Nielsen had played and scored the first point by a born @-@ and @-@ raised Dane in the regular season earlier that year . The point was scored in Game 3 of the first round against the Dallas Stars by assisting on a goal by Jan Bulis . The Canucks advanced past the Stars in seven games to meet the Anaheim Ducks in the second round . In Game 5 of the series , with the Canucks facing elimination in overtime , Hansen played an instrumental part on the ice when the Ducks scored . Attempting to carry the puck out of the defensive zone , he was hit to the ice by Ducks forward Rob Niedermayer . While Canucks goaltender Roberto Luongo had his arm up in the direction of the referee , protesting the lack of penalty , the puck came loose to Ducks defenceman Scott Niedermayer , who scored past the distracted Luongo . Following the Canucks ' elimination , Hansen was sent back to the Moose for their 2007 Calder Cup playoffs . Back in the AHL , he was pointless in six games as the Moose were defeated by the Hamilton Bulldogs in the second round . The following season , Hansen was plagued by injuries , initially suffering a broken thumb in the pre @-@ season with the Canucks . After recovering , he was assigned to the Moose in early @-@ October , but was re @-@ called by the Canucks within a month . In January 2008 , Hansen was re @-@ injured , suffering a concussion . Later in the campaign , he earned his second call @-@ up of the season in April . Finishing the season with the Moose , he finished with 43 points in 50 games for the third @-@ highest point @-@ per @-@ game average on the club , as well as a team @-@ high plus @-@ minus rating of + 23 . In NHL play , he was pointless in five games . Hansen played his first full season with the Canucks in 2008 – 09 , making the roster out training camp and establishing himself as a third @-@ line forward . He became known as a player for his speed and work ethic , lending to his effectiveness in puck @-@ pursuit and forechecking . Also responsible defensively , he began to be used consistently on the penalty kill . Hansen has recalled the transition to the NHL requiring a change in his style of play to incorporate more physicality and abrasiveness . Prior to making the NHL , he relied more on skill and finesse , having been a go @-@ to offensive player for teams up to that point . Hansen scored his first NHL regular season point on 11 October 2008 , an assist on a Ryan Kesler goal against the Calgary Flames . He scored his first NHL goal two games later against goaltender Chris Osgood in a 4 – 3 win against the Detroit Red Wings . Midway through the season , Hansen was briefly sent back to Manitoba for the Canucks to make room on the roster for the recently acquired Mats Sundin . He was , however , recalled within three days . In late @-@ February , he broke his finger and was sidelined for 14 games . He completed the season with 21 points in 55 games , ranking 26th in scoring among NHL rookies . In the off @-@ season , he became a restricted free agent before re @-@ signing with the Canucks to a one @-@ year , two @-@ way contract worth a reported US $ 550 @,@ 000 . The following 2009 pre @-@ season , Hansen injured his hand during a fight against Edmonton Oilers forward Gilbert Brulé , He returned to the lineup in mid @-@ November 2008 after missing 19 games . On 1 January 2009 , he was assigned for to the Moose for 10 days on a conditioning assignment , scoring two assists in five games . Back in Vancouver , Hansen completed the season with nine goals and 15 points over 47 games . He added three points in 12 playoff games , while playing through a sprained ankle suffered in the second round against the Chicago Blackhawks . Becoming a restricted free agent for the second consecutive summer , Hansen was taken to salary arbitration by the Canucks . Following his hearing on 20 July 2010 , he was awarded a one @-@ year , one @-@ way deal worth $ 850 @,@ 000 , which the Canucks agreed to . Recording career @-@ highs of 9 goals , 20 assists and 29 points over 82 games in 2010 – 11 , Hansen received the Canucks ' Fred J. Hume Award as the team 's " unsung hero " ( voted by the Canucks ' booster club ) . He added three goals and nine points over 25 games in the 2011 playoffs as the Canucks advanced to the Stanley Cup Finals , where they were defeated in seven games by the Boston Bruins . In the off @-@ season , Hansen filed for salary arbitration . Prior to his hearing , Hansen and the Canucks avoided arbitration by agreeing to a three @-@ year , $ 4 @.@ 05 million contract . Many in the media , including those from the local Province newspaper , suggested that he ceded to the Canucks ' negotiations , to which Hansen responded , " If you want to be in a position to win , you have to make some sacrifices . " In the first month of the 2011 – 12 season , Hansen was hit from behind by defenceman Shea Weber in a game against the Nashville Predators on 20 October 2011 . While he was uninjured on the play , Weber was fined $ 2 @,@ 500 — the maximum allowable financial penalty — by the League the following day . The following month , Hansen earned a brief stint playing on the Canucks ' first line with Daniel and Henrik Sedin , replacing Alexandre Burrows . Enjoying a career season , he surpassed his previous personal best of nine goals in the NHL by December 2011 . He continued to play the majority of the campaign on the Canucks ' checking line and finished with 16 goals and 39 points over 82 games . Although Vancouver won their second consecutive Presidents ' Trophy in 2011 – 12 , they lost in the first round of the playoffs to the Los Angeles Kings . Hansen had one goal in the five @-@ game series . Hansen earned praise from local and league @-@ wide media amidst a strong start to the lockout @-@ shortened 2012 – 13 season . He finished the campaign scoring at the most prolific rate of his career , with 10 goals and 27 points over 47 games , ranking third in team scoring behind Daniel and Henrik Sedin . Playing the San Jose Sharks in the first round of the 2013 playoffs , Hansen failed to record a point in four games as the Canucks were swept . On 29 September 2013 , Hansen signed a four @-@ year deal with the Canucks . On 23 November 2014 , Hansen recorded his first career hat @-@ trick in a 4 – 1 victory over the Chicago Blackhawks . = = International play = = Hansen made his international debut with Denmark in Division I play of the 2002 IIHF World U18 Championships , held in Slovenia . At 16 years old , he was the second @-@ youngest player on the under @-@ 18 team ; he went pointless in four games . Denmark narrowly avoided relegation to Division II , beating out Japan on goal @-@ differential by one . At the 2003 IIHF World U18 Championships , Denmark finished first in their Division I group , earning a promotion to the main tournament for the following year . In Hansen 's second tournament appearance , he tied for sixth in Group A scoring with seven points over five games . Hansen advanced to the under @-@ 20 level , playing in Division I of the 2004 World Junior Championships , held in Berlin . He registered an assist in three games as Denmark finished second in their group to Germany , missing out on a promotion to the main tournament for the following year . He returned to the under @-@ 18 team for a third time later that year . Competing in the main tournament , Denmark finished in seventh place . Hansen scored seven points in six games , third in team @-@ scoring . At the 2005 World Junior Championships , Hansen helped Denmark to a third @-@ place finish in their five @-@ team Division I group . He led his team with four goals and added an assist for five points over five games . In February 2005 , Hansen made his debut with the Danish men 's team , competing in qualification play for the 2006 Winter Olympics . He notched an assist over three games as Denmark finished third in their group , failing to qualify for the Olympics . He returned to the men 's team for the 2005 World Championships , going pointless in four games . Denmark finished in 14th place out of 16 teams . The following year , Hansen made his third and final appearance for the under @-@ 20 team at the 2006 World Junior Championships . With four points in four games , he helped Denmark to a second @-@ place finish in Group A of Division I play . Several months later , he competed in his second Men 's World Championships in Riga , Latvia . Denmark finished in 13th place out of 16 teams in the top pool ; Hansen scored twice in six games . He again joined the Danish national team in the 2008 World Championships , held in Quebec City and Halifax , Canada . He played in six games in the tournament , scoring two goals and adding two assists , as Denmark finished in 12th place . Hansen missed the opportunity to play in the 2010 World Championships after having sprained his ankle during the NHL playoffs with the Canucks . Unavailable for the 2011 IIHF World Championship due to a run to the Stanley Cup Finals with the Canucks , Hansen rejoined Denmark the following year in Finland and Sweden . He was named Denmark 's player of the game after recording four shots on goal in a 2 – 0 preliminary loss to the Czech Republic . = = Career statistics = = = = = Regular season and playoffs = = = = = = International = = =
= Battle of Loc Ninh = The Battle of Lộc Ninh was a major battle fought during the Easter Offensive during the Vietnam War , which took place in Bình Long Province , South Vietnam between 4 – 7 April 1972 . Towards the end of 1971 , North Vietnamese leaders decided to launch a major offensive against South Vietnam , with the objective of destroying Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) units and capturing as much territory as possible , in order to strengthen their bargaining position in the Paris Peace Accords . On 30 March 1972 , two North Vietnamese Army divisions smashed through the Demilitarized Zone , marking the commencement of the Easter Offensive . They quickly overwhelmed South Vietnamese units in the I Corps Tactical Zone . With the rapid collapse of South Vietnamese forces in the northern provinces of South Vietnam , North Vietnamese and Việt Cộng forces began preparing for their next offensive , targeting Bình Long Province in the Mekong Delta region . On 4 April , the Việt Cộng 's 5th Division opened their attack on Lộc Ninh , defended by the ARVN 9th Infantry Regiment . After three days of fighting , the vastly outnumbered South Vietnamese forces , though well supported by American air power , were forced to abandon their positions in Lộc Ninh . = = Background = = In December 1971 , following the defeat of South Vietnamese forces during Operation Lam Son 719 , North Vietnamese leadership in Hanoi decided to launch a major military offensive against South Vietnam . In what became known as the Easter Offensive , the combined North Vietnamese and Việt Cộng forces employed combined arms tactics using heavy weapons that were a radical departure from the low @-@ intensity guerrilla warfare of previous years . Although North Vietnam eventually used the equivalent of 14 army divisions , its leaders did not seek to win the war outright . Rather , their objective was to gain as much territory and destroy as many units of the South Vietnamese military as possible , in order to strengthen their bargaining position at the Paris Peace Talks . The Easter Offensive began on 30 March 1972 , when the 304th and 308th North Vietnamese Divisions drove across the DMZ and attacked South Vietnamese positions in the I Corps Tactical Zone , which consisted of South Vietnam 's northernmost provinces . Caught by surprise , South Vietnamese General Vũ Văn Giai ordered his newly created 3rd Infantry Division to withdraw towards the Cua Viet River , where it could reorganize . On 2 April , ARVN Colonel Pham Van Dinh surrendered his 56th Infantry Regiment at Camp Carroll , which enabled the North Vietnamese to take the former American fire base without a fight . Quảng Trị City was captured by the North Vietnamese army on 28 April , following several counterattacks by South Vietnamese units around Đông Hà . With the northern provinces of South Vietnam under their control , North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces turned their attention to the Mekong Delta region , which formed part of the ARVN III Corps Tactical Zone . During the Offensive , the objective of the combined Communist forces in the zone was the capture of An Lộc , capital of Bình Long Province . The Viet Cong committed three infantry divisions to the mission ( 5th , 7th and 9th Divisions ) . North Vietnamese support came in the form of one artillery formation ( 69th Artillery Command ) , one armored regiment ( 203rd Armored Regiment ) , two independent regiments ( 205th and 101st Regiment ) , and one sapper unit ( 429th Sapper Group ) . The Viet Cong 's 5th Division was to initiate the offensive by taking Lộc Ninh , while the 9th Division was assigned to An Lộc . The 7th Division was ordered to block National Highway 13 to prevent reinforcements from reaching An Lộc . = = Prelude = = In late December 1971 , ARVN intelligence in the III Corps Tactical Zone had detected the buildup of North Vietnamese and Viet Cong formations across the border in neighbouring Cambodia . Even though it was obvious that preparations for a major Communist offensive were under way , South Vietnamese commanders were unable to predict their enemies ' intentions . In January 1972 , the Viet Cong 5th Division was reported to have taken up positions in Snuol , a Cambodian city located about 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) west of Lộc Ninh . South Vietnamese intelligence also detected the presence of the Viet Cong 's 7th and 9th Divisions in Dambe and Chup respectively . Between January and May 1971 , the South Vietnamese army mounted Operation Toan Thang TT02 , with the aim of destroying Viet Cong main force divisions based in Cambodia , specifically in the Snuol area . But due to the death of General Đỗ Cao Trí , the commander of the ARVN III Corps Tactical Zone , in a helicopter accident , the South Vietnamese were forced to retreat from Snuol without achieving their objective . In February and March 1972 , South Vietnamese units patrolling the international border with Cambodia detected increased Communist activity in the Fishhook area , most notably the presence of the Viet Cong 5th Division in an area north of Bình Long Province . On 13 March , a South Vietnamese mechanized task force operating in Cambodia discovered a huge depot which contained large quantities of assault rifles , machine guns , rockets , anti @-@ aircraft guns and ammunition in Base Area 354 ( Svay Rieng Province ) and Base Area 708 ( Kampong Cham Province ) . On 27 March , a Việt Cộng deserter from a reconnaissance company of the 7th Division revealed that his unit was surveying a portion of road between Tây Ninh and Bình Long in preparation for its next move . Between 27 March and 1 April , more enemy prisoners and documents were captured by the South Vietnamese army , which revealed that the Viet Cong 's 7th and 9th Divisions were coordinating their efforts against an unidentified target . The movements of Communist forces near the Cambodian @-@ South Vietnamese border during the first three months of 1972 clearly indicated that a major offensive was in the making . However , the whereabouts of the next Communist thrust was the topic which concerned South Vietnamese and U.S. intelligence officers the most . In previous offensives , the Communist had used Tây Ninh as an invasion route , as it was surrounded by Viet Cong bases in War zone C , the Iron Triangle and the Parrot 's Beak , Cambodia . South Vietnamese and U.S. military intelligence reached a consensus that Tây Ninh would be the next target for the Communist Easter Offensive . To reinforce that perception , on 2 April , the Viet Cong 24th Independent Regiment overran Fire Support Base Lac Long , defended by elements of the ARVN 49th Infantry Regiment , 5th Infantry Division , about 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) northwest of Tây Ninh . The attacks on Lac Long and other outposts in Tây Ninh were a diversion designed to cover the main thrust into Bình Long Province . To initiate the campaign in Bình Long , the Viet Cong 's 5th Division ( numbering about 9 @,@ 230 soldiers ) was ordered to take Lộc Ninh , Bình Long 's northernmost town . The Viet Cong were supported by the North Vietnamese 69th Artillery Command ( 3 @,@ 830 soldiers ) and the 203rd Armored Regiment ( 800 soldiers ) . In 1972 , Lộc Ninh was a small district town situated on Route 13 , home to about 4 @,@ 000 people , mostly members of the various Montagnard tribes . The task of defending Lộc Ninh was entrusted to the ARVN 9th Infantry Regiment , 5th Infantry Division , commanded by Colonel Nguyễn Công Vinh . It was supported by the 1st Cavalry Squadron , 1st Regional Force Battalion , and elements of the 74th Ranger Battalion . Prior to the battle , the 9th Infantry Regiment had occupied the former U.S. Special Forces compound at the south end of the airfield , which was about 0 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 50 mi ) west of the district center . The district headquarters was defended by more than 200 South Vietnamese Regional Forces soldiers , who operated from a Japanese @-@ built fortified bunker system located north of the airfield . To assist the 9th Infantry Regiment , the U.S. military provided seven advisers . The U.S. advisory team at 9th Regimental Headquarters was led by Lieutenant Colonel Richard R. Schott , who was assisted by Major Albert E. Carlson and Captain Mark A. Smith , and two communication specialists , Sergeant First Class Howard B. Hull and Sergeant Kenneth Wallingford . Additionally , Captain George Wanat and Major Thomas Davidson operated from the north end of the airfield , attached to the district headquarters . = = Fall of Lộc Ninh = = From the beginning of April , there was a sharp increase in Viet Cong activities along National Highway 13 , which connects Bình Long Province with Saigon . Between 3 – 4 April , South Vietnamese Regional Force units clashed several times with the Viet Cong , resulting in more than twenty Viet Cong fatalities . Also , the French owner of the Cexso Rubber Plantation in Lộc Ninh reported that the Communists had established field telephone lines northwest of the district . However , ARVN Colonel Colonel Nguyễn Công Vinh was reluctant to send reconnaissance patrols to that area . On 4 April , the ARVN 9th Reconnaissance Company operating west of Lộc Ninh was destroyed when it came into contact with elements of the Viet Cong main force units . On the same evening , the 3rd Battalion , ARVN 9th Infantry Regiment captured two enemy soldiers during an ambush operation . The Viet Cong prisoners revealed that they were from the 272nd Regiment , 9th Division , and that their unit was moving south to prepare for an assault on An Lộc . At around 6 : 50 am on 5 April , the Viet Cong 5th Division moved across the Cambodian border to stage the main attack on Lộc Ninh . The Viet Cong assault opened with a heavy barrage of artillery , rocket and mortar fire targeting the headquarters of the ARVN 9th Infantry Regiment and the Lộc Ninh district compound . The Viet Cong simultaneously mounted other attacks throughout the ARVN 5th Infantry Division 's areas of operations in Lai Khê and Quần Lợi . There was also indirect fire on South Vietnamese positions in Phước Long Province , mainly targeting Phước Vinh , Sông Bé , and Bo Duc . Following the artillery barrage , Viet Cong infantry , supported by about 25 tanks , attacked Lộc Ninh from the west . In the initial assault , they tried to overrun the South Vietnamese regimental compound located at the south end of the airstrip . Despite the ferocity of the onslaught , South Vietnamese soldiers held their ground and fought desperately to hold the enemy at bay ; South Vietnamese artillerymen lowered the muzzles of their 105mm howitzers and fired directly at enemy infantry formations moving through the rubber trees . Even though the situation was stabilized , the South Vietnamese were forced to retreat into small compounds at the north and south ends of the town . The intensity of the attack on Lộc Ninh revealed the true intentions of the Communists ; ARVN Lieutenant General Nguyễn Văn Minh , commander of the III Corps Tactical Zone , and his American advisor Major General James F. Hollingsworth realized that Bình Long , not Tây Ninh , would be the focus of the Communist offensive . In order to halt the Communist advance , Minh and Hollingsworth directed all available tactical support aircraft towards Lộc Ninh . Almost immediately , South Vietnamese air force F @-@ 5 and A @-@ 1 fighter @-@ bombers , United States Air Force ( USAF ) A @-@ 37s from the 8th Special Operations Squadron based at Biên Hòa , attack aircraft from the aircraft carrier USS Constellation , and USAF F @-@ 4 and AC @-@ 130 aircraft from Thailand began flying over the skies of Lộc Ninh . U.S. and South Vietnamese tactical support aircraft were directed against Viet Cong and North Vietnamese formations by American advisers on the ground . As the fighting intensified , Colonel Nguyễn Công Vinh ordered the 1st Cavalry Squadron — commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Nguyen Huu Duong — to withdraw from Fire Support Base Alpha to reinforce Lộc Ninh . However , Duong refused , saying he would surrender his unit to the Viet Cong instead . Angered , Captain Mark A. Smith reportedly threatened to destroy the 1st Cavalry Squadron with American air power if the squadron didn 't fight . Schott , in recognition of Smith 's combat experience and knowledge of the Vietnamese language , allowed him to take control of the situation . From that point on , Smith virtually controlled the South Vietnamese forces . A few moments later , elements of the ARVN 74th Ranger Battalion and the 3rd Battalion , ARVN 9th Infantry Regiment notified the regimental command post that they had broken out and were fighting their way back towards Lộc Ninh . Meanwhile , the 1st Cavalry Squadron began moving west towards the Cambodian border with the Viet Cong , with the rest of their tanks and armored personnel carriers . On the afternoon of 5 April , the Viet Cong 's 5th Division launched another major ground assault on Lộc Ninh from the west to try to break through the defenses of the southern compound . American AC @-@ 130 and AH @-@ 1 Cobra gunships stopped the Viet Cong formations in their tracks , as supporting North Vietnamese tanks were either destroyed or forced to pull back . Despite having suffered many casualties as a result of U.S. air strikes , the Viet Cong continued their assaults well into the evening . In order to deal with the onslaught , Smith continued to direct the AC @-@ 130 Spectres against targets around Lộc Ninh . Vinh , on the other hand , was either planning to surrender or desert when he ordered two of his soldiers to open the gates of the command compound at around 10 pm . Throughout the night , the North Vietnamese 69th Artillery Command continued bombarding South Vietnamese positions around Lộc Ninh , as the Viet Cong massed for another assault . On the morning of 6 April , South Vietnamese forces reported hearing the sound of tanks moving toward the southern end of the district airfield . At about 5 : 30 am , the Viet Cong launched another attack from southern Lộc Ninh , with the support of about 25 T @-@ 54 and PT @-@ 76 tanks . Viet Cong infantry initially managed to breach the South Vietnamese lines , but the attack soon stalled , and neither side gained a clear advantage . In the afternoon , elements of the Viet Cong E6 Regiment forced their way through the compound gates , but air strikes from U.S. AC @-@ 130s stopped them from advancing any further . By that stage , however , the ARVN 9th Infantry Regiment had absorbed a significant number of casualties ; it only had 50 soldiers left , while another 150 wounded were in the hospital bunker . The defenders in Lộc Ninh were cut off from outside help since heavy @-@ calibre North Vietnamese anti @-@ aircraft guns effectively prevented resupply and medivac flights into the area . In an attempt to save Lộc Ninh , Brigadier General Lê Văn Hưng — commander of the ARVN 5th Infantry Division — ordered Task Force 52 to move north to reinforce the beleaguered 9th Infantry Regiment . Task Force 52 consisted of the 2nd Battalion , 52nd Infantry Regiment , and the 1st Battalion , 48th Infantry Regiment ; both units had been transferred from the ARVN 18th Infantry Division in late March to serve as a border screen for General Hưng 's forces . Lieutenant Colonel Nguyễn Bá Thinh — commander of Task Force 52 — ordered the 2nd Battalion to advance towards Lộc Ninh . The unit was ambushed at the junction of National Highway 13 and Route 17 . Unable to withstand the Viet Cong 's superior firepower , it was forced to withdraw . To prevent Task Force 52 from evacuating to either Lộc Ninh or An Lộc , the Viet Cong pursued Task Force 52 and bombarded their bases with heavy artillery throughout the day . Meanwhile , on the afternoon of 6 April , the South Vietnamese inside Lộc Ninh were slightly reinforced by the 3rd Battalion , ARVN 9th Infantry Regiment , along with the men of the 1st Cavalry Squadron at FSB Alpha who had refused to surrender . Furthermore , wounded South Vietnamese soldiers who were still able to fight made their way back to the defensive perimeter to await the next wave of attacks . During the night , the South Vietnamese compound descended into chaos when North Vietnamese artillery scored a direct hit on the hospital bunker , killing a large number of wounded men . Later on , another round of rockets struck the South Vietnamese artillery compound , striking the ammunition storage bunker , which exploded . From the eastern side of the district , the Viet Cong tried to penetrate the defense line at Lộc Ninh , but were beaten off . Realizing that the situation had become hopeless , Vinh took off his uniform and told his to surrender . At 7 am on 7 April , the Viet Cong massed for another ground assault from the north and west of Lộc Ninh , with support from heavy artillery , tanks and armored personnel carriers . As the Viet Cong closed in , Vinh and his bodyguards ran out the opened gate and surrendered . Several South Vietnamese soldiers also tried to surrender , but they all returned to their positions after Smith stopped a South Vietnamese officer from raising a white T @-@ shirt up the flagpole . By 8 am , the ARVN 9th Infantry Regiment was completely overwhelmed when the Viet Cong overran the southern compound with their superior numbers . At around 10 am , all tactical air support was called off in order to clear the way for B @-@ 52 strikes against Viet Cong formations west of Lộc Ninh . However , the B @-@ 52 strikes could not prevent the Viet Cong from overrunning Lộc Ninh . By 16 : 30 , the Viet Cong were in complete control of Lộc Ninh District . = = Aftermath = = The fight cost both sides dearly . The true extent of Viet Cong and North Vietnamese casualties is largely unknown , but due to their exposure to American firepower , the Communist forces undoubtedly suffered heavy losses . Nonetheless , the successful capture of Loc Ninh exceeded Communist expectations , as they had thought that the South Vietnamese would hold out longer . Lộc Ninh became the seat of the Provisional Revolutionary Government , the capital of Communist @-@ occupied territories in South Vietnam . The South Vietnamese , in their efforts to hold the district , lost more than three thousand soldiers killed or captured ; only about fifty soldiers actually reached An Lộc . The Viet Cong also captured all seven American advisers and an embedded French journalist , Yves @-@ Michel Dumond , in Lộc Ninh ; they were taken to a prison camp in Kratié Province , Cambodia . Dumond was released on 14 July 1972 . On 12 February 1973 , the Americans were released in accordance with the Paris Peace Accord . As Lộc Ninh was succumbing , other Communist formations turned their attention to the provincial capital of An Lộc . At 9 am on 7 April , Brigadier General Lê Văn Hưng ordered Task Force 52 to abandon its bases , destroy all heavy weapons and vehicles , and withdraw to An Lộc , following their failed attempt at reinforcing the 9th Infantry Regiment . As Task Force 52 tried to break through National Highway 13 , they ran into another large Viet Cong ambush . It would take the soldiers of Task Force 52 about a week to reach An Lộc , infiltrating through Viet Cong and North Vietnamese positions along the main road . Late on 7 April , the Viet Cong 's 9th Division attacked Quan Loi airfield , just 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) north of An Lộc . Elements of the ARVN 7th Infantry Regiment defending the area were unable to hold off the Viet Cong , so they were ordered to destroy their equipment and join other South Vietnamese units in the provincial capital . The next step in the North Vietnamese offensive was the " Battle of An Lộc " .
= U.S. Route 30 in Indiana = U.S. Route 30 ( US 30 ) is a road in the United States Numbered Highway System that runs from Astoria , Oregon to Atlantic City , New Jersey . In Indiana , the route runs from the Illinois state line at Dyer to the Ohio state line east of Fort Wayne and New Haven . The 155 @.@ 96 miles ( 250 @.@ 99 km ) of US 30 that lie within Indiana serve as a major conduit . The entire length of U.S. Route 30 in Indiana is included in the National Highway System ( NHS ) . The highway includes four @-@ lane , rural sections , an urbanized , four @-@ lane divided expressway , and several high @-@ traffic , six @-@ lane areas . First designated as a US Highway in 1926 , US 30 replaced the original State Road 2 ( SR 2 ) and SR 44 designation of the highway which dated back to the formation of the Indiana State Road system . A section of the highway originally served as part of the Lincoln Highway . Realignment and construction projects have expanded the highway to four lanes across the state . There are over 40 traffic signals between I @-@ 65 at Merrillville and I @-@ 69 at Fort Wayne . = = Route description = = US 30 enters Dyer from Lynwood , Illinois along the original alignment of the Lincoln Highway , as a four @-@ lane divided highway . At Moeller Street , the roadway becomes a four @-@ lane highway with a center turn lane before reaching an at @-@ grade intersection with CSX railroad tracks . Thereafter , the road returns to four @-@ lane divided highway before a traffic light at US 41 in Schererville and passing under Norfolk Southern railroad tracks . After US 41 , the original alignment of the Lincoln Highway leaves US 30 and continues along the same route as old State Road 330 ( SR 330 ) . US 30 begins to curve towards the southeast , still as a four @-@ lane divided highway . The highway has a traffic light at SR 55 , heading east as the roadway enters Merrillville , where the route becomes a six @-@ lane divided highway and has an interchange at Interstate 65 ( I @-@ 65 ) . At Colorado Street in Merrillville , the road narrows back to a four @-@ lane divided highway . After a traffic light at the southern terminus of SR 51 in Hobart , the original alignment of the Lincoln Highway rejoins US 30 . The highway passes through a mix of farmland and residential properties on the way to Valparaiso , entering the city and passing through commercial properties . The highway has a traffic light at SR 2 at the western end of the concurrency of the two roads . From there , the road crosses railroad tracks , passes south of Valparaiso University , and has a traffic light at the eastern terminus of SR 130 . After passing the traffic light at SR 130 , the road has a full interchange with SR 49 and the eastern terminus of the SR 2 and US 30 concurrency . Continuing east , the road passes the Porter County Municipal Airport and proceeds east @-@ southeast from Valparaiso , towards Plymouth . Along this segment , US 30 passes through rural farmland , with an intersection at US 421 and an at @-@ grade railroad crossing with the Chesapeake and Indiana Railroad . East of the railroad tracks is an intersection with SR 39 and an interchange at US 35 . US 30 runs along the north side of Plymouth , passing through an interchange with the northern terminus of SR 17 and near the Plymouth Municipal Airport . The route curves around the northeast side of the city , having an interchange with US 31 and heading southeast towards Warsaw . At Bourbon , the highway has an interchange with SR 331 . The road curves east before entering Warsaw and has an interchange with SR 15 , south of the Warsaw Municipal Airport . After passing the airport , the road enters a mix of commercial and residential properties and has a traffic light at an old alignment of the Lincoln Highway , before passing north of Winona Lake and heading towards Columbia City . At Columbia City , the road turns southeast and has traffic lights at SR 109 , SR 9 , and SR 205 . After SR 205 , US 30 heads east towards Fort Wayne , paralleling the Chicago , Fort Wayne and Eastern Railroad . The route crosses into Allen County at a traffic light at County Line Road . The highway enters Fort Wayne with a traffic light at Kroemer Road and a trumpet interchange with US 33 , at the western terminus of US 33 's concurrency with US 30 , and proceeds east @-@ southeast towards an interchange with I @-@ 69 as a six @-@ lane divided highway . At the diamond interchange with I @-@ 69 , US 33 runs south on I @-@ 69 , while US 30 continues north , concurrent with both I @-@ 69 and US 24 ; the road itself continues east as SR 930 and as Goshen Road . US 30 's concurrency with I @-@ 69 is a six @-@ lane urban interstate with interchanges at Lima Road ( US 27 and SR 3 ) and Coldwater Road ( formerly SR 327 and US 27 ) . At the interchange of I @-@ 69 and I @-@ 469 , US 30 heads east concurrent with I @-@ 469 around the north and east sides of Fort Wayne , towards New Haven . The highway is a four @-@ lane interstate passing through a mix of farmland and residential properties . Proceeding east , the interstate crosses the St. Joseph River and has an interchange at Maplecrest Road before turning south around the northeast side of Fort Wayne to subsequent interchanges with SR 37 followed by US 24 . After the US 24 interchange , the highway crosses the Maumee River and Norfolk Southern railroad tracks before leaving I @-@ 469 east of downtown New Haven at the eastern terminus of SR 930 . After I @-@ 469 , US 30 heads southeast away from New Haven , passing through rural farmland as a four @-@ lane divided highway . The route has an intersection at SR 101 before entering Ohio , heading toward Van Wert . The entire length of U.S. Route 30 in Indiana is included in the National Highway System ( NHS ) , a network of highways that are identified as being most important for the economy , mobility and defense of the United States . The highway is maintained by the Indiana Department of Transportation ( INDOT ) , similar to all other U.S. Highways in the state . The department tracks the traffic volumes along all state highways as a part of its maintenance responsibilities using a metric called average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , calculated along a segment of roadway for any average day of the year . In 2010 , INDOT figured that lowest traffic levels were 10 @,@ 870 vehicles and 4 @,@ 750 commercial vehicles used the highway daily between US 31 and SR 331 . The peak traffic volumes were 69 @,@ 280 vehicles and 12 @,@ 660 commercial vehicles AADT along the section of US 30 that is concurrent with I @-@ 69 , between the Lima Road and Coldwater Road exits in Fort Wayne . = = History = = The Lincoln Highway was planned in 1913 to run west to east across Indiana , including to South Bend and Fort Wayne . In 1915 , the highway opened and passed through downtown Fort Wayne on its route through Indiana , and was assigned the designation of Main Market route number 2 in 1917 . Further designations saw the route become SR 2 from the Illinois state line to Valparaiso , SR 44 Valparaiso to Fort Wayne and SR 2 from Fort Wayne to the Ohio state line . In the early 1920s , the Lincoln Highway was moved south between Valparaiso and Fort Wayne , to what is now known mostly as Old US 30 , passing through Plymouth and Warsaw . A section of US 30 in Dyer known as the " ideal section " of the Lincoln Highway was opened in 1923 and rebuilt in the 1990s . In 1924 , the sections of the road that were part of the original Lincoln Highway was paved , followed by the paving of the rest of US 30 , which was commissioned in 1926 . In 1927 , a small realignment between Hanna and SR 29 ( current US 35 ) took place . During the 1950s , US 30 in Fort Wayne was rerouted to Coliseum Boulevard , constructed as a " circumurban " highway to bypass Fort Wayne . In 1998 , US 30 in Fort Wayne was again rerouted onto I @-@ 69 and I @-@ 469 , bypassing most of Fort Wayne and New Haven on the north and east side of the two towns . The Coliseum Boulevard routing was assigned the SR 930 designation as a result , when INDOT could not give the route over to local control . = = Major intersections = =
= It Takes a Village Idiot , and I Married One = " It Takes a Village Idiot , and I Married One " is the 17th episode of the fifth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on May 13 , 2007 . The episode features Lois after she runs for Mayor of Quahog against incumbent Mayor Adam West , once she notices how polluted the local lake has become . Lois is elected as mayor and successfully cleans the lake , but quickly succumbs when the toxic @-@ dump owner pressures her to let him resume dumping toxins into the lake . The episode was written by Alex Borstein and directed by Zac Moncrief . It received mixed reviews from critics for its storyline and many cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 7 @.@ 21 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Jeff Bergman , Gary Cole , Jackson Douglas , Keith Ferguson , Carrie Fisher , Masam Holden , Don Most , Gary Newman , Keith Olbermann , and Fred Tatasciore , along with several of the series ' recurring guest @-@ voice actors . = = Plot = = The Griffin family decides to take a vacation at Quagmire 's cabin at Lake Quahog . When they go swimming in the lake , they discover that an oil refinery is dumping toxic waste into it ; as they flee the lake their hair falls out , forcing them to wear powdered wigs until it grows back . Lois complains to Mayor Adam West , who admits that he sanctioned the dumping in exchange for free hair oil . Outraged , Lois decides to run against West in the upcoming mayoral election . Peter and his friends become strong supporters of Lois 's campaign , realizing that they 'd be able to get away with almost everything should she become mayor . But Lois 's campaign soon falters as Mayor West proves more politically savvy . While Lois bores voters with detailed plans to improve the city , Mayor West uses glittering generalities and statements completely unrelated to the questions posed to him . Following Brian 's advice to give short , simple answers , Lois resorts to similar tactics , dropping controversial terms such as " Jesus " and " 9 / 11 " in meaningless ways . She eventually gains the populace 's support and wins the election . After taking office , Lois begins to use fear tactics to raise funds to clean up the lake . Her efforts are successful and life returns to the clean lake . She even has leftover cash afterwards , so she embezzles $ 600 to purchase a purse , much to Brian 's disappointment . Peter has also succumbed to the perks of being the mayor 's husband : he has rerouted the town 's electrical system and caused rolling blackouts to bring late comedian Jim Varney back from the dead ( he does nothing but talk , playing his character Ernest , and repeatedly refer to " Vern " . ) He then remembers he actually wanted John Belushi and takes Varney outside to shoot him , only for Varney to end up taking the gun from him and Peter running away from him warning Brian . Later , Lois is tempted to buy a $ 4 @,@ 300 fur coat , and Bob Grossbeard , president of the local oil company , offers to buy it for her if she will allow him to dump his oil runoff in the lake . Lois reluctantly accepts his offer , but as the opening of the new runoff pipe begins , Lois realizes the error of her ways and closes the valve to the pipe and resigns her position as mayor , stating that she was consumed by money and power , which led her to become the very same things she set out to destroy . Lois then allows West to have his job as mayor back , but a random bystander points out that neither Lois nor Mayor West has any jurisdiction to do so , and that the city has to have a whole new election to decide who gets to be the mayor of Quahog . This prompts West to pull out a gun and shoot him , as well as two others whom he believes objected . = = Production = = The episode was written by Alex Borstein , under the pen name of " a.bo " , and directed by Zac Moncrief . The story is based on a one @-@ woman show Borstein worked on , entitled Women and Jews : Why We 'll Never Be President . The storyline came out when she felt that a woman " will never be president , " stating , " I had these fantasies about a woman president that would be fair and there 'd be no corruption . That 's a bunch of bullshit fantasy . " Borstein called the episode " kind of my homage to Hillary Clinton . " The staff enjoyed the episode 's storyline so much , that Borstein and fellow writer Cherry Chevapravatdumrong wrote a novelization of the episode . Borstein called the book a " companion piece poking fun " at Clinton 's book It Takes a Village . Gary Newman , President of 20th Century Fox , voiced a man in the audience when Lois held a press conference . Newman is responsible for Family Guy being renewed after its cancellation , and he had wanted to do a line on the show . In addition to Newman and the regular cast , voice actors Jeff Bergman , Keith Ferguson , and Fred Tatasciore , actors Gary Cole , Jackson Douglas , Carrie Fisher , Masam Holden , and Don Most , and news anchor and political commentator Keith Olbermann , also supplied voices . Recurring voice actors Lori Alan , Johnny Brennan , and Alex Breckenridge , and writers Mark Hentemann , Danny Smith , Alec Sulkin , and John Viener made minor appearances . = = Cultural references = = In the episode 's opening scene , the Griffins are traveling to Quagmire 's cabin in the woods ; Peter notes that it will be a better vacation than when they appeared in the American game show The Price Is Right pricing game Cliff Hangers . Cleveland is also shown playing the pricing game Plinko . As Stewie and Brian decide to go berry @-@ picking in the forest , actor Don Most slowly rises from the fog nearby as a chorus sings about his role as Ralph on the ABC sitcom Happy Days to the melody of the title song from Brigadoon . Having lost their hair from the lake 's pollution , the Griffins are at home wearing powdered wigs , an effect that compels Stewie to play several classical compositions , including those by Joseph Haydn and Georg Friedrich Handel , with Peter appearing as Antonio Salieri . The scene is a reference to the 1984 film Amadeus . Preparing for Quahog 's upcoming mayoral election , both Lois and incumbent Mayor Adam West participate in a debate hosted by Quahog 5 News . As Lois begins her second response , after first running out of time , she uses the September 11 attacks and Jesus to form her answers . The crowd reacts positively to her answers , with a live @-@ action clip of " The Crying Girl " from season six of the American reality show American Idol also appearing on screen . Once Lois is elected , Brian mentions Lois 's ability to connect with the citizens of Quahog , just as Disney is able to connect with their audience , with the 2004 film Home on the Range being shown . Going on to propose a " modest tax increase " to pay for the cleanup of the local lake , Lois resorts to fear tactics , by stating that Adolf Hitler and the Legion of Doom are planning to assassinate Jesus , using the lake as their base . Abusing his wife 's power as mayor , Peter begins by rerouting the city 's electricity , causing rolling blackouts . When Brian questions Peter 's actions , Peter reveals that he 's been using the power to reanimate actor Jim Varney 's corpse ( he 'd actually wanted to bring back actor and Saturday Night Live alumnus John Belushi ) . Horror @-@ movie legend Jason Voorhees from the Friday the 13th movie series appeared twice in this episode , carrying his trademark blood @-@ drenched machete . First , Quahog news reporter Tricia Takanawa is interviewing him by the lake , during which he kills two bathing @-@ suit @-@ clad women . The scene references Camp Crystal Lake , Jason 's traditional haunt . Later he appears as the boss of the store where Lois tries to buy her expensive coat ; he threatens to kill his employee if she " screws up . " = = Reception = = In its original broadcast in the United States , the episode was watched by 7 @.@ 21 million households and achieved a 3 @.@ 5 rating and 9 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . It ultimately finished third in its timeslot , after Desperate Housewives on ABC and a two @-@ hour season finale of Survivor : Fiji on CBS . The episode attracted 740 @,@ 000 fewer viewers than the previous episode , but made Family Guy the highest rated show in the Animation Domination block , ahead of King of the Hill , The Simpsons and American Dad ! . Since airing , the episode has received mixed reviews from critics . Brett Love of TV Squad noted that the story was very similar to the season two episode " Running Mates " , but thought it was " pretty solid " with " some great moments . " Ahsan Haque of IGN stated the episode had " quite a few funny jokes , " but the storyline was " predictably unoriginal , " and felt the " political statement [ ... ] was stretched too thin , " giving the episode a 6 @.@ 8 out of 10 .
= Sukhoi Su @-@ 9 ( 1946 ) = The Sukhoi Su @-@ 9 , or Samolyet K ( Russian : Aircraft K ) , ( USAF / DOD designation : Type 8 ) , was an early jet fighter built in the Soviet Union shortly after World War II . The design began in 1944 and was intended to use Soviet @-@ designed turbojet engines . The design was heavily influenced by captured German jet fighters and it was subsequently redesigned to use a Soviet copy of a German turbojet . The Su @-@ 9 was slower than competing Soviet aircraft and it was cancelled as a result . A modified version with different engines and a revised wing became the Su @-@ 11 ( Samolyet KL ) , but this did not enter production either . The Su @-@ 13 ( Samolyet KT ) was a proposal to re @-@ engine the aircraft with Soviet copies of the Rolls @-@ Royce Derwent turbojet as well as to modify it for night fighting , but neither proposal was accepted . = = Design and development = = = = = Su @-@ 9 = = = In 1944 , the Sukhoi design bureau ( OKB ) began designing a twin @-@ engined fighter powered by two Lyulka TR @-@ 1 turbojets , known internally as the Samolyet or Izdeliye ( item or product ) K. The ultimate design was very probably influenced by a captured Messerschmitt Me 262 , but the Su @-@ 9 was not a copy of the German aircraft . The Su @-@ 9 had an oval cross @-@ section , all @-@ metal stressed skin monocoque fuselage that housed a single cockpit . The pilot was protected by armor plates to his front , an armored seat back and a bulletproof windscreen for the bubble canopy . He was provided with an ejection seat , copied from that used in the Heinkel He 162 . The aircraft carried a total of 1 @,@ 350 kilograms ( 2 @,@ 980 lb ) of fuel in two bladder tanks , one each ahead and behind the pilot . The low @-@ mounted , straight wing had a single @-@ spar and a slight dihedral of 4 ° 20 ' . The outer flaps were split and could act as air brakes . The Su @-@ 9 was the first Soviet aircraft to use hydraulic powered controls . A Soviet copy of the Junkers Jumo 004B turbojet , known as the RD @-@ 10 , was hung under each wing in a streamlined nacelle . The aircraft had a tricycle undercarriage that retracted into the fuselage . The Su @-@ 9 was designed with a very high wing loading which increased the aircraft 's speed and reduced its dimensions . This consequently increased the take @-@ off and landing speeds so it was equipped with a provision for two JATO bottles ( 11 @.@ 27 kN ( 530 lbf ) thrust for 8 seconds ) mounted on the sides of the fuselage . These reduced the take @-@ off distance by nearly 50 percent and a braking parachute was fitted to reduce the landing distance . The nose housed the armament of one 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Nudelman N @-@ 37 autocannon and two 23 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) Nudelman @-@ Suranov NS @-@ 23 autocannon . The N @-@ 37 could be replaced by a 45 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) Nudelman N @-@ 45 . The aircraft carried 100 rounds for each NS @-@ 23 and 40 rounds for the N @-@ 37 . Two 250 @-@ kilogram ( 550 lb ) FAB @-@ 250 high explosive bombs could be carried underneath the forward fuselage , but the N @-@ 37 had to be dismounted to do so . As the TR @-@ 1 engines originally intended for the Su @-@ 9 were not yet ready for flight testing in late 1945 , Pavel Sukhoi suggested substituting a pair of Jumo 004 engines and this was approved on 15 December . The full @-@ scale mockup was found to be acceptable on 16 February 1946 and the Council of People 's Commissars issued an order on 26 February that the manufacturer 's flight testing was to begin on 1 November . This goal was not met because the OKB was heavily committed to other projects like the trainer version of the Tupolev Tu @-@ 2 bomber , inexperience with JATO units , and late delivery of RD @-@ 10 engines . The first prototype was completed in mid @-@ October and made its first flight on 13 November . The test pilots found the aircraft easy to fly , but the control forces were very high at speed and it lacked enough directional stability . Enlarging the vertical stabilizer cured this last problem and hydraulic boosters were fitted for the control system . The aircraft was revealed to the general public on 3 August 1947 at a flypast at Moscow 's Tushino Airfield and the aircraft began its state acceptance trials three days later . Flight testing was completed by 25 May 1948 after 136 flights had been completed . It demonstrated a top speed of 885 kilometers per hour ( 550 mph ) at an altitude of 8 @,@ 000 meters ( 26 @,@ 250 ft ) and an endurance of one hour and 44 minutes . It had very docile handling qualities with one engine inoperative . The aircraft was recommended for production , but it was significantly slower than the Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich MiG @-@ 9 and Yakovlev Yak @-@ 15 . The government declined to do so and the program was terminated . A two @-@ seat trainer version , the Su @-@ 9UT , was planned during 1946 , but it too was cancelled . The cockpit for the student would have been positioned ahead of the instructor 's cockpit and each would have had a separate canopy . The armament would have been reduced to a pair of 20 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) Berezin B @-@ 20 autocannon , each with a hundred rounds of ammunition . The armor would have been removed to save weight . = = = Su @-@ 11 = = = Another prototype was begun in 1946 , but this aircraft was intended to use the Yakovlev @-@ designed version of the afterburning RD @-@ 10F engine . However , wind tunnel testing of the Su @-@ 9 in September revealed that drag could be reduced if the engine nacelles were mounted in the wing rather than underneath it , and the wing tips were redesigned to use a different airfoil that significantly reduced Mach tuck . These changes required that the entire wing be redesigned ; the wing spar was bent into an inverted U to accommodate the engines and slotted flaps replaced the simple flaps previously used . The tailplane was given a 5 ° dihedral to move it out of the engine exhaust . Before the prototype was finished , Sukhoi was ordered to use the Lyulka TR @-@ 1 turbojets originally intended for the Su @-@ 9 . This aircraft was designated the Su @-@ 11 and was called Samolyet KL by the OKB . Each TR @-@ 1 developed only 12 @.@ 7 kN ( 2 @,@ 865 lbf ) thrust each , rather than the 15 kN ( 3300 lbf ) required . The aircraft made its first flight on 28 May 1947 and also participated in the flypast at Tushino in August . It had a maximum speed of 940 km / h ( 580 mph ) at sea level , but flight testing revealed that it lacked longitudinal stability at high speeds . Modifications of the wing / nacelle fillets and lengthening the engine nacelles failed to cure these problems . Coupled with the unavailability of mature TR @-@ 1 engines , these problems caused the program to be cancelled . = = = Su @-@ 13 = = = The Su @-@ 13 , ( Samolyet KT ) , was the final attempt to further increase performance of the basic Su @-@ 9 design , using wing sections reduced from 11 % to 9 % thickness / chord ratio and swept tailplanes . The aircraft was also fitted with a pair of Klimov RD @-@ 500 ( unlicensed copies of the Rolls @-@ Royce Derwent ) engines with 15 @.@ 6 kN ( 3 @,@ 500 lbf ) thrust each . The armament was changed to three 37 mm Nudelman N @-@ 37 cannon , while drop tanks could be fitted underneath the wingtips . A night fighter version with a Torii radar was also proposed , but this required major structural changes to accommodate the radar . Neither version made it off the drawing board . = = Operators = = Soviet Union Soviet Air Force = = Variants = = Su @-@ 9UT – Planned two @-@ seat trainer version , never built . Su @-@ 11 ( Samolyet KL ) – Modified Su @-@ 9 with new wings and Lyulka TR @-@ 1 engines . One prototype built . Su @-@ 13 ( Samolyet KT ) – Su @-@ 9 with Klimov RD @-@ 500 engines . Night fighter version also proposed . Neither version was built . = = Specifications ( Su @-@ 9 ) = = Data from Early Soviet Jet Fighters General characteristics Crew : 1 Length : 10 @.@ 546 m ( 34 ft 7 in ) Wingspan : 11 @.@ 2 m ( 36 ft 9 in ) Height : 3 @.@ 4 m ( 11 ft 2 in ) Wing area : 20 @.@ 2 m2 ( 217 sq ft ) Empty weight : 4 @,@ 060 kg ( 8 @,@ 951 lb ) Gross weight : 5 @,@ 890 kg ( 12 @,@ 985 lb ) Fuel capacity : 1350 kg Powerplant : 2 × RD @-@ 10 turbojets , 9 kN ( 2 @,@ 000 lbf ) thrust each Performance Maximum speed : 885 km / h ( 550 mph ; 478 kn ) Range : 1 @,@ 200 km ( 746 mi ; 648 nmi ) Service ceiling : 12 @,@ 800 m ( 41 @,@ 995 ft ) Armament 1 × 37 mm Nudelman N @-@ 37 cannon with 40 rounds ( a 45 mm Nudelman N @-@ 45 could be fitted instead ) 2 × 23 mm Nudelman @-@ Suranov NS @-@ 23 cannon with 200 rpg Up to 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 102 lb ) of bombs
= West Cornwall Covered Bridge = The West Cornwall Covered Bridge ( an earlier incarnation was known as the Hart Bridge ) is a wooden covered lattice truss bridge carrying the Sharon @-@ Goshen Turnpike over the Housatonic River in the town of Cornwall , Connecticut . Records indicate that a bridge may have been in place in this location as early as 1762 . A previous bridge was destroyed in the flood of 1837 and a new bridge was constructed in 1841 . This bridge would also be destroyed and the current bridge would be completed circa 1864 . Utilizing the central pier from the previous incarnation , despite the Town lattice being able to withstand the weight and single span , the bridge has two spans . The later addition of queen trusses and supports gives the bridge an unusual appearance . Modernization of the bridge in 1968 and 1973 has continued to let the bridge handle traffic . It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1975 . = = History = = Located at the north @-@ south and east @-@ west roadway section of the riverside town of Cornwall , Connecticut , numerous bridges have been built at this location . As early as 1762 , a bridge may have been in service here . The lifespan of these bridges was not a long term one , for floods and ice would demolish them frequently . Peter Vermilyea , author of Hidden History of Litchfield County , states that wooden bridges had typical life spans of seven to ten years . Town records list expenditures for repair and placement . For many decades the current West Cornwall bridge was believed to have been constructed in 1841 , as a replacement for an earlier bridge that washed away in the flood of 1837 . The 1841 date was even included on the National Register of Historic Places nomination and was claimed to have been supervised by Ithiel Town himself . At least one , but possibly several incarnations of these earlier bridges were known as the Hart Bridge , after a settler of West Cornwall . Local tradition states that Selectman Marcus Smith traveled to North Adams , Massachusetts to choose the timber for the bridge . The 1841 bridge may have been overseen by Ithiel Town , but the current bridge dates to about 1864 according to research by Michael R. Gannett for the Cornwall Historical Society . The center pier which supports of the middle bridge was likely reused from the previous bridge . In 1968 , the State of Connecticut added the bridge to the state system and considered replacing it . A local committee in West Cornwall was created and organized to save the covered bridge , through their efforts the Connecticut Department of Transportation decided to renovate the bridge . The bridge was raised up an additional two feet and steel supports were inserted to support the roadway . In 1973 , the roadway was reinforced with the addition of a concealed steel deck to support the weight of traffic . This project would win the Federal Highway Administration 's award for outstanding historic preservation . Throughout its history , the bridge has endured against a series of disasters that threatened to demolish it . Flooding as a result of the 1938 New England hurricane and the flood of 1955 , caused by the combined effects of both Hurricane Connie and Hurricane Diane , threatened to wash the bridge away . In 1961 , a severe ice jam threatened to destroy the bridge , but the jam was successfully dynamited . The bridge also had to be repaired in 1945 after a 20 @-@ ton oil truck fell through the bridge floor . = = Description = = Constructed in 1864 , the West Cornwall covered bridge is 172 feet ( 52 m ) long , 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) wide and supports one lane of vehicle traffic for the Sharon @-@ Goshen Turnpike ( Connecticut Route 128 ) . The bridge 's Town lattice truss is constructed of red @-@ spruce timbers secured by treenails and the span is made of native oak . A secondary queen @-@ post truss was added to the bridge at a later date , with one source stating that this was in 1887 . The addition of the queen @-@ post truss was likely to stiffen the bridge because wooden trusses have a tendency to sag . Prior to 1946 , the bridge had a square port with a flat top , but this was modified to a gable roof which remains today . In 1957 , the bridge was painted red for the first time . The bridge consists of two spans , 64 @.@ 1 feet and 81 @.@ 10 feet , with a 3 @.@ 2 feet gap between them . The combined trussed portions of the bridge are 149 @.@ 1 feet long . The bridge 's Town lattice is an unusual design choice , but the later addition of the queen trusses are also unusual , resulting in a unique visual appearance by the bridge 's unequal spans . This gives the appearance of kingposts within the queenposts . Since the addition of the steel I @-@ beam flooring in 1973 , the trusses have supported nothing but themselves . The State of Connecticut 's lists the bridge as CT 1338 and the May 2012 inspection of the bridge found the deck and superstructure conditions to be satisfactory and condition of the substructure to be fair . The West Cornwall Covered bridge has been appraised as functionally obsolete . = = Significance = = The West Cornwall covered bridge is very significant and important as one of only three surviving covered bridges in the state of Connecticut . The bridge 's modification from the original Town lattice represents a unique design that is not repeated in either the Comstock 's Bridge or Bull 's Bridge . The covered bridge is perhaps best known for being featured on postcards of New England villages . Terry Miller and Ronald Knapp assert that Charles Ives passed by the bridge on the way to the Berkshires which inspired the third movement in the Three Places in New England . The bridge appeared in the opening scenes of the movie , Valley of the Dolls a 1967 American drama film based on the 1966 novel of the same name by Jacqueline Susann . This brief scene occurs near the 2 minute mark of the film , during the opening credits . The bridge was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975 . Numerous photos , including photos from before the 20th @-@ century renovations , are contained in Connecticut and Rhode Island Covered Bridges .
= Ask and Embla = In Norse mythology , Ask and Embla ( from Old Norse Askr ok Embla ) — male and female respectively — were the first two humans , created by the gods . The pair are attested in both the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources , and the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson . In both sources , three gods , one of whom is Odin , find Ask and Embla and bestow upon them various corporeal and spiritual gifts . A number of theories have been proposed to explain the two figures , and there are occasional references to them in popular culture . = = Etymology = = Old Norse askr literally means " ash tree " but the etymology of embla is uncertain , and two possibilities of the meaning of embla are generally proposed . The first meaning , " elm tree " , is problematic , and is reached by deriving * Elm @-@ la from * Almilōn and subsequently to almr ( " elm " ) . The second suggestion is " vine " , which is reached through * Ambilō , which may be related to the Greek term ámpelos , itself meaning " vine , liana " . The latter etymology has resulted in a number of theories . According to Benjamin Thorpe " Grimm says the word embla , emla , signifies a busy woman , from amr , ambr , aml , ambl , assiduous labour ; the same relation as Meshia and Meshiane , the ancient Persian names of the first man and woman , who were also formed from trees . " = = Attestations = = In stanza 17 of the Poetic Edda poem Völuspá , the völva reciting the Poem states that Hœnir , Lóðurr and Odin once found Ask and Embla on Land . The Völva says that the two were capable of very little , lacking in ørlög and says that they were given three gifts by the three Gods : The meaning of these gifts has been a matter of scholarly disagreement and translations therefore vary . According to chapter 9 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , the three brothers Vili , Vé , and Odin , are the creators of the first man and woman . The brothers were once walking along a beach and found two trees there . They took the wood and from it created the first human beings ; Ask and Embla . One of the three gave them the breath of life , the second gave them movement and intelligence , and the third gave them shape , speech , hearing and sight . Further , the three gods gave them clothing and names . Ask and Embla go on to become the progenitors of all humanity and were given a home within the walls of Midgard . = = Theories = = = = = Indo @-@ European origins = = = A Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European basis has been theorized for the duo based on the etymology of embla meaning " vine . " In Indo @-@ European societies , an analogy is derived from the drilling of fire and sexual intercourse . Vines were used as a flammable wood , where they were placed beneath a drill made of harder wood , resulting in fire . Further evidence of ritual making of fire in Scandinavia has been theorized from a depiction on a stone plate on a Bronze Age grave in Kivik , Scania , Sweden . Jaan Puhvel comments that " ancient myths teem with trite ' first couples ' of the type of Adam and his by @-@ product Eve . In Indo @-@ European tradition , these range from the Vedic Yama and Yamī and the Iranian Mašya and Mašyānag to the Icelandic Askr and Embla , with trees or rocks as preferred raw material , and dragon 's teeth or other bony substance occasionally thrown in for good measure " . In his study of the comparative evidence for an origin of mankind from trees in Indo @-@ European society , Anders Hultgård observes that " myths of the origin of mankind from trees or wood seem to be particularly connected with ancient Europe and Indo @-@ Europe and Indo @-@ European @-@ speaking peoples of Asia Minor and Iran . By contrast the cultures of the Near East show almost exclusively the type of anthropogonic stories that derive man 's origin from clay , earth or blood by means of a divine creation act " . = = = Other potential Germanic analogues = = = Two wooden figures — the Braak Bog Figures — of " more than human height " were unearthed from a peat bog at Braak in Schleswig , Germany . The figures depict a nude male and a nude female . Hilda Ellis Davidson comments that these figures may represent a " Lord and Lady " of the Vanir , a group of Norse gods , and that " another memory of [ these wooden deities ] may survive in the tradition of the creation of Ask and Embla , the man and woman who founded the human race , created by the gods from trees on the seashore " . A figure named Æsc ( Old English " ash tree " ) appears as the son of Hengest in the Anglo @-@ Saxon genealogy for the kings of Kent . This has resulted in an amount of theories that the figures may have had an earlier basis in pre @-@ Norse Germanic mythology . Connections have been proposed between Ask and Embla and the Vandal kings Assi and Ambri , attested in Paul the Deacon 's 7th century AD work Origo Gentis Langobardorum . There , the two ask the god Godan ( Odin ) for victory . The name Ambri , like Embla , likely derives from * Ambilō . = = = Catalog of dwarfs = = = A preceding stanza to the account of the creation of Ask and Embla in Völuspá provides a catalog of dwarfs , and stanza 10 has been considered as describing the creation of human forms from the earth . This may potentially mean that dwarfs formed humans , and that the three gods gave them life . Carolyne Larrington theorizes that humans are metaphorically designated as trees in Old Norse works ( examples include " trees of jewellery " for women and " trees of battle " for men ) due to the origin of humankind stemming from trees ; Ask and Embla . = = Modern influence = = Ask and Embla have been the subject of a number of references and artistic depictions . A sculpture depicting the two stands in the southern Swedish city of Sölvesborg , created in 1948 by Stig Blomberg . Ask and Embla are depicted on two of the sixteen wooden panels found on the Oslo City Hall in Oslo , Norway , by Dagfin Werenskiold . In 2003 , Faroese artist Anker Eli Petersen included a depiction of the couple in his series of Faroe Islands stamps . In A.S. Byatt 's novel Possession , one of the characters is a poet who writes a series of verses about Ask and Embla .
= Nugroho Notosusanto = Brigadier General Raden Panji Nugroho Notosusanto ( 15 July 1930 – 3 June 1985 ) was an Indonesian short story writer turned military historian who served as professor of history at the University of Indonesia . Born to a noble family in Central Java , he exhibited a high degree of nationalism from a young age . During the Indonesian National Revolution from 1945 to 1949 he saw active service as a member of the Student Army , working reconnaissance . Despite wanting to remain in the military , under influence by his father he continued his education , eventually enrolling in the faculty of literature at the University of Indonesia . During the 1950s he wrote extensively and was active in numerous political and academic groups , finally graduating with a degree in history in 1958 . After a failed attempt to study at the University of London , in the early 1960s Notosusanto – by then a lecturer – was contacted by General Abdul Haris Nasution and tasked with writing a history of the revolution and Madiun Affair . By 1964 he had become head of the Indonesian Army 's history division , holding an honorary rank . Continuing to teach , he wrote extensively on the revolution and other military events , including the first book on the 30 September Movement of 1965 . Between 1983 and his death Notosusanto served concurrently as rector of the University of Indonesia and Minister of Education and Culture . = = Early life = = Nugroho Notosusanto was born in Rembang , Central Java , Dutch East Indies , on 15 July 1930 , the first of three children born to R.P. Notosusanto , a professor of Islamic law and later one of the founders of Gadjah Mada University , and his wife . The family was well connected , and several of Nugroho Notosusanto 's relatives were bupati ( regents ) ; his grandfather , Notomidjojo , was likewise connected to the nobility . While still a child Nugroho Notosusanto began writing short stories ; his father later recalled that they were filled with themes of struggle and nationalism . Another of Notosusanto 's relatives , Budi Darma , later recalled that he had always stood at attention , " like a soldier " , when the future national anthem " Indonesia Raya " was played . Nugroho Notosusanto began his elementary education at a Dutch @-@ run school in Malang , East Java , in 1937 . The following year he transferred to a school for native Indonesians in the colony 's capital at Batavia ( now Jakarta ) , graduating in 1942 . He completed his junior high school studies in Pati . During the Indonesian National Revolution from 1945 to 1949 Nugroho Notosusanto 's family lived in the temporary national capital at Yogyakarta so that his father could work for the Ministry of Law . The younger Notosusanto fought for the revolutionaries . He first joined the 17th Brigade of Student Army ( Tentara Pelajar ) , later transferring to the People 's Security Army ( Tentara Keamanan Rakjat ) . During this period he exclusively did reconnaissance and often slept at the homes of local villagers . Historian Katherine McGregor suggests that this influenced his later short stories , which took humanist themes . = = Post @-@ revolution = = After the end of the revolution , Notosusanto was given a choice between resuming his studies or going to Breda in the Netherlands for further military training . Influenced by his father 's disapproval of the military , he finished his senior high school education , despite wanting to continue with the army . After graduating senior high school in 1951 , he immediately enrolled with the faculty of literature at the University of Indonesia ( Universitas Indonesia , or UI ) . However , he continued to resent the older generation and political leadership . During the 1950s Notosusanto wrote extensively , focusing on essays but also writing poems and , later , short stories ; the last of his creative works were written around 1956 . He published four short story anthologies between 1958 and 1963 . The first , Hudjan Kepagian ( Morning Rain ) , consisted of six short stories . It dealt with the struggle against the Dutch colonists during the revolution . His second anthology , Tiga Kota ( Three Cities ) , was published the following year and followed events in three cities : Rembang , Yogyakarta , and Jakarta . The others , and his numerous stories which were published outside of anthologies , mostly dealt with the war and the positive effects of revolution . Aside from his writing , Notosusanto was active in student and political organisations , the student press , and academic conferences . With other students he picketed the British and French embassies in Jakarta , supporting independence for Egypt and Algiers . He also travelled extensively , visiting Malaysia , Singapore , the Philippines , Japan , and the US on academic sorties . He completed his bachelour 's degree in history from UI in 1958 , becoming a lecturer at UI after graduation . On 12 December 1960 he married Irma Sawitri Ramelan ( better known as Lilik ) . Together they had three children : Indrya Smita , Inggita Sukma , and Norottama . = = Historian = = By the early 1960s Notosusanto had abandoned his literary career , focusing instead on history . In 1960 he received a scholarship from the Rockefeller Foundation to study at the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London , England . He dropped out in 1961 , and returned to Indonesia in 1962 . Around this time he was recruited by General Abdul Haris Nasution to provide a version of the revolution amenable to the Indonesian Army and counter a Communist Party of Indonesia @-@ backed history which ignored the Madiun Affair of 1948 . In 1964 he was chosen as head of the Department of Military History . He also worked as a lecturer at UI . During the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1960s Notosusanto wrote extensively on the military history of Indonesia , including a book on Supriyadi 's anti @-@ Japanese rebellion in 1945 and the Battle of Surabaya . His 1968 book on the 30 September Movement coup in 1965 , written in collaboration with Ismail Saleh and entitled The Coup Attempt of the 30 September Movement in Indonesia , was the first on the subject to be published . It was later used as the basis for the pro @-@ Suharto film Pengkhianatan G30S / PKI ( Treachery of G30S / PKI ; 1984 ) , for which Notosusanto received a writing credit . Sometime after 1968 Notosusanto conceived of Satria Mandala Museum in Jakarta as a modern museum showcasing the military 's role in the country 's history . The museum , modeled after the Australian War Memorial in Canberra and the Museo Nacional de Historia in Mexico City , Mexico , opened in 1972 and contained numerous dioramas . In a later pamphlet Notosusanto wrote that dioramas were necessary as " the habit of reading is still developing ... [ thus ] historical visualisation remains an effective way to express the identity of ABRI " . In existing museums he revised the dioramas to better suit the needs of the New Order government . During this period Notosusanto continued to teach , although he also became involved with administrative work at UI . He served as assistant dean at the university 's faculty of literature between 1963 and 1964 , later serving as assistant rector from 1964 to 1967 . After writing his thesis on " The Peta Army During the Japanese Occupation in Indonesia " , Notosusanto received his doctorate in 1977 from UI ; the thesis was translated into Indonesian and published in 1979 by Gramedia . Two years later he was made a full professor . Notosusanto was made a member of the Fourth Development Cabinet when it was formed on 16 March 1983 , replacing outgoing minister Daud Jusuf and taking office three days later . During his two years as minister he worked on several programmes , including compulsory education and student selection systems . He also instituted a new curriculum , replacing the one which had been in use since 1975 and promoting the humanities . Concurrently with his work as Minister of Education and Culture , Notosusanto served as rector of UI ; students were disapproving of his selection , considering him a military official sent to limit their freedom . He died at his Jakarta home on 3 June 1985 after suffering a cerebral hemorrhage and was buried at Kalibata Heroes ' Cemetery . At the time he was a brigadier general , the highest rank then available for civilians in military service . = = Legacy = = For his military and civilian service , Notosusanto received several awards from the Indonesian government , including the Bintang Dharma , Bintang Gerilya , Bintang Yudha , Dharma Naraya , and Satyalencana Penegak . McGregor describes him as " the central propagandist of the New Order regime " , writing that he worked " tirelessly " to support the military . She argues that he controlled a " cult of personality " built around President Suharto , giving the reorganisation of history museums as an example . According to McGregor , Notosusanto relegated the country 's first president , Sukarno , to a background role while he " inserted Suharto , together with other military men , into new places " , legitimising the New Order government . = = Selected bibliography = = = = = Short story collections = = = Notosusanto , Nugroho ( 1958 ) . Hudjan Kepagian [ Morning Rain ] . Jakarta : Balai Pustaka . OCLC 63840742 . Notosusanto , Nugroho ( 1959 ) . Tiga Kota [ Three Cities ] . Jakarta : Balai Pustaka . OCLC 61627011 . Notosusanto , Nugroho ( 1961 ) . Rasa Sajange [ This Love ] . Jakarta : Pembangunan . OCLC 611193440 . Notosusanto , Nugroho ( 1963 ) . Hidjau Tanahku , Hidjau Badjuku [ Green of My Land , Green of My Shirt ] . Jakarta : Balai Pustaka . OCLC 64096491 . = = = Historical works = = = Notosusanto , Nugroho ; Saleh , Ismail ( 1971 ) . The Coup Attempt of the September 30 Movement in Indonesia . Jakarta : Pembimbing Masa . OCLC 8389745 . Notosusanto , Nugroho ( 1971 ) . The Peta Army in Indonesia , 1943 @-@ 1945 . Jakarta : Centre for Armed Forces History . OCLC 533393 . Notosusanto , Nugroho ( 1974 ) . The Revolt Against the Japanese of a Peta Battalion in Blitar , February 14 , 1945 . Jakarta : Centre for Armed Forces History . OCLC 1604032 . Notosusanto , Nugroho ( 1975 ) . The National Struggle and the Armed Forces in Indonesia . Jakarta : Centre for Armed Forces History . OCLC 5775078 .
= Keggy the Keg = Keggy the Keg is the unofficial mascot of Dartmouth College , an Ivy League university in Hanover , New Hampshire , United States . Keggy is an anthropomorphic beer keg , created in 2003 by members of the college humor magazine the Dartmouth Jack @-@ O @-@ Lantern , to fill the mascot void that followed the abolition of the Indian mascot in 1971 . Due to its nature , the mascot was controversial on Dartmouth 's campus , and it was reported on in a variety of national media . With time , however , it has become an " ingrained part of Dartmouth culture " . = = Context and creation = = After dropping the mascot of the Indian , Dartmouth had no official mascot . Dartmouth continued to be known by its nickname of " The Big Green , " but , citing the ambiguity , lack of dynamism , and intangibility of having no mascot , the Dartmouth Student Assembly proposed a student poll in spring 2003 to decide upon a new mascot . While the Moose came in first in this poll , many students remained dissatisfied with the choice , and the moose lost a final poll to " no mascot . " Chris Plehal and Nic Duquette , students at the Jack @-@ O @-@ Lantern humor magazine , expressed interest in creating a mascot that " wasn 't racist , biased or sexist , yet [ was ] entirely unacceptable . " In an effort to force the administration to adopt a more interesting mascot , they created Keggy , an anthropomorphic keg that represents " the most obvious Dartmouth stereotype : the beer @-@ swilling Animal House fraternity culture . " = = Reactions = = Reaction to Keggy 's introduction was mixed : the student body president personally endorsed Keggy in the mascot search , while the College newspaper The Dartmouth reported a mixed student reaction and published opposing opinions . The paper also reported on " flak " over the mascot from College administrators , though the Dean of the College lauded the students ' capacity to " come up with imaginative and creative ideas . " Keggy subsequently received media attention beyond the College at other Ivy League newspapers and on several national media outlets . Michael Wilbon of ESPN 's Pardon the Interruption called Keggy " some stupid beer thing , " and Playboy magazine published a feature on Keggy as part of a " Mascots Talk Back " series . A posting of a photo of Keggy on CollegeHumor was popular enough to receive status as a National Pick . In August , 2012 Yahoo Sports ranked Keggy the Keg as the # 1 Most Unique Mascot . = = History = = Shortly after Keggy 's introduction in 2003 , a group of students stole the Keggy costume from its home in the Sigma Nu fraternity library and sent threatening notes to Keggy 's creators , including photographs of the mascot bound and gagged with one black eye . Some thought this to be a publicity stunt by the creators , but the mascot had truly been stolen . Keggy was eventually returned with minor damage to the costume . Keggy continued to make occasional appearances at Dartmouth sporting events , and became an " ingrained part of Dartmouth culture " : at Dartmouth 's 2005 Winter Carnival celebration , students named the snow sculpture of a large ship " Captain Keggy 's Carnival Cruiser . " In early 2006 , College officials denied Keggy entrance to a sold @-@ out hockey game ( officials cited fire code concerns with the capacity crowd ) , prompting a Jack @-@ O @-@ Lantern @-@ penned editorial in The Dartmouth condemning the incident ; the Jack @-@ O @-@ Lantern website alleged " anti @-@ keg racism . " A similar incident occurred in October 2006 when Keggy was not permitted on the field at halftime of the Homecoming football game , again resulting in further complaints in The Dartmouth and on the Jack @-@ O @-@ Lantern website . The costume disappeared before the fall term of 2008 and has not been seen or returned since . The Jack @-@ O @-@ Lantern built a replacement costume and unveiled it at the 2009 Winter Carnival .
= 1346 = Year 1346 ( MCCCXLVI ) was a common year starting on Sunday ( link will display the full calendar ) of the Julian calendar . It was a year in the 14th century , in the midst of a period known in European history as the Late Middle Ages . In Asia that year , the Black Plague came to the troops of the Golden Horde Khanate ; the disease also affected the Genoese Europeans they were attacking , before spreading to the rest of Europe . In Central and East Asia , there was a series of revolts after Kazan Khan was killed in an uprising , and the Chagatai Khanate began to splinter and fall ; several revolts in China began what would eventually lead to the overthrow of the Yuan dynasty . The Indian kingdom of Vijayanagara won several victories over Muslim conquerors in the north in this year as well . In Eastern Europe , Stefan Dušan was proclaimed Tsar of Serbia on April 16 ( Easter Sunday ) at Skopje . In the nearby Byzantine Empire , the Ottoman emir Orhan married Byzantine princess Theodora as part of an alliance between her father John VI Kantakouzenos and the Ottomans . Ongoing civil wars in both Bulgaria and Byzantium continued . Denmark sold its portion of Northern Estonia to the Livonian Order of the Teutonic Knights after finally quelling the St. George 's Night Uprising . In Central Europe , Charles IV of Luxembourg was elected Holy Roman Emperor on July 11 . A number of banking families in Italy , including the Bardi family , faced bankruptcy in this year , and much of Italy suffered a famine . The Hundred Years ' War between the Kingdom of France and the Kingdom of England continued in Western Europe , as Edward III of England led an invasion onto the continent and won a number of victories . = = Events = = = = = January – December = = = Spring – a severe Black Death epidemic begins in the Crimea . March 18 – the French prepare to defend channel coasts . April – The French besiege Aiguillon . April 16 – the Serbian Empire is proclaimed in Skopje by Dusan Silni , occupying much of South @-@ Eastern Europe . May – June – an English invasion fleet assembles at Portsmouth . June 9 – Battle of St Pol de Léon : English army defeats Charles of Blois in Brittany . June 20 – the English win a small victory at La Roche @-@ Derrien in Brittany . June 24 – the leaders of Ghent , Bruges and Ypres agree to support Edward III . July – Edward III orders the closing of English ports to stop information from reaching France . July 3 – the English fleet attempts to sail from Portsmouth to Normandy but is forced back by contrary winds . July 11 – Charles IV , Count of Luxembourg and King of Bohemia , is elected King of the Romans . July 11 – 12 – Edward III and the English army cross the English Channel and begin an invasion of France . July 12 – July 18 – the English raid and burn neighbouring towns and villages in the Cotentin Peninsula . August 26 – Battle of Crécy , in which the English defeat the French . September 4 – the English begin the siege of Calais . October 17 – Battle of Neville 's Cross : the English army defeats the Scots . October – November – several Mongol towns in the Crimea are cleared of inhabitants by the Black Death . = = = Date unknown = = = Repairs are made in the Hagia Sophia . = = Asia = = = = = Western Asia = = = The Golden Horde 's siege of Kaffa continued through 1346 , despite a number of obstacles . They were struck with the Black Plague and forced to retreat , although not until the following year . As one Russian historian records : In the same year [ 1346 ] , God 's punishment struck the people in the eastern lands , in the town Ornach , and in Khastorokan , and in Sarai , and in Bezdezh , and in other towns in those lands ; the mortality was great among the Bessermens , and among the Tartars , and among the Armenians and the Abkhazians , and among the Jews , and among the European foreigners , and among the Circassians , and among all who lived there , so that they could not bury them . The many areas and peoples listed here represent much of Western Asia and the Caucasus . The " European foreigners " are those fighting with the Tartars in the Mongol @-@ led siege of Kaffa . These Europeans would return to Europe the following year , carrying the plague with them . Travellers returning from the Crimea also carried the plague to Byzantium and Arabia , according to Greek and Arab scholars of the time . Another account of the events in the Crimea reads : It seemed to the besieged Christians as if arrows were shot out of the sky to strike and humble the pride of the infidels who rapidly died with marks on their bodies and lumps in their joints and several part , followed by putrid fever ; all advice and help of the doctors being of no avail . Whereupon the Tartars , worn out by this pestilential disease , and falling on all sides as if thunderstruck , and seeing that they were perishing hopelessly , ordered the corpses to be placed upon their engines and thrown into the city of Kaffa . Accordingly were the bodies of the dead hurled over the walls , so that the Christians were not able to hide or protect themselves from this danger , although they carried away as many dead as possible and threw them into the sea . But soon the whole air became infected , and the water poisoned , and such a pestilence grew up that scarcely one out of a thousand was able to escape . Modern scholars consider this one of the earliest , and most deadly , biological attacks in world history , though in the end the Mongols were forced to retreat . Early sources state that the plague began its spread in the spring of 1346 at the River Don near the Black Sea , then spread throughout Russia , the Caucasus , and the Genovese provinces within the year . Further south in Georgia , King George the Brilliant died and was succeeded by King David IX . King George V had managed to increase the Georgian realm to all of Transcaucasia . However , after 1346 the Kingdom began to decline , caused by George 's death and the devastating spread of the plague throughout the area soon afterwards . = = = Central and East Asia = = = Central Asia was marked in 1346 by the continued disintegration of the Mongol 's domains , as well as by Muslim expansion . Kazan Khan , emperor of the Chagatai Khanate , was killed by the forces of Qazaghan in this year , putting an end to the Chagtai Khanate 's status as a unified empire . Qazghan was the leader of the group of Turkish nobles opposed to Mongol rule . Qazghan had been wounded by Kazan 's forces earlier in the year , but rather than taking advantage of his opponent 's weakness , Kazan retreated and many of his troops abandoned him . To the east , Kashmir was conquered by Shah Mir , the first Muslim to rule the area . Kathmandu was also conquered in this year . However , Muslim expansion did suffer some defeats in southern India . The Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagara in India conquered the Hoysalas and celebrated its " festival of victory " , strengthening their status as a legitimate Hindu empire in opposition to Muslim rule in the north . The leader of the Delhi Sultanate in Northern India , Muhammud bin Tughluq , had a particular disdain not only for Hinduism , but for the Deccan culture of the south . Telugu chieftains gathered in opposition to the Sultan in this year and celebrated victory . Further east , Ibn Battuta traveled from Southeast Asia to Khanbaliq ( Beijing ) in China . Although the Muslim leaders there extended him a warm welcome , they advised him to leave the city soon . A civil war had caused the Khan to flee the city , and riots were becoming more and more widespread . Meanwhile , T 'aigo Wangsa , a Korean Buddhist monk , traveled to China to receive training under the guidance of Buddhist leader Shih @-@ wu . T 'aigo later founded the T 'aigo sect of Korean Buddhism . = = Europe = = = = = Scandinavia = = = In 1346 Denmark sold Northern -Estonia ( Danish Estonia ) to the Teutonic Knights following the end of an uprising and conflict between the pro @-@ Danish party ( bishop Olaf of Lyndanisse ) and the pro @-@ German party ( captain Marquard Breide ) , called the St. George 's Night Uprising . The Danish dominions in were sold for 10 @,@ 000 marks to the Livonian Order , ignoring the promise by Christopher II in 1329 never to abandon or sell its Estonian territories . The King of Denmark even made a public statement " repenting " for that broken promise , and asked forgiveness from the pope . = = = Balkans and Asia Minor = = = In the Balkans , on April 16 ( Easter Sunday ) , Stefan Dušan was crowned in Skopje as Tsar of the new Serbian Empire , which now occupied much of southeastern Europe . Also in 1346 , both Bulgaria and Byzantium ( which at this time covered most of Greece ) were in the middle of a series of civil wars . At the same time , the Christian @-@ held islands and possessions around the Aegean Sea were subject to Turkish raids . Orhan , the Ottoman Turkish prince of Bithynia was married to Theodora , daughter of Emperor John VI Kantakouzenos . The Greek clergy believed that the marriage of a Christian princess and a prominent Muslim would increase the region 's power . Orhan already had several other wives , and although Theodora was permitted to keep her religion , she was required to spend the rest of her life in an Islamic harem . Kantakouzenos hoped that Orhan would become his ally in any future wars , but Orhan , like his fellow Turks , became his enemy in the Genoese war . As part of the alliance , the Ottoman prince was permitted to sell the Christians he had captured at Constantinople as slaves in the public market . = = = Central = = = On July 11 , Charles IV of Luxembourg was elected emperor of the Holy Roman Empire . In consequence of an alliance between his father and Pope Clement VI , the relentless enemy of the emperor Louis IV , Charles was chosen Roman king in opposition to Louis by some of the princes at Rhens . He had previously promised to be subservient to Clement , he confirmed the papacy in the possession of wide territories , promised to annul the acts of Louis against Clement , to take no part in Italian affairs , and to defend and protect the church . Charles IV was at this time in a very weak position in Germany . Owing to the terms of his election , he was derisively referred to by some as a " priest 's king " ( Pfaffenkönig ) . Many bishops and nearly all of the Imperial cities remained loyal to Louis the Bavarian . Charles further endangered his high position when he backed the losing side in the Hundred Years ' War . He lost his father and many of his best knights at the Battle of Crécy in August 1346 . He himself was wounded on the same field . Meanwhile , in Italy a number of banks in Florence collapsed due to internal problems in Florence , contributed by King Edward III of England defaulting on some of his loans . Most notably , the Bardi family went bankrupt in this year . Italy also suffered a famine , making it difficult for the Papacy to recruit troops for the attack on Smyrna . The Venetians , however , organized an alliance uniting several European parties ( Sancta Unio ) , composed notably of the Knights Hospitaller , which carried out five consecutive attacks on İzmir and the Western Anatolian coastline controlled by Turkish states . In the realm of technology , papermaking reached Holland , and firearms made their way to Northern Germany in this year . The earliest records in the area place them in the city of Aachen . = = = Western Europe = = = On or around July 7 , King Edward III crossed the English Channel to Normandy with 1 @,@ 600 ships . He took the ports of La Hogue and Barfleur with overwhelming force and continued inland towards Caen , taking towns along the way . The French mounted a defence at Caen , but were ultimately defeated . The French had been planning to cross the channel and invade England with a force of about 14 @,@ 000 led by Jean le Franc , but Edward 's attack forced them onto the defensive . The French king , Phillippe , destroyed several bridges to prevent Edward 's advance , but the English took the town of Poissy in August and repaired its bridge in order to advance . The French king mounted a defence near the forest at Crécy , which ended in another English victory . Edward then proceeded to Calais , laying siege to the city from September 4 . Meanwhile , Jean de France , King Phillippe 's son , besieged the city of Aigullon , but with no success . King Phillippe also urge the Scots to continue the fight against England to the north . The Scots , believing that the English were preoccupied with Calais , marched into England toward Durham in October , but were met and defeated by an English force of knights and clergymen at the Battle of Neville 's Cross , and King David of Scotland was captured . The Irish also mounted a brief resistance , but were similarly defeated . Before the end of the year , Edward also captured Poiters and the towns surrounding Tonnay @-@ Charente . For his role in the Battle of Crécy , Edward , the Black Prince honoured the bravery of John I , Count of Luxemburg and King of Bohemia ( also known as John the Blind ) by adopting his arms and motto : " Ich Dien " or " I Serve " . John 's decades of fighting had already made his name widely known throughout Europe , and his death at Crécy became the legendary subject of several writings , including this passage by Froissart : ... for all that he [ John I ] was nigh blind , when he understood the order of the battle , he said to them about him : ... ' Sirs , ye are my men , my companions and friends in this journey : I require you bring me so far forward , that I may strike one stroke with my sword . ' ... they tied all their reins of their bridles each to other and set the king before to accomplish his desire , and so they went on their enemies ... The king ... was so far forward that he strake a stroke with his sword , yea and more than four , and fought valiantly and so did his company ; and they adventured themselves so forward , that they were there all slain , and the next day they were found in the place about the king , and all their horses tied each to other . = = Births = = July 20 – Margaret , Countess of Pembroke , daughter of King Edward III of England ( d . 1361 ) date unknown – Eustache Deschamps , French poet ( d . 1406 ) = = Deaths = = February 10 – Blessed Clare of Rimini ( b . 1282 ) March 28 – Venturino of Bergamo , Dominican preacher ( b . 1304 ) August – Muhammad Aytimur , leader of the Sarbadars of Sabzewar ( alternative date is September ) August 26 – killed in the Battle of Crécy : Charles II , Count of Alençon ( b . 1297 ) Louis I , Count of Flanders ( b . 1304 ) Louis II , Count of Blois John of Bohemia ( b . 1296 ) Rudolph , Duke of Lorraine ( b . 1320 ) October 17 – killed in the Battle of Neville 's Cross : John Randolph , 3rd Earl of Moray Maurice de Moravia , Earl of Strathearn November 14 – Ostasio I da Polenta , Lord of Ravenna ( assassinated ) November 27 – St Gregory of Sinai ( b. c . 1260 ) date unknown Eustace Folville , English outlaw Hélion de Villeneuve , Grand Master of the Knights of St John
= Christian Streit White = Christian Streit White ( March 10 , 1839 – January 28 , 1917 ) was an American military officer , lawyer , court clerk , pisciculturist , and politician in the U.S. states of Virginia and West Virginia . During the American Civil War , White served as a Sergeant Major and Captain in the Confederate States Army and headed a bureau of the Confederate States Department of the Treasury . White served under the commands of Stonewall Jackson and Jubal Early and was responsible for the safekeeping of Hampshire County 's land registration records from destruction by Union Army forces . From 1864 to 1865 , White was in command of Company C of the 23rd Virginia Volunteer Cavalry Regiment . White served as the Clerk of Court for Hampshire County , West Virginia , for 29 years ( 1873 – 1902 ) , and also served as the Clerk of Circuit Court for Hampshire County ( 1873 – 1876 ) . He was the chairman of the Hampshire County Democratic Executive Committee in the 1870s , and during this leadership , registered members of the West Virginia Democratic Party grew from 449 to 1 @,@ 369 in 1876 . White was appointed by West Virginia Governor John J. Jacob as one of the inaugural commissioners of the West Virginia Fish Commission . He established the Maguire Springs fish hatchery near Romney , and for a time , served as the commission 's president . White was a member of the White political family of Virginia and West Virginia and was the son of John Baker White ( 1794 – 1862 ) , a grandson of prominent Virginia judge Robert White ( 1759 – 1831 ) , and a great @-@ nephew of United States House Representative Francis White ( 1761 – 1826 ) . He was a younger brother of West Virginia Attorney General Robert White ( 1833 – 1915 ) . = = Family and background = = Christian Streit White was born on March 10 , 1839 in Romney , Virginia ( present @-@ day West Virginia ) . He was the second @-@ eldest son of Hampshire County Clerk of Court John Baker White ( 1794 – 1862 ) and his second wife Frances Ann Streit White ( c . 1809 – 1879 ) and a grandson of prominent Virginia judge Robert White ( 1759 – 1831 ) . His older brother Robert White ( 1833 – 1915 ) later served as Attorney General of West Virginia . He was likely named for his maternal grandfather Reverend Christian Streit , a Lutheran minister of Winchester , Virginia , who was of Swiss descent . White received his education at Potomac Seminary in Romney . = = American Civil War service = = On April 19 , 1861 , following the outbreak of the American Civil War , White enlisted as a Private in the Hampshire Guards , which later became Company K within the 13th Virginia Volunteer Infantry Regiment of the Army of Virginia . While Company K was under the command of Captain John B. Sherrard , White was promoted to Third Sergeant . White 's company under the command of Sherrard departed Romney in June 1861 . Within four to five months , White was successively promoted through the non @-@ commissioned officer ranks to Sergeant Major and acting Adjutant of the 13th Virginia Infantry . He was further promoted to Adjutant , but White did not receive a commission . White served in the 13th Virginia Infantry for a little over a year until he was discharged from his service on account of a disability . White had developed typhoid fever and was ordered to recover in a hospital in Staunton . Following his recovery and during his convalescence in the winter of 1862 and 1863 , White first served as a clerk in the Confederate States Department of the Treasury in Richmond , and he later received a post as head of an entire bureau of the department . White 's father John Baker White also served in the Confederate States Department of the Treasury until his death on October 9 , 1862 . In spring 1863 , White had recovered enough from his disability to serve in the cavalry , although he was still unable to serve in the infantry . White resigned from his post as head of a bureau in the Confederate States Department of the Treasury when he received a commission of Captain from Confederate States President Jefferson Davis . Under the terms of his commission from President Davis , White raised a company of 200 cavalrymen for " special service " from within Union @-@ controlled areas of Virginia . The " special service " company was to include reconnaissance scouts or espionage personnel . White began recruitment of his company from several Virginia counties and neighboring states within Union control . His company was charged with reconnaissance within the mountainous region of Virginia spanning Greenbrier , Pocahontas , Highland , Pendleton , Randolph , Hardy , and Hampshire counties . The " special service " company under White 's command became Company C of the 23rd Virginia Volunteer Cavalry Regiment . White 's company initially consisted of 20 men from the Confederate States Department of the Treasury in Richmond , and after further recruitment , he raised a company numbering 300 men , although he was only permitted to retain 120 men . The remaining recruits sought service under D. E. Beall of Hampshire County , and subsequently joined the cavalry of General John D. Imboden . His brother , Alexander White , served as the company 's First Lieutenant and J. R. Baker served as the company 's Second Lieutenant . White declined subsequent promotions , and remained in command of his company until the conclusion of the American Civil War in 1865 . White and his company saw combat from early 1864 through the early 1865 . During the summer of 1865 alone , White 's company participated in 56 battles and skirmishes , including picket fights , with two men killed , 26 men wounded ( four of which later died as a result of their wounds ) , and ten men taken prisoner . By October 1 , 1864 , White 's company had 15 serviceable horses and 70 that were not serviceable . Between 1863 and 1865 , White received one severe wound ( from June 21 , 1864 ) and two minor wounds from various campaigns . White felt the effects of these wounds for the remainder of his life . Throughout his military service during the American Civil War , White served under the commands of Stonewall Jackson and Jubal Early . Following the surrender of General Robert E. Lee on April 9 , 1865 , White and the remaining part of his company traveled to North Carolina to join Confederate Army forces under the command of General Joseph E. Johnston , but Johnston and his forces had already surrendered before White and his troops could reach them . White and the remnants of his company disbanded without surrendering or being paroled , and White returned to Romney around June 1 , 1865 . = = = Preservation of Hampshire County land records = = = White 's father , Hampshire County Clerk of Court John Baker White , learned of the advancement of Union Army forces on Romney , and became concerned for the safety of the county 's records . His father proceeded to load land registration records ledger books onto wagons and had them transported to Winchester , Virginia for safekeeping . In 1863 , when Winchester was no longer a safe location for the storage of Hampshire County 's land records and they again risked destruction by Union Army forces , Christian Streit White took responsibility for the records and transferred them to Front Royal . When Front Royal became endangered by advancing Union Army forces , White had the records moved to Luray Caverns where they remained for several months . In fall 1864 , the county 's record books were rescued by White and his company as Union Army troops were in the process of destroying them . White 's company loaded about 150 record books into a wagon and they were taken to North Carolina where they remained safely for the duration of the war . Hampshire County 's land records survived and were returned to the courthouse following the conclusion of the American Civil War , likely by a soldier returning to the area from North Carolina . Had White 's father John Baker White not separated the records and sent the bound volumes away for safekeeping , Hampshire County would have lost all its records during the course of the war , as those that remained in the courthouse were destroyed . = = Political career = = = = = Clerk of Court for Hampshire County = = = Following his return from the war to his hometown of Romney in June 1865 , White was unable to recommence his practice of law or hold a public office due to the existing state laws of the Constitution of West Virginia which disbarred former Confederate States government and military personnel . White 's situation was further complicated , as he had not been pardoned or paroled by the United States for his service in the Confederate States Army . White rented a farm in Hampshire County and engaged in successful agricultural pursuits until the disenfranchisement of former Confederates was struck from the state 's constitution in 1872 . In 1872 , White was elected to the position of Clerk of Court for Hampshire County and began his term the following year in 1873 . During his tenure as Clerk of Court for Hampshire County , White also served one term as Clerk of the Circuit Court between 1873 and 1876 , but declined to run for a second term in that office . Prior to the American Civil War , White 's father John Baker White had also served as the county 's Clerk of Court for 47 years between 1815 and 1861 . White served as Clerk of Court for Hampshire County for 29 years until 1902 . He and his father served in the position a combined total of 76 years . Also following the war , White was elected as a member of the Romney Literary Society . = = = Hampshire County Democratic Executive Committee = = = By 1876 , White was serving as the chairman of the Hampshire County Democratic Executive Committee . While holding this post , White organized and carried out extensive campaigning for West Virginia Democratic Party membership and political candidates . Through his efforts , the number of registered Democrats in Hampshire County swelled from 449 in the preceding election year to 1 @,@ 369 . During the West Virginia Democratic Party Senatorial Convention held at Moorefield in August 1886 , White proposed and advocated the first tariff reform and anti @-@ monopoly resolutions ever passed and adopted by a West Virginia Democratic Party Convention . Prior to its passage at the convention , White 's proposal received strong opposition . Tariff reform and anti @-@ monopoly resolutions similar to White 's proposal were adopted by the national Democratic Party as part of its 1888 platform . White had been among the first Democratic Party members in Hampshire County to openly declare his opposition to the fiscal policies of the administration of United States President Grover Cleveland . Under White 's leadership , Hampshire County 's Democratic delegation was the first Democratic county organization in West Virginia to hold public meetings in opposition to Cleveland 's fiscal policies . As the county executive committee chairman , White was the first Democrat in Hampshire County to deliver a public speech denouncing these policies . By 1897 , White had participated as a delegate from Hampshire County to most of the Senatorial and Congressional Democratic Party conventions in West Virginia , and every state Gubernatorial convention with the exception of one . White was described by George W. Atkinson in his Prominent Men of West Virginia ( 1890 ) as " a consistent , but liberal Democrat " and by historians Roberta R. Munske and Wilmer L. Kerns in their Hampshire County , West Virginia , 1754 – 2004 ( 2004 ) as " a self @-@ proclaimed liberal Democrat . " West Virginia historians Hu Maxwell and Howard Llewellyn Swisher in their History of Hampshire County ( 1897 ) stated that White was " independent in thought and character and fearless in following his convictions , he has never been a follower of party leaders . " = = = West Virginia Fish Commission = = = On February 20 , 1877 , an act entitled " Act to increase the supply of food fishes in the rivers and waters of this State " was passed by the West Virginia Legislature creating the West Virginia Fish Commission for the purpose of propagating pisciculture for the stocking of streams in West Virginia to transform them into viable fisheries . White was appointed by West Virginia Governor John J. Jacob as one of the inaugural commissioners on June 1 , 1877 along with John W. Harris of Greenbrier County and Henry B. Miller of Wheeling . White was appointed for a term of four years . The newly appointed commission convened on July 17 , 1877 , and White was elected its secretary and Harris as its president . White and his two commissioner colleagues were " dedicated to their cause , " but their beginning efforts faced opposition from public officials who did not understand the importance of the fish commission . White embarked upon a search for potential locations for a state fish hatchery , and in the summer of 1877 , he purchased the Maguire Springs and 2 @.@ 5 acres ( 1 @.@ 0 ha ) near Romney from Charles Harmison of Valley View . At the Maguire Springs , White " erected and equipped " a fish hatchery costing $ 700 at his own expense , and by 1878 , the hatchery was in " successful operation " and 600 @,@ 000 fishes had been distributed from it . The West Virginia Fish Commission later purchased from White the Maguire Springs and the surrounding 0 @.@ 75 acres ( 0 @.@ 30 ha ) for $ 550 . In 1880 , the Maguire Springs hatchery was vastly improved and expanded with the construction of ponds and the erection of a fence around the hatchery facility . In 1885 , a residence was constructed at the hatchery for the facility 's manager . Following Miller 's resignation from the commission , White was appointed as the President of the West Virginia Fish Commission in June 1885 . By June 1886 , the hatchery ponds at the Maguire Springs were enlarged and in 1891 , a hatching house was built along with additions to the manager 's residence , all under White 's direction . White also personally served as the manager of the Maguire Springs fish hatchery during hiatuses between manager appointments . By 1893 , fish populations within the streams of West Virginia became self @-@ sustaining and the hatchery operations at Maguire Springs were discontinued . In 1877 , United States Fish Commissioner Spencer Fullerton Baird requested that West Virginia introduce the Chinook salmon into its streams . The West Virginia Fish Commission 's " first and most expensive efforts " involved the hatching and stocking of the salmon in West Virginia 's streams . To accomplish this feat , White designed and built charcoal raceways to culture the salmon . The salmon were released into the South Branch Potomac River where they flourished and were caught by fishermen from Romney to Washington , D.C. The salmon introduced by White and the commission migrated to the Chesapeake Bay , but did not return to West Virginia 's streams to spawn . Between 1877 and 1882 , the West Virginia Fish Commission successfully hatched and distributed salmon , trout , black bass , shad , carp , gray bass , pike perch , silver perch , jack , and blue catfish , as well as mill pond roach as food for the bass . In a report to the United States Fish Commission on the quality of the hatchery 's carp , White wrote : " One small scale carp , accidentally killed in draining the pond , was fried as pan @-@ fish , eaten in my family , and pronounced good . " Over a decade after his appointment to the commission , White and his colleagues continued to perform their duties of office without pay from the West Virginia Legislature . The legislature continued to authorize $ 500 annually for the hatching and stocking of fish in West Virginia 's streams . White was reappointed as a commissioner by each succeeding Democratic governor . For the majority of his tenure serving on the West Virginia Fish Commission , White held the post of the commission 's President . = = Confederate memorial activities = = In spring 1866 while at the residence of his brother Robert White in Romney , White , his brother Robert and his wife , his sister Fannie White , and Bessie Jane Schultze ( later White 's wife ) originated the idea of erecting a monument memorializing the Confederate dead . This discussion led to the first decoration of Confederate graves at Indian Mound Cemetery in Romney on June 1 , 1866 and to the subsequent erection of the Confederate Memorial at Indian Mound Cemetery which was dedicated on September 26 , 1867 . From its formation until June 1897 , White served as the Commander of Camp Hampshire Number 446 of the United Confederate Veterans , the first camp organized in West Virginia . At the United Confederate Veterans headquarters in New Orleans on August 24 , 1895 , White was appointed by General John Brown Gordon as one of the inaugural members of the committee for the Confederate Memorial Association , which was charged with organizing and consolidating the association and selecting its chairman . White and the committee was also responsible for the erection of a " great building or memorial hall " known as the " Battle Abbey of the South , " which had been proposed by former Confederate States Army private Charles Broadway Rouss . White and the committee nominated General George H. Steuart as the chairman of the Confederate Memorial Association at Gate City Guard Armory in Atlanta on October 19 , 1865 , where Colonel J. O. Murray served as White 's proxy . White 's failing health caused him to resign from his position on the committee in early 1897 and upon the acceptance of his resignation , his brother Robert White was appointed to replace him . = = Business pursuits = = On February 23 , 1871 , the West Virginia Legislature passed an act incorporating the South Branch Railway Company , responsible for the construction and operation of a branch line connecting Romney with the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad main line at Green Spring . White was named by the legislature as one of the commissioners of the South Branch Railway Company , charged with the responsibility of signing up investors to purchase capital stock in the company . In 1890 , White was a shareholder in two corporations operating in Romney . As one of five corporators , White held one share , valued at $ 130 , in the Hampshire Building and Loan Association No. 1 , which raised money for the purpose of providing loans for the purchase of property , home improvement or construction , and the liquidation of liens on property . Hampshire Building and Loan Association No. 1 was incorporated by West Virginia Secretary of State Henry S. Walker on March 11 , 1890 . White was one of six corporators , with two shares ( $ 35 each ) , of the Romney Manufacturing , Land and Improvement Company , which was created for the acquisition of land near Romney for the establishment of a hotel or summer resort and the development of residential real estate . The Romney Manufacturing , Land and Improvement Company was incorporated by Walker 's successor , William A. Ohley , on July 10 , 1890 . = = Later life and death = = White continued to serve in public office late into his life , and by 1916 , he was serving as a chancery commissioner for Hampshire County along with his son Robert and Joshua Soule Zimmerman . White also continued to operate a law practice with his son Robert in Romney . White died in Hampshire County on January 28 , 1917 at the age of 77 . He was interred next to his first wife Bessie Jane Schultze and second wife Catharine Steele in the White family plot at Indian Mound Cemetery in Romney . = = Personal life = = A practicing member of the Presbyterian faith , White was a Mason in the Clinton Lodge of Romney , where he had served as a Master . He resided at 332 East Main Street in Romney . = = = Marriage and issue = = = White was married on July 25 , 1867 , in Hampshire County to Elizabeth " Bessie " Jane Schultze , the daughter of Dr. Robert Schultze and his wife Elizabeth " Bessie " Armstrong Schultze . Schultze was born on November 18 , 1837 , in Rotterdam , Netherlands and was of Scottish descent . Her father , Dr. Robert Schultze , was a professor of foreign languages at the University of Edinburgh . Schultze 's father also served in the British Diplomatic Service . White and his wife Bessie had one child , a son : Following the death of his first wife , Bessie , on June 24 , 1869 , White again married on May 26 , 1873 , to Catharine Steele . Steele was born in Belfast or Dublin and was the daughter of Thomas G. Steele in Fairmont , West Virginia , at the time of her marriage to White . Steele arrived in the United States at the age of seven and was raised in Fairmont . Steele 's father was a native of Dublin and was the first secretary of the Grand Lodge of Odd Fellows of West Virginia . White and his wife Catharine had four children , two sons and two daughters : White 's second wife , Catharine , died in 1911 in Romney and was interred at Indian Mound Cemetery . = = Personal possessions = = White had in his possession a number of antiques and pieces of furniture of significant historical value . Among these were items once possessed by Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron including a pair of andirons with heavy brass heads and a fender , possibly in use at Lord Fairfax 's Greenway Court estate . White also possessed a richly inlaid table made of several types of wood , which once belonged to his grandfather , Virginia judge Robert White . Beneath the table 's framework was pasted a small slip of paper on which Robert White signed his name and the date , 1789 . Historian Hu Maxwell noted the similarity between the handwriting of White , his father John Baker White , and his grandfather Robert White . White also owned a sugar bowl from Switzerland that had originated in China and had been in the possession of the Streit and White families for over two centuries .
= Dalhousie University = Dalhousie University ( commonly known as Dal ) is a public research university in Nova Scotia , Canada , with three campuses in Halifax , a fourth in Bible Hill , and a fifth in Saint John New Brunswick . Dalhousie offers more than 4 @,@ 000 courses and 180 degree programs in twelve undergraduate , graduate , and professional faculties . The university is a member of the U15 , a group of research @-@ intensive universities in Canada . Dalhousie was established as a nonsectarian college in 1818 by the eponymous Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia , George Ramsay , 9th Earl of Dalhousie . The college did not hold its first class until 1838 , until then operating sporadically due to financial difficulties . It reopened for a third time in 1863 following a reorganization that brought a change of name to " The Governors of Dalhousie College and University " . The university formally changed its name to " Dalhousie University " in 1997 through provincial legislation , the same legislation that merged the institution with the Technical University of Nova Scotia . The university 's notable alumni include a Nobel Prize winner , two Canadian Prime Ministers , two Herzberg Prize winners , a NASA astronaut who was the first American woman to walk in space , 89 Rhodes Scholars , and a range of other top government officials , academics , and business leaders . The university ranked 235th in the 2014 QS World University Rankings , 226 @-@ 250th in the 2014 @-@ 2015 Times Higher Education World University Rankings , and 201 – 300th in the 2014 Academic Ranking of World Universities . Dalhousie is a centre for marine research , and is host to the headquarters of the Ocean Tracking Network . The Dalhousie library system operates the largest library in Atlantic Canada , and holds the largest collection of agricultural resource material in the region . The university operates a total of fourteen residences . There are currently two student unions that represent student interests at the university : the Dalhousie Student Union and the Dalhousie Association for Graduate Students . Dalhousie 's varsity teams , the Tigers , compete in the Atlantic University Sport conference of Canadian Interuniversity Sport . Dalhousie 's Faculty of Agriculture varsity teams are called the Dalhousie Rams , and compete in the ACAA and CCAA . Dalhousie is a coeducational university with more than 18 @,@ 000 students and 110 @,@ 000 alumni . = = History = = Dalhousie was founded as the Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia George Ramsay , 9th Earl of Dalhousie desired a non @-@ denominational college in Halifax . Financing largely came from customs duties collected by a previous Lieutenant Governor , John Coape Sherbrooke , during the War of 1812 occupation of Castine , Maine ; Sherbrooke invested GBP £ 7 @,@ 000 as an initial endowment and reserved £ 3 @,@ 000 for the physical construction of the college . The college was established in 1818 , though it faltered shortly after as Ramsay left Halifax to serve as the Governor General of British North America . The school was structured upon the principles of the University of Edinburgh , where lectures were open to all , regardless of religion or nationality . The University of Edinburgh was located near Ramsay 's home in Scotland . In 1821 Dalhousie College was officially incorporated by the Nova Scotia House of Assembly under the 1821 Act of Incorporation . The college did not hold its first class until 1838 ; operation of the college was intermittent and no degrees were awarded . In 1841 an Act of the Nova Scotia House of Assembly conferred university powers on Dalhousie . In 1863 the college opened for a third time and was reorganized by another legislative act , which added " University " to the school 's name : " The Governors of Dalhousie College and University " . Dalhousie reopened with six professors and one tutor . When it awarded its first degrees in 1866 the student body consisted of 28 students working toward degrees and 28 occasional students . The first female graduate was Margaret Florence Newcome from Grafton , Nova Scotia , who earned her degree in 1885 . Despite the reorganization and an increase in students , money continued to be a problem for the institution . In 1879 , amid talks of closure due to the university 's dire financial situation , a wealthy New York publisher with Nova Scotian roots , George Munro , began to donate to the university ; Munro was brother @-@ in @-@ law to Dalhousie 's Board of Governors member John Forrest . Munro is credited with rescuing Dalhousie from closure , and in honour of his contributions Dalhousie observes a university holiday called George Munro Day on the first Friday of each February . Originally located at the space now occupied by Halifax City Hall , the college moved in 1886 to Carleton Campus and spread gradually to Studley Campus . Dalhousie grew steadily during the 20th century . From 1889 to 1962 the Halifax Conservatory was affiliated with and awarded degrees through Dalhousie . In 1920 several buildings were destroyed by fire on the campus of the University of King 's College in Windsor , Nova Scotia . Through a grant from the Carnegie Foundation , King 's College relocated to Halifax and entered into a partnership with Dalhousie that continues to this day . Dalhousie expanded on 1 April 1997 when provincial legislation mandated an amalgamation with the nearby Technical University of Nova Scotia . This merger saw reorganization of faculties and departments to create the Faculty of Engineering , Faculty of Computer Science and the Faculty of Architecture and Planning . From 1997 to 2000 , the Technical University of Nova Scotia operated as a constituent college of Dalhousie called Dalhousie Polytechnic of Nova Scotia ( DalTech ) until the collegiate system was dissolved . The legislation that merged the two schools also formally changed the name of the institution to its present form , Dalhousie University . On 1 September 2012 the Nova Scotia Agricultural College merged into Dalhousie to form a new Faculty of Agriculture , located in Bible Hill , Nova Scotia . = = Campuses = = Dalhousie has three campuses within the Halifax Peninsula and a fourth , the Agricultural Campus , in Bible Hill , Nova Scotia . The largest , Studley Campus , serves as the primary campus ; it houses the majority of the university 's academic buildings such as faculties , athletic facilities , and the university 's Student Union Building . The campus is largely surrounded by residential neighbourhoods . Robie Street divides it from the adjacent Carleton Campus , which houses the faculties of dentistry , medicine , and other health profession departments . The campus is adjacent to two large teaching hospitals affiliated with the school : the IWK Health Centre and the Queen Elizabeth II Health Sciences Centre . Sexton Campus in Downtown Halifax hosts the engineering , architecture and planning faculties . Sexton Campus served as the campus of the Technical University of Nova Scotia prior to amalgamation . The Agricultural Campus in Bible Hill , a suburban community of Truro , Nova Scotia , served as the campus for the Nova Scotia Agricultural College prior to its merger with Dalhousie in 2011 . The buildings at Dalhousie vary in age from Hart House , which was completed in 1864 , to the Collaborative Health Education Building , completed in 2015 . The original building of Dalhousie University was completed in 1824 on Halifax 's Grand Parade . It was demolished in 1885 when the university outgrew the premises , and the City of Halifax sought possession of the entire Grand Parade . Halifax City Hall presently occupies the site of the original Dalhousie College . = = = Libraries and museums = = = The university has five libraries . The largest , Killam Memorial Library , opened in 1971 . It is the largest academic library in Atlantic Canada with over one million books and 40 @,@ 000 journals . The library 's collection largely serves the faculties of arts and social sciences , sciences , management , and computer science . The W. K. Kellogg Health Science Library provides services largely for the faculties of dentistry , medicine , and other health professions . The Sexton Design & Technology Library is located within Sexton Campus . Its collection largely serves those in the faculties of engineering , architecture and planning , and houses the university 's rare books collection . The Sir James Dunn Law Library holds the university 's collection of common law materials , legal periodicals , as well as books on international law , health law , and environmental law . MacRae Library is located at the university 's Agricultural Campus , and has the largest collection of agricultural resource material in Atlantic Canada . The Dalhousie University Archives houses official records of , or relating to , or people / activities connected with Dalhousie University and its founding institutions . The archives also houses material related to theatre , business and labour in Nova Scotia . The collection consists of manuscripts , texts , photographs , audio @-@ visual material , microfilm , music , and artifacts . The biology department operates the Thomas McCulloch Museum . The most notable of the museum 's exhibits is its preserved birds collection . Other exhibits include its collection of lorenzen ceramic mushrooms , its coral and shell collection , and its butterfly and insect collection . The museum 's namesake Thomas McCulloch was a Scottish Presbyterian minister who served as Dalhousie 's first president and created the Audubon mounted bird collection which is now housed at the museum . The Dalhousie Art Gallery is both a public gallery and an academic support unit housed since 1971 on the lowest level of the Dalhousie Arts Centre . Admission is free of charge . It is host to a permanent collection of over 1000 works . Some of the outdoor sculptures around the campus are part of this collection , such as the distinctive Marine Venus which has sat in the median of University Avenue since 1969 . A notable exhibition from the Dalhousie Art Gallery includes " Archives of the Future " ( March – April 2016 ) exploring the relationship between art creation and commerce with work by artists Zachary Gough , Dawn Georg , Sharlene Bamboat , Katie Vida and Dana Claxton . = = = Housing and student facilities = = = The university has eleven student residences throughout its Halifax campuses : Eliza Ritchie Hall , Gerard Hall , Howe Hall , LeMarchant Place , Mini Rez , O 'Brien Hall , Residence Houses , Risley Hall , Shirreff Hall , Glengary Apartments , and Graduate House . The largest , Howe Hall in Studley Campus , houses 716 students during the academic year . Howe Hall 's most recent addition to the residence is called Fountain . It is the only residence in Howe Hall to have a sink in every room . The university also operates three residences in its Agricultural Campus : Chapman House , Fraser House , and Truman House . The largest residence in the Agricultural Campus is Chapman House , housing 125 students during the academic year . The residences are represented by a Residence Council responsible for resident concerns , providing entertainment services , organizing events , and upholding rules and regulations . The Student Union Building serves as the main student activity centre . Completed in 1968 , it is located in the Studley Campus . The Student Union building hosts a number of student societies and organization offices , most notably the Dalhousie Student Union . The building houses five restaurants , both independently owned and international franchises such as Tim Hortons . = = = Sustainability = = = Dalhousie University is actively involved in sustainability issues and has received a number of sustainability awards and recognition for academic programs , university operations , and research . In 2015 , Dalhousie received a GOLD rating from AASHE STARS ( Version 2 @.@ 0 ) . In 2009 , the university signed the University and College Presidents ’ Climate Change Statement of Action for Canada to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases . Dalhousie is also a signatory of UNEP 's International Declaration on Cleaner Production . In 1999 , the university signed the Talloires Declaration , which committed Dalhousie and other higher education institutions to developing , creating , supporting , and maintaining sustainability . In 2008 , the College of Sustainability , the Office of Sustainability , and the Dalhousie Student Union Sustainability Office were formed . During 2008 , the President ’ s Advisory Council on Sustainability was also created . The council meets quarterly to discuss pan @-@ university sustainability issues [ 48 ] . Dalhousie ’ s international award @-@ winning College of Sustainability offers an undergraduate Major in Environment , Sustainability and Society ( ESS ) integrating with seven bachelor 's degrees and forty subjects across five faculties . The College of Sustainability offers a virtual and a physical space for the intersection of interdisciplinary collaboration , conversation , and teaching with a core of cross @-@ appointed Dalhousie faculty members joined by visiting fellows , distinguished guest lecturers , community leaders , and environmental advocates . In addition , the Sustainability Leadership Certificate program offers students the opportunity to participate in an engaged exploration of personal and group leadership and empowers their sense of personal agency to address environmental and social change . The Office of Sustainability spearheads a number of campus sustainability plans and policies including the Climate Change Plan , Natural Environment Plan , and Green Building policy . A number of initiatives have been developed and implemented with campus partners including numerous energy and water retrofits , residence Eco @-@ Olympics competition , an Employee Sustainability Leadership Program , and an Employee Bus Pass . The Dalhousie Student Union Sustainability Office promotes awareness and behaviour change . DSUSO hosts “ Green Week , ” the “ Green Gala ” and the “ Greenie Awards ” to celebrate campus accomplishments on sustainability . A number of student societies are also active in sustainability issues from on @-@ campus gardening and food security to environmental law . = = Administration = = University governance is conducted through the Board of Governors and the Senate , both of which were given much of their present power in the Unofficial Consolidation of an Act for the Regulation and Support of Dalhousie College in Chapter 24 of the Acts of 1863 . This statute replaced ones from 1820 , 1823 , 1838 , 1841 and 1848 , and has since been supplemented 11 times , most recently in 1995 . The Board is responsible for conduct , management , and control of the university and of its property , revenues , business , and affairs . Board members , known as Governors of the Board , include the university 's chancellor , president , and 25 other members . Members include people from within the university community such as four approved representatives from Dalhousie Student Union , and those in the surrounding community , such as the Mayor of Halifax . The Senate is responsible for the university 's academics , including standards for admission and qualifications for degrees , diplomas , and certificates . The Senate consists of 73 positions granted to the various faculty representatives , academic administrators , and student representatives . The president acts as the chief executive officer and is responsible to the Board of Governors and to the Senate for the supervision of administrative and academic works.Richard Florizone is the 11th president of the university , and has served since 2013 . Thomas McCulloch served as the first president when the office was created in 1838 . John Forrest was the longest @-@ serving president , holding the office from 1885 to 1911 . = = = Affiliated institutions = = = The University of King 's College is a post @-@ secondary institution in Halifax affiliated with Dalhousie . Established in 1789 , it was the first post @-@ secondary institution in English Canada and the oldest English @-@ speaking Commonwealth university outside the United Kingdom . The University of King 's College was formerly an independent institution located in Windsor , Nova Scotia , until 1920 , when a fire ravaged its campus . To continue operation , the University of King 's College accepted a generous grant from the Carnegie Foundation , although the terms of the grant required that it move to Halifax and enter into association with Dalhousie . Under the agreement , King 's agreed to pay the salaries of a number of Dalhousie professors , who in turn were to help in the management and academic life of the college . Students at King 's were to have access to all of the amenities Dalhousie , and the academic programs at King 's would fold into the College of Arts and Sciences at Dalhousie . Presently , students of both institutions are allowed to switch between the two throughout their enrolment . In spite of the shared academic programs and facilities , the University of King 's College maintains its own scholarships , bursaries , athletics programs , and student residences . = = = Finances = = = The university completed the 2011 – 12 year with revenues of $ 573 @.@ 597 million and expenses of $ 536 @.@ 451 million , yielding a surplus of $ 37 @.@ 146 million . The largest source of revenue for the university was provincial operational grants , which made up 32 percent of revenue . Tuition fees generated $ 123 @.@ 2 million in the 2011 – 12 fiscal year , making up 21 percent of revenue . As of 31 March 2012 , Dalhousie 's endowment was valued at $ 400 @.@ 6 million . = = Academics = = Dalhousie is a publicly funded research university , and a member of the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada , as well as the U15 , a group of Canadian research @-@ intensive universities . As of 2011 , there were 18 @,@ 220 students enrolled at the university and 3 @,@ 700 courses in over 190 degree programs . Dalhousie offers more than 3 @,@ 700 courses and 190 degree programs in twelve undergraduate , graduate , and professional faculties . The requirements for admission differ between students from Nova Scotia , students from other provinces in Canada , and international students due to lack of uniformity in marking schemes . The requirements for admission also differ depending on the program . In 2011 , the secondary school average for incoming first @-@ year undergraduate students was 85 percent . Canadian students may apply for financial aid such as the Nova Scotia Student Assistance Program and Canada Student Loans and Grants through the federal and provincial governments . Financial aid may also be provided in the form of loans , grants , bursaries , scholarships , fellowships , debt reduction , interest relief , and work programs . = = = Reputation = = = The 2015 @-@ 2016 Times Higher Education World University Rankings placed Dalhousie 201 – 250th in the world . The 2014 QS World University Rankings ranked the university 235th . According to the 2014 Academic Ranking of World Universities rankings , the university ranked 201 – 300 in the world and 8 – 17th in Canada . In terms of national rankings , Maclean 's ranked Dalhousie 7th in their 2014 Medical Doctoral university rankings . Dalhousie was ranked in spite of having opted out — along with several other universities in Canada — of participating in Maclean 's graduate survey since 2006 . A number of Dalhousie 's individual programs and faculties have gained accolades nationally and internationally . In Maclean 's 2013 common law school rankings , the Schulich School of Law placed 6th in Canada . In the QS rankings of law programs , the university placed 51 – 100 in the world . The Rowe School of Business was named the most innovative business school in Canada by European CEO magazine on 17 November 2010 . = = = Research = = = Dalhousie University is a member of the U15 , a group that represents 15 of Canada ’ s most research @-@ intensive universities . Out of 50 universities in Canada , Research Infosource ranked Dalhousie University the 16th most research @-@ intensive for 2011 , with a sponsored research income of $ 125 @.@ 147 million , averaging $ 124 @,@ 500 per faculty member . In 2003 and 2004 , The Scientist placed Dalhousie among the top five places in the world outside the United States for postdoctoral work and conducting scientific research . In 2007 Dalhousie topped the list of The Scientist ’ s “ Best Places to Work in Academia ” . The annual list divides research and academic institutions into American and international lists ; Dalhousie University ranked first in the international category . According to a survey conducted by The Scientist , Dalhousie was the best non @-@ commercial scientific institute in which to work in Canada . In terms of research performance , High Impact Universities 2010 ranked Dalhousie 239th out of 500 universities , and 12th in Canada . The university was ranked 194th out of 500 universities and 12th in the country for research performance in the fields of medicine , dentistry , pharmacology , and health sciences . The Higher Education Evaluation and Accreditation Council of Taiwan ( HEEACT ) ranked Dalhousie 279th in the world and 12th in Canada for its 2011 scientific paper 's performances . HEEACT had also ranked Dalhousie 86th in the world and fourth nationally for research performance in geoscience in its 2010 rankings . Marine research at Dalhousie has become a large focus of the university , with many of the university 's faculty members involved in some form of marine research . Notably , Dalhousie is the headquarters of the Ocean Tracking Network , a research effort using implanted acoustic transmitters to study fish migration patterns . Dalhousie houses a number of marine research pools , a wet laboratory , and a benthic flume , which are collectively known as the Aquatron laboratory . Dalhousie is one of the founding members of the Halifax Marine Research Institute , founded on 2 June 2011 . The institute , which is a partnership between a number of private industries , government , and post @-@ secondary institutions , was designed to help increase the scale , quality , internationalization and impact of marine research in the region . In 2011 , the university , along with WWF @-@ Canada , created the Conservation Legacy For Oceans , which aimed at providing scholarships , funding , curriculum development , and work placements for students and academics dedicated to marine research , law , management , and policy making . Many of Dalhousie 's faculties and departments focus on marine research . The Faculty of Engineering operates the Ocean Research Centre Atlantic , which is dedicated to research and tests in naval and off @-@ shore engineering . Schulich School of Law also operates the Marine & Environmental Law Institute , which carries out research and conducts consultancy activities for governmental and non @-@ governmental organizations . The school 's Department of Political Science similarly operates the Centre for Foreign Policy Studies , which is primarily concerned with the fields of Canadian and American foreign , security , and defence policy , including maritime security policy . = = Student life = = The student body of Dalhousie is currently represented by two student unions ; the Dalhousie Student Union , which represents the general student population , and the Dalhousie Association for Graduate Students , which represents the interests of graduate students specifically . Dalhousie Student Union began as the Dalhousie Student Government in 1863 , and was renamed the University Student Council before taking its present name . The student union recognizes more than 100 student organizations and societies . The organizations and clubs accredited at Dalhousie cover a wide range of interests including academics , culture , religion , social issues , and recreation . Accredited extracurricular organizations at the university fall under the jurisdiction of the Dalhousie Student Union , and must conform to its by @-@ laws . As of 2011 , there were three sororities ( Omega Pi , Iota Beta Chi , and Alpha Gamma Delta ) and three fraternities ( Phi Delta Theta , Sigma Chi , and Phi Kappa Pi ) . They operate as non @-@ accredited organizations and are not recognized by the Dalhousie Student Union . The university 's student population operates a number of media outlets . The main student newspaper , The Dalhousie Gazette , claims to be the oldest student @-@ run newspaper in North America . It is published Thursdays , and is distributed to over 100 locations around the Halifax area . The newspaper 's offices are in the Student Union building . Dalhousie 's student population runs a radio station which began as a radio club in 1964 , and began to broadcast and operate as CKDU in 1975 ; it began FM frequency broadcasting in 1985 . CKDU acquired its present frequency 88 @.@ 1 in 2006 alongside an upgrading of its transmitting power . = = = Clubs and societies = = = In addition to the efforts made by the Dalhousie Student Union ( DSU ) Council , Dalhousie students have created and participated in over 320 clubs / societies . The Management Society , for example , is a group of students in the Faculty of Management who group together to enhance the experience of students in that faculty by hosting events , providing assistance and giving back . Dalhousie offers a website named " Tiger Society " which lists all current clubs and societies that are available for students to join . Through this website , students can request to join a society . Dalhousie also holds a Society Fair at the beginning of each fall and winter semester , in which all societies are given the opportunity to display their purpose / efforts and recruit new members . Student societies partake in a range of activities from simple gatherings , study groups , bake sales , intramural sports teams , to organizing larger scale fundraising events . = = = Athletics = = = Dalhousie 's sports teams are called the Tigers . The Tigers varsity teams participate in the Atlantic University Sport ( AUS ) of the Canadian Interuniversity Sport ( CIS ) . There are teams for basketball , hockey , soccer , swimming , track and field , cross country running , and volleyball . The Tigers garnered a number of championships in the first decade of the 20th century , winning 63 AUS championships and 2 CIS championships . More than 2 @,@ 500 students participate in competitive clubs , intramural sport leagues , and tournaments . Opportunities are offered at multiple skill levels across a variety of sports . Dalhousie has six competitive sports clubs and 17 recreational clubs . Dalhousie 's Agricultural Campus operates its own varsity team , called the Dalhousie Rams . The Rams varsity team participates in the Atlantic Collegiate Athletic Association , a member of the Canadian Collegiate Athletic Association . The Rams varsity teams include badminton , basketball , rugby , soccer , volleyball , and woodsmen . Dalhousie has a number of athletic facilities open to varsity teams and students . Dalplex is the largest main fitness and recreational facility . It houses a large fieldhouse , an Olympic @-@ sized swimming pool , an indoor running track , weight rooms , courts and other facilities . Wickwire Field , with a seating capacity of up to 1 @,@ 200 , is the university 's main outdoor field and is host to the varsity football , soccer , field hockey , lacrosse and rugby teams . Other sporting facilities include the Studley Gymnasium , and the Sexton Gymnasium and field . The Memorial Arena , home to the varsity hockey team , was demolished in 2012 . The school is working to build a new arena jointly with nearby Saint Mary 's University , whose facility is also aging . The Agricultural Campus has one athletic facility , the Langille Athletic Centre . As of 2010 , through the efforts of alumni and devoted volunteers , the Dalhousie Football Club was reinstated . Playing in the AFL ( Atlantic Football League ) , the team operates on donations and registration from its players . The team plays its home games at Wickwire Field . Additionally , the university boasts the first quidditch team in Atlantic Canada . As of 2014 , the Dalhousie Tigers Quidditch varsity club is the top @-@ ranked team in the area and , though still developing , is showing great promise for regional and national bids in the future . = = Insignia and other representations = = = = = Seal = = = The Dalhousie seal is based on the heraldic achievement of the Clan Ramsay of Scotland , of which founder George Ramsay was clan head . The heraldic achievement consists of five parts : shield , coronet , crest , supporters , and motto . One major difference between the Ramsay coat of arms and the university seal is that the Ramsay seal features a griffin and greyhound , and the Dalhousie seal has two dragons supporting the eagle @-@ adorned shield . Initially , the Ramsay coat of arms was used to identify Dalhousie , but the seal has evolved with the amalgamations the university has undergone . The seal was originally silver @-@ coloured , but in 1950 , the university 's Board of Governors changed it to gold to match the university 's colours , gold and black . These colours were adopted in 1887 , after the rugby team led the debate about college colours for football jerseys . The shield and eagle of Dalhousie 's seal have been used as the logo since 1987 , with the present incarnation in use since 2003 , which includes the tagline " inspiring minds " . = = = Motto and song = = = The university motto Ora et Labora translates from Latin as " pray and work " ; it adopted in 1870 from the Earl of Dalhousie 's motto to replace the university 's original one , which the administration believed did not convey confidence . The original motto was Forsan , which tranlsates as Perhaps , and first appeared in the first Dalhousie Gazette of 1869 . It was from Virgil 's epic poem Aeneid , Book 1 , line 203 , Forsan et haec olim meminisse iuvabit , which translates as " Perhaps the time may come when these difficulties will be sweet to remember " . A number of songs are commonly played and sung at various events such as commencement , convocation , and athletic contests , including " Carmina Dalhousiana " , written in Halifax in 1882 . The Dalhousie University songbook was compiled by Charles B. Weikel in 1904 . = = Notable alumni = = Dalhousie graduates have found success in a variety of fields , serving as heads of a diverse array of public and private institutions . Dalhousie University has over 110 @,@ 000 alumni . Throughout Dalhousie 's history , faculty , alumni , and former students have played prominent roles in many fields , and include 89 Rhodes Scholars . Dalhousie has also educated Nobel laureates . Astrophysicist and Dalhousie alumni Arthur B. McDonald ( BSc ’ 64 , MSc ’ 65 ) received the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physics for identifying neutrino change identities and mass . McDonald is one of only four Canadians awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics . McDonald was also previously awarded the Herzberg Prize and the Benjamin Franklin Prize in physics . Notable politicians who have graduated from Dalhousie include two Prime Ministers of Canada , R. B. Bennett and Joe Clark . Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney attended Dalhousie Law School , though he failed after his first year . Eight graduates have served as Lieutenant Governors : John Crosbie , Myra Freeman , Clarence Gosse , John Keiller MacKay , Henry Poole MacKeen , John Robert Nicholson , Fabian O 'Dea , and Albert Walsh . Twelve graduates have served as provincial premiers : Allan Blakeney , John Buchanan , Alex Campbell , Amor De Cosmos , Darrell Dexter , Joe Ghiz , John Hamm , Angus Lewis Macdonald , Russell MacLellan , Gerald Regan , Robert Stanfield , Clyde Wells , and Danny Williams . The first woman appointed to the Supreme Court of Canada , Bertha Wilson , was a graduate from Dalhousie Law School . Prominent business leaders who studied at Dalhousie include Jamie Baillie , former CEO of Credit Union Atlantic , Graham Day , former CEO of British Shipbuilders , Sean Durfy , former CEO of WestJet , and Charles Peter McColough , former president and CEO of Xerox . Other notable graduates of Dalhousie includes Donald O. Hebb , who helped advance the field of neuropsychology , and Kathryn D. Sullivan , the first American woman to walk in space . Michel Trudeau ( 1975 @-@ 1998 ) , deceased brother of Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau , and son of the 15th Prime Minister of Canada , Pierre Elliott Trudeau , studied microbiology at Dalhousie .
= Roekiah = Roekiah ( Perfected Spelling : Rukiah ; born 1917 – died 2 September 1945 ) , often credited as Miss Roekiah , was an Indonesian kroncong singer and film actress . The daughter of two stage performers , she began her career at the age of seven ; by 1932 she had become well known in Batavia , Dutch East Indies ( now Jakarta , Indonesia ) , as a singer and stage actress . Around this time she met Kartolo , whom she married in 1934 . The two acted in the 1937 hit film Terang Boelan , in which Roekiah and Rd Mochtar played young lovers . After the film 's commercial success , Roekiah , Kartolo , and most of the cast and crew of Terang Boelan were signed to Tan 's Film , first appearing for the company in their 1938 production Fatima . They acted together in two more films before Mochtar left the company in 1940 ; through these films , Roekiah and Mochtar became the colony 's first on @-@ screen couple . Mochtar 's replacement , Rd Djoemala , acted with Roekiah in four films , although these were less successful . After the Japanese invaded the Indies in 1942 , Roekiah took only one more film role before her death ; most of her time was used entertaining Japanese forces . During her life Roekiah was a fashion and beauty icon , featuring in advertisements and drawing comparisons to Dorothy Lamour and Janet Gaynor . Though most of the films in which she appeared are now lost , she has continued to be cited as a film pioneer , and a 1969 article stated that " in her time [ Roekiah ] reached a level of popularity which , one could say , has not been seen since " . Of her five children with Kartolo , one – Rachmat Kartolo – entered acting . = = Biography = = = = = Early life = = = Roekiah was born in Bandoeng ( now known as Bandung ) , West Java , Dutch East Indies , in 1917 to Mohammad Ali and Ningsih , actors with the Opera Poesi Indra Bangsawan troupe ; Ali was originally from Belitung , while Ningsih was of Sundanese descent and came from Cianjur . Though Roekiah learned acting mainly from her parents , she also studied the craft with other members of their troupe . The trio were constantly travelling , leaving Roekiah with no time for a formal education . By the mid @-@ 1920s they were with another troupe , the Opera Rochani . Roekiah insisted on becoming an actress , despite the opposition of her family , and asked her mother for permission to perform on stage . Ningsih agreed , with one condition : Roekiah could only perform once . When the seven @-@ year @-@ old Roekiah took to the stage for the first time , Mohammad Ali – unaware of the agreement between his wife and daughter – rushed on stage and insisted that Roekiah stop singing . Afterwards , she refused to eat until her parents ultimately relented . Roekiah performed regularly afterwards with the troupe . By 1932 , the year she joined Palestina Opera in Batavia ( modern @-@ day Jakarta ) , Roekiah had become a well @-@ known stage actress and singer of kroncong music ( traditional music with Portuguese influences ) . She was admired not only for her voice , but her beauty . While with Palestina she met Kartolo , an actor , pianist , and songwriter with the troupe ; they married later that year . The new couple soon left Palestina , then took a month 's hiatus before joining the group Faroka on a tour in Singapore . They returned to the Indies in 1936 . = = = Film career = = = = = = = Partnership with Rd Mochtar = = = = In 1937 Roekiah made her first film appearance as the leading lady in Albert Balink 's Terang Boelan ( Full Moon ) . She and her co @-@ star Rd Mochtar played two lovers who elope so that Roekiah 's character need not marry an opium smuggler ; Kartolo also had a small role . The film was a commercial success , earning over 200 @,@ 000 Straits dollars during its international release ; the Indonesian film historian Misbach Yusa Biran credited Roekiah as the " dynamite " which led to this positive reception . Despite the success of Terang Boelan , its production company Algemeen Nederlandsch Indisch Filmsyndicaat stopped all work on fiction films . Now jobless and depressed after the death of her mother , according to journalist W. Imong , Roekiah " kept silent , constantly musing as if she were mentally disturbed " . In order to distract his wife , Kartolo gathered the other cast members from Terang Boelan and established the Terang Boelan Troupe , which toured to Singapore to popular acclaim ; this snapped Roekiah out of her melancholy . After the troupe returned to the Indies , most of the cast switched to Tan 's Film , including Roekiah and Kartolo ; the two also performed with the Lief Java kroncong group . With Tan 's , the Terang Boelan cast appeared in the 1938 hit Fatima , starring Roekiah and Rd Mochtar . The film , in which Roekiah played the title role – a young woman who must fend away the advances of a gang leader while falling in love with a fisherman ( Rd Mochtar ) – closely followed the formula established by Terang Boelan . Roekiah 's acting received wide praise . One reviewer in the Batavia @-@ based Het Nieuws van den dag voor Nederlandsch @-@ Indië wrote that Roekiah 's " sober personification of injustice in the Malay adat wedding captivates even the European spectator " , while another , in the Bataviaasch Nieuwsblad , found that Roekiah 's performance was appreciated by everyone . Fatima was a massive commercial hit , earning 200 @,@ 000 gulden on a 7 @,@ 000 gulden budget . Following the film 's success , Tan 's continued to cast Roekiah with Rd Mochtar . They became the colony 's first on @-@ screen celebrity couple and were termed the Indies ' Charles Farrell – Janet Gaynor . The popularity of Roekiah – Rd Mochtar as a screen couple led other studios to follow with their own romantic pairings . The Teng Chun 's Java Industrial Film , for instance , paired Mohamad Mochtar and Hadidjah in Alang @-@ Alang ( Grass , 1939 ) . In order to keep their new star , Tan 's Film spent a large amount of money . Roekiah and Kartolo received a monthly holding fee of 150 gulden and 50 gulden respectively , twice as much as they had been given for Terang Boelan . They were also given a house in Tanah Rendah , Batavia . Roekiah and Kartolo , for their part , continued to act for the company ; Kartolo often had small , comedic , roles , and Roekiah sang songs her husband had written . In 1939 they appeared together , again with Rd Mochtar as Roekiah 's romantic foil , in the Zorro @-@ influenced Gagak Item . Though not as successful as Roekiah 's previous works , the film was still profitable . A reviewer for the Bataviaasch Nieuwsblad praised Roekiah 's " demure " acting . Roekiah 's last film with Rd Mochtar , Siti Akbari , was released in 1940 . Possibly inspired by a poem of the same name by Lie Kim Hok , the film featured Roekiah in the title role , portraying a long @-@ suffering wife who remains faithful to her husband despite his infidelity . The film was well @-@ received , earning 1 @,@ 000 gulden on its first night in Surabaya , but was ultimately unable to return profits similar to Terang Boelan or Fatima . = = = = Partnership with Djoemala = = = = Amidst a wage dispute , Rd Mochtar left Tan 's for their competitor Populair Films in 1940 . Accordingly , the company began looking for a new on @-@ screen partner for Roekiah . Kartolo asked an acquaintance , a tailor @-@ cum @-@ entrepreneur named Ismail Djoemala to take the part ; though Djoemala had never acted before , he had sung with the group Malay Pemoeda in 1929 . After Kartolo asked him six times to act for Tan 's , Djoemala agreed . The company found the tall and good @-@ looking Djoemala a suitable replacement , and hired him , giving him the stage name Rd Djoemala . Roekiah and Djoemala made their first film together , Sorga Ka Toedjoe ( Seventh Heaven ) , later that year . In the film , Roekiah played a young woman who , with the help of her lover , is able to reunite her blind aunt ( Annie Landouw ) with her estranged husband ( Kartolo ) . This film was a commercial success , and the reviews were positive . One , for the Soerabaijasch Handelsblad , opined that Djoemala was as good as , if not better , than Rd Mochtar . Another review , for the Singapore Free Press , wrote that " Roekiah fills the part of the heroine in a most praiseworthy manner " . In April of the following year Tan 's released Roekihati , starring Roekiah as a young woman who goes to the city to earn money for her ailing family , ultimately marrying . Her performance received praise from the Bataviaasch Nieuwsblad , which wrote that she had performed well in the difficult role . Later in 1941 Roekiah and Djoemala completed Poesaka Terpendam ( Buried Treasure ) , an action @-@ filled film which followed two groups – the rightful heirs ( Roekiah being one of them ) and a band of criminals – in a race to find treasure buried in Banten . Roekiah and Djoemala worked on their final film together , Koeda Sembrani ( The Enchanted Horse ) , in early 1942 . In the film , adapted from One Thousand and One Nights , Roekiah took the role of Princess Shams @-@ al @-@ Nahar and was shown flying on a horse . The film was still incomplete when the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies began in March 1942 , though it was screened by October 1943 . Altogether Roekiah and Djoemala acted in four films in two years . Biran argues this is evidence the company " wasted their treasure " , as its competitors used their stars more often ; Java Industrial Film , for instance , completed six films starring Moh . Mochtar in 1941 alone . Though Roekiah 's films continued to be financial successes , they did not earn as large a profit as her earlier works . = = = Japanese occupation and death = = = Film production in the Indies declined after the Japanese occupation began in early 1942 ; the overlords forced all but one studio to close . In their place , the Japanese opened their own studio in the Indies , Nippon Eigasha , to produce propaganda for the war effort . Kartolo acted in the studio 's only feature film , Berdjoang ( Hope of the South ) , without Roekiah in 1943 . After a hiatus of several years , Roekiah also acted for the studio , taking a role in the short Japanese propaganda film Ke Seberang ( To the Other Side ) in 1944 . However , much of her time was spent touring Java with a theatrical company , entertaining Japanese troops . Roekiah fell ill in February 1945 , not long after completing Ke Seberang . Despite this , and a miscarriage , she was unable to rest ; the Japanese forces insisted that she and Kartolo go on tour to Surabaya , in eastern Java . Upon her return to Jakarta , her condition became worse . After several months of treatment , she died on 2 September 1945 , mere weeks after Indonesia proclaimed its independence . Roekiah was buried in Kober Hulu , Jatinegara , Djakarta . Her funeral was attended by several luminaries , including the Minister of Education Ki Hajar Dewantara . = = Family = = Roekiah said that she felt Kartolo was a good match with her , stating that the marriage brought them " great fortune " . The two had had five children . After Roekiah 's death , Kartolo brought the children to his hometown at Yogyakarta . In order to support the family , he took a job with Radio Republik Indonesia , beginning in 1946 . There he spent most of the ongoing Indonesian National Revolution , an armed conflict and diplomatic struggle between newly proclaimed Indonesia and the Dutch Empire in which the newly proclaimed country attempted to receive international recognition of its independence . After the Dutch military launched Operation Kraai on 19 December 1948 , capturing Yogyakarta , Kartolo refused to collaborate with the returning colonial forces . Without a source of income , he fell ill , and died on 18 January 1949 . One of the couple 's children died in Yogyakarta , aged ten . The remaining children were brought to Jakarta after the Indonesian National Revolution ended in 1950 , where they were raised by Kartolo 's close friend Adikarso . One , Rachmat Kartolo , went on to be a singer and actor active up through the 1970s , known for songs such as " Patah Hati " ( " Heartbroken " ) and films such as Matjan Kemajoran ( Tiger of Kemayoran ; 1965 ) and Bernafas dalam Lumpur ( Breathing in the Mud ; 1970 ) . Two other sons , Jusuf and Imam , played in a band with their brother before finding careers elsewhere . The couple 's daughter , Sri Wahjuni , did not enter the entertainment industry . = = Legacy = = The press viewed Roekiah fondly , and her new releases consistently received positive reviews . At the peak of Roekiah 's popularity , fans based their fashion decisions on what Roekiah wore on @-@ screen . Roekiah appeared regularly in advertisements , and numerous records with her vocal performances were available on the market . One fan , in a 1996 interview , recalled that Roekiah was " every man 's idol " , while others christened Roekiah as Indonesia 's Dorothy Lamour . Another fan , recalling a performance he had witnessed over fifty years earlier , stated : Roekiah always left her audiences riveted to their seats when she began crooning her kroncong songs . She always got applause , before or after singing . Not only from the native [ Indonesians ] . Many Dutchmen diligently watched her performances ! After Roekiah 's death , the Indonesian film industry searched for a replacement . The film scholar Ekky Imanjaya notes one instance where a film was advertised with the line " Roekiah ? No ! But Sofia in a new Indonesian film , Air Mata Mengalir di Tjitarum " . Roekiah 's films were screened regularly , but most are now lost . Movies in the Indies were recorded on highly @-@ flammable nitrate film , and after a fire destroyed much of Produksi Film Negara 's warehouse in 1952 , old films shot on nitrate were deliberately destroyed . Of Roekiah 's œuvre , JB Kristanto 's Katalog Film Indonesia only records Koeda Sembrani as being stored at Indonesia 's film archive , Sinematek Indonesia . Writings about Roekiah after her death often cite her as an idol of Indonesia 's film industry . Imanjaya describes her as one of the industry 's first beauty icons ; he also credits her and Rd Mocthar with introducing the concept of bankable stars to domestic cinema . Moderna magazine , in 1969 , wrote that " in her time [ Roekiah ] reached a level of popularity which , one could say , has not been seen since " . In 1977 Keluarga magazine styled her one of Indonesia 's " pioneering film stars " , writing that hers was " a natural talent , a combination of her personality and the tenderness and beauty of her face , always filled with romance " . = = Filmography = = Terang Boelan ( Full Moon ; 1937 ) Fatima ( 1938 ) Gagak Item ( Black Raven ; 1939 ) Siti Akbari ( 1940 ) Sorga Ka Toedjoe ( Seventh Heaven ; 1940 ) Roekihati ( 1940 ) Poesaka Terpendam ( Buried Treasure ; 1941 ) Koeda Sembrani ( The Enchanted Horse ; 1942 ) Ke Seberang ( To the Other Side ; 1944 ; short film ) = = Explanatory notes = =
= Hypacrosaurus = Hypacrosaurus ( meaning " near the highest lizard " [ Greek υπο- , hypo- = less + ακρος , akros , high ] , because it was almost but not quite as large as Tyrannosaurus ) was a genus of duckbill dinosaur similar in appearance to Corythosaurus . Like Corythosaurus , it had a tall , hollow rounded crest , although not as large and straight . It is known from the remains of two species that spanned 75 to 67 million years ago , in the Late Cretaceous of Alberta , Canada , and Montana , USA , and is the latest hollow @-@ crested duckbill known from good remains in North America . It was an obscure genus until the discovery in the 1990s of nests , eggs , and hatchlings belonging to H. stebingeri . = = Description = = Hypacrosaurus is most easily distinguished from other hollow @-@ crested duckbills ( lambeosaurines ) by its tall neural spines and the form of its crest . The neural spines , which project from the top of the vertebrae , are 5 to 7 times the height of the body of their respective vertebrae in the back , which would have given it a tall back in profile . The skull 's hollow crest is like that of Corythosaurus , but is more pointed along its top , not as tall , wider side to side , and has a small bony point at the rear . Unlike other lambeosaurines , the passages for the airways do not form an S @-@ curve in the crest ( at least not in H. altispinus ) . The animal is estimated to have been around 9 @.@ 1 meters ( 30 feet ) long , and to have weighed up to 4 @.@ 0 tonnes ( 4 @.@ 4 tons ) . As with most duckbills , its skeleton is otherwise not particularly remarkable , although some pelvic details are distinctive . Like other duckbills , it was a bipedal / quadrupedal herbivore . The two known species , H. altispinus and H. stebingeri , are not differentiated in the typical method , of unique characteristics , as H. stebingeri was described as transitional between the earlier Lambeosaurus and later Hypacrosaurus . Photographs of an adult H. stebingeri skull show an animal that looks very similar to H. altispinus . = = Classification = = Hypacrosaurus was a lambeosaurine hadrosaurid , and has been recognized as such since the description of its skull . Within the Lambeosaurinae , it is closest to Lambeosaurus and Corythosaurus , with Jack Horner and Phil Currie ( 1994 ) suggesting that H. stebingeri is transitional between Lambeosaurus and H. altispinus , and Michael K. Brett @-@ Surman ( 1989 ) suggesting that Hypacrosaurus and Corythosaurus are the same genus . These genera , particularly Corythosaurus and Hypacrosaurus , are regarded as the " helmeted " or " hooded " branch of the lambeosaurines , and the clade they form is sometimes informally designated Lambeosaurini . Although Suzuki et al . ' s 2004 redescription of Nipponosaurus found a close relationship between Nipponosaurus and Hypacrosaurus stebingeri , indicating that Hypacrosaurus may be paraphyletic , this was rejected in a later , more comprehensive reanalysis of lambeosaurines , which found the two species of Hypacrosaurus to form a clade without Nipponosaurus , with Corythosaurus and Olorotitan being the closest relatives . The following cladogram illustrating the relationships of Hypacrosaurus and its close relatives was recovered in a 2012 phylogenetic analysis by Albert Prieto @-@ Márquez , Luis M. Chiappe and Shantanu H. Joshi . = = Discovery and history = = The type remains of Hypacrosaurus remains were collected in 1910 by Barnum Brown for the American Museum of Natural History . The remains , a partial postcranial skeleton consisting of several vertebrae and a partial pelvis ( AMNH 5204 ) , came from along the Red Deer River near Tolman Ferry , Alberta , Canada , from rocks of what is now known as the Horseshoe Canyon Formation ( early Maastrichtian , Upper Cretaceous ) . Brown described these remains , in combination with other postcranial bones , in 1913 as a new genus that he considered to be like Saurolophus . No skull was known at this time , but two skulls were soon discovered and described . During this period , the remains of small hollow @-@ crested duckbills were described as their own genera and species . The first of these that figure into the history of Hypacrosaurus was Cheneosaurus tolmanensis , based on a skull and assorted limb bones , vertebrae , and pelvic bones from the Horseshoe Canyon Formation . Not long after , Richard Swann Lull and Nelda Wright identified an American Museum of Natural History skeleton ( AMNH 5461 ) from the Two Medicine Formation of Montana as a specimen of Procheneosaurus . These and other taxa were accepted as valid genera until the 1970s , when Peter Dodson showed that it was more likely that the " cheneosaurs " were the juveniles of other established lambeosaurines . Although he was mostly concerned with the earlier , Dinosaur Park Formation genera Corythosaurus and Lambeosaurus , he suggested that Cheneosaurus would turn out to be composed of juvenile individuals of the contemporaneous Hypacrosaurus altispinus . This idea has become accepted , although not formally tested . The Two Medicine Procheneosaurus , meanwhile , was not quite like the other Procheneosaurus specimens studied by Dodson , and for good reason : it was much more like a species that would not be named until 1994 , H. stebingeri . = = = Species = = = H. altispinus , the type species , is known from 5 to 10 articulated skulls with some associated skeletal remains , from juvenile to adult individuals found in the Horseshoe Canyon Formation . H. stebingeri is known from an unknown but substantial number of individuals , with an age range of embryos to adults . The hypothesis that H. altispinus and H. stebingeri form a natural group excluding other known hadrosaur species may be incorrect , as noted in Suzuki et al . ' s 2004 redescription of Nipponosaurus ; their phylogenetic analysis found that Nipposaurus was more closely related to H. altispinus than H. stebingeri was to H. altispinus . This was rejected by Evans and Reisz ( 2007 ) , though . The new species Hypacrosaurus stebingeri was named for a variety of remains , including hatchlings with associated eggs and nests , found near the top of the late Campanian ( Upper Cretaceous ) Two Medicine Formation in Glacier County , Montana , and across the border in Alberta . These represent " the largest collection of baby skeletal material of any single species of hadrosaur known " . = = Paleoecology = = H. altispinus shared the Horseshoe Canyon Formation with fellow hadrosaurids Edmontosaurus and Saurolophus , hypsilophodont Parksosaurus , ankylosaurid Anodontosaurus , nodosaurid Edmontonia , horned dinosaurs Montanoceratops , Anchiceratops , Arrhinoceratops , and Pachyrhinosaurus , pachycephalosaurid Stegoceras , ostrich @-@ mimics Ornithomimus and Struthiomimus , a variety of poorly known small theropods including troodontids and dromaeosaurids , and the tyrannosaurs Albertosaurus and Daspletosaurus . The dinosaurs from this formation are sometimes known as Edmontonian , after a land mammal age , and are distinct from those in the formations above and below . The Horseshoe Canyon Formation is interpreted as having a significant marine influence , due to an encroaching Western Interior Seaway , the shallow sea that covered the midsection of North America through much of the Cretaceous . H. altispinus may have preferred to stay more landward . The slightly older Two Medicine Formation , home to H. stebingeri , was also populated by another well @-@ known nesting hadrosaur , Maiasaura , as well as the troodontid Troodon , which is also known from nesting traces . The tyrannosaurid Daspletosaurus , caenagnathid Chirostenotes , dromaeosaurids Bambiraptor and Saurornitholestes , armored dinosaurs Edmontonia , Oohkotokia , and Scolosaurus , hypsilophodont Orodromeus , hadrosaur Prosaurolophus , and horned dinosaurs Achelousaurus , Brachyceratops , Einiosaurus , and Rubeosaurus were also present . This formation was more distant from the Western Interior Seaway , higher and drier , with a more terrestrial influence . = = Paleobiology = = As a hadrosaurid , Hypacrosaurus would have been a bipedal / quadrupedal herbivore , eating a variety of plants . Its skull permitted a grinding motion analogous to chewing , and its teeth were continually replacing and packed into dental batteries that contained hundreds of teeth , only a relative handful of which were in use at any time . Plant material would have been cropped by its broad beak , and held in the jaws by a cheek @-@ like organ . Its feeding range would have extended from the ground to about 4 m ( 13 ft ) above . = = = Nests and growth = = = H. stebingeri laid roughly spherical eggs of 20 by 18 @.@ 5 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 by 7 @.@ 3 in ) , with embryos 60 cm ( 24 in ) long . Hatchlings were around 1 @.@ 7 m ( 5 @.@ 6 ft ) long . Young and embryonic individuals had deep skulls with only slight expansion in the bones that would one day form the crest . Growth was faster than that of an alligator and comparable to ratite growth , for several years , based on the amount of bone growth seen between lines of arrested growth ( analogous to growth rings in trees ) . Research by Lisa Cooper and colleagues on H. stebingeri indicates that this animal may have reached reproductive maturity at the age of 2 to 3 years , and reached full size at about 10 to 12 years old . The circumference of the thigh bone at postulated reproductive maturity was about 40 % that of its circumference at full size . The postulated growth rate of H. stebingeri outpaces those of tyrannosaurids ( predators of hypacrosaurs ) such as Albertosaurus and Tyrannosaurus ; rapidly growing hypacrosaurs would have had a better chance to reach a size large enough to be of defensive value , and beginning reproduction at an early age would also have been advantageous to a prey animal . Secondary cartilage has been found in the skull of a hatchling specimen of H. stebingeri . = = = Crest functions = = = The hollow crest of Hypacrosaurus most likely had social functions , such as a visual signal allowing individuals to identify sex or species , and providing a resonating chamber for making noises . The crest and its associated nasal passages have also figured in the debate about dinosaur endothermy , specifically in discussions about nasal turbinates . Turbinates are thin bones or cartilages that come in two types , with two functions . Nasal olfactory turbinates are found in all living tetrapods and function in smell . Respiratory turbinates function to prevent water loss through evaporation and are found only in birds and mammals , modern endotherms ( warm @-@ blooded animals ) who could lose a great deal of water while breathing because they breathe more often than comparably sized ectotherms ( cold @-@ blooded animals ) to support their higher metabolism . Ruben and others in 1996 concluded that respiratory turbinates were probably not present in Nanotyrannus , Ornithomimus or Hypacrosaurus based on CT scanning , thus there was no evidence that those animals were warm @-@ blooded . = = = Paleopathology = = = The discovery of tooth marks in the fibula of a Hypacrosaurus specimen inflicted by a bite from the teeth of Tyrannosaurus indicated that this , and other hadrosaurids were either preyed upon or scavenged by large theropod dinosaurs during the Late Cretaceous period . = = = Thermoregulation = = = Examining the oxygen @-@ isotope ratio from the bones from different parts of an extinct animal 's body should indicate which thermoregulation mode an animal used during its lifetime . An endothermic ( warm @-@ blooded ) animal should maintain a very similar body temperature throughout its entire body ( which is called homeothermy ) and therefore there should be little variation in the oxygen @-@ isotope ratio when measured in different bones . Alternatively , the oxygen @-@ isotope ratio differs considerably when measured throughout the body of an organism with an ectothermic ( cold @-@ blooded ) physiology . Oxygen @-@ isotope ratios calculated for Hypacrosaurus suggesting that the ratios varied little , indicating that Hypacrosaurus was a homeotherm , and likely was endothermic . This is in contrast to the Ruben et al . ( 1996 ) finding that Hypacrosaurus was not warm @-@ blooded , which was based on the absence of nasal turbinates ( see Crest functions subsection , above ) . = = Taphonomy = = Taphonomy is the study of the processes an organism ’ s body undergoes after it dies , which includes a study of preservation , the cause of death , and the circumstances of burial . The large , monospecific assemblage of Hypacrosaurus stebingeri in Montana was interpreted as a group of dinosaurs that was killed by a volcanic ashfall . This assemblage is considered autochthonous , meaning that the remains are thought to have been buried on or near the same spot where the individuals died . The variety of ages in this group supports that this was a biocoenosis- an actual life assemblage of animals . The cause of death in a volcanic ashfall is suffocation by the ash and by the gases released from volcanic eruptions . The preservation of this diverse group of dinosaurs provides researchers with a growth series , which is a sequence of growth stages from juvenile to adult .
= Bussard @-@ class cruiser = The Bussard class of unprotected cruisers were built for the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) in the late 1880s and early 1890s . The class comprised six ships : Bussard , the lead ship , Falke , Seeadler , Cormoran , Condor , and Geier . Designed for service in Germany 's colonial empire , the class emphasized a long @-@ range cruising radius and relatively heavy armament ; they were also the last cruisers in the Kaiserliche Marine to be equipped with an auxiliary sailing rig . The ships were equipped with eight 10 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns . All six ships served abroad for the majority of their careers , primarily in Africa and the south Pacific , where they assissted in the suppression of uprisings such as the Boxer Rebellion in China and the Sokehs Rebellion in the Caroline Islands . Cormoran participated in the seizure of the Kiautschou Bay concession in China in 1897 , and Falke was involved in the Venezuela Crisis of 1902 – 03 . Bussard and Falke were broken up for scrap in 1912 , but the remaining four ships were still in service following the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 . Cormoran was based in Tsingtao with unusable engines ; she was scuttled in the harbor since she was no longer operational . Geier briefly operated against British shipping in the Pacific before having to put into Hawaii for internment by the then @-@ neutral United States . After the United States entered the war in April 1917 , she was seized and commissioned into the US Navy as USS Schurz ; she served as an escort until she was accidentally sunk following a collision with a freighter in June 1918 . Seeadler and Condor , meanwhile , had been converted into mine storage hulks after the start of the war . Seeadler was destroyed by an accidental explosion in 1917 . Condor was the only member of the class to survive the war , and she was scrapped in 1921 . = = Design = = The Bussard class was designed for service abroad in Germany 's colonial possessions , and were an improvement over the preceding Schwalbe class of unprotected cruisers . The design for the Bussard class was prepared in 1888 . The ships were significantly larger and faster than the Schwalbe class , but mounted the same battery of guns — though only Bussard carried the same type of guns — the rest carried a newer , quick @-@ firing model . They were also the last cruiser class in the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) to be equipped with a sailing rig ; the subsequent unprotected cruiser Gefion was entirely steam @-@ powered . = = = General characteristics = = = The ships of the Bussard class all differed slightly in their characteristics . The first two ships , Bussard and Falke , were 79 @.@ 62 meters ( 261 @.@ 2 ft ) long at the waterline and 82 @.@ 60 m ( 271 @.@ 0 ft ) long overall . They had a beam of 12 @.@ 50 m ( 41 @.@ 0 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 45 m ( 14 @.@ 6 ft ) forward and 5 @.@ 63 m ( 18 @.@ 5 ft ) aft . They displaced 1 @,@ 559 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 534 long tons ) as designed and up to 1 @,@ 868 t ( 1 @,@ 838 long tons ) at full combat load . The next three ships , Seeadler , Condor , and Cormoran , were 79 @.@ 62 m ( 261 @.@ 2 ft ) long at the waterline and had the same overall length as their earlier sister ships . They had a beam of 12 @.@ 70 m ( 41 @.@ 7 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 42 m ( 14 @.@ 5 ft ) forward and 5 @.@ 35 m ( 17 @.@ 6 ft ) aft . They displaced 1 @,@ 612 t ( 1 @,@ 587 long tons ) as designed and 1 @,@ 864 t ( 1 @,@ 835 long tons ) at full load . The last ship , Geier , was 79 @.@ 62 m long at the waterline and 83 @.@ 90 m ( 275 @.@ 3 ft ) long overall . She had a beam of 10 @.@ 60 m ( 34 @.@ 8 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 74 m ( 15 @.@ 6 ft ) forward and 5 @.@ 22 m ( 17 @.@ 1 ft ) aft . The cruisers ' hulls were constructed with transverse steel frames with yellow pine planking up to the upper deck . A layer of Muntz metal sheathing covered the hull to protect the wood from shipworm . The stem and sternposts were constructed with steel and timber . A bronze naval ram was fitted at the bow . The hull was divided into ten watertight compartments , and a double bottom was installed below the boiler rooms . The ships were good sea boats , but they rolled badly and the sponsons for the main guns caused severe vibration . Since Geier was laid down after the other five ships entered service , she was redesigned slightly to discard the sponsons , and so she did not suffer from bad vibration . They were very maneuverable , except for turns into the wind when steaming at low speed . The ships had a crew of 9 officers and 152 enlisted men . They carried a number of smaller boats , including one picket boat , one cutter , two yawls , and two dinghies . = = = Propulsion = = = Their propulsion system consisted of two horizontal 3 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines powered by four coal @-@ fired cylindrical boilers ; the engines were rated at 2 @,@ 800 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 100 kW ) and were placed in their own engine rooms . The engines drove a pair of 3 @-@ bladed screws that were 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) wide in diameter . The boilers were divided into two boiler rooms and were trunked into a single funnel . The ships were fitted with an auxiliary schooner barque rig with a total surface area of 856 to 877 m2 ( 9 @,@ 210 to 9 @,@ 440 sq ft ) . Steering was controlled by a single rudder . Each ship was equipped with a pair of electricity generators with a combined output of 24 kilowatts ( 32 hp ) at 67 volts . The propulsion system provided a top speed of 15 @.@ 5 kn ( 28 @.@ 7 km / h ; 17 @.@ 8 mph ) , though all six ships exceeded their design speeds while on sea trials , reaching between 15 @.@ 7 to 16 @.@ 9 knots ( 29 @.@ 1 to 31 @.@ 3 km / h ; 18 @.@ 1 to 19 @.@ 4 mph ) . The ships carried between 170 to 205 t ( 167 to 202 long tons ; 187 to 226 short tons ) of coal as designed , and they could accommodate up to 305 to 320 t ( 300 to 315 long tons ; 336 to 353 short tons ) of coal using additional storage spaces . This provided a range of between 2 @,@ 990 to 3 @,@ 610 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 540 to 6 @,@ 690 km ; 3 @,@ 440 to 4 @,@ 150 mi ) at 9 knots ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) . = = = Armament = = = The first ship was armed with eight 10 @.@ 5 cm K L / 35 guns in single pedestal mounts , supplied with 800 rounds of ammunition in total . They had a range of 8 @,@ 200 m ( 26 @,@ 900 ft ) . The five subsequent ships were equipped with newer quick @-@ firing SK L / 35 versions of the 10 @.@ 5 cm guns . These newer guns also had a longer range , of 10 @,@ 800 m ( 35 @,@ 400 ft ) . Two guns were placed side by side on the forecastle , two on each broadside — one in a sponson and the other in a gun port — and two side by side on the quarterdeck . Geier did not use sponsons for the second pair of guns , instead simply mounting them on the upper deck . The gun armament was rounded out by five revolver cannon . The first five ships were also equipped with two 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes , both of which were mounted on the deck . Geier instead had larger 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes . Each ship carried five torpedoes . = = Ships = = = = Service history = = All six ships of the class spent the majority of their careers abroad , primarily in Germany 's colonial possessions in Africa and the Pacific . Seeadler visited the United States in March 1893 , along with the protected cruiser Kaiserin Augusta , for the belated celebrations for the 400th anniversary of Columbus 's crossing of the Atlantic . In July of that year , while assigned to the East Asia Division , Bussard and Falke assisted in the suppression of Mata 'afa Iosefo 's revolt in Samoa , along with a British corvette . Throughout the 1890s , Seeadler was assigned to Germany 's colonies in East Africa and Southwest Africa , where she suppressed local uprisings . In November 1897 , Cormoran took part in the seizure of the Kiautschou Bay concession in the Shandong Peninsula in Qing China . Geier was present in the Caribbean during the Spanish – American War in 1898 , though she took no active role in the conflict . Between 1898 and 1900 , Bussard and Seeadler were modernized in Germany . In 1900 , Seeadler participated in the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion in China , including a blockade of the Chinese coast . In December 1902 , Falke and the protected cruiser Vineta joined British forces in the Venezuela Crisis of 1902 – 03 after Venezuelan forces seized a British merchant ship . The two cruisers helped British warships bombard Venezuelan coastal fortifications and blockade the coast . Cormoran and Geier were modernized between 1907 and 1909 ; only Falke and Condor never returned for major dockyard work . Condor and Cormoran suppressed the Sokehs Rebellion in the Caroline Islands in January 1911 , along with the light cruiser Leipzig . In 1912 , when the Second Balkan War broke out , Geier was stationed in the eastern Mediterranean Sea to observe the hostilities . Both Bussard and Falke were stricken from the naval register on 25 October 1912 and broken up the following year , at Hamburg and the Kaiserliche Werft in Danzig , respectively . After the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Seeadler was converted into a mine storage hulk in Wilhelmshaven . An accidental explosion in April 1917 destroyed the ship , and her wreck was never raised . Condor was used for the same purpose in Kiel ; she survived the war and was broken up for scrap in 1921 in Hamburg . Cormoran , still stationed in Tsingtao , was scuttled in the harbor because her engines were in poor condition . Geier meanwhile operated against British merchant shipping in the Pacific following the onset of hostilities . By October , she was running low on coal and had been isolated from any sources of support ; she therefore steamed to Hawaii , where she was interned by the US Navy . After the United States declared war on Germany on 6 April 1917 , she was seized and commissioned as USS Schurz for use as an escort vessel . She was sunk after colliding with a merchant ship in June 1918 .
= Spiritual Machines = Spiritual Machines is the fourth studio album by the Canadian alternative rock band Our Lady Peace , released by Columbia Records in December 2000 . Although not initially intended , the project evolved into a conceptual interpretation of futurist and inventor Raymond Kurzweil 's 1999 book The Age of Spiritual Machines . Short tracks of spoken dialog from Kurzweil himself are interspersed among the actual songs on the album . The Kurzweil K250 keyboard , one of his inventions , was utilized throughout the recording of the album . The album was written and recorded in two months while the band was still on tour in support of their previous record , Happiness ... Is Not a Fish That You Can Catch , which had only been released 14 months prior . A combination of lead singer @-@ songwriter Raine Maida 's prolific songwriting at the time and lead @-@ guitarist Mike Turner 's discovery of The Age of Spiritual Machines in a bookstore hurried the completion of the album . The band only took a break from recording to organize and perform at Summersault in 2000 . Unlike their previous releases , this one features a more organic , acoustic sound , and less obvious layering and electronic texturing . Spiritual Machines has been noted as being the end of an era for Our Lady Peace , as it was the last album produced by the band 's longtime producer Arnold Lanni , the last to feature original guitarist Mike Turner in full , and the last studio album to feature art model Saul Fox on its cover . It was also the last album to feature Maida 's high @-@ falsetto singing voice prominently . The album peaked at number five in Canada , where it is certified double platinum . = = Background = = While touring rigorously in support of Happiness ... in mid @-@ 2000 , Mike Turner came across The Age of Spiritual Machines , a 1999 book by inventor and futurist Ray Kurzweil . " I happened to be lucky enough to discover a really shiny book cover in a book store . " Turner stated , " I wish I could say it was like , ' Well , I 've been on this intellectual quest . ' I picked it up , read it and went mental . " Becoming fascinated by the futuristic ideology of the book , he proceeded to share it with the other band members , reading them passages on their tour bus over the next several months . Lead singer Raine Maida first brought up the idea of a concept album after excerpts from the book began influencing his songwriting . Passing time on the road , he had amassed a backlog of songs and had begun to record demos . He jokingly suggested an album title of Kurzweil . " That was not the most graceful sounding name in the world , so we went with Spiritual Machines instead , " Turner said . While the other band @-@ members were less enthusiastic about the idea due to its weighty subject matter , Maida and Turner decided to pursue it and Turner contacted Ray Kurzweil via email to ask for permission to use the title of his book for their project . Kurzweil 's excitement at the prospect prompted them to invite him to record spoken excerpts from his book for the album and a correspondence developed . “ I think it ’ s amazing that Ray Kurzweil sent us a bunch of pieces , and for whatever reason , they really tie in with what we were trying to say on this record , ” said Maida . = = Recording and production = = Unlike the band 's three previous albums , most of the songs on Spiritual Machines were written solely by Maida . “ I think that because this record happened quickly , we just ended up using a lot more of my songs this time , ” stated Maida . “ Whatever happens , happens , and if there are good ideas lying around , we use them . ” Also unlike on their previous albums , this one was recorded sporadically piece by piece with songs being added as others were discarded . Raine had made several vocal demos at his new home recording studio before the Spiritual Machines idea had come into play . Many of these demos were used for the final recordings and Raine was given production credits . “ It was more a means to an end . " he explained , " I would start off with a 4 @-@ track , then move to an 8 @-@ track , then go to digital . I have a ProTools system set up in my basement , so I just try to finish songs and get them out of the way so I don ’ t build up this backlog of ideas . We just sift through that stuff , as well as the stuff we do in rehearsal and just pick the best ideas and go . It wasn 't like I said I wanted to be a producer or anything , it ’ s just that the demos I was making came closer to the finished product on one or two occasions , so now , I ’ m a producer . ” Jamie Edwards , who had helped record and tour for Happiness ... was heavily utilized during the recording process and was becoming a big part of the band , considered by some to be the unofficial fifth member of the band at that time . Taggart recounted in 2010 , " He ’ s an amazing guitar player , and he played on the record . People don ’ t know that he had a lot to do with that stuff . He was very influential . We had him in all our writing sessions . It was a very creative time that was cool because we were all in a room , kind of working together . ” By the time the band was set to perform at Summersault in August 2000 , about eight songs , including " Life " and " Everyone 's a Junkie " , had been recorded as demos while the band was on the road touring . Guitarist Turner noted : " After we were done we brought them in for the record company to hear , with an eye to making plans for next year . They heard what we were doing and said , ' Well , let 's finish the album you 're working on . ' And we thought , ' Album ? We 're just demoing . ' But they told us what we had was great , so we went back into the studio with Arn [ old Lanni ] and did just that . " Over the next two months , the band worked to complete the album with Arnold Lanni at Arnyard Studios in Toronto as well as Avatar Studios in New York City . Rumors had surfaced that , while in New York , Our Lady peace had dropped Lanni as producer to work with The Smashing Pumpkins frontman Billy Corgan . These rumors were later debunked by Maida . The first songs to be played live were " Life " and " Everyone 's a Junkie " , which debuted during Summersault in August 2000 shortly after they were first recorded . In an August 2000 interview with Chartattack Raine revealed that a song titled " Yesterday " ( later to become " Middle of Yesterday " ) was almost guaranteed to be the first single for Spiritual Machines . Towards the end of recording Spiritual Machines , percussionist Jeremy Taggart suffered a serious ankle injury during a mugging while walking his dog . While he recovered , Taggart 's friend Matt Cameron , former drummer for Soundgarden and current drummer for Pearl Jam , filled in for Taggart on the tracks " Right Behind You ( Mafia ) " and " Are You Sad ? " , which Taggart had already written the drum parts for . When the final tracks were ready for mixing , the band shopped around before finding a producer they wanted . The album was mixed in Atlanta , Georgia by Brendan O 'Brien , Pearl Jam 's long time producer . " It was an amazing experience working with Brendan , someone who immediately understood what we were trying to do and was able to capture exactly how we heard this album , " noted Maida . = = Music and lyrics = = The songs for Spiritual Machines were written and partially recorded during a year in which the band was doing extensive touring of Canada , the United States , and Europe . According to lead singer Maida , the live stage @-@ context inspired the band to " keep it really basic and not try to add too many textures ... to not overdo it . " and giving the technically inclined record an ironically acoustic feel at times . According to Maida , half of the record was completed before the book and its ideas even entered the equation . During an interview in late 2001 , he stated , " ... even though it seems quite intrinsic to the record , really , it only represents about four or five songs . " While the lyrics of several songs were inspired by the futuristic theories of Kurzweil , they were also written as a response to them , saying that the human spirit would always prevail . " Lyrically , this album is about finding the spirituality within ourselves . " This is the case with the opening song , " Right Behind You ( Mafia ) " , which Raine said , " .. [ is ] not an ' f @-@ you ' to Kurzweil . It 's like ' I believe [ much of ] what you 're saying , but we 're going to fight it as well because there is a soul and there is a spirit . ' " Following " Mafia " is the song " In Repair " , which muses on how the human body can be " repaired , " whether through heart surgery or after an accident . This song is countered by the following track , " Life " which , explained Maida , " recognizes the pain our minds can experience . " During a 2001 interview with Gary Graff from Wall of Sound Magazine , Maida recounted the inspiration for the lyrics of " Are You Sad " . He was in New York recording " In Repair " at the old Hit Factory studio , which was later known as Avatar Studios . Following those sessions , Maida attempted to call his younger brother from his hotel room but couldn 't get through . " When you 're making a record , you kind of go into hiding , especially when I 'm writing lyrics or writing music ; I tend not to keep in touch with any friends or family or stuff . But my brother and I have a good relationship , and I want to keep it good . I couldn 't get a hold of him for , like , a week , and I knew he was going through a shitty time — typical young @-@ 20s , no job , having a tough life . I wanted to talk to him desperately , and this song just came out of me , " Are You Sad ? " It came out really quickly on a shitty travel guitar " . The meaning of " If You Believe " was revealed in a 2001 interview with Cleveland.com , " That song 's about having an out @-@ of @-@ body experience and seeing that the afterlife is real , " Maida confirms , " and telling people that there 's something machines can 't have , and we 've got it . Spiritual Machines concludes with the track " The Wonderful Future " , which is one of the songs on the album that features minimal instrumentation . Raine explained that the song embraces the outcome of Kurzweil 's future and accepts it as something new and exciting . It is about a woman who builds her " own satellite from an old rusted chair " who will one day realize that a man of flesh and tears can satisfy her future . " That 's one of my favourite songs , for that reason , " said Maida . " That song 's about building the perfect human – this cyber @-@ human – and realizing that you can 't really compete . " Following several minutes of silence after " The Wonderful Future " , there is a hidden track with Ray Kurzweil communicating with ' Molly ' . Molly is a robot from 2099 , who at the beginning of the book was a 23 @-@ year @-@ old woman who knew nothing about what Kurzweil was trying to explain , and then started to evolve in the way Kurzweil predicted . In a March 2010 interview with The Montreal Gazette , Maida looked back fondly on the making of the album and while saying it took a while to get it right both musically and lyrically , he said " I appreciate the work I did lyrically ; it does all tie together . As I sing these songs , it has that feeling of fixing things , and kind of where Ray was going in terms of being able to fix anything and possibly living beyond the realm of any human being and whatever anyone could think of a human living . " = = Release = = = = = Promotion = = = Following a virtual listening party on the band 's website where the full ten songs from the record were made available to listen to , Spiritual Machines was released in Canada on 12 December 2000 . For those who pre @-@ ordered the album , a limited edition version of the CD was released in a black jewel case in which the artwork was not visible , only the band 's name and logo in embossed lettering . Spiritual Machines sold 36 @,@ 394 copies in its debut week , and would sell a total of 100 @,@ 000 units in the first month after its release , making it their fastest selling album to date . It went on to be certified 2X Platinum in Canada . As was common practice , the album was released several months later in the United States on 13 March 2001 . Upon release in the United States , it spent a total of four weeks on the Billboard 200 charts , peaking at number 81 . In the United States , the album has yet to be certified by the RIAA . It was released to Asian and European markets on May 9 , 2001 under the Epic Records label . The record was re @-@ released in 2008 under the Sony 's Special Markets division . The lead off single for Spiritual Machines was " In Repair " . It was only promoted in Canada and though reaching number one on the Canadian Rock Radio charts , quickly fell off the charts shortly after its November 15 , 2000 release . While the single was a failure in the United States , the music video , directed by Oli Goldsmith won multiple awards at the MuchMusic Video Awards including Best Video and Best Director . The second single was " Life " , released shortly after the album 's Canadian release in December 2000 . It was the only single that was commercially released , in Australia ( EPK 6718742 ) . It fared better on the charts , reaching number 27 on the U.S. Modern Rock Tracks chart on 10 March 2001 after 13 weeks . In Canada , the song peaked at number two on the Canadian Rock Radio charts while the music video eventually reached number one on the MuchMusic Countdown . The third and final single was " Right Behind You ( Mafia ) " . By this time , Spiritual Machines was proving itself to be commercial failure in the States . The release of the single , set to be in June 2001 , was aborted and the promotional copies were instead distributed to the band 's fan club . The Oli Goldsmith directed music video 's release was also cancelled and the video has not been seen until recently when it was released on the band 's official website . = = = Packaging = = = The band contacted local Toronto artist Oli Goldsmith who happened to be reading the same book , to create the artwork for the upcoming album . In total , he made around 200 paintings relating to the project , many of which were used for the album art , promotional singles and the band 's website . Based on the success of that commission , the record label asked him to also create and direct music videos for the singles " In Repair " and " Right Behind You ( Mafia ) " , which took his paintings and brought them to life with animation and stylized live motion . His artwork was described as " Integrating photographs , logos , television images , signs , as well as a variety of written forms , such as epigrams and poetry , Goldsmith 's art juxtaposes the unexpected , resulting in pieces that are bold , colourful , and energetic . " When the album insert is unfolded , it reveals a surrealistic panorama that appears to be set in a hospital . The official photo shoot for Spiritual Machines took place on October 7 , 2000 on the sixth floor of St. Joseph 's Health Centre in Toronto , formerly an intensive @-@ care unit . = = Critical reception = = Although Spiritual Machines was not as successful as Our Lady Peace 's previous three albums , it was highly praised by fans and critics alike as being one of Our Lady Peace 's finest releases , and has also been proclaimed as being the height of their artistic creativity . Selena Gomez of the University Star of Texas State University – San Marcos called the album incredible , but also pointed out that it was a commercial disaster due to it being " flighty and difficult to palate . " MacKenzie Wilson of Allmusic gave the album 4 out of 5 stars saying that " They can still deliver pinch @-@ hitting licks and the brash attitude they did when they first formed in 1993 , but they are a little older and a little wiser . " A review from the Hamilton Spectator noted that the album 's concluding tracks " If You Believe " and " The Wonderful Future " demonstrated a particular facility for mixing sonic textures and that there were " actually moments when vocalist Raine Maida varies from his impersonation of a singing head cold . " Ashley Bird of Kerrang ! noted that the album was packed with crisp , clean songwriting , odd searing post @-@ grunge riffs and Raine Maida 's nasal croon . He went on to say that the song " Life " " is one of the most perfectly weighted slices of pop @-@ rock you 'll hear . " Eddie Fournier of The New Hampshire reviewed Spiritual Machines positively but said that " The spoken word sections are intriguing , but in a way , they detract from the overall strength of the album , breaking up the momentum created by the powerful 10 songs . " He concluded by saying " Overall , Spiritual Machines is a lovely album from start to finish , and even better , it is an album that will make you wonder . " Cheryl Hunter of the Hartford Courant said that " It may sound formulaic , yet Maida 's intelligent songwriting and nasally , but forthright vocals make Our Lady Peace more than just another faceless modern rock band . " Bartley Kives of Winnipeg Free Press gave the album 31 ⁄ 2 stars out of 5 , saying that Our Lady Peace had finally gotten control of their sound and calling it " easily the finest thing they 've ever created . " = = Touring = = = = = Original tours ( 2000 – 2001 ) = = = Our Lady Peace toured in support of Spiritual Machines from November 2000 until September 2001 . The first leg of the tour began with a university warm @-@ up tour in Ontario , then a cross @-@ Canadian fan club appreciation tour from Vancouver , BC to Ste @-@ Foy , Quebec in which members of their fan club received free tickets . The tour continued into the United States in March , 2001 with American Hi @-@ Fi joining them as an opening act . During May 2001 , the band debuted a new song they had written for WWF pro @-@ wrestler Chris Benoit that would be included on the soundtrack WWF Forceable Entry much to the chagrin of Maida . The song had been recorded in early March and was mixed in Seattle . Several shows during the Summer leg had to be rescheduled or canceled after Maida contracted a throat infection . A cancer scare which turned out to be harmless caused bassist Duncan Coutts to miss six weeks of touring following the shoot for the " Life " video in February . Rob Higgins of the band Change of Heart filled in for him while he recovered from surgery . Coutts would also miss several shows in June after breaking his wrist in a biking accident . The band wrapped up the tour with a performance at Music Without Borders at Toronto 's Air Canada Centre on October 21 , 2001 . This would be their last live performance with Mike Turner . Several songs were recorded live by the band in Syracuse , New York with hopes of releasing a live album with producer Bob Rock and then to continue touring for the album . The live tracks were instead spread across various promos and singles and the band decided to record a full length album , Gravity , with Rock . = = = Recreation tour ( 2010 ) = = = In December 2009 , after a poll on Facebook , the band announced that they would be " recreating " both Spiritual Machines and their 1997 record Clumsy by performing them live in their entireties throughout a new tour that began in March 2010 ; nine months before the 10 @-@ year anniversary of the release of Spiritual Machines . Prior to this tour , the song " All My Friends " had never been played live and many more songs had never been played by present guitarist Steve Mazur , having joined the band in 2002 . = = Track listing = = All songs written and composed by Raine Maida . " The Wonderful Future " ends at 4 : 30 , and is followed by roughly 12 minutes of silence , after which a hidden conversation between R.K. and Molly is heard . Studio outtakes Several known outtakes from the Spiritual Machines sessions were demos carried over from the Happiness ... sessions , such as " Ordinary Day " and " Sleeping In " . " Ordinary " is seen being played during demo sessions for Happiness ... on the band 's 1998 holiday fan club video . The lyrics were published in the Pied Piper 's Union Christmas 1998 newsletter . A poor quality recording of the latter is available on YouTube as well as in trading circles . Other song names such as " La Bra " and " A Waste of Violence " ( or The Weight of Violence ) were revealed on web casts of the recording sessions or seen on original artwork by Oli Goldsmith . A narrative outtake by Ray Kurzweil titled " R.K. Jack " was included as an intro to the track " Life " on A Decade . In an August 18 , 2000 article , it was revealed at that point that 8 songs were complete with four more being recorded in the past five weeks . This was before heading to New York to record " In Repair " and " Are You Sad " , among others . Turner even noted " We 've got so much music , we could even put another ( album ) out . " = = Personnel = = As listed in liner notes .
= No. 285 Squadron RAAF = No. 285 Squadron is a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) training squadron . Controlled by No. 84 Wing , the squadron was formed in August 1999 and is responsible for training the RAAF 's Lockheed Martin C @-@ 130J Hercules aircrew and ground support staff . No. 285 Squadron does not control any flying aircraft but manages the flight simulator used for converting aircrew to the C @-@ 130Js operated by No. 37 Squadron . It is also allocated decommissioned Hercules airframes for training purposes , as well as flying aircraft from No. 37 Squadron when required . Since its formation , No. 285 Squadron has been located at RAAF Base Richmond in the western suburbs of Sydney . = = Role and equipment = = No. 285 Squadron is responsible for training aircrew and maintenance staff to operate the Lockheed Martin C @-@ 130J Hercules transport aircraft of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . It is located at RAAF Base Richmond , New South Wales , and controlled by No. 84 Wing , which is part of Air Mobility Group . No. 285 Squadron 's motto is " Aspire " . Twelve C @-@ 130Js are operated by No. 37 Squadron , also based at Richmond under No. 84 Wing . The aircraft are generally crewed by two pilots and a loadmaster , and are tasked with medium tactical airlift in Australia and overseas , transporting troops and cargo , and conducting medical evacuation , search @-@ and @-@ rescue , and airdrop missions . No. 285 Squadron manages the full @-@ flight mission simulator ( FFMS ) used to convert aircrew to the C @-@ 130J , as well as decommissioned Hercules airframes used for loadmaster training . It also employs computer @-@ based training tools and is allocated flying aircraft from No. 37 Squadron when required . As well as training aircrew new to the C @-@ 130J , the FFMS ( maintained by CAE Australia ) is employed for existing aircrew to maintain their currency . No. 285 Squadron generally holds two pilot and navigator conversion courses per year . Each six @-@ month course includes approximately 120 hours in the FFMS and 30 hours in flying aircraft . It culminates in an airborne operation module , which includes formation flying , airdrops , night landings with night @-@ vision goggles , and simulated combat utilising the C @-@ 130 's self @-@ defence systems to prepare the aircrew for conditions in Middle East deployments . Following this exercise , the new C @-@ 130 aircrew are posted to No. 37 Squadron . No. 285 Squadron may run 30 or more courses each year for ground support staff ; these courses can last from one day to five weeks . = = History = = No. 285 Squadron was formed on 24 August 1999 at RAAF Base Richmond under the command of Squadron Leader Peter " Zip " Szypula . Coming under the control of the newly re @-@ formed No. 85 Wing , the squadron took over the training functions of No. 33 Squadron ( operating Boeing 707s ) , No. 36 Squadron ( C @-@ 130H Hercules ) , No. 37 Squadron ( C @-@ 130J Hercules ) and No. 503 Wing ( aircraft maintenance ) . It was equipped with three flight simulators ; one 707 , one C @-@ 130H and one C @-@ 130J . The squadron began operating a full @-@ flight mission simulator ( FFMS ) for the C @-@ 130Hs in 2003 , coinciding with the deployment of C @-@ 130Hs to the Middle East . Replacing a more basic C @-@ 130H simulator , the FFMS was used to train pilots , navigators and flight engineers . By mid @-@ 2006 , No. 85 Wing had been disbanded and No. 285 Squadron was under the control of No. 84 Wing at Richmond . RAAF Hercules operations were concentrated in No. 37 Squadron in November 2006 , when No. 36 Squadron transferred its C @-@ 130Hs prior to re @-@ equipping with Boeing C @-@ 17 Globemaster III heavy airlifters and relocating to RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland . The Boeing 707 was retired from service in June 2008 . In April 2009 , No. 285 Squadron was named the most proficient RAAF training unit of the previous year . No. 37 Squadron joined No. 285 Squadron under No. 84 Wing in October 2010 , when it was transferred from No. 86 Wing . The C @-@ 130Hs were retired in 2012 , and with them No. 285 Squadron 's C @-@ 130H simulator ; the simulator remained at Richmond until 2016 , when it was sent to Jakarta to support training for the Indonesian Air Force 's fleet of ex @-@ RAAF C @-@ 130Hs . No. 285 Squadron was jointly responsible ( with No. 33 Squadron ) for training flight attendants for the RAAF 's VIP jets until 2015 , when No. 34 Squadron established its own training section and took over the task . The C @-@ 130J FFMS was networked to a virtual exercise in August 2015 , allowing aircrew operating the simulator at No. 285 Squadron to interact for the first time with other exercise participants in Australia , the US and the UK . By February 2016 , according to No. 285 Squadron 's commanding officer , ninety per cent of C @-@ 130 flying training was conducted in the FFMS . In March , a commemorative cairn and garden was unveiled at Richmond in tribute to the squadron 's inaugural commanding officer , " Zip " Szypula , who died in March 2001 with his partner and her daughter in an avalanche in the Himalayas , while preparing to climb Mount Everest .
= Radio ( Beyoncé song ) = " Radio " is a song by American recording artist Beyoncé taken from her third studio album , I Am … Sasha Fierce ( 2008 ) . The uptempo electropop , dance song was composed by Beyoncé , Rico Love , Dwayne Nesmith and Jim Jonsin . Composed in the key of D major and built essentially on bouncy beat , " Radio " also displays influences of the 1980s synthpop , Europop , and house . It is instrumentally complete with a Roland TR @-@ 808 drum , bass instruments , and synthesizers . The song 's lyrics describe the love of Beyoncé in her childhood for the songs she used to listen on the radio as she grew into an adult . " Radio " received positive reviews from contemporary music critics , who generally praised Knowles 's departure from her usual R & B style . Some of them also complimented the believability as well as the originality of the song and chose it as the standout track of I Am ... Sasha Fierce . In September 2009 , " Radio " was used to promote Dutch radio station Radio 538 , and it subsequently charted for six weeks on the Dutch Top 40 chart , where it peaked at number 14 . It also reached number five on its urban chart . " Radio " was part of Beyoncé 's set list on her I Am ... Tour ( 2009 – 10 ) and was included on the live album I Am ... World Tour ( 2010 ) . = = Production and composition = = " Radio " was written by James Scheffer , Rico Love , Dwayne Nesmith , and Beyoncé . Production was handled by Jim Jonsin , who also produced of " Sweet Dreams " ( 2009 ) . " Radio " is different from the usual R & B material for which Beyoncé is known ; It is a electropop , dance song that exhibits influences of 1980s synthpop , Europop , and house . Following the release of I Am ... Sasha Fierce , Beyoncé explained the concept behind the song on her official website : It just seems like a feel @-@ good record but when you really listen to the lyrics , it 's about me growing up . In my household , I didn 't go all of the parties and I didn 't do all the things that a lot of the other teenage girls did because I was so in love with my radio and my music . I was so in love with this radio and my parents were happy that I was into something positive . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing , " Radio " is an uptempo song set in common time , written in the key of D major . It follows the chord progression of Bm – G – D – A / C ♯ and Beyoncé 's vocals span from the note of A3 to E5 . Built on a bouncy beat , " Radio " is instrumentally complete with a Roland TR @-@ 808 drum , bass instruments , and synthesizers . Several music critics , including Ben Westhoff of OC Weekly , noted that " Radio " bears resemblance to Rihanna 's single " Umbrella " ( 2007 ) as they are both set to 1980s @-@ style synthesizers . " Similarly , James Reed of The Boston Globe wrote that " Radio " seems to be like the latest electro @-@ pop confection from Rihanna . Darryl Sterdan of the Canadian website Jam ! wrote that " Radio " sounds like a record Madonna would sing because of its electropop and dance @-@ pop musical styles . The believability of the song 's lyrics , which conveys love testaments as well as its timeless endurance , sung on sensual vocal arrangements by Beyoncé , who additionally adopts a sneering attitude , demonstrates her alter ego Sasha Fierce . Lyrically , " Radio " explores the relationship between Beyoncé as the female protagonist and the songs played on the radio , shown in the lyrics : " You 're the only one that Papa allowed in my room with the door closed / We 'd be alone / And Mama never freaked out when she heard it go boom / ' Cause she knew we were in the zone " . Amy Linden of Vibe magazine felt that " Radio " could make an ideal " valentine " song because of its lyrical content . = = Critical reception = = " Radio " received generally positive reviews from contemporary critics , who praised Knowles 's brief departure from usual R & B style as well as the believability and originality of the song . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian noted that though the 1980s synthpop mode of " Radio " may not be as well suited to Beyoncé 's voice as the old soul samples contained in " Crazy in Love " ( 2003 ) and " Suga Mama " ( 2007 ) " , there is no denying that " Radio " is an " irresistible pop song " . Colin McGuire of PopMatters highlighted Knowles 's diversion from her usual R & B style , writing that " Radio " is " a bit of a novelty act " which takes Beyoncé in a new direction . He further wrote that the different elements of dance music present in the song makes it feel refreshing , before adding that " it might even suggest a more expansive , experimental side of the songstress on her follow @-@ up " . Talia Kraines of BBC Music wrote that " wild " " Radio " makes it the standout track on I Am ... Sasha Fierce . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine chose " Radio " as the highlight of both the standard and deluxe editions of I Am ... Sasha Fierce , writing that it is the most convincing love song on the album . James Reed of The Boston Globe described " Radio " as fun , bouncy , and ideal for a night at the club . Similarly , Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly wrote that the " spiky , Europop throb " of " Radio " expertly taunt the boys and fill the dance floor . Darryl Sterdan of Jam ! was surprised by the new musical direction of Beyoncé but concluded that " ... you better believe it ... it kinda works " . Daniel Brockman of The Phoenix described " Radio " as the most believable song on the album , and complimented its " amid bland testaments to love 's timeless endurance and the smut and thuggin [ g ] of the ' Sasha Fierce ' persona , [ which ] is one with sensual overtones sung to an electronic device that , unlike men , ' never lets me down ' " . Echoing Brockman 's sentiments , Amy Linden of Vibe magazine , who wrote that 1980 's electropop and the sleek Valentine music of " Radio " tells the story of Beyoncé 's alter ego . Similarly , Nana Ekua Brew @-@ Hammond of The Village Voice wrote that " Radio " " show [ s ] [ that ] Sasha [ is ] just a good girl playing fierce " . By contrast , Matos Michaelangelo of The A.V. Club said that " Radio " sounds like " shameless target @-@ marketing " aiming at programming directors . On The Village Voice ' 2008 year @-@ end Pazz & Jop singles list , " Radio " was ranked at number 443 . = = Promotion and chart performance = = Beyoncé performed " Radio " on her I Am ... Tour ( 2009 – 10 ) . The song was subsequently included on the live album I Am ... World Tour , as the thirteenth track . In early September 2009 , " Radio " was used to promote Dutch radio station ' Radio 538 ' . On September 19 , 2009 , " Radio " debuted on the Dutch Top 40 at number 31 after it was used to promote the local radio station . After three weeks , it peaked of number 14 on October 10 , 2009 , and charted for six weeks . " Radio " also peaked at number five on the Dutch urban chart . = = Credits and personnel = = Richard Butler , Jr . – producer , publisher , vocals producer , writer Jim Caruana – recorder , vocals recorder Matt Green – mixer assistant Beyoncé Beyoncé – vocals , writer Dwayne Nesmith – writer James Scheffer – producer , recorder , writer Mark " Spike " Stent – mixer Source :
= Weather map = A weather map displays various meteorological features across a particular area at a particular point in time and has various symbols which all have specific meanings . Such maps have been in use since the mid @-@ 19th century and are used for research and weather forecasting purposes . Maps using isotherms show temperature gradients , which can help locate weather fronts . Isotach maps , analyzing lines of equal wind speed , on a constant pressure surface of 300 mb or 250 mb show where the jet stream is located . Use of constant pressure charts at the 700 and 500 hPa level can indicate tropical cyclone motion . Two @-@ dimensional streamlines based on wind speeds at various levels show areas of convergence and divergence in the wind field , which are helpful in determining the location of features within the wind pattern . A popular type of surface weather map is the surface weather analysis , which plots isobars to depict areas of high pressure and low pressure . Cloud codes are translated into symbols and plotted on these maps along with other meteorological data that are included in synoptic reports sent by professionally trained observers . = = History = = The use of weather charts in a modern sense began in the middle portion of the 19th century in order to devise a theory on storm systems . During the Crimean War a storm devastated the French fleet at Balaklava , and the French scientist Urbain Le Verrier was able to show that if a chronological map of the storm had been issued , the path it would take could have been predicted and avoided by the fleet . In England , the scientist Francis Galton heard of this work , as well as the pioneering weather forecasts of Robert Fitzroy . After gathering information from weather stations across the country for the month of October 1861 , he plotted the data on a map using his own system of symbols , thereby creating the world 's first weather map . He used his map to prove that air circulated clockwise around areas of high pressure ; he coined the term ' anticyclone ' to describe the phenomenon . He was also instrumental in publishing the first weather map in a newspaper , for which he modified the pantograph ( an instrument for copying drawings ) to inscribe the map onto printing blocks . The Times began printing weather maps using these methods with data from the Meteorological Office . The introduction of country @-@ wide weather maps required the existence of national telegraph networks so that data from across the country could be gathered in real time and remain relevant for subsequent analysis . The first such use of the telegraph for gathering data on the weather was the Manchester Examiner newspaper in 1847 : ... led us to inquire if the electric telegraph was yet extended far enough from Manchester to obtain information from the eastern counties ... inquiries were made at the following places ; and answers were returned , which we append ... It was also important for time to be standardized across time zones so that the information on the map should accurately represent the weather at a given time . A standardized time system was first used to coordinate the British railway network in 1847 , with the inauguration of Greenwich Mean Time . In the USA , The Smithsonian Institution developed its network of observers over much of the central and eastern United States between the 1840s and 1860s once Joseph Henry took the helm . The U.S. Army Signal Corps inherited this network between 1870 and 1874 by an act of Congress , and expanded it to the west coast soon afterwards . At first , not all the data on the map was used due to a lack of time standardization . The United States fully adopted time zones in 1905 , when Detroit finally established standard time . = = = 20th century = = = The use of frontal zones on weather maps began in the 1910s in Norway . Polar front theory is attributed to Jacob Bjerknes , derived from a coastal network of observation sites in Norway during World War I. This theory proposed that the main inflow into a cyclone was concentrated along two lines of convergence , one ahead of the low and another trailing behind the low . The convergence line ahead of the low became known as either the steering line or the warm front . The trailing convergence zone was referred to as the squall line or cold front . Areas of clouds and rainfall appeared to be focused along these convergence zones . The concept of frontal zones led to the concept of air masses . The nature of the three @-@ dimensional structure of the cyclone would wait for the development of the upper air network during the 1940s . Since the leading edge of air mass changes bore resemblance to the military fronts of World War I , the term " front " came into use to represent these lines . The United States began to formally analyze fronts on surface analyses in late 1942 , when the WBAN Analysis Center opened in downtown Washington , D.C. In addition to surface weather maps , weather agencies began to generate constant pressure charts . In 1948 , the United States began the Daily Weather Map series , which at first analyzed the 700 hPa level , which is around 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) above sea level . By May 14 , 1954 , the 500 hPa surface was being analyzed , which is about 5 @,@ 520 metres ( 18 @,@ 110 ft ) above sea level . The effort to automate map plotting began in the United States in 1969 , with the process complete in the 1970s . Hong Kong completed their process of automated surface plotting by 1987 . By 1999 , computer systems and software had finally become sophisticated enough to allow for the ability to underlay on the same workstation satellite imagery , radar imagery , and model @-@ derived fields such as atmospheric thickness and frontogenesis in combination with surface observations to make for the best possible surface analysis . In the United States , this development was achieved when Intergraph workstations were replaced by n @-@ AWIPS workstations . By 2001 , the various surface analyses done within the National Weather Service were combined into the Unified Surface Analysis , which is issued every six hours and combines the analyses of four different centers . Recent advances in both the fields of meteorology and geographic information systems have made it possible to devise finely tailored products that take us from the traditional weather map into an entirely new realm . Weather information can quickly be matched to relevant geographical detail . For instance , icing conditions can be mapped onto the road network . This will likely continue to lead to changes in the way surface analyses are created and displayed over the next several years . = = Plotting of data = = A station model is a symbolic illustration showing the weather occurring at a given reporting station . Meteorologists created the station model to plot a number of weather elements in a small space on weather maps . Maps filled with dense station @-@ model plots can be difficult to read , but they allow meteorologists , pilots , and mariners to see important weather patterns . A computer draws a station model for each observation location . The station model is primarily used on surface @-@ weather maps , but can also be used to show the weather aloft . A completed station @-@ model map allows users to analyze patterns in air pressure , temperature , wind , cloud cover , and precipitation . Station model plots use an internationally accepted coding convention that has changed little since August 1 , 1941 . Elements in the plot show the key weather elements , including temperature , dewpoint , wind , cloud cover , air pressure , pressure tendency , and precipitation . Winds have a standard notation when plotted on weather maps . More than a century ago , winds were plotted as arrows , with feathers on just one side depicting five knots of wind , while feathers on both sides depicted 10 knots ( 19 km / h ) of wind . The notation changed to that of half of an arrow , with half of a wind barb indicating five knots , a full barb ten knots , and a pennant flag fifty knots . Because of the structure of the SYNOP code , a maximum of three cloud symbols can be plotted for each reporting station that appears on the weather map . All cloud types are coded and transmitted by trained observers then plotted on maps as low , middle , or high @-@ étage using special symbols for each major cloud type . Any cloud type with significant vertical extent that can occupy more than one étage is coded as low ( cumulus and cumulonimbus ) or middle ( nimbostratus ) depending on the altitude level or étage where it normally initially forms aside from any vertical growth that takes place . The symbol used on the map for each of these étages at a particular observation time is for the genus , species , variety , mutation , or cloud motion that is considered most important according to criteria set out by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) . If these elements for any étage at the time of observation are deemed to be of equal importance , then the type which is predominant in amount is coded by the observer and plotted on the weather map using the appropriate symbol . Special weather maps in aviation show areas of icing and turbulence . = = Types = = = = = Aviation maps = = = Aviation interests have their own set of weather maps . One type of map shows where VFR ( visual flight rules ) are in effect and where IFR ( instrument flight rules ) are in effect . Weather depiction plots show ceiling height ( level where at least half the sky is covered with clouds ) in hundreds of feet , present weather , and cloud cover . Icing maps depict areas where icing can be a hazard for flying . Aviation @-@ related maps also show areas of turbulence . = = = Constant pressure charts = = = Constant pressure charts normally contain plotted values of temperature , humidity , wind , and the vertical height above sea level of the pressure surface . They have a variety of uses . In the mountainous terrain of the western United States and Mexican Plateau , the 850 hPa pressure surface can be a more realistic depiction of the weather pattern than a standard surface analysis . Using the 850 and 700 hPa pressure surfaces , one can determine when and where warm advection ( coincident with upward vertical motion ) and cold advection ( coincident with downward vertical motion ) is occurring within the lower portions of the troposphere . Areas with small dewpoint depressions and are below freezing indicate the presence of icing conditions for aircraft . The 500 hPa pressure surface can be used as a rough guide for the motion of many tropical cyclones . Shallower tropical cyclones , which have experienced vertical wind shear , tend to be steered by winds at the 700 hPa level . Use of the 300 and 200 hPa constant pressure charts can indicate the strength of systems in the lower troposphere , as stronger systems near the Earth 's surface are reflected as stronger features at these levels of the atmosphere . Isotachs are drawn at these levels , which a lines of equal wind speed . They are helpful in finding maxima and minima in the wind pattern . Minima in the wind pattern aloft are favorable for tropical cyclogenesis . Maxima in the wind pattern at various levels of the atmosphere show locations of jet streams . Areas colder than − 40 ° C ( − 40 ° F ) indicate a lack of significant icing , as long as there is no active thunderstorm activity . = = = Surface weather analysis = = = A surface weather analysis is a type of weather map that depicts positions for high and low @-@ pressure areas , as well as various types of synoptic scale systems such as frontal zones . Isotherms can be drawn on these maps , which are lines of equal temperature . Isotherms are drawn normally as solid lines at a preferred temperature interval . They show temperature gradients , which can be useful in finding fronts , which are on the warm side of large temperature gradients . By plotting the freezing line , isotherms can be useful in determination of precipitation type . Mesoscale boundaries such as tropical cyclones , outflow boundaries and squall lines also are analyzed on surface weather analyses . Isobaric analysis is performed on these maps , which involves the construction of lines of equal mean sea level pressure . The innermost closed lines indicate the positions of relative maxima and minima in the pressure field . The minima are called low @-@ pressure areas while the maxima are called high @-@ pressure areas . Highs are often shown as H 's whereas lows are shown as L 's . Elongated areas of low pressure , or troughs , are sometimes plotted as thick , brown dashed lines down the trough axis . Isobars are commonly used to place surface boundaries from the horse latitudes poleward , while streamline analyses are used in the tropics . A streamline analysis is a series of arrows oriented parallel to wind , showing wind motion within a certain geographic area . C 's depict cyclonic flow or likely areas of low pressure , while A 's depict anticyclonic flow or likely positions of high @-@ pressure areas . An area of confluent streamlines shows the location of shearlines within the tropics and subtropics .
= Tropical Storm Beryl ( 2012 ) = Tropical Storm Beryl was the strongest off @-@ season Atlantic tropical cyclone on record to make landfall in the United States . The second tropical cyclone of the 2012 Atlantic hurricane season , Beryl developed on May 26 from a low @-@ pressure system offshore North Carolina . Initially subtropical , the storm slowly acquired tropical characteristics as it tracked across warmer sea surface temperatures and within an environment of decreasing vertical wind shear . Late on May 27 , Beryl transitioned into a tropical cyclone less than 120 miles ( 190 km ) from North Florida . Early the following day , the storm moved ashore near Jacksonville Beach , Florida , with peak winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . It quickly weakened to a tropical depression , dropping heavy rainfall while moving slowly across the southeastern United States . A cold front turned Beryl to the northeast , and the storm became extratropical on May 30 . The precursor to Beryl produced heavy rainfall in Cuba , causing flooding , mudslides and two deaths . Torrential rain also affected south Florida and the Bahamas . After forming , Beryl produced rough surf along the US southeastern coast , leaving one person from Folly Beach , South Carolina missing . Upon making landfall in Florida , the storm produced strong winds that left 38 @,@ 000 people without power . High rains alleviated drought conditions and put out wildfires along the storm 's path . A fallen tree killed a man driving in Orangeburg County , South Carolina . In northeast North Carolina , Beryl spawned an EF1 tornado that snapped trees and damaged dozens of homes near the city of Peletier . Overall damage was minor , estimated at $ 148 @,@ 000 . = = Meteorological history = = The origins of Beryl were from a trough that developed over the Yucatán Peninsula on May 16 . It drifted eastward into the northwestern Caribbean Sea , spawning a low pressure area on May 18 . For the next three days , it remained nearly stationary without development , until the system became better defined on May 22 when it began moving to the northeast . On May 23 , the elongated low had an area of disorganized convection . While passing over the Cuban Island of Isla de la Juventud , an exposed center of circulation and transient convection was noted due to the effects of high wind shear across the region . The next day , the system moved through the Florida Keys , and the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) noted the potential for increasingly favorable conditions over the next two days . The low became better defined as its cloud pattern consolidated . It moved further into the western Atlantic over the next 24 hours , and a band of convection extended across the Bahamas and Cuba to wrap around the southwestern edge of the circulation . On May 25 , the system interacted with a mid- to upper @-@ level low , causing the center to reform further to the northeast . After the system attained gale @-@ force winds near the center and sufficiently organized convection , the NHC initiated advisories on Subtropical Storm Beryl at 0300 UTC on May 26 , while the cyclone was 305 mi ( 490 km ) east of Charleston , South Carolina . Post @-@ season analysis indicated that Beryl developed three hours prior . Following Beryl 's formation , there was a receding trough over New England that initially created a weak steering environment . Marginally warm waters and dry air were expected to prevent significant intensification , and convection remained minimal through May 26 . Later that day , a building ridge caused Beryl to begin a steady southwest motion . By that time , the low @-@ level center became vertically aligned with the upper @-@ level center . The environment near the storm 's center became moister and the system began to pass over warmer sea surface temperatures , allowing convection to increase . On May 27 , the storm began to transition into a tropical cyclone , which it completed by 1800 UTC that day . As Beryl approached northeastern Florida , it became better organized , with increased convection in bands around the center . Late on May 27 , the Hurricane Hunters observed flight @-@ level winds of 92 mph ( 148 km / h ) , suggesting maximum sustained winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) ; this would be Beryl 's peak intensity . It is possible , however , that Beryl briefly reached hurricane intensity early in the evening of May 27 based on Doppler radar velocities , although the data is inconclusive according to the post @-@ season report . At roughly 0410 UTC on May 28 , the storm made landfall near Jacksonville Beach , Florida , with winds of about 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) after weakening slightly on the final approach . After moving ashore , Beryl quickly weakened to a tropical depression . It slowed due to the weakening ridge to its north , and an approaching cold front turned it to the north and northeast on May 29 . Despite being well inland , Beryl retained enough convection to remain a tropical cyclone . As Beryl approached the Atlantic Ocean on May 30 , its convection increased to the south and east of the center , although the intrusion of dry air resulted in a ragged appearance on satellite imagery . Based on reports from ships , Beryl was upgraded to a tropical storm on May 30 near the South Carolina coastline . The approaching front caused the storm to accelerate northeastward . Beryl 's circulation became elongated and its associated convection spread northward , suggesting the transition into an extratropical cyclone . By late on May 30 , Beryl became extratropical , prompting the NHC to discontinue advisories . The storm continued to the northeast , later turning to the east @-@ southeast . On June 2 , a larger extratropical storm absorbed the remnants of Beryl to the southeast of Newfoundland . = = Preparations , impact , and records = = When Beryl made landfall in Jacksonville Beach , Florida with 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) , it became the strongest tropical cyclone at landfall in the U.S. outside of the official Atlantic hurricane season . Beryl was also the second tropical storm to form before the start of the season , which marked only the fifth such occurrence since records began in 1851 ; the other four occurrences were in 1887 , 1908 , 1951 and 2016 . = = = Cuba and The Bahamas = = = Before becoming a tropical cyclone , Beryl produced heavy rainfall over Cuba , especially Sancti Spíritus Province , where rainfall peaked at 21 @.@ 93 in ( 557 mm ) . The rains caused mudslides and forced more than 8 @,@ 500 people to evacuate their homes . Two people died after trying to cross flooded rivers . Flooding damaged 1 @,@ 109 houses and destroyed 47 others . Although the rains flooded widespread areas of crop fields , the precipitation was beneficial in refilling reservoirs in drought @-@ struck areas of the country . A band of thunderstorms and heavy rainfall moved across The Bahamas and dropped about 9 @.@ 7 in ( 250 mm ) of precipitation in Freeport , Grand Bahama . Low @-@ lying areas in New Providence experienced flooding . Residents reported that a tornado touched down in Murphy Town , Abaco , downing power and telephone lines , overturning vehicles and damaging the roofs of three buildings . Rain from the system also affected the Berry Islands , Abaco , and Bimini , as well as several smaller island groups . = = = Florida = = = Prior to being classified as a tropical cyclone , the precursor to Beryl produced locally heavy rainfall in South Florida , reaching 9 @.@ 7 in ( 250 mm ) at Miami International Airport . The total was the second highest daily rainfall ever recorded in the month of May at the station . The rain caused extensive street flooding , especially in Sweetwater and Doral , stranding drivers and afternoon commuters . Miami Dade College was forced to cancel morning classes on May 23 . When the NHC issued their first advisory , the agency also issued a tropical storm warning from the Brevard / Volusia county line in Florida to Edisto Beach , South Carolina . A tropical storm watch was issued northward to the mouth of the Santee River in South Carolina . A state of emergency was issued in Jacksonville , Florida , causing the early ending of a jazz festival and Memorial Day events . When Beryl moved ashore , airports around Jacksonville canceled all flights except for JetBlue Airways and Delta Air Lines . A teenager died in high seas in Daytona Beach , Florida . High surf and rip currents caused lifeguards in the region to restrict swimming in the ocean . The highest storm surge was 3 @.@ 73 ft ( 1 @.@ 14 m ) at Fernandina Beach . When the storm moved ashore , Beryl produced strong winds along the coast , peaking at 54 mph ( 87 km / h ) at Huguenot Park in Jacksonville ; nearby Buck Island reported a peak wind gust of 72 mph ( 117 km / h ) . The winds prompted the Mathews Bridge and Wonderwood Bridge to close . Toppled power lines left about 38 @,@ 000 residences in Jacksonville without power . In Jacksonville , flash flooding affected areas along Hogans Creek , and waves damaged a seawall and some docks . The waters entered a condominium and three vehicles . Flash flooding covered a portion of U.S. Route 129 in Suwannee County . Damage in Jacksonville was estimated at $ 20 @,@ 000 . South of Jacksonville , the outer circulation of Beryl spawned a short @-@ lived EF0 tornado in Port Saint Lucie that caused minor damage to two homes . Damage from the tornado was estimated at $ 20 @,@ 000 . Another tornado was reported in Yankeetown . Due to its slow motion , Beryl dropped heavy rainfall across Florida , peaking at 15 @.@ 0 in ( 380 mm ) in Wellborn . Just South of Wellborn , a motorcyclist in Taylor County , Florida. was killed when a car hydroplaned on the flooded highway and struck him head @-@ on . First responders noted that it took them 20 minutes to cover the ten miles due to the nonexistent visibility . Gainesville reported 3 @.@ 25 in ( 83 mm ) on May 28 , which broke the previous daily rainfall record . Hernando County Airport broke its daily rainfall record on May 29 with a total of 3 @.@ 65 in ( 93 mm ) , which was also the greatest daily rainfall to date in 2012 . The rains extinguished 80 percent of the 25 wildfires in northern Florida . In Levy County , a waterspout dissipated while moving onshore . The high rains flooded several homes in Citrus County , causing about $ 108 @,@ 000 in damage . = = = Georgia , South Carolina , and North Carolina = = = Hours before the storm moved ashore on May 27 , officials in Cumberland Island , Georgia mandated that all campers evacuate the island . Although the storm made landfall in Florida , its storm surge flooded portions of St. Marys , Georgia . Rainfall in the state peaked at 7 @.@ 04 in ( 179 mm ) at Woodbine . Beryl 's rainfall was beneficial in alleviating drought conditions , despite causing some minor flooding . Wind gusts along the Georgia coastline peaked at 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) at Jekyll Island , and sustained tropical force winds extended into the state . Downed trees damaged two homes in McIntosh County , and in Orangeburg County , South Carolina , a falling tree killed a man driving on a state highway . This was the only direct death due to the storm ; the others were indirectly related . The highest wind gust in South Carolina was 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) in Fort Johnson , although stronger winds occurred just offshore . Rains in the state peaked at 6 @.@ 00 in ( 152 mm ) in Jasper County . High tides in Charleston Harbor sank a boat , forcing the crew to be rescued by the Coast Guard . In Folly Beach , South Carolina , one person went missing after swimming in rough surf , but it was not included in the overall death toll . After Beryl began accelerating to the northeast , it dropped heavy rainfall in the Carolinas , causing isolated flooding near Wilmington , North Carolina . Farther north in Peletier , the storm spawned an EF1 tornado on the Enhanced Fujita scale that damaged 67 homes and destroyed 3 others . Moisture from the storm spread northward into Maryland and West Virginia .
= Battle of Sharon = The Battle of Sharon fought between 19 and 25 September 1918 , began the set piece Battle of Megiddo half a day before the Battle of Nablus , in which large formations engaged and responded to movements by the opposition , according to pre @-@ existing plans , in the last months of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of World War I. The fighting took place over a wide area from the Mediterranean Sea east to the Rafat salient in the Judean Hills . Here the Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) XXI Corps with the French brigade sized Détachment Français de Palestine et de Syrie attacked the Yildirim Army Group Eighth Army 's XXII Corps and German Asia Corps . The Battle of Sharon extended well behind the Ottoman front lines when the Desert Mounted Corps rode through a gap in the front line across the Plain of Sharon to occupy the Esdraelon Plain . Meanwhile , during the Battle of Nablus the XX Corps attacked Nablus while Chaytor 's Force held the right flank in the Jordan Valley before advancing to secure bridges and fords across the Jordan River , to continue the encirclement the defenders in the Judean Hills . Subsequently Chaytor 's Force advanced against the Fourth Army to capture Es Salt and Amman after the Second Battle of Amman . The Battle of Sharon began on 19 September with a Western Front style bombardment during which two thirds of the mainly ground based heavy artillery , supported by the firepower of two destroyers pounded Ottoman positions , while one third of the heavy artillery fired creeping barrages to cover the infantry assaults . The XXI Corps infantry attacked simultaneously along the front line from the Mediterranean coast where the 60th Division , launched an attack on the western coastal section of the front line defended by the Eighth Army 's XXII Corps . During this Battle of Tulkarm the 60th Division breached the front and second line trenches to eventually capture Tulkarm , the site of the Eighth Army headquarters . On their right , the main Tabsor system of trenches held by the Ottoman XXII Corps was attacked and eventually captured during the Battle of Tabsor , by the 3rd ( Lahore ) , 7th ( Meerut ) , and the 75th Divisions . These three divisions subsequently advanced , despite the Ottoman XXII Corps being reinforced , to capture Et Tire and Masudiye Station . In the process of the battles for Tulkarm and Tabsor the 7th ( Meerut ) and 60th Divisions created a gap in the front line , for the Desert Mounted Corps to ride through . They rode north and eastwards to the rear to capture the defending Ottoman armies ' lines of communication . The right flank of the attacking XXI Corps was protected from the Eighth Army 's Asia Corps , by the 54th ( East Anglian ) Division and the French Colonial Détachment Français de Palestine et de Syrie holding and pivoting on the Rafat salient , during the Battle of Arara as the infantry battle progressed . The cavalry phase of the Battle of Sharon began as soon as the gap was made during the infantry attacks . The 5th Cavalry Division led the way north up along the Plain of Sharon followed by the 4th Cavalry Division with the Australian Mounted Division in reserve . These divisions subsequently rode across the Mount Carmel Range through two passes , to occupy the Esdraelon Plain , on 20 September . Here they cut the main Ottoman lines of communication . Units of the 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions converged to capture Afulah with the 4th Cavalry Division capturing Beisan in the afternoon . The Australian Mounted Division captured Jenin along with thousands of prisoners when they captured the main line of retreat from Nablus to Damascus . On 20 September Nazareth , the site of the Ottoman Army 's Yildirim Army Group headquarters , was unsuccessfully attacked by the 5th Cavalry Division . During the Battle of Nazareth the Ottoman Commander in Chief , Otto Liman von Sanders , was forced to escape . The 5th Cavalry Division captured the town the following day and several days later this division also captured Haifa and Acre following the Battle of Haifa . On the last day of the Battle of Sharon , the Australian Mounted Division attacked a German reinforced rearguard garrison at Samakh , which had been put on the alert by Liman von Sanders during his escape from Nazareth . The Australian Light Horse victory at the Battle of Samakh and the subsequent Capture of Tiberias ended the Battle of Sharon and the Battle of Megiddo . As a result of the battles of Sharon and Nablus , known collectively as the Battle of Megiddo , much territory and many prisoners were captured . The Final Offensive of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign began the day after the Battle of Megiddo ended , with the pursuit to Damascus , which was captured on 1 October . = = Background = = After the series of Central Powers defeats in Palestine at the end of 1917 , at Beersheba , at Gaza , at Mughar Ridge , and with the loss of large areas of southern Palestine during the subsequent retreats of the Seventh and Eighth Armies back into the Judean Hills , and following the loss of Jerusalem , several of the German and Ottoman army commanders in the region were replaced . General Erich von Falkenhayn commanding the Yildirim Army Group was replaced by General Otto Liman von Sanders and Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein , commander of the Eighth Army was replaced by Djevad Pasha . Cemal Pasha appointed Cemal Kucjuk Pasha to command the Fourth Army . The commander of the Seventh Army , Mustafa Kemal who had previously resigned his command , was reinstated early in September 1918 . The focus of the Ottoman Army 's war effort in 1918 turned from Palestine to Anatolia , to the provinces and territories lost by their empire between 1877 and 1878 during the Russo @-@ Turkish War . This change of direction was heavily influenced by the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk , signed in March 1918 which ended the war on the Eastern Front between Imperial Russia and the Central Powers . As a result , the Ottoman Army embarked on a series of territorial conquests in the Caucasus . Erzerum , which had been captured by the Russians during the Erzerum Offensive in 1916 , was retaken on 24 March 1918 , followed by Van on 5 April and later Batum , Kars and Tiflis . The reoccupation of these former Ottoman possessions , however , brought little strategic advantage , compared with the potential benefits of military success in Palestine . Also in March 1918 , major offensive operations in Palestine became a low priority for the British Army when the spectacular successes of Erich Ludendorff 's Spring Offensive in France seriously threatened the British Expeditionary Force . By July , it had become clear that this German offensive on the Western Front , had failed . In August , a brief return to the battle of attrition in the trenches ensued until the Hundred Days Offensive , coinciding with preparations for a renewal of the campaign in Palestine , began in August . General Edmund Allenby was " very anxious to make a move in September " when he expected to overrun the German and Ottoman front line , capture the headquarters of the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies at Nablus and Tulkarm , advance to the Wadi el Fara road , and capture Jisr ed Damieh and Es Salt . In addition to defeating the enemy and capturing a large area of their territory , Allenby had an ulterior motive : " Another reason for moving to this line is that it will encourage both my own new Indian troops and my Arab Allies . " Before the Spring Offensive on the Western Front began , the War Office had decided to substitute British units in the EEF with British Indian Army units . The relieved British units were to be retained in Egypt as reinforcements . When the Spring Offensive was launched these British units were quickly redeployed to the Western Front . = = = Battlefield = = = By September 1918 the front line was being held by EEF infantry from close to sea level on the Mediterranean coast , about 12 miles ( 19 km ) north of Jaffa and Arsuf . From this point , the line extended in the XXI Corps area about 15 miles ( 24 km ) south @-@ eastward across the Plain of Sharon , before rising up to a height of 1 @,@ 500 – 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 460 – 610 m ) above sea level in the Judean Hills for about 15 miles ( 24 km ) , into the XX Corps ' battle of Nablus area . From this height the front line dropped precipitously down to 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) below sea level , into the area patrolled by infantry and mounted infantry in Chaytor 's Force . Here the line crossed the Jordan Valley in the Third Transjordan attack area , for approximately 18 miles ( 29 km ) , ending east of the Dead Sea in the foothills of the Mountains of Gilead / Moab . The Seventh and Eighth Armies Ottoman defenders were supplied by two railways which crisscrossed the battlefield . A railway ran from Haifa on the Mediterranean coast to join the main railway from Istanbul to Deraa , which crossed the Jordan River before passing Beisan to enter the Judean Hills at Jenin . There were also good roads from Haifa and Damascus , via Nazareth and Jenin . From Deraa the extensive railway network , branched into two lines . The southern line known as the Hejaz railway continued east of the Jordan River to supply the Ottoman Fourth Army headquarters at Amman , the garrisons at Shunet Nimrin and Es Salt and the forces scattered along several hundred miles of the southern Hejaz railway . The western line known as the Palestine Railways crossed the Jordan River at Jisr Mejamie to become the Jezreel Valley railway , as it ran southwards down the west bank of the Jordan River to Beisan , on the western edge of the Esdrealon Plain . From there it turned westward to run parallel to the front line in the Judean Hills , to Afulah . Here the railway branched again into two lines , one line running north – westerly to Haifa on the Mediterranean coast , while the main line turned south across the Esdrealon Plan to Jenin . From Jenin the railway wound through a narrow pass in the foothills to climb to Messudieh Junction in the Judean Hills where it again branched . One line continued south – eastward to Nablus the Seventh Army headquarters , located on the main road to Jenin , Nazareth and Damascus , while the second line ran westward to Tulkarm and the Eighth Army headquarters before turning south to reach railhead behind the Eighth Army ' front line on the coastal plain . The advance by the Desert Mounted Corps ' cavalry would take them north on the coastal Plain of Sharon and across the Mount Carmel Range . This rugged mountain range , approximately 7 miles ( 11 km ) wide , stretching northward from the Judean Hills to end just to the south of Haifa , could be crossed by the mounted force through two passes . The northern pass linked the Plain of Sharon via Abu Shuheh to arrive on the Esdrealon Plain south – east of Nazareth , while the southern pass linked the coast via Musmus to arrive at Megiddo on the plain . However , the mountainous terrain made the passes easily defended by a relatively small force which would be hard to capture . If the cavalry encountered such defences in these passes , a protracted campaign would require another large infantry attack . The quick occupation of the Esdraelon Plain , 40 miles ( 64 km ) behind the Ottoman front line , would place Desert Mounted Corps in the rear of the two Ottoman armies fighting in the Judean Hills and in control of their lines of communication . The EEF cavalry would then be in a position to quickly control three lowland areas forming a semicircle around the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies in the Judean Hills , from the Plain of Sharon , across the Esdrealon Plain to the Jordan Valley . They would then control the important Ottoman communications hubs at Afulah and Beisan . = = Prelude = = = = = Attacking force = = = The XXI Corps commanded by the British Lieutenant General Edward S. Bulfin consisted of the 3rd ( Lahore ) , 7th ( Meerut ) , 54th ( East Anglian ) , 60th and 75th Divisions with the Détachment Français de Palestine et de Syrie . These units were supported by Corps Troops ' Composite Regiment ( one squadron Duke of Lancashire Yeomanry and two squadrons of 1 / 1st Herts . Yeomanry ) and the artillery of the XCV , XCVI , 100th , and 102nd Brigades RGA , and the VIII and IX Mountain Brigades RGA . The Desert Mounted Corps commanded by the Australian Lieutenant General Henry Chauvel , consisted of the 4th and 5th Cavalry and the Australian Mounted Divisions . Armoured car support was provided by Nos. 11 and 12 Light Armoured Motor Batteries and Nos. 1 and 7 Light Car Patrols from the Machine Gun Corps . A total of 54 @,@ 800 beds were set aside in Palestine and Egypt , including convalescence and clearing hospitals . There were 22 @,@ 524 hospital beds available in Egypt . A hospital centre in the Deir el Belah and Gaza area along with stationary hospitals between Kantara and Ludd , could accommodate another 15 @,@ 000 casualties . By August , casualty clearing stations or clearing hospitals were located at Ludd , Jaffa and Jerusalem , supported by medical stores depots at Ludd and Jerusalem . However , the Australian Stationary Hospital at Moascar only had a few beds available . No. 14 Australian General Hospital on the Suez Canal was full of malaria cases from the Jordan Valley with the overflow being treated in the No. 31 British General Hospital at Abbassia , Cairo . = = = = Aircraft = = = = On 18 September , the Royal Air Force 's 5th ( Corps ) Wing , and the 40th ( Army ) Wing , both headquartered at Ramle , were deployed to the area . They were responsible for cooperation with artillery and contact patrols , tactical and strategic reconnaissance , photography , escorts , offensive patrols and bombing operations . No. 1 Squadron Australian Flying Corps ( AFC ) , No. 111 Squadron RAF and a flight of No. 145 Squadron RAF , were based at Ramle , and No. 144 Squadron RAF was based at Junction Station . Tactical reconnaissance up to 10 @,@ 000 yards ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) in advance of the XXI Corps was provided by corps squadrons . No. 113 Squadron RAF along with No. 21 Balloon Company were also assigned to XXI Corps , operating out of Sarona . No. 142 Squadron RAF ( less one flight ) assigned to the Desert Mounted Corps was also based at Sarona . The Bristol F.2 Fighters in No. 1 Squadron ( AFC ) were to carry out bombing and strategic reconnaissance , as well as providing general oversight of the battlefield and reporting developments . Nos. 111 and 145 Squadrons of S.E.5.a aircraft were to conduct day @-@ long patrols over the main Jenin aerodrome , bombing and machine gunning all targets in the area to prevent any aircraft leaving the aerodrome . No. 144 Squadron , consisting of Airco DH.9 biplane bombers , were to bomb the Afulah telephone exchange and railway station , and the Messudieh Junction railway lines as well as the Ottoman Seventh Army headquarters and telephone exchange at Nablus . The newly arrived Handley – Page O @-@ 400 heavy bomber ( armed with 16 112 @-@ pound ( 51 kg ) bombs ) and piloted by Australian Ross Smith was to support No. 144 Squadron 's bombing of Afulah . = = = = EEF deployment = = = = On the first quarter of the front line , stretching from the Mediterranean some 15 miles ( 24 km ) inland , 35 @,@ 000 infantry , 9 @,@ 000 cavalry and 383 guns were preparing for the attack . The remaining three quarters of the front line across the Judean Hills to the Dead Sea , was covered by 22 @,@ 000 infantry , 3 @,@ 000 cavalry and 157 artillery guns . The XXI Corps was deployed without a corps reserve . The 60th Division was positioned on the coast with the 7th ( Meerut ) Division on their right , then the 75th Division with the longest frontage , was followed by the 3rd ( Lahore ) Division . On their right , at the eastern end of the XXI Corps and the Battle of Sharon 's front line in the Judean Hills , the 54th ( East Anglian ) Division with the Détachment Français de Palestine et de Syrie , held the Rafat salient . The final deployment by XXI Corps was made during 35 minutes of darkness , between the moon setting and dawn on 19 September , when each division took up a position at right angles to the direction of their frontal attack . They were deployed across a distance of about 10 miles ( 16 km ) , leaving stretches of the front line which did not favour a frontal attack , uncovered . Altogether , these stretches amounted to about 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) . The sections of the front line which were not part of the initial attack , were to be captured as the attack developed . This would occur during a planned right flanking movement , which aimed to bring all the divisions together and any enemy caught behind would be cut off . Desert Mounted Corps ' 5th Cavalry Division which was to lead the corps advance , was concentrated north @-@ west of Sarona , 8 miles ( 13 km ) from the front , with the 4th Cavalry Division waiting in orange groves east of Sarona , 10 miles ( 16 km ) from the front . The Australian Mounted Division was located near Ramle and Ludd ( Lydda ) 17 miles ( 27 km ) from the front line . These divisions and their horses were camouflaged from aircraft , in olive and orange groves , where the irrigation channels were used to water the horses . James Calderwood Jones with the Lowland Brigade , Royal Field Artillery Ammunition Column , described the scene at 21 : 00 on 18 September 1918 in his diary : " What a mass of horses & transport . Stand – to all night , lie down with our equipment on ... horses being hooked – up to the wagons . " All movement had been restricted to nighttime , culminating in a general move forward on the night of 18 / 19 September . " The night ... was fine and still . " The 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions were close behind the infantry , while the Australian Mounted Division moved up to Sarona . Desert Mounted Corps concentrated , with their supplies being carried in massed horse – drawn transport and on endless strings of camels , clogging every road . The light horsemen " loaded their horses with three days ' food , rations an extra water bottle slung on the saddle , and extra bandolier around the horse 's neck ... the 4 kilograms weight of .303 rifle ... [ in ] its bucket close behind the right hand . " " All surplus equipment had been discarded in huge dumps " . = = = = Plan of attack = = = = The Ottoman front line was to be breached quickly by massed infantry in overwhelming strength , supported by the greatest possible weight of artillery at the point in the line where the gap was to be made , while other sections of the front line would be lightly held . After the successful infantry breakthrough , the mass of cavalry would quickly move northwards , avoiding contact so as to reach the rear with as strong a force as possible . The cavalry was to enter the Esdraelon Plain , 50 miles ( 80 km ) to the north , behind the Judean Hills , where reconnaissance had reported an absence of major defensive works . " Concentration , surprise , and speed were key elements in the blitzkrieg warfare planned by Allenby . " Success depended on Making the infantry attack in terrain which favoured the attack and the movement of large mounted formations around the battlefield Sufficiently intense and creeping artillery barrages to cover the concentrated infantry attacks , Destroying or dominating German aircraft to stop reconnaissances revealing the weak sections of the front line and alerting Liman von Sanders to the approaching cavalry , Holding the territory captured by the infantry and cavalry corps which would be dependent on rations more than 50 miles ( 80 km ) from their supply bases , Deception in the Jordan Valley disguised the move of Desert Mounted Corps from the valley to the coast . Rumours included a race meeting planned for the first day of battle . Tactical improvements in the British artillery and infantry attack . On a tactical level , Allenby 's battle plans were similar except for the use of horses instead of tanks , to the British Fourth Army 's attack on the Western Front during the Battle of Amiens six weeks before the Battle of Megiddo . The similarities include Before both battles , the uneven deployments were kept secret by controlling aerial reconnaissance through British air superiority . The initial attacks at Megiddo and Amiens were by infantry divisions deployed two brigades abreast , with a third in reserve . Both battles began within ten minutes of each other at 04 : 20 and 04 : 30 , when two thirds of the heavy artillery engaged in counter @-@ battery work . At the same time a carefully coordinated short artillery barrage by the remaining one third of the available heavy artillery , " lifted and shifted , " to the enemy 's rear to accommodate the forward movement of the assaulting infantry . At both battles , as the infantry attacks developed they bypassed and isolated strong points . At Amiens , about 400 tanks supported the Fourth Army 's advance of about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) when they broke three German trench lines , killing or wounding 9 @,@ 000 Germans and capturing over 15 @,@ 000 prisoners and 374 guns . At Megiddo between 19 and 22 September , Chauvel 's Desert Mounted Corps cavalry exploited the infantry 's success , advancing 65 miles ( 105 km ) . Both the infantry and cavalry corps captured " at least 25 @,@ 000 prisoners and 260 guns . " The Desert Mounted Corps advance , " without the presence of a single tank was to bear a closer relationship to the Blitzkrieg than either Amiens or Cambrai " . Aircraft were also an integral part of the battle plan laid out in Force Order No. 68 when instructions were issued separately . = = = Defending force = = = By August 1918 , the Yildirim Army Group 's 40 @,@ 598 front line infantrymen were organised into twelve divisions . They were deployed on a 90 kilometres ( 56 mi ) long front line armed with 19 @,@ 819 rifles , 273 light and 696 heavy machine guns . The high number of machine guns reflected the Ottoman Army 's new tables of organization , and the high machine gun component of the German Asia Corps . The Eighth Army 's 10 @,@ 000 soldiers were commanded by Cevat Çobanlı . With headquarters at Tulkarm , this force was organised into two corps . The XXII Corps commanded by Colonel Refet Bey consisted of the 7th , 20th and 46th Infantry Divisions . The Asia Corps , also known as the " Left Wing Group " commanded by German Colonel Gustav von Oppen , consisted of the 16th and 19th Infantry Divisions and three German battalion groups from the German Pasha II Brigade . The Eighth Army , supported by 157 artillery guns held a line from the Mediterranean coast just north of Arsuf to Furkhah in the Judean Hills . The 2nd Caucasian Cavalry Division was available for reserve duty at the operational level in the Eighth Army area . = = = = Ottoman deployment = = = = Two infantry divisions in the XXII Corps held the shortest frontages of the entire Yildirim Army Group . The 7th Division covered the first 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) of trenches from the Mediterranean coast . On their left , the 20th Infantry Division covered 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) of trenches which was the doctrinal template laid down by contemporary Ottoman tactics . The 19th Infantry Division ( Asia Corps ) on their left , covered 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) , of trenches further inland . In Eighth Army reserve , the 46th Division ( XXII Corps ) was located 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) behind the front line . These divisions facing the EEF 's XXI Corps , were highly regarded veteran Ottoman Army formations . The 7th and 19th Infantry Divisions , had fought with distinction during the Gallipoli Campaign as part of Esat Pasa 's III Corps . The 20th Infantry Division was also a highly regarded regular army division raised and stationed in Palestine . Sometimes referred to as an ' Arab ' division , it had fought in the latter phases of the Gallipoli Campaign and had served for a year in Galicia on the Eastern Front fighting Imperial Russia . The adjacent Seventh Army of 7 @,@ 000 soldiers commanded by General Mustafa Kemal Pasa , was headquartered at Nablus . It was made up of the III Corps ' 1st and 11th Infantry Divisions and the XXIII Corps ' 26th and 53rd Infantry Divisions , supported by 111 guns . The Seventh Army held the line in the Judean Hills from Furkhah eastwards towards the Jordan Valley in the Battle of Nablus sector , against the XX Corps ' two divisions commanded by Lieutenant General Philip Chetwode . = = = = Other views of this force = = = = The Ottoman armies were under strength , overstretched , " haemorrhaging " deserters , suffering greatly from strained lines of communication , and were overwhelmingly outnumbered by a factor of two to one , by the EEF . Their supply system was so bad in February 1918 , that the normal daily ration for the Yildirim Army Group in Palestine consisted of 125 grains ( 0 @.@ 29 oz ) of bread and boiled beans three times a day , without oil or any other condiment . The fighting strength of the three Ottoman Armies ' ( including the Fourth Army deployed east to the Jordan River in the Third Transjordan attack area ) has been estimated at 26 @,@ 000 infantry , 2 @,@ 000 mounted troops and 372 artillery guns . The nine infantry battalions in Asia Corps ' 16th Infantry Division , had effective strengths equal to a British infantry company of between 100 and 250 men . While 150 to 200 men were " assigned " to the Asia Corps ' 19th Infantry Division battalions , which had had between 500 and 600 men at Beersheba . On the 15 miles ( 24 km ) line stretching inland from the Mediterranean Sea where Allenby deployed 35 @,@ 000 infantry , 9 @,@ 000 cavalry and 383 guns they faced " only 8 @,@ 000 infantry with 130 guns " . The defenders were deployed in a rectangle 45 miles ( 72 km ) in length and 12 miles ( 19 km ) in depth , with Afulah and Beisan 45 and 60 miles ( 72 and 97 km ) respectively , from Allenby 's front line . A single trench system was relied on for defence . This inflexible defence meant that " every inch of ground had to be fought for when a more flexible system would have better suited the situation . " " [ A ] t the point where Allenby struck the Turks themselves achieved a fair degree of concentration of their scant resources ... [ but ] there was no secondary lines of defence nor were there any fall – back positions in the event of a retreat . The Yildirim army intended to fight it out or die . " = = = = Deception issue = = = = Despite the lack of aerial reconnaissance , Liman von Sanders had fairly accurate knowledge on 17 September 1918 , regarding the forces deployed against his Fourth , Seventh and Eighth Armies . He understood there to be five infantry divisions and a French detachment facing the Eighth Army with another two divisions facing the Seventh Army and two mounted divisions facing the Fourth Army . Liman von Sanders was not surprised by the strength and location of the attack . He shifted all his available reserves and reinforcements to the west , not to the east . The strategically vital coastal plain was the most strongly defended sector of the front line . Here Liman von Sanders deployed his most experienced infantry divisions supported by heavy artillery . The position of the Yildirim Army Group 's heavy artillery , which should have moved eastwards if Allenby 's deception plan had worked , did not change . They remained primarily in the Eighth Army sector . " [ T ] hree of five Ottoman Army heavy artillery batteries ( the 72nd , 73rd and 75th ) available in Palestine were deployed in the Eighth Army sector . The remaining two heavy artillery ... [ batteries ] were assigned to the adjacent Seventh Army . Significantly , no Ottoman heavy artillery ... [ batteries ] were positioned on the Jordan River front , although an Austrian heavy artillery battery served there . " If Allenby 's deception plan had been effective " Ottoman reserves should have been drawn to the Jordan River front ; in fact , exactly the reverse happened , " when Liman von Sander sent his only reinforcement , the 2nd Caucasian Cavalry Division to support the Eight Army . This division began arriving near Tulkarm on 16 September and the 46th Infantry Division , in reserve near the Eighth Army 's headquarters at Tulkarm moved 13 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) to the south – west on 17 September to a new reserve position at Et Tire , to reinforce the XXII Corps holding the coastal sector . Further , " regiments on the front line were alerted that a major attack was imminent . " It was not surprise as a result of a successful deception which caused the front line to break during the infantry attacks , but a failure to have sufficient reserves available to mount effective counterattacks . The loss of " situational awareness caused by the breakdown in communications , " was complicated by a change in the " organisational architecture " of the infantry divisions , when assault battalions were added . = = Battle = = = = = Preliminary attacks = = = Deraa was attacked on 16 and 17 September by RAF aircraft when sections of the railway to the north and west of the Deraa junction were bombed . The railway south of Deraa was attacked on 17 September by a Sherifial Arab Column supported by British armoured cars and a French mountain battery . They left Qasr el ' Azraq 50 miles ( 80 km ) east of Amman to destroying a bridge and a section of the rail line . By 23 September communications to the west , between Deraa and Samakh and also to the north of Deraa , had been restored . On the E. of Jordan , the Arabs and the Druses are up ; and they have cut the Hedjaz railway , N.S. , and W. of Deraa . Deraa is the junction , where the railway into Palestine leaves the Damascus – Medina line ; so , Liman von Sanders has lost his only railway communications with the outer world . I really don 't know what he can do ; and I am beginning to think that we may have a very great success . The weather is perfect ; not too hot , and very clear . In the Judean Hills a preliminary attack took place in the Battle of Nablus section of the front line on 18 September . The 53rd Division ( XX Corps ) attempted to capture the Samieh basin , which overlooked an Ottoman road system near the front line . This section of the front line was required as quickly as possible , so that a linking road could be construction , to connect the EEF and Ottoman road systems . While some objectives were captured during 18 September , the main position known to the British as " Nairn Ridge , " remained in Ottoman hands until late in the afternoon of 19 September . ( See Battle of Nablus ( 1918 ) # Preliminary attack for a full description of this operation . ) = = = Bombardment = = = The infantry will advance to the assault under an artillery barrage which will be put down at the hour at which the infantry leave their positions of deployment . This hour will be known as the ' XXI Corps Zero Hour . ' There will be no preliminary bombardment . The artillery bombardment began the battle at 04 : 30 on 19 September , with trench mortars and machine guns , firing at the German and Ottoman front line and second line trenches . Three siege batteries targeted opposing batteries , while the destroyers HMS Druid and HMS Forester opened fire on the trenches on the coast , north of the Nahr el Faliq . The guns fired a half @-@ hour @-@ long bombardment , deployed one to every 50 yards ( 46 m ) of front . This concentrated fire resembled a Western Front style bombardment , where more heavy guns would normally be deployed with one gun placed every 10 yards ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) . In preparation for the bombardment the artillery was organised by weight and targets . Heavy artillery was aimed at enemy batteries , with some guns and howitzers shelling headquarters and telephone exchanges beyond the range of the field artillery , as well as places where the infantry advance was held up . One 6 @-@ inch Mark VII gun , three batteries of siege howitzers , and two 60 @-@ pounder batteries were able , without moving forward , to fire on the line from Et Tire to the sea . They could be reinforced by one siege battery and one heavy battery , which would be able to fire on the line Et Tire to the sea within two hours of moving forward , while one siege and one heavy battery were held in reserve . The field artillery targeted the German and Ottoman front line until the EEF infantry approached , when the 18 – pounders and the Royal Horse Artillery 's 13 @-@ pounder batteries , lifted to form a creeping barrage in front of the advancing troops , eventually extending out to their extreme range . This creeping barrage lifted and moved forward at a rate of 50 yards ( 46 m ) , 75 yards ( 69 m ) and 100 yards ( 91 m ) per minute in front of the advancing infantry . The 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch howitzers fired on targets beyond the barrage , augmented by the guns of the two destroyers , firing from the Mediterranean Sea . When the bombardment began , the artillery range was 4 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) and by 08 : 00 , it had been extended out to 15 @,@ 000 yards ( 14 @,@ 000 m ) . As no attempt at systematic wire @-@ cutting was made by the artillery , the leading soldiers either cut it by hand or carried some means of crossing it . = = = XXI Corps attacks = = = = = = = Ottoman front line breached = = = = By the evening of 18 September commander Major General J. S. M. Shea 's 60th Division ( XXI Corps ) was deployed with the 180th Brigade in front , ready to attack near the coast with the 181st Brigade in support some 16 miles ( 26 km ) from their objective of Tulkarm . The 179th Brigade was in reserve . The recently formed 5th Light Horse Brigade attached to the 60th Division from Desert Mounted Corps , was deployed behind the 7th ( Meerut ) Division ( XXI Corps ) with orders to advance directly on Tulkarm and capture the town . By 07 : 20 on 19 September the 180th Brigade had captured the front line defences and about 600 prisoners , one company establishing a bridgehead across the mouth of the Nahr el Faliq 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) behind the Ottoman front line . In the process they created a gap for Desert Mounted Corps to advance northwards . The infantry division then turned north @-@ east towards Tulkarm and the Eighth Army headquarters , with the 5th Light Horse Brigade covering the right flank . When this brigade circled around to cut the Tulkarm to Nablus Road from the north , they captured over 2 @,@ 000 prisoners and some guns . The 181st Brigade marching from the south , captured the town at 17 : 00 along with 800 prisoners . = = = = Attack on the Tabsor defences = = = = The Tabsor defences consisted of the only continuous trench and redoubt system on this front . Here , the defenders had dug two or three lines of trenches and redoubts , varying in depth from 1 – 3 miles ( 1 @.@ 6 – 4 @.@ 8 km ) . These trenchers were centered on the Tabsor village , and stretched from Jaljulye in the east through Tabsor to the coast . Another less well developed system of defences was located 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) behind . There was also the beginnings of a third system of defences stretching from Tulkarm across the Plain of Sharon to the Nahr Iskanderun . The objectives of the 3rd ( Lahore ) , 7th ( Meerut ) and 75th Divisions were to assault the first line defences and then to advance to attack the second line which ran from Jiljulieh to Kalkilieh , before advancing to capture Et Tire . The 75th Division had captured Et Tire by 11 : 00 on 19 September and the 7th ( Meerut ) Division captured Taiyibe by 18 : 00 . The 3rd ( Lahore ) Division captured Jaljulye , the railway redoubt and Qalqilye . By then the Ottoman 7th and 20th Divisions had been reduced to small groups of survivors conducting a fighting retreat . On 20 September the 3rd ( Lahore ) Division captured ' Azzun , Jinsafut and by 15 : 10 were north of Qary Hajja , while the 7th ( Meerut ) Division captured Beit Lid at 18 : 15 after a hard fought day @-@ long battle . On 21 September the 7th ( Meerut ) Division captured Masudiye Station before advancing towards Sebustiye while the 3rd ( Lahore ) Division advanced to Rafidia , 200 yards ( 180 m ) west of Nablus . By this time the Seventh and Eighth Armies were in full retreat . = = = = Attack in the Judean Hills = = = = Beyond a wide gap of open plain which did not favour a frontal attack , and on the extreme right of the XXI Corps , the 54th ( East Anglian ) Division attacked northwards with the 7th Battalion , 1st Tirailleurs Algériens , 9th Battalion , 2nd Tirailleurs Algériens , 1st and 2nd Battalions Arméniens of the Détachment Français de Palestine et de Syrie ( also known as the French contingent or the French detachment ) on their right . This force secured the right flank , pivoting to cover the infantry divisions as they advanced towards Tulkarm and Tabsor . All objectives were won despite these British and French units fighting against the German Asia Corps ( Eighth Army ) also known as the Left Wing Group which included three German battalions from Pasha II . On their right the Battle of Nablus was being fought . Here the XX Corps ' 10th and 53rd Divisions were supported by Corps Troops ' 1 / 1st Worcester Yeomanry , the XCVII Brigade RGA , the 103rd Brigade RGA , the 39th Indian Mountain Battery , and the Hong Kong and Singapore Mountain Battery were opposed by the Seventh Army . This subsidiary battle began at 19 : 45 in the evening of 19 September after the Nairn Ridge was captured . When the sun appeared the noise of the field guns in front of my point of observation had to a large extent stopped . The field @-@ artillery batteries were moving forward , and that fact alone was sufficient to indicate that the whole line had been carried in one grand impetuous rush , and that the day was ours . The intensity of the infantry battle varied considerably along the line . On the coast , the 60th Division made rapid progress advancing some 7 @,@ 000 yards ( 6 @,@ 400 m ) in two and a half hours , while the attached 5th Light Horse Brigade protecting their right flank , rode north – east towards Tulkarm . By the end of the day , the 60th Division had captured Tulkarm , after a march of 17 miles ( 27 km ) . On the right the 75th Division fought its way towards the Tabsor defences and Et Tire which they captured , while the 7th ( Meerut ) Division , on the 75th Division 's right , advanced further north of Et Tire , before turning to attack the western Tabsor defences . The 3rd ( Lahore ) Division , on the right of the 7th ( Meerut ) Division , advanced rapidly to capture the first line of defences between Bir Adas and the Hadrah road , before turning eastwards to make a flank attack on Jiljulieh and Kalkilieh defences . Meanwhile , the 54th ( East Anglian ) Division , on the right of the 3rd ( Lahore ) Division , with the Détachment Français de Palestine et de Syrie on its left , pivoted to cover the right flank of the 60th , 75th , 7th and 3rd Divisions ' advances , despite being strongly opposed . During the first 36 hours of the Battle of Sharon between 04 : 30 on 19 September and 17 : 00 on 20 September , the EEF infantry continued fighting and marching forward , forcing the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies in the Judean Hills to retreat . The Eighth Ottoman Army virtually ceased to exist , excepting its Asia Corps , which together with the Seventh Ottoman Army was still in the Judean Hills between Nablus and Beisan , having lost most of their transport . The XXI Corps continued their advanced north – east to drive the enemy into and through the foothills towards Messudieh Junction , and then down the road to Jenin where they were captured by Australian light horse during the night of 20 September . By 24 : 00 on 20 September the front of the XXI Corps described a virtual straight line , stretching from the Détachment Français de Palestine et de Syrie at Rafat to the northwest , to Tulkarm . The 54th ( East Anglian ) Division held Bidya , Kh . Kefar Thilth and Azzun through Jiyus . On their left the 3rd ( Lahore ) Division was at Felamiye with the 7th ( Meerut ) Division at Et Taiyibe , Irta . They had taken the village of Beit Lid and controlled the cross roads at Deir Sheraf , while the 60th Division was at Tulkarm and Anebta with the 5th Light Horse Brigade across the railway line to the south of Arrabe . At this time the 75th Division came into XXI Corps reserve at Et Tire . During these two days of fighting , the XXI Corps suffered casualties of 3 @,@ 378 including 446 killed . They killed or wounded 3 @,@ 000 enemy combatants , captured 12 @,@ 000 prisoners , 149 guns and vast quantities of ammunition and transport . Motor ambulances of the 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions helped transport the wounded in the Tulkarm area , before rejoining their divisions on the Esdrealon Plain , on 22 September . = = = Desert Mounted Corps attacks = = = The objectives of Desert Mounted Corps were to advance to the north of the Nahr Iskanderune to the Tulkarm to Haifa road , between Qaqun and Liktera , to protect the left flank of the XXI Corps . Subsequently they were to advance across the Mount Carmel Range , occupy the Esdrealon Plain and capture Afulah and Nazareth . Their successful advance would give Desert Mounted Corps control of the Ottoman lines of communications . By 10 : 00 on 19 September , the Desert Mounted Corps ' 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions , followed by the Australian Mounted Division had advanced through the gap created by infantry , and were riding north over the Plain of Sharon . Chauvel commanding Desert Mounted Corps , ordered the 5th Cavalry Division to cross the Mount Carmel Range by the more northerly track from Sindiane to Abu Shusheh , while the 4th Cavalry Division followed by the Australian Mounted Division , rode through the southerly Musmus Pass . On reaching the Esdraelon Plain on the morning of 20 September , the 5th Cavalry Division was ordered to attack Nazareth and capture the Commander in Chief of Yildirim Army Group , Liman von Sanders and his headquarters 70 miles ( 110 km ) away . This division was to then clear the plain to Afulah , while the 4th Cavalry Division 's objective was to capture Afulah . Subsequently the 4th Cavalry Division were ordered to advance across the Esdrelon Plain to occupy Beisan on the eastern edge of the plain and capture the bridges to the north which crossed the Jordan River . The division was to hold or destroy the Jisr Mejamieh bridge 12 miles ( 19 km ) north of Beisan , and 97 miles ( 156 km ) from their starting point . The Australian Mounted Division ( less the 5th Light Horse Brigade ) was ordered to send the 3rd Light Horse Brigade to capture Jenin on the main line of retreat from the Judean Hills , 68 miles ( 109 km ) from their starting point , while the 4th Light Horse Brigade garrisoned El Lejjun ( also known as Megiddo ) and carried out various escort and guard duties . Between 1 and 30 September 1918 Desert Mounted Corps suffered 125 killed and 408 wounded or missing . = = = = 5th Cavalry Division = = = = Because of the condition of the northerly pass it was decided to leave divisional artillery to follow in the morning , guarded by the 15th ( Imperial Service ) Cavalry Brigade . So it was that only the 13th and 14th Cavalry Brigades of the 5th Cavalry Division which entered the Esdrealon Plain on the morning of 20 September . Despite orders to the contrary , the 14th Cavalry Brigade advanced directly towards Afulah , the objective of the 4th Cavalry Division . Only the 13th Cavalry Brigade was therefore available to attack 5th Cavalry Division 's objective at Nazareth . This brigade was not sufficiently strong to capture the town and the Yildirim Army Group headquarters and Liman von Sanders escaped . The next day , after the German and Ottoman garrison had retreated , Nazareth was occupied by the 13th Cavalry Brigade . Subsequently Chauvel ordered the 5th Cavalry Division to capture Haifa and Acre 12 miles ( 19 km ) away . As the 18th Lancers ( 13th Cavalry Brigade ) advanced towards Acre shortly after midnight on 21 / 22 September they were attacked by an Ottoman battalion which was routed . On 22 September the Haifa Annexation Expedition was stopped by a strong rearguard with machine guns and supported by effectively positioned artillery controlling the approach road to Haifa . On 23 September , after a successful cavalry charge , the strong Ottoman rearguard position was captured by the Jodhpur and Mysore Imperial Service Lancer Regiments ( 15th Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade ) , with a squadron of 1 / 1st Sherwood Rangers Yeomanry ( 14th Cavalry Brigade ) attached . Together the Jodhpur and Mysore Lancers captured 1 @,@ 350 German and Ottoman prisoners . = = = = 4th Cavalry Division = = = = The 4th Cavalry Division following the 5th Division , rode up the Plain of Sharon as far as Nahr el Mefjir . Here the division attacked and captured an entrenched Ottoman defensive position , which stretched from Jelameh , through El Mejdel and Liktera to the sea near the mouth of the Nahr el Mefjir . Afterwards , the 2nd Lancers ( 10th Cavalry Brigade ) led by the 11th Light Armoured Motor Battery , entered the Musmus Pass and crossed the Mount Carmel Range to El Lejjun during the night of 19 / 20 September . They continued their advance in the early morning of 20 September , to capture Afulah , in the center of the Plain . Leaving the 5th Cavalry Division to garrison Afulah , the 4th Cavalry Division continued their advance eastwards in the afternoon to capture Beisan , having ridden 85 miles ( 137 km ) in 36 hours . The 19th Lancers ( 12th Cavalry Brigade ) advanced directly from Afulah to the north east to capture the Jisr Mejamieh bridge across the Jordan River to the north of Beisan . On 20 September Allenby wrote : This morning my cavalry occupied Afuleh , and pushed thence rapidly south – eastwards , entered Beisan this evening , thus closing to the enemy his last line of escape ... The same bombing of fugitives , on crowded roads , continues today . I think I ought to capture all the Turks ' guns and the bulk of his Army . ... My losses are not heavy , in proportion to the results gained . I hope to motor out , tomorrow , to see the Cavalry in Esdraelon . The Cavalry Headquarters are at Armageddon , at the present moment . An aerial reconnaissance reported a gap of about 20 miles ( 32 km ) of unguarded Jordan River crossings , north from the Jisr ed Damieh bridge . This bridge had been captured on the morning of 22 September by Chaytor 's Force before it turned east to capture Es Salt and capture Amman during the Second Battle of Amman . Chauvel ordered Barrow 's 4th Cavalry Division at Beisan to advance southwards along the banks of the Jordan River on 23 September to cut this line of retreat . The encirclement of what remained of the Seventh and Eighth Armies , still west of the Jordan River in the Judean Hills , was complete on 25 September . = = = = Australian Mounted Division = = = = The Australian Mounted Division followed the 4th Cavalry Division through the Musmus Pass to Lejjun . The 3rd Light Horse Brigade was ordered to attack and capture Jenin and to cut the Nablus to Nazareth road , while the 4th Light Horse Brigade 's 4th Light Horse Regiment guarded Desert Mounted Corps ' headquarters , the 11th and 12th Light Horse Regiments were deployed to escort artillery and transport columns . The cavalry were required to garrison the captured positions , many miles from base . Here they would be dependent on rations for the three cavalry divisions , being quickly and efficiently transported forward , along their extended supply lines . Leaving the 8th Light Horse Regiment at Lejjun , the 9th and 10th Light Horse Regiments ( 3rd Light Horse Brigade ) approached Jenin from two different directions , before charging into the town . After a two @-@ hour @-@ long battle the town along with the main line of retreat out of the Judean Hills were captured . Jenin had also been the main supply and ordnance depot for the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies . Among the captures were " very large quantities of valuable stores of all sorts , " workshops , three hospitals , locomotives and rolling stock at the station . With two aerodromes , Jenin had also been the main German air base . Here 24 burnt aircraft were counted among the captures . By the evening of 20 September Australian Mounted Division controlled Jenin and patrolled the plain between the 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions . All the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies main lines of retreat were controlled by Desert Mounted Corps except the Hedjaz railway to the east of the Jordan River . After being forced out of his Yildirim Army Group headquarters at Nazareth on the morning of 20 September , Liman von Sanders drove via Tiberias to Samakh to organise the establishment of a strong rearguard at Samakh . The 4th Light Horse Brigade was ordered to move to Beisan from Afulah at 08 : 30 on 24 September and was subsequently ordered at 13 : 45 to advance to capture Samakh . This town was strategically important to both sides as it controlled a direct road to Damascus . On 25 September , the 11th Light Horse Regiment supported by part of the 12th Light Horse Regiment charged in the pre @-@ dawn while the German and Australian machine – gunners conducted a firefight . After an hour @-@ long battle the light horse forced the garrison to surrender , capturing 350 prisoners at the station and in the town , suffering 14 killed and 29 wounded . Units of the 4th Light Horse Brigade subsequently advanced along the western shore of the Sea of Galilee , to jointly occupy the town of Tiberias with units from the 3rd Light Horse Brigade , which advanced from Nazareth over the hills . These victories concluded the Battle of Sharon and the Battle of Megiddo . = = = EEF aerial attacks = = = = = = = 19 September = = = = Airmen of the Palestine Brigade of the RAF , including No. 1 Squadron , Australian Flying Corps , flew bombing raids on 19 September attacking key communication centers at the Seventh and Eighth Army headquarters at Nablus and Tulkarm , which cut communications with the Yildirim Army Group headquarters at Nazareth . They also bombed the main German air base at Jenin and " harassed retreating Turkish troops on the roads . " At 01 : 15 the Handley @-@ Page bomber piloted by the Australian Ross Smith took off carrying 16 , 112 @-@ lb bombs to bomb Afulah railway junction and smash the central telephone exchange . At 05 : 20 Bristol Fighters flying over Afulah saw labourers working to repair the railway station , while at Bir el Hanuta , an Ottoman infantry battalion was seen moving southward to reinforce the front line . Flying west of the railway line , initial movements northward near Bir Ghaneim , already indicated the beginnings of a retreat . At 06 : 00 a bombing raid by D.H.9s attacked Afulah again . Later two Bristol Fighters reported 5 @,@ 000 infantry , 2 @,@ 000 cavalry , guns and 600 transport , retiring in disorder near Et Tire . On this massed Ottoman force , 20 small bombs were dropped and over 2 @,@ 000 machine gun bullets were fired . At 10 : 00 the Nablus area appeared quiet , while shortly afterwards Jenin was bombed . At 11 : 30 the pilot reported having seen the leading cavalry division of Desert Mounted Corps , approaching Liktera on the Plain of Sharon . On the cavalry ’ s right rear at Kakon , Ottoman units were reported alarmed and beginning to move , while further south at Kalunsawe the roads were full of retreating army units . Five Bristol Fighters in bombing formation , took off at 11 : 40 with eight bombs each , which were dropped on retreating columns between Et Tire and Tulkarm . They also fired hundreds of machine gun bullets , scattering the retreating force towards Kakon and Tulkarm . At this time , machine gun fire from the ground aimed at the aircraft was fairly heavy , causing a number of casualties to the air crews . At 12 : 30 , a second formation of three aircraft repeated the attack on the same retreating Ottoman column , which had reached the corner on the Tulkarm road . Six aircraft took off in the afternoon , two pursuing the retreating columns north of Kakon heading towards Baka , while four aircraft found soldiers , transport , artillery , horses , and camels moving from Tulkarm to Anebta . These they bombed and machine gunned , in a section of the road where it passed the little Wadi Zeimer , through a gorge with steep hills on either side . Before the column could escape , another formation of seven Bristol Fighters attacked them , at about 17 : 00 west of Anebta . The evening patrols reported the Ottoman Seventh Army headquarters still at Nablus , but the entire Eighth Army appeared to be in retreat , with their Tulkarm headquarters already captured . At the crossroads of the Afulah and the coast roads at Sumrah , a supply base with hospital and grain dump was in flames and its inhabitants were seen retreating into the hills . Reports reached Allenby throughout the day , describing the aircraft " spreading destruction , death , and terror behind the enemy 's lines . " More than 11 tons of bombs were dropped , and 66 @,@ 000 machine gun bullets fired from the air , particularly on the road from Tulkarm , via Anebta and through the narrow defile at Messudieh , to Nablus . The defile was twice blocked by smashed transport and dead horses , and later cleared . Those who survived abandoned their transport to seek cover in the hills . Over a period of four hours of repeated aerial attacks , the road from Nablus to Beisan about 8 miles ( 13 km ) north east of Nablus " in a narrow defile " was bombed by EEF aircraft . The area became covered with the wreckage of 90 guns , 50 motor lorries and more than 1 @,@ 000 other vehicles and unknown casualties . Meanwhile , in the area to the east of the Jordan River garrisoned by the Ottoman Fourth Army , two Bristol Fighters reporting early in the day all Ottoman camps in the area , were quiet . After attacking a mass of cavalry at Ain es Sir they returned to base by flying over the Wadi Fara road . Here they dropped their remaining bombs on a column of 50 motor lorries , moving eastwards along the road towards the Jisr ed Damieh bridge over the Jordan River . A direct hit on one of the lorries blocked the road and in the late afternoon another two Bristol Fighters continued this attack . = = = = 20 – 23 September = = = = During the evening of 19 September and early the next morning , Ross Smith in the Handley @-@ Page bombed the Jenin aerodrome and railway station , leaving the aerodrome looking like " a rubbish @-@ heap " . A second dawn patrol reported a column of about 200 vehicles spread along 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) of the Wady el Fara road moving from Nablus in the direction of the Jisr ed Damieh bridge . This column was bombed by Bristol Fighters , three making " direct hits " on transport , which blocked the road . Another five bombs were dropped on this target as well as machine gun fire which " created mayhem . " Early morning reconnaissance flights reported the effects of the previous day 's bombing , in particular between Anebta and Deir Sheraf , where all Ottoman camps were either burnt or empty . From this region northwards , Ottoman troops were seen retreating along the road and railway towards Jenin . At Messudie railway station two trains were being loaded and from Burka northwards the road was full of carts , camels and soldiers . Afulah was a blackened wreck after 24 hours of bombing . Here four trains of carriages without engines were in the station and at the aerodrome four aircraft being prepared for flight were bombed . Aerial attacks began at 09 : 00 on the Samaria to Afulah road , when five aircraft dropped 40 bombs and fired 4 @,@ 000 machine gun bullets at several retreating columns . Between Burka and Jenin , nearly every bomb fell among retreating soldiers , on " congested bodies of troops ... [ who ] suffered terrible casualties " . When they ran out of ammunition , the aircraft returned for supplies before repeating their bombing and machine gunning near Arrabe . Those who survived the aerial attack to continue their retreat towards Damascus , would be captured later that night at Jenin , by the 3rd Light Horse Brigade . The last reconnaissance of the day reported fires burning at Nablus and at Ottoman army dumps at Balata , indicating the whole Ottoman line from El Lubban to the Jordan , was in retreat . Allenby described the destruction : I was at Tulkaram today , and went along the Nablus road . It is strewn with broken lorries , wagons , dead Turks , horses and oxen ; mostly killed and smashed by our bombing aeroplanes . The same bombing of fugitives , on crowded roads , continues today . I think I ought to capture all the Turks ' guns and the bulk of his Army . An early morning patrol of the upper Wady el Fara road from Nablus to Jisr ed Damieh , reported on 21 September a mass of enemy transport , moving along a section of the old Roman road which formed a big ' S ' . This stretch of the road from Ain Shibleh to the Jordan River passed along the Jordan cliffs . Here there was a precipice on one side and steep hills on the other . The airmen counted about 600 horse @-@ drawn wagons and guns between Balata and Khurbet Ferweh , a further 200 wagons beyond them , and from Ain Shibleh a mass of cavalry and transport , heading northeast . Five bombs were dropped on these formations along with 600 machine gun rounds , marking the beginning of another " massacre " as the aerial bombardment , which had commenced at 06 : 30 with the arrival of the first Australian and British aircraft , was continued during the day . These aircraft dropped six tons of bombs and fired 44 @,@ 000 machine gun rounds . Two days later 87 guns , 55 motor lorries , 4 motor cars , 75 carts , 837 wagons , water carts and field kitchens representing most , if not all of the Seventh Army 's transport , were found destroyed and abandoned . On 22 and 23 September small groups of soldiers , remnants of the Yildirim Army Group , were attacked by aircraft on the Shibleh to Beisan road near the Jordan River . Shortly afterwards a column of several thousand Ottoman soldiers were seen marching back under a white flag along the Wady el Fara road . Meanwhile , east of the Jordan River , three German Pfalz scout aircraft and a number of D.F.W. two – seater aircraft from Deraa aerodrome were attacked by three Bristol Fighters over Um es Surab . During the aerial fight a German two – seater was shot down near Mafrak , another aircraft was forced to land near the railway and an Ottoman outpost , while the third aircraft was chased back to Deraa . Deraa aerodrome was attacked in the early morning of 23 September , by aircraft flying from Ramle . It was attacked again that night by the Handley @-@ Page , which ended the enemy 's use of that aerodrome . = = = Yildirim Army Group reactions = = = = = = = 19 September = = = = By 05 : 45 telephone communication to Ottoman front line units had been cut and five minutes later all German and Ottoman reserves had been ordered forward . All telephone , telegraph and wireless communications from the Eighth Army headquarters at Tulkarm were cut at 07 : 00 . Although the Eighth Army headquarters survived the EEF infantry onslaught , they had lost contact with the 7th and 19th Divisions ( XXII Corps ) . Liman von Sanders ordered the 46th Infantry Division ( Eighth Army reserve ) forward towards Et Tire . The division 's two regiments were ordered forward at 08 : 00 . One regiment reinforced the 20th Division 's position at Kabak Tepe while the second regiment fortified Sehpali Tepe , near XXII Corps headquarters . By 09 : 00 Seventh Army communications with Yildirim Army Group at Nazareth had also been cut . Liman von Sanders learned at that time , from the Asia Corps at ' Azzun via the Seventh Army headquarters , that the trench lines on the coastal sector had been breached and cavalry were advancing northwards . By 10 : 00 the weight of the EEF infantry and artillery attack had forced the XXII Corps to retreat and Yildirim Army Group had no combat formations in position to stop the cavalry advance up the coast . The Asia Corps commanded by von Oppen had expected an attack during the night of 18 / 19 September . The corps ' 47th and 48th Infantry Regiments ( 16th Division ) held the front line in the Judean Hills strongly supported by a local reserve consisting of the 1st Battalion 125th Infantry Regiment , part of the 48th Regiment 's machine gun company , and divisional assault , engineer , and cavalry companies . Along with the 19th Division , they were attacked at 04 : 50 by the 54th ( East Anglian ) Division and the Détachment Français de Palestine et de Syrie , a brigade – sized force of French colonial and Armenian troops . Liman von Sanders ordered the remainder of the Asia Corps to reinforce the XXII Corps by attacking westwards towards Tulkarm . Von Oppen had already ordered the German 701st Battalion and a German cavalry squadron to move through Jiyus to Felamiye , with a reserve battalion of the Ottoman 72nd Regiment and the 19th Divisional Cavalry Squadron , taking up a position east of Qalqilye . At 10 : 00 , the 1st Battalion 125th Infantry Regiment and the cavalry troop reinforced the line to the north of ' Azzun Ibn ' Atme . These reinforcements , along with the 46th Division at Et Tire , caused serious difficulties for the EEF 's XXI Corps infantry . Von Oppen dispatched a German lieutenant with clerks , orderlies and transport personnel armed with some machine guns , to Kh . Kefar Thilth to rally the retreating 19th Division , which had been near Jaljulye . The 16th Division continued to maintain its positions , holding the front line but by 17 : 00 all reserves had been committed . Not long afterwards they were forced to retreat to conform with the XXII Corps withdrawals on its right flank . Von Oppen withdrew his baggage , guns and headquarters to El Funduq and at 18 : 30 , having previously issued orders , withdrew at dusk . He withdrew to a line stretching from 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) west of ' Azzun , through Kh Kefar Thilth , along the heights south of the Wadi Qana through Deir Estia , to rendezvous with the Seventh Army at Kefar Haris . The whole of the Ottoman Eighth Army 's right flank forces holding the front line defences had rapidly collapsed . By the end of the day only remnant survivors were withdrawing across the coastal plain , along the main line of retreat in the direction of Tulkarm and Messudieh Junction . This road was subjected to continuous aerial attacks and aerial bombardments , becoming blocked in the afternoon of 19 September when many casualties were inflicted on the retreating columns . Liman von Sanders ordered the Seventh Army commander Mustafa Kemal to withdraw northwards , and to send a battalion of the 110th Regiment at Nablus and any other spare troops , to stop the EEF advance to the Tulkarm to Nablus road , at an easily defended narrow , steep sided pass near ' Anebta . At 12 : 30 Liman von Sanders had also taken steps to defend the Musmus Pass entry onto the Esdrealon Plain . He ordered the 13th Depot Regiment based at Nazareth and the military police ; a total of six companies and 12 machine guns to " occupy the mouth of the Musmus Pass at El Lajjun . " Meanwhile , the Ottoman Fourth Army to the east of the Jordan River , remained in position holding their ground on the Ottoman left flank . = = = = 20 September = = = = Liman von Sanders was forced to withdraw from Nazareth in the early morning when the 5th Cavalry Division unsuccessfully attacked the town . During his journey to Deraa , Liman von Sanders ordered the establishment of a rearguard line running from Deraa down the Yarmuk River Valley , across the Jordan River and west to Samakh , around the shore of the Sea of Galilee to Tiberias and northwards to Lake Huleh . If this line , across the two main roads and railway lines to Damascus could be held , time could be gained for the consolidation of the retreating columns into a strong defence of Damascus . His journey took him to Tiberias and Samakh , where he reestablished contact with his three armies . He continued on to Deraa on the morning of 21 September , which he found to be " fairly secure " and placed its commandant , Major Willmer in temporary command of the whole front from Deraa to Samakh . While there , Liman von Sanders received a report from the Fourth Army , which he ordered to withdraw to the Yarmuk , Irbid , Deraa line , without waiting for the southern Hedjaz troops . During the evening Liman von Sanders met with leaders of several thousand Druse who agreed to remain neutral . Meanwhile , after the loss of ' Azzun at 11 : 45 on 20 September and as a consequence of the EEF infantry advances through ' Anebta , von Oppen 's Asia Corps was ordered by the Eighth Army headquarters then at Masudiye Station , " to fall back to a line from Beit Lid , 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) west north west of Deir Sheraf , to Ferata , 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) south south west of Deir Sheraf " . Asia Corps was to cover the junction of the Tulkarm and El Funduq roads with the Damascus road for as long as possible before continuing their retreat along the Damascus road to 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) north of Masudiye Station . Von Oppen ordered units from the 16th and 19th Divisions ( Asia Corps ) to take up a rearguard position either side of the El Funduq to Deir Sheraf road while Asia Corps bivouacked near Balata . During the night of 20 / 21 von Oppen was ordered to send his German troops back to Deir Sheraf to cover the Seventh Army retreat , but he refused . The 16th Division conducted a fighting retreat on 20 and 21 September , during which most of their artillery was lost . Remnants of the XXII Corps ( Eighth Army ) which had retreated north along the main Damascus road during 20 September , were captured that night by the 3rd Light Horse Brigade at Jenin . = = = = 21 September = = = = During the night , the Asia Corps lost touch with the 16th and 19th Divisions , but following the direct orders of Liman von Sanders , these divisions withdrew to the west of Nablus . Here von Oppen got in contact with them during the morning of 21 September . At that time the remains of the 702nd and 703rd Battalions were reformed into one battalion , supported by a rifle company , a machine gun company and a trench mortar detachment . The 701st Battalion with its machine gun company of six guns , a troop of cavalry , an infantry @-@ artillery platoon with two mountain guns or howitzers and a trench mortar section with four mortars and a cavalry squadron , remained intact . Meanwhile , the bulk of the Seventh Army was retreating down the Wadi el Fara road , towards the Jordan River . Here it was heavily bombed and strafed by machine guns , from aircraft . During these aerial attacks the Seventh Army guns and transport were destroyed , leaving the road blocked . The survivors were forced to turn north at ' Ain Shible in order to continue their retreat towards Beisan . Having got through before the road was blocked , the 53rd Division continued down the Wadi el Fara road , but was attacked and captured by Chaytor 's Force on 22 September , during their attack on the Jisr ed Damieh bridge . The Asia Corps also withdrawing down the Wadi el Fara road towards the Jordan River , was forced to turn north @-@ east at ' Ain Shible , south east of Tammun , towards Beisan . At 10 : 00 von Oppen had been informed that the EEF was closing in on Nablus and the Wadi el Fara road was blocked . He decided to retreat via Beit Dejan 7 miles ( 11 km ) east southeast of Nablus to the Jordan River at Jisr ed Damieh , but found this route also cut . He then ordered a retreat via Mount Ebal , leaving behind all wheeled transport , including guns and baggage . During this withdrawal , the column suffered casualties from artillery fire . The 701st and the combined 702nd and 703rd Battalions bivouacked that night at Tammun with the 16th and 19th Divisions at Tubas . The Eighth Army headquarters at Nablus was abandoned at 15 : 00 on 21 September , when Jevad join the Seventh Army headquarters , accompanied by his chief of staff and some staff officers . This move signalled the end of the Ottoman Eighth Army . The 20th and 21st Regiments existed only until the afternoon . All surviving remnants were in retreat and threatened with encirclement , including the Asia Corps . Von Oppen with 700 German and 1 @,@ 300 Ottoman soldiers of the 16th and 19th Divisions , was retreating northwards towards Beisan when he learned it had fallen . He decided to advance during the night of 22 September to Samakh where he correctly guessed Liman von Sanders would order a rearguard action . However , Jevad , ( also known as Jevat Pasa and Cevat Pasa ) the commander of the Eighth Army ordered him to cross the Jordan River . = = = = 22 – 24 September = = = = Between 21 and 23 September , the 1st and 11th Divisions III Corps ( Seventh Army ) fought rearguard actions from Tubas to the Jordan River , which delayed the EEF cavalry encirclement , and covered the retreat of the remaining units of the Ottoman Seventh Army across the Jordan River . The Seventh Army lost 1 @,@ 500 prisoners , captured by the XX Corps cavalry on 23 and 24 September during the Battle of Nablus . By 22 September , the Asia Corps ' 16th Infantry Division had been reduced to less than 280 officers and men and two days later , on 24 September they were relying on machine guns for defence , when " enemy horse units [ were ] everywhere . " Their divisional headquarters joined the surviving headquarters elements of the 19th Division only to be attacked and overrun by EEF cavalry . However , the 16th Division 's 2nd and 3rd Battalions of the 125th Infantry Regiment with their combined assault and engineers company survived to fight a delaying action to Damascus . They were captured there on 1 October 1918 . = = Aftermath = = The King congratulated Allenby : It is with feelings of pride and admiration that we at home have received the news of the ably conceived and brilliantly carried out operations in which the British Indian and Allied forces under your command with the support of the Royal Navy have gained a complete victory over the enemy ... In a congratulatory telegram from the Chief of the General Staff at the War Office on 23 September , Allenby had been asked to consider a " cavalry raid on Aleppo . " Sir Henry Wilson the then Chief of the General Staff went on to describe the effect such an advance would have on the campaign in the Caucasus and in North West Persia , and the moral and political consequences for the Ottoman Empire . He assured Allenby that the War Office would accept the risks involved in such a venture . At this early stage in operations , Allenby 's focus remained on the battle of Megiddo then unfolding , and on the pursuit to Damascus by Desert Mounted Corps which would be the next step . The 7th Brigade of the 3rd ( Lahore ) Division was detached to the Desert Mounted Corps to garrison the areas occupied by the mounted corps . This infantry brigade marched via Jenin to Nazareth and on to Samakh , arriving there on 28 September , while Desert Mounted Corps was in pursuit of the remnants Yildirim Army Group towards Damascus . By 29 September , the 7th ( Meerut ) Division was concentrated at Haifa with the XXI Corps Cavalry Regiment at Acre in preparation for their march to Beirut and on to Tripoli during the Pursuit to Haritan . = = = Ottoman and German prisoners = = = Between 19 and 21 September 15 @,@ 000 prisoners had been captured . Some of these were guarded by the 7th Brigade , 3rd ( Lahore ) Division which had been detached to Desert Mounted Corps to garrison the Esdrealon Plain . They took over responsibility for a compound of 300 prisoners from Australian light horsemen . Shortly afterwards , another 200 Germans arrived followed by large numbers of Turks , Armenian , Arabs , Jews and Bedouins prisoners . During the night of 26 / 27 September a further 3 @,@ 500 prisoners were added into the compound and " packed in shoulder to shoulder . All sanitary discipline had vanished and dysenteric excrement covered every open space . " Three lorries arrived with rations of army biscuits , bully beef and onions for the prisoners , and after they had all been fed , an escort arrived to move them . = = = Spanish Flu = = = With the rapid advance , " disorganization and improvisation in the medical service are inevitable , " with clearing stations lacking " the most elementary comforts . " These problems were multiplied by the huge numbers of prisoners , among whom many became ill with Spanish Flu . In a hospital located in a convent in Haifa about 3 @,@ 000 sick were treated . " It is the survival of the fittest , if one is able to be up & about there is a chance of getting something to eat , but if stretcher case , you get no attention whatever , the staff can 't cope with the numbers . " There are too many sick to go under the scanty canvas [ in a field ambulance ] . The majority are Turkish prisoners . You will see them herded under tarpaulins beyond the marquees ; and where no tarpaulins are available , they lie sick in the sun . Sandfly fever , relapsing fever , influenza and malaria ( malignant and benign ) , dysentery , have hit the spent Turkish Army hard . So have they ours ; but not to the same degree . The Turks are “ dying like flies ” , as they say . The more acute cases are put in limbers , G.S. wagons , lorries , and pushed down . A cot full of comatose Turks , sick unto death , lumbering along in the dust , is a common sight . Even our own sick are evacuated in any vehicle that passes the station . There are not motor ambulances for all , and there are no ambulance trains on this route . An orderly in the road stops all down @-@ passing vehicles and demands if they can carry sick . Of wounded there are almost none . With a temperature of 103 ° F ( 39 ° C ) , Warrant Officer Patrick M. Hamilton , serving with the 4th Light Horse Field Ambulance , ( Australian Mounted Division ) became one of the earlier cases of Spanish flu , being reported sick on 20 September . At 18 : 00 on 21 September he was evacuated from Jenin , sitting up in one of the returning supply lorries , to the Australian Receiving Station at Tulkarm . He became very sick the next day " with pains all over , especially in the back " and became a stretcher case just before the receiving station was taken over by the 4th Cavalry Divisional Receiving Station , where he remained until 24 September . From Tulkarm he was evacuated to the 15th British Casualty Clearing Station at Wilhelma in a motor ambulance , then by train to the 26th British Casualty Clearing Station at Ludd , before arriving by troop train back at the 47th Stationary Hospital at Gaza on 27 September , seven days after falling ill . Here he slowly recovered , before being evacuated once more , by train on 1 October back across the Sinai 120 miles ( 190 km ) , to be admitted to the 24th British Stationary Hospital at Kantara , where he recovered . He rejoined the 4th Light Horse Field Ambulance in the middle of November , arriving by boat at Tripoli .
= Battle of White Plains = The Battle of White Plains was a battle in the New York and New Jersey campaign of the American Revolutionary War fought on October 28 , 1776 , near White Plains , New York . Following the retreat of George Washington 's Continental Army northward from New York City , British General William Howe landed troops in Westchester County , intending to cut off Washington 's escape route . Alerted to this move , Washington retreated farther , establishing a position in the village of White Plains but failed to establish firm control over local high ground . Howe 's troops drove Washington 's troops from a hill near the village ; following this loss , Washington ordered the Americans to retreat farther north . Later British movements chased Washington across New Jersey and into Pennsylvania . Washington then crossed the Delaware and surprised a brigade of Hessian troops in the December 26 Battle of Trenton . = = Background = = British General William Howe , after evacuating Boston in March 1776 , regrouped in Halifax , Nova Scotia , and embarked in June on a campaign to gain control of New York City . The campaign began with an unopposed landing on Staten Island in early July . British troops made another unopposed landing on Long Island on August 22 , south of the areas where General George Washington 's Continental Army had organized significant defenses around Brooklyn Heights . After losing the Battle of Long Island on August 27 , General Washington and his army of 9 @,@ 000 troops escaped on the night of August 29 – 30 to York Island ( as Manhattan was then called ) . General Howe followed up with a landing on Manhattan on September 15 , but his advance was checked the next day at Harlem Heights . After an abortive landing at Throg 's Neck , he landed troops with some resistance at Pell 's Point on October 18 to begin an encircling maneuver that was intended to trap Washington 's army between that force , his troops in Manhattan , and the Hudson River , which was dominated by warships of the Royal Navy . Howe established a camp at New Rochelle , but advance elements of his army were near Mamaroneck , only 7 miles ( 11 km ) from White Plains , where there was a lightly defended Continental Army supply depot . = = Prelude = = On October 20 , General Washington sent Colonel Rufus Putnam out on a reconnaissance mission from his camp at Harlem Heights . Putnam discovered the general placement of the British troop locations and recognized the danger to the army and its supplies . When he reported this to Washington that evening , Washington immediately dispatched Putnam with orders to Lord Stirling , whose troops were furthest north , to immediately march to White Plains . They arrived at White Plains at 9 am on October 21 , and were followed by other units of the army as the day progressed . Washington decided to withdraw most of the army to White Plains , leaving a garrison of 1 @,@ 200 men under Nathanael Greene to defend Fort Washington on Manhattan . General Howe 's army advanced slowly , with troops from his center and right moving along the road from New Rochelle to White Plains , while a unit of Loyalists occupied Mamaroneck . The latter was attacked that night by a detachment of Lord Stirling 's troops under John Haslet , who took more than thirty prisoners as well as supplies , but suffered several killed and 15 wounded . As a result , Howe moved elements of his right wing to occupy Mamaroneck . On October 22 , Howe was reinforced by the landing at New Rochelle of an additional 8 @,@ 000 troops under the command of Wilhelm von Knyphausen . Washington established his headquarters at the Elijah Miller House in North White Plains on October 23 , and chose a defensive position that he fortified with two lines of entrenchments . The trenches were situated on raised terrain , protected on the right by the swampy ground near the Bronx River , with steeper hills further back as a place of retreat . The American defenses were 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) long . Beyond that , on the right , was Chatterton 's Hill , which commanded the plain over which the British would have to advance . The hill was initially occupied by militia companies numbering several hundred , probably including John Brooks ' Massachusetts militia company . On October 24 and 25 , Howe 's army moved from New Rochelle to Scarsdale , where they established a camp covering the eastern bank of the Bronx River . This move was apparently made in the hopes of catching Charles Lee 's column , which had to alter its route toward White Plains and execute a forced march at night to avoid them . Howe remained at Scarsdale until the morning of October 28 , when his forces marched toward White Plains , with British troops on the right under General Henry Clinton , and primarily Hessian troops on the left under General von Heister . = = Battle = = While Washington was inspecting the terrain to determine where it was best to station his troops , messengers alerted him that the British were advancing . Returning to his headquarters , he ordered the 2nd Connecticut Regiment under Joseph Spencer out to slow the British advance , and sent Haslet and the 1st Delaware Regiment , along with Alexander McDougall 's brigade ( Rudolphus Ritzema 's 3rd New York Regiment , Charles Webb 's 19th Continental Regiment , William Smallwood 's 1st Maryland Regiment , and the 1st New York Regiment and 2nd New York Regiments ) to reinforce Chatterton Hill . Spencer 's force crossed the Bronx River , set up behind a stone wall , and exchanged fire with the Hessians led by Colonel Johann Rall that were at the head of the British left column . Eventually forced to retreat when Clinton 's column threatened their flank , these companies retreated across the Bronx River , while fire from the troops on Chatterton Hill covered their move . Rall 's troops attempted to gain the hill , but were repelled by fire from Haslet 's troops and the militia , and retreated to a nearby hilltop on the same side of the river . This concerted defense brought the entire British Army , which was maneuvering as if to attack the entire American line , to a stop . While Howe and his command conferred , the Hessian artillery on the left opened fire on the hilltop position , where they succeeded in driving the militia into a panicked retreat . The arrival of McDougall and his brigade helped to rally them , and a defensive line was established , with the militia on the right and the Continentals arrayed along the top of the hill . Howe finally issued orders , and while most of his army waited , a detachment of British and Hessian troops was sent to take the hill . The British attack was organized with Hessian regiments leading the assault . Rall was to charge the American right , while a Hessian battalion under Colonel Carl von Donop ( consisting of the Linsing , Mingerode , Lengereck , and Kochler grenadiers , and Donop 's own chasseur regiment ) was to attack the center . A British column under General Alexander Leslie ( consisting of the 5th , 28th , 35th , and 49th Foot ) was to attack the right . Donop 's force either had difficulty crossing the river , or was reluctant to do so , and elements of the British force were the first to cross the river . Rall 's charge scattered the militia on the American right , leaving the flank of the Maryland and New York regiments exposed as they poured musket fire onto the British attackers , which temporarily halted the British advance . The exposure of their flank caused them to begin a fighting retreat , which progressively forced the remainder of the American line , which had engaged with the other segments of the British force , to give way and retreat . Haslet 's Delaware regiment , which anchored the American left , provided covering fire while the remaining troops retreated to the north , and were the last to leave the hill . The fighting was intense , and both sides suffered significant casualties before the Continentals made a disciplined retreat . = = Casualties = = John Fortescue 's History of the British Army says that Howe 's casualties numbered 214 British and 99 Hessians . However , Rodney Atwood points out that Fortescue 's figure for the Hessians includes the entire Hessian casualties from 19 – 28 October and that in fact only 53 of these casualties were incurred at the Battle of White Plains . This revised figure would give a total of 267 British and Hessians killed , wounded or missing at White Plains . Henry Dawson , on the other hand , gives Howe 's loss as 47 killed , 182 wounded and 4 missing . The American loss is uncertain . Theodore Savas and J. David Dameron give a range of 150 @-@ 500 killed , wounded and captured . Samuel Roads numbers the casualties of 47 killed and 70 wounded . Henry Dawson estimates 50 killed , 150 wounded and 17 missing for McDougall 's and Spencer 's commands but has no information on the losses in Haslet 's regiment . = = Aftermath = = The two generals remained where they were for two days , while Howe reinforced the position on Chatterton Hill , and Washington organized his army for retreat into the hills . With the arrival of additional Hessian and Waldeck troops under Lord Percy on October 30 , Howe planned to act against the Americans the following day . However , a heavy rain fell the whole next day , and when Howe was finally prepared to act , he awoke to find that Washington had again eluded his grasp . Washington withdrew his army into the hills to the north on the night of October 31 , establishing a camp near North Castle . Howe chose not to follow , instead attempting without success to draw Washington out . On November 5 , he turned his army south to finish evicting Continental Army troops from Manhattan , a task he accomplished with the November 16 Battle of Fort Washington . Washington eventually crossed the Hudson River at Peekskill with most of his army , leaving New England regiments behind to guard supply stores and important river crossings . Later , British movements chased him across New Jersey and into Pennsylvania , and the British established a chain of outposts across New Jersey . Washington , seeing an opportunity for a victory to boost the nation 's morale , crossed the Delaware and surprised Rall 's troops in the December 26 Battle of Trenton . = = Legacy = = Each year on or near the anniversary date , the White Plains Historical Society hosts a commemoration of the event at the Jacob Purdy House in White Plains , New York . Two ships in the United States Navy were named for the Battle of White Plains . CVE @-@ 66 was an escort carrier in World War II . AFS @-@ 4 was a combat stores ship that was decommissioned in 1995 after suffering extensive damage in 1992 's Typhoon Omar . According to some historians , the Headless Horseman depicted in Washington Irving 's short story " The Legend of Sleepy Hollow " was inspired by a real @-@ life Hessian soldier who lost his head by cannon fire during this battle .
= Gospel of John = The Gospel According to John ( Greek : Τὸ κατὰ Ἰωάννην εὐαγγέλιον , translit . To kata Iōánnēn euangélion ; also called the Gospel of John , the Fourth Gospel , or simply John ) is one of the four canonical gospels in the New Testament . It traditionally appears fourth , after the synoptic gospels of Matthew , Mark , and Luke . John begins with the witness and affirmation of John the Baptist and concludes with the death , burial , resurrection , and post @-@ resurrection appearances of Jesus . The author is identified as " the Disciple whom Jesus loved " , whom early Christian tradition identified as John the Apostle , one of Jesus ' Twelve Apostles . The gospel is so closely related in style and content to the three surviving Johannine epistles that commentators treat the four books , along with the Book of Revelation , as a single corpus of Johannine literature , but there are some arguments made by modern scholars who believe John the Apostle was not the author of any of these books . C. K. Barrett , and later Raymond E. Brown , suggested that a tradition developed around the " Johannine Community " , and that this tradition gave rise to the gospel . The discovery of a large number of papyrus fragments of manuscripts with Johannine themes has led more scholars to recognize that the texts were among the most influential in the early Church . The discourses contained with this gospel seem to be concerned with issues of the church – synagogue debate at the time of composition . It is notable that in John , the community appears to define itself primarily in contrast to Judaism , rather than as part of a wider Christian community . Though Christianity started as a movement within Judaism , it gradually separated from Judaism because of mutual opposition between the two religions . = = Structure and content = = The Gospel of John can be divided into four sections : a prologue ( 1 : 1 – 18 ) , a Book of Signs ( 1 : 19 – 12 : 50 ) , a Book of Glory ( 13 : 1 – 20 : 31 ) , and an epilogue ( 21 ) . The structure is highly schematic : there are seven " signs " culminating in the raising of Lazarus ( foreshadowing the resurrection of Jesus ) , and seven " I am " sayings and discourses , culminating in Thomas 's proclamation of Jesus as " my lord and my God " — the same title ( dominus et deus ) claimed by Roman Emperor Domitian . = = = Prologue = = = Jesus is placed in his cosmic setting as the eternal Logos made flesh who reveals God and gives salvation to believers ; John the Baptist , Andrew , and Nathanael bear witness to him as the Lamb of God , the Son of God , and the Christ . = = = Book of Signs = = = The narrative of Jesus ' public ministry , beginning with the introduction of the first disciples of Jesus . It consists of seven miracles , or " signs " , interspersed with long dialogues , discourses , " Amen , amen " sayings , and " I Am " sayings , culminating with the raising of Lazarus from the dead . In John it is this , and not the cleansing of the Temple , that prompts the authorities to have Jesus executed . The seven signs consist of Jesus ' miracle at the wedding at Cana , his healing the royal official 's son , his healing the paralytic at Bethesda , his feeding the 5 @,@ 000 , his walking on water , his healing the man born blind , and his raising Lazarus from the dead . Other incidents recounted in this segment of the gospel include the cleansing of the Temple ; Jesus ' conversation with the Pharisee Nicodemus , wherein he explains the importance of spiritual rebirth ; his conversation with the Samaritan woman at the well , wherein he gives the Water of Life Discourse ; the Bread of Life Discourse , which prompted many of his disciples to leave ; the Pericope Adulterae ; Jesus ' claims to be the Light of the World ; the veritas liberabit vos ; the Good Shepherd pericope ; Jesus ' rejection by the Jews ; the Jesus wept ; the plot to kill Jesus ; the anointing of Jesus by Mary Magdalene ; Jesus ' triumphal entry into Jerusalem ; the prediction of the glorification of the Son of Man ; and the prediction of the Last Judgment . = = = Book of Glory = = = The narrative of Jesus ' Passion , Resurrection , and post @-@ Resurrection appearances . The Passion narrative opens with an account of the Last Supper that differs significantly from that found in the synoptics , with Jesus washing the disciples ' feet instead of ushering in a new covenant of his body and blood . This is followed by Jesus ' Farewell Discourse , an account of his betrayal , arrest , trial , death , burial , post @-@ Resurrection appearances , and final commission for his followers . It also includes Peter 's denial , the institution of the New Commandment and the New Covenant , the promise of the Paraclete , the allegory of the True Vine , the High Priestly Prayer , the ut omnes unum sint , the What is truth ? , Jesus ' mocking and crowning with thorns , the Ecce homo , the discovery of the empty tomb , the noli me tangere , the Great Commission , and the incredulity of Thomas . The section ends with a conclusion on the purpose of the gospel : " that [ the reader ] may believe that Jesus is the Christ , the Son of God , and that believing you may have life in his name . " = = = Epilogue = = = The narrative of Jesus ' post @-@ Resurrection appearance to his disciples by the lake , the miraculous catch of fish , the prophecy of the crucifixion of Peter , the restoration of Peter , and the fate of the Beloved Disciple . A large majority of scholars believes this chapter to be an addition to the gospel . = = Composition and setting = = = = = Authorship , date , and origin = = = The Gospel of John is anonymous , its author only identified as " the Disciple whom Jesus loved " . The evangelist was always called John , and Church tradition identified the Beloved Disciple as John the Apostle . This latter identification , however , is rejected by the majority of modern biblical scholars . Scholars believe that the text went through two to three " editions " before reaching its current form . Nevertheless , a significant minority consider the traditional account of John the Apostle 's authorship to be genuine . Scholars have argued that the stylistic unity of John is a significant barrier to theories of multiple stages of editing , with D. A. Carson and Douglas J. Moo arguing that " stylistically it is cut from one cloth " . In addition , the ancient external attestation for Johannine authorship is strong and consistent . As Craig Blomberg has noted , " No orthodox writer ever proposes any other alternative for the author of the Fourth Gospel and the book is accepted in all of the early canonical lists , which is all the more significant given the frequent heterodox misinterpretations of it . " John is usually dated to AD 90 – 110 . It arose in a Jewish Christian community in the process of breaking from the Jewish synagogue . John , which regularly describes Jesus ' opponents simply as " the Jews " , is more consistently hostile to " the Jews " than any other body of New Testament writing . Historian and former Roman Catholic priest James Carroll states : " The climax of this movement comes in chapter 8 of John , when Jesus is portrayed as denouncing ' the Jews ' as the offspring of Satan . " In John 8 : 44 Jesus tells the Jews : " You are of your father the devil , and the desires of your father you will do . He was a murderer from the beginning , and he stood not in the truth ; because truth is not in him . " In 8 : 38 and 11 : 53 , " the Jews " are depicted as wishing to kill Jesus . However , Carroll cautions that this and similar statements in the Gospel of Matthew and the First Epistle of Paul to the Thessalonians should be viewed as " evidence not of Jew hatred but of sectarian conflicts among Jews " in the early years of the Christian church . As noted by New Testament scholar Obrey M. Hendricks , Jr . : " Although its scathing portrayal of the Jews has opened John to charges of anti @-@ Semitism , a careful reading reveals ' the Jews ' to be a class designation , not a religious or ethnic grouping ; rather than denoting adherents to Judaism in general , the term primarily refers to the hereditary Temple religious authorities . " In later centuries , John was used to support anti @-@ Semitic polemics , but the author of the gospel regarded himself as a Jew , championed Jesus and his followers as Jews , and probably wrote for a largely Jewish community . = = = Historical reliability = = = Chapters 19 and 21 of John hint that " the Disciple whom Jesus loved " , or " the Beloved Disciple " , was an eyewitness to Jesus ' ministry , but the majority of scholars are cautious of accepting this at face value . With the exception of the " Johannine Thunderbolt " passages , the teachings of Jesus found in the synoptic gospels are very different from those recorded in John , and since the 19th century some scholars have argued that these discourses in Johannine style are less likely to be historical , and more likely to have been written for theological purposes . Scholars usually agree that John is not entirely without historical value . It has become generally accepted that certain sayings in John are as old or older than their synoptic counterparts . His representation of the topography around Jerusalem is often superior to that of the synoptics , his testimony that Jesus was executed before , rather than on , Passover , might well be more accurate , and his presentation of Jesus in the garden and the prior meeting held by the Jewish authorities are possibly more historically plausible than their synoptic parallels . = = = Textual history and position in the New Testament = = = Rylands Library Papyrus P52 , a Greek papyrus fragment with John 18 : 31 – 33 on one side and 18 : 37 – 38 on the other , commonly dated to the first half of the 2nd century , is the oldest New Testament manuscript known . A substantially complete text of John exists from the beginning of the 3rd century at the latest , so that the textual evidence for this gospel is commonly accepted as both earlier and more reliable than that for any other . John stands fourth in the standard ordering of the gospels , after Matthew , Mark and Luke , but in the earliest surviving gospel collection , Papyrus 45 of the 3rd century , they are in the order Matthew , John , Luke and Mark , while in syrcur it is placed third in the order Matthew , Mark , John and Luke . = = Theology = = = = = Christology = = = The Gospel of John presents a " high Christology , " depicting Jesus as divine , and yet , according to some unorthodox interpretations , subordinate to the one God . However , in his Summa Theologiae , Thomas Aquinas flatly rejects any denial of equality among the persons of the Trinity , including denials based Johannine passages . John 's gospel gives more focus to the relationship of the Son to the Father than the synoptics . It also focuses on the relation of the Redeemer to believers , the announcement of the Holy Spirit as the Comforter and Advocate ( Greek : Παράκλητος , translit . Parákletos , lit . ' Paraclete ' ; Latin : Paracletus , from the Greek ) , and the prominence of love as an element in Christian character . = = = = Jesus ' divine role = = = = In the synoptics , Jesus speaks often about the Kingdom of God ; his own divine role is obscured ( see Messianic Secret ) . In John , Jesus talks openly about his divine role . He echoes the Father 's own statement of identity , i.e. " I Am Who Am " , with several " I Am " declarations that also identify him with symbols of major significance . He says " I am " : = = = = Logos = = = = In the prologue , John identifies Jesus as the Logos ( Word ) . In Ancient Greek philosophy , the term logos meant the principle of cosmic reason . In this sense , it was similar to the Hebrew concept of Wisdom , God 's companion and intimate helper in creation . The Hellenistic Jewish philosopher Philo merged these two themes when he described the Logos as God 's creator of and mediator with the material world . The evangelist adapted Philo 's description of the Logos , applying it to Jesus , the incarnation of the Logos . The opening verse of John is translated as " the Word was with God and the Word was God " in all " orthodox " English Bibles . There are alternative views . The New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures of Jehovah 's Witnesses has " The Word was with God , and the Word was a god . " The Scholars Version of the gospel , developed by the Jesus Seminar , loosely translates the phrase as " The Logos was what God was , " offered as a better representation of the original meaning of the evangelist . = = = Sacraments = = = Among the most controversial areas of interpretation of John is its sacramental theology . Scholars ' views have fallen along a wide spectrum ranging from anti @-@ sacramental and non @-@ sacramental , to sacramental , to ultra @-@ sacramental and hyper @-@ sacramental . Scholars disagree both on whether and how frequently John refers to the sacraments at all , and on the degree of importance he places upon them . Individual scholars ' answers to one of these questions do not always correspond to their answer to the other . = = = = Frequency of allusion = = = = According to Rudolf Bultmann , there are three sacramental allusions : one to baptism ( 3 : 5 ) , one to the Eucharist ( 6 : 51 – 58 ) , and one to both ( 19 : 34 ) . He believed these passages to be later interpolations , though most scholars now reject this assessment . Some scholars on the weaker @-@ sacramental side of the spectrum deny that there are any sacramental allusions in these passages or in the gospel as a whole , while others see sacramental symbolism applied to other subjects in these and other passages . Oscar Cullmann and Bruce Vawter , a Protestant and a Catholic respectively , and both on the stronger @-@ sacramental end of the spectrum , have found sacramental allusions in most chapters . Cullmann found references to baptism and the Eucharist throughout the gospel , and Vawter found additional references to matrimony in 2 : 1 – 11 , anointing of the sick in 12 : 1 – 11 , and penance in 20 : 22 – 23 . Towards the center of the spectrum , Raymond Brown is more cautious than Cullmann and Vawter but more lenient than Bultmann and his school , identifying several passages as containing sacramental allusions and rating them according to his assessment of their degree of certainty . = = = = Importance to the evangelist = = = = Most scholars on the stronger @-@ sacramental end of the spectrum assess the sacraments as being of great importance to the evangelist . However , perhaps counterintuitively , some scholars who find fewer sacramental references , such as Udo Schnelle , view the references that they find as highly important as well . Schnelle in particular views John 's sacramentalism as a counter to Docetist anti @-@ sacramentalism . On the other hand , though he agrees that there are anti @-@ Docetic passages , James Dunn views the absence of a Eucharistic institution narrative as evidence for an anti @-@ sacramentalism in John , meant to warn against a conception of eternal life as dependent on physical ritual . = = = Individualism = = = In comparison to the synoptic gospels , the Fourth Gospel is markedly individualistic , in the sense that it places emphasis more on the individual 's relation to Jesus than on the corporate nature of the Church . This is largely accomplished through the consistently singular grammatical structure of various aphoristic sayings of Jesus throughout the gospel . According to Baukham , emphasis on believers coming into a new group upon their conversion is conspicuously absent from John . There is also a theme of " personal coinherence " , that is , the intimate personal relationship between the believer and Jesus in which the believer " abides " in Jesus and Jesus in the believer . According to Moule , the individualistic tendencies of the Fourth Gospel could potentially give rise to a realized eschatology achieved on the level of the individual believer ; this realized eschatology is not , however , to replace " orthodox " , futurist eschatological expectations , but is to be " only [ their ] correlative . " = = = John the Baptist = = = John 's account of the Baptist is different from that of the synoptic gospels . In this gospel , John is not called " the Baptist . " The Baptist 's ministry overlaps with that of Jesus ; his baptism of Jesus is not explicitly mentioned , but his witness to Jesus is unambiguous . The evangelist almost certainly knew the story of John 's baptism of Jesus and he makes a vital theological use of it . He subordinates the Baptist to Jesus , perhaps in response to members of the Baptist 's sect who regarded the Jesus movement as an offshoot of their movement . In John 's gospel , Jesus and his disciples go to Judea early in Jesus ' ministry before John the Baptist was imprisoned and executed by Herod . He leads a ministry of baptism larger than John 's own . The Jesus Seminar rated this account as black , containing no historically accurate information . According to the biblical historians at the Jesus Seminar , John likely had a larger presence in the public mind than Jesus . = = = Gnostic elements = = = Although not commonly understood as Gnostic , many scholars , including Bultmann , have forcefully argued that the Gospel of John has elements in common with Gnosticism . Christian Gnosticism did not fully develop until the mid @-@ 2nd century , and so 2nd @-@ century Proto @-@ Orthodox Christians concentrated much effort in examining and refuting it . To say John 's gospel contained elements of Gnosticism is to assume that Gnosticism had developed to a level that required the author to respond to it . Bultmann , for example , argued that the opening theme of the Gospel of John , the pre @-@ existing Logos , was actually a Gnostic theme . Other scholars , e.g. Raymond E. Brown have argued that the pre @-@ existing Logos theme arises from the more ancient Jewish writings in the eighth chapter of the Book of Proverbs , and was fully developed as a theme in Hellenistic Judaism by Philo Judaeus . Comparisons to Gnosticism are based not in what the author says , but in the language he uses to say it , notably , use of the concepts of Logos and Light . Other scholars , e.g. Raymond E. Brown , have argued that the ancient Jewish Qumran community also used the concept of Light versus Darkness . The arguments of Bultmann and his school were seriously compromised by the mid @-@ 20th @-@ century discoveries of the Nag Hammadi library of genuine Gnostic writings ( which are dissimilar to the Gospel of John ) as well as the Qumran library of Jewish writings ( which are often similar to the Gospel of John ) . Gnostics read John but interpreted it differently from the way non @-@ Gnostics did . Gnosticism taught that salvation came from gnosis , secret knowledge , and Gnostics did not see Jesus as a savior but a revealer of knowledge . Barnabas Lindars asserts that the gospel teaches that salvation can only be achieved through revealed wisdom , specifically belief in ( literally belief into ) Jesus . Raymond Brown contends that " The Johannine picture of a savior who came from an alien world above , who said that neither he nor those who accepted him were of this world , and who promised to return to take them to a heavenly dwelling could be fitted into the gnostic world picture ( even if God 's love for the world in 3 : 16 could not ) . " It has been suggested that similarities between John 's gospel and Gnosticism may spring from common roots in Jewish Apocalyptic literature . = = Comparison with the synoptics = = The Gospel of John is significantly different from the synoptic gospels , with major variations in material , theological emphasis , chronology , and literary style . There are also some discrepancies between John and the synoptics , some amounting to contradictions . = = = Material = = = John lacks scenes from the synoptics such as Jesus ' baptism , the calling of the Twelve , exorcisms , parables , the Transfiguration , and the Last Supper . Conversely , it includes scenes not found in the synoptics , including Jesus turning water into wine at the wedding at Cana , the resurrection of Lazarus , Jesus washing the feet of his disciples , and multiple visits to Jerusalem . The Fourth Gospel contains no account of the Nativity of Jesus , unlike Matthew and Luke , and his mother Mary , while frequently mentioned , is never identified by name . John does assert that Jesus was known as the " son of Joseph " in 6 : 42 . In contrast to Matthew and Luke , and in agreement with Mark , in John Jesus comes from Nazareth rather than the messianic town of Bethlehem . For John , Jesus ' town of origin is irrelevant , for he comes from beyond this world , from God the Father . While John makes no direct mention of Jesus ' baptism , he does quote John the Baptist 's description of the descent of the Holy Spirit as a dove , as happens at Jesus ' baptism in the synoptics . Major synoptic speeches of Jesus are absent , including the Sermon on the Mount and the Olivet Discourse , and the exorcisms of demons are never mentioned as in the synoptics . During the Last Supper narrative , Jesus washes the disciples ' feet instead of celebrating the first Eucharist as in the synoptics . No other women are mentioned going to the tomb with Mary Magdalene , whereas in the synoptics she is accompanied by Mary of Clopas , Mary , mother of James , " the other Mary " , and / or Salome . John never lists all of the Twelve Disciples and names at least one disciple , Nathanael , whose name is not found in the synoptics . Nathanael appears to parallel Bartholomew found in the synoptics , as both are paired with Philip in the respective gospels . While James , son of Zebedee and John are prominent disciples in the synoptics , John mentions them only in the epilogue , where they are referred to not by name but as the " sons of Zebedee . " Thomas is given a personality beyond a mere name , described as " Doubting Thomas " . = = = Theological emphasis = = = Jesus is identified with the Word ( " Logos " ) , and the Word is identified with theos ( " god " in Greek ) ; no such identification is made in the synoptics . In Mark , Jesus urges his disciples to keep his divinity secret , but in John he is very open in discussing it , even referring to himself as " I AM " , the title God gives himself in Exodus at his self @-@ revelation to Moses . In the synoptics the chief theme is the Kingdom of God and the Kingdom of Heaven ( the latter specifically in Matthew ) , while John 's theme is Jesus as the source of eternal life and the Kingdom is only mentioned twice . In contrast to the synoptic expectation of the Kingdom ( using the term parousia , meaning " coming " ) , John presents a more individualistic , realized eschatology . = = = Chronology = = = In the synoptics the ministry of Jesus takes a single year , but in John it takes three , as evidenced by references to three Passovers . Events are not all in the same order : the date of the crucifixion is different , as is the time of Jesus ' anointing in Bethany , and the cleansing of the temple occurs in the beginning of Jesus ' ministry rather than in the beginning . = = = Literary style = = = In the synoptics , quotations from Jesus are usually in the form of short , pithy sayings ; in John , longer quotations are often given . The vocabulary is also different , and filled with theological import : in John , Jesus does not work " miracles " ( Greek : δῠνάμεις , translit. dynámeis , sing. δύνᾰμῐς , { { \| transl \| el \| dýnamis } } ) , but " signs " ( Greek : σημεῖᾰ , translit. sēmeia , sing. σημεῖον , sēmeion ) which unveil his divine identity . Most scholars consider John not to contain any parables . Rather it contains metaphorical stories or allegories , such as those of the Good Shepherd and of the True Vine , in which each individual element corresponds to a specific person , group , or thing . Some scholars , however , find some such parables as the short story of the childbearing woman ( 16 : 21 ) or the dying grain ( 12 : 24 ) . = = = Discrepancies = = = According to the synoptics , the arrest of Jesus was a reaction to the cleansing of the temple , while according to John it was triggered by the raising of Lazarus . The Pharisees , portrayed as more uniformly legalistic and opposed to Jesus in the synoptic gospels , are instead portrayed as sharply divided ; they debate frequently in John 's accounts . Some , such as Nicodemus , even go so far as to be at least partially sympathetic to Jesus . This is believed to be a more accurate historical depiction of the Pharisees , who made debate one of the tenets of their system of belief . John the Baptist publicly proclaims Jesus to be the Lamb of God . The Baptist recognizes Jesus secretly in Matthew , and not at all in Mark or Luke . The Gospel of John also has the Baptist deny that he is Elijah , whereas Mark and Matthew identify him with Elijah . The Cleansing of the Temple appears towards the beginning of Jesus ' ministry . In the synoptics this occurs soon before Jesus is crucified . = = Representations = = The Gospel of John has influenced Impressionist painters , Renaissance art , literature , and other depictions of Jesus , with influences on Greek , Jewish and European history . It has been depicted in live narrations and dramatized in productions , skits , plays , and Passion Plays , as well as in film . The most recent such portrayal is the 2014 film ' The Gospel of John ' , directed by David Batty and narrated by David Harewood and Brian Cox , with Selva Rasalingam as Jesus . The 2003 film The Gospel of John , was directed by Philip Saville , narrated by Christopher Plummer , with Henry Ian Cusick as Jesus . Parts of the gospel have been set to music . One such setting is Steve Warner 's power anthem " Come and See " , written for the 20th anniversary of the Alliance for Catholic Education and including lyrical fragments taken from the Book of Signs . Additionally , some composers have made settings of the Passion as portrayed in the gospel , most notably the one composed by Johann Sebastian Bach , although some verses are borrowed from Matthew .
= Berlin Stadtbahn = The Berlin Stadtbahn ( " city railway " ) is a major railway thoroughfare in the German capital Berlin , which runs through Berlin from east to west . It connects the eastern district of Friedrichshain with Charlottenburg in the west via 11 intermediate stations including Hauptbahnhof . The Berlin Stadtbahn is often also defined as the slightly longer route between Ostkreuz and Westkreuz , although this is not technically correct . The line was originally built in the 1880s . It is 12 kilometers ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) in length , and is entirely elevated above the city 's streets . The four track route carries S @-@ Bahn , Regionalbahn , Regional @-@ Express , Intercity , EuroCity and Intercity @-@ Express trains . = = Operation = = = = = Structure and tracks = = = The Stadtbahn line is an elevated rail line with viaducts totalling 8 kilometers ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) in length and including 731 masonry viaduct arches . A further 2 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) of the line are situated on 64 bridges , that cross adjoining streets and ( three times ) the River Spree . The remaining length of the line is on an embankment . The line carries four tracks , in two pairs . The northern pair are reserved for use by the S @-@ Bahn , and are electrifed using a third rail carrying 800V DC . The S @-@ Bahn tracks have platforms at all eleven stations along the Stadtbahn . The southern pair of tracks are used by Regionalbahn , Regional @-@ Express , Intercity , EuroCity and Intercity @-@ Express trains , and are electrified using the German standard of 15 kV at 16 @.@ 7 Hz AC , supplied by overhead line . Six of the Stadtbahn stations have platforms on these tracks , although not all trains stop at all stations , depending on the class and route of the train . = = = Stations = = = From east to west , the Stadtbahn has stations at : Ostbahnhof Jannowitzbrücke ( S @-@ Bahn only ) Alexanderplatz Hackescher Markt ( S @-@ Bahn only ) Friedrichstraße Hauptbahnhof Bellevue ( S @-@ Bahn only ) Tiergarten ( S @-@ Bahn only ) Zoologischer Garten Savignyplatz ( S @-@ Bahn only ) Charlottenburg = = = Routes = = = The S @-@ Bahn tracks of the Stadtbahn currently carry routes S5 ( Strausberg Nord to Spandau ) , S7 ( Ahrensfelde to Potsdam ) and S75 ( Wartenberg to Westkreuz ) . The longer distance tracks carry Regionalbahn and Regional @-@ Express routes RE1 ( Magdeburg to Eisenhüttenstadt ) , RE2 ( Rathenow to Cottbus ) , RE7 ( Dessau to Wünsdorf @-@ Waldstadt ) and RB14 ( Nauen to Berlin Schönefeld Airport ) . Although most InterCity and Intercity @-@ Express trains now use the north @-@ south tunnel route via Hauptbahnhof , some trains do still remain on the Stadtbahn 's long distance tracks . These trains , mainly those heading toward Hanover and Cologne , usually call at Hauptbahnhof and Ostbahnhof . = = History = = = = = Planning = = = In 1871 , eight main line railways existed in Berlin , with terminal stations at the city 's edge or outside the city limits . This was very impractical for many passengers , who were forced to use hackney carriages to transfer from one train to another . Therefore , a railway line was planned to connect these terminuses with each other . In 1872 , the Deutsche Eisenbahnbaugesellschaft ( German Railway Construction Company - DEG ) filed the planning application for a railway line through the city , connecting the then @-@ Schlesischer Bahnhof ( today Berlin Ostbahnhof ) to Charlottenburg , and continuing to Potsdam . In December 1873 , the state of Prussia as well as the private rail enterprises Berlin @-@ Potsdamer Eisenbahn , Magdeburg @-@ Halberstädter Eisenbahn and Berlin @-@ Hamburger Bahn bought shares in the DEG , and jointly founded the Berliner Stadteisenbahngesellschaft ( Berlin City Railway Company ) . However , things did not go as expected and the DEG went into bankruptcy in 1878 , which forced the Prussian state government to take over operations , pay for the construction of the line with state money and to reimburse the former private owners of the DEG . The state 's interest in the line was attributed to the military , which after the 1870 @-@ 1871 Franco @-@ Prussian War was of the opinion that the railway networks would hinder mobilisation when not properly interconnected . On 15 July 1878 the Königliche Direktion der Berliner Stadteisenbahn ( Royal Directorate of Berlin City Railways ) , under the management of Ernst Dircksen , was commissioned to manage the site . The directorate at first reported to the Prussian Ministry of Transport and later became a subsidiary of the Ministry of Public Operations . The planned railway had two tracks each for freight and passenger traffic . Having taken similar projects in London and New York City into consideration , passenger traffic received priority over freight trains . Furthermore , the new railway line was not only to serve as a connection between the mainline terminii in Berlin , but would also offer connections to the Berlin Ringbahn and the suburban rail lines . The traffic routing was not only influenced by the location of the already existing stations the line was supposed to connect , but also by land availability in the city centre . One of the original drafts , which called for building the line along Leipziger Straße , had to be scrapped because of overly high land prices . The moat of the 17th century Berlin Fortress was filled up between Hackescher Markt and Jannowitzbrücke stations and , since it was public land , was used for building the railway line . This explains some of the curvy sections on the Stadtbahn , especially between Alexanderplatz and Jannowitzbrücke stations . Its elevated nature sets the Stadtbahn apart from the previous Berliner Verbindungsbahn , built in 1851 , which was built at street level and was a hindrance to travel . = = = Construction = = = Work on the line started in 1875 and the Stadtbahn was opened on 7 February 1882 for local traffic ; it opened on 15 May the same year for long @-@ distance trains . The costs of construction , including purchase of the land , were estimated at about 5 million Goldmark per kilometre . The line would later become the core route of the Berlin S @-@ Bahn . The Stadtbahn was originally equipped with longitudinal iron sleepers on the Haarmann system , however these were replaced with wooden sleepers in the early 20th century . The original stations , seen from west to east , were : Charlottenburg Zoologischer Garten Bellevue Lehrter Stadtbahnhof ( today Berlin Hauptbahnhof ) Friedrichstraße Börse ( Marx @-@ Engels @-@ Platz in period of the GDR , and since 1992 Hackescher Markt ) Alexanderplatz Jannowitzbrücke Schlesischer Bahnhof ( named Berlin Hauptbahnhof in the 1980s and early 90s , today Ostbahnhof ) Since 1 May 1888 the Stadtbahn also connected to Stralau @-@ Rummelsburg ( Ostkreuz since 1933 ) in the east and Westend ( via Westkreuz ) in the west . Two stations were later added Savignyplatz ( 1 August 1896 ) between Charlottenburg and Zoologischer Garten , and Tiergarten ( 5 January 1885 ) between Zoologischer Garten and Bellevue = = = Initial operation = = = = = = = Suburban trains = = = = Suburban trains operated on the local tracks , the so @-@ called city track . At first , these were either services to the suburbs or connections to the Berlin Ringbahn , running as " half ring trains " , using the Stadtbahn and either the northern or the southern Ringbahn . The trains were pulled by locomotives , which ran on coke to minimise the smell . Doors on the train compartments had to be opened by the passengers themselves and stations were not called out on the train . These trains ran from 4 o 'clock in the morning to 1 o 'clock at night , typically at intervals between two and five minutes , depending on the time of day . Fares in the early 20th century were 10 pfennig in 3rd class and 15 pfennig in 2nd class . = = = = Freight traffic = = = = The freight traffic to the central market at Alexanderplatz was carried by seven special trains per day , of which four ran at night , two during the day and one in the evening . Apart from this , the Stadtbahn carried no freight ; normal freight traffic instead used the freight stations Charlottenburg , Moabit , Wedding , Zentralviehhof , Weißensee , Frankfurter Allee , Rixdorf , Tempelhof , Wilmersdorf @-@ Friedenau and Halensee on the ring line . = = = = Long @-@ distance trains = = = = In the first years of the Stadtbahn , many trains previously terminating at the old terminuses Lehrter Bahnhof , Görlitzer Bahnhof or Potsdamer Bahnhof operated via the Stadtbahn to reduce the load on the terminus stations . By the end of the 19th century , however , most of these train runs had to terminate at their old destination stations again due to the increasing local traffic on the Stadtbahn . The remaining traffic on the Stadtbahn mostly consisted of express trains to Hanover and Cologne via the Lehrter Bahn , Kanonenbahn trains to Dessau , trains to Königsberg and Danzig on the Preußische Ostbahn and trains to Frankfurt / Oder and Breslau . Suburban trains to Spandau and Strausberg also ran on the Stadtbahn 's long @-@ distance tracks until 1928 . Trains heading west usually left from the Schlesischer Bahnhof station , those heading east from Charlottenburg . Depots were situated in Rummelsburg ( then called Bw Karlshorst ) and Grunewald . = = = Station expansions and viaducts = = = In 1914 , the Friedrichstraße station was rebuilt ; the long @-@ distance section of the station was expanded to four tracks and the current station hall was built . Between 1922 and 1932 , the Stadtbahn viaduct was thoroughly modernised in order to handle the ever increasing train weight . Also , the train sheds of Alexanderplatz and Schlesischer Bahnhof were replaced . The suburban line 's platforms were raised to a height of 96 centimetres . A second long @-@ distance platform and a new hall were built at Zoo station from 1934 to 1940 . The station hall was only glazed in the 1950s , however . The notable terraced vestibule dates from the same time . = = = Electric operation = = = On 11 June 1928 the suburban line Potsdam @-@ Stadtbahn @-@ Erkner was fully equipped with DC third rail gear . Five trains of the new DRG Class ET 165 – the type appropriately named Stadtbahn – went into service , still sharing the track with steam trains . By November 1928 all lines leading toward the Stadtbahn , namely the lines from Kaulsdorf , Spandau and Grünau as well as the Berlin Ringbahn , were fully electrified . Therefore , suburban services to Spandau could be moved from the long @-@ distance tracks to the local tracks . The last steam trains disappeared in 1929 when the ring became fully operated by electric trains . Half @-@ ring trains operated only as peak time services . In December 1930 the term S @-@ Bahn and the symbol of a white S on a green circle were introduced for the city , ring and suburban services . = = = Post @-@ War situation = = = After World War II , the Stadtbahn lay devastated by bombs , but was rebuilt very quickly . Because Joseph Stalin wanted to travel by train to the Potsdam Conference , the Stadtbahn was converted to the Russian 1 @,@ 524 mm ( 5 ft ) broad gauge in 1945 . The national importance had diminished with the loss of eastern Germany ; only a few trains ran towards the western zones . Some trains from the Soviet zone terminated on the Stadtbahn . During the Berlin Blockade , the long @-@ distance traffic came to an almost complete halt . The Stadtbahn was useful for the re @-@ established S @-@ Bahn , however , now with connections to places line Königs Wusterhausen , Strausberg , Staaken and Falkensee . From 18 May 1952 , when all Berlin terminal stations and all other long @-@ distance stations in West Berlin were closed , the station Zoologischer Garten remained the only long @-@ distance station for the western part of the city . The last domestic train of the GDR ( East German ) railways ran on the Stadtbahn in 1953 . After the Berlin Wall was built in 1961 , Zoologischer Garten became the West Berlin and Ostbahnhof the East Berlin de facto central station . The station Friedrichstraße now was the terminal point of the separated West and East Berlin S @-@ Bahn lines and departure point for the Interzonenzug ( Inter @-@ zone train ) services between West Berlin and West Germany . Friedrichstraße station was separated into Eastern and Western parts with steel walls , and enabled West Berliners to change to S @-@ Bahn trains running on the Nord @-@ Süd @-@ Bahn and the U6 line of the Berlin U @-@ Bahn without passing through GDR border controls . The station also featured a border crossing into East Berlin . Through trains between Zoo and Ostbahnhof only existed in international traffic , for example the Paris to Warsaw trains . Later , through coaches and shuttle trains connecting to the night trains to Scandinavia crossed the intra @-@ German border on the Stadtbahn as well . Due to a quirk in legislation , the West Berlin parts of the Stadtbahn belonged to the Deutsche Reichsbahn , which made it ( and therefore the GDR government ) one of the largest landowners in West Berlin . Regular quarrels erupted between the DR , the GDR government , the West Berlin Senate and the Allied occupation powers . Prices for the West Berlin S @-@ Bahn were kept slightly below the fares of the West Berlin BVG . In East Berlin , a flat fee of 0 @.@ 20 Mark was charged until 1991 . West Berlin politics and most of the populace fully boycotted the S @-@ Bahn , which was run by the East German railways , and introduced bus and U @-@ Bahn lines running parallel to the S @-@ Bahn network and the Stadtbahn . = = = Restoration during the Cold War = = = Despite problems , the Deutsche Reichsbahn made improvements to the line and reconstructed at great expense the Westkreuz railway station which had been built on swamp land . Meanwhile , the number of S @-@ Bahn lines running in West Berlin was reduced to just three as a consequence of a strike carried out by the Deutsche Reichsbahn 's West Berlin @-@ based employees in September 1980 . On 9 January 1984 a treaty between the GDR and the West Berlin Senate came into force and turned over the responsibility for operation of the S @-@ Bahn in West Berlin to the West Berlin transport authority , the Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe . Soon thereafter , talks with the GDR commenced regarding improvements of the Stadtbahn in West Berlin as well as the modernisation of the Zoologischer Garten station . The Lehrter Stadtbahnhof was also carefully restored to its original 1880s look and became a listed building . In East Berlin , the Ostbahnhof was partially rebuilt and renamed to Hauptbahnhof , in time for the 750th anniversary of Berlin 's founding in 1987 . = = = After reunification = = = The fall of the Berlin Wall and German reunification made for a sudden spike of importance for the Stadtbahn . The first InterRegio train ran to Cologne in 1990 . Since 1991 , Intercity trains to Karlsruhe , Cologne and Hamburg used the Stadtbahn . The Hamburg line was soon extended to Dresden and Prague , and the former Interzonenzug trains from Munich were converted to InterCity trains and now ran on the Stadtbahn as well . The western part of the Stadtbahn was electrified on 4 July 1993 up to Zoologischer Garten station . The eastern part of the line up to Ostbahnhof had been electrified since 1987 . As soon as electrification reached the Zoo station , ICE trains began to use the station . = = = Modernisation from 1994 = = = In October 1994 a large @-@ scale modernisation programme was started on the Stadtbahn . The viaducts were checked and strengthened , and the tracks were bedded in concrete to improve durability and comfort . Almost all stations saw large financial investments and were thoroughly modernised . Long @-@ distance traffic between Zoo and Ostbahnhof stations was interrupted during the construction period and the S @-@ Bahn trains temporarily used the long @-@ distance line . On 24 March 1998 the Stadtbahn was reopened , now carrying up to three ICE and IC lines as well as five RegionalExpress lines . Part of the Stadtbahn was realigned as part of the construction of the new Berlin Hauptbahnhof , with construction commencing in 2001 and completed in July 2002 . The realigned section consisted of two 450 m @-@ long bridges spanning the station and the adjacent Humboldthafen port . Until the summer of 2006 , the Stadtbahn was the main thoroughfare for long @-@ distance trains , which usually stopped at Zoologischer Garten and Ostbahnhof ( which was renamed in 1998 ) . When the new Hauptbahnhof opened on 28 May 2006 the importance of the line diminished slightly , as many trains now would use the new north @-@ south line connected to the Hauptbahnhof . The remaining intercity trains on the Stadtbahn , mainly those heading toward Hanover and Cologne , now usually call at Hauptbahnhof and Ostbahnhof .
= 4th Parachute Brigade ( United Kingdom ) = The 4th Parachute Brigade was an airborne , specifically a parachute infantry , brigade formation of the British Army during the Second World War . Formed in late 1942 in the Mediterranean and Middle East , the brigade was composed of three parachute infantry units , the 10th , 11th and 156th Parachute Battalions . The brigade was assigned to the 1st Airborne Division , just prior to the Allied invasion of Sicily , but played no part in the invasion . Instead the brigade first saw action in September 1943 , during Operation Slapstick , an amphibious landing at the port of Taranto , as part of the early stages of the Allied invasion of Italy . Largely unopposed , the brigade captured the ports of Brindisi and Bari before being withdrawn . By the end of the year , the 4th Parachute Brigade was in England , preparing for the Allied invasion of North @-@ West Europe . The brigade did not see action in France , being instead placed on standby for an emergency during the Normandy landings . Between June and August 1944 the speed of the subsequent Allied advance obviated the need to deploy airborne forces . In September 1944 , the brigade formed part of the second day 's parachute landings at the Battle of Arnhem , part of Operation Market Garden . Problems reaching the bridges in Arnhem forced the divisional commander , Major @-@ General Roy Urquhart , to divert one of the brigade 's battalions to assist the 1st Parachute Brigade . After a short delay the brigade headed out for its objective . When only halfway there , however , the remaining two battalions were confronted by prepared German defences . The brigade , having suffered heavy losses , was eventually forced to withdraw . The next day , weakened by fighting at close quarters and now numbering around 150 men , the brigade eventually reached the divisional position at Oosterbeek . After a week of being subjected to almost constant artillery , tank and infantry attacks , the remnants of the brigade were evacuated south of the River Rhine . During the battle of Arnhem , the brigade 's total casualties amounted to seventy @-@ eight per cent , and the 4th Parachute Brigade was disbanded rather than reformed , the survivors being posted to the 1st Parachute Brigade . = = Formation = = Impressed by the successful German airborne operations , during the Battle of France , the British Prime Minister , Winston Churchill , directed the War Office to investigate the possibility of creating a corps of 5 @,@ 000 parachute troops . On 22 June 1940 , No. 2 Commando was turned over to parachute duties and , on 21 November , re @-@ designated the 11th Special Air Service Battalion , with a parachute and glider wing . This was later to become the 1st Parachute Battalion . It was these men who took part in the first British airborne operation , Operation Colossus , on 10 February 1941 . The success of the raid prompted the War Office to expand the existing airborne force , setting up the Airborne Forces Depot and Battle School in Derbyshire , and creating the Parachute Regiment , as well as converting a number of infantry battalions into airborne battalions . These battalions were assigned to the 1st Airborne Division with the 1st Parachute Brigade and the 1st Airlanding Brigade . The first General Officer Commanding ( GOC ) of the division , Major @-@ General Frederick Arthur Montague " Boy " Browning , expressed his opinion that the fledgling force must not be sacrificed in " penny packets " and urged the formation of more brigades . The 4th Parachute Brigade was formed at RAF Kibrit in the Middle East on 1 December 1942 . Upon formation it consisted of the brigade headquarters , signals company , defence platoon and three parachute battalions . The battalions assigned were the 156th Parachute Battalion ( 156 Para ) , raised from British servicemen in India , the 10th Parachute Battalion ( 10 Para ) , formed around a cadre from the 2nd Battalion , Royal Sussex Regiment , and the 11th Parachute Battalion ( 11 Para ) , created from a cadre of 156 Para . The brigade 's battalions all had the same composition : three rifle companies , each comprising a company headquarters , and three platoons . Each had a Support Company of mortar , machine gun and carrier platoons , along with a Headquarters Company . The brigade 's first commander , Lieutenant Colonel Kenneth Smyth , was replaced by Brigadier John Hackett on 4 January 1943 . Facilities and weather conditions at Kibret proved to be unsuitable for airborne operations , so the brigade moved to RAF Ramat David in Palestine to continue their training . The brigade came to full strength in May 1943 , and in June was sent to Tripoli , where it joined the 1st Airborne Division . Also assigned to the division were the 1st and 2nd Parachute Brigades and the glider infantry of the 1st Airlanding Brigade . In 1944 , the brigade also had under their command 133 Parachute Field Ambulance , Royal Army Medical Corps , 2nd Airlanding Light Battery , Royal Artillery , 2nd ( Oban ) Airlanding Anti @-@ Tank Battery , Royal Artillery and 4th Parachute Squadron , Royal Engineers . = = Italy = = In 1943 , the 4th Parachute Brigade , although still part of the 1st Airborne Division , was kept out of the Allied invasion of Sicily by a shortage of transport aircraft . The 1st Airlanding Brigade took part in Operation Ladbroke and the 1st Parachute Brigade in Operation Fustian . Both brigades suffered heavy casualties , so that by the time Operation Slapstick was proposed , only the 2nd and 4th Parachute Brigades were up to strength . Slapstick was in part a deception operation to divert German forces from the main Allied landings and also an attempt to seize intact the Italian ports of Taranto , Bari and Brindisi . The lack of air transport meant that the division 's two available brigades had to be transported by sea . They would cross the Mediterranean in four Royal Navy cruisers with their escorts . If the landing was successful , the British 78th Infantry Division in Sicily and the 8th Indian Infantry Division in the Middle East , under the command of British V Corps , under Lieutenant General Charles Walter Allfrey , would be sent to reinforce the landings . With 11 Para still in Palestine , the 4th Parachute Brigade only had 10 and 156 Para available to take part in the landings . On 9 September 1943 , the same day as the Salerno landings by Lieutenant General Mark Clark 's U.S. Fifth Army , the brigade landed at Taranto unopposed . Their first objective was the airfield of Gioia del Colle 30 miles ( 48 km ) inland . En route to the airfield near the town of Castellaneta , 10 Para came up against a German roadblock defended by a Fallschirmjäger unit of the German 1st Parachute Division . During the battalion 's assault on the roadblock , Major General George Frederick Hopkinson , the General Officer Commanding ( GOC ) 1st Airborne Division , observing the action , was hit by a burst of machine gun fire and killed . At the same time , 156 Para at San Basilio , carried out a successful flank attack on Fallschirmjäger defending the town . Two days later , having been only involved in minor skirmishes , the brigade occupied Bari and Brindisi . By 19 September 1943 the 4th Para Brigade had reached Foggia , the northernmost point of their advance , before being ordered back to Taranto . Playing no further part in operations in Italy , the brigade was withdrawn by sea to the United Kingdom , arriving in November 1943 . The 4th Parachute Brigade 's casualties during the fighting in Italy amounted to 11 officers and 90 other ranks killed in action . In December 1943 , 11 Para , which had been working independently in the Mediterranean , rejoined the brigade . The only operation they had been involved in was a company sized parachute assault on the Greek island of Kos . The Italian garrison surrendered and the company was relieved by men of the 1st Battalion , Durham Light Infantry and the RAF Regiment . = = England = = In England the brigade trained for operations in North @-@ West Europe under the supervision of the I Airborne Corps . Although they were not scheduled to take part in the Normandy landings , under Operation Tuxedo the brigade would be parachuted in to support operations if any of the five invasion beaches experienced difficulties . Tuxedo was the only operation planned where the brigade would act as an independent formation whereas 13 other operations were prepared which would have deployed the entire 1st Airborne Division . However , the speed of the Allied advance towards the River Seine and then onwards from Paris northwards , was accomplished without airborne assistance and the plans were cancelled . The brigade 's next operation was scheduled for early September 1944 . Codenamed Comet , the plan called for the 1st Airborne Division 's three brigades to land in the Netherlands and capture three river crossings . The first of these was the bridge over the River Waal at Nijmegen , the second the bridge over the River Maas at Grave and finally the River Rhine at Arnhem . The objective of the 4th Parachute Brigade would be the bridge at Grave . Planning for Comet was well advanced when on the 10 September the mission was cancelled . Instead , a new operation , Market Garden , was proposed whose objectives were the same as those of Comet but would this time be carried out by three divisions of the 1st Allied Airborne Army . = = Arnhem = = Landings by the 1st Allied Airborne Army 's three divisions began in the Netherlands on 17 September 1944 . Although allocation of aircraft for each division was roughly similar , the U.S. 101st Airborne Division landing at Nijmegen would use only one lift . The U.S. 82nd Airborne Division at Grave required two lifts while the British 1st Airborne Division at Arnhem would need three lifts . Whereas the two American divisions delivered at least three quarters of their infantry in their first lift , the 1st Airborne 's similar drop used only half its infantry capacity and the remainder to deliver vehicles and artillery . The 1st Airborne Division had the required airlift capacity to deliver all three parachute brigades with their glider borne anti @-@ tank weapons or two of the parachute brigades and the airlanding brigade on day one . However , instead the vast majority of the division 's vehicles and heavy equipment , plus 1st Parachute Brigade , most of 1st Airlanding Brigade and divisional troops would be on the first lift . The airlanding brigade would remain at the landing grounds and defend them during the following day 's lifts , while the parachute brigade set out alone to capture the bridges and ferry crossing on the River Rhine . On the second day , 4th Parachute Brigade 's lift of ninety @-@ two C @-@ 47s ( for the paratroops ) , forty @-@ nine Horsa and nine Hamilcar gliders ( for the artillery , vehicles and crews ) , were scheduled to arrive furthest away from Arnhem on Ginkel Heath drop zone ' Y ' , as early as possible on Monday 18 September 1944 . The brigade 's objective was to capture the high ground north @-@ west of Arnhem . In their last briefing before departure , Brigadier Hackett dismissed all officers except for the battalion commanders and the brigade staff and told them ; " They could forget what they had been told . Being put down where we were , with surprise gone and the opposition alerted , and given the German capability for a swift and violent response to any threat to what really mattered , they could expect their hardest fighting and worst casualties , not in defence of the final perimeter , but in trying to get there . " The division 's fourth unit , the 1st Polish Parachute Brigade , were to arrive on day three , dropping their glider troops in the north and their paratroops south of the river . Once all units were in place , the division was to form a defensive ring around the Arnhem bridges until relieved by the advance of XXX Corps 60 miles ( 97 km ) to the south . = = = 18 September = = = Although the first day 's landings on 17 September were successful , over the night of 17 – 18 September , divisional commander Major @-@ General Roy Urquhart was reported missing so Brigadier Philip Hicks of 1st Airlanding Brigade assumed command of the division on September 18 . Subsequent problems in Arnhem forced Hicks to change the divisional plan . Only the 2nd Parachute Battalion had reached the road bridge as strong German defences had stopped the other battalions . Hicks decided that the 2nd Battalion , South Staffordshire Regiment and 11 Para would link up with the 1st Parachute Brigade in an attempt to reach their objective . On 18 September , day two of the operation , bad weather over England kept the second lift on the ground and the first troops did not arrive in the Netherlands until 15 : 00 . The delay gave the Germans time to approach the northern landing grounds and engage the defenders from the 7th Battalion , King 's Own Scottish Borderers ( KOSB ) . Elsewhere German attacks were only stopped by bombardments from the division 's 75 mm artillery guns . The 4th Parachute Brigade 's paratroops jumped from between 800 and 100 feet ( 244 and 30 m ) through German machine gun fire , yet despite the enemy having encroached to within range of the drop zone , the brigade landed with only minor casualties . Once the brigade arrived , many of the Germans around the drop zone withdrew or offered no further resistance . The first unit on the ground , 10 Para , attacked and destroyed the Dutch SS Wachbattalion while Brigadier Hackett personally captured ten Germans shortly after landing . When Hackett arrived at brigade headquarters , he was informed by Lieutenant Colonel Mckenzie of the division 's staff about the change in plans , explaining that 11 Para was to be detached from his brigade to support the push into Arnhem . At the same time the KOSB , until then responsible for defending the northern side of the landing grounds , were attached to 4th Parachute Brigade to replace 11 Para . Meanwhile , the KOSB still had to defend landing @-@ zone ' L ' , to protect gliders arriving on day three . While Hackett formulated a new plan , Mckenzie returned to divisional headquarters , to be informed on his arrival that 60 German tanks were approaching Arnhem from the north . Transport aircraft passing over occupied channel ports had confirmed German suspicions of a second lift such that they were able to give their troops at Arnhem forty @-@ five minutes advance notice of the allies ' arrival . Prepared in advance for such an eventuality , a Waffen SS mobile unit had been dispatched towards the likely landing grounds . Hackett decided the brigade would advance between the railway line and the Ede – Arnhem road , in order to capture their three objectives , first the high ground overlooking Johanna Hoeve farm , next the woods near to Lichtenbeek House and finally the high ground at Koepel . The delay in England meant it was 17 : 00 before the brigade started moving . With the element of surprise gone and no intelligence on the German dispositions , 156 Para headed for the first objective . Followed by 10 Para slightly behind and to their left . Bringing up the rear was the brigade reserve 4th Field Squadron , Royal Engineers , acting in an infantry role . Three hours later 156 Para had covered about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) , and as darkness fell they came up against a strong German defensive position which they were unable to outflank in the dark . The battalion 's commanding officer , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel des Voeux , out of contact with brigade headquarters , decided to stay where they were for the night and continue the advance in daylight . = = = 19 September = = = Early the next day an attack by German 88 mm guns destroyed some of 10 Para 's transport . The battalion counterattacked , capturing the guns and a nearby farm building they were using . The brigade advance restarted at 07 : 00 , but by now the 9th SS Panzer Division had established a blocking position between Oosterbeek and the Ede – Arnhem road across the brigade 's expected route . Repeated assaults by both battalions could not find a way through . Advancing through heavy woodland , 156 Para were confronted by infantry supported by mortars , self propelled guns ( SP gun ) as well as fighter aircraft , and the battalion suffered heavy losses . At one stage ' A ' Company penetrated the German line , but before they could dig in , all their officers were killed or wounded . Short of ammunition , the remaining men were counter @-@ attacked by the Germans and driven back . In Arnhem at around 03 : 30 , the leading units of 11 Para reached 1st Parachute Brigade and the 2nd South Staffords , just as they started a new attempt to fight through to the bridge . As the battalion had just arrived and had no appreciation of the ground , it was held in reserve and played no part in the attack . By dawn and under intense fire , the attack faltered and 11 Para were ordered to carry out a left flanking attack to relieve the pressure on the South Staffords . Only the intervention of Major @-@ General Urquhart , just freed from where he had been trapped , stopped the 11 Para assault . Having recognised the futility of the battle Urquhart was not prepared to reinforce failure . At 11 : 00 the Major @-@ General ordered 11 Para still in the outskirts of Arnhem to support the advance of 4th Parachute Brigade by occupying the high ground on the north @-@ west outskirts of Arnhem . At 14 : 30 the battalion was caught in the open and subjected to a mortar attack . The attacked caused heavy casualties including the commanding officer lieutenant @-@ Colonel George Lea , unable to proceed around 150 of the survivors were forced to withdraw towards Oosterbeek . By 14 : 00 the 4th Parachute Brigade was no further forward . With casualties mounting , Brigadier Hackett asked General Urquhart 's permission to withdraw south of the railway line . His intention was to move through Wolfheze and into Oosterbeek where the division 's support units waited . The change of direction was further complicated by the lack of vehicle crossings along the railway line — there were only two , one at Wolfheze and the other at Oosterbeek . Both battalions were still in contact with the Germans during the withdrawal with 10 Para to the north having the furthest to travel to reach the relative safety of the rail crossing . By 15 : 00 it became obvious that the Germans were already in front of the battalion . Now , as well as fighting a rearguard action , they had to capture positions between themselves and the railway line . Captain Lionel Queripel of 10 Para was awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross , the highest British military decoration , for his actions while in command of the battalion 's rear guard . As both battalions headed for the railway line , gliders carrying the 1st Polish Parachute Brigade 's vehicles and artillery arrived at landing zone ' L ' . The KOSB still defending the area were holding out against repeated German attacks but the landing ground was in range of the Germans guns . At the same time 10 Para , closely followed by German armoured vehicles and under mortar fire , reached the clearing . The leading companies had just cleared the woods and started across open ground when the gliders arrived . In the confusion , with both groups under fire , each thought the other was the enemy and began shooting back . The Polish anti @-@ tank battery was virtually destroyed and although some vehicles got away the majority of their guns were trapped in the burning gliders . Some of the pursuing German troops tried to cross the landing zone only to suffer heavy casualties at the hands of the defending KOSB companies . In the confusion , ' A ' Company KOSB , covering the withdrawal of 10 Para , was cut off and eventually forced to surrender . The buildup of vehicles and men trying to use the crossing at Wolfheze caused a bottleneck and made progress slow . Rather than wait , brigade headquarters , the KOSB and 156 Para chose to head up and over the railway embankment on foot . Once south of the railway line Support and ' B ' Company , 156 Para became mixed up with 10 Para making towards Wolfheze , while the battalion headquarters and other two companies headed further south . At 20 : 30 divisional headquarters issued orders for all units to fall back on a position around the Hartenstein Hotel in Oosterbeek . The Germans continued to pressure 4th Parachute Brigade and 10 Para dug in around Wolfheze . 156 Para to their south came under constant attack leading to fighting at close quarters throughout the night and into the next morning . = = = 20 September = = = In the east about 400 men , the remnants of 11 Para , the 1st Parachute Brigade and the 2nd South Staffordshires , having failed to break through to the trapped 2nd Parachute Battalion were trickling back towards Oosterbeek . They were gathered together and eventually placed under the command of Major Richard Lonsdale of 11 Para . Known as " Lonsdale Force " , in the following day 's fighting two of its men would be awarded the Victoria Cross , Lance @-@ Sergeant John Baskeyfield , and Major Robert Cain . At daylight 4th Parachute Brigade started moving east towards the division at Oosterbeek , where the KOSB , moving through the night , had already arrived . Only the parachute battalions and brigade troops remained outside of the village . The order of march was 10 Para followed by brigade troops then 156 Para bringing up the rear . Virtually surrounded , the brigade fought a running hand @-@ to @-@ hand battle with German infantry supported by armour as they attempted to break through . During the fighting commanding officer Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Des Voeux and the second in command of 156 Para were killed in action . Another high ranking casualty was the commanding officer of 10 Para Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Ken Smyth , who was wounded and became a prisoner of war . With 156 Para leading , the remnants of the brigade carried out a bayonet charge and cleared the Germans from a large hollow which provided some shelter for the exhausted troops . Pinned down all day and with their numbers dwindling , at 17 : 00 Brigadier Hackett led a charge towards the divisions position , only the Brigadier and 150 men made it . The battalions were then allocated positions on the eastern side of the perimeter , but by now they were battalions in name only . 156 Para had just 53 men under Major Geoffrey Powell , while 10 Para were only slightly better off with 60 men although all its battalion officers were missing . As a result , Captain Peter Barron of the brigade 's anti @-@ tank battery was given command of 10 Para . One of the official war photographers inside the perimeter wrote : " This is the fourth day of fighting and camera work is almost out of the question . All day we have been under shell , mortar and machine gun fire . We are completely surrounded and our perimeter is becoming smaller every hour , now it is a matter of fighting for our lives . If our land forces don 't make contact with us soon then we 've had it " . = = = 21 September = = = After holding out in Arnhem for four nights and three days , the 2nd Parachute Battalion surrendered overnight . At Oosterbeek there was around 3 @,@ 000 men of the 1st Airborne Division dug in to form a perimeter . Everything including ammunition was now in short supply and most of the men had not eaten for over twenty @-@ four hours . Headquarters 4th Parachute Brigade began to function again and a small number of stragglers from the parachute battalions were reunited with their units . The brigade was now responsible for all units in the eastern half of the perimeter . In descending order from north to south were the 1st Airborne Reconnaissance Squadron , 156 Para , ' D ' Squadron GPR , 10 Para at the Oosterbeek crossroads , ' C ' Squadron GPR , 21st Independent Parachute Company , the RASC Detachment and finally Lonsdale Force . In the south @-@ east Lonsdale Force 's Major Cain armed with a PIAT anti @-@ tank projectile engaged in a fight with German armoured vehicles for which he would be awarded the Victoria Cross . Elsewhere around the brigade 's positions the Germans mounted a number of small attacks , at times supported by armour . Shortage of ammunition made the defenders hold fire until the Germans got within 20 yards ( 18 m ) . The tactic was successful and time after time the Germans were beaten back . In between German infantry attacks , the defenders came under almost constant mortar and artillery bombardment , which was responsible for the destruction of the divisional ammunition dump . At one stage Major Powell of 156 Para discovered that he and his men were surrounded when the British units on either side of them pulled back without informing them . Asking for permission to withdraw , he gained the impression that headquarters had forgotten about them or thought they had been wiped out . The gaps in the perimeter did allow individual German snipers to infiltrate brigade positions and the Glider Pilots had to send out dedicated anti @-@ sniper patrols to hunt them down . Patrols from both sides moved around the brigade 's area and anyone caught in the open during daylight was liable to be confronted by the other side and shot . Touring his brigade positions , Brigadier Hackett , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Thompson of the artillery and the Brigade Major Tiny Maddon , were caught in the open by mortar fire . Maddon was killed outright while Hackett and Thompson were both wounded and taken to the house of Mrs Kate ter Horst for treatment . Two days later than expected , the parachute battalions of the 1st Polish Parachute Brigade landed south of the River Rhine to the east of Driel . Although unable to cross the river , the Poles at least relieved the pressure on the troops at Oosterbeek , when the Germans diverted 2 @,@ 400 troops to contain them . By now the division had made first contact with XXX Corps 11 miles ( 18 km ) to the south and could call upon the guns of 64 Medium Regiment , Royal Artillery to break up German attacks . The Poles arrival rejuvenated the Germans , at 18 : 40 Lonsdale Force was attacked . The next attack came at 19 : 05 in the west and 10 Para were attacked at 20 : 10 . First , houses holding 10 Para were set alight then assaulted by German infantry , but they continued to hold out . = = = 22 September = = = The previous day 's attacks had contracted the division 's perimeter ; it was now about 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) wide at the river , stretching north for 2 @,@ 000 yards ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) where it widened out to around 1 @,@ 200 yards ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) . The brigade 's three original parachute battalions now consisted of five officers and sixty men in 156 Para . Two officers with one hundred men in 11 Para and thirty men in 10 Para . With their losses in men and vehicles beginning to tell , German troops attacking the perimeter changed tactics and now tended to rely more on artillery and mortars than on infantry and armour to break through the British line . However , in the attacks on Lonsdale Force , the Germans persisted in attacking in company strength supported by one or two armoured vehicles . The method employed by the Germans was a tank or SP gun would move up and down a street blowing holes in the house walls . This would be followed up by supporting infantry who would try and use the holes to gain entry to the houses . During the day men from Lonsdale Force and the 21st Independent Company stalked and destroyed two SP guns then engaged the supporting infantry . South of the river , the first unit from the Guards Armoured Division , the Household Cavalry , had fought through and linked up with the Poles at Driel . That night the brigade made the first attempt to get men of the Polish Parachute Brigade across the Rhine . Under the command of Captain Harry Brown of the brigade 's engineer squadron , fifteen men with a makeshift fleet of six boats , managed to transport fifty @-@ five Poles across the river . = = = 23 September = = = The day began with a four @-@ hour artillery and mortar bombardment and all indications were of an attack in force on 156 Para and ' D ' Squadron GPR . At 07 : 42 the attack started and at 07 : 50 , by now under intense pressure , Brigade headquarters called down artillery fire almost on top of their own positions which broke up the assault . Attacks continued all morning and a shortage of hand held anti @-@ tank weapons allowed German tanks to safely approach the brigade 's positions . The tanks targeted the houses shooting up a room at a time , forcing the defenders out and into trenches dug in the gardens . Both units managed to hold out , however their situation was officially described as " grim " . The numbers of British casualties exhausted all available medical supplies and wound dressings . Those wounded who required urgent treatment were now directed to the Schoonoord Hotel , which was in German hands . A fresh German assault on Lonsdale Force in the south @-@ east saw the Germans demolish defended houses with high explosives or set them on fire with incendiary shells . At midday a German officer under a white flag asked to speak to Brigadier Hackett . He explained they were about to attack the area supported by an artillery and mortar barrage . He knew there were wounded in the nearby Casualty Clearing Station ( CCS ) and suggested that the brigade 's forward positions were moved 600 yards ( 550 m ) back . Hackett refused to move , not least because to do so would have placed divisional headquarters 200 yards ( 180 m ) behind the new German front line . Although the expected artillery barrage did arrive , no rounds landed in the area of the CCS . = = = 24 September = = = Overnight a second attempt was made to reinforce 1st Airborne Division with Polish paratroops using boats belonging to the 43rd ( Wessex ) Infantry Division . Those men that did cross the river were to go into the line under command of the 4th Parachute Brigade . Despite the urgent need for reinforcements , the operation did not begin until 03 : 00 . Only twelve boats were available and by dawn , 200 Poles had been carried across the river . While en route to reinforce ' D ' Squadron GPR , the Poles were caught in the open by machine @-@ gun fire , killing their commander , Captain Gazurek , and another man . Pinned down all day , the Poles only reached the glider pilots ' position after dark . After welcoming the Poles to the brigade , Brigadier Hackett departed for headquarters and was caught in the open during a mortar barrage and wounded again . The seriously injured Hackett was taken to the CCS in the Hartenstein Hotel , and command of 4th Parachute Brigade given to Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Iain Murray of the Glider Pilot Regiment . That afternoon a truce was agreed to allow evacuation of British wounded from inside the perimeter . Over 450 wounded including Brigadier Hackett were taken into German captivity . = = = 25 September = = = By now the perimeter along the river was only about 700 yards ( 640 m ) wide . In the south @-@ east a large force of Germans managed to break through the brigade 's perimeter and overran one of the division 's artillery batteries , located at the rear of Lonsdale Force . The other artillery batteries opened fire on the Germans from a range of 50 yards ( 46 m ) and requested infantry as well as anti @-@ tank weapons to come to their assistance . The German force including two Panther tanks and SP guns , came close to cutting the defenders off from the river and were only defeated by the artillery , followed up by bayonet and grenade counter @-@ attacks . Lonsdale Force spent the rest of the day in close quarters battles with Waffen SS infantry . The fight was likened to a " snowball fight with grenades " and at least one tank was destroyed with a Gammon bomb . In the afternoon , more Germans managed to infiltrate the perimeter . Only intervention by the guns of 64 Medium Regiment firing on the British positions prevented the division 's headquarters from being overrun . South of the river Lieutenant @-@ General Brian Horrocks , commander of XXX Corps and Lieutenant @-@ General Frederick Browning of I Airborne Corps , decided not to reinforce the position north of the Rhine . Instead they ordered the Corps staff to prepare a plan to withdraw the division ( Operation Berlin ) . The evacuation of the surviving 2 @,@ 500 men able to make the crossing was to begin at 20 : 45 . The evacuation would be from north to south , and was modelled on the evacuation from Gallipoli in the First World War . During the day 's fighting , some units had become isolated and never received the order to evacuate . Those capable of taking part were formed into groups of fourteen ( the maximum capacity of the boats ) and guided to the river by men from the Glider Pilot Regiment who during the day had reconnoitred and marked out two routes to the river . Under cover of an artillery barrage the evacuation started at 22 : 00 . German infiltration of the perimeter caused problems during the withdrawal and some groups got into fire fights or were captured . When they reached the river , priority was given to the wounded and regardless of rank the soldiers waited in line for their turn to get into the boats . The crossing was not secure and when the Germans realised something was happening they opened fire with machine @-@ guns and targeted the south bank with artillery fire , sinking some boats or killing their crews . At dawn the evacuation ended with around 500 men still waiting on the north bank . A small number of men tried to swim across and some made it to the far bank . Of the men left behind , 200 evaded capture and reached the safety of the south bank over the following days . = = = Outcome = = = The 1st Airborne Division had taken 11 @,@ 500 men to Arnhem where 1 @,@ 440 were killed and just over half , some 5 @,@ 960 men , were prisoners of war of whom 3 @,@ 000 had been wounded before capture . Of the 4th Parachute Brigade 's 2 @,@ 170 men who arrived in Arnhem , 252 were killed , 462 were evacuated and 1 @,@ 456 were missing or prisoners of war . Their total casualties amounted to seventy @-@ eight per cent , and while severe they were not the highest in the division . The 1st Airlanding Brigade suffered eighty – one per cent casualties , slightly lower than the eighty – eight per cent figure for the overall division . The 4th Parachute Brigade never recovered from the battle of Arnhem and was disbanded , those men who had been evacuated were used to reform the battalions of the 1st Parachute Brigade . = = Territorial Army = = In 1947 , a new 4th Parachute Brigade was raised as part of Territorial Army and assigned to the 16th Airborne Division . It was composed of the 10th Battalion , Parachute Regiment , the 11th Battalion , Parachute Regiment and the 14th Battalion , Parachute Regiment . In 1950 , the brigade was renumbered the 44th Parachute Brigade ( TA ) . = = Brigade composition = = = = = Commanding officers = = = Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Kenneth Smyth Brigadier John Hackett Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Iain Murray = = = Units = = = 10th Parachute Battalion Lieutenant @-@ Colonel K. Smyth 11th Parachute Battalion Lieutenant @-@ Colonel G. Lea 156th Parachute Battalion Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Sir W. de Briancourt des Voeux 133rd ( Parachute ) Field Ambulance , Royal Army Medical Corps Lieutenant @-@ Colonel W. Alford 2nd ( Oban ) Airlanding Anti @-@ Tank Battery , Royal Artillery Major A. Haynes 4th Parachute Squadron , Royal Engineers Major A. Perkins Royal Army Service Corps detachment
= History of malaria = The history of malaria stretches from its prehistoric origin as a zoonotic disease in the primates of Africa through to the 21st century . A widespread and potentially lethal human infectious disease , at its peak malaria infested every continent , except Antarctica . Its prevention and treatment have been targeted in science and medicine for hundreds of years . Since the discovery of the parasites which cause it , research attention has focused on their biology , as well as that of the mosquitoes which transmit the parasites . References to its unique , periodic fevers are found throughout recorded history beginning in 2700 BC in China . For thousands of years , traditional herbal remedies have been used to treat malaria . The first effective treatment for malaria came from the bark of cinchona tree , which contains quinine . After the link to mosquitos and their parasites were identified in the early twentieth century , mosquito control measures such as widespread use of DDT , swamp drainage , covering or oiling the surface of open water sources , indoor residual spraying and use of insecticide treated nets was initiated . Prophylactic quinine was prescribed in malaria endemic areas , and new therapeutic drugs , including chloroquine and artemisinins , were used to resist the scourge . Malaria researchers have won multiple Nobel Prizes for their achievements , although the disease continues to afflict some 200 million patients each year , killing more than 600 @,@ 000 . Malaria was the most important health hazard encountered by U.S. troops in the South Pacific during World War II , where about 500 @,@ 000 men were infected . According to Joseph Patrick Byrne , " Sixty thousand American soldiers died of malaria during the African and South Pacific campaigns . " At the close of the 20th century , malaria remained endemic in more than 100 countries throughout the tropical and subtropical zones , including large areas of Central and South America , Hispaniola ( Haiti and the Dominican Republic ) , Africa , the Middle East , the Indian subcontinent , Southeast Asia , and Oceania . Resistance of Plasmodium to anti @-@ malaria drugs , as well as resistance of mosquitos to insecticides and the discovery of zoonotic species of the parasite have complicated control measures . = = Origin and prehistoric period = = The first evidence of malaria parasites was found in mosquitoes preserved in amber from the Palaeogene period that are approximately 30 million years old . Human malaria likely originated in Africa and coevolved with its hosts , mosquitoes and non @-@ human primates . Malaria protozoa are diversified into primate , rodent , bird , and reptile host lineages . Humans may have originally caught Plasmodium falciparum from gorillas . P. vivax , another malarial Plasmodium species among the six that infect humans , also likely originated in African gorillas and chimpanzees . Another malarial species recently discovered to be transmissible to humans , P. knowlesi , originated in Asian macaque monkeys . While P. malariae is highly host specific to humans , there is spotty evidence that low level non @-@ symptomatic infection persists among wild chimpanzees . About 10 @,@ 000 years ago , malaria started having a major impact on human survival , coinciding with the start of agriculture in the Neolithic revolution . Consequences included natural selection for sickle @-@ cell disease , thalassaemias , glucose @-@ 6 @-@ phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency , Southeast Asian ovalocytosis , elliptocytosis and loss of the Gerbich antigen ( glycophorin C ) and the Duffy antigen on the erythrocytes , because such blood disorders confer a selective advantage against malaria infection ( balancing selection ) . The three major types of inherited genetic resistance ( sickle @-@ cell disease , thalassaemias , and glucose @-@ 6 @-@ phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency ) were present in the Mediterranean world by the time of the Roman Empire , about 2000 years ago . Molecular methods have confirmed the high prevalence of P. falciparum malaria in ancient Egypt . The Ancient Greek historian Herodotus wrote that the builders of the Egyptian pyramids ( circa 2700 - 1700 BCE ) were given large amounts of garlic , probably to protect them against malaria . The Pharaoh Sneferu , the founder of the Fourth dynasty of Egypt , who reigned from around 2613 – 2589 BCE , used bed @-@ nets as protection against mosquitoes . Cleopatra VII , the last Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt , similarly slept under a mosquito net . However , whether the mosquito nets were used for the purpose of malaria prevention , or for more mundane purpose of avoiding the discomfort of mosquito bites , is unknown . The presence of malaria in Egypt from circa 800 BCE onwards has been confirmed using DNA @-@ based methods . = = Classical period = = Malaria became widely recognized in ancient Greece by the 4th century BCE , and is implicated in the decline of many city @-@ state populations . The term μίασμα ( Greek for miasma ) : " stain , pollution " , was coined by Hippocrates of Kos who used it to describe dangerous fumes from the ground that are transported by winds and can cause serious illnesses . Hippocrates ( 460 – 370 BCE ) , the " father of medicine " , related the presence of intermittent fevers with climatic and environmental conditions and classified the fever according to periodicity : Gk . : tritaios pyretos / L. : febris tertiana ( fever every third day ) , and Gk . : tetartaios pyretos / L. : febris quartana ( fever every fourth day ) . The Chinese Huangdi Neijing ( The Inner Canon of the Yellow Emperor ) dating from ~ 300 BCE - 200 CE apparently refers to repeated paroxysmal fevers associated with enlarged spleens and a tendency to epidemic occurrence . Around 168 BCE , the herbal remedy Qing @-@ hao ( 青蒿 ) ( Artemisia annua ) came into use in China to treat female hemorrhoids ( Wushi 'er bingfang translated as " Recipes for 52 kinds of diseases " unearthed from the Mawangdui tombs ) . Qing @-@ hao was first recommended for acute intermittent fever episodes by Ge Hong as an effective medication in the 4th @-@ century Chinese manuscript Zhou hou bei ji fang , usually translated as " Emergency Prescriptions kept in one 's Sleeve " . His recommendation was to soak fresh plants of the artemisia herb in cold water , wring it out and ingest the expressed bitter juice in its raw state . 'Roman fever ' refers to a particularly deadly strain of malaria that affected the Roman Campagna and the city of Rome throughout various epochs in history . An epidemic of Roman fever during the fifth century AD may have contributed to the fall of the Roman empire . The many remedies to reduce the spleen in Pedanius Dioscorides 's De Materia Medica have been suggested to have been a response to chronic malaria in the Roman empire . In 835 , the celebration of Hallowmas was moved from May to November at the behest of Pope Gregory IV , on the " practical grounds that Rome in summer could not accommodate the great number of pilgrims who flocked to it " , and perhaps because of public health considerations regarding Roman Fever , which claimed a number of lives of pilgrims during the sultry summers of the region . = = Middle Ages = = During the Middle Ages , treatments for malaria ( and other diseases ) included blood @-@ letting , inducing vomiting , limb amputations and trepanning . Some turned to witchcraft and astrology . Physicians and surgeons as well as folk @-@ healers administered ineffective and often deadly herbs - Belladonna , for example . = = = European Renaissance = = = The name malaria derived from mal aria ( ' bad air ' in Medieval Italian ) . This idea came from the Ancient Romans who thought that this disease came from the horrible fumes in the swamps . The word malaria has its roots in the miasma theory , as described by historian and chancellor of Florence Leonardo Bruni in his Historiarum Florentini populi libri XII , which was the first major example of Renaissance historical writing : Avuto i Fiorentini questo fortissimo castello e fornitolo di buone guardie , consigliavano fra loro medesimi fosse da fare . Erano alcuni a ' quali pareva sommamente utile e necessario a ridurre lo esercito , e massimamente essendo affaticato per la infermità e per la mala ariae per lungo e difficile campeggiare nel tempo dell 'autunno e in luoghi infermi , e vedendo ancora ch 'egli era diminuito assai per la licenza conceduta a molti pel capitano di potersi partire : perocchè , nel tempo che eglino erano stati lungamente a quello assedio , molti , o per disagio del campo o per paura d 'infermità , avevano domandato e ottenuto licenza da lui ( Acciajuoli 1476 ) . After the Florentines had conquered this stronghold , after putting good guardians on it they were discussing among themselves how to proceed . For some of them it appeared most useful and necessary to reduce the army , more so as it was extremely stressed by disease and bad air , and due to the long @-@ lasting and difficult camps in unhealthy places during the autumn . They ( the Florentines ) further considered that the army was reduced in numbers due to the leave permits granted to many soldiers by their officers . In fact , during the siege , many soldiers had asked and obtained leave permits due to the camp hardships and fear of illness [ translated from medieval Italian , Toscanic dialect ] . The coastal plains of southern Italy fell from international prominence when malaria expanded in the sixteenth century . At roughly the same time , in the coastal marshes of England , mortality from " marsh fever " or " tertian ague " ( ague : via French from medieval Latin acuta ( febris ) , acute fever ) was comparable to that in sub @-@ Saharan Africa today . William Shakespeare was born at the start of the especially cold period that climatologists call the " Little Ice Age " , yet he was aware enough of the ravages of the disease to mention it in eight of his plays . Medical accounts and ancient autopsy reports state that tertian malarial fevers caused the death of four members of the prominent Medici family of Florence . These claims have been confirmed with more modern methodologies . = = Spread to the Americas = = Malaria was not referenced in the " medical books " of the Mayans or Aztecs . European settlers and their West African slaves likely brought malaria to the Americas in the 16th century . In the book ″ 1493 , ″ the author Charles Mann , cites sources that speculate that the reason African slaves were brought to the British Americas was because of their immunity to malaria . Britain did not have large number of African slaves , there were plenty of unemployed workers who could come as indentured servants . In the area above the Mason @-@ Dixon line , the malaria protozoa did not fare well , the English @-@ speaking indentured servant proved more profitable as he would work toward his freedom and hence worked with less supervision and coercion . As malaria spread , places such as the tidewater of Virginia and South Carolina which had previously been habitable by white people became endemic with malaria . Small white landholders were at a disadvantage to plantation owners , as they risk complete economic ruin when they were sick , while plantation owners relied on more malaria resistant West African slaves . Malaria caused huge losses to British forces in the South during the revolutionary war as well as to Union forces during the Civil War . Malaria also helped weaken the native American population and make them more susceptible to other diseases . = = = Cinchona tree = = = Spanish missionaries found that fever was treated by Amerindians near Loxa ( Peru ) with powder from Peruvian bark ( later established to be from any of several trees of genus Cinchona ) . It was used by the Quechua Indians of Peru to reduce the shaking effects caused by severe chills . Jesuit Brother Agostino Salumbrino ( 1561 – 1642 ) , who lived in Lima and was an apothecary by training , observed the Quechua using the bark of the cinchona tree for that purpose . While its effect in treating malaria ( and hence malaria @-@ induced shivering ) was unrelated to its effect in controlling shivering from cold , it was nevertheless effective for malaria . The use of the “ fever tree ” bark was introduced into European medicine by Jesuit missionaries ( Jesuit 's bark ) . Jesuit Bernabé de Cobo ( 1582 – 1657 ) , who explored Mexico and Peru , is credited with taking cinchona bark to Europe . He brought the bark from Lima to Spain , and then to Rome and other parts of Italy , in 1632 . Francesco Torti wrote in 1712 that only “ intermittent fever ” was amenable to the fever tree bark . This work finally established the specific nature of cinchona bark and brought about its general use in medicine . It would be nearly 200 years before the active principles , quinine and other alkaloids , of cinchona bark were isolated . Quinine , a toxic plant alkaloid , is , in addition to its anti @-@ malarial properties , an effective muscle relaxant , as the modern use for nocturnal leg cramps suggests ( corroborating its use for shivering by the Peruvian Indians ) . = = = Clinical indications = = = In 1717 , the dark pigmentation of a postmortem spleen and brain was published by the epidemiologist Giovanni Maria Lancisi in his malaria text book De noxiis paludum effluviis eorumque remediis . This was one of the earliest reports of the characteristic enlargement of the spleen and dark color of the spleen and brain which are the most constant post @-@ mortem indications of chronic malaria infection . He related the prevalence of malaria in swampy areas to the presence of flies and recommended swamp drainage to prevent it . = = 19th century = = In the nineteenth century , the first drugs were developed to treat malaria and parasites were first identified as its source . = = = Antimalarial drugs = = = = = = = Quinine = = = = French chemist Pierre Joseph Pelletier and French pharmacist Joseph Bienaimé Caventou separated in 1820 the alkaloids cinchonine and quinine from powdered fever tree bark , allowing for the creation of standardized doses of the active ingredients . Prior to 1820 , the bark was simply dried , ground to a fine powder and mixed into a liquid ( commonly wine ) for drinking . An English trader , Charles Ledger , and his Amerindian servant spent four years collecting cinchona seeds in the Andes in Bolivia , highly prized for their quinine but whose export was prohibited . Ledger managed to get seeds out ; in 1865 , the Dutch government cultivated 20 @,@ 000 trees of the Cinchona ledgeriana in Java ( Indonesia ) . By the end of the nineteenth century , the Dutch had established a world monopoly over its supply . = = = = ' Warburg 's Tincture ' = = = = In 1834 , in British Guiana , a German physician , Carl Warburg , invented an antipyretic medicine : ' Warburg 's Tincture ' . This secret , proprietary remedy contained quinine and other herbs . Trials were made in Europe in the 1840s and 1850s . It was officially adopted by the Austrian Empire in 1847 . It was considered by many eminent medical professionals to be a more efficacious antimalarial than quinine . It was also more economical . The British Government supplied Warburg 's Tincture to troops in India and other colonies . = = = = Methylene blue = = = = In 1876 , methylene blue was synthesized by German chemist Heinrich Caro . Paul Ehrlich in 1880 described the use of " neutral " dyes – mixtures of acidic and basic dyes for the differentiation of cells in peripheral blood smears . In 1891 Ernst Malachowski and Dmitri Leonidovich Romanowsky independently developed techniques using a mixture of Eosin Y and modified methylene blue ( methylene azure ) that produced a surprising hue unattributable to either staining component : a shade of purple . Malachowski used alkali @-@ treated methylene blue solutions and Romanowsky used methylene blue solutions which were molded or aged . This new method differentiated blood cells and demonstrated the nuclei of malarial parasites . Malachowski 's staining technique was one of the most significant technical advances in the history of malaria . In 1891 , Paul Guttmann and Ehrlich noted that methylene blue had a high affinity for some tissues and that this dye had a slight antimalarial property . Methylene blue and its congeners may act by preventing the biocrystallization of heme . = = = Etiology : Identification of Plasmodium and Anopheles = = = In 1848 , German anatomist Johann Heinrich Meckel recorded black @-@ brown pigment granules in the blood and spleen of a patient who had died in a mental hospital . Meckel was thought to have been looking at malaria parasites without realizing it ; he did not mention malaria in his report . He hypothesized that the pigment was melanin . The causal relationship of pigment to the parasite was established in 1880 , when French physician Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran , working in the military hospital of Constantine , Algeria , observed pigmented parasites inside the red blood cells of malaria sufferers . He witnessed the events of exflagellation and became convinced that the moving flagella were parasitic microorganisms . He noted that quinine removed the parasites from the blood . Laveran called this microscopic organism Oscillaria malariae and proposed that malaria was caused by this protozoan . This discovery remained controversial until the development of the oil immersion lens in 1884 and of superior staining methods in 1890 – 1891 . In 1885 , Ettore Marchiafava , Angelo Celli and Camillo Golgi studied the reproduction cycles in human blood ( Golgi cycles ) . Golgi observed that all parasites present in the blood divided almost simultaneously at regular intervals and that division coincided with attacks of fever . In 1886 Golgi described the morphological differences that are still used to distinguish two malaria parasite species Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium malariae . Shortly after this Sakharov in 1889 and Marchiafava & Celli in 1890 independently identified Plasmodium falciparum as a species distinct from P. vivax and P. malariae . In 1890 , Grassi and Feletti reviewed the available information and named both P. malariae and P. vivax ( although within the genus Haemamoeba . ) By 1890 , Laveran 's germ was generally accepted , but most of his initial ideas had been discarded in favor of the taxonomic work and clinical pathology of the Italian school . Marchiafava and Celli called the new microorganism Plasmodium . H. vivax was soon renamed Plasmodium vivax . In 1892 , Marchiafava and Bignami proved that the multiple forms seen by Laveran were from a single species . This species was eventually named P. falciparum . Laveran was awarded the 1907 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine " in recognition of his work on the role played by protozoa in causing diseases " . Dutch physician Pieter Pel first proposed a tissue stage of the malaria parasite in 1886 , presaging its discovery by over 50 years . This suggestion was reiterated in 1893 when Golgi suggested that the parasites might have an undiscovered tissue phase ( this time in endothelial cells ) . Pel in 1896 supported Gogli 's latent phase theory . The establishment of the scientific method from about the mid @-@ 19th century on demanded testable hypotheses and verifiable phenomena for causation and transmission . Anecdotal reports , and the discovery in 1881 that mosquitos were the vector of yellow fever , eventually led to the investigation of mosquitos in connection with malaria . An early effort at malaria prevention occurred in 1896 in Massachusetts . An Uxbridge outbreak prompted health officer Dr. Leonard White to write a report to the State Board of Health , which led to a study of mosquito @-@ malaria links and the first efforts for malaria prevention . Massachusetts state pathologist , Theobald Smith , asked that White 's son collect mosquito specimens for further analysis , and that citizens add screens to windows , and drain collections of water . Britain 's Sir Ronald Ross , an army surgeon working in Secunderabad India , proved in 1897 that malaria is transmitted by mosquitoes , an event now commemorated via World Mosquito Day . He was able to find pigmented malaria parasites in a mosquito that he artificially fed on a malaria patient who had crescents in his blood . He continued his research into malaria by showing that certain mosquito species ( Culex fatigans ) transmit malaria to sparrows and he isolated malaria parasites from the salivary glands of mosquitoes that had fed on infected birds . He reported this to the British Medical Association in Edinburgh in 1898 . Giovanni Battista Grassi , professor of Comparative Anatomy at Rome University , showed that human malaria could only be transmitted by Anopheles ( Greek anofelís : good @-@ for @-@ nothing ) mosquitoes . Grassi along with coworkers Amico Bignami , Giuseppe Bastianelli and Ettore Marchiafava announced at the session of the Accademia dei Lincei on 4 December 1898 that a healthy man in a non @-@ malarial zone had contracted tertian malaria after being bitten by an experimentally infected Anopheles claviger specimen . In 1898 @-@ 99 , Bastianelli , Bignami and Grassi were the first to observe the complete transmission cycle of P. falciparum , P. vivax and P. malaria from mosquito to human and back in A. claviger . A dispute broke out between the British and Italian schools of malariology over priority , but Ross received the 1902 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for " his work on malaria , by which he has shown how it enters the organism and thereby has laid the foundation for successful research on this disease and methods of combating it " . = = = Synthesis of quinine = = = William Henry Perkin , a student of August Wilhelm von Hofmann at the Royal College of Chemistry in London , unsuccessfully tried in the 1850s to synthesize quinine in a commercial process . The idea was to take two equivalents of N @-@ allyltoluidine ( C 10H 13N ) and three atoms of oxygen to produce quinine ( C 20H 24N 2O 2 ) and water . Instead , Perkin 's mauve was produced when attempting quinine total synthesis via the oxidation of N @-@ allyltoluidine . Before Perkin 's discovery , all dyes and pigments were derived from roots , leaves , insects , or , in the case of Tyrian purple , molluscs . Quinine wouldn 't be successfully synthesized until 1918 . Synthesis remains elaborate , expensive and low yield , with the additional problem of separation of the stereoisomers . Though quinine is not one of the major drugs used in treatment , modern production still relies on extraction from the cinchona tree . = = 20th century = = = = = Etiology : Plasmodium tissue stage and reproduction = = = Relapses were first noted in 1897 by William S. Thayer , who recounted the experiences of a physician who relapsed 21 months after leaving an endemic area . He proposed the existence of a tissue stage . Relapses were confirmed by Patrick Manson , who allowed infected Anopheles mosquitoes to feed on his eldest son . The younger Manson then described a relapse nine months after his apparent cure with quinine . Also , in 1900 Amico Bignami and Giuseppe Bastianelli found that they could not infect an individual with blood containing only gametocytes . The possibility of the existence of a chronic blood stage infection was proposed by Ronald Ross and David Thompson in 1910 . The existence of asexually @-@ reproducing avian malaria parasites in cells of the internal organs was first demonstrated by Henrique de Beaurepaire Aragão in 1908 . Three possible mechanisms of relapse were proposed by Marchoux in 1926 ( i ) parthenogenesis of macrogametocytes : ( ii ) persistence of schizonts in small numbers in the blood where immunity inhibits multiplication , but later disappears and / or ( iii ) reactivation of an encysted body in the blood . James in 1931 proposed that sporozoites are carried to internal organs , where they enter reticuloendothelial cells and undergo a cycle of development , based on quinine 's lack of activity on them . Huff and Bloom in 1935 demonstrated stages of avian malaria that transpire outside blood cells ( exoerythrocytic ) . In 1945 Fairley et al. reported that inoculation of blood from a patient with P. vivax may fail to induce malaria , although the donor may subsequently exhibit the condition . Sporozoites disappeared from the blood stream within one hour and reappeared eight days later . This suggested the presence of forms that persist in tissues . Using mosquitoes rather than blood , in 1946 Shute described a similar phenomenon and proposed the existence of an ' x @-@ body ' or resting form . The following year Sapero proposed a link between relapse and a tissue stage not yet discovered . Garnham in 1947 described exoerythrocytic schizogony in Hepatocystis ( Plasmodium ) kochi . In the following year Shortt and Garnham described the liver stages of P. cynomolgi in monkeys . In the same year a human volunteer consented to receive a massive dose of infected sporozoites of P. vivax and undergo a liver biopsy three months later , thus allowing Shortt et al. to demonstrate the tissue stage . The tissue form of Plasmodium ovale was described in 1954 and that of P. malariae in 1960 in experimentally infected chimpanzees . The latent or dormant liver form of the parasite ( hypnozoite ) , apparently responsible for the relapses characteristic of P. vivax and P. ovale infections , was first observed in the 1980s . The term hypnozoite was coined by Miles B. Markus while a student . In 1976 , he speculated : " If sporozoites of Isospora can behave in this fashion , then those of related Sporozoa , like malaria parasites , may have the ability to survive in the tissues in a similar way . " In 1982 , Krotoski et al reported identification of P. vivax hypnozoites in liver cells of infected chimpanzees . = = = Malariotherapy = = = In the early twentieth century , before antibiotics , patients with tertiary syphilis were intentionally infected with malaria to induce a fever ; this was called malariotherapy . In 1917 , Julius Wagner @-@ Jauregg , a Viennese psychiatrist , began to treat neurosyphilitics with induced Plasmodium vivax malaria . Three or four bouts of fever were enough to kill the temperature @-@ sensitive syphilis bacteria ( Spirochaeta pallida also known as Treponema pallidum ) . P. vivax infections were terminated by quinine . By accurately controlling the fever with quinine , the effects of both syphilis and malaria could be minimized . While about 15 % of patients died from malaria , this was preferable to the almost @-@ certain death from syphilis . Therapeutic malaria opened up a wide field of chemotherapeutic research and was practised until 1950 . Wagner @-@ Jauregg was awarded the 1927 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery of the therapeutic value of malaria inoculation in the treatment of dementia paralytica . Henry Heimlich has advocated malariotherapy as a treatment for AIDS , and some studies of malariotherapy for HIV infection have been performed in China . The CDC does not recommend the use of malariotherapy for HIV . = = = Panama Canal and vector control = = = In 1881 , Dr. Carlos Finlay , a Scottish physician practising in Havana , theorized that yellow fever was transmitted by a specific mosquito , later designated Aedes aegypti . The theory remained controversial for twenty years until confirmed in 1901 by Walter Reed . This was the first scientific proof of a disease being transmitted exclusively by an insect vector , and demonstrated that control of such diseases necessarily entailed control or eradication of its insect vector . Yellow fever and malaria among workers had seriously delayed construction of the Panama Canal . Mosquito control instituted by William C. Gorgas dramatically reduced this problem . = = = Antimalarial drugs = = = = = = = Chloroquine = = = = Johann " Hans " Andersag and colleagues synthesized and tested some 12 @,@ 000 compounds , eventually producing Resochin ® as a substitute for quinine in the 1930s . It is chemically related to quinine through the possession of a quinoline nucleus and the dialkylaminoalkylamino side chain . Resochin ( 7 @-@ chloro @-@ 4- 4- ( diethylamino ) – 1 – methylbutyl amino quinoline ) and a similar compound Sontochin ( 3 @-@ methyl Resochin ) were synthesized in 1934 . In March 1946 , the drug was officially named Chloroquine . Chloroquine is an inhibitor of hemozoin production through biocrystallization . Quinine and chloroquine affect malarial parasites only at life stages when the parasites are forming hematin @-@ pigment ( hemozoin ) as a byproduct of hemoglobin degradation . Chloroquine @-@ resistant forms of P. falciparum emerged only 19 years later . The first resistant strains were detected around the Cambodia ‐ Thailand border and in Colombia , in the 1950s . In 1989 , chloroquine resistance in P. vivax was reported in Papua New Guinea . These resistant strains spread rapidly , producing a large mortality increase , particularly in Africa during the 1990s . = = = = Artemisinins = = = = Systematic screening of traditional Chinese medical herbs was carried out by Chinese research teams , consisting of hundreds of scientists in the 1960s and 1970s . Qinghaosu , later named artemisinin , was cold @-@ extracted in a neutral milieu ( pH 7 @.@ 0 ) from the dried leaves of Artemisia annua . Artemisinin was isolated by pharmacologist Tu Youyou ( Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine , 2015 ) . Tu headed a team tasked by the Chinese government with finding a treatment for choloroquine @-@ resistant malaria . Their work was known as Project 523 , named after the date it was announced – 23 May 1967 . The team investigated more than 2000 Chinese herb preparations and by 1971 had made 380 extracts from 200 herbs . An extract from qinghao ( Artemisia annua ) was effective but the results were variable . Tu reviewed the literature , including Zhou hou bei ji fang ( A handbook of prescriptions for emergencies ) written in 340 BC by Chinese physician Ge Hong . This book contained the only useful reference to the herb : " A handful of qinghao immersed with two litres of water , wring out the juice and drink it all . " Tu 's team subsequently isolated a nontoxic , neutral extract that was 100 % effective against parasitemia in animals . The first successful trials of artemisinin were in 1979 . Artemisinin is a sesquiterpene lactone containing a peroxide group , which is believed to be essential for its anti @-@ malarial activity . Its derivatives , artesunate and artemether , have been used in clinics since 1987 for the treatment of drug @-@ resistant and drug @-@ sensitive malaria , especially cerebral malaria . These drugs are characterized by fast action , high efficacy and good tolerance . They kill the asexual forms of P. berghei and P. cynomolgi and have transmission @-@ blocking activity . In 1985 , Zhou Yiqing and his team combined artemether and lumefantrine into a single tablet , which was registered as a medicine in China in 1992 . Later it became known as “ Coartem ” . Artemisinin combination treatments ( ACTs ) are now widely used to treat uncomplicated falciparum malaria , but access to ACTs is still limited in most malaria @-@ endemic countries and only a minority of the patients who need artemisinin @-@ based combination treatments receive them . In 2008 White predicted that improved agricultural practices , selection of high @-@ yielding hybrids , microbial production , and the development of synthetic peroxides would lower prices . = = = Insecticides = = = Efforts to control the spread of malaria suffered a major setback in 1930 . Entomologist Raymond Corbett Shannon discovered imported disease @-@ bearing Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes living in Brazil ( DNA analysis later revealed the actual species to be A. arabiensis ) . This species of mosquito is a particularly efficient vector for malaria and is native to Africa . In 1938 , the introduction of this vector caused the greatest epidemic of malaria ever seen in the New World . However , complete eradication of A. gambiae from northeast Brazil and thus from the New World was achieved in 1940 by the systematic application of the arsenic @-@ containing compound Paris green to breeding places , and of pyrethrum spray @-@ killing to adult resting places . = = = = DDT = = = = Austrian chemist Othmar Zeidler is credited with the first synthesis of DDT ( DichloroDiphenylTrichloroethane ) in 1874 . The insecticidal properties of DDT were identified in 1939 by chemist Paul Hermann Müller of Geigy Pharmaceutical . For his discovery of DDT as a contact poison against several arthropods , he was awarded the 1948 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine . In the fall of 1942 , samples of the chemical were acquired by the United States , Britain and Germany . Laboratory tests demonstrated that it was highly effective against many insects . Rockefeller Foundation studies showed in Mexico that DDT remained effective for six to eight weeks if sprayed on the inside walls and ceilings of houses and other buildings . The first field test in which residual DDT was applied to the interior surfaces of all habitations and outbuildings was carried out in central Italy in the spring of 1944 . The objective was to determine the residual effect of the spray upon Anopheline density in the absence of other control measures . Spraying began in Castel Volturno and , after a few months , in the delta of the Tiber . The unprecedented effectiveness of the chemical was confirmed : the new insecticide was able to eradicate malaria by eradicating mosquitoes . At the end of World War II , a massive malaria control program based on DDT spraying was carried out in Italy . In Sardinia – the second largest island in the Mediterranean – between 1946 and 1951 , the Rockefeller Foundation conducted a large @-@ scale experiment to test the feasibility of the strategy of " species eradication " in an endemic malaria vector . Malaria was effectively eliminated in the United States by the use of DDT in the National Malaria Eradication Program ( 1947 – 52 ) . The concept of eradication prevailed in 1955 in the Eighth World Health Assembly : DDT was adopted as a primary tool in the fight against malaria . In 1953 , the World Health Organization ( WHO ) launched an antimalarial program in parts of Liberia as a pilot project to determine the feasibility of malaria eradication in tropical Africa . However , these projects encountered difficulties that foreshadowed the general retreat from malaria eradication efforts across tropical Africa by the mid @-@ 1960s . DDT was banned in the US in 1972 , after the discussion opened in 1962 by Silent Spring , written by American biologist Rachel Carson , which launched the environmental movement in the West . The book catalogued the environmental impacts of indiscriminate DDT spraying and suggested that DDT and other pesticides cause cancer and that their agricultural use was a threat to wildlife . The U.S. Agency for International Development supports indoor DDT spraying as a vital component of malaria control programs and has initiated DDT and other insecticide spraying programs in tropical countries . = = = = Pyrethrum = = = = Other insecticides are available for mosquito control , as well as physical measures , such as draining the wetland breeding grounds and the provision of better sanitation . Pyrethrum ( from the flowering plant Chrysanthemum [ or Tanacetum ] cinerariaefolium ) is an economically important source of natural insecticide . Pyrethrins attack the nervous systems of all insects . A few minutes after application , the insect cannot move or fly , while female mosquitoes are inhibited from biting . The use of pyrethrum in insecticide preparations dates to about 400 BCE . Pyrethrins are biodegradable and break down easily on exposure to light . The majority of the world 's supply of pyrethrin and Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium comes from Kenya . The flower was first introduced into Kenya and the highlands of Eastern Africa during the late 1920s . The flowers of the plant are harvested shortly after blooming ; they are either dried and powdered , or the oils within the flowers are extracted with solvents . = = = Research = = = = = = = Avian , mouse and monkey models = = = = Until the 1950s , screening of anti @-@ malarial drugs was carried out on avian malaria . Avian malaria species differ from those that infect humans . The discovery in 1948 of Plasmodium berghei in wild rodents in the Congo and later other rodent species that could infect laboratory rats transformed drug development . The short hepatic phase and life cycle of these parasites made them useful as animal models , a status they still retain . Plasmodium cynomolgi in rhesus monkeys ( Macaca mulatta ) were used in the 1960s to test drugs active against P. vivax . Growth of the liver stages in animal @-@ free systems was achieved in the 1980s when pre @-@ erythrocytic P. berghei stages were grown in wI38 , a human embryonic lung cell line ( cells cultured from one specimen ) . This was followed by their growth in human hepatoma line HepG2 . Both P. falciparum and P. vivax have been grown in human liver cells ; partial development of P. ovale in human liver cells was achieved ; and P. malariae was grown in chimpanzee and monkey liver cells . The first successful continuous malaria culture was established in 1976 by William Trager and James B. Jensen , which facilitated research into the molecular biology of the parasite and the development of new drugs . By using increasing volumes of culture medium , P.falciparum was grown to higher parasitemia levels ( above 10 % ) . = = = = Diagnostics = = = = The use of antigen @-@ based malaria rapid diagnostic tests ( RDTs ) emerged in the 1980s . In the twenty @-@ first century Giemsa microscopy and RDTs became the two preferred diagnostic techniques . Malaria RDTs do not require special equipment and offer the potential to extend accurate malaria diagnosis to areas lacking microscopy services . = = = A zoonotic malarial parasite = = = Plasmodium knowlesi has been known since the 1930s in Asian macaque monkeys and as experimentally capable of infecting humans . In 1965 a natural human infection was reported in a U.S. soldier returning from the Pahang Jungle of the Malaysian peninsula .
= Casino Royale ( novel ) = Casino Royale is the first novel by the British author Ian Fleming . Published in 1953 , it is the first James Bond book , and it paved the way for a further eleven novels and two short story collections by Fleming , followed by numerous continuation Bond novels by other authors . The story concerns the British secret agent James Bond , gambling at the casino in Royale @-@ les @-@ Eaux to bankrupt Le Chiffre , the treasurer of a French union and a member of the Russian secret service . Bond is supported in his endeavours by Vesper Lynd , a member of his own service , as well as Felix Leiter of the CIA and René Mathis of the French Deuxième Bureau . Fleming used his wartime experiences as a member of the Naval Intelligence Division , and the people he met during his work , to provide plot elements ; the character of Bond also reflected many of Fleming 's personal tastes . Fleming wrote the draft in early 1952 at his Goldeneye estate in Jamaica while awaiting his marriage . He was initially unsure whether the work was suitable for publication , but was assured by his friend , the novelist William Plomer , that the novel had promise . Within the spy storyline , Casino Royale deals with themes of Britain 's position in the world , particularly the relationship with the US in light of the defections to the Soviet Union of the British traitors Guy Burgess and Donald Maclean . The book was given broadly positive reviews by critics at the time and sold out in less than a month after its UK release on 13 April 1953 , although US sales upon release a year later were much slower . Since publication Casino Royale has appeared as a comic strip in a British national newspaper , The Daily Express . It has been also adapted for the screen three times : a 1954 episode of the CBS television series Climax ! with Barry Nelson as an American Bond , a 1967 film version with David Niven playing " Sir James Bond " , and a 2006 film in the Eon Productions film series starring Daniel Craig as James Bond . = = Plot = = M , the Head of the British Secret Service , assigns James Bond , 007 , to play against and bankrupt Le Chiffre , the paymaster for a SMERSH @-@ controlled trade union , in a high @-@ stakes baccarat game at the Royale @-@ les @-@ Eaux casino in northern France . As part of Bond 's cover as a rich Jamaican playboy , M also assigns as his companion Vesper Lynd , personal assistant to the Head of Section S ( Soviet Union ) . The CIA and the French Deuxième Bureau also send agents as observers . The game soon turns into an intense confrontation between Le Chiffre and Bond ; Le Chiffre wins the first round , cleaning Bond out of his funds . As Bond contemplates the prospect of reporting his failure to M , the CIA agent , Felix Leiter , gives him an envelope of money and a note : " Marshall Aid . Thirty @-@ two million francs . With the compliments of the USA . " The game continues , despite the attempts of one of Le Chiffre 's minders to kill Bond . Bond eventually wins , taking from Le Chiffre eighty million francs belonging to SMERSH . Desperate to recover the money , Le Chiffre kidnaps Lynd and subjects Bond to brutal torture , threatening to kill them both if he does not get the money back . During the torture session , a SMERSH assassin enters and kills Le Chiffre as punishment for losing the money . The agent does not kill Bond , saying that he has no orders to do so , but cuts a Cyrillic ' Ш ' ( sh ) to signify the SHpion ( Russian for spy ) into Bond 's hand so that future SMERSH agents will be able to identify him as such . Lynd visits Bond every day as he recuperates in hospital , and he gradually realises that he loves her ; he even contemplates leaving the Secret Service to settle down with her . When he is released from hospital they spend time together at a quiet guest house and eventually become lovers . One day they see a mysterious man named Gettler tracking their movements , which greatly distresses Lynd . The following morning , Bond finds that she has committed suicide . She leaves behind a note explaining that she had been working as an unwilling double agent for the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs . SMERSH had kidnapped her lover , a Polish Royal Air Force pilot , who had revealed information about her under torture ; SMERSH then used that information to blackmail her into helping them undermine Bond 's mission , including her own faked kidnapping . She had tried to start a new life with Bond , but upon seeing Gettler — a SMERSH agent — she realised that she would never be free of her tormentors , and that staying with Bond would only put him in danger . Bond informs his service of Lynd 's duplicity , coldly telling his contact , " The bitch is dead now . " = = Background = = Ian Fleming , born in 1908 , was a son of Valentine Fleming , a wealthy banker and MP who died in action on the Western Front in May 1917 . Educated at Eton , Sandhurst and , briefly , the universities of Munich and Geneva , Fleming moved through several jobs before he was recruited by Rear Admiral John Godfrey , the Director of Naval Intelligence , to become his personal assistant . Fleming joined the organisation full @-@ time in August 1939 , with the codename " 17F " , and worked for them throughout the war . Early in 1939 he began an affair with Ann O 'Neill ( née Charteris ) , who was married to the 3rd Baron O 'Neill . In 1942 Fleming attended an Anglo @-@ American intelligence summit in Jamaica and , despite the constant heavy rain during his visit , he decided to live on the island once the war was over . His friend Ivar Bryce helped find a plot of land in Saint Mary Parish where , in 1945 , Fleming had a house built , which he named Goldeneye . The name of the house and estate has many possible sources . Fleming mentioned both his wartime Operation Goldeneye and Carson McCullers ' 1941 novel Reflections in a Golden Eye , which described the use of British naval bases in the Caribbean by the US Navy . Upon Fleming 's demobilisation in May 1945 , he became the Foreign Manager in the Kemsley newspaper group , which at the time owned The Sunday Times . In this role he oversaw the paper 's worldwide network of correspondents . His contract allowed him to take two months holiday every winter in Jamaica . In 1948 Charteris gave birth to Fleming 's daughter , Mary , who was stillborn ; Charteris and Fleming became engaged shortly in 1951 . Fleming had previously mentioned to friends that he wanted to write a spy novel , but it was not until early 1952 , to distract himself from his forthcoming nuptials , that he began to write Casino Royale at his Goldeneye estate in Jamaica on 17 February ; he typed out 2 @,@ 000 words in the morning , directly from his own experiences and imagination , and finished work on the manuscript in March 1952 . It was a pattern he retained for future Bond books . In May 1963 he wrote a piece for Books and Bookmen magazine in which he said : " I write for about three hours in the morning ... and I do another hour 's work between six and seven in the evening . I never correct anything and I never go back to see what I have written ... By following my formula , you write 2 @,@ 000 words a day . " Back in London , Fleming had his manuscript — which he described as his " dreadful oafish opus " — retyped by Joan Howe , his red @-@ haired secretary at The Times on whom the character Miss Moneypenny was partly based . Clare Blanchard , a former girlfriend , advised him not to publish the book , or at least to do so under a pseudonym . During the book 's final draft stages , Fleming allowed his friend , and later editor , William Plomer to see a copy , and remarked " I really am thoroughly ashamed of it ... after rifling through this muck you will probably never speak to me again , but I have got to take that chance . " Despite this , Plomer thought the book had sufficient promise and sent a copy to the publishing house Jonathan Cape . At first they were unenthusiastic , but were persuaded to publish on the recommendation of Fleming 's older brother , Peter , an established travel writer whose books they managed . Although Fleming provided no dates within his novels , two writers have identified different timelines based on events and situations within the novel series as a whole . John Griswold and Henry Chancellor — both of whom have written books on behalf of Ian Fleming Publications — put the events of Casino Royale in 1951 ; Griswold allows a possible second timeframe and considers the story could have taken place in either May to July 1951 , or May to July 1952 . = = Development = = = = = Plot inspirations = = = Casino Royale was inspired by certain incidents that took place during Fleming 's wartime career at the Naval Intelligence Division ( NID ) , or by events of which he was aware . On a trip to Portugal , en route to the United States , Fleming and the NID Director , Admiral Godfrey , went to the Estoril Casino . Because of Portugal 's neutral status , Estoril 's population had been swelled by spies and agents from the warring regimes . Fleming claimed that while there he was cleaned out by a " chief German agent " at a table playing chemin de fer . Admiral Godfrey told a different story : that Fleming only played Portuguese businessmen , and afterwards fantasised about playing against German agents . The failed attempt to kill Bond while at Royale @-@ Les @-@ Eaux was inspired by Fleming 's knowledge of the attempted assassination of Franz von Papen , Vice @-@ Chancellor of Germany and an ambassador under Hitler . Both Papen and Bond survived their assassination attempts , carried out by Bulgarians , because trees protected them from the blasts . The torture scene in which Bond 's genitals are thrashed while he is strapped to a bottomless chair was a version of a French @-@ Moroccan torture technique , passer à la mandolin , in which the steel string of a mandolin was used to slice in half the testicles of British wartime agents . Fleming also included four references in the novel to " Red Indians " , including twice on last page , which came from a unit of commandos , known as No. 30 Commando or 30 Assault Unit ( 30AU ) , composed of specialist intelligence troops . The unit was Fleming 's idea , and he nicknamed the troops his " Red Indians " , although they disliked the name . = = = Characters = = = The lead character of Casino Royale is James Bond , an agent of the Secret Service . Fleming initially named the character James Secretan before he appropriated the name of James Bond , author of the ornithology guide , Birds of the West Indies . Fleming explained to the ornithologist 's wife " that this brief , unromantic , Anglo @-@ Saxon and yet very masculine name was just what I needed , and so a second James Bond was born " . He further explained that " When I wrote the first one in 1953 , I wanted Bond to be an extremely dull , uninteresting man to whom things happened ; I wanted him to be a blunt instrument ... when I was casting around for a name for my protagonist I thought by God , [ James Bond ] is the dullest name I ever heard . " Fleming decided that Bond should resemble both the American singer Hoagy Carmichael and himself , and in the novel Lynd remarks that " Bond reminds me rather of Hoagy Carmichael , but there is something cold and ruthless . " According to Andrew Lycett , Fleming 's biographer , " within the first few pages ... [ Fleming ] had introduced most of Bond 's idiosyncrasies and trademarks " , which included his looks , his Bentley and his smoking and drinking habits . The full details of Bond 's martini were kept until chapter seven of the book and Bond eventually named it " The Vesper " , after Lynd . Bond 's order , to be served in a deep champagne goblet , was for " three measures of Gordon 's , one of vodka , half a measure of Kina Lillet . Shake it very well until it 's ice @-@ cold , then add a large thin slice of lemon peel . " Speaking of Bond 's origins , Fleming said that " he was a compound of all the secret agents and commando types I met during the war " , although the author gave many of his own traits to the character . Bond 's tastes are often taken from Fleming 's own , as is some of his behaviour : Fleming used the casino to introduce Bond in his first novel because " skill at gambling and knowledge of how to behave in a casino were seen ... as attributes of a gentleman " . Lycett sees much of Bond 's character as being " wish fulfilment " by Fleming . Bond 's superior , M , was largely based on Godfrey , Fleming 's NID superior officer ; Godfrey was known for his bellicose and irascible temperament . One of the likely models for Le Chiffre was the influential English occultist , astrologer , mystic and ceremonial magician Aleister Crowley , on whose physical features Fleming based Le Chiffre 's . Crowley 's tastes , especially in sado @-@ masochism , were also ascribed to Le Chiffre ; as Fleming 's biographer Henry Chancellor notes , " when Le Chiffre goes to work on Bond 's testicles with a carpet @-@ beater and a carving knife , the sinister figure of Aleister Crowley is there lurking in the background . " = = Style = = Fleming later said of his work , " while thrillers may not be Literature with a capital L , it is possible to write what I can best describe as ' thrillers designed to be read as literature ' " . He used well @-@ known brand names and everyday details to produce a sense of realism , which the author Kingsley Amis called " the Fleming effect " . Amis describes it as " the imaginative use of information , whereby the pervading fantastic nature of Bond 's world ... [ is ] bolted down to some sort of reality , or at least counter @-@ balanced . " Within the text the novelist Raymond Benson — who later wrote a series of Bond novels — identifies what he described as the " Fleming Sweep " , the use of " hooks " at the end of chapters to heighten tension and pull the reader into the next . The hooks combine with what the novelist Anthony Burgess calls " a heightened journalistic style " to produce " a speed of narrative , which hustles the reader past each danger point of mockery " . The semiotician and essayist , Umberto Eco , in his 1979 examination of the Bond books , " The Narrative Structure of Ian Fleming " , considered that Fleming " has a rhythm , a polish , a certain sensuous feeling for words . That is not to say that Fleming is an artist ; yet he writes with art . " When examining the passage relating to the death of Le Chiffre , Eco wrote that " there is a ... baroque feeling for the image , a total adaptation off the image without emotional comment , and a use of words that designate things with accuracy " , and he went on to conclude that " Fleming is more literate than he gives one to understand . " = = Themes = = Casino Royale was written after , and was heavily influenced by , the Second World War ; Britain was still an imperial power , and the Western and Eastern blocs were engaged in the Cold War . The journalist William Cook observes that with the decline in power of the British Empire , " Bond pandered to Britain 's inflated and increasingly insecure self @-@ image , flattering us with the fantasy that Britannia could still punch above her weight . " The cultural historians Janet Woollacott and Tony Bennett agree , and consider that " Bond embodied the imaginary possibility that England might once again be placed at the centre of world affairs during a period when its world power status was visibly and rapidly declining . " In 1953 parts of central London , including Oxford Street and High Holborn still had uncleared bomb sites and , while sweets had ceased being rationed , coal and other food items were still regulated . According to The Times journalist and historian Ben Macintyre , Bond was " the ideal antidote to Britain 's postwar austerity , rationing and the looming premonition of lost power " . Casino Royale deals with the question of Anglo @-@ American relations , reflecting the real @-@ world central role of the US in the defence of the West . The academic Jeremy Black points to the 1951 defections of two members of MI6 — Guy Burgess and Donald Maclean — to the Soviet Union as having a major impact on how Britain was poorly viewed in US intelligence circles ; Fleming was aware of this tension between the two countries , but he did not focus on it too strongly , and Bond and Leiter 's warm relationship did not reflect the reality of the US @-@ UK relationship . Amis , in his exploration of Bond in The James Bond Dossier , pointed out that Leiter is " such a nonentity as a piece of characterization ... he , the American , takes orders from Bond , the Britisher , and that Bond is constantly doing better than he " . The journalist and author Christopher Hitchens observed that " the central paradox of the classic Bond stories is that , although superficially devoted to the Anglo @-@ American war against communism , they are full of contempt and resentment for America and Americans " . David Seed , in his examination of spy fiction , disagrees , and writes that while Bond beats Le Chiffre , his " activities are constantly supported by American agencies , financing and know @-@ how " . The treachery of Le Chiffre , with the overtones of a fifth column , struck a chord with the largely British readership as Communist influence in the trade unions had been an issue in the press and parliament at the time . Britain had also suffered from defections to the Soviet Union from two MI5 operatives who were part of the Cambridge Five spy ring that betrayed Western secrets to the Soviets . Thus Lycett observes that Casino Royale can be seen as Fleming 's " attempt to reflect the disturbing moral ambiguity of a post @-@ war world that could produce traitors like Burgess and Maclean " . The journalist and writer Matthew Parker observes that with the defections of the two spies so recent to the publication , it was " perhaps the closest Fleming came to a [ John ] le Carré @-@ style spy story " . Chancellor sees the moral ambiguity of the Cold War reflected in the novel . Benson considers the most obvious theme of the novel to be good versus evil . Parker agrees , and highlights a conversation between Bond and Matthis in the chapter titled " The Nature of Evil " , in which Bond says : " By ... [ Le Chiffre 's ] evil existence ... he was creating a norm of badness by which , and by which alone , an opposite norm of goodness could exist . " The subject was also dealt with by the academic Beth Butterfield , in an examination of Bond from an existentialist viewpoint . In light of Bond 's conversation , Butterfield identifies a crisis of confidence in Bond 's character , where he has " moved beyond good and evil " to the point where he does his job not because of principles , but to pursue personal battles . Eco comes to the same conclusion , stating that Bond " abandon [ s ] the treacherous life of moral mediation and of psychological anger , with all the dangers they entail . " Black also identifies a mechanism Fleming uses in Casino Royale — and in subsequent Bond novels — which is to use the evil of his opponents both as a justification of his actions , and as a device to foil their own plans . Black refers to the episode of the attempted assassination of Bond by Bulgarian assassins which results in their own deaths . = = Publication and reception = = = = = Publication history = = = Casino Royale was first released on 13 April 1953 in the UK as a hardback edition by publishers Jonathan Cape , with a cover devised by Fleming . Cape printed 4 @,@ 728 copies of Casino Royale , which sold out in less than a month ; a second print run the same month also sold out , as did a third run of more than 8 @,@ 000 books published in May 1954 . The sales figures were strong enough for Cape to offer Fleming a three @-@ book deal . In April 1955 Pan Books issued a paperback version and sold 41 @,@ 000 copies in the first year . In the US three publishers turned the book down before Macmillan Publishing Co offered Fleming a deal . Casino Royale was published on 23 March 1954 in the US , but sales were poor , totalling only 4 @,@ 000 copies across the entire US during the course of the year . When the novel was released as a US paperback in 1955 , it was re @-@ titled by publisher American Popular Library ; Fleming 's suggestions for a new title , The Double @-@ O Agent and The Deadly Gamble , were disregarded in favour of You Asked for It , but this marketing ploy failed to raise the interest . The Popular Library version also changed Bond 's name , calling him " Jimmy Bond " . = = = Critical reception = = = Hugh I 'Anson Fausset , writing in The Manchester Guardian , thought that Casino Royale was " a first @-@ rate thriller ... with a breathtaking plot " . Although he considered the book to be " schoolboy stuff " , he felt the novel was " galvanised into life by the hard brilliance of the telling " . Alan Ross , writing in The Times Literary Supplement wrote that Casino Royale was " an extremely engaging affair " , and that " the especial charm ... is the high poetry with which he invests the green baize lagoons of the casino tables " . He concluded that the book was " both exciting and extremely civilized " . Reviewing for The Listener , Simon Raven believed that Fleming was a " kind of supersonic John Buchan " , but he was somewhat dismissive of the plot , observing that it is " a brilliant but improbable notion " that includes " a deal of champagne @-@ drinking , bomb @-@ throwing , relentless pitting of wits etc ... with a cretinous love @-@ affair " . Raven also dismissed Bond as an " infantile " creation , but did allow that " Fleming tells a good story with strength and distinction ... his creation of a scene , both visually and emotionally , is of a very high order indeed . " John Betjeman , writing in The Daily Telegraph , considered that " Ian Fleming has discovered the secret of the narrative art ... which is to work up to a climax unrevealed at the end of each chapter . Thus the reader has to go on reading " . Publishers Jonathan Cape included many of the reviews on their advertisements for the book , which appeared in a number of national newspapers ; the reviews included those from The Sunday Times , which concluded that Fleming was " the best new English thriller @-@ writer since [ Eric ] Ambler " and The Observer , which advised their readers : " don 't miss this " . The critic for Time magazine examined Raymond Chandler 's The Long Goodbye alongside Casino Royale ; he praised Casino Royale , saying that " Fleming keeps his incidents and characters spinning through their paces like juggling balls . " The Time reviewer went on to say that " As for Bond , he might be [ Philip ] Marlowe 's younger brother except that he never takes coffee for a bracer , just one large Martini laced with vodka . " Writing for The New York Times , Anthony Boucher wrote that the book belongs " pretty much to the private @-@ eye school " of fiction . He praised the first part , saying that Fleming " manages to make baccarat clear even to one who 's never played it and produced as exciting a gambling sequence as I 've ever read . But then he decides to pad out the book to novel length and leads the weary reader through a set of tough clichés to an ending which surprises nobody save Operative 007 . You should certainly begin this book ; but you might as well stop when the baccarat game is over . " = = Adaptations = = In 1954 CBS paid Ian Fleming $ 1 @,@ 000 to adapt Casino Royale into a one @-@ hour television adventure as part of its Climax ! series . The episode aired live on 21 October 1954 and starred Barry Nelson as secret agent " Card Sense " James ' Jimmy ' Bond and Peter Lorre as Le Chiffre . A brief tutorial on baccarat is given at the beginning of the show by the presenter of the programme , William Lundigan , to enable viewers to understand a game which was not popular in America at the time . For this Americanised version of the story , Bond is an American agent , described as working for " Combined Intelligence " , while the character Leiter from the original novel is British , renamed " Clarence Leiter " . The agent for Station S. , Mathis , does not appear as such ; his surname is given to the leading lady , named Valérie Mathis instead of Vesper Lynd . In March 1955 Ian Fleming sold the film rights of Casino Royale to the producer Gregory Ratoff for $ 6 @,@ 000 . After Ratoff 's death , producer Charles K. Feldman represented Ratoff 's widow and obtained the rights to make a film version . Feldman decided the best way to profit from the film rights was to make a satirical version , which was produced and released in 1967 by Columbia Pictures . The film , which cast David Niven as Bond , was made with five credited directors ( plus one uncredited ) and a cast that included Peter Sellers , Ursula Andress , Orson Welles and Woody Allen . The 1967 version is described by the British Film Institute as " an incoherent all @-@ star comedy " . Casino Royale was the first James Bond novel to be adapted as a daily comic strip ; it was published in The Daily Express and syndicated worldwide . The strip ran from 7 July 1958 to 13 December 1958 , and was written by Anthony Hern and illustrated by John McLusky . To aid The Daily Express in illustrating Bond , Fleming commissioned an artist to create a sketch of what he believed James Bond to look like . McLusky felt that Fleming 's 007 looked too " outdated " and " pre @-@ war " and changed Bond to give him a more masculine look . Following the 1967 adaptation , the rights to the film remained with Columbia Films until 1989 when the studio , and the rights to their intellectual property portfolio was acquired by the Japanese company Sony . In 1999 , following legal action between Sony Pictures Entertainment and MGM / UA , Sony traded the rights to Casino Royale for MGM 's partial @-@ rights to Spider @-@ Man . This led to Eon Productions making the 2006 film Casino Royale . The film stars Daniel Craig as Bond , supported by Eva Green as Vesper Lynd and Mads Mikkelsen as Le Chiffre ; Judi Dench returned for her fifth Bond film as Bond 's superior , M. Casino Royale is a reboot , showing Bond at the beginning of his career as a 00 @-@ agent and overall stays true to the original novel . A direct graphic novel adaptation of Casino Royale is planned for hardcover release on 22 November 2016 , to be published by Dynamite Entertainment as a standalone installment ( separate from their ongoing James Bond series ) , adapted by Van Jensen and illustrated by Matthew Southworth .
= Mangrove whipray = The mangrove whipray or whitetail stingray ( Himantura granulata ) is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae . It is widely distributed in the Indo @-@ Pacific region from the Red Sea to northern Australia and Micronesia . A benthic inhabitant of shallow inshore waters , juvenile mangrove whiprays favor mangrove and estuarine habitats , while adults favor sandy to rocky areas in lagoons and coral reefs . This species can be identified by its thick , oval pectoral fin disc that is dark gray above with numerous white flecks , and by its relatively short , whip @-@ like tail that is white past the stinging spine . It grows up to 1 @.@ 4 m ( 4 @.@ 6 ft ) across . Solitary in nature , the mangrove whipray preys mainly on small , bottom @-@ dwelling bony fishes and invertebrates . It is , like other stingrays , aplacental viviparous , with the females nourishing their unborn young via histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) . The mangrove whipray is caught for its meat , skin , and cartilage across much of its range . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed it as Near Threatened globally and as Endangered in Southeast Asia , where its population has declined substantially due to intensive artisanal and commercial fisheries as well as widespread habitat degradation . In particular , juvenile rays have been disproportionately targeted by fishers and affected by the large @-@ scale destruction of mangrove forests . = = Taxonomy = = Australian zoologist William John Macleay published the first scientific account of the mangrove whipray , a brief description of an immature female 86 cm ( 34 in ) long caught off Port Moresby , Papua New Guinea , in an 1883 volume of Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales . He named it Trygon granulata , as he noted that the specimen 's head and back were " covered with small granules " . In 1928 , Gilbert Percy Whitley moved this species to the genus Himantura . It belongs to the uarnacoides species complex , along with H. chaophraya , H. hortlei , H. lobistoma , H. pastinacoides , and H. uarnacoides . Other common names for this ray include mangrove ray , whitetail whipray , and Macleay 's coachwhip ray . = = Description = = The pectoral fin disc of the mangrove whipray is very thick and oval in shape , measuring 0 @.@ 9 – 1 @.@ 0 times as wide as long . The anterior margins of the disc are nearly straight and converge at a broad angle on the snout tip . The medium @-@ sized , widely spaced eyes are immediately followed by the spiracles . Between the long , thin nostrils is a short , broad curtain of skin with a finely fringed posterior margin . The lower jaw is bow @-@ shaped , and there are 0 – 5 papillae across the floor of the mouth . The teeth are arranged in a quincunx pattern and number 40 – 50 rows in the upper jaw and 38 – 50 rows in the lower jaw . There are five pairs of gill slits beneath the disc . The pelvic fins are small and narrow . The tail is thick at the base and measures 1 @.@ 5 – 2 times longer than the disc width . One or two dorsally positioned serrated stinging spines are located in the first third of the tail . Past the sting , the tail becomes thin and whip @-@ like , without fin folds . The upper surface of the body and tail are roughened by tiny dermal denticles , which become larger towards the midline of the back and tail . In addition , one or two irregular rows of thorns are present along the dorsal midline from the head to the sting . The mangrove whipray is dark brown to gray above with many white dots and flecks , which become denser with increasing size . The dark coloration is due to a layer of mucus , without which the body is light orange @-@ gray . The underside is white with small dark spots towards the disc margin . The tail abruptly becomes white past the sting . This species grows to 1 @.@ 4 m ( 4 @.@ 6 ft ) across and over 3 @.@ 5 m ( 11 ft ) long . = = Distribution and habitat = = Although uncommon , the mangrove whipray seems to be widely distributed in the Indo @-@ Pacific ; it has been reported from the Red Sea , South Asia including the Maldives and the Andaman Islands , the Gulf of Thailand , the Malay Archipelago ( except Sumatra ) , New Guinea and northern Australia , and various islands including Guam , Fiji , the Solomon Islands , and Micronesia . This bottom @-@ dwelling species typically inhabits shallow water close to shore , though adults have also been recorded offshore to at least a depth of 85 m ( 279 ft ) . Juvenile rays frequent brackish habitats such as mangroves and estuaries . By contrast , adults prefer areas of sand , sand and rock rubble , or hard bottom , and are often found in lagoons or on coral reefs . = = Biology and ecology = = Unlike many of its relatives , the mangrove whipray is reportedly solitary in nature . It is relatively inactive during the day , often resting half @-@ buried in sand or atop coral heads , and actively forages for food at night . The electroreceptive ampullae of Lorenzini of this species have a sensitivity of 4 nV / cm and an effective range of 25 cm ( 10 in ) , enabling it to locate buried prey . Juveniles feed mainly on small crustaceans , including prawns and crabs . Adults prey on small benthic bony fishes , including rabbitfishes , gobies , blennies , wrasses , and damselfishes , as well as invertebrates , including peanut worms , crabs , octopuses , and bivalves . As in all stingrays , the mangrove whipray is aplacental viviparous , with the developing embryos being sustained by nutrient @-@ rich histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) produced by the mother . The newborns measure 14 – 28 cm ( 5 @.@ 5 – 11 @.@ 0 in ) across , and males reach sexual maturity at 55 – 65 cm ( 22 – 26 in ) across . Known parasites of this species include the tapeworm Rhinebothrium himanturi , and another undescribed species in the same genus . = = Human interactions = = The mangrove whipray is capable of injuring a human with its venomous sting . It is occasionally caught in tangle nets and bottom trawls , and to a lesser extent on longlines ; it is marketed for its meat , skin , and cartilage . Because of its inshore habitat preferences , this naturally uncommon species is highly susceptible to intensive artisanal and commercial fishing occurring across much of its range . In Southeast Asia , immature rays have been particularly affected by local fishing , as well as by habitat degradation from the widespread loss of mangrove forests . Additionally , the numbers of this species in the Arafura Sea have dropped significantly due to an Indonesian gillnet fishery targeting wedgefishes ( Rhynchobatus ) , which involves over 600 vessels and has been increasingly operating illegally in Australian waters . These factors have led to an inferred decline of the Southeast Asian population by over 50 % , leading the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) to give it a regional assessment of Endangered . The mangrove whipray is minimally threatened off northern Australia , where it is caught incidentally by the Northern Prawn Fishery ( NPF ) but only in small numbers following the mandatory adoption of Turtle Exclusion Devices ( TEDs ) . As a result , the IUCN assessment for the Australian population is Least Concern . Globally , the IUCN has listed this species as Near Threatened .
= John N. Shive = John Northrup Shive ( February 22 , 1913 – June 1 , 1984 ) was an American physicist and inventor . He made notable contributions in electronic engineering and solid @-@ state physics during the early days of transistor development at Bell Laboratories . In particular , he produced experimental evidence that holes could diffuse through bulk germanium and not just along the surface as previously thought . This paved the way from Bardeen and Brattain 's point contact transistor to Shockley 's more robust junction transistor . Shive is best known for inventing the phototransistor in 1948 , a device that combines the sensitivity to light of a photodiode and the current gain of a transistor , and for the Shive wave machine in 1959 , an educational apparatus used to illustrate wave motion . = = Early life and education = = John N. Shive was born in Baltimore , Maryland , on February 22 , 1913 , and grew up in New Jersey . Shive graduated from Rutgers University with a B.S. in physics and chemistry in 1934 . He also earned a Ph.D. from Johns Hopkins University , submitting a dissertation Practice and theory of the modulation of Geiger counters in 1939 . Shive became a fellow of the American Physical Society , a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science , and was a member of the Phi Beta Kappa and Sigma Xi fraternities . = = Scientific career = = John N. Shive joined Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1939 . Shive worked initially on physical research , device development and later on education and training . After retirement from industry , he worked as an adjunct professor of physics at Georgian Court University . The spherical sundial on campus , in front of the bookstore and next to the library , is dedicated to his memory for his lifelong desire and service toward improving the teaching of physics . = = = Transistor development = = = On January 30 , 1948 Shive discovered that gold @-@ plated tungsten point contacts on a p @-@ type layer of germanium grown on an n @-@ type substrate gave " a terrific triode effect . " On February 13 of the same year he also discovered that a transistor consisting of bronze contacts on the surface of an n @-@ type substrate without a p @-@ layer gave " gains up to 40 × in power ! " He leveraged this discovery to build a point contact transistor with bronze contacts on the front and back of thin wedge of germanium , proving that holes could diffuse through bulk germanium and not just along the surface as previously thought . This confirmed William Shockley 's idea that it should be possible to build a junction transistor , an idea that hitherto he had kept secret from the rest of the team . Shockley later admitted that the workings of the team were " mixture of cooperation and competition . " He also admitted that he kept some of own work secret until his " hand was forced " by Shive 's 1948 advance . = = = Phototransistor = = = In 1948 Shive invented the phototransistor that used a beam of light , instead of a wire , as the emitter of a point contact transistor , generating holes that flow to the collector . It wasn 't announced until 1950 . This invention embodies the modern day nationwide direct distance dialing system . = = = Shive wave machine = = = Shive was a gifted lecturer and became Director of Education & Training at Bell Telephone Laboratories . In this role he was responsible for curriculum and administration of educational programs provided to employees of Bell Laboratories . In this new role , he invented the Shive wave machine ( also known as the Shive wave generator ) . The wave generator illustrates wave motion using a series of steel rods joined by a thin torsion wire . The torsion wire transmits energy from one rod to the next . The high moment of inertia of each rod ensures the wave takes several seconds to traverse the entire series of rods , making the dynamics easily visible . The motion is analogous to high @-@ frequency waves that are invisible to the human eye , such as electromagnetic waves on a transmission line . The wave generator could illustrate wave reflection , standing waves , resonance , partial reflection and impedance matching . Shive made two educations films in which he demonstrated the machine , Simple Waves and Similarities in Wave Behavior , and wrote a book with the same name as the latter . Exploratorium Exhibit Services manufactures a large scale version of the machine for use in science museums . = = = Patents = = = Shive held several patents including Selenium rectifier and method of making it , Directly heated thermocouple , Photoresistive translating device , Selenium rectifier including tellurium and method of making it , Apparatus for and method of treating selenium rectifiers , Semiconductor photoelectric device , Conditioning of semiconductor translators , Semiconductor amplifier , and Alternating gate current . = = = Books = = = Shive authored three books during his career , beginning with The Properties , Physics , and Design of Semiconductor Devices ( 1959 ) , a book about semiconductor devices . This was followed by Similarities of Wave Behavior ( 1961 ) , a book designed to help college professors teach students about waves using the machine he invented . His last book , Similarities in Physics ( 1982 ) , was coauthored with Robert L. Weber . He was also one of the editors of Transistor Technology , Volume 1 . = = = Honors = = = John N. Shive was a fellow of the American Physical Society and a Senior Member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers . He was also a chairman of the Advisory Committee on the Pre @-@ College Physics Project of the American Institute of Physics . = = Personal life = = Shive was married to Helen Shive . = = Selected works = = J. N. Shive , Physical Review , vol . 75 , p . 318 , 1949 . J. N. Shive , Physical Review , vol . 75 , p . 689 , 1949 . J. A. Becker and J. N. Shive , " The Transistor – A New Semiconductor Amplifier , " The Electrical Engineer . , vol 68 , no . 3 , pp. 215 – 221 , Mar. 1949 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1109 / JPROC.1999.775422 J. N. Shive , " The Properties of Germanium Phototransistors " , JOSA , vol . 43 , no . 4 , pp. 239 – 243 , 1953 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1364 / JOSA.43.000239 John N. Shive and Robert L. Weber , Similarities in Physics . New York , NY : Wiley , 1982 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0471897958 .
= Moondance = Moondance is the third studio album by Northern Irish singer @-@ songwriter Van Morrison . After recording his commercially unsuccessful 1968 album Astral Weeks , Morrison moved with his wife to an artistic hamlet in upstate New York and began writing songs for Moondance . There , he met the musicians he would record the album with at New York City 's A & R Studios in 1969 . Morrison abandoned the abstract folk compositions of Astral Weeks in favor of more formally composed songs on Moondance , which he wrote and produced himself . Its lively rhythm and blues music was the style he would become most known for in his career . The music incorporated soul , jazz , pop , and Irish folk sounds into ballads and songs about finding spiritual renewal and redemption in worldly matters such as nature , music , and romantic love . After Moondance was released in 1970 by Warner Bros. Records , it became both a critical and commercial success , helping establish Morrison as a major artist in popular music . It has since been cited by critics as one of the greatest albums of all time . In 2013 , the album 's remastered deluxe edition was released to similar acclaim . = = Recording and production = = After leaving the rock band Them , Morrison met record producer Bert Berns in New York City and recorded his first solo single , " Brown Eyed Girl " , in 1967 . When it became a hit , Morrison was offered a recording contract from Warner Bros. Records and recorded his first album for the label , Astral Weeks , in 1968 . Although it was later acclaimed by critics , its collection of lengthy , acoustic , and revelatory folk @-@ jazz songs was not well received by consumers at the time and the album proved to be a commercial failure . After recording Astral Weeks , Morrison moved with his wife to a home on a mountain top in the Catskills near Woodstock , a hamlet in upstate New York with an artistic community . Because of the album 's poor sales figures , Morrison wanted to produce a third record that would be more accessible and appealing to listeners : " I make albums primarily to sell them and if I get too far out a lot of people can 't relate to it . I had to forget about the artistic thing because it didn 't make sense on a practical level . One has to live . " He began writing songs for Moondance in July 1969 . The musicians who went on to record the album with Morrison were recruited from nearby . Morrison recorded Moondance from August to November 1969 . He entered A & R Studios in New York City with only the basic song structures written down and the songs ' arrangements in his memory , developing the compositions throughout the album 's recording . Without any musical charts , he received help with developing the music from band members Jef Labes , Jack Schroer , and Collin Tilton . According to biographer Ritchie Yorke , all of the " tasteful frills " were generated spontaneously and developed at the studio . Most of Morrison 's vocals were recorded live , although he later said that he would have preferred to cut the entire album live . Moondance was the first album where he was listed as producer . He later said of the role , " No one knew what I was looking for except me , so I just did it . " Lewis Merenstein , the album 's executive producer , had brought in Richard Davis , Jay Berliner , and Warren Smith , Jr. from Astral Weeks for the first recording session , but Morrison , according to John Platania , " sort of manipulated the situation " and " got rid of them all . For some reason he didn 't want those musicians . " According to Shelly Yakus , the album 's recording engineer , Morrison was " very quiet and really introverted " during the sessions , only recalling when Morrison asked him to put " more bottom on his voice " while being recorded . = = Music and lyrics = = For Moondance , Morrison abandoned the abstract folk compositions of Astral Weeks in favor of a rhythm and blues sound and more formally composed songs , with more distinct arrangements that included a horn section and chorus of singers as an accompaniment . According to Paul Evans in The Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 1992 ) , the album 's " horn @-@ driven , bass @-@ heavy " music featured upbeat soul music , elements of jazz , and ballads . Rob Sheffield said it marked the appearance of the musical style he would become known for , a " mellow , piano @-@ based " fusion of jazz , pop , and Irish folk styles . In the opinion of Robert Christgau , the album showed Morrison integrating his style of Irish poetry into popular song structure while expanding on his " folk @-@ jazz swing " with lively brass instruments , innovative hooks , and a strong backbeat . Morrison 's lyrics dealt with themes of spiritual renewal and redemption . Unlike his discursive , stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness narratives on Astral Weeks , Moondance balanced his spiritual ideas with more worldly subject matter , which biographer Johnny Rogan felt offered the record a quality of " earthiness " . As the " yang to Astral Weeks ' yin " , AllMusic critic Jason Ankeny believed it " retains the previous album 's deeply spiritual thrust but transcends its bleak , cathartic intensity " by rejoicing in " natural wonder " . According to Christgau , the essence of Morrison 's spirit was , much like the African @-@ American music that inspired him , " mortal and immortal simultaneously : this is a man who gets stoned on a drink of water and urges us to turn up our radios all the way into the mystic . " The opening song , " And It Stoned Me " , according to the singer , depicts a true tale of a day in his childhood . The lyrics show that the setting of the song is rural , including references to a county fair and mountain stream . The title song is mostly acoustic but also includes electric bass and piano , guitar , saxophone , and a flute over @-@ dub played softly behind Morrison 's voice , which imitates a saxophone towards the song 's end . Musicologist Brian Hinton says , " This is a rock musician singing jazz not a jazz singer though the music itself has a jazz swing . " " Crazy Love " was recorded with Morrison 's voice so close to the microphone that it captured the click of Morrison 's tongue hitting the roof of his mouth as he sang . He sings in falsetto , producing what Hinton felt was a sense of intense intimacy , with the backing of a female chorus . " Caravan " is about gypsy life , which fascinated Morrison , and also about the radio . The song opens with Jef Labes trilling on piano , the drum kit then comes in , whilst Morrison sings the line " And the caravan is on its way " . The non @-@ lexical vocable " la la la la , la la la " is sung by him and the band as the song 's chorus . John Platania then improvises around Morrison 's voice with softly plucked guitar notes . Journalist and Morrison biographer Erik Hage called the song " a joyful celebration of communal spirit , the music of radio , and romantic love " . According to Morrison , " Into the Mystic " was originally called " Into the Misty " but as he had thought there was " an ethereal feeling to it " he changed the name . Morrison has also said that some of the songs lyrics could have more than one meaning : " I was born before the Wind " could also be " I was borne before the wind " as well as " Also younger than the son , Ere the bonny boat was one " being " All so younger than the son , Ere the bonny boat was won " . The song includes Collin Tilton 's tenor saxophone imitating a foghorn blowing , and ends with the words " Too Late to Stop Now " – a phrase he would famously use to conclude concert endings in the 1970s . After a dynamic stop @-@ start ending to " Cyprus Avenue " , Morrison would bellow this phrase and then stalk from the stage . This phrase also served as the title to his acclaimed 1974 live album . These lyrics have also been used at the end of " Friday 's Child " in his concerts . According to Evans , " Into the Mystic " reconciles Moondance 's R & B style with the more orchestrated folk music of Astral Weeks , along with " the complimentary sides of Morrison 's psyche " . " Come Running " was described by Morrison as " a very light type of song . It 's not too heavy ; it 's just a happy @-@ go @-@ lucky song . " The song starts with Jef Labes improvising on piano . The two saxophones then split apart , playing different rhythms during the chorus , and come back together for " You gotta rainbow if you run to me " . According to Hinton , " These Dreams of You " manages to be simultaneously accusatory and reassuring . The lyrics cover such dream sequences as Ray Charles being shot down , paying dues in Canada , and " his angel from above " cheating while playing cards in the dark , slapping him in the face , ignoring his cries , and walking out on him . Morrison said he was inspired to write " Brand New Day " after hearing The Band on FM radio playing either " The Weight " or " I Shall Be Released " : " I looked up at the sky and the sun started to shine and all of a sudden the song just came through my head . I started to write it down , right from ' When all the dark clouds roll away ' . " Ritchie Yorke quoted Morrison as saying in 1973 that " Brand New Day " was the song that worked best to his ear and the one with which he felt most in touch . " Everyone " opens with Jef Labes ' clavinet in 6 / 8 time . A flute comes in , playing the melody after Morrison has sung four lines , with Jack Schroer playing the harmony underneath on soprano saxophone . Although Morrison says the song is just a song of hope , Hinton says its lyrics suggest a more troubled meaning , as 1969 was the year in which The Troubles broke out in Belfast . The album 's closing song , " Glad Tidings " , has a bouncy beat but the lyrics , like " Into the Mystic " , remain largely impenetrable , according to Hinton . In his opinion , " the opening line and closing line , ' and they 'll lay you down low and easy ' , could be either about murder or an act of love . " According to biographer Erik Hage , " ' Glad Tidings ' was a premonition of the future , as for the next four decades , Morrison would continue to use a song here and there to vent about the evils of the music industry and the world of celebrity . " = = Release and reception = = Moondance was released by Warner Bros. on 27 January 1970 in the United Kingdom and on 28 February 1970 in the United States . Its original vinyl release was packaged with an album cover that folded out revealing A Fable , the short tale written by Morrison 's then @-@ wife Janet Planet , about a young man and his gifts . The cover photo was taken by Elliot Landy , the official 1969 Woodstock Festival photographer . After the commercial failure of Astral Weeks , Moondance was seen by contemporary music journalists as a record that redeemed Morrison , establishing him as a young , commercially successful , and artistically independent singer @-@ songwriter with great promise . The album reached the top 30 of the American albums chart , and although it never topped the charts , it sold continuously for the next forty years of its release , particularly after its digitally remastered reissue in 1990 . In 1996 , it was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America , having shipped three million copies in the US . When Moondance was released , it received widespread acclaim from critics . Greil Marcus and Lester Bangs jointly reviewed the album in Rolling Stone , hailing it as a work of " musical invention and lyrical confidence ; the strong moods of ' Into the Mystic ' and the fine , epic brilliance of ' Caravan ' will carry it past many good records we 'll forget in the next few years . " In the San Francisco Chronicle , Ralph J. Gleason wrote of Morrison 's singing as a focal point of praise : " He wails as the jazz musicians speak of wailing , as the gypsies , as the Gaels and the old folks in every culture speak of it . He gets a quality of intensity in that wail which really hooks your mind , carries you along with his voice as it rises and falls in long , soaring lines . " Jon Landau found his vocals overwhelming : " Things fell into place so perfectly I wished there was more room to breathe . Morrison has a great voice and on Moondance he found a home for it . " Robert Christgau , writing for The Village Voice , argued that he had finally fulfilled his potential : " Forget Astral Weeks--this is a brilliant , catchy , poetic , and completely successful LP . " According to Acclaimed Music , Moondance is the 102nd most ranked record in critics ' all @-@ time lists . In 1978 , it was voted the 22nd best album of all time in Paul Gambaccini 's poll of 50 prominent American and English rock critics . Christgau , one of the critics polled , named it the 7th best album of the 1970s in The Village Voice the following year . In a retrospective review , Nick Butler from Sputnikmusic cited it as the peak of Morrison 's career and " maybe of non @-@ American soul in general " , while Spin called it " the great white soul album " in an essay accompanying the magazine 's 1989 list of the all @-@ time 25 greatest albums , in which Moondance was ranked 21st . In 1999 , the album was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame , and in 2003 , it was placed at number 65 on Rolling Stone 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time . Time included the record in its 2006 list of " The All @-@ Time 100 Albums " , and the following year , the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame named it as one of their " Definitive 200 " albums , ranking it 72nd . In 2009 , Hot Press polled numerous Irish recording artists and bands , who voted Moondance the 11th best Irish album of all time . On 22 October 2013 , Warner Bros. released a deluxe edition of Moondance . It featured a newly remastered version of the original album , three CDs with previously unreleased music from the sessions , and a Blu @-@ ray disc with high @-@ resolution , surround sound audio of the original album . It was packaged in a linen @-@ wrapped folio and a booklet with liner notes written by music journalist Alan Light and Elliot Scheiner , one of the album 's original engineers . The deluxe edition was met with highly positive reviews from critics , including Record Collector , who called it an aural " marvel " , and The Independent , who said the remastering " strips away centuries of digital compression and makes the music sound as if you ’ ve never heard it properly " . = = Track listing = = All songs written and composed by Van Morrison . = = Personnel = = Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes . = = = Musicians = = = Judy Clay – backing vocals ( tracks 3 and 8 ) Emily Houston – backing vocals ( tracks 3 and 8 ) John Klingberg – bass Jef Labes – organ , piano , clavinet Gary Mallaber – drums , vibraphone Guy Masson – conga Van Morrison – vocals , guitar , rhythm guitar , tambourine , harmonica , producer John Platania – guitar , rhythm guitar Jack Schroer – alto and soprano saxophones Collin Tilton – flute , tenor saxophone Jackie Verdell – backing vocals ( tracks 3 and 8 ) = = = Additional personnel = = = Bob Cato – designer Steve Friedberg – engineer Elliot Landy – photographer Tony May – engineer Lewis Merenstein – executive producer Neil Schwartz – engineer Elliot Scheiner – engineer Shelly Yakus – engineer = = Charts = = = = Certifications = =
= Parathyroid gland = The parathyroid glands are small endocrine glands in the neck of humans and other tetrapods that produce parathyroid hormone . Humans usually have four parathyroid glands , variably located on the back of the thyroid gland , although considerable variation exists . Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin ( one of the hormones made by the thyroid gland ) have key roles in regulating the amount of calcium in the blood and within the bones . The parathyroid glands share a similar blood supply , venous drainage , and lymphatic drainage to the thyroid glands . The parathyroid glands are derived from the epithelial lining of the third and fourth branchial pouches , with the superior glands arising from the fourth pouch , and the inferior glands arising from the higher third pouch . The relative position of the inferior and superior glands , which are named according to their final location , changes because of the migration of embryological tissues . Hyperparathyroidism and hypoparathyroidism , characterised by alterations in the blood calcium levels and bone metabolism , are states of surplus or insufficient parathyroid function . = = Structure = = The parathyroid glands are two pairs of glands usually positioned behind the left and right lobes of the thyroid . Each gland is a yellowish @-@ brown flat ovoid that resembles a lentil seed , usually about 6 mm long and 3 to 4 mm wide , and 1 to 2 mm anteroposteriorly . There are typically four parathyroid glands . The two parathyroid glands on each side which are positioned higher are called the superior parathyroid glands , while the lower two are called the inferior parathyroid glands . Healthy parathyroid glands generally weigh about 30 mg in men and 35 mg in women . These glands are not visible or able to be felt during examination of the neck . = = = Blood supply = = = The blood supply , drainage , and lymphatic drainage of the parathyroid glands correspond to the thyroid overlying gland . The superior parathyroid glands receive their blood from the inferior thyroid arteries . The inferior parathyroid glands receive a variable blood supply , from either the ascending branch of the inferior thyroid arteries or the thyroid ima artery . The inferior thyroid artery arises from the subclavian arteries . Each parathyroid vein drains into the superior , middle and inferior thyroid veins . The superior and middle thyroid veins drain into the internal jugular vein , and the inferior thyroid vein drains into the brachiocephalic vein . = = = Lymphatic drainage = = = Lymphatic vessels from the parathyroid glands drain into deep cervical lymph nodes and paratracheal lymph nodes . = = = Variation = = = The parathyroid glands are variable in number : three or more small glands , and can usually be located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland . Occasionally , some individuals may have six , eight , or even more parathyroid glands . Rarely , the parathyroid glands may be within the thyroid gland itself , the chest , or even the thymus . = = = Histology = = = The parathyroid glands are named for their proximity to the thyroid but serve a completely different role than the thyroid gland . The parathyroid glands are quite easily recognizable from the thyroid as they have densely packed cells , in contrast with the follicular structure of the thyroid . Two unique types of cells are present in the parathyroid gland : Chief cells , which synthesize and release parathyroid hormone . These cells are small , and appear dark when loaded with parathyroid hormone , and clear when the hormone has been secreted , or in their resting state . Oxyphil cells , which are lighter in appearance and increase in number with age , have an unknown function . = = = Development = = = In early human embryonic life , a series of six branchial pouches form that give rise to the human face , neck , and surrounding structures . The pouches are numbered such that the first pouch is the closest to the top of the embryo 's head and the sixth is the furthest from it . The parathyroid glands originate from the interaction of the endoderm of the third and fourth pouch and neural crest mesenchyme . The position of the glands reverses during embryological life . The pair of glands which is ultimately inferior develops from the third pouch with the thymus , whereas the pair of glands which is ultimately superior develops from the fourth pouch . During embryological development , the thymus migrates downwards , dragging the inferior glands with it . The superior pair are not dragged downwards by the fourth pouch to the same degree . The glands are named after their final , not embryological , positions . Since the thymus 's ultimate destination is in the mediastinum of the chest , it is occasionally possible to have ectopic parathyroids derived from the third pouch within the chest cavity if they fail to detach in the neck . Parathyroid development is regulated by a number of genes , including those coding for several transcription factors . = = Function = = The major function of the parathyroid glands is to maintain the body 's calcium and phosphate levels within a very narrow range , so that the nervous and muscular systems can function properly . The parathyroid glands do this by secreting parathyroid hormone . Parathyroid hormone ( PTH , also known as parathormone ) is a small protein that takes part in the control of calcium and phosphate homeostasis , as well as bone physiology . Parathyroid hormone has effects antagonistic to those of calcitonin . Calcium . PTH increases blood calcium levels by directly stimulating osteoblasts and thereby indirectly stimulating osteoclasts ( through RANK / RANKL mechanism ) to break down bone and release calcium . PTH also increases gastrointestinal calcium absorption by activating vitamin D , and promotes calcium conservation ( reabsorption ) by the kidneys . Phosphate . PTH is the major regulator of serum phosphate concentrations via actions on the kidney . It is an inhibitor of proximal tubular reabsorption of phosphorus . Through activation of vitamin D the absorption of Phosphate is increased . = = Clinical significance = = Parathyroid disease is conventionally divided into states where the parathyroid is overactive ( hyperparathyroidism ) , and states where the parathyroid is under- or hypoactive ( hypoparathyroidism ) . Both states are characterised by their symptoms , which relate to the excess or deficiency of parathyroid hormone in the blood . = = = Hyperparathyroidism = = = Hyperparathyroidism is the state in which there is excess parathyroid hormone circulating . This may cause bone pain and tenderness , due to increased bone resorption . Due to increased circulating calcium , there may be other symptoms associated with hypercalcemia , most commonly dehydration . Hyperparathyroidism is most commonly caused by a benign proliferation of chief cells in single gland , and rarely MEN syndrome . This is known as primary hyperparathyroidism , which is generally managed by surgical removal of the abnormal parathyroid gland . Renal disease may also lead to hyperparathyroidism . When too much calcium is lost , there is a compensation by the parathyroid , and parathyroid hormone is released . The glands hypertrophy to synthesise more parathyroid hormone . This is also known as secondary hyperparathyroidism . If this situation exists for a prolonged period of time , the parathyroid tissue may become unresponsive to the blood calcium levels , and begin to autonomously release parathyroid hormone . This is known as tertiary hyperparathyroidism . = = = Hypoparathyroidism = = = The state of decreased parathyroid activity is known as hypoparathyroidism . This is most commonly associated with damage to the glands or their blood supply during thyroid surgery , although it may also be associated with rarer genetic syndromes such as DiGeorge syndrome , which is inherited as an autosomal dominant syndrome . Hypoparathyroidism will also occur after surgical removal of the parathyroid glands . Occasionally , an individual 's tissues are resistant to the effects of parathyroid hormone . This is known as pseudohypoparathyroidism , as although the parathyroid glands are fully functional , the hormone itself is not able to function , resulting in a decrease in blood calcium levels . Pseudohypoparathyroidism is often associated with the genetic condition Albright 's hereditary osteodystrophy . Pseudopseudohypoparathyroidism , one of the longest words in the English language , is used to describe an individual with Albright 's hereditary osteodystrophy but with normal parathyroid hormone and serum calcium levels . Hypoparathyroidism may present with symptoms associated with decreased calcium , and is generally treated with Vitamin D analogues . = = History = = The parathyroid glands were first discovered in the Indian Rhinoceros by Richard Owen in 1852 . In his description of the neck anatomy , Owen referred to the glands as " a small compact yellow glandular body attached to the thyroid at the point where the veins emerged " . The glands were first discovered in humans by Ivar Viktor Sandström ( 1852 – 1889 ) , a Swedish medical student , in 1880 at Uppsala University . Unaware of Owen 's description , he described the glands in his monograph " On a New Gland in Man and Fellow Animals " as the " glandulae parathyroidae " , noting its existence in dogs , cats , rabbits , oxen , horses and humans . For several years , Sandström 's description received little attention . Physiologist Eugene Gley first documented the putative function of the glands in 1891 , noting the connection between their removal and the development of muscular tetani . William G. MacCallum in 1908 , investigating tumours of the parathyroid , proposed their role in calcium metabolism . He noted that " Tetany occurs spontaneously in many forms and may also be produced by the destruction of the parathyroid glands " . The first successful removal of the parathyroid may have been carried out in 1928 by medical doctor Isaac Y Olch , whose intern had noticed elevated calcium levels in an elderly patient with muscle weakness . Prior to this surgery , patients with removed parathyroid glands typically died from muscular tetani . Parathyroid hormone was isolated in 1923 by Adolph M. Hanson and 1925 by James B. Collip . Studies of parathyroid hormone levels by Roger Guillemin , Andrew Schally and Rosalyn Sussman Yalow led to the development of immunoassays capable of measuring body substances and a Nobel Prize in 1977 . = = In other animals = = Parathyroid glands are found in all adult tetrapods , although they vary in their number and position . Mammals typically have four parathyroid glands , while other types of animals typically have six . The removal of parathyroid glands in animals produces a condition resembling acute poisoning with irregular muscle contractions . Fish do not possess parathyroid glands , however several species have been found to express parathyroid hormone . Developmental genes and calcium @-@ sensing receptors in fish gills are similar to those within the parathyroid glands of birds and mammals . It has been suggested that the tetrapod glands may have been evolutionarily derived from these fish gills . = = Additional images = =
= K @-@ 41 ( Kansas highway ) = K @-@ 41 is a 4 @.@ 960 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 7 @.@ 982 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Kansas . Located entirely within Ottawa County , the highway runs from the eastern city limit of Delphos to U.S. Route 81 ( US 81 ) . A designation of K @-@ 41 existed in the early 1930s in southwestern Kansas . The current designation was established following the older designation 's removal . = = Route description = = The route begins at the eastern city limit of Delphos , near a junction with Strickler Avenue . The road continues west through Delphos as 5th Street . Heading east , the route passes by the Delphos Cemetery before an intersection with 100th Road . Following an intersection with 110th Road , K @-@ 41 dips slightly south before intersecting County Route 781 . The route ends at US 81 at an intersection . The road continues east as Volunteer Road toward Oak Hill . K @-@ 41 is a two @-@ lane highway along its entire route . The route is maintained by the Kansas Department of Transportation ( KDOT ) , who is responsible for constructing and maintaining highways in the state . As part of this role , KDOT regularly surveys traffic on their highways . These surveys are most often presented in the form of annual average daily traffic , which is the number of vehicles that use a highway during an average day of the year . In 2010 , KDOT calculated that around 705 vehicles used the road daily near Delphos , including 85 trucks , whereas only 410 vehicles used K @-@ 41 daily near US 81 . No part of the highway has been listed as part of the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the nation 's defence , mobility , and economy . = = History = = The first designation for K @-@ 41 was implemented by 1927 and ran from K @-@ 12 near Protection north to US 54 in Bucklin . At this time , the entire route was only a dirt road . By 1932 , K @-@ 12 was truncated , which left K @-@ 41 's southern terminus at US 160 in Protection . By 1936 , a section of the route north of Protection was surfaced with gravel . Another section from US 54 to US 154 which was added by that year was also improved . This route was renumbered to K @-@ 34 the next year . By January 1938 , the current designation for K @-@ 41 was established along a gravel road . By 1941 , the road had been paved in its entirety . Since then , the route has not undergone any designation changes . = = Major intersections = = The entire route is in Ottawa County .
= Bigger ( Justin Bieber song ) = " Bigger " is a song by Canadian recording artist Justin Bieber , included as a track on his debut release , My World , released on November 17 , 2009 . It was written by Bieber , Frank Ocean , Dapo Torimiro , Kevin Risto and Waynne Nugent of Midi Mafia , with the latter duo and Dapo producing the song . Musically , the song is a R & B number which infuses elements of teen pop and dance @-@ pop , while including influences of new jack swing . The song 's lyrics refer to one maturing in a relationship and working to reach goals . The song received generally positive reception from critics who reviewed the album , with a Billboard reviewer commenting that Bieber had " genuine swagger " on the song . Some reviews however questioned the lyrical content . After the release of My World , due to digital sales , the song charted in the lower regions of charts in the United States , Canada , the United Kingdom , and Japan . = = Background and composition = = " Bigger " was co @-@ written by Bieber , Odd Future collective member Frank Ocean , Dapo Torimiro , Kevin Risto and Waynne Nugent of Midi Mafia . ( Midi Mafia also worked with Bieber on the ballad " Down To Earth " ) Midi Mafia and Dapo have production credits . It was recorded at Icon Studios in Atlanta , Georgia , and it was mixed at Larrabee Studios in North Hollywood , California . The track was one of three songs on the standard edition of the album that Bieber co @-@ wrote . " Bigger " , described as moderately fast , is a R & B song with a length of three minutes and seventeen seconds , with inclinations toward teen pop and dance @-@ pop . According to a review of My World by Jon Caramanica of The New York Times , the song is influenced by new jack swing , as well as the music of Guy . The song is set in common time , and has a tempo of 104 beats per minute . It is written in the key of C minor , and Bieber 's vocals do not deviate far , only spanning from the low note of C4 to the high note of E5 . It features the chord patterns Cm11 and Fm9 . The song 's lyrics see the protagonist professing to their love interest how they have matured , in lines such as " I was a player when I was little , but I 'm bigger . " Lyrically , the song also speaks of rebuffing anyone that comes in between his reaching goals , in lines like " And all the haters I swear they look so small from up here ... " = = Reception = = = = = Critical reception = = = In calling Bieber 's vocals " boyish as they are disarmingly mature " , Monica Herrerra of Billboard reviewed the song positively , commenting , " that Bieber has " genuine swagger on the nimble R & B track . " Jon Caramanica complimented the song as one of the carefree tracks on the album , as he was skeptical of the lyrical content in " First Dance " but on " Bigger " , the writer said , " earplugs back in , young ladies . " Although Ashante Infantry of Toronto Star said a turn @-@ off of the song was the " Mafia " tag by the production team , Midi Mafia , at the beginning of the song , she called " Bigger " one of the best tracks on the album . In a review of My Worlds Mike Diver of BBC Music Blog said that the phrase " I was a player when I was little , " was one of the several " awkward lyrical moments " on the album and said that it left " one to hope he ’ s talking about Little League rather than chasing skirt . " = = = Chart performance = = = On the week ending December 5 , 2009 , due to digital sales after the release of My World , " Bigger " debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 and the Canadian Hot 100 . The song debuted at number forty @-@ nine on the Hot Digital Songs chart in the US , and therefore consecutively appeared at number ninety @-@ four on the Hot 100 . In Canada , it debuted at number seventy @-@ eight . It dropped off both charts the following week . " Bigger " also appeared at number ninety @-@ six on the Japan Hot 100 . In both territories it was also the second highest non @-@ previously released song from My World to appear on the charts . In the United Kingdom , after the release of My World , " Bigger " appeared at number 162 . = = Credits and personnel = = Songwriting - Justin Bieber , Dapo Torimiro , Kevin Risto , Waynne Nugent , Frank Ocean Production - Dapo , Midi Mafia Vocal recording - Chris Krauss Vocal production - Kevin Risto Mixing - Jaycen @-@ Joshua Fowler and Dave Pensado , assisted by Giancarlo Lino . Source = = Charts = =
= Edwin McMillan = Edwin Mattison McMillan ( September 18 , 1907 – September 7 , 1991 ) was an American physicist and Nobel laureate credited with being the first ever to produce a transuranium element , neptunium . For this , he shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Glenn Seaborg in 1951 . A graduate of California Institute of Technology , he earned his doctorate from Princeton University in 1933 , and joined the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory , where he discovered oxygen @-@ 15 and beryllium @-@ 10 . During World War II , he worked on microwave radar at the MIT Radiation Laboratory , and on sonar at the Navy Radio and Sound Laboratory . In 1942 he joined the Manhattan Project , the wartime effort to create atomic bombs , and helped establish the project 's Los Alamos Laboratory where the bombs were designed . He led teams working on the gun @-@ type nuclear weapon design , and also participated in the development of the implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon . McMillan co @-@ invented the synchrotron with Vladimir Veksler . He returned to the Radiation Laboratory after the war , and built them . In 1954 he was appointed associate director of the Radiation Laboratory , being promoted to deputy director in 1958 . On the death of Lawrence that year , he became director , and he stayed in that position until his retirement in 1973 . = = Early life = = McMillan was born in Redondo Beach , California , on September 18 , 1907 , the son of Edwin Harbaugh McMillan and his wife Anna Marie McMillan née Mattison . He had a younger sister , Catherine Helen . His father was a physician , as was his father 's twin brother , and three of his mother 's brothers . On October 18 , 1908 , the family moved to Pasadena , California , where he attended McKinley Elementary School from 1913 to 1918 , Grant School from 1918 to 1920 , and then Pasadena High School , from which he graduated in 1924 . California Institute of Technology ( Caltech ) was only a mile from his home , and he attended some of the public lectures there . He entered Caltech in 1924 . He did a research project with Linus Pauling as an undergraduate and received his Bachelor of Science degree in 1928 and his Master of Science degree in 1929 , writing an unpublished thesis on " An improved method for the determination of the radium content of rocks " . He then took his Doctor of Philosophy from Princeton University in 1933 , writing his thesis on the " Deflection of a Beam of HCI Molecules in a Non @-@ Homogeneous Electric Field " under the supervision of Edward Condon . = = Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory = = In 1932 , McMillan was awarded a National Research Council fellowship , allowing him to attend a university of his choice for postdoctoral study . With his PhD complete , although it was not formally accepted until January 12 , 1933 , he accepted an offer from Ernest Lawrence at the University of California , Berkeley , to join the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory , which Lawrence had founded the year before . McMillan 's initial work there involved attempting to measure the magnetic moment of the proton , but Otto Stern and Immanuel Estermann were able to carry out these measurements first . The main focus of the Radiation laboratory at this time was the development of the cyclotron , and McMillan , who was appointed to the faculty at Berkeley as an instructor in 1935 , soon became involved in the effort . His skill with instrumentation came to the fore , and he contributed improvements to the cyclotron . In particular , he helped develop the process of " shimming " , adjusting the cyclotron to produce a homogeneous magnetic field . Working with M. Stanley Livingston , he discovered oxygen @-@ 15 , an isotope of oxygen that emits positrons . To produce it , they bombarded nitrogen gas with deuterons . This was mixed with hydrogen and oxygen to produce water , which was then collected with hygroscopic calcium chloride . Radioactivity was found concentrated in it , proving that it was in the oxygen . This was followed by an investigation of the absorption of gamma rays produced by bombarding fluorine with protons . In 1935 , McMillan , Lawrence and Robert Thornton carried out cyclotron experiments with deuteron beams that produced a series of unexpected results . Deuterons fused with a target nuclei , transmuting the target to a heavier isotope while ejecting a proton . Their experiments indicated a nuclear interaction at lower energies than would be expected from a simple calculation of the Coulomb barrier between a deuteron and a target nucleus . Berkeley theoretical physicist Robert Oppenheimer and his graduate student Melba Phillips developed the Oppenheimer – Phillips process to explain the phenomenon . McMillan became an assistant Professor in 1936 , and an associate Professor in 1941 . With Samuel Ruben , he also discovered the isotope beryllium @-@ 10 in 1940 . This was both interesting and difficult to isolate due to its extraordinarily long half @-@ life , about 1 @.@ 39 million years . = = Discovery of neptunium = = Following the discovery of nuclear fission in uranium by Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in 1939 , McMillan began experimenting with uranium . He bombarded it with neutrons produced in the Radiation Laboratory 's 37 @-@ inch cyclotron through bombarding beryllium with deuterons . In addition to the nuclear fission products reported by Hahn and Strassmann , they detected two unusual radioactive isotopes , one with a half @-@ life of about 2 @.@ 3 days , and the other with one of around 23 minutes . McMillan identified the short @-@ lived isotope as uranium @-@ 239 , which had been reported by Hahn and Strassmann . McMillan suspected that the other was an isotope of a new , undiscovered element , with an atomic number of 93 . At the time it was believed that element 93 would have similar chemistry to rhenium , so he began working with Emilio Segrè , an expert on that element from his discovery of its homolog technetium . Both scientists began their work using the prevailing theory , but Segrè rapidly determined that McMillan 's sample was not at all similar to rhenium . Instead , when he reacted it with hydrogen fluoride ( HF ) with a strong oxidizing agent present , it behaved like members of the rare earth elements . Since these comprise a large percentage of fission products , Segrè and McMillan decided that the half @-@ life must have been simply another fission product , titling the paper " An Unsuccessful Search for Transuranium Elements " . McMillan realized that his 1939 work with Segrè had failed to test the chemical reactions of the radioactive source with sufficient rigor . In a new experiment , McMillan tried subjecting the unknown substance to HF in the presence of a reducing agent , something he had not done before . This reaction resulted in the sample precipitating with the HF , an action that definitively ruled out the possibility that the unknown substance was a rare earth . In May 1940 , Philip Abelson from the Carnegie Institute in Washington , DC , who had independently also attempted to separate the isotope with the 2 @.@ 3 day half @-@ life , visited Berkeley for a short vacation and they began to collaborate . Abelson observed that the isotope with the 2 @.@ 3 @-@ day half @-@ life did not have chemistry like any known element , but was more similar to uranium than a rare earth . This allowed the source to be isolated and later , in 1945 , led to the classification of the actinide series . As a final step , McMillan and Abelson prepared a much larger sample of bombarded uranium that had a prominent 23 @-@ minute half @-@ life from 239U and demonstrated conclusively that the unknown 2 @.@ 3 @-@ day half @-@ life increased in strength in concert with a decrease in the 23 @-@ minute activity through the following reaction : <formula> This proved that the unknown radioactive source originated from the decay of uranium and , coupled with the previous observation that the source was different chemically from all known elements , proved beyond all doubt that a new element had been discovered . McMillan and Abelson published their results in a paper entitled Radioactive Element 93 in the Physical Review on May 27 , 1940 . They did not propose a name for the element in the paper , but they soon decided on " neptunium " since uranium had been named after the planet Uranus , and Neptune is the next planet beyond in our solar system . McMillan suddenly departed at this point , leaving Glenn Seaborg to pursue this line of research , which led to the second transuranium element , plutonium . In 1951 , McMillan shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Seaborg " for their discoveries in the chemistry of the transuranium elements " . = = World War II = = McMillan 's abrupt departure was caused by the outbreak of World War II in Europe . In November 1940 , he began working at the MIT Radiation Laboratory in Cambridge , Massachusetts , where he participated in the development and testing of airborne microwave radar during World War II . He conducted tests in April 1941 with the radar operating from an old Douglas B @-@ 18 Bolo medium bomber . Flying over the Naval Submarine Base New London with Luis Walter Alvarez and Air Chief Marshal Hugh Dowding , they showed that the radar was able to detect the conning tower of a partly submerged submarine . MacMillan married Elsie Walford Blumer in New Haven , Connecticut , on June 7 , 1941 . Her father was George Blumer , Dean Emeritus of the Yale Medical School . Her sister Mary was Lawrence 's wife . The McMillans had three children : Ann Bradford , David Mattison and Stephen Walker . McMillan joined the Navy Radio and Sound Laboratory near San Diego in August 1941 . There he worked on a device called a polyscope . The idea , which came from Lawrence , was to use sonar to build up a visual image of the surrounding water . This proved to be far more difficult that doing so with radar , because of objects in the water and variations in water temperature that caused variations in the speed of sound . The polyscope proved to be impractical , and was abandoned . He also , however , developed a sonar training device for submariners , for which he received a patent . Oppenheimer recruited McMillan to join the Manhattan Project , the wartime effort to create atomic bombs , in September 1942 . Initially , he commuted back and forth between San Diego , where his family was , and Berkeley . In November he accompanied Oppenheimer on a trip to New Mexico on which the Los Alamos Ranch School was selected as the site of the project 's weapons research laboratory , which became the Los Alamos Laboratory . With Oppenheimer and John H. Manley , he drew up the specifications for the new laboratory 's technical buildings . He recruited personnel for the laboratory , including Richard Feynman and Robert R. Wilson , established the test area known as the Anchor Ranch , and scoured the country for technical equipment from machine tools to a cyclotron . As the laboratory took shape , McMillan became deputy head of the gun @-@ type nuclear weapon effort under Navy Captain William S. Parsons , an ordnance expert . The plutonium gun , codenamed Thin Man , needed a muzzle velocity of at least 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) per second , which they hoped to achieve with a modified Navy 3 @-@ inch antiaircraft gun . The alternative was to build an implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon . McMillan took an early interest in this , watching tests of this concept conducted by Seth Neddermeyer . The results were not encouraging . Simple explosions resulted in distorted shapes . John von Neumann looked at the implosion program in September 1943 , and proposed a radical solution involving explosive lenses . This would require expertise in explosives , and McMillan urged Oppenheimer to bring in George Kistiakowsky . Kistiakowsky joined the laboratory on February 16 , 1944 , and Parsons 's E ( Explosives ) Division was divided in two , with McMillan as deputy for the gun and Kistiakowsky as deputy for implosion . McMillan heard disturbing news in April 1944 , and drove out to Pajarito Canyon to confer with Segrè . Segrè 's group had tested samples of plutonium bred in the Manhattan Project 's nuclear reactors and found that it contained quantities of plutonium @-@ 240 , an isotope that caused spontaneous fission , making Thin Man impractical . In July 1944 , Oppenheimer reorganised the laboratory to make an all @-@ out effort on implosion . McMillan remained in charge of the gun @-@ type weapon , which would now be used only with uranium @-@ 235 . This being the case , Thin Man was replaced by a new , scaled @-@ back design called Little Boy . McMillan was also involved with the implosion as the head of the G @-@ 3 Group within the G ( Gadget ) Division , which was responsible for obtaining measurements and timings on implosion , and served as the laboratory 's liaison with Project Camel , the aerial test program being carried out by Caltech . On July 16 , 1945 , he was present at the Trinity nuclear test , when the first implosion bomb was successfully detonated . = = Later life = = In June 1945 , McMillan 's thoughts began to return to cyclotrons . Over time they had gotten larger and larger . A 184 @-@ inch cyclotron was under construction at the Radiation Laboratory , but he realised that a more efficient use could be made of the energy used to accelerate particles . By varying the magnetic field used , the particles could be made to move in stable orbits , and higher energies achieved with the same energy input . He dubbed this the " phase stability principle " , and the new design a " synchrotron " . Unknown to McMillan , the synchrotron principle had already been invented by Vladimir Veksler , who had published his proposal in 1944 . McMillan became aware of Veksler 's paper in October 1945 . The two began corresponding , and eventually became friends . In 1963 they shared the Atoms for Peace Award for the invention of the synchrotron . The phase stability principle was tested with the old 37 @-@ inch cyclotron at Berkeley after McMillan returned to the Radiation Laboratory in September 1945 . When it was found to work , the 184 @-@ inch cyclotron was similarly modified . He became a full professor in 1946 . In 1954 he was appointed associate director of the Radiation Laboratory . He was promoted to deputy director in 1958 . On the death of Lawrence that year , he became director , and he stayed in that position until his retirement in 1973 . The laboratory was renamed the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory in 1958 . In 1970 , it split into the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory and the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory , and McMillan became director of the former . McMillan was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1947 , serving as its chairman from 1968 to 1971 . He served on the influential General Advisory Committee ( GAC ) of the Atomic Energy Commission from 1954 to 1958 , and the Commission on High Energy Physics of the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics from 1960 to 1967 . After his retirement from the faculty at Berkeley in 1974 , he spent 1974 – 75 at CERN , where he worked on the g minus 2 experiment to measure the magnetic moment of the muon . He was awarded the National Medal of Science in 1990 . McMillan suffered the first of a series of strokes in 1984 . He died at his home in El Cerrito , California , from complications from diabetes on September 7 , 1991 . He was survived by his wife and three children . His gold Nobel Prize medal is in the National Museum of American History , a division of The Smithsonian , in Washington DC . = = Publications = = McMillan , E. M. " Focusing in Linear Accelerators " , University of California Radiation Laboratory , Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , United States Department of Energy ( through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission ) , ( August 24 , 1950 ) . McMillan , E. M. " A Thick Target for Synchrotrons and Betatrons " , University of California Radiation Laboratory , Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , United States Department of Energy ( through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission ) , ( September 19 , 1950 ) . McMillan , E. M. " The Transuranium Elements : Early History ( Nobel Lecture ) " , University of California Radiation Laboratory , Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , United States Department of Energy ( through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission ) , ( December 12 , 1951 ) . McMillan , E. M. " Notes on Quadrupole Focusing " , University of California Radiation Laboratory , Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , United States Department of Energy ( through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission ) , ( February 9 , 1956 ) . McMillan , E. M. " Some Thoughts on Stability in Nonlinear Periodic Focusing Systems " , University of California Radiation Laboratory , Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , United States Department of Energy ( through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission ) , ( September 5 , 1967 ) . McMillan , E. M. " Some Thoughts on Stability in Nonlinear Periodic Focusing Systems [ Addendum ] " , University of California Radiation Laboratory , Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , United States Department of Energy ( through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission ) , ( March 29 , 1968 ) .
= Józef Zajączek = Prince Józef Zajączek ( 1 November 1752 , Kamieniec Podolski — 28 August 1826 , Warsaw ) was a Polish general and politician . Zajączek started his career in the Army of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth , an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to hetman Franciszek Ksawery Branicki . He was Branicki 's supporter on the political scene , before joining the liberal opposition during the Great Sejm in 1790 . He became a radical supporter of the Constitution of 3 May 1791 . As a military commander , in the rank of a general , he participated in Polish – Russian War of 1792 and Kościuszko Uprising . After the partitions of Poland , he joined the Napoleonic Army , and was a general in Napoleon 's forces until his wounding and capture during Napoleon 's invasion of Russia in 1812 . From 1815 he became involved in the governance of the Congress Kingdom of Poland , becoming the first Namestnik of Kingdom of Poland . = = Youth = = Józef Zajączek was born on 1 November 1752 in Kamieniec Podolski to Antoni Zajączek and Marianna Cieszkowska , members of the Polish noble family of the Świnka . Young Zajączek probably attended a school in Zamość , and later a Jesuit school in Warsaw . At the age of sixteen he joined the Bar Confederates , and served as a secretary to Michał Wielhorski , accompanying him on his diplomatic mission to Paris , France , in 1770 . Zajączek stayed in Paris for several years , and in 1773 he met one of the major leaders of the Confederacy , Casimir Pulaski . Falling under Pulaski 's influence , he left Wielhorski 's service , and accompanied Pulaski on his diplomatic mission to the Ottoman Empire in 1774 , where he witnessed the Ottoman defeat at the Battle of Kozludzha on 20 June . Returning to France later that year he wrote a hagiographic biography of Pulaski in French . In 1775 he got an officer ( junior lieutenant ) position in the hussar regiment of the French Army , although after several weeks he abandoned this position to return to Poland . Thanks to the support from the magnate Sapieha family he received a post of an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to hetman Franciszek Ksawery Branicki . Zajączek participated as a deputy from the Podole Voivodeship in the Sejm ( parliament of the Commonwealth ) session of 1784 , and was a vocal member of the hetman Branicki 's faction ( known as the Hetmans ' Party ) . In a similar vein he participated in the Sejm of 1786 , this time as a deputy from the Kiev Voivodeship . During that time he emerged as a vocal critic of king Stanisław August Poniatowski . In late 1786 he married Aleksandra Iaura , née de Pernet . Meanwhile , he kept being promoted in ranks , reaching that of colonel in 1787 . He was also not a deputy to the first half of the Four @-@ year Sejm ( 1788 – 1792 ) , and spent the first two years of its deliberations with his unit ( 2nd Front Guard Regiment , Polish : 2 regiment straży przedniej ) on the Ukrainian border ; in 1790 , however , he was elected as a deputy once again and joined his patron Branicki in Warsaw . Soon , however , he left Branicki 's camp , joining the faction of Hugo Kołłątaj , the Patriotic Party . Zajączek became involved in the works of a commission tasked with reforming the Polish military , and contributed to a new project on military exercises and officer training . He became one of the supporters of the new Constitution of 3 May 1791 , and members of the Friends of the Constitution society . = = Military career = = = = = In the Commonwealth 's army = = = Displeased with reforms in Poland that were threatening its influence there , Russia invaded Poland in May 1792 , starting the Polish – Russian War of 1792 . Two weeks before the war started , on May 4 Zajączek became the commander of the 3rd Front Guard Regiment ( 3 regiment straży przedniej ) . On May 26 he was given command over a reserve corps , and on 29 May he was promoted to the rank of major general . After gathering some troops near Lublin , he departed towards Dubno , which he reached on 7 June . He was one of the Polish commanders at the victorius battle of Zieleńce , for which he received the highest decoration of the Polish military , Virtuti Militari , becoming the fifth person to receive this award , instituted just that year . He took part in some minor skirmishes , but did not participate in any significant battle before Stanisław August Poniatowski surrendered to the enemy , joining the Targowica Confederation . The war ended without any decisive battles , with the Polish army still in the fighting condition , not suffering from any major defeat nor from lack of supplies . Angered at the king 's betrayal , Zajączek was one of the main proponents of the plan to kidnap the king ; the plan , however , never came to fruition . Like many other dissatisfied officers , including Prince Poniatowski and Tadeusz Kościuszko , Zajączek requested a discharge from the army ; his resignation was accepted on 18 August . Shortly afterward Zajączek left the country , heading to Vienna . In August 1793 he moved to Leipzig , joining a number of other Polish emigres , namely Kościuszko and Kołlątaj , preparing for a new war . Soon he became one of the major planners of this approaching conflict , often tasked with delivering important messages to Poland , and collecting information there ; in particular he was active in Warsaw , and Kościuszko planned for him to become a commander of that region . Zajączek also went on missions to Dresden and Paris . During that time , he became known as a radical revolutionary , democrat and proponent of abolishing serfdom in Poland . In April he joined the " club of Polish Jacobins " . Shortly after the Kościuszko Uprising began in March 1794 , Zajączek joined Kościuszko in Luborzyca on 2 April . Zajączek was given the command of the Lesser Poland Division , and on 4 April he took part in battle of Racławice , which concluded with a major Polish victory . On 6 April he was promoted to lieutenant general . Over the next few weeks Zajączek accompanied Kościuszko and his staff . On 8 June he was defeated at the battle of Chełm and retreated toward Lublin . He lost support among the troops , and faced a mutiny , eventually quelled by Kościuszko , on 10 June . In mid June Zajączek 's forces merged with those of Kościuszko . He commanded the forces in the inconclusive battle of Gołków on 9 – 10 July , and soon after he was one of the Polish commanders of the defense of Warsaw that lasted from mid July until early September . In the following few weeks Zajączek became one of the members of the Supreme National Council , and a president of its Criminal Court . He was a commander of the defense of Warsaw during the disastrous battle of Praga of 4 November . During the battle Zajączek was wounded and retreated from the battle even before the conflict was over . He has been criticised for his insufficient preparation for the defense of Warsaw against Russian invasion , and for poor leadership during the battle . Zajączek escaped to Polish Galicia where he was interned by Austrians . He was released one year later , moving to Paris . = = = In Napoleon 's army = = = In Paris , Zajączek quickly became involved with the active emigre groups there . Hoping to sway revolutionary France into supporting the Polish cause , many Poles , including him , volunteered to join the French Revolutionary Army , eventually leading to the creation of the Polish Legions in Italy led by Jan Henryk Dąbrowski , which became a part of Napoleon 's army . On 8 March 1797 Napoleon ordered that Zajączek should be recognized as an active brigade general of the French army . That year he published a brochure on his experiences of the 1794 war , Histoire de la révolution de Pologne en 1794 , in which he tried to justify his actions . Zajączek was , however , still unpopular among the Polish troops , many of whom blamed him for the fall of Praga ; due to frequent personal conflicts , Zajączek chose to remain with the French army , rather than joining the Legions themselves . Over the coming years , he took part in the French Revolutionary Wars . He took part in the 1798 Egyptian Expedition . There he also served as a governor of several provinces , first , from July that year , of the Monufia Governorate , later , from January 1799 , simultaneously of the Faiyum Governorate and Beni Suef Governorate . On 25 January 1800 he defeated Murad Bey at the Battle of Sédiman . In 1801 he was promoted to division general , and later took part in the failed defense of Alexandria . In 1802 Zajączek became the commander of the French 2nd Division . In 1803 he received the Knight 's Cross of the Legion of Honour ; a year later , the Commander 's Cross . In 1805 during the War of the Third Coalition he was assigned to the French Army of the Rhine , where he worked at army 's High Command . Next year in September , during the War of the Fourth Coalition , he was assigned to command of the foreign ( mostly Polish ) North Legion ; in the following month he organized another similar unit , the Kalisz Legion . In 1808 those units were reorganized into parts of the Army of the Duchy of Warsaw , in which Zajączek became a general . During that time , dissatisfied with his transfer from the French army , and being made subject to Prince Józef Poniatowski whom he disliked , he refused to wear a Polish uniform and swear an oath to the Duchy , and was forced to do so only on direct orders of French marshal Louis @-@ Nicolas Davout . In 1809 he commanded several formations in the Polish – Austrian War , where he failed to distinguish himself , instead suffering the only significant defeat in this campaign at the battle of Jedlińsk on 11 June . He remained in the Army after the war , commanding the 2nd Division , and organizing the troops for the expected conflict with Russia . During Napoleon 's Invasion of Russia in 1812 , Zajączek commanded the 16th Infantry Division of the V Corps in la Grande Armée . His division performed well at the battle of Smolensk in August where he was wounded , recuperating till October . He rejoined his unit in the time to take part in the battle of Tarutino . After Prince Poniatowski , commander of the V Corps , was wounded , from 1 November Zajączek took charge of that formation . He led it at the battle of Vyazma and battle of Krasnoi until a wound at Berezina claimed his leg , which was amputated by doctor Dominique Jean Larrey . While recuperating from the wound he was taken prisoner by the Imperial Russian Army in Wilno ( Vilnius ) . Zajączek 's name is found on the Arc de Triomphe in Paris . = = Prince and namestnik = = Zajączek was imprisoned in Poltava fortress until January 1814 , first to Białystok , then – in July – he was returned to Warsaw . There he was assigned to the post of a deputy president of a Military Commission , reorganizing the former Napoleonic Army of the Duchy of Warsaw into a new , Russian @-@ controlled Army of the Congress Poland . Russian tsar Alexander I , also newly crowned King of Poland , gave Zajączek on 3 December 1815 the position of the first Namestnik of Kingdom of Poland ( tsar 's deputized ruler of the territory , a position similar to that of a viceroy ) . This nomination surprised many , including Zajączek himself , who is said to have at first refused this position , but in the end accepted it after Alexander phrased his request as a direct order . Zajączek 's years as a namestnik have garnered mixed reviews , both among his contemporaries , as well as among later historians . He was actively interested in economic development of Polish lands , and contributed to the industrialization and urbanization of the Kingdom 's lands ; he was also one of the founders of the University of Warsaw . He has been criticized , however , for being inexperienced for such a major civil leader position , too servile to the wishes of his patron , Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich and he often disregarded the Constitution of the Congress Poland , which contributed to a slow but steady erosion of the country 's freedoms and autonomy . Deferential towards the Russian authorities , he readily let Duke Constantine and Alexander 's commissar , Nikolay Nikolayevich Novosiltsev , neither of whose positions were envisioned in the Constitution , become the de facto rulers of the Kingdom . In recognition of Zajączek 's services , Aleksander I bestowed upon him the title of ' Prince of Poland ' on 27 April 1818 . In the spring of 1826 Zajączek fell ill , steadily becoming weaker . On 25 July that year he lost consciousness , and died in the morning of 28 July . He died in Warsaw 's palace called Pałac Namiestnikowski ( Regent 's Palace ) , nowadays a seat of the President of Poland . His funeral lasted from 2 to 5 August . He was buried at the Church of the Holy Heart of Jesus in Opatówek , where he had a manor on the lands received from Napoleon . His heart was placed in the Bernardine Church in Warsaw , and his insides were buried at the Powązki Cemetery , also in Warsaw . Zajączek and his wife had no children ; Aleksandra outlived her husband by nineteen years . = = Honours and awards = = Commander 's Cross of the Virtuti Militari ( 1807 ) Order of the White Eagle ( 1815 ) Order of St. Andrew ( 1816 ) Order of the Black Eagle ( Prussia , 1819 ) Knight 's ( 1803 ) and Commander 's Cross of the Legion of Honour ( France , 1804 )
= Molwyn Joseph = Molwyn Joseph is an Antiguan politician and Chairman of the Antigua Labour Party ( ALP ) . First entering politics in 1984 when he was made a Minister without Portfolio in the government of Vere Bird , Joseph became Minister of Finance seven years later , renegotiating the Antiguan national debt and introducing fiscal reforms . After a 1996 scandal in which it was discovered he had used his position to import a 1930s Rolls Royce for a friend , bypassing normal import duties and taxes , he was dismissed from the Bird administration , returning 14 months later to serve as Minister for Planning , Implementation and the Environment . Following the 1999 general election he became Minister of Heath and Social Improvement before being made Minister of Tourism and the Environment a few months later . As Minister , Joseph attempted to improve the perception of Antigua as a tourist destination and invest in the industry , spending 2 million US dollars increasing the number of hotel rooms on the island and providing money for both Air Jamaica and Air Luxor to provide flights to the island . Outside of his ministerial duties , he also met with Jiang Zhenghua , Vice @-@ Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People 's Congress , having led the official Antiguan delegation to Beijing . Following a power struggle in 2003 , Joseph was given the Economic Development and Investment Promotion portfolio , to hold at the same time as his Tourism and the Environment position . Despite a scandal surrounding donations he had received from Texan businessman Robert Stafford , Joseph was selected to contest the seat of St Mary 's North in the 2004 Antiguan general election , in which the ALP lost power , being replaced in government by the United Progressive Party ( UPP ) led by Baldwin Spencer . Joseph himself lost his seat , but was elected Chairman of the ALP a year later , and regained the seat in 2009 with a majority of 21 . The same year , he was arrested for participating in an unauthorised May Day rally protesting the UPP administration ; after a lengthy trial , he and several other ALP members were convicted and fined . = = Early career = = Joseph entered Cabinet @-@ level politics on 19 April 1984 when , following the ALP 's general election victory , he was made a Minister without Portfolio . In 1991 he became Minister of Finance and Trade , and along with Financial Secretary Keith Hurst and Minister of Economic Development Rodney Williams negotiated the rescheduling of Antigua 's national debt with European creditors . The government 's 1992 budget , announced and drafted by Joseph , included no new taxes but did involve a cut to government spending , in response to what he claimed was reduced spending by tourists and smaller amounts of international aid in 1990 and 1991 . The 1993 budget contained similar provisions , ruling out the possibility of an income tax , as suggested by one of Antigua 's major trade unions . This was accompanied by a programme of fiscal reforms , including " expenditure control , improved revenue collection , external debt management , proper evaluation of projects , improved public sector efficiency , price controls on basic foods and commodities , tax reform and good governance " . Within Parliament , Joseph campaigned for the Business Licensing Bill , a statute which aimed to impose licensing fees , ranging from 40 to 20 @,@ 000 East Caribbean dollars , on those seeking to start businesses in certain fields . The Bill attracted large amounts of controversy , with critics such as Hugh Marshall asserting that it violated the CARICOM Single Market and Economy agreement and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade , and would lead to Antiguan traders finding it difficult to expand into external markets . Although other ministers such as Williams spoke in support of the bill , it was later shelved indefinitely , with Joseph saying that he " [ found ] myself a lonely man " . = = Dismissal = = In 1996 , Joseph left his position as Finance Minister after it was discovered that he had helped a friend import a 1930s Rolls Royce , using his position to bypass the normal import duties and taxes . Although the government 's immediate reaction was to deny that this had happened , the Solicitor @-@ General issued a report in which he found that " the landing of the Rolls Royce car ... was in violation of customs and port procedures " , facilitated by Joseph 's intervention . With the growing pressure , Joseph resigned on 22 September , . Now on the backbenches , Joseph became " senior parliamentarian in charge of refugees " , and as such was the government 's chief spokesperson when the eruption of a volcano in Montserrat led to 3 @,@ 000 refugees fleeing the country and coming to Antigua and Barbuda . = = Reappointment = = Joseph 's position on the backbenches did not last long ; on 3 December 1997 , less than two years after his resignation , he was recalled to take up the Planning , Implementation and the Environment portfolio , with Bird saying that " his managerial skills are required at this juncture of our economic history when several projects require implementation to get off the ground quickly " . Following the 1999 general election , he was again appointed to the cabinet , this time as Minister of Heath and Social Improvement , with the Planning portfolio going to Steadroy Benjamin . A few months later he became Minister of Tourism and the Environment , with Bernard Percival taking over his Health portfolio . As Minister , Joseph oversaw a " back @-@ to @-@ basics approach " to tourism , attempting to have the nation perceived as one known " for its cleanliness , tidiness , natural beauty and pristine environment " . As part of this , the Antiguan government invested 2 million US dollars in boosting the number of hotel rooms available , from 3 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 000 , and opened the Antigua Hotel Institute , seeking to train Antiguans in how to more efficiently and effectively work in the tourism industry . Joseph also oversaw the government buying a third of the Jolly Beach Resort in an attempt to save it from bankruptcy , establishing a management company to oversee the property . In February 2000 he led the government delegation in an official visit to Beijing , where they met with Jiang Zhenghua , Vice @-@ Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People 's Congress , to discuss " bilateral relations and the issues of common concern " . He also led the Antiguan delegation to the World Travel Market in 2001 . Following Joseph 's promise of government investiture in the route , Air Jamaica resumed flights to Antigua in 2002 , having ceased flying there six years earlier . This was followed by the announcement that Air Luxor would similarly begin offering flights to the islands . After a financial scandal in early 2003 , the ALP backbencher Sherfield Bowen asked for a vote of no confidence in Bird 's government on 19 May , calling for him to step down and " accusing him of being involved corrupt practices and governing without accountability " . When Bowen was threatened with being thrown out of the Party , he claimed that several other MPs and government ministers were prepared to resign if he was dismissed , including Joseph . The dispute remained unresolved , with Bowen accusing the government of vesting too much power in Senator Asot Michael ; Bowen , Hilroy Humpheys , Bernard Percival and Longford Jeremy eventually all resigned from the ALP administration , with further suggestions that Joseph , as well as trade minister Gaston Brown , could also leave . Joseph eventually announced on 19 June , that he would resign if Michael was not immediately removed ; within a few hours , Michael 's resignation had been formally tendered . Soon afterwards , Joseph was given the Economic Development and Investment Promotion portfolio , to hold at the same time as his Tourism and the Environment position . = = Later career = = In late 2003 , it was discovered that Texan businessman Allen Stanford had given both Joseph and fellow minister Gaston Browne cheques worth 100 @,@ 000 East Caribbean dollars . While Browne denied suggestions that this had constituted bribery , claiming that the money had gone towards community projects , Leader of the Opposition Baldwin Spencer demanded that both ministers resign . Both ministers were part of a team negotiating with Stanford over a land exchange in St. John 's , and the news led to protesters picketing their offices . Prime Minister Lester Bird affirmed his support in both ministers , and despite a motion of censure brought by the opposition and more protests , Stanford publicly made a second set of donations to Joseph and Browne . Antigua had a general election in 2004 , following the dissolution of Parliament in late February ; with the ALP running a full slate , Joseph was nominated for the St Mary 's North seat . The ALP were conclusively defeated by the United Progressive Party ( UPP ) and forced out of government , Joseph lost his seat to Bertrand Joseph . Now in opposition , the ALP held a leadership contest in 2005 , in which Joseph was elected Party Chairman , defeating Vere Bird , Jr . 164 votes to 108 . In 2007 , he was appointed by Bird to act as Shadow Minister for Tourism and Education . In the 2009 general election he again ran for St Mary 's North , defeating Bertrand Joseph by 21 votes ; despite this , the UPP retained power . Following an unauthorised ALP march on May Day in 2009 to protest against the UPP government , Joseph and six other senior ALP figures , including the former Prime Minister , were arrested and charged with public order offences . They pleaded not guilty , but were convicted and fined .
= The Boat Race 1988 = The 134th Boat Race took place on 2 April 1988 . Held annually , the event is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Oxford won by five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 18 minutes 27 seconds , the equal @-@ fourth fastest time in the event 's history . The race was umpired by former Cambridge rowing Blue Mike Sweeney . In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie won , while Oxford won the Women 's Boat Race . = = Background = = The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1987 race by four lengths , with Cambridge leading overall with 69 victories to Oxford 's 64 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . The event was sponsored by Beefeater Gin and was televised in the United Kingdom by the BBC on its Grandstand sports programme . The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race . = = Crews = = Oxford weighed in with the heaviest crew in Boat Race history – on average the rowers weighed 14 st 11 @.@ 5 lb ( 93 @.@ 9 kg ) , 11 lb more per man than Cambridge . Oxford 's Gavin Stewart , at 6 ft 8 @.@ 5 in ( 2 @.@ 04 m ) was the tallest rower in the history of the Boat Race . Cambridge 's crew included four former Blues while Oxford 's featured six . Oxford 's coaching team included Canadian international coach Mike Spracklen . = = Race = = The race took place on 2 April 1988 . Oxford started as pre @-@ race favourites , and having won the toss , elected to start from the Surrey station . Immediately from the start , the umpire was called into action , warning both coxes for steering too closely to one another . Cambridge took a slight lead but Oxford soon recovered to become level , and by the Mile Post were three seconds ahead . Shortly after , the Cambridge number 7 , Nick Grundy caught a crab , causing his boat to " shudder to a halt . " Oxford slowly extended their lead ; nine seconds ahead at Hammersmith Bridge , eleven seconds by the Chiswick Steps and fifteen by Barnes Bridge . Oxford passed the finishing post 16 seconds ahead of Cambridge , winning by five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 18 minutes 27 seconds , the equal @-@ fourth fastest time in the event 's history . In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie won by five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 17 minutes and 55 seconds , their second consecutive victory . Oxford won the 43rd Women 's Boat Race with their third victory in four years . = = Reaction = = The Beefeater Gin Trophy was presented by Denis Thatcher . Grundy said of his crab : " I feathered my oar after a stroke and the tip caught the water , which plunged it back in . " Oxford Boat Club president Chris Penny said " It was not an easy race but it was enjoyable . We kept our heads , found our rhythm and moved back and through them . "
= Outrageous ( song ) = " Outrageous " is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her fourth studio album , In the Zone ( 2003 ) . It was written and produced by R. Kelly , with vocal production provided by Trixster and Penelope Magnet . The song was released on July 20 , 2004 , by Jive Records , as the fourth and final single from In the Zone . " Outrageous " was the record label 's choice for first and second single , but Spears pushed for " Me Against the Music " and " Toxic " respectively , to be released instead . It was finally announced as a single after it was selected as the theme song for the 2004 film Catwoman . " Outrageous " is an R & B song with influences of hip hop and an exotic feel . Lyrically , it talks about materialism and entertainment . " Outrageous " received mixed reviews from critics . Some praised its funky sound , while others deemed it as " forgettable " . " Outrageous " only charted in the United States , entering many of Billboard 's component charts and peaking at number 79 on the Billboard Hot 100 . Spears only performed the song once , on 2004 's The Onyx Hotel Tour . The music video was being shot in New York City in June 2004 , when Spears hurt her knee and had to undergo arthroscopic surgery . The video was canceled , as well as The Onyx Hotel Tour and the feature in the Catwoman soundtrack . A composite of different scenes was released in the DVD Greatest Hits : My Prerogative . = = Background = = " Outrageous " was written and produced by R. Kelly , and was recorded at The Chocolate Factory , in Chicago , Illinois . Penelope Magnet and Christopher " Tricky " Stewart of production team RedZone were enlisted to produce Spears 's vocals . She recorded them at Battery Studios in New York City . The song was later mixed by Serban Ghenea at MixStar Studios in Virginia Beach , Virginia . On September 11 , 2003 , " Outrageous " was confirmed as one of the tracks from In the Zone . Jive Records hoped the song would be released as the first single from the album , but Spears convinced them to release her collaboration with Madonna , " Me Against the Music " . The track was also one of the choices for second single along with " ( I Got That ) Boom Boom " , but Spears selected " Toxic " instead . On June 1 , 2004 , it was announced that " Outrageous " would be released as the fourth single from the album and would be sent to radio stations on June 29 , 2004 . It was also announced that the track would be the theme song from the 2004 film Catwoman . " Outrageous " was sent to mainstream radio in the United States on July 20 , 2004 . = = Composition = = " Outrageous " is an R & B song with influences of hip hop . The beat was compared by Gavin Mueller of Stylus Magazine to R. Kelly 's 2003 single " Snake " . Jennifer Vineyard of MTV noted that " she whispers and moans [ ... ] with a snake charmer melody giving the song an exotic feel " . Nick Southall of Stylus Magazine compared the background vocals to those of Punjabi musician Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan . According to the sheetmusic published at Musicnotes.com by Universal Music Publishing Group , " Outrageous " is composed in the key of D major , with a tempo of 105 beats per minute . The song 's lyrics talk about materialism and amusement , with Spears referencing in the chorus a number of things that give her pleasure , such as " my world tour " and " my sex drive " . Vineyard noted , " the cumulative effect seems like it 's designed to put the listener in the lover 's shoes — taking full advantage of the aural male gaze " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine said the track " includes a telling parallel that reveals a lot about one of music 's biggest — as Alanis Morissette would put it — treadmill capitalists : she sings " my sex drive " and " my shopping spree " with the same dripping gusto " . = = Reception = = = = = Critical response = = = " Outrageous " received mixed reviews from music critics . Mim Udovitch of Blender called the song an " R. Kelly club number , [ that ] has a hot , odd compulsion and lyrics that are practically big @-@ pimpin ' , Spears @-@ style " . William Shaw of Blender selected it as the ninth best Spears song , highlighting " the nonsense chants " at 1 : 10 . While reviewing Greatest Hits : My Prerogative , Ann Powers commented , " ' Outrageous ' is R. Kelly 's dirty little take on the ideal Janet Jackson song " . Spence D. of IGN said of the song that " it 's a somewhat derivative Egyptian lover groove number . Yet for all it 's [ sic ] repetitiveness , it 's still kind of funky and pervasive " . Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times called it " [ a ] composition that cruises along on autopilot for two minutes and then suddenly switches gears with a delectable Michael Jackson @-@ inspired bridge " . Annabel Leathes of BBC Online stated that " R. Kelly transform [ s ] Britney into a grubby Beyoncé " . Caryn Ganz of Spin called " Outrageous " a " go @-@ nowhere homage to living fabulously " . Dave de Sylvia of Sputnikmusic called it " a forgettable but nonetheless catchy single " . David Browne of Entertainment Weekly said that along with " ( I Got That ) Boom Boom " , " [ they ] are little more than wobbly , rhythm @-@ based contraptions intended to advance Spears ' sex @-@ princess @-@ on @-@ the @-@ loose image " . Jamie Gill of Yahoo ! Music Radio commented that , " with its cheap , tinny production — it would take a rather senile and unworldly old lady in Tonbridge Wells [ sic ] to find this even diverting , let alone shocking " . = = = Chart performance = = = On August 14 , 2004 , " Outrageous " debuted at number 85 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 . On August 28 , 2004 , it peaked at number 79 . The same week , the song peaked at number twenty @-@ three on Billboard ' s Pop Songs . It also reached number 27 on Billboard 's Hot Dance Club Songs on September 11 , 2004 . " Outrageous " also reached number 14 on the Hot Dance Singles Sales chart . In Japan , " Outrageous " charted on the Oricon Albums Chart for eight weeks and peaked at number 31 . = = Promotion = = The music video for " Outrageous " was directed by Dave Meyers , who previously worked in the music videos for " Lucky " and " Boys " , as well as the Curious commercials . It was shot in outdoors locations in Queens and Manhattan , New York City on June 8 , 2004 . The music video was set to premiere on MTV on June 28 , 2004 . After completion of the scenes with guest star Snoop Dogg , Spears was shooting dance scenes in Manhattan when around 11 : 30 p.m. , she fell and injured her left knee . She was taken immediately to a local hospital , where doctors performed an MRI scan and found floating cartilage . The following day , Spears underwent arthroscopic surgery . Spears was forced to remain six weeks with a thigh brace , followed by eight to twelve weeks of rehabilitation , which caused the rest of the shoot as well as the remainder of The Onyx Hotel Tour to be canceled . " Outrageous " was also scrapped as the theme song from Catwoman . A 45 second music video composed of the scenes that were shot was released in the 2004 DVD Greatest Hits : My Prerogative . The video begins with Snoop Dogg and a group of men playing basketball in an outdoors court , until Spears appears wearing blue baggy shorts . She starts to flirt with him , before jumping into his arms and licking his beard . In the next scene , she performs with her dancers on a street at night . Spears has performed the song only once , on her 2004 The Onyx Hotel Tour . It was the last song of the fifth act of the show , titled " Security Cameras " . She performed " Breathe on Me " wearing pink lingerie while emulating different sexual practices with her dancers . After it ended , she put on a white trench coat while her dancers wore them in black and performed " Outrageous " . The act ended with a skit that segued into the finale performance of " ( I Got That ) Boom Boom " . = = Track listings = = = = Credits and personnel = = = = Charts = = = = Release history = =
= Business routes of Interstate 69 in Michigan = There are currently four business routes of Interstate 69 ( I @-@ 69 ) in the US state of Michigan . Designated Business Loop Interstate 69 ( BL I @-@ 69 ) , they are all former routings of I @-@ 69 's predecessor highways , US Highway 27 ( US 27 ) , M @-@ 78 or M @-@ 21 , in whole or in part . The BL I @-@ 69 in Coldwater and the one in Charlotte were both parts of US 27 before the freeway bypassed those two cities in 1967 and the early 1970s , respectively . The BL I @-@ 69 through Lansing and East Lansing was previously part of M @-@ 78 and Temporary I @-@ 69 until it was redesignated in 1987 . Before 1984 , the loop in Port Huron was originally part of M @-@ 21 and was initially a business spur numbered Business Spur Interstate 69 ( BS I @-@ 69 ) . It was later redesignated when it was extended to run concurrently with that city 's BL I @-@ 94 which was originally part of I @-@ 94 's predecessor , US 25 . Each business loop follows streets through each city 's downtown areas and connects to I @-@ 69 on both ends , giving traffic a route through the downtown and back to the freeway . = = Coldwater = = Business Loop I @-@ 69 ( BL I @-@ 69 ) is a business loop formed from part of the old US 27 and part of US 12 near and through Coldwater . At the southern end , it begins at exit 10 on I @-@ 69 where Fenn Road crosses the freeway . The business loop follows the two @-@ lane Fenn Road west for about three @-@ quarters of a mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) , then curves north to merge with old US 27 ( Angola Road ) . The highway runs northward through farmland south of Coldwater , and after approximately two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) , it enters the city limit at Garfield Road . Once in Coldwater , the business loop follows Clay Street through residential neighborhoods . After another half mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) , the highway reaches a fork where Clay Street continues due north and Division Street branches to the northeast ; BL I @-@ 69 follows the four @-@ lane Division Street for about another mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the main intersection in the city known locally as " the Four Corners . " This intersection is where old US 27 intersects US 12 ( Chicago Street ) . BL I @-@ 69 turns eastward along the four @-@ lane US 12 and continues from the Four Corners back to I @-@ 69 at exit 13 . In 1919 , the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) signposted the highway system for the first time , and the future US 27 corridor through Coldwater was part of the original M @-@ 29 . On November 11 , 1926 , the United States Numbered Highway System was approved by the American Association of State Highway Officials ( AASHO ) , and the new US 27 replaced M @-@ 29 in the area . In September 1967 , the freeway bypassing Coldwater opened . At the same time , the old route through the city was redesignated as BL I @-@ 69 . Major intersections The entire highway is in Branch County . = = Charlotte = = Business Loop I @-@ 69 ( BL I @-@ 69 ) is a business loop that took over the Business US 27 ( Bus . US 27 ) route inside Charlotte . It is a surface street for the nearly five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) of the loop . The trunkline starts just outside the city of Charlotte at exit 57 and follows Cochran Road The loop travels due north through rural areas south of town along a two @-@ lane road . North of a crossing of the Battle Creek River , Cochrane Road widens to include a center turn lane . About 2 3 ⁄ 4 miles ( 4 @.@ 4 km ) north of the starting point , BL I @-@ 69 begins a 3 ⁄ 4 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) concurrency with M @-@ 50 at Shepherd Street . North of Warren Avenue , BL I @-@ 69 / M @-@ 50 widens to four lanes , two in each direction . The concurrency ends at Lawrence Avenue ; M @-@ 50 continues north , and the business loop heads east on Lawrence Avenue for a few blocks . That intersection also marks the eastern terminus of M @-@ 79 . From that point , BL I @-@ 69 follows Lawrence Avenue and then veers northeast onto Lansing Street to complete its loop at exit 61 . In 1919 , the MSHD signposted the highway system for the first time , and the future US 27 corridor through Charlotte was part of the original M @-@ 29 . On November 11 , 1926 , the United States Numbered Highway System was approved by the AASHO and the new US 27 replaced M @-@ 29 through Coldwater . By the end of the next year , M @-@ 78 was extended from downtown Charlotte along US 27 to run northeasterly toward Lansing . The highway through downtown Charlotte was first designated Bus . US 27 after the 1961 completion of a non @-@ freeway bypass , a two @-@ lane , limited @-@ access highway east of the city . At that point I @-@ 69 only existed in the southern parts of Michigan . That freeway was not extended up to the city when the southernmost segment of I @-@ 69 was completed in 1967 . By 1971 , I @-@ 69 was completed to Charlotte and at the time US 27 was cosigned with I @-@ 69 , the bypass being incorporated into I @-@ 69 . For three years the business loop in Charlotte was not signed as BL I @-@ 69 , but it was so designated in 1974 and Bus . US 27 was decommissioned in and near Charlotte . Major intersections The entire highway is in Eaton County . = = Lansing = = Business Loop I @-@ 69 , or BL I @-@ 69 , is a business loop in the Lansing area . It is the longest business route in the state of Michigan at a length of over 14 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 23 @.@ 3 km ) . Beginning at exit 93 on I @-@ 96 / I @-@ 69 in Eaton County west of the city , the business loop runs concurrently with M @-@ 43 east along Saginaw Highway . The roadway has five total lanes , two in each direction separated by a center turn lane , as it travels through commercial areas in Delta Township and past the Lansing Mall . BL I @-@ 69 / M @-@ 43 continues east on Saginaw Highway and crosses into Ingham County at Waverly Road . From the county line eastward , the highway is known as Saginaw Street , and it passes through residential neighborhoods . Within the city of Lansing , BL I @-@ 69 utilizes a one @-@ way pair of three @-@ to @-@ four @-@ lane streets : Saginaw Street eastbound and Oakland Street westbound . One block separates the two directions of BL I @-@ 69 / M @-@ 43 until the intersection with Martin Luther King Jr . Boulevard near the St. Lawrence Campus of the Sparrow Hospital ; east of this intersection two blocks separate the two directions of the highway . The business loop crosses the Grand River in downtown Lansing near the campus of Lansing Community College north of the Michigan State Capitol . On the eastern side of the river just north of Cooley Law School Stadium , BL I @-@ 69 / M @-@ 43 intersects the one @-@ way pair of Cedar and Larch streets that carries the two directions of BL I @-@ 96 . BL I @-@ 69 / M @-@ 43 continues through residential areas east of the other business loop . Near Marshall Park between Maryland Avenue and Marshall Street , Oakland Avenue ends and Grand River Avenue takes over for the westbound direction of BL I @-@ 69 / M @-@ 43 . Further east near the interchange with US 127 , Grand River Avenue and Saginaw Street cross each other . M @-@ 43 departs to the southeast via Grand River Avenue while BL I @-@ 69 turns northeasterly via the four @-@ lane Saginaw Street . East of this intersection , BL I @-@ 69 crosses into East Lansing and runs through residential areas on the north side of the city . The roadway turns due east at Abbot Road . At an intersection with Haslett Road , Saginaw Street widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway with a grassy median . Along this section , it resumes the Saginaw Highway name and turns northeasterly again , crossing into Meridian Township . The major intersections along Saginaw Highway have Michigan left turns as well . Before the business loop ends , it crosses into Clinton County . The eastern end of BL I @-@ 69 is located at exit 94 on I @-@ 69 in Bath Township . In 1919 , the MSHD signposted the highway system for the first time , and the east – west highways through Lansing were part of the original M @-@ 29 through downtown and the original M @-@ 39 north of downtown . The north – south highway in Lansing was the original M @-@ 14 . On November 11 , 1926 , the United States Numbered Highway System was approved by the AASHO , and the new US 27 replaced M @-@ 29 and M @-@ 14 in the area . By the end of the next year , M @-@ 78 was extended from Charlotte along US 27 to through downtown Lansing . M @-@ 78 separated from US 27 in downtown Lansing and continued northeasterly through the northern part of East Lansing . M @-@ 39 was replaced with an extended M @-@ 43 in 1938 . As the freeways in the Lansing area were completed in the 1960s through the 1980s , the highways through downtown changed designations . The section of I @-@ 96 west of Lansing opened in December 1962 . In 1973 , M @-@ 78 was converted to a freeway near the Flint area , and from Olivet southwest of Lansing to the new freeway , the old highway was redesignated Temporary I @-@ 69 ( Temp . I @-@ 69 ) . Additional segments of I @-@ 69 north of Lansing were finished in 1984 and 1987 . I @-@ 69 was routed over I @-@ 96 and the new freeway north of Lansing , and the business loop was designated along M @-@ 43 and the former Temp . I @-@ 69 in 1987 after that second segment opened . Major intersections = = Port Huron = = Business Loop I @-@ 69 ( BL I @-@ 69 ) is a business loop running through downtown Port Huron . The first mile or so ( 1 @.@ 7 km ) of BL I @-@ 69 runs southeasterly from I @-@ 69 at the interchange where it meets I @-@ 94 . The business loop follows a four @-@ lane freeway until the intersection with 32nd Street . A bit further east , it turns due east – west into a one @-@ way pair of three @-@ lane surface streets , eastbound along Oak Street and westbound along Griswold Street , that run through residential areas on the west and south sides of Port Huron . East of 23rd Street. the two halves of BL I @-@ 69 narrow to two lanes each . In downtown Port Huron , BL I @-@ 69 turns northerly running concurrently with BL I @-@ 94 on four @-@ lane Military Avenue parallel to the St. Clair River . North of the crossing of the Black River , BL I @-@ 69 / BL I @-@ 94 continues northward on Huron Avenue through downtown . At the intersection with Glenwood Avenue , the business loop turns northwesterly onto Pine Grove Avenue through residential areas on the north side of the city . The street is five lanes , two in each direction with a center turn lane , and passes under the I @-@ 94 / I @-@ 69 freeway at the toll and customs plazas for the Blue Water Bridge ; north of the freeway , there is a ramp to connect to the eastbound direction of the freeway and the bridge . The business loop continues along Pine Grove Avenue , intersecting the southern end of M @-@ 25 at Hancock Street . At that intersection , the business loop turns westward for a block . It then turns south along the connector to terminate at westbound I @-@ 94 / I @-@ 69 west of the Blue Water Bridge toll plaza . In 1919 , the MSHD signposted the highway system for the first time , and the east – west highway through Port Huron was part of the original M @-@ 19 , and the north – south highway was part of the original M @-@ 27 . M @-@ 21 was extended over M @-@ 19 into Port Huron by 1924 . On November 11 , 1926 , the United States Numbered Highway System was approved by the AASHO , and the new US 25 replaced M @-@ 27 in the area . In 1964 , a section of I @-@ 94 in the Port Huron area was completed . The former route of US 25 through downtown was redesignated Bus . US 25 when the main highway was shifted out to the freeway . The first freeway segment of M @-@ 21 was built into the Port Huron area in 1966 ; the freeway directly tied into the western end of the old route into downtown . In 1973 , US 25 was decommissioned in the state , and the former Bus . US 25 was renumbered BL I @-@ 94 . The remaining segment of freeway along the M @-@ 21 corridor opened in 1984 as I @-@ 69 ; after this freeway opened , M @-@ 21 was shortened to Flint , and the former M @-@ 21 in Port Huron became Business Spur I @-@ 69 . To connect back to I @-@ 69 , the business route was extended northward along BL I @-@ 94 when that highway was designated through downtown in 1986 . Major intersections The entire highway is in St. Clair County .
= City of Death = City of Death is the second serial of the seventeenth season of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who , which depicts the adventures of a time @-@ travelling humanoid alien known as the Doctor . It was produced by the BBC and first broadcast in four weekly parts between 29 September 1979 and 20 October 1979 on BBC1 . The serial was written by " David Agnew " – a pseudonym for David Fisher , Douglas Adams , and Graham Williams – and directed by Michael Hayes . City of Death features the Fourth Doctor ( Tom Baker ) and his companion Romana ( Lalla Ward ) . Set mainly in Paris in 1979 , the plot concerns a scheme by an alien , Scaroth , to steal the Mona Lisa to finance experiments in time travel in the hope of averting the accident that marooned him on Earth four hundred million years previously , which began the existence of life on the planet as well . The serial 's original storyline was devised by Fisher but was heavily re @-@ written by script editor Adams , aided by producer Williams . It was the first Doctor Who serial to film on location outside of the United Kingdom ; the production team worked in Paris during April and May 1979 . The studio work was completed in June . Broadcast during a strike that took ITV ( the BBC 's rival ) off the air , City of Death scored high ratings . The fourth episode was watched by over sixteen million viewers , the highest UK television audience ever attained by an episode of Doctor Who . Although , in retrospect , it has been regarded as one of the best serials from Doctor Who 's classic run , the initial reception was not as positive , with criticism of the humorous tone . = = Plot = = While leisurely enjoying the city of Paris with Romana , the Doctor feels the effects of time distortion . At the Louvre while admiring the Mona Lisa , he encounters the Countess Scarlioni wearing an alien bracelet used to scan security systems . The Doctor and Romana meet Inspector Duggan , who has been tailing Count Scarlioni for some time ; Scarlioni has placed a large number of lost art treasures on the market , and Duggan fears the Scarlionis are looking to steal the Mona Lisa . Though the three are briefly captured by the Countess , the Doctor helps them to escape and explore the Count 's mansion , where they discover equipment by Dr. Kerensky to experiment with time , the source of the Doctor 's time distortions . They also discover , behind a wall , six exact copies of the Mona Lisa , each painted by Leonardo da Vinci himself . Leaving Romana and Duggan to continue to investigate in the present , the Doctor uses his TARDIS to visit Leonardo 's workshop . There he is captured by Captain Tancredi , whose appearance is the same as Count Scarlioni . Tancredi reveals he is Scaroth , the last of the Jagaroth race , stranded on Earth and fragmented through time due to an explosion of their spacecraft on Earth 400 million years ago . Seeking to restore himself and his race , Scaroth has aided human technological advancement , while remaining in contact with the other fragments of himself . Tancredi , in this era , has convinced Leonardo to paint 6 copies of the Mona Lisa , so that when Scarlioni steals the known painting in 1979 , he can then sell it seven times , substantially funding the completion of Dr. Kerensky 's work . When Tancredi leaves the Doctor under watch by a human guard , the Doctor knocks out the guard , uses a felt @-@ tip marker to write " This is a fake " on the six blank canvases and leaves instructions for Leonardo to paint over the text , as to allow them to track the copies in the future by X @-@ raying them . The Doctor escapes when Tancredi suffers a temporary collapse caused by his other selves . The Doctor returns to the present and learns that Scaroth has succeeded in stealing the Mona Lisa . Furthermore , Scaroth has killed Dr. Kerensky and threatens to do the same to the entire city of Paris if Romana does not complete Kerensky 's work . The Doctor convinces the Countess that her husband is not human , and she sees his true face , but the Count kills her before she can react . With the time equipment fixed , Scaroth uses it to travel back 400 million years in hopes to stop the explosion of his ship . Though Romana reveals that the equipment will bring him back after two minutes , the Doctor asserts that it is enough time for Scaroth to stop the explosion of the Jagaroth ship , itself the source of the spark of energy that created the beginnings of life on Earth ; should Scaroth prevent the explosion , every native living being on the planet will never have existed . The Doctor , Romana , and Duggan race to the TARDIS and travel back to intercept Scaroth . Duggan punches Scaroth unconscious before he can stop the ship . Scaroth 's body returns to the present as the ship attempts to take off and explodes , assuring the development of life on Earth . In the present , Scaroth is killed by his henchman Hermann , who does not recognise him without his human mask , and a failure in the time equipment sets the mansion ablaze . By the time the Doctor , Romana , and Duggan arrive , the original and five of the six copies of the Mona Lisa have been destroyed , but one of the copies remains untouched . The Doctor proposes that since a copy of a painting by the original artist is not a fake , the painting should be considered the real work of art , reminding Duggan that art is worthless if its monetary value is all that matters . The Doctor and Romana say goodbye to Duggan at the Eiffel Tower . = = Production = = = = = Conception and writing = = = Writer David Fisher had contributed two scripts to Doctor Who 's sixteenth season – The Stones of Blood and The Androids of Tara – and was asked by producer Graham Williams for further story ideas . Fisher submitted two proposals ; the first of these became The Creature from the Pit while the other , The Gamble with Time , concerned a plot to rig the casinos in Las Vegas to finance time travel experiments . Williams asked Fisher to rework The Gamble With Time as a spoof of Bulldog Drummond , a fictional detective from the 1920s . Fisher 's draft script centered around Scarlioni , a member of the Sephiroth race , who had become fractured in time in an accident . The script was mainly set in the year 1928 with the Doctor and Romana , aided by Drummond @-@ esque detective " Pug " Farquharson , on the trail of the stolen Mona Lisa , pursuing Scarlioni from Paris to Monte Carlo where his partner , the Baroness Heidi , is using time travel technology to cheat at roulette at the casino to fund Scarlioni 's time travel experiments . Other settings included Paris in 1979 , Leonardo da Vinci 's studio in the year 1508 and prehistoric Earth . At this point , production unit manager John Nathan @-@ Turner had worked out that the production team could afford to film on location in Paris with a stripped @-@ down crew . This necessitated a rewrite to Fisher 's scripts to move the action to Paris and , for cost reasons , to drop the 1920s setting . The Doctor 's robotic dog companion K9 also had to be removed from the script as the cost of bringing the robot dog and his operators to Paris was prohibitive . However , Fisher was going through a divorce , and his personal situation meant that he was unable to perform the rewrites . This meant that script editor Douglas Adams , aided by Graham Williams , had to perform a complete rewrite of the story over the course of a weekend . According to Adams , Graham Williams " took me back to his place , locked me in his study and hosed me down with whisky and black coffee for a few days , and there was the script " . The revised script , now titled The Curse of the Sephiroth , was credited to " David Agnew " , a standard pseudonym used by the BBC and which had been previously used on Doctor Who for the season fifteen serial The Invasion of Time . The serial was subsequently retitled City of Death on 8 May 1979 . Adams would later reuse elements of City of Death , along with the unfinished Doctor Who serial Shada ( 1979 ; 2003 ) , in his novel Dirk Gently 's Holistic Detective Agency ( 1987 ) . In Part One , Romana makes a throwaway reference to a great art gallery called the Braxiatel Collection ; the Virgin New Adventures novel series would later expand on this , introducing the character Irving Braxiatel , a Time Lord . Braxiatel also appears in the Bernice Summerfield series of novels and audio dramas and in the Gallifrey series of audio dramas . = = = Casting = = = Julian Glover was a well @-@ established character actor who had previously appeared in Doctor Who as Richard the Lionheart in The Crusade ( 1965 ) . Glover was reluctant to don the Jagaroth mask created for scenes where Scarlioni had shed his human disguise as he felt the mask would impede his performance . As a result , he is doubled by Richard Sheekey in many of these scenes . Tom Chadbon was cast as Duggan on account of his resemblance to the Franco @-@ Belgian comics hero Tintin . Peter Halliday had previously appeared in several Doctor Who serials including The Invasion and Doctor Who and the Silurians . Douglas Adams knew John Cleese and Eleanor Bron through his connections with Monty Python and the Cambridge Footlights . On learning that both would be working in BBC Television Centre on the day the art gallery scenes were to be recorded , he persuaded them to make a cameo appearance in a short scene written for " two Englishmen " . Cleese and Bron agreed on the condition that there be no pre @-@ publicity regarding their appearance ; Cleese wanted them to be credited as " Helen Swanetsky " and " Kim Bread " but the BBC declined . Cleese liked the name " Kim Bread " and used it in later projects . During recording , Cleese and Baker also recorded two short comedy skits for the BBC Christmas tape . = = = Filming = = = City of Death director Michael Hayes had previously directed the Doctor Who serials The Androids of Tara ( 1978 ) and The Armageddon Factor ( 1979 ) . He also had experience filming in Paris , having worked there on adaptations of Maigret ( 1960 – 63 ) and other Georges Simenon stories for the BBC . Location filming took place in Paris between 30 April 1979 and 3 May 1979 . It proved a difficult shoot as the dates coincided with the May Day holiday period , which meant that many of the locations chosen for filming were closed , necessitating considerable improvisation on the part of the cast and crew . Model filming was conducted at Bray Studios between 8 May 1979 and 10 May 1979 . These concentrated on the shots of the Jagaroth spacecraft taking off from the prehistoric Earth and were overseen by Ian Scoones , a veteran of Gerry Anderson 's Thunderbirds . Following rehearsals , production moved to BBC Television Centre where the remaining scenes were recorded in two blocks ; the first between 21 May 1979 and 22 May 1979 and second between 3 June 1979 and 5 June 1979 . Tom Baker found filming in Paris to be a very different experience to what he was used to in the UK where crowds would gather to watch the filming and meet the stars . Doctor Who was not shown in France at the time and so the cast and crew were largely ignored . Lalla Ward found City of Death the most challenging Doctor Who serial she worked on but was pleased with the final outcome , saying , " We had to film loads of scenes in the rain and cold ... there was no glamour in it at all ... it was different from the ordinary stories too and I like the finished result " . Seeing her costumes as an important part in creating the role of Romana , Ward clashed with costume designer Doreen James , rejecting the silver catsuit James had designed for her for the story . Ward came up with the idea for the schoolgirl costume she wore in conjunction with Baker , recalling , " I thought it would be fun to wear something that little girls probably hated wearing because it might cheer them up ... I didn 't bank on the fact that I 'd also get loads of letters from their fathers saying ' Cool School uniform ! ' " . = = Broadcast and reception = = City of Death was broadcast on BBC1 over four consecutive Saturdays beginning on 29 September 1979 . At this time , industrial action had blacked out rival broadcaster ITV and as a result , the serial scored very high ratings , averaging 14 @.@ 5 million viewers over the four episodes ; 16 @.@ 1 million watched the fourth episode , the largest audience ever recorded for an episode of Doctor Who . The story was repeated on BBC1 across four consecutive evenings from Tuesday to Friday , 12 - 15 August , 1980 , achieving viewing figures of 6 @.@ 3 , 5 @.@ 5 , 5 @.@ 6 and 5 @.@ 9 million viewers respectively . Audience appreciation ratings were taken for the first two episodes of City of Death , and both episodes attained a respectable score of 64 % . Listings magazine Radio Times published two letters from viewers regarding City of Death . Les Rogers of Hastings praised the serial 's cast and the location filming ; less impressed , however , was Paul R. Maskew of Exeter who felt the show was being played for laughs . Responding to similar criticisms from viewers , Douglas Adams wrote , " If the programme didn 't move and take a few risks then it would have died of boredom years ago " . Several viewers wrote to point out the discrepancy between the start of life on Earth of 4 @,@ 000 million years ago and the date given in City of Death of 400 million years ago . Graham Williams replied , " The good Doctor makes the odd mistake or two but I think an error of 3 @,@ 600 million years is pushing it ! His next edition of the Encyclopedia Galactica will provide an erratum " . Another viewer wrote to point out that the atmosphere of the primordial Earth would have been poisonous to the Doctor and his companions ; Douglas Adams responded to this criticism , citing dramatic licence . City of Death was voted into seventh place in a 1998 poll of the readers of Doctor Who Magazine to find the best Doctor Who story ; the magazine commented that it " represented the height of Doctor Who as popular light entertainment for all the family " . In 2009 , Doctor Who Magazine readers voted it in eighth place . In a more recent 2014 poll , the magazine 's readers voted it fifth best Doctor Who story of all time . A 2008 article in The Daily Telegraph named City of Death one of the ten greatest episodes of Doctor Who . John Condor , writing in the fanzine DWB in 1991 , hailed the story as " the best blend of kitsch , surrealism , fantasy and comedy @-@ drama seen in our favourite Time Lord 's annals " . Vanessa Bishop , reviewing the serial 's DVD release , described it as " imaginatively written , well @-@ performed and beautifully made , City of Death is a story where pretty much everything works " . Reacting to the serial , as part of Doctor Who Magazine 's ongoing " Time Team " feature , Jacqueline Rayner said " you 're suddenly , almost violently , made aware this is happening in our world ... with people just getting on with their business and two Time Lords walking through it . I don 't think I 've ever experienced that with Doctor Who up till now ... it 's the tiny touches of mundanity amid the fantastical that lift the story even higher " . Charlie Jane Anders and Javier Grillo @-@ Marxuach of io9 included it on their list of " 10 TV Episodes that Changed Television " , citing " the sharp dialogue and clever use of time travel [ that ] prefigure everything Steven Moffat has done with the series in recent years . " The A.V. Club reviewer Christopher Bahn described City of Death as the " gem " of the seventeenth season , finding Adams ' subtle comedy script " easily the funniest and most quotable the series ever achieved " . While he praised Scarlioni 's costume and the mask , he felt that more could have been done with using Paris as a filming location . However , Doctor Who fandom 's initial response to the serial was not so positive ; John Peel , writing in the fanzine TARDIS in 1979 , decried it as " total farce ... I simply couldn 't believe this was Doctor Who ... the continual buffoonery is getting on my nerves " . A similar view was held by Gary Russell who , reviewing the VHS release in 1991 , said , " City of Death , like most Douglas Adams material , is overrated and misses the mark for me , falling between the stools of good pastiche and bad parody and making fairly unsatisfactory viewing " . This line was countered by Vanessa Bishop who called it " the Doctor Who story it 's alright to laugh at ... we must now accept that City of Death is funny — because if we didn 't the Crackerjack @-@ style sleuths , scientists and all ... would leave it knocking about near the bottom of all the Doctor Who story ranking polls " and , responding to the criticisms about the levels of comedy , that " it 's precisely these things that make it seem so special " . Reviewing the serial in 2011 , Patrick Mulkern of Radio Times stated he disliked the smug tone to the humour and Ward 's " snooty " portrayal of Romana . Despite this , he noted that the serial had good production values and direction , as well as a few jokes that he enjoyed . = = Commercial releases = = = = = In print = = = City of Death is one of five Doctor Who serials from the series ' original run ( 1963 – 1989 ) not to have been novelised by Target Books ; the others are The Pirate Planet , Shada , Resurrection of the Daleks , and Revelation of the Daleks . Target approached Douglas Adams on a number of occasions with a view to commissioning a novelisation , offering their standard advance of £ 600 ; Adams replied saying , " I don 't want to be embarrassing but I do have a tendency to be a best @-@ selling author " . Target , concerned that their regular authors would seek better terms , refused to change their offer . Several years later , Target editor Nigel Robinson offered an advance of £ 4 @,@ 000 – double what was the standard advance at the time – but Adams again declined . Adams was unwilling to allow another author to write the novelisation . However , after Adams ' death his estate allowed Gareth Roberts to write an adaptation of the unfinished serial Shada , which was published by BBC Books in 2012 . In 2013 , Roberts announced that he was working on a novelisation of City of Death , to be published on 21 May 2015 . Roberts later announced that James Goss was working on the book instead . = = = Home media = = = City of Death was released on VHS videotape in April 1991 with a cover by Andrew Skilleter . It was re @-@ issued on VHS in 2001 . A DVD of the serial was released in 2005 , which incorporated numerous special features including a commentary by actors Julian Glover and Tom Chadbon , as well as director Michael Hays , and the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes documentary " Paris in the Springtime " . This serial was also released as part of the Doctor Who DVD Files in Issue 37 on 2 June 2010 . On 1 January 2013 , AudioGo released a two @-@ hour soundtrack of the serial , narrated by Lalla Ward . Ian Scoones ' storyboards for City of Death 's special effects sequences were published in Peter Haining 's book Doctor Who – 25 Glorious Years in 1988 , and a Scaroth figure was released by Harlequin Miniatures in 1999 .
= Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution = The Fourth Amendment ( Amendment IV ) to the United States Constitution prohibits unreasonable searches and seizures and requires any warrant to be judicially sanctioned and supported by probable cause . It is part of the Bill of Rights and was adopted in response to the abuse of the writ of assistance , a type of general search warrant issued by the British government and a major source of tension in pre @-@ Revolutionary America . The Fourth Amendment was introduced in Congress in 1789 by James Madison , along with the other amendments in the Bill of Rights , in response to Anti @-@ Federalist objections to the new Constitution . Congress submitted the amendment to the states on September 28 , 1789 . By December 15 , 1791 , the necessary three @-@ quarters of the states had ratified it . On March 1 , 1792 , Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson announced the adoption of the amendment . Because the Bill of Rights did not initially apply to the states , and federal criminal investigations were less common in the first century of the nation 's history , there is little significant case law for the Fourth Amendment before the 20th century . The amendment was held to apply to the states in Mapp v. Ohio ( 1961 ) . Under the Fourth Amendment , search and seizure ( including arrest ) should be limited in scope according to specific information supplied to the issuing court , usually by a law enforcement officer who has sworn by it . Fourth Amendment case law deals with three central questions : what government activities constitute " search " and " seizure " ; what constitutes probable cause for these actions ; and how violations of Fourth Amendment rights should be addressed . Early court decisions limited the amendment 's scope to a law enforcement officer 's physical intrusion onto private property , but with Katz v. United States ( 1967 ) , the Supreme Court held that its protections , such as the warrant requirement , extend to the privacy of individuals as well as physical locations . Law enforcement officers need a warrant for most search and seizure activities , but the Court has defined a series of exceptions for consent searches , motor vehicle searches , evidence in plain view , exigent circumstances , border searches , and other situations . The exclusionary rule is one way the amendment is enforced . Established in Weeks v. United States ( 1914 ) , this rule holds that evidence obtained through a Fourth Amendment violation is generally inadmissible at criminal trials . Evidence discovered as a later result of an illegal search may also be inadmissible as " fruit of the poisonous tree , " unless it inevitably would have been discovered by legal means . = = Text = = The amendment as proposed by Congress in 1789 reads as follows : The right of the people to be secure in their persons , houses , papers , and effects , against unreasonable searches and seizures , shall not be violated , and no Warrants shall issue , but upon probable cause , supported by Oath or affirmation , and particularly describing the place to be searched , and the persons or things to be seized . = = Background = = = = = English law = = = Like many other areas of American law , the Fourth Amendment finds its roots in English legal doctrine . Sir Edward Coke , in Semayne 's case ( 1604 ) , famously stated : " The house of every one is to him as his castle and fortress , as well for his defence against injury and violence as for his repose . " Semayne 's Case acknowledged that the King did not have unbridled authority to intrude on his subjects ' dwellings but recognized that government agents were permitted to conduct searches and seizures under certain conditions when their purpose was lawful and a warrant had been obtained . The 1760s saw a growth in the intensity of litigation against state officers , who , using general warrants , conducted raids in search of materials relating to John Wilkes 's publications attacking both government policies and the King himself . The most famous of these cases involved John Entick , whose home was forcibly entered by the King 's Messenger Nathan Carrington , along with others , pursuant to a warrant issued by George Montagu @-@ Dunk , 2nd Earl of Halifax authorizing them " to make strict and diligent search for ... the author , or one concerned in the writing of several weekly very seditious papers entitled , ' The Monitor or British Freeholder , No 257 , 357 , 358 , 360 , 373 , 376 , 378 , and 380 , ' " and seized printed charts , pamphlets and other materials . Entick filed suit in Entick v Carrington , argued before the Court of King 's Bench in 1765 . Charles Pratt , 1st Earl Camden ruled that both the search and the seizure was unlawful , as the warrant authorized the seizure of all of Entick 's papers — not just the criminal ones — and as the warrant lacked probable cause to even justify the search . By holding that " [ O ] ur law holds the property of every man so sacred , that no man can set his foot upon his neighbour 's close without his leave " , Entick established the English precedent that the executive is limited in intruding on private property by common law . = = = Colonial America = = = Homes in Colonial America , on the other hand , did not enjoy the same sanctity as their British counterparts , because legislation had been explicitly written so as to enable enforcement of British revenue @-@ gathering policies on customs ; until 1750 , in fact , the only type of warrant defined in the handbooks for justices of the peace was the general warrant . During what scholar William Cuddihy called the " colonial epidemic of general searches " , the authorities possessed almost unlimited power to search for anything at any time , with very little oversight . In 1756 , the colony of Massachusetts enacted legislation that barred the use of general warrants . This represented the first law in American history curtailing the use of seizure power . Its creation largely stemmed from the great public outcry over the Excise Act of 1754 , which gave tax collectors unlimited powers to interrogate colonists concerning their use of goods subject to customs . The act also permitted the use of a general warrant known as a writ of assistance , allowing tax collectors to search the homes of colonists and seize " prohibited and uncustomed " goods . A crisis erupted over the writs of assistance on December 27 , 1760 when the news of King George II 's death on October 23 arrived in Boston . All writs automatically expired six months after the death of the King and would have had to be re @-@ issued by George III , the new king , to remain valid . In mid @-@ January 1761 , a group of over 50 merchants represented by James Otis petitioned the court to have hearings on the issue . During the five @-@ hour hearing on February 23 , 1761 , Otis vehemently denounced British colonial policies , including their sanction of general warrants and writs of assistance . However , the court ruled against Otis . Future US President John Adams , who was present in the courtroom when Otis spoke , viewed these events as " the spark in which originated the American Revolution . " Because of the name he had made for himself in attacking the writs , Otis was elected to the Massachusetts colonial legislature and helped pass legislation requiring that special writs of assistance be " granted by any judge or justice of the peace upon information under oath by any officer of the customs " and barring all other writs . The governor overturned the legislation , finding it contrary to English law and parliamentary sovereignty . Seeing the danger general warrants presented , the Virginia Declaration of Rights ( 1776 ) explicitly forbade the use of general warrants . This prohibition became a precedent for the Fourth Amendment : That general warrants , whereby any officer or messenger may be commanded to search suspected places without evidence of a fact committed , or to seize any person or persons not named , or whose offense is not particularly described and supported by evidence , are grievous and oppressive and ought not to be granted . Article XIV of the Massachusetts Declaration of Rights , written by John Adams and enacted in 1780 as part of the Massachusetts Constitution , added the requirement that all searches must be " reasonable " and served as another basis for the language of the Fourth Amendment : Every subject has a right to be secure from all unreasonable searches , and seizures of his person , his houses , his papers , and all his possessions . All warrants , therefore , are contrary to this right , if the cause or foundation of them be not previously supported by oath or affirmation ; and if the order in the warrant to a civil officer , to make search in suspected places , or to arrest one or more suspected persons , or to seize their property , be not accompanied with a special designation of the persons or objects of search , arrest , or seizure : and no warrant ought to be issued but in cases , and with the formalities , prescribed by the laws . By 1784 , eight state constitutions contained a provision against general warrants . = = Proposal and ratification = = After several years of comparatively weak government under the Articles of Confederation , a Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia proposed a new constitution on September 17 , 1787 , featuring a stronger chief executive and other changes . George Mason , a Constitutional Convention delegate and the drafter of Virginia 's Declaration of Rights , proposed that a bill of rights listing and guaranteeing civil liberties be included . Other delegates — including future Bill of Rights drafter James Madison — disagreed , arguing that existing state guarantees of civil liberties were sufficient and that any attempt to enumerate individual rights risked the implication that other , unnamed rights were unprotected . After a brief debate , Mason 's proposal was defeated by a unanimous vote of the state delegations . For the constitution to be ratified , however , nine of the thirteen states were required to approve it in state conventions . Opposition to ratification ( " Anti @-@ Federalism " ) was partly based on the Constitution 's lack of adequate guarantees for civil liberties . Supporters of the Constitution in states where popular sentiment was against ratification ( including Virginia , Massachusetts , and New York ) successfully proposed that their state conventions both ratify the Constitution and call for the addition of a bill of rights . Four state conventions proposed some form of restriction on the authority of the new federal government to conduct searches . In the 1st United States Congress , following the state legislatures ' request , James Madison proposed twenty constitutional amendments based on state bills of rights and English sources such as the Bill of Rights 1689 , including an amendment requiring probable cause for government searches . Congress reduced Madison 's proposed twenty amendments to twelve , and these were submitted to the states for ratification on September 25 , 1789 . By the time the Bill of Rights was submitted to the states for ratification , opinions had shifted in both parties . Many Federalists , who had previously opposed a Bill of Rights , now supported the Bill as a means of silencing the Anti @-@ Federalists ' most effective criticism . Many Anti @-@ Federalists , in contrast , now opposed it , realizing that the Bill 's adoption would greatly lessen the chances of a second constitutional convention , which they desired . Anti @-@ Federalists such as Richard Henry Lee also argued that the Bill left the most objectionable portions of the Constitution , such as the federal judiciary and direct taxation , intact . On November 20 , 1789 , New Jersey ratified eleven of the twelve amendments , including the Fourth . On December 19 , 1789 , December 22 , 1789 , and January 19 , 1790 , respectively , Maryland , North Carolina , and South Carolina ratified all twelve amendments . On January 25 and 28 , 1790 , respectively , New Hampshire and Delaware ratified eleven of the Bill 's twelve amendments , including the Fourth . This brought the total of ratifying states to six of the required ten , but the process stalled in other states : Connecticut and Georgia found a Bill of Rights unnecessary and so refused to ratify , while Massachusetts ratified most of the amendments , but failed to send official notice to the Secretary of State that it had done so . ( All three states would later ratify the Bill of Rights for sesquicentennial celebrations in 1939 . ) In February through June of 1790 , New York , Pennsylvania , and Rhode Island each ratified eleven of the amendments , including the Fourth . Virginia initially postponed its debate , but after Vermont was admitted to the Union in 1791 , the total number of states needed for ratification rose to eleven . Vermont ratified on November 3 , 1791 , approving all twelve amendments , and Virginia finally followed on December 15 , 1791 . Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson announced the adoption of the ten successfully ratified amendments on March 1 , 1792 . = = Applicability = = The Bill of Rights originally only restricted the federal government , and went through a long initial phase of " judicial dormancy " ; in the words of historian Gordon S. Wood , " After ratification , most Americans promptly forgot about the first ten amendments to the Constitution . " Federal jurisdiction regarding criminal law was narrow until the late 19th century when the Interstate Commerce Act and Sherman Antitrust Act were passed . As federal criminal jurisdiction expanded to include other areas such as narcotics , more questions about the Fourth Amendment came to the Supreme Court . The U.S. Supreme Court responded to these questions by outlining the fundamental purpose of the amendment as guaranteeing " the privacy , dignity and security of persons against certain arbitrary and invasive acts by officers of the Government , without regard to whether the government actor is investigating crime or performing another function . " In Mapp v. Ohio ( 1961 ) , the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the Fourth Amendment applies to the states by way of the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment . Fourth Amendment case law deals with three central issues : what government activities constitute " search " and " seizure " ; what constitutes probable cause for these actions ; how violations of Fourth Amendment rights should be addressed . The Fourth Amendment typically requires " a neutral and detached authority interposed between the police and the public , " and it is offended by " general warrants " and laws that allows searches to be conducted " indiscriminately and without regard to their connection with [ a ] crime under investigation . " , for the " basic purpose of the Fourth Amendment , which is enforceable against the States through the Fourteenth , through its prohibition of " unreasonable " searches and seizures is to safeguard the privacy and security of individuals against arbitrary invasions by governmental officials . " The Fourth Amendment has been held to mean that a search or an arrest generally requires a judicially sanctioned warrant , because the basic rule under the Fourth Amendment is that arrests and " searches conducted outside the judicial process , without prior approval by judge or magistrate , are per se unreasonable . " In order for such a warrant to be considered reasonable , it must be supported by probable cause and be limited in scope according to specific information supplied by a person ( usually a law enforcement officer ) who has sworn by it and is therefore accountable to the issuing court . The Supreme Court further held in Chandler v. Miller ( 1997 ) : " To be reasonable under the Fourth Amendment , a search ordinarily must be based on individualized suspicion of wrongdoing . But particularized exceptions to the main rule are sometimes warranted based on ' special needs , beyond the normal need for law enforcement . ' ... When such ' special needs ' are alleged , courts must undertake a context @-@ specific inquiry , examining closely the competing private and public interests advanced by the parties . " The amendment applies to governmental searches and seizures , but not those done by private citizens or organizations who are not acting on behalf of a government . In Ontario v. Quon ( 2010 ) , the Court held the amendment to also apply to the government when acting as an employer , ruling that a government could search a police officer 's text messages that were sent over that government 's pager . = = = Search = = = One threshold question in the Fourth Amendment jurisprudence is whether a " search " has occurred . Initial Fourth Amendment case law hinged on a citizen 's property rights — that is , when the government physically intrudes on " persons , houses , papers , or effects " for the purpose of obtaining information , a " search " within the original meaning of the Fourth Amendment has occurred . Early 20th @-@ century Court decisions , such as Olmstead v. United States ( 1928 ) , held that Fourth Amendment rights applied in cases of physical intrusion , but not to other forms of police surveillance ( e.g. , wiretaps ) . In Silverman v. United States ( 1961 ) , the Court stated of the amendment that " at the very core stands the right of a man to retreat into his own home and there be free from unreasonable governmental intrusion . " Fourth Amendment protections expanded significantly with Katz v. United States ( 1967 ) . In Katz , the Supreme Court expanded that focus to embrace an individual 's right to privacy , and ruled that a search had occurred when the government wiretapped a telephone booth using a microphone attached to the outside of the glass . While there was no physical intrusion into the booth , the Court reasoned that : 1 ) Katz , by entering the booth and shutting the door behind him , had exhibited his expectation that " the words he utters into the mouthpiece will not be broadcast to the world " ; and 2 ) society believes that his expectation was reasonable . Justice Potter Stewart wrote in the majority opinion that " the Fourth Amendment protects people , not places " . A " search " occurs for purposes of the Fourth Amendment when the government violates a person 's " reasonable expectation of privacy . " Katz 's reasonable expectation of privacy thus provided the basis to rule that the government 's intrusion , though electronic rather than physical , was a search covered by the Fourth Amendment , and thus necessitated a warrant . The Court said that it was not recognizing any general right to privacy in the Fourth Amendment , and that this wiretap could have been authorized if proper procedures had been followed . This decision in Katz was later developed into the now commonly used two @-@ prong test , adopted in Smith v. Maryland ( 1979 ) , for determining whether the Fourth Amendment is applicable in a given circumstance : a person " has exhibited an actual ( subjective ) expectation of privacy " ; and society is prepared to recognize that this expectation is ( objectively ) reasonable . The Supreme Court has held that the Fourth Amendment does not apply to information that is voluntarily given to third parties . In Smith , the Court held individuals have no " legitimate expectation of privacy " regarding the telephone numbers they dial because they knowingly give that information to telephone companies when they dial a number . Following Katz , the vast majority of Fourth Amendment search cases have turned on the right to privacy , but in United States v. Jones ( 2012 ) , the Court ruled that the Katz standard did not replace earlier case law , but rather , has supplemented it . In Jones , law enforcement officers had attached a GPS device on a car 's exterior without Jones ' knowledge or consent . The Court concluded that Jones was a bailee to the car , and so had a property interest in the car . Therefore , since the intrusion on the vehicle — a common law trespass — was for the purpose of obtaining information , the Court ruled that it was a search under the Fourth Amendment . The Court used similar " trespass " reasoning in Florida v. Jardines ( 2013 ) , to rule that bringing a drug detection dog to sniff at the front door of a home was a search . In certain situations , law enforcement may perform a search when they have a reasonable suspicion of criminal activity , even if it falls short of probable cause necessary for an arrest . Under Terry v. Ohio ( 1968 ) , law enforcement officers are permitted to conduct a limited warrantless search on a level of suspicion less than probable cause under certain circumstances . In Terry , the Supreme Court ruled that when a police officer witnesses " unusual conduct " that leads that officer to reasonably believe " that criminal activity may be afoot " , that the suspicious person has a weapon and that the person is presently dangerous to the officer or others , the officer may conduct a " pat @-@ down search " ( or " frisk " ) to determine whether the person is carrying a weapon . This detention and search is known as a Terry stop . To conduct a frisk , officers must be able to point to specific and articulable facts which , taken together with rational inferences from those facts , reasonably warrant their actions . As established in Florida v. Royer ( 1983 ) , such a search must be temporary , and questioning must be limited to the purpose of the stop ( e.g. , officers who stop a person because they have reasonable suspicion to believe that the person was driving a stolen car , cannot , after confirming that it is not stolen , compel the person to answer questions about anything else , such as the possession of contraband ) . = = = Seizure = = = The Fourth Amendment proscribes unreasonable seizure of any person , person 's home ( including its curtilage ) or personal property without a warrant . A seizure of property occurs when there is " some meaningful interference with an individual 's possessory interests in that property " , such as when police officers take personal property away from an owner to use as evidence , or when they participate in an eviction . The amendment also protects against unreasonable seizure of persons , including a brief detention . A seizure does not occur just because the government questions an individual in a public place . The exclusionary rule would not bar voluntary answers to such questions from being offered into evidence in a subsequent criminal prosecution . The person is not being seized if his freedom of movement is not restrained . The government may not detain an individual even momentarily without reasonable , objective grounds , with few exceptions . His refusal to listen or answer does not by itself furnish such grounds . In United States v. Mendenhall ( 1980 ) , the Court held that a person is seized only when , by means of physical force or show of authority , his freedom of movement is restrained and , in the circumstances surrounding the incident , a reasonable person would believe that he was not free to leave . In Florida v. Bostick ( 1991 ) , the Court ruled that as long as the police do not convey a message that compliance with their requests is required , the police contact is a " citizen encounter " that falls outside the protections of the Fourth Amendment . If a person remains free to disregard questioning by the government , there has been no seizure and therefore no intrusion upon the person 's privacy under the Fourth Amendment . When a person is arrested and taken into police custody , he has been seized ( i.e. , a reasonable person who is handcuffed and placed in the back of a police car would not think they were free to leave ) . A person subjected to a routine traffic stop on the other hand , has been seized , but is not " arrested " because traffic stops are a relatively brief encounter and are more analogous to a Terry stop than to a formal arrest . If a person is not under suspicion of illegal behavior , a law enforcement official is not allowed to place an individual under arrest simply because this person does not wish to state his identity , provided specific state regulations do not specify this to be the case . A search incidental to an arrest that is not permissible under state law does not violate the Fourth Amendment , so long as the arresting officer has probable cause . In Maryland v. King ( 2013 ) , the Court upheld the constitutionality of police swabbing for DNA upon arrests for serious crimes , along the same reasoning that allows police to take fingerprints or photographs of those they arrest and detain . = = = = Exceptions = = = = The government may not detain an individual even momentarily without reasonable and articulable suspicion , with a few exceptions . In Delaware v. Prouse ( 1979 ) , the Court ruled an officer has made an illegal seizure when he stops an automobile and detains the driver in order to check his driver 's license and the registration of the automobile , unless the officer has articulable and reasonable suspicion that a motorist is unlicensed or that an automobile is not registered , or either the vehicle or an occupant is otherwise subject to seizure for violation of law . Where society 's need is great , no other effective means of meeting the need is available , and intrusion on people 's privacy is minimal , certain discretionless checkpoints toward that end may briefly detain motorists . In United States v. Martinez @-@ Fuerte ( 1976 ) , the Supreme Court allowed discretionless immigration checkpoints . In Michigan Dept. of State Police v. Sitz ( 1990 ) , the Supreme Court allowed discretionless sobriety checkpoints . In Illinois v. Lidster ( 2004 ) , the Supreme Court allowed focused informational checkpoints . However , in City of Indianapolis v. Edmond ( 2000 ) , the Supreme Court ruled that discretionary checkpoints or general crime @-@ fighting checkpoints are not allowed . = = = Warrant = = = Under the Fourth Amendment , law enforcement must receive written permission from a court of law , or otherwise qualified magistrate , to lawfully search and seize evidence while investigating criminal activity . A court grants permission by issuing a writ known as a warrant . A search or seizure is generally unreasonable and unconstitutional if conducted without a valid warrant and the police must obtain a warrant whenever practicable . Searches and seizures without a warrant are not considered unreasonable if one of the specifically established and well @-@ delineated exceptions to the warrant requirement applies . These exceptions apply " [ o ] nly in those exceptional circumstances in which special needs , beyond the normal need for law enforcement , make the warrant and probable cause requirement impracticable . " In these situations where the warrant requirement doesn 't apply a search or seizure nonetheless must be justified by some individualized suspicion of wrongdoing . However , the U.S. Supreme Court carved out an exception to the requirement of individualized suspicion . It ruled that , " In limited circumstances , where the privacy interests implicated by the search are minimal and where an important governmental interest furthered by the intrusion would be placed in jeopardy by a requirement of individualized suspicion " a search [ or seizure ] would still be reasonable . = = = Probable cause = = = The standards of probable cause differ for an arrest and a search . The government has a probable cause to make an arrest when " the facts and circumstances within their knowledge and of which they had reasonably trustworthy information " would lead a prudent person to believe that the arrested person had committed or was committing a crime . Probable cause to arrest must exist before the arrest is made . Evidence obtained after the arrest may not apply retroactively to justify the arrest . When police conduct a search , the amendment requires that the warrant establish probable cause to believe that the search will uncover criminal activity or contraband . They must have legally sufficient reasons to believe a search is necessary . In Carroll v. United States ( 1925 ) , the Supreme Court stated that probable cause to search is a flexible , common @-@ sense standard . To that end , the Court ruled in Dumbra v. United States ( 1925 ) that the term probable cause means " less than evidence that would justify condemnation " , reiterating Carroll 's assertion that it merely requires that the facts available to the officer would " warrant a man of reasonable caution " in the belief that specific items may be contraband or stolen property or useful as evidence of a crime . It does not demand any showing that such a belief be correct or more likely true than false . A " practical , non @-@ technical " probability that incriminating evidence is involved is all that is required . In Illinois v. Gates ( 1983 ) , the Court ruled that the reliability of an informant is to be determined based on the " totality of the circumstances . " = = Exceptions to the warrant requirement = = = = = Consent = = = If a party gives consent to a search , a warrant is not required . There are exceptions and complications to the rule , including the scope of the consent given , whether the consent is voluntarily given , and whether an individual has the right to consent to a search of another 's property . In Schneckloth v. Bustamonte ( 1973 ) , the Court ruled that a consent search is still valid even if the police do not inform a suspect of his right to refuse the search . This contrasts with Fifth Amendment rights , which cannot be relinquished without an explicit Miranda warning from police . The Court stated in United States v. Matlock ( 1974 ) that a third party co @-@ occupant could give consent for a search without violating a suspect 's Fourth Amendment rights . Per the Court 's ruling in Illinois v. Rodriguez ( 1990 ) , a consent search is still considered valid if police accept in good faith the consent of an " apparent authority " , even if that party is later discovered to not have authority over the property in question . = = = Plain view and open fields = = = According to the plain view doctrine as defined in Coolidge v. New Hampshire ( 1971 ) , if an officer is lawfully present , he may seize objects that are in " plain view " . However , the officer must have had probable cause to believe that the objects are contraband . Similarly , " open fields " such as pastures , open water , and woods may be searched without a warrant , on the ground that conduct occurring therein would have no reasonable expectation of privacy . The doctrine was first articulated by the Court in Hester v. United States ( 1924 ) , which stated that " the special protection accorded by the Fourth Amendment to the people in their ' persons , houses , papers , and effects , ' is not extended to the open fields . " In Oliver v. United States ( 1984 ) , the police ignored a " no trespassing " sign and a fence , trespassed onto the suspect 's land without a warrant , followed a path for hundreds of feet , and discovered a field of marijuana . The Supreme Court ruled that no search had taken place , because there was no privacy expectation regarding an open field : open fields do not provide the setting for those intimate activities that the Amendment is intended to shelter from government interference or surveillance . There is no societal interest in protecting the privacy of those activities , such as the cultivation of crops , that occur in open fields . While open fields are not protected by the Fourth Amendment , the curtilage , or outdoor area immediately surrounding the home , is protected . Courts have treated this area as an extension of the house and as such subject to all the privacy protections afforded a person 's home ( unlike a person 's open fields ) under the Fourth Amendment . The curtilage is " intimately linked to the home , both physically and psychologically , " and is where " privacy expectations are most heightened . " However , courts have held aerial surveillance of curtilage not to be included in the protections from unwarranted search so long as the airspace above the curtilage is generally accessible by the public . An area is curtilage if it " harbors the intimate activity associated with the sanctity of a man 's home and the privacies of life . " Courts make this determination by examining " whether the area is included within an enclosure surrounding the home , the nature of the uses to which the area is put , and the steps taken by the resident to protect the area from observation by people passing by . " The Court has acknowledged that a doorbell or knocker is typically treated as an invitation , or license , to the public to approach the front door of the home to deliver mail , sell goods , solicit for charities , etc . This license extends to the police , who have the right to try engaging a home 's occupant in a " knock and talk " for the purpose of gathering evidence without a warrant . However , they cannot bring a drug detection dog to sniff at the front door of a home without either a warrant or consent of the homeowner or resident . = = = Exigent circumstance = = = Law enforcement officers may also conduct warrantless searches in several types of exigent circumstances where obtaining a warrant is dangerous or impractical . One example is the Terry stop , which allows police to frisk suspects for weapons . The Court also allowed a search of arrested persons in Weeks v. United States ( 1914 ) to preserve evidence that might otherwise be destroyed and to ensure suspects were disarmed . In Carroll v. United States ( 1925 ) , the Court ruled that law enforcement officers could search a vehicle that they suspected of carrying contraband without a warrant . The Court allowed blood to be drawn without a warrant from drunk @-@ driving suspects in Schmerber v. California ( 1966 ) on the grounds that the time to obtain a warrant would allow a suspect 's blood alcohol content to reduce , although this was later modified by Missouri v. McNeely ( 2013 ) . Warden v. Hayden ( 1967 ) provided an exception to the warrant requirement if officers were in " hot pursuit " of a suspect . = = = Motor vehicle = = = The Supreme Court has held that individuals in automobiles have a reduced expectation of privacy , because vehicles generally do not serve as residences or repositories of personal effects . Vehicles may not be randomly stopped and searched ; there must be probable cause or reasonable suspicion of criminal activity . Items in plain view may be seized ; areas that could potentially hide weapons may also be searched . With probable cause to believe evidence is present , police officers may search any area in the vehicle . However , they may not extend the search to the vehicle 's passengers without probable cause to search those passengers or consent from the passengers . In Arizona v. Gant ( 2009 ) , the Court ruled that a law enforcement officer needs a warrant before searching a motor vehicle after an arrest of an occupant of that vehicle , unless 1 ) at the time of the search the person being arrested is unsecured and within reaching distance of the passenger compartment of the vehicle or 2 ) police officers have reason to believe that evidence for the crime for which the person is being arrested will be found in the vehicle . = = = Searches incident to a lawful arrest = = = A common law rule from Great Britain permits searches incident to an arrest without a warrant . This rule has been applied in American law , and has a lengthy common law history . The justification for such a search is to prevent the arrested individual 1 . ) from destroying evidence or 2 . ) using a weapon against the arresting officer by disarming the suspect . The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that " both justifications for the search @-@ incident @-@ to @-@ arrest exception are absent and the rule does not apply " , when " there is no possibility " that the suspect could gain access to a weapon or destroy evidence . In Trupiano v. United States ( 1948 ) , the Supreme Court held that " a search or seizure without a warrant as an incident to a lawful arrest has always been considered to be a strictly limited right . It grows out of the inherent necessities of the situation at the time of the arrest . But there must be something more in the way of necessity than merely a lawful arrest . " In United States v. Rabinowitz ( 1950 ) , the Court reversed Trupiano , holding instead that the officers ' opportunity to obtain a warrant was not germane to the reasonableness of a search incident to an arrest . Rabinowitz suggested that any area within the " immediate control " of the arrestee could be searched , but it did not define the term . In deciding Chimel v. California ( 1969 ) , the Supreme Court elucidated its previous decisions . It held that when an arrest is made , it is reasonable for the officer to search the arrestee for weapons and evidence . However , in Riley v. California ( 2014 ) , the Supreme Court ruled unanimously that police must obtain a warrant to search an arrestee 's cellular phone . The Court said that earlier Supreme Court decisions permitting searches incident to an arrest without a warrant do not apply to " modern cellphones , which are now such a pervasive and insistent part of daily life that the proverbial visitor from Mars might conclude they were an important feature of human anatomy , " and noted that US citizens ' cellphones today typically contain " a digital record of nearly every aspect of their lives — from the mundane to the intimate . " = = = Border search exception = = = Searches conducted at the United States border or the equivalent of the border ( such as an international airport ) may be conducted without a warrant or probable cause subject to the border search exception . Most border searches may be conducted entirely at random , without any level of suspicion , pursuant to U.S. Customs and Border Protection plenary search authority . However , searches that intrude upon a traveler 's personal dignity and privacy interests , such as strip and body cavity searches , must be supported by " reasonable suspicion . " The U.S. Courts of Appeals for the Fourth and Ninth circuits have ruled that information on a traveler 's electronic materials , including personal files on a laptop computer , may be searched at random , without suspicion . = = = Foreign intelligence surveillance = = = The Supreme Court decision in United States v. U.S. District Court ( 1972 ) left open the possibility for a foreign intelligence surveillance exception to the warrant clause . Three United States Courts of Appeals have recognized a foreign intelligence surveillance exception to the warrant clause , but tied it to certain requirements . The exception to the Fourth Amendment was formally recognized by the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review in its 2008 In re Directives decision . The lower court held that , " a foreign intelligence exception to the Fourth Amendment 's warrant requirement exists when surveillance is conducted to obtain foreign intelligence for national security purposes and is directed against foreign powers or agents of foreign powers reasonably believed to be located outside the United States . " Despite the foregoing citation the Fourth Amendment prohibitions against unreasonable searches and seizures nonetheless apply to the contents of all communications , whatever the means , because , " a person 's private communications are akin to personal papers . " To protect the telecommunication carriers cooperating with the US government from legal action , the Congress passed a bill updating the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 to permit this type of surveillance . = = = Other exceptions = = = In New Jersey v. T. L. O. ( 1985 ) , the Supreme Court ruled that searches in public schools do not require warrants , as long as the searching officers have reasonable grounds for believing that the search will result in the finding of evidence of illegal activity . However , in Safford Unified School District v. Redding ( 2009 ) , the Court ruled that school officials violated the Fourth Amendment when they strip searched a 13 @-@ year @-@ old girl based only on a student claiming to have received drugs from that student . Similarly , in Samson v. California ( 2006 ) , the Court ruled that government offices may be searched for evidence of work @-@ related misconduct by government employees on similar grounds . Searches of prison cells are subject to no restraints relating to reasonableness or probable cause . = = Exclusionary rule = = One way courts enforce the Fourth Amendment is through the use of the exclusionary rule . The rule provides that evidence obtained through a violation of the Fourth Amendment is generally not admissible by the prosecution during the defendant 's criminal trial . The Court stated in Elkins v. United States ( 1960 ) that the rule 's function " is to deter — to compel respect for the constitutional guaranty in the only effectively available way — by removing the incentive to disregard it . " The Court adopted the exclusionary rule in Weeks v. United States ( 1914 ) , prior to which all evidence , no matter how seized , could be admitted in court . In Silverthorne Lumber Co. v. United States ( 1920 ) and Nardone v. United States ( 1939 ) , the Court ruled that leads or other evidence resulting from illegally obtained evidence are also inadmissible in trials . Justice Felix Frankfurter described this secondary evidence in the Nardone decision as the " fruit of the poisonous tree " . The Supreme Court rejected incorporating the exclusionary rule by way of the Fourteenth Amendment in Wolf v. Colorado ( 1949 ) , but Wolf was explicitly overruled in Mapp v. Ohio ( 1961 ) , making the Fourth Amendment ( including the exclusionary rule ) applicable in state proceedings . The exclusionary rule and its effectiveness have often been controversial , particularly since its 1961 application to state proceedings . Critics charge that the rule hampers police investigation and can result in freeing guilty parties convicted on reliable evidence ; other critics state that the rule has not been successful in deterring illegal police searches . Proponents argue that the number of criminal convictions overturned under the rule has been minimal and that no other effective mechanism exists to enforce the Fourth Amendment . In 1982 , California passed a " Victim 's Bill of Rights " containing a provision to repeal the exclusionary rule ; though the bill could not affect federally mandated rights under the Fourth Amendment , it blocked the state courts from expanding these protections further . = = = Limitations = = = Starting with United States v. Calandra ( 1974 ) , the Supreme Court has repeatedly limited the exclusionary rule . The Court in Calandra ruled that grand juries may use illegally obtained evidence when questioning witnesses , because " the damage to that institution from the unprecedented extension of the exclusionary rule outweighs the benefit of any possible incremental deterrent effect . " Explaining the purpose of the rule , the Court said that the rule " is a judicially created remedy designed to safeguard Fourth Amendment rights generally through its deterrent effect , rather than a personal constitutional right of the party aggrieved . " Several cases in 1984 further restricted the exclusionary rule : In United States v. Leon , the Court established the " good faith " exception to the rule , ruling that evidence seized by officers reasonably relying on a warrant was still admissible , even though the warrant was later found to be defective , unless an officer dishonestly or recklessly prepared an affidavit to seek a warrant , the issuing magistrate abandoned his neutrality , or the warrant lacked sufficient particularity . The Court determined in Nix v. Williams that " fruit of the poisonous tree " evidence could still be introduced if a prosecutor could demonstrate that it would have been an " inevitable discovery " of legitimate investigation . In Segura v. United States , the Court ruled that evidence illegally found without a search warrant is admissible if the evidence is later found and legally seized based on information independent of the illegal search . In Arizona v. Evans ( 1995 ) and Herring v. United States ( 2009 ) , the Court ruled that the exclusionary rule does not apply to evidence found due to negligence regarding a government database , as long as the arresting police officer relied on that database in " good faith " and the negligence was not pervasive . In Davis v. United States ( 2011 ) , the Court ruled that the exclusionary rule does not apply to a Fourth Amendment violation resulting from a reasonable reliance on binding appellate precedent . In Utah v. Strieff ( 2016 ) , the Court ruled that evidence obtained from an unlawful police stop would not be excluded from court when the link between the stop and the evidence ’ s discovery was “ attenuated ” by the discovery of an outstanding warrant during the stop . The Supreme Court has also held the exclusionary rule to not apply in the following circumstances : evidence illegally seized by a " private actor " ( i.e. , not a governmental employee ) tax hearings evidence collected by U.S. Customs agents deportation hearings evidence seized by probation or parole officers probation or parole revocation hearings
= Blyth , Northumberland = Blyth ( / ˈblaɪð / blithe ) is a town and civil parish in southeast Northumberland , England . It lies on the coast , to the south of the River Blyth and is approximately 21 kilometres ( 13 mi ) northeast of Newcastle upon Tyne . It has a population of about 37 @,@ 339 . The port of Blyth dates from the 12th century , but the development of the modern town only began in the first quarter of the 18th century . The main industries which helped the town prosper were coal mining and shipbuilding , with the salt trade , fishing and the railways also playing an important role . These industries have largely vanished , but the port still thrives , shipping paper and pulp from Scandinavia for the newspaper industries of England and Scotland . The town was seriously affected when its principal industries went into decline , and it has undergone much regeneration since the early 1990s . The Keel Row Shopping Centre , opened in 1991 , brought major high street retailers to Blyth , and helped to revitalise the town centre . The market place has recently been re @-@ developed , with the aim of attracting further investment to the town . The Quayside has also seen much redevelopment and has been transformed into a peaceful open space , the centrepiece of which is a sculpture commemorating the industry which once thrived there . There were , on the opposite side of the river are the nine wind turbines of the Blyth Harbour Wind Farm , which were constructed along the East Pier in 1992 . They were joined in 2000 by Blyth Offshore Wind Farm , which is composed of two turbines situated 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) out to sea . Although the original 9 turbines have now been demolished , there is currently one bigger turbine on the North Blyth side with building work taking place on a second turbine . Blyth is also home to the non @-@ League football club Blyth Spartans , famed for their 1978 " giant @-@ killing " feats in the FA Cup . = = History = = The place @-@ name ' Blyth ' is first attested in 1130 as ' Blida ' , and takes its name from the river Blyth . The river @-@ name comes from the Old English adjective ' blithe ' meaning ' gentle ' or ' merry ' , and still used today . Interestingly , the town of Blyth is referred to as ' Blithmuth ' in 1236 and ' Blithemuth ' in 1250 . Had this name persisted , the town would today be referred to as ' Blythmouth ' , on the analogy of Tynemouth to the south . Little is known of the early development of the Blyth area . The oldest archaeological find is an antler hammer dating from the late Neolithic or early Bronze Age period , which was found at Newsham in 1979 . Human skulls , a spearhead and a sword dating from the Bronze Age were found in the river in 1890 , as well as a bronze axe which was found at South Beach in 1993 , and a dagger found at Newsham . Although there is no conclusive evidence of a Roman presence in the area , an earthwork shown on early mapping of the area , at the location of present @-@ day Freehold Street , is said to have been a Roman camp , but it has also been argued that it may be of Norsemen origin or date from the Civil War . Debate also surrounds a mosaic which was found near Bath Terrace . The strongest evidence so far has been a single coin , dating from the reign of the Emperor Constans ( AD337 – 350 ) , which was found during excavations for a dry dock . Between the 12th and 18th centuries , there were several small settlements and some industrial activity in the area . The principal industries during this period were coal mining , fishing and the salt trade . Shipbuilding in the area dates from 1748 . The modern town of Blyth began to develop in the first quarter of the 18th century . Up until 1716 , the land around the Blyth area — the Newsham Estate — was owned by the Earls of Derwentwater , but when the third Earl , James Radclyffe , was executed for his part in the Jacobite rising of 1715 , the land was forfeited to the crown . On 11 July 1723 , the Lordship of Newsham was put up for sale by the Commissioners of Forfeited Estates at their office in the Inner Temple , London . The land was bought by Matthew White and his brother @-@ in @-@ law Richard Ridley . From the 12th century , most port activities were on the north side of the river , but under White and Ridley the first new quays and houses were built on the south side , and from here the port began to prosper . By 1730 , a coaling quay , a ballast quay , a pilots ' watch house and a lighthouse had all been built at Blyth harbour . In 1765 the first breakwater was constructed , and in 1788 the first staith with an elevated loading point was erected . Deep mines were sunk at Cowpen Colliery and Cowpen Square in 1796 and 1804 respectively , and by 1855 , a quarter of a million tons of coal was being shipped from Blyth , rising to three million tons by 1900 . The only industry not to survive during this prosperous time was the salt trade , which was heavily taxed during the 18th and early @-@ 19th centuries . During the Napoleonic Wars , the tax was increased to provide funds for the military and , even though the tax was abolished in 1825 , the industry went into terminal decline . Having had fourteen salt pans at the beginning of the 18th century , exporting over 1 @,@ 000 tons of salt annually , Blyth 's salt industry closed in 1876 , with the destruction of the last salt pan . From the mid @-@ 19th century , several important events occurred which allowed the port of Blyth to rapidly expand . First , in 1847 , a railway line was constructed , connecting Blyth to collieries at Seghill . This line combined with the existing line between Seghill and North Tyneside to form the Blyth and Tyne Railway . In 1853 , the Blyth Harbour and Docks Board was formed , then in 1858 the Harbour Act was passed allowing dredging of the harbour to begin . In 1882 , the formation of the Blyth Harbour Commission led to the building of new coal loading staiths , as well as the construction of the South Harbour . As trade in Blyth continued to grow , so did the population . Development of the Cowpen Quay and Waterloo areas began in about 1810 and 1815 respectively , and between the 1850s and 1890s major house building took place in these areas . Blyth railway station , first built in 1847 , was relocated in 1867 and rebuilt in 1896 , to cope with the increase in goods and passenger traffic . The 1890s saw the filling in of " the Slake " ( also known as " the Flanker " or " the Gut " ) . The Slake was a tidal inlet which stretched south from the river , across the site of today 's bus station , along the route of Beaconsfield Street , and on past Crofton Mill Pit . Before it was filled in , it almost entirely separated Blyth from Cowpen — Waterloo Bridge providing the only main link . Once it was removed , the two areas could combine and allow the town to begin to take its present form . The town continued to expand in the 20th century ; much large @-@ scale house building took place in the 1920s and 1930s , and from the 1950s to the 1970s . Industry in Blyth reached its peak in the first half of the 20th century . At this time it boasted one of the largest shipbuilding yards on the North East coast , with five dry docks and four building slipways . During the First and Second World Wars , the Blyth shipyards built many ships for the Royal Navy including the first aircraft carrier , HMS Ark Royal in 1914 . Blyth also served as a submarine base during both wars . By 1930 , the port of Blyth was exporting 5 @.@ 5 million tons of coal , and by the early 1960s , reached its peak with over six million tons . Blyth A and Blyth B power stations , collectively known as Blyth Power Station , were opened in 1958 and 1962 . Blyth A was the first power station in Britain to have 120 megawatt sets installed , while Blyth B was the first to be fitted with 275 megawatt sets . During the 1960s , Blyth entered a period of steep decline . Following the Beeching report , the railway into Blyth was closed ; and in 1966 , economic depression resulted in the closure of the shipyards . As the demand for coal fell , due to the increasing use of oil , natural gas and nuclear power as energy sources , the following years saw the closure of many collieries in the area . By the 1980s , the only one left in the town was Bates ' Pit , which closed in 1986 . In January 2002 , Blyth Power Station was closed and subsequently demolished in stages , until 7 December 2003 , when its four chimneys were demolished . = = = Notable people = = = Richard Stannard , recipient of the Victoria Cross Mark Knopfler , singer of Dire Straits , grew up in Blyth William Smith Discovered islands in the Antarctic region . = = Governance = = From around the first quarter of the 18th century , until November 1900 , the land to the south of the River Blyth was known as South Blyth . It was in the Parish of Earsdon and was run by the Parish Council until 1863 , when the South Blyth Local Board was formed . Under the Local Government Act of 1894 , South Blyth Local Board became an Urban District Council , then in 1906 it was amalgamated with Cowpen Urban District Council to form Blyth Urban District Council . On 21 September 1922 , Blyth UDC became Blyth Municipal Borough Council , and in 1935 its southern boundary was moved south from Meggie 's Burn to Seaton Burn . Blyth MBC lasted until 1974 , when it was amalgamated with Seaton Valley and Cramlington Urban District Councils , as well as part of Whitley Bay Urban District Council , to form Blyth Valley Borough Council . Blyth was the administrative centre for the borough of Blyth Valley , until the borough was abolished in structural changes to local government on 1 April 2009 . Blyth Valley — which also included Cramlington and several villages — was 70 square kilometres in size and , according to the Registrar General 's Population Estimate for mid @-@ 2005 , it had a population of 81 @,@ 600 ; this gives a population density of 1 @,@ 166 people per square kilometre . The two @-@ tier local government of Northumberland County Council and Blyth Valley Borough Council has been replaced by a unitary authority for the county of Northumberland . Blyth is situated in the parliament constituency of Blyth Valley , which shares its boundaries with the borough . It is divided up into twenty wards , nine of which — Cowpen , Croft , Isabella , Kitty Brewster , Newsham and New Delaval , Plessey , South Beach , South Newsham , and Wensleydale — make up the town of Blyth . The MP is Ronnie Campbell ( Labour ) . As part of Blyth Valley , Blyth is twinned with : Solingen , Germany Ratingen , Germany Gelendzhik , Russia = = Geography = = Blyth is at 55 ° 07 ′ 34 ″ N 1 ° 30 ′ 50 ″ W ( 55 @.@ 1261 , − 1 @.@ 5138 ) , on the coast of North East England , to the south of the River Blyth and is approximately 21 kilometres ( 13 mi ) northeast of Newcastle upon Tyne and 26 kilometres ( 16 mi ) north of Sunderland . It is 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) east of Bedlington , 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) northeast of Cramlington , 11 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) south @-@ southeast of Ashington and 11 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) south of Newbiggin @-@ by @-@ the @-@ Sea . On the north side of the river are the villages of East Sleekburn , Cambois and North Blyth and to the south of the town are the villages of New Hartley , Seaton Delaval and Seaton Sluice . Some of Blyth 's suburbs have origins which can be traced back much further than the town itself ; Newsham , Bebside and Cowpen are all believed to have had habitation sites dating from the Romano @-@ British , Saxon and Medieval periods , although most of the housing in these areas dates from the 19th and 20th centuries . Also occupying the suburbs are several large housing estates ; the Newsham Farm , South Beach and Solingen estates , and the Avenues were all developed during the 20th century . In January 2005 , the land in Blyth was made up of 61 @.@ 87 % green space , 11 @.@ 95 % domestic gardens , 8 @.@ 23 % road , 4 @.@ 85 % domestic buildings , 2 @.@ 03 % non @-@ domestic buildings and 11 @.@ 07 % other uses . The geology of the area is made up of a carboniferous bedrock of sandstone , mudstone and coal , which is covered mainly by boulder clay and till . = = = Climate = = = The climate in Northumberland is generally cool and dry . Compared with the rest of the United Kingdom , the weather there is relatively stable , and extreme conditions , such as floods , droughts or heatwaves , are rare . Below are the average maximum and minimum temperatures , and average rainfall recorded between 1971 and 2000 at the Met Office weather station in Boulmer , which is around 33 kilometres ( 21 mi ) north of Blyth . The average maximum temperatures between April and October are around 1 – 2 ½ ° C lower than the national average and the average minimum temperatures between May and August are around ½ ° C below the national average ; both the average maximum and minimum temperatures for the remainder of the year are about the same as the national average . The average rainfall in Northumberland is well below the national average ; 651 millimetres ( 26 in ) was recorded at Boulmer , compared to 838 millimetres ( 33 in ) for the whole of England . = = = Transport links = = = The main approach road to Blyth is the A189 ' Spine Road ' which is accessible from the A1 via the A19 . The A193 is the main road through Blyth and leads to Bedlington to the west and North Tyneside to the south . The other main route into Blyth is the A1061 . Blyth bus station is located in Post Office Square in the town centre . Buses in Blyth are operated by Arriva North East and there are regular services to Newcastle as well as the other main towns in the south of Northumberland and the surrounding areas of Blyth . A one service is operated by Go North East . Blyth currently has no passenger rail links – the nearest station is Cramlington ( 5 mi or 8 km ) . Blyth railway station was closed on 2 November 1964 following the Beeching Report . There were also two small stations on the outskirts of the town , at Bebside and Newsham ; they were closed to passenger services in 1956 and 1964 respectively . It is possible that the Tyne and Wear Metro may be extended from Northumberland Park and terminate at Blyth , but this will not be considered before 2019 . An alternative , proposed ( 2009 ) by the Association of Train Operating Companies , is reopening the existing freight line between Newcastle and Ashington , including reopening Newsham station to serve Blyth . = = Port of Blyth = = The Port of Blyth was first recorded from 1138 , when monks at Newminster Abbey exported salt , having created it from pans on the north side of the river and evaporated using the copious supplies of local coal . Coal exports started from the 14th century , with local mines recorded from the 16th century . In 1609 21 @,@ 571 tons of coal were shipped from Blyth . The first large quay - Bishop 's Quay , which still exists today - was developed by 1682 . But the port was not dredged at this time , necessitating the use of Northumbrian keel boats to transfer the loads to ships moored offshore . By 1730 specific coaling and ballast quays existed , and by 1765 the ports facilities included a pilot house and lighthouse , to facilitate the newly built first breakwater , North Dyke . The High Lighthouse came into operation soon afterwards , operating until July 1984 . The port expanded greatly in the 19th century , with the purchase of a steam tug in 1819 , and the rebuilding of the breakwater in 1822 . By this point , three ship building yards had also been established . The construction of the Blyth and Tyne Railway from 1849 allowed coal shipments to quickly expand , reaching 200 @,@ 000 tons per annum . The Blyth Harbour and Dock Company was created in 1854 , but with need for further expansion , it was replaced by a bill of parliament given Royal Assent on 19 June 1882 , which constituted the current Blyth Harbour Commission . This allowed additional financing to be raised , for construction of the South Harbour . By the 20th century , through connection via the London and North Eastern Railway which had leased large amounts of land throughout the port , Blyth had started the growth to become the Europe 's largest coal export port , exporting 5.5M tonnes per year by the late 1930s . This was also supplemented by ship building , including the opening of a facility by Hughes , Bolckow and Co of Middlesbrough . Large scale shipbuilding had begun in 1811 , and after passing through various hands , in 1880 the first two iron ships were built at Blyth for the Russian Government . This led to the foundation of the Blyth Shipbuilding Company on 2 March 1883 , building cargo liners , tramp steamers and colliers . With a cargo ship under construction , in 1914 she was purchased by the Admiralty and converted into the Navy 's first seaplane carrier Ark Royal . The company returned to commercial ship building , but collapsed in 1925 . It was then revived from 1926 , but after merger with other local yards and in light of the Wall Street Crash and resultant global recession , collapsed again in 1930 . Reopened under its original name in 1937 , it built various ships in preparation for and during WW2 , including the former German cargo ship Hannover which was converted into the escort carrier Audacity . Owned by Mollers ( Hong Kong ) Ltd post @-@ WW2 , it then built cargo @-@ liners for Moller 's subsidiary the Lancashire Shipping Company . The construction yard closed in 1967 , with only repair work and ship dismantling sustaining business until the yards were demolished in the late 1980s to make room for a paper and timber storage area . After World War 2 , whilst most ports began to quickly contract , Blyth was still a major facility through the 1960s , when coal exports reached over 6 M tonnes per year . However , with the closure Blyth 's last ship builder in 1966 , the port began a significant period of contraction . The employment slack was in part taken up by the construction of the coal @-@ fired Blyth Power Station , located on the northern bank. of the river . The A Station with 480 megawatts ( MW ) of capacity first generated electricity in 1958 , a year after the creation of the Central Electricity Generating Board , and the B Station with a capacity of 1 @,@ 250 MW four years later . The power stations ' four large chimneys were a landmark of the Northumberland skyline for over 40 years ; the A Station 's two chimneys each stood at 140 metres ( 460 ft ) ; the B Station 's two chimneys were taller , at 170 metres ( 560 ft ) each . They were operated by the successors of the CEGB , including National Power , following the privatisation of the UK 's power industry . After their closure in 2001 , the stations were demolished over the course of two years , ending with the demolition of the stations ' chimneys on 7 December 2003 . The establishment of an Alcan aluminium smelting facility in the 1970s 5 mi ( 8 km ) north along the river slowed this decline , as did the import of paper from Finland . Today , the Port of Blyth handles up to 1 @.@ 5 million tonnes of cargo , mainly containers and RoRo , and some limited volumes of bulk cargos . Blyth Harbour Wind Farm , developed by AMEC Wind and owned by the port commissioners , was commissioned in January 1993 consists of nine 0.3MW WindMaster turbines , giving a total capacity of 2 @.@ 7 MW . In January 2008 consent was granted to replace the existing nine turbines with seven new ones , six generating 2 @.@ 5 MW each , and a seventh at 163 m ( 535 ft ) would produce 7 @.@ 5 MW . Seafarers ' charity Apostleship of the Sea has a chaplain at the port to support visiting seafarers welfare and faith needs . = = Economy = = = = = Industry and commerce = = = With the running down of the coal mining and shipbuilding industries , Blyth largely exists today as a dormitory town in the commuter belt serving Newcastle and North Tyneside . However , its port still remains a major industry in the area , handling over 1 @.@ 5 million tonnes of cargo annually . Its main trades are forest products , such as paper , pulp and timber , unitised cargo ( containers and RoRo ) and the import of materials used in the production of aluminium . It also handles the import of a variety of stones and metals . A twice weekly container service between the port and Moerdijk , near Rotterdam , provides connections with the Netherlands , Germany , Belgium and France as well as South America and the Far East . The port is operated by Port of Blyth , which is the operating division of Blyth Harbour Commission . Port of Blyth is a trust port , which means that it is governed by its own local legislation under the control of an independent board ; there are no shareholders and therefore no dividends to support , which allows any surplus to be reinvested in the port . = = = Energy = = = = = = = Renewables = = = = Several renewable energy projects have been established in Blyth . In 1992 , Blyth Harbour Wind Farm was constructed along Blyth 's East Pier . Consisting of nine wind turbines and with a maximum capacity of 2 @.@ 7 megawatts , it can provide enough electricity for over 1 @,@ 500 homes . It was joined in December 2000 by Blyth Offshore Wind Farm , which is composed of two turbines situated 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) out to sea . At 2 megawatts each , they were , when installed , the largest in the world . The National Renewable Energy Centre ( Narec ) is one of five centres of excellence set up by the North East 's regional development agency , One NorthEast . It was established in 2002 and is based at Eddie Ferguson House , by the Quayside . Its purpose is to develop and test new energy technologies and equipment that will assist in the transition to a low @-@ carbon economy . = = = = Proposed clean coal power station = = = = On 11 May 2007 , proposals for a £ 2 billion clean coal power station were announced by energy supplier RWE npower . If the plans go ahead , it is estimated that 1 @,@ 500 jobs will be created for the construction , with another 200 full @-@ time staff required for the running of the plant , which would open in 2014 on the site of the old power station . The development would see the installation of three 800 megawatt coal @-@ fired units , which would generate enough energy to supply around 3 @.@ 5 million homes . These plans have , however , met some opposition ; many residents living in the area feel that the land should be redeveloped for other purposes , rather than continue to be used as an industrial site . The MP for Wansbeck , Denis Murphy , stated that , although the project would have benefits for the area , he still had concerns ; Ronnie Campbell , the MP for Blyth Valley , claimed he would welcome the development as long as it did not have an adverse effect on the overall regeneration of the area . = = = Urban Regeneration = = = Commercial developments in the town centre have also helped to revitalise Blyth . Opened in 1991 , the Keel Row Shopping Centre has brought many large high street retailers to the town . Several streets and many derelict buildings , including the old council offices , were cleared away to make way for the development . Adjacent , is the thrice weekly market which is held on Tuesdays , Fridays and Saturdays . On 14 March 2009 , the market was officially reopened following a £ 3 million refurbishment , which involved the installation of new paving , seating , lighting , and a water feature . The centrepiece is an artwork by Simon Watkinson , named Hyperscope ; the 7 @.@ 5 metres ( 25 ft ) stainless steel column incorporates lighting effects and represents the town 's coal mining heritage and history as a wartime submarine base . The aim of the refurbishment is to attract people to the market area when the market is closed , and to bring further investment to the town . However , the project has received criticism ; following approval of the proposals in June 2007 , concern was raised by Councillor Alisdair Gibbs @-@ Barton , who said that the market place was beginning to resemble a park , and that more trade should be being encouraged . Following the reopening there were also claims that new stalls provided to market traders are unable to withstand adverse weather conditions , and that traders were being overcharged for stall space . = = = Employment = = = The closure of Blyth 's male @-@ dominated heavy industries during the latter half of the 20th century led to a shift towards more female dominated light industries , much of which were based on the new Blyth and Kitty Brewster trading estates . At the 2001 UK census , the industries of employment of residents of Blyth were 19 @.@ 44 % manufacturing , 16 @.@ 82 % retail , 11 @.@ 82 % health and social work , 8 @.@ 83 % construction , 8 @.@ 58 % public administration and defence , 8 @.@ 33 % real estate , 6 @.@ 69 % transport and communications , 5 @.@ 23 % education , 4 @.@ 53 % hotels and catering , 3 @.@ 13 % finance , 0 @.@ 92 % utilities , 0 @.@ 66 % agriculture and forestry , 0 @.@ 65 % mining and quarrying , 0 @.@ 07 % fishing , and 4 @.@ 29 % other industries . The census showed that the economic activity of residents aged 16 – 74 was 39 @.@ 35 % in full @-@ time employment , 11 @.@ 82 % in part @-@ time employment , 4 @.@ 65 % self @-@ employed , 5 @.@ 37 % unemployed , 1 @.@ 57 % economically active students , 3 @.@ 02 % economically inactive students , 14 @.@ 42 % retired , 6 @.@ 89 % looking after home or family , 9 @.@ 69 % permanently sick or disabled , and 3 @.@ 23 % economically inactive for other reasons . = = Demography = = Blyth is the largest town in Northumberland ; at the 2001 UK census it had a population of 35 @,@ 818 . There were 15 @,@ 358 households and , for every 1000 females , there were 950 males . The age distribution was 6 @.@ 0 % 0 – 4 years , 14 @.@ 6 % 5 – 15 years , 5 @.@ 2 % 16 – 19 years , 33 @.@ 1 % 20 – 44 years , 25 @.@ 8 % 45 – 64 years and 15 @.@ 4 % 65 years and over . The average age of the population was 38 @.@ 64 years . The ethnicity of the town was 99 @.@ 0 % white , 0 @.@ 5 % Asian , 0 @.@ 3 % mixed race , 0 @.@ 1 % Chinese and < 0 @.@ 1 % black ; other ethnic groups made up the remaining 0 @.@ 1 % . The place of birth of residents was 98 @.@ 5 % United Kingdom , 0 @.@ 1 % Republic of Ireland , 0 @.@ 5 % other European countries , 0 @.@ 1 % Africa , 0 @.@ 5 % Asia , 0 @.@ 1 % the Americas and 0 @.@ 1 % Oceania . Religion was recorded as 79 @.@ 2 % Christian , 0 @.@ 3 % Muslim , 0 @.@ 2 % Sikh , 0 @.@ 07 % Buddhist , < 0 @.@ 1 % Hindu and < 0 @.@ 1 % Jewish . " Other religions " was stated by 0 @.@ 2 % , " no religion " was stated by 13 % , and 7 @.@ 0 % did not state a religion . = = Education = = Like the rest of Northumberland , Blyth has a three @-@ tier school system consisting of first , middle and high schools . The town currently has ten first schools , five middle schools and one high school . However , it has been decided that Blyth will switch to a two @-@ tier system of primary and secondary schools , as it is felt that transferring children twice between schools is having a negative effect on their progress in core subjects . Under the plans , all five middle schools and three first schools will close ; the remaining first schools will become primary schools in 2009 , and the high school — Blyth Community College ( now The Blyth Academy ) is now a secondary school and ranges from years 7 to 11 and 3 years of 6th form . At present , The Blyth Academy is one of three high schools in Blyth Valley . Opened on 1 September 2000 as Blyth Community College following the amalgamation of Ridley ( formerly Newlands ) and Tynedale high schools and built on the site of the latter , it is designed to accommodate 1 @,@ 450 pupils and also serves as a centre for lifelong learning classes . In the town centre is Northumberland College 's Blyth centre , as well as the public library , which holds a large collection of local studies resources . Bede Academy , a school for children aged three to 18 sponsored by Sir Peter Vardy through the Emmanuel Schools Foundation opened in September 2009 . Bede Academy is built on the former grounds of Ridley High School ( formerly Newlands ) . = = Entertainment and leisure = = = = = Events and venues = = = Held every July , the annual Blyth Town Summer Fair takes place in and around the market place and hosts many attractions , such as music performances , arts and crafts exhibitions , fairground rides and children 's entertainment . The Blyth Town Christmas Fayre is also held in the market place and features a similar range of family entertainment . Close to the town centre is an intimate , 299 seat theatre called the Phoenix Theatre . It presents a regular programme of professional performing arts to the local community and has successfully brought amateur and professional practitioners alongside each other to develop work for the community . There were once four cinemas in Blyth , but with the closure of the Wallaw in 2004 there are now none . The others — The Central , The Essoldo and The Roxy — were all closed down in the 1960s and 1970s . = = = Sport and recreation = = = The town is home to the non @-@ League football club , Blyth Spartans . Founded in 1899 , they are currently in the Northern Premier League and play their home games at Croft Park . They are notable for their " giant @-@ killing " feats in the FA Cup , particularly those of the 1977 – 78 season , when they reached the fifth round . The town 's other non @-@ League football club is Blyth Town , who were established in 1995 and play in the Wade Associates Northern Alliance Premier Division . Also based in Blyth are Blyth RFC who hold host to the Blyth Cricket Club at the Blyth Rugby Football Club , which was formed in 1883 and competes in the Northumberland Cricket League , and the Blyth Renegades basketball club , which is run by local after school activity provider , Aspire 2 Achieve . Blyth Sports Centre offers a wide range of facilities including two swimming pools , a sports hall , squash courts , fitness suite , saunas , outdoor skate park , and more . Blyth Golf Club is situated on the outskirts of the town at New Delaval , and has an 18 hole course with a par of 72 . Royal Northumberland Yacht Club has its headquarters in the South Harbour . RNYC offers crewing and sailing opportunities and is a Royal Yachting Association Training Centre for sail cruising and powerboating for its members . = = = Parks and open spaces = = = Ridley Park was created on land handed over by Viscount Matthew White Ridley and was opened on 27 July 1904 . In June 2005 , a £ 602 @,@ 000 regeneration project was completed , which saw the installation of a children 's water play area and upgrading of existing play facilities at the southern end of the park . The Quayside is a stretch of the riverfront that was once a centre of Blyth 's industry , where coal would be loaded from trains onto ships for export , but having undergone major redevelopment , it is now a clean and peaceful area . Notable features of the Quayside include the " Spirit of the Staithes " sculpture and eleven " solar sound posts " which , when approached , replay pre @-@ recorded stories relating to the port told by local people . Blyth 's largest and most natural open space is its beach and sand dunes , which stretch from the mouth of the river to Seaton Sluice . The dunes were declared a Local Nature Reserve by Blyth Valley Borough Council in December 2003 , and are also an area of Special Nature Conservation Interest . They are notable for their diverse range of plant life , butterflies , moths and birds , as well as being one of only two coastal locations in the country inhabited by both species of banded land snail — Cepaea nemoralis and Cepaea hortensis . = = Landmarks and places of interest = = The " Spirit of the Staithes " sculpture on Blyth 's Quayside was unveiled by Princess Anne on 28 May 2003 . As part of the overall regeneration of the Quayside , it was commissioned by Blyth Valley Council in conjunction with Northern Arts and created by the artist Simon Packard . Standing 15 metres ( 50 ft ) high and 7 metres ( 22 ft ) wide , it represents the heritage of coal distribution in Europe , an industry in which Blyth was the largest exporter . The " High Light " lighthouse is one of Blyth 's oldest structures . It stands to the rear of Bath Terrace and is 18 @.@ 74 m ( 61 ft 6 in ) tall . Built in three stages , the first section was constructed in 1788 to a height of 10 @.@ 66 m ( 35 ft 0 in ) ; a further 4 @.@ 26 m ( 14 ft 0 in ) was added in 1888 , and the final 3 @.@ 82 m ( 12 ft 6 in ) was added in 1900 . The original oil @-@ fired lamp had a range of 10 nautical miles ( 19 km ) ; it was upgraded to gas in 1857 and electricity in 1932 . Prior to land reclamation in the late 19th century , the lighthouse had been much closer to the quayside . At some stage it became the rear of a pair of leading lights , and known as the ' High Light ' ; the corresponding ' low light ' has long since been demolished . Blyth High Light was deactivated in 1985 and listed Grade II on 15 July 1987 . Before their demolition , the four chimneys of Blyth Power Station dominated the landscape along the coast . Two were 167 m ( 548 ft ) high , the other two were 137 m ( 449 ft ) high , and they were visible for many miles . On the north side of the River Blyth are the remains of the railway coal staithes which featured in the chase scene at the end of the 1971 film Get Carter , starring Michael Caine . = = = Printed sources and further reading = = = Balmer , Bob ( 2002 ) [ 1997 ] . Images of England : Blyth ( 3rd ed . ) . Tempus Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7524 @-@ 0773 @-@ 9 . Balmer , Bob ; Smith , Gordon ( 2004 ) . Images of England : Blyth volume II . Tempus Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7524 @-@ 3349 @-@ 3 .
= The Blackest Beautiful = The Blackest Beautiful is the third studio album by American post @-@ hardcore band letlive . It was released by Epitaph Records on July 9 , 2013 . Recorded between June 2012 and January 2013 , the album used four different drum sessions , and went through ten recording engineers before settling on Stephen George . The drums were recorded with session musician Christopher Crandall , in the absence of the band having a permanent drummer at the time . The album incorporated a variety of music styles based on its members , including punk rock , funk , and soul ; it was mastered and mixed to have a " more human " and " organic " sound . Although the album was not expected to sell well because it was streamed for free prior to release , it still debuted in the United States at number 74 on the Billboard 200 and number six on the Hard Rock Albums chart , with nearly five thousand copies sold . The band toured the United Kingdom and Ireland to support the album , and joined other bands on tours across the United States . Critics welcomed the album , praising its crisp production and forward @-@ thinking sound within post @-@ hardcore , with Metacritic giving an aggregate rating of " universal acclaim " . = = Background = = Jason Aalon Butler , the band 's front @-@ man and remaining founding member , described the group 's first releases , extended play Exhaustion , Saltwater , And Everything In Between ( 2004 ) and debut album Speak Like You Talk ( 2005 ) , as " educational experiences " in writing whole songs rather than " cool bits " for songs . Music journalist Andrew Kelham wrote that the era these " raw hardcore punk " records were produced in was plagued by " potential [ that ] was never realised as an ever @-@ revolving door of musicians cause the band to limp through Jason 's late teens and early twenties . " With the second album , Fake History , the band felt they found their " signature sound " . In 2008 , when performing as a substitute opening support band for Bring Me the Horizon 's show in Los Angeles , they caught the attention of Brett Gurewitz , owner of Epitaph Records , who later signed the band and re @-@ released their second album in 2011 . = = Recording , production = = In 2010 , Letlive began writing on the third album . Butler said that their writing approach changed in comparison to their previous releases , as they were now doing most of it while on tour . During pre @-@ production , the band listened to styles and ideas that , according to Butler , changed the way they looked at the songs they had initially written . The styles were their most expansive to date , and came from the diversity of their members : Butler had involved himself in the punk rock skateboarding culture when he was eleven , but had also been influenced by his father , who was in a soul band . When they began recording in studio in June 2012 , the band 's members felt little pressure to complete the album as they could deliver something similar to their previous album " if you 've delivered once already , why would it be a problem to do it again ? We are the band that made those records [ ... ] so there 's really no problem in that regard . " Guitarist Jeff Sahyoun said he did not even think back on Fake History when they were producing The Blackest Beautiful . However , as they progressed through it , there were elements that were not clicking , and the performances lacked the same bite in comparison to their Fake History demos . Butler said that this " almost sent the band crazy " . He said he required a specific environment when he sings as his performance puts him in a vulnerable state . During a tour where they supported Underoath in October , they brought their studio equipment with them , which allowed them to record on the road . Butler said " It was like we 'd have a pop up studio in a bathroom in South Florida or in the woods off the highway in Wyoming . " In December , the band felt they were done with recordings ; Butler said " there was absolutely nothing left to try " , and walked away from the project . The band had recorded the drums on four different occasions . They finished recording at a static studio in January 2013 . Although there was increasing demand from fans , the band took their time with mixing and producing . Butler said the pressure was more rooted in giving the fans an album they deserve rather than meeting the expectations of the band . He said it was " one of the hardest processes I 've endured as a human being , not just as an artist , but ever . " Because Fake History was perceived by fans as sounding overproduced , the band strove for an " organic and authentic " sound that was " very human " and that reflected the sound of their live performances . They took " an analogue route " , where they used the test mix of the album as it " spoke to them " in its raw energy . After going through ten different sound engineers , they went with Stephen George , whom Sahyoun said " just added little diamonds and made it pop " , so the album sonically reminded them of their influences . During the recording sessions , drummer Anthony Rivera left the band . Butler said the departure was an " amicable split " : " sometimes you simply need more than what the artist lifestyle gives you , and that 's fine " . Chris Crandall replaced Rivera for the studio sessions , and Loniel Robinson , a drum tech from the band Of Mice and Men replaced Crandall following the album release . = = Artwork , packaging = = When the band was creating the album art , they intended to create something provocative and captivating and so they experimented with how " black and white American flags could represent " a much bigger idea of the sterilization that we are experiencing . " The title is a play on the saying " Black is beautiful " and how it acts as an opposition to everything that society is saying otherwise . = = Composition = = = = = Music = = = The Blackest Beautiful was described as a post @-@ hardcore record , much like its predecessors , from " screaming rage to tight , sophisticated harmonies to frenzied funky riffing to emotively melodic parts " . Mike Diver of Clash considered it a pop record with clear , melodic structure , while others grouped it with punk rock , soul , and funk , as well as displaying ' glimpses ' of other music styles including Afrobeat , electronica and jazz . The incorporation of funk music has been noted by critics . Stephen Hill described the album as " find [ ing ] the space between DC Hardcore and Stax funk " . James McMahon described the album as being " dragged through the civil rights movement , through 80s New York block parties , through the birth of hip @-@ hop , funk , jazz and soul . " Terry Bezer in Front found that the album has ' as much in common with funk as punk ' and wrote in Metal Hammer that the album features ' the musical dexterity and reckless abandon of razor @-@ edged funk ' . Letlive 's ferocity and use of dynamics have led critics to draw comparisons to rock bands Glassjaw , At the Drive @-@ in , Refused , Black Flag and Deftones . Bezer cited three albums as primary influences on the The Blackest Beautiful : Raised Fist 's Veil of Ignorance and its " tempo changes , fury and non @-@ stop fire " ; Prince 's Love Symbol Album and funk style ; and Public Enemy 's It Takes A Nation Of Millions for its confrontational and " fight for what 's right " lyrics . Butler said that there was a poetic play in their combination of melody and chaos on the album : " I think the best way for us as musicians to get people to listen is to appeal to them . Appeal to the natural rhythm of the head bob , the beating of the heart , the tap of the foot ; just find that area and utilize it properly and say something . " The album 's lead single , " Banshee ( Ghost Fame ) " , was described as an " unholy collision of Refused and Rage Against the Machine " . " White America ’ s Beautiful Black Market " was a " rock rap crossover affair " , a protest song about the relationship between the corporations and the United States government , as they are " sucking the dicks of corporations " . " Empty Elvis " was described as " condensing Glassjaw 's whole career into three mouth @-@ foamingly [ sic ] exciting minutes " . " That Fear Fever " fused rock , pop and metal . " Virgin Dirt " was described as a " post @-@ rock epic " . The tracks " Younger " and " The Dope Beat " were listed as examples of the band 's " staggering dynamics , brain @-@ burrowing melodies and intelligent production tricks " . " Pheromone Cvlt " showed the band 's " blend of deranged hardcore and aching soul " ; Bezer wrote that the track possesses ' Prince levels of funked up cool ' . " 27 Club " was a " blistering seven @-@ minute epic " about living life either selflessly or selfishly , with " rampages from Hendrix riffs to reggae " . = = = Lyrics = = = The album 's lyrics are described as ' politically , socially and personally conscious ' , incorporating themes such as corporate greed , racism and growing up in a broken home . Butler says it is " an ode to the disenfranchised and disaffected youth " and about accepting that we will never be perfect . Some of the lyrics reflect on his early life where he had to raise his sister and grow up at the same time . He added ambiguity to the lyrics to " facilitate " ideas for the listeners . Freeman said that the lyrics " reveal just how self @-@ aware he is , which is a good counterpoint to those who feel that his constant vocalizing equates to selfishness . " " Banshee ( Ghost Fame ) " describes the differences between music as an art form and as an industry . " The Priest and Used Cars " talks about clockwork theory and how it put the fear of death into Butler when he was younger . " Pheromone Cvlt " was about how tired he was with women telling him how broken he is and how he needs to be fixed , and how he wants to find someone who wants to find someone who was not with him because he was a " fucking mess " . Butler commented how the lyrics of " 27 Club " focus on " when people assume I 'm pumped full of drugs or a Christian . I 'm misidentified all the time " . = = Release and promotion = = The album was initially announced in Rock Sound for a summer 2013 release ; later specified to be July 9 , 2013 . A few weeks prior to its release , the album was streamed online for free . Although Butler acknowledged that the strategy would mean the album would not sell well , he said " It 's not about how many people it reaches but that it makes them feel something . " The band toured the United Kingdom and Ireland in October , playing songs from both Fake History and The Blackest Beautiful . Many of the dates were sold out ; London 's date was met with such high demand that it was upgraded to a larger venue from the Camden Underworld to the Electric Ballroom . In November and December , the band returned to the United States where they supported Every Time I Die with Code Orange Kids . In February and March 2014 , the band supported Bring Me the Horizon for their Sempiternal album , joining groups Of Mice & Men and Issues on The American Dream Tour . From April to May , they co @-@ headlined a tour with Architects for their album Lost Forever / / Lost Together , with support from Glass Cloud and I The Mighty . On August 26 , they and Architects supported A Day To Remember at a postponed event at the Cardiff Motorpoint Arena . = = Reception = = = = = Critical reception = = = The album received an aggregate score of 86 / 100 at Metacritic , based on 12 reviews , signifying " universal acclaim " . Kerrang ! editor James Mcmahon gave the album five out of five " K " s , classing The Blackest Beautiful as a " classic " , praising the inclusion of producers Kit Walters and Stephen George . He wrote : " What The Blackest Beautiful certainly is , though , is the sound of letlive. right here and right now . And right now , letlive. sound amazing . Get Down . " Metal Hammer writer Stephen Hill gave the album a nine out of ten , saying " it 's hard to pick out highlights when every track sounds so fresh , joyous and casually rule @-@ book torching " and that " this is the kind of album that changes people 's lives " . Chris Hidden of Rock Sound also gave a nine out of ten , calling it a " bold record " and highlighting its fusion of " staggering dynamics , brain @-@ burrowing melodies and intelligent production " . Fred Thomas of Allmusic noted how the album is " technically dazzling and soulfully delivered aggression " . Tom Doyle of This Is Fake DIY wrote that the album is a " punch in the gut to whatever expectations you might have about letlive . " Channing Freeman of Sputnikmusic said while the songs lack the same immediacy in comparison to those on Fake History , they have more longevity . Although Mike Diver of Clash Music liked the album overall , he said that " Pheromone Cvlt " was " placid " and " Virgin Dirt " was " losing sting " . However , Dave Simpson , writing for The Guardian , criticized the album 's " adolescent , cliched lyrics " , especially from the track ' The Priest and Used Cars ' . = = = Media picks = = = End of Year awards = = Chart performance = = The album debuted in the United States at number 74 on the Billboard 200 and number six on Hard Rock Albums , selling nearly five thousand copies . In the United Kingdom , the album debuted at number 62 . = = Track listing = = All songs written and composed by letlive . = = Personnel = = letlive . Jason Aalon Butler – lead vocals Ryan Jay Johnson – bass , backing vocals Jean Francisco Nascimento – guitar , keyboard Jeff Sahyoun – guitar , backing vocals Additional personnel Christopher Crandall – drums , percussion Staff Kit Walters – producer Stephen George – mixing Jonathan Weiner – Album artwork and layout = = Chart performance = =
= Washington State Route 163 = State Route 163 ( SR 163 ) is a 3 @.@ 37 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 5 @.@ 42 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Washington . The highway serves the city of Tacoma and the community of Ruston in Pierce County before traveling via a ferry route to the community of Tahlequah on Vashon Island in King County . SR 163 begins at an interchange with SR 16 in Tacoma and travels north as Pearl Street through Ruston to Point Defiance , where the designation continues onto the MV Chetzemoka ferry to Tahlequah . SR 163 was established during the 1964 highway renumbering , extending from Sumner to Auburn . The highway was previously a part of the Pacific Highway during the early 20th century , but was designated as a branch of State Road 5 and Primary State Highway 5 ( PSH 5 ) until 1964 . SR 163 became SR 167 during the late 1960s and was moved to Pearl Street in 1991 , with the ferry route being added in 1994 . = = Route description = = SR 163 begins as Pearl Street at a partial cloverleaf interchange with the SR 16 freeway in Tacoma north of Tacoma Community College . Pearl Street travels north , serving Woodrow Wilson High School and Truman Middle School , before leaving Tacoma and entering Ruston and serving Point Defiance Elementary School . The highway re @-@ enters Tacoma at Point Defiance Park and passes the Science and Math Institute before traveling onto the Point Defiance – Tahlequah Ferry . The ferry , operated by Washington State Ferries ( WSF ) , is on a 1 @.@ 7 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 2 @.@ 7 km ) route and is served by the Kwa @-@ di Tabil class MV Chetzemoka traveling at a speed of 15 knots ( 17 mph ) for a 15 @-@ minute crossing . The ferries depart from Port Defiance and head north across the Dalco Passage to the community of Tahlequah on Vashon Island . WSF operates the ferry every day with 19 crossings , as a $ 5 toll for adult passengers is charged with prepaid Wave2Go cards being accepted . Every year , the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2011 , WSDOT calculated that between 1 @,@ 000 and 26 @,@ 000 vehicles per day used the highway , mostly at the SR 16 interchange in Tacoma . The Point Defiance – Tahlequah ferry carried 650 @,@ 000 passengers and 383 @,@ 000 vehicles in 2012 , according to WSF statistics . = = History = = SR 163 was first designated during the 1964 highway renumbering as a road extending from U.S. Route 410 in Sumner to SR 18 in Auburn . The corridor was previously a part of the Pacific Highway from 1913 to 1923 , and later became a branch of State Road 5 in 1925 . State Road 5 became PSH 5 during the creation of the Primary and secondary state highways in 1937 , and the branch stayed designated . SR 163 was removed from the highway system in the late 1960s , and became part of SR 167 . SR 163 was re @-@ designated in 1991 along Pearl Street from SR 16 in Tacoma to the Point Defiance ferry terminal . The route was extended onto the Point Defiance – Tahlequah Ferry serving Vashon Island in 1994 . No major revisions have occurred since 1994 to the highway 's route . Regular ferry service on the Dalco Passage between Point Defiance in Tacoma and Tahlequah on Vashon Island started with the MV Skansonia in June 1951 during the creation of the WSF , and served the route until the completion of the MV Hiyu in 1967 . The Hiyu operated for 26 years until it was replaced by the refurbished MV Rhododendron in 1993 . The Hiyu briefly returned to the route twice , in June 2008 and in September and October 2008 , while the Rhododendron was loaned out to Pierce County for the Steilacoom – Anderson Island ferry . The MV Chetzemoka , built in 2010 , began serving the route in January 2012 . = = Major intersections = =
= Never Say Never Again = Never Say Never Again is a 1983 British spy film directed by Irvin Kershner , produced by Jack Schwartzman , and written by Lorenzo Semple Jr. with uncredited additional co @-@ writers Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais , from a story by Kevin McClory , Jack Whittingham , and Ian Fleming . It is the second adaption of Fleming 's Thunderball , which was previously adapted as the 1965 film of the same name . Unlike the majority of Bond films , Never Say Never Again was not produced by Eon Productions , but by an independent production company , one of whose members was Kevin McClory . McClory , one of the original writers of the Thunderball storyline , retained the filming rights of the novel following a rights controversy . Sean Connery played the role of James Bond for the seventh time , marking his return to the character 12 years after Diamonds Are Forever . The film 's title is a reference to Connery 's reported declaration in 1971 that he would " never again " play that role . As Connery was 52 at the time of filming , the storyline features an aging Bond , who is brought back into action to investigate the theft of two nuclear weapons by SPECTRE . Filming locations included France , Spain , the Bahamas and Elstree Studios in England . Never Say Never Again was released by Warner Bros. in autumn 1983 , opening to positive reviews and was a commercial success , grossing $ 160 million at the box office , although less overall than the Eon @-@ produced Octopussy released in the same year . Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer , to date , owns the distribution rights and distributes Eon 's Bond films , and the company has handled subsequent home video releases of the film . = = Plot = = After MI6 agent James Bond , 007 , fails a routine training exercise , his superior , M , orders Bond to a health clinic outside London to get back into shape . While there , Bond witnesses a mysterious nurse named Fatima Blush giving a sadomasochistic beating to a patient in a nearby room . The man 's face is bandaged and after Blush finishes her beating , Bond sees the patient using a machine which scans his eye . Bond is seen by Blush and an attempt is subsequently made to kill him in the clinic gym , but Bond manages to defeat the assassin . Blush and her charge , a United States Air Force pilot named Jack Petachi , are operatives of SPECTRE , a criminal organisation run by Ernst Stavro Blofeld . Petachi has undergone an operation on his right eye to make it match the retinal pattern of the US President , which he uses to circumvent iris recognition security at an American military base in England . While doing so , he replaces the dummy warheads of two cruise missiles with live nuclear warheads ; SPECTRE then steals the warheads , intending to extort billions of dollars from NATO governments . Blush murders Petachi to cover SPECTRE 's tracks . Under orders from the Prime Minister , M reluctantly reactivates the double @-@ 0 section and Bond is assigned the task of tracking down the missing weapons . He meets Domino Petachi , the pilot 's sister , and her wealthy lover , Maximillian Largo , a SPECTRE agent . Bond follows Largo and his yacht to the Bahamas , where he spars with Blush and Largo . Bond is informed by Nigel Small @-@ Fawcett of the British Consulate that Largo 's yacht is now heading for Nice , France . There , Bond joins forces with his CIA counterpart , Felix Leiter . Bond goes to a beauty salon where he poses as an employee and , whilst giving Domino a massage , is informed by her that Largo is hosting an event at a casino that evening . At the charity event , Largo and Bond play a 3 @-@ D video game called Domination ; the loser of each turn receives a series of electric shocks of increasing intensity or pays a corresponding cash bet . Bond ultimately wins . While dancing with Domino , Bond informs her that her brother had been killed on Largo 's orders . Bond returns to his villa to find that Nicole , his French contact , has been killed by Blush . After a vehicle chase on his motorbike , Blush captures Bond . She admits that she is impressed with him , and forces Bond to declare in writing that she is his " Number One " sexual partner . Bond distracts her with promises , then uses his Q @-@ branch @-@ issue fountain pen to shoot Blush with an explosive dart . Bond and Leiter attempt to board Largo 's motor yacht , the Flying Saucer , in search of the missing nuclear warheads . Bond finds Domino . He attempts to make Largo jealous by kissing Domino in front of a two way mirror . Largo becomes enraged , traps Bond and takes him and Domino to Palmyra , Largo 's base of operations in North Africa . Largo coldly punishes Domino for her betrayal by selling her to some passing Arabs . Bond subsequently escapes and rescues her . Domino and Bond reunite with Leiter on a United States Navy submarine and track Largo to a location known as the Tears of Allah , below a desert oasis on the Ethiopian Coast . Bond and Leiter infiltrate the underground facility and a gun battle erupts between Leiter 's team and Largo 's men in the temple . In the confusion Largo makes a getaway with one of the warheads . Bond catches and fights Largo underwater . Just as Largo tries to detonate the last bomb , he is killed by Domino , taking revenge for her brother 's death . Bond returns to the Bahamas with Domino . = = Cast = = Sean Connery as James Bond , MI6 agent 007 . Kim Basinger as Domino Petachi , sister of Jack Petachi and girlfriend / mistress of Maximillian Largo . Klaus Maria Brandauer as Maximillian Largo ; based on the character Emilio Largo , a senior member of SPECTRE . Barbara Carrera as Fatima Blush ; based on Fiona Volpe and a member of SPECTRE . Rowan Atkinson as Nigel Small @-@ Fawcett , Foreign Office representative in the Bahamas . Bernie Casey as Felix Leiter , Bond 's CIA contact and friend . Max von Sydow as Ernst Stavro Blofeld , the head of SPECTRE . Edward Fox as M , Bond 's superior at MI6 . Gavan O 'Herlihy as Jack Petachi , a pilot used by SPECTRE to steal the nuclear missiles . He is Domino Petachi 's brother . Alec McCowen as Q ( also known as Algy ) Ronald Pickup as Elliott , a government agent working under M Pamela Salem as Miss Moneypenny , M 's secretary Saskia Cohen Tanugi as Nicole , Bond 's MI6 contact in France Prunella Gee as Patricia Fearing , a physiotherapist at the clinic Valerie Leon as Lady in Bahamas John Stephen Hill as Communications Officer Milow Kirek as Kovacs Pat Roach as Lippe Anthony Sharp as Lord Ambrose = = Production = = Never Say Never Again had its origins in the early 1960s , following the controversy over the 1961 Thunderball novel . Fleming had worked with independent producer Kevin McClory and scriptwriter Jack Whittingham on a script for a potential Bond film , to be called Longitude 78 West , which was subsequently abandoned because of the costs involved . Fleming , " always reluctant to let a good idea lie idle " , turned this into the novel Thunderball , for which he did not credit either McClory or Whittingham ; McClory then took Fleming to the High Court in London for breach of copyright and the matter was settled in 1963 . After Eon Productions started producing the Bond films , it subsequently made a deal with McClory , who would produce Thunderball , and then not make any further version of the novel for a period of ten years following the release of the Eon @-@ produced version in 1965 . In the mid @-@ 1970s McClory again started working on a project to bring a Thunderball adaptation to production and , with the working title Warhead , he brought writer Len Deighton together with Sean Connery to work on a script . The script ran into difficulties after accusations from Eon Productions that the project had gone beyond copyright restrictions , which confined McClory to a film based on the Thunderball novel only , and once again the project was deferred . Towards the end of the 1970s developments were reported on the project under the name James Bond of the Secret Service , but when producer Jack Schwartzman became involved and cleared a number of the legal issues that still surrounded the project he brought on board scriptwriter Lorenzo Semple , Jr. to work on the screenplay . Connery was unhappy with some aspects of the work and asked Tom Mankiewicz who had rewritten Diamonds Are Forever to work on the script ; however Mankiewicz declined as he felt he was under a moral obligation to Cubby Broccoli . Connery then hired British television writers Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais to undertake re @-@ writes , although they went uncredited for their efforts because of a restriction by the Writers Guild of America . The film underwent one final change in title : after Connery had finished filming Diamonds Are Forever he had pledged that he would " never " play Bond again . Connery 's wife , Micheline , suggested the title Never Say Never Again , referring to her husband 's vow and the producers acknowledged her contribution by listing on the end credits " Title " Never Say Never Again " by : Micheline Connery " . A final attempt by Fleming 's trustees to block the film was made in the High Court in London in the spring of 1983 , but this was thrown out by the court and Never Say Never Again was permitted to proceed . = = = Cast and crew = = = When producer Kevin McClory had first planned the film in 1964 he held initial talks with Richard Burton for the part of Bond , although the project came to nothing because of the legal issues involved . When the Warhead project was launched in the late 1970s , a number of actors were mentioned in the trade press , including Orson Welles for the part of Blofeld , Trevor Howard to play M and Richard Attenborough as director . In 1978 the working title James Bond of the Secret Service was being used and Connery was in the frame once again , potentially going head @-@ to @-@ head with the next Eon Bond film , Moonraker . By 1980 , with legal issues again causing the project to founder , Connery thought himself unlikely to play the role , as he stated in an interview in the Sunday Express : " when I first worked on the script with Len I had no thought of actually being in the film " . When producer Jack Schwartzman became involved , he asked Connery to play Bond ; Connery agreed , asking ( and getting ) a fee of $ 3 million , ( $ 7 million in 2016 dollars ) a percentage of the profits , as well as casting and script approval . Subsequent to Connery reprising the role , the script has several references to Bond 's advancing years – playing on Connery being 52 at the time of filming – and academic Jeremy Black has pointed out that there are other aspects of age and disillusionment in the film , such as the Shrubland 's porter referring to Bond 's car ( " They don 't make them like that anymore . " ) , the new M having no use for the 00 section and Q with his reduced budgets . For the main villain in the film , Maximillian Largo , Connery suggested Klaus Maria Brandauer , the lead of the 1981 Academy Award @-@ winning Hungarian film Mephisto . Through the same route came Max von Sydow as Ernst Stavro Blofeld , although he still retained his Eon @-@ originated white cat in the film . For the femme fatale , director Irvin Kershner selected former model and Playboy cover girl Barbara Carrera to play Fatima Blush – the name coming from one of the early scripts of Thunderball . Carrera 's performance as Fatima Blush earned her a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress , which she lost to Cher for her role in Silkwood . Micheline Connery , Sean 's wife , had met up @-@ and @-@ coming actress Kim Basinger at a hotel in London and suggested her to Connery , which he agreed upon . For the role of Felix Leiter , Connery spoke with Bernie Casey , saying that as the Leiter role was never remembered by audiences , using a black Leiter might make him more memorable . Others cast included comedian Rowan Atkinson , who would later parody Bond in his role of Johnny English . Former Eon Productions ' editor and director of On Her Majesty 's Secret Service , Peter R. Hunt , was approached to direct the film but declined due to his previous work with Eon . Irvin Kershner , who had achieved success in 1980 with The Empire Strikes Back was then hired . A number of the crew from the 1981 film Raiders of the Lost Ark were also appointed , including first assistant director David Tomblin , director of photography Douglas Slocombe and production designers Philip Harrison and Stephen Grimes . = = = Filming = = = Filming for Never Say Never Again began on 27 September 1982 on the French Riviera for two months before moving to Nassau , the Bahamas in mid @-@ November where filming took place at Clifton Pier , which was also one of the locations used in Thunderball . The Spanish city of Almería was also used as a location . Largo 's Palmyran fortress was actually historic Fort Carré in Antibes . For Largo 's ship , the Flying Saucer , the yacht Nabila , owned by Saudi billionaire , Adnan Khashoggi , was used . The boat , now owned by Prince Al @-@ Waleed bin Talal , has subsequently been renamed the Kingdom 5KR . Principal photography finished at Elstree Studios where interior shots were filmed . Elstree also housed the Tears of Allah underwater cavern , which took three months to construct . Most of the filming was completed in the spring of 1983 , although there was some additional shooting during the summer of 1983 . Production on the film was troubled , with Connery taking on many of the production duties with assistant director David Tomblin . Director Irvin Kershner was critical of producer Jack Schwartzman , saying that whilst he was a good businessman , " he didn 't have the experience of a film producer " . After the production ran out of money , Schwartzman had to fund further production out of his own pocket and later admitted he had underestimated the amount the film would cost to make . Steven Seagal , who was the fight choreographer for this film , broke Connery 's wrist while training . On an episode of The Tonight Show with Jay Leno , Connery revealed he did not know his wrist was broken until over a decade later . Many of the elements of the Eon @-@ produced Bond films were not present in Never Say Never Again for legal reasons . These included the gun barrel sequence , where a screen full of 007 symbols appeared instead , and similarly there was no " James Bond Theme " to use , although no effort was made to supply another tune . A pre @-@ credits sequence was filmed but not used ; instead the film opens with the credits run over the top of the opening sequence of Bond on a training mission . = = = Music = = = The music for Never Say Never Again was written by Michel Legrand , who composed a score similar to his work as a jazz pianist . The score has been criticised as " anachronistic and misjudged " , " bizarrely intermittent " and " the most disappointing feature of the film " . Legrand also wrote the main theme " Never Say Never Again " , which featured lyrics by Alan and Marilyn Bergman — who had also worked with Legrand in the Academy Award winning song , " The Windmills of Your Mind " — and was performed by Lani Hall after Bonnie Tyler , who disliked the song , had reluctantly declined . Phyllis Hyman also recorded a potential theme song , written by Stephen Forsyth and Jim Ryan , but the song — an unsolicited submission — was passed over given Legrand 's contractual obligations with the music . = = Release and reception = = Never Say Never Again premiered in New York on 7 October 1983 , grossing $ 9 @.@ 72 million ( $ 23 million in 2016 dollars ) on its first weekend , which was reported to be " the best opening record of any James Bond film " up to that point and surpassing Octopussy 's $ 8 @.@ 9 million ( $ 21 million in 2016 dollars ) from June that year . The film went on general release in the US in 1 @,@ 500 cinemas on 14 October 1983 and had its UK premiere at the Warner West End cinema in Leicester Square on 14 December 1983 . Worldwide , Never Say Never Again grossed $ 160 million in box office returns , which was a solid return on the budget of $ 36 million . Warner Bros. released Never Say Never Again on VHS and Betamax in 1984 , and on laserdisc in 1995 . After Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer purchased the distribution rights in 1997 ( see Legacy , below ) , the company has released the film on both VHS and DVD in 2001 , and on Blu @-@ ray in 2009 . = = = Contemporary reviews = = = Never Say Never Again was broadly welcomed and praised by the critics : Ian Christie , writing in the Daily Express , said that Never Say Never Again was " one of the better Bonds " , finding the film " superbly witty and entertaining , ... the dialogue is crisp and the fight scenes imaginative . " Christie also thought that " Connery has lost none of his charm and , if anything , is more appealing than ever as the stylish resolute hero . " David Robinson , writing in The Times also concentrated on Connery , saying that : " Connery ... is back , looking hardly a day older or thicker , and still outclassing every other exponent of the role , in the goodnatured throwaway with which he parries all the sex and violence on the way " . For Robinson , the presence of Connery and Klaus Maria Brandauer as Maximillian Largo " very nearly make it all worthwhile . " The reviewer for Time Out summed up Never Say Never Again saying " The action 's good , the photography excellent , the sets decent ; but the real clincher is the fact that Bond is once more played by a man with the right stuff . " Derek Malcolm in The Guardian showed himself to be a fan of Connery 's Bond , saying the film contains " the best Bond in the business " , but nevertheless did not find Never Say Never Again any more enjoyable than the recently released Octopussy ( starring Roger Moore ) , or " that either of them came very near to matching Dr. No or From Russia with Love . " Malcolm 's main issue with the film was that he had a " feeling that a constant struggle was going on between a desire to make a huge box @-@ office success and the effort to make character as important as stunts . " Malcolm summed up that " the mix remains obstinately the same @-@ up to scratch but not surpassing it . " Writing in The Observer , Philip French noted that " this curiously muted film ends up making no contribution of its own and inviting damaging comparisons with the original , hyper @-@ confident Thunderball " . French concluded that " like an hour @-@ glass full of damp sand , the picture moves with increasing slowness as it approaches a confused climax in the Persian Gulf . " Writing for Newsweek , critic Jack Kroll thought the early part of the film was handled " with wit and style " , although he went on to say that the director was " hamstrung by Lorenzo Semple 's script " . Richard Schickel , writing in Time magazine praised the film and its cast . He wrote that Klaus Maria Brandauer 's character was " played with silky , neurotic charm " , whilst Barbara Carrera , playing Fatima Blush , " deftly parodies all the fatal femmes who have slithered through Bond 's career " . Schickel 's highest praise was saved for the return of Connery , observing " it is good to see Connery 's grave stylishness in this role again . It makes Bond 's cynicism and opportunism seem the product of genuine worldliness ( and world weariness ) as opposed to Roger Moore 's mere twirpishness . " Janet Maslin , writing in The New York Times , was broadly praising of the film , saying she thought that Never Say Never Again " has noticeably more humor and character than the Bond films usually provide . It has a marvelous villain in Largo . " Maslin also thought highly of Connery in the role , observing that " in Never Say Never Again , the formula is broadened to accommodate an older , seasoned man of much greater stature , and Mr. Connery expertly fills the bill . " Writing in The Washington Post , Gary Arnold was fulsome in his praise , saying that Never Say Never Again is " one of the best James Bond adventure thrillers ever made " , going on to say that " this picture is likely to remain a cherished , savory example of commercial filmmaking at its most astute and accomplished . " Arnold went further , saying that " Never Say Never Again is the best acted Bond picture ever made , because it clearly surpasses any predecessors in the area of inventive and clever character delineation " . The critic for The Globe and Mail , Jay Scott , also praised the film , saying that Never Say Never Again " may be the only instalment of the long @-@ running series that has been helmed by a first @-@ rate director " . According to Scott , the director , with high quality support cast , resulted in the " classiest of all the Bonds " . Roger Ebert gave the film 3 ½ out of 4 stars , and wrote that Never Say Never Again , while consisting of a basic " Bond plot " , was different from other Bond films : " For one thing , there 's more of a human element in the movie , and it comes from Klaus Maria Brandauer , as Largo . " Ebert went on to add , " there was never a Beatles reunion ... but here , by God , is Sean Connery as Sir James Bond . Good work , 007 . " = = = Reflective reviews = = = Because Never Say Never Again is not an Eon @-@ produced film , it has not been included in a number of subsequent reviews . Norman Wilner of MSN said that 1967 's Casino Royale and Never Say Never Again " exist outside the ' official ' continuity , [ and ] are excluded from this list , just as they 're absent from MGM 's megabox . But take my word for it ; they 're both pretty awful " . Of the more recent reviews , opinion on Never Say Never Again is still mixed : film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes lists the film with a 63 % rating from 46 reviews . The score is still more positive than some of the Eon films , with Rotten Tomatoes ranking Never Say Never Again 16th among all Bond films in 2008 . Empire gives the film three of a possible five stars , observing that " Connery was perhaps wise to call it quits the first time round " . IGN gave Never Say Never Again a score of 5 out of 10 , claiming that the film " is more miss than hit " . The review also thought that the film was " marred with too many clunky exposition scenes and not enough moments of Bond being Bond " . In 1995 Michael Sauter of Entertainment Weekly rated Never Say Never Again as the ninth best Bond film to that point , after 17 films had been released . Sauter thought the film " is successful only as a portrait of an over @-@ the @-@ hill superhero . " He did admit , however that " even past his prime , Connery proves that nobody does it better " . James Berardinelli , in his review of Never Say Never Again , thinks the re @-@ writing of the Thunderball story has led to a film which has " a hokey , jokey feel , [ it ] is possibly the worst @-@ written Bond script of all " . Berardinelli concludes that " it 's a major disappointment that , having lured back the original 007 , the film makers couldn 't offer him something better than this drawn @-@ out , hackneyed story . " Critic Danny Peary wrote that " it was great to see Sean Connery return as James Bond after a dozen years " . He also thought the supporting cast was good , saying that Klaus Maria Brandauer 's Largo was " neurotic , vulnerable ... one of the most complex of Bond 's foes " and that Barbara Carrera and Kim Basinger " make lasting impressions . " Peary also wrote that the " film is exotic , well acted , and stylishly directed ... It would be one of the best Bond films if the finale weren 't disappointing . When will filmmakers realize that underwater fight scenes don 't work because viewers usually can 't tell the hero and villain apart and they know doubles are being used ? " = = Legacy = = In the 1990s , McClory announced plans to make another adaptation of the Thunderball story starring Timothy Dalton entitled Warhead 2000 AD , but the film was eventually scrapped . In 1997 the Sony Corporation acquired some or all of McClory 's rights in an undisclosed deal , and subsequently announced that it intended to make a series of Bond films , as the company also held the rights to Casino Royale . This move prompted a round of litigation from MGM , which was settled out @-@ of @-@ court , forcing Sony to give up all claims on Bond ; McClory still claimed he would proceed with another Bond film , and continued his case against MGM and Danjaq ; on 27 August 2001 the court rejected McClory 's suit . McClory died in 2006 . On 4 December 1997 , MGM announced that the company had purchased the rights to Never Say Never Again from Schwartzman 's company Taliafilm . The company has since handled the release of both the DVD and Blu @-@ ray editions of the film .
= New York State Route 65 = New York State Route 65 ( NY 65 ) is a north – south state highway located in the western portion of New York in the United States . It extends for 18 @.@ 51 miles ( 29 @.@ 79 km ) from an intersection with U.S. Route 20 ( US 20 ) and NY 5 in the Ontario County town of West Bloomfield to a junction with NY 96 in the Monroe County town of Brighton . In between , the route serves the village of Honeoye Falls and passes through the extreme northeastern corner of Livingston County . NY 65 intersects NY 251 in Mendon , NY 252 in Pittsford , and the regionally important NY 31 in Brighton . The southern half of NY 65 passes through mostly rural areas , while its northern section traverses densely populated portions of Monroe County . NY 65 originally began at what is now US 20A in Honeoye when it was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York ; however , it was truncated to its current southern terminus in the late 1930s . No changes have been made to NY 65 's alignment since that time ; however , ownership and maintenance of the 1 @.@ 95 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 14 km ) portion of the route north of NY 31 was transferred to Monroe County at some point prior to 1990 . This section of NY 65 is co @-@ designated as the unsigned County Route 271 ( CR 271 ) . = = Route description = = NY 65 begins at an intersection with US 20 and NY 5 in the West Bloomfield hamlet of the same name . It heads to the northwest as Ontario Street , passing through gradually less developed areas as it approaches the Ontario – Monroe county line . Just south of the line , however , the route enters the hamlet of North Bloomfield , a southeastern extension of Honeoye Falls located on the Livingston – Ontario county line . NY 65 passes into Livingston County in the town of Lima upon crossing over Honeoye Creek in the center of the community ; however , it remains in the county for just 0 @.@ 25 miles ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) before following Honeoye Creek into Monroe County and the village of Honeoye Falls in the town of Mendon situated on the county 's southern edge . The Ontario Street name follows NY 65 northwestward through the southern half of the village , where it crosses back over Honeoye Creek before passing through the village 's residential center and entering its business district . Here , NY 65 turns west onto East Street and crosses Honeoye Creek again to reach an intersection with Main and Monroe Streets . Monroe Street , once designated NY 363 , is maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) as NY 940J , an unsigned reference route . NY 65 turns north here , following North Main Street out of the village . Outside of Honeoye Falls , the route becomes Clover Street , a name it retains for the rest of its routing . The highway heads onward through the town of Mendon , leaving the densely populated village and its lightly populated outskirts for the rolling , open areas that dominate much of southern Monroe County . Three miles ( 5 km ) to the north of Honeoye Falls , NY 65 intersects NY 251 by way of a roundabout northeast of the hamlet of Rochester Junction . The community , located on NY 251 , marks the point where the Lehigh Valley Railroad spur that went to the railroad 's station in downtown Rochester returned to the main line . The route continues onward , passing alongside the western edge of Mendon Ponds Park as it enters the town of Pittsford . At the northern edge of the park , NY 65 curves to the northeast and passes over the New York State Thruway ( Interstate 90 ) . North of the Thruway , NY 65 intersects the eastern terminus of NY 253 and Calkins Road ( unsigned NY 943C and a former extension of NY 253 ) at junctions roughly 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) apart . From this point northward , the route heads through much more developed areas , beginning with a series of housing tracts situated in the 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) between Calkins and Jefferson Roads , the latter carrying NY 252 . It continues on past NY 252 , taking on a more northerly routing as it crosses over the CSX Transportation @-@ owned West Shore Subdivision railroad line and the Erie Canal and passes through densely populated portions of Pittsford and Brighton . Just inside the Brighton town line , NY 65 intersects NY 31 ( Monroe Avenue ) in a linear commercial district centered on NY 31 . At this point , maintenance of NY 65 shifts from NYSDOT to Monroe County , which maintains the route as the unsigned CR 271 . The route heads due northward for just under 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , paralleling I @-@ 590 and passing The Harley School before veering to the northeast ahead of an intersection with Elmwood Avenue . Both NY 65 and CR 271 end 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) later at a junction with East Avenue ( NY 96 ) . = = History = = All of what is now NY 65 , including the portion of the route north of modern NY 31 , was state @-@ maintained by 1926 . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 65 was assigned to an alignment extending from NY 254 ( now US 20A ) in Honeoye northward to NY 15 ( now NY 96 ) in Brighton . The route followed the northernmost portion of what is now CR 37 from Honeoye to US 20 in West Bloomfield , from where it continued to Brighton on its current alignment . The section of NY 65 south of US 20 , which was not state @-@ owned in 1926 , was removed from the route c . 1938 . Farther north , ownership and maintenance of the portion of the route north of NY 31 was transferred to Monroe County by 1990 . NY 65 originally had an overlap with NY 253 in the town of Pittsford . From the 1930 renumbering to the 1980s , NY 253 turned north onto NY 65 at its present eastern terminus and followed NY 65 north to Calkins Road , where NY 253 turned east and continued to the northeast toward Pittsford , East Rochester and Penfield . In the latter half of the 1980s , NY 253 was truncated to its present eastern terminus at NY 65 and the section of NY 253 from NY 96 north to NY 441 in East Rochester and Penfield was designated NY 153 . = = Major intersections = =
= Dignity ( album ) = Dignity is the fourth studio album by American recording artist Hilary Duff . It was released on March 21 , 2007 , by Hollywood Records . After launching her third record Hilary Duff ( 2004 ) , she experienced an eventful personal life , including a stalking incident , her parents ' separation , and breaking up with her boyfriend . Consequently , Duff assumed an integral position in its production , co @-@ writing almost every track with longtime collaborator Kara DioGuardi instead of her previously @-@ limited involvement . Duff was musically inspired by indie rock band The Faint and pop singers Beyoncé and Gwen Stefani . In contrast to the pop rock themes of her prior releases , Dignity takes on more of a dance sound , which she said was not her intention while writing the album . The lyrics reference the events Duff experienced in the years leading to the album 's release , and the album 's songs contain influences of rock and roll and hip hop music . Critical response was mostly positive ; the album was praised for its songwriting and her new musical direction . Upon release , Dignity debuted at number three in the US , a lower peak than Duff 's previous albums and with lower sales , which Billboard attributed to the loss of fans during her musical evolution . Despite this , it produced Duff 's highest @-@ peaking US single to date , " With Love " ( number 24 ) , and two US number one club hits . The album has reached the top ten in several countries and was certified Gold in the US by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . = = Background = = Duff 's previous studio album , the self @-@ titled Hilary Duff ( 2004 ) , received generally negative reviews . Despite peaking at number two on the Billboard 200 , its commercial performance was modest : it exited the chart after 33 weeks and sold 1 @.@ 8 million copies in the United States . Between the releases of Hilary Duff and Dignity , Duff 's personal life was eventful . In October 2006 , she and her boyfriend at the time , Joel Madden of punk rock band Good Charlotte , claimed that they were being stalked by Russian emigre Maksim Miakovsky and his roommate , paparazzo David Joseph Klein . According to a restraining order filed by Duff , Miakovsky came to the United States solely to pursue a relationship with her . He was later arrested after threatening to kill her . In November , she ended her two @-@ year relationship with Madden . Around the same time , her parents Robert and Susan separated after 22 years of marriage following an affair between Robert and another woman . = = Writing and development = = Duff explained of the album 's title , " I 'm older and more mature now than I was when I made my last record , but I don 't think I know it all . Having dignity is something you work on your whole life , in how you treat people and how you treat yourself . I hope I always strive to have it . " She continued , " It 's not something that you can be given or that you can just get or that you 're born with . It 's something that you have to work on . " She stated that with Dignity , her increased songwriting output was a breakthrough for her . " That hadn 't really been part of my process on previous records , except here and there . It was important this time , " she said . She co @-@ wrote all of the album 's songs , with the exception of " Outside of You " , written by Pink , Chantal Kreviazuk and Raine Maida . In an interview , Maida stated that the song was written for a Pink album but did not make the final cut . When Duff expressed interest in the song , she recorded it . Duff explained of her writing process : [ The album ] has all of me in it . I never did my records like that before . I got to choose the music , but this time around it was , like , I 'd sit down and think : ' What happened to me yesterday ? What happened to me today ? ' and just write . It was very therapeutic , in a way . And easy – I was shocked at how easy it was to be honest about yourself and things that affect you . It is a dance record , but I wanted it to be serious . I wanted to talk about serious things , but do it in a not @-@ so @-@ serious way , with music that makes you want to get up and dance . Much of Dignity was written in Duff 's own home , as she felt " comfortable and free " there . She said that she knew from the beginning that she wanted to write the album with the assistance of songwriter and producer Kara DioGuardi , due to their previous work history on songs such as " Come Clean " and " Fly " . Another reason that Duff wished to work with her was that she found her lyrics were complemented by DioGuardi 's melodies . She added , " I helped with the melodies , but that 's not my strongest suit . Coming up with the lyrics was mainly [ what I did ] . I 'd tell her this is how I want it to go , and she would help with the lyrics , too , sometimes . She 'd say , ' This doesn 't really fit , ' and if I was adamant , we 'd make it work . " = = Composition = = As inspiration for the album , Duff cited indie rock band The Faint and pop singers such as Gwen Stefani and Beyoncé , while critics compared her musical style with Stefani , Janet Jackson , Depeche Mode , Madonna and Justin Timberlake . Duff felt that the album 's dance @-@ pop themes were a deviation from the pop rock of her previous albums . " I didn 't necessarily plan the album to sound like this , but it was so easy to write to , " she said . Critics have noted that Dignity 's musical style is dance @-@ pop and electropop , with influences of hip hop , rock and roll and Middle Eastern music . According to Duff , the album is a combination of dance , electro and rock music . The lyrics of several songs relate to Duff 's experiences between the releases of Hilary Duff and Dignity . The songs " Stranger " and " Gypsy Woman " , despite speculation that they were written about Madden 's then @-@ new girlfriend Nicole Richie , were actually written about Duff 's father 's affair . She said that " Stranger " was written from her mother 's perspective . " Stranger is a song I wrote about how my mom must feel around my dad , " she said . " I made it seem like it was about a relationship I was in , because I didn 't want people to know about my parents . But I 've realized that so many people can relate to what I 've gone through . " The album 's title track has also been reported to be about Richie , though Duff did not deny rumors that it was . " Dignity is a song that is definitely about people in Hollywood " , she said . " I wouldn 't say that it is about her specifically but it is about people that kind of do what she does and act the way she acts . " The song " Danger " was written about one of Duff 's friends ' relationships with an older man . " I understand that feeling of wanting to be dangerous , " she said . " You may know morally something 's not right , but you can 't help yourself . " She has stated that the song " Dreamer " was written about a stalker in a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek fashion , and it has been speculated that it was written specifically about Miakovsky . = = Singles = = Three singles were released from the album . The lead single , " With Love " became her highest @-@ peaking single on the Hot 100 when it reached number 24 . The single reached number one on the Hot Dance Club Play chart . " Play with Fire " was released as the first digital @-@ only single on May 15 , 2007 in a remixed form of the original version , with production by Richard Vission . It was previously released on August 21 , 2006 which Duff considered to be a " tease " of Dignity 's musical sound . Although she felt it was different from the album 's other songs , she saw it as embodying the dance / electro / rock combination of the album , which influenced her decision to release it . Duff opted to release the song well in advance of the album " to give listeners a chance to get into my new sound " . Though it failed to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 , it charted on the magazine 's Hot Dance Club Play chart , peaking at number 34 . The third and final single , " Stranger " , peaked at 97 on the Hot 100 and also reached the top of the dance charts . = = Promotion = = To promote the album 's release , Duff " worked tirelessly with the whole Hollywood Records staff to market [ the ] record . " On the day of the album 's release , April 3 , MTV began airing the two @-@ part documentary special , Hilary Duff : This Is Now . The documentary followed Duff as she prepared for the release of Dignity by attending photoshoots , interviews , wardrobe fittings , rehearsals and a trip to Europe . In addition , Duff hosted Total Request Live for the week of March 26 , made several appearances at retail outlets and on television , and was given massive online coverage on MySpace and Yahoo ! . Accompanying Duff 's new musical style , the record label began promoting her with a more mature image . Duff dyed her hair dark and " sexed @-@ up " her image . According to Duff , she wanted to " try new things " , but the image change " just happened . It is not like a conscious change . People think it is so different because they have watched me grow up but that is just what happens in life . " Entertainment Weekly described Duff 's new look as comprising " dark mane , dental veneers , luxe and vampy fashions " . In mid @-@ 2007 , concurrent to the preparation of the radio release of " Stranger " , Duff was featured on the July covers of the magazines Us Weekly and Shape in a bikini , and on the August cover of Maxim accompanied by the declaration that she had gone " from the queen of teen to breakout sex symbol " . The Associated Press wrote that Duff 's more provocative image would help her singles to garner mainstream radio play . Guy Zapoleon , a radio consultant and former programmer for Top 40 radio , explained that " radio has a stigma about playing [ Disney ] acts , considering them teen and preteen in their appeal " , and that Duff 's provocative image would " definitely have a positive effect on the attitude of programmers , who are mostly male , as Disney tries to mature her image " . A bonus EP containing five bonus remixes was released exclusively to US WalMart stores as a package with the album . = = Critical reception = = The critical response to Dignity was generally positive . Metacritic gave the album a Metascore — a weighted average based on the impressions of a select 13 critical reviews — of 61 , signifying generally favorable reviews . Rolling Stone gave a positive review of the album , feeling that Duff 's attempt to make an adult @-@ oriented dance @-@ pop album was successful . About.com gave the album four out of five stars , called Duff " as likeable as ever " and praised the songwriting and production contributions of Richard Vission and will.i.am. Allmusic noted that the album was firmly based on " sturdy , hooky , and memorable " songwriting . The review claimed similarities between Dignity and Justin Timberlake 's FutureSex / LoveSounds ( 2006 ) , noting that Duff was musically fashionable but not a trendsetter . At the same time , the review criticized Duff 's thin vocals , calling them " not at all like a woman " . Billboard called Duff 's decision to make a dance @-@ pop album daring , considering the unpopularity of the genre at the time . The review continued , " It 's practically something straight out of the United Kingdom for all of its poppy goodness . " Entertainment Weekly noted that Duff 's break @-@ up with Madden brought out her personality , which the magazine felt was lacking in her previous work . " She 's never sounded less eager to please or more messily human , " the review claimed . The Guardian praised Duff 's decision to opt for a more electronic dance sound as opposed to the teen pop of her previous work , despite the questionable marketability . They argued that some of the album 's strongest tracks rivaled some by Kylie Minogue . Sputnikmusic 's review noted various flaws of the album , such as what they felt were a lackluster guitar solo on the song " I Wish " and Duff 's childish , uncharacterized vocals throughout . However , they continued , " For all its inadequacies , Dignity is a solid , cleverly @-@ constructed pop album . Like all albums of the genre not written solely by the performer , it 's never quite clear which parts , if any , are Duff 's words and which represent the feelings of the under @-@ appreciated co @-@ writer , but in Dignity we at least have an album where it 's worthwhile listening to the lyrics . " They praised the songwriting of every track except " Play with Fire " , which they felt was a poor choice for a lead single . IGN gave a more mixed review of Dignity , giving it 6 @.@ 9 out of 10 . They praised what they felt was Duff 's more mature image , but ultimately claimed , " Duff is still Duff and her music is still running the standard pop line . " PopMatters noted that the synthesizers used on the album 's tracks failed to disguise Duff 's speak @-@ singing . The website believed her vocals were not on the level of her pop music peers such as Kelly Clarkson and Mandy Moore . " Nevertheless , " they added , " thanks to the miracle of processing , reverb effects , and multi @-@ tracking tricks to beef up her vocals , Duff 's voice is still sweetly candy @-@ coated enough to make the medicine go down . " Slant Magazine said , " Duff is mostly just an anonymous voice for an assemblage of producers and songwriters . Which is perfectly acceptable for a self @-@ proclaimed dance album , but Duff 's voice is nondescript and her delivery is blank ; the impish , quirky , or coolly disaffected vocal characteristics and sex appeal that make other dance @-@ pop divas viable performers is nonexistent . " The website 's review claimed that the album was not very adventurous , and noted that the pop rock " Outside of You " , which they felt was the catchiest song on Dignity , was not a dance song like the others . = = Commercial performance = = Dignity debuted at number three on the US Billboard 200 , selling 140 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The debut was lower than those of Duff 's previous albums , each of which entered at either number one or two with opening week sales of around 200 @,@ 000 copies . Billboard wrote that Duff 's " continued evolution in sound and image ... may have resulted in her losing some of her much younger fans . " The album has sold a total of 412 @,@ 000 copies in the US by June , 2015 . The album debuted at number twenty @-@ five in the UK with first @-@ week sales of over 8 @,@ 000 copies . The album spent three weeks in the top seventy @-@ five of the UK Albums Chart . Dignity broke Duff 's streak of consecutive number @-@ one debuts in Canada , entering the albums chart at number three with 20 @,@ 000 copies sold . In response , Duff said she " couldn 't be happier " and felt lucky that Dignity sold the amount it did , noting the state of the marketplace and the moderate sales figures for other albums that week . The album debuted at number seventeen on the ARIA Albums Chart in Australia , selling roughly 2 @,@ 300 copies in its first week . The Herald Sun referred to it as " dead in the water " in its second week on the chart . In Italy , Dignity received a Gold certification from the FIMI for shipments to stores of more than 40 @,@ 000 copies . The album has sold 1 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide . = = Track listing = = Notes ^ a signifies an additional producer ^ b signifies a co @-@ producer ^ c signifies a remixer " Dreamer " contains a sample of the song " Just Can 't Get Enough " By Depeche Mode = = Credits and personnel = = Credits for Dignity adapted from Allmusic . = = Charts = = = = Certifications = = = = Release history = =
= Raúl Alfonsín = Raúl Ricardo Alfonsín Foulkes ( 12 March 1927 – 31 March 2009 ) was an Argentine lawyer , politician and statesman who served as the President of Argentina from 10 December 1983 , to 8 July 1989 . Born in Chascomús , Buenos Aires Province , he began his studies of law at the National University of La Plata and was a graduate of the University of Buenos Aires . He was affiliated with the Radical Civic Union ( UCR ) , joining the faction of Ricardo Balbín after the party split . He was elected a deputy in the legislature of the Buenos Aires province in 1958 , during the presidency of Arturo Frondizi , and a national deputy during the presidency of Arturo Umberto Illia . He opposed both sides of the Dirty War , and several times filed a writ of Habeas corpus , requesting the freedom of victims of forced disappearances , during the National Reorganization Process . He denounced the crimes of the military dictatorship of other countries , and opposed the actions of both sides in the Falklands War as well . He became the leader of the UCR after Balbín 's death , and was the Radical candidate for the presidency in the 1983 elections , which he won . When he became president , he sent a bill to the Congress to revoke the self @-@ amnesty law established by the military . He established the National Commission on the Disappearance of Persons to investigate the crimes committed by the military , which led to the Trial of the Juntas and resulted in the sentencing of the heads of the former regime . Discontent within the military led to the mutinies of the Carapintadas , leading Alfonsín to appease them with the full stop law and the law of Due Obedience . He also had conflicts with the unions , which were controlled by the opposing Justicialist Party . He resolved the Beagle conflict , increased trade with Brazil , and proposed the creation of the Contadora support group to mediate between the United States and the Nicaraguan Contras . He passed the first divorce law of Argentina . He initiated the Austral plan to improve the national economy , but that plan , as well as the Spring plan , failed . The resulting hyperinflation and riots led to his party 's defeat in the 1989 presidential elections , which was won by Peronist Carlos Menem . He continued as the leader of the UCR , and opposed the presidency of Carlos Menem . He initiated the Pact of Olivos with Menem in order to negotiate the terms for the 1994 amendment of the Argentine Constitution . Fernando de la Rúa led a faction of the UCR that opposed the pact , and eventually became president in 1999 . De la Rúa resigned during the December 2001 riots , and Alfonsín 's faction provided the support needed for the Peronist Eduardo Duhalde to be appointed president by the Congress . Alfonsín died of lung cancer on 31 March 2009 , at the age of 82 , and was given a large state funeral . = = Early life and career = = Raúl Alfonsín was born on 12 March 1927 , in the city of Chascomús , 123 km ( 76 mi ) south of Buenos Aires . His parents were Serafín Raúl Alfonsín Ochoa and Ana María Foulkes . His father was of Galician and German descent , and his mother was the daughter of Welsh immigrant Ricardo Foulkes and Falkland Islander María Elena Ford . Following his elementary schooling , Raúl Alfonsín enrolled at the General San Martín Military Lyceum , graduating after five years as a second lieutenant . He did not pursue a military career , and began studying law instead . He began his studies at the National University of La Plata , and completed them at the University of Buenos Aires , graduating at the age of 23 . He married María Lorenza Barreneche , whom he met in the 1940s at a masquerade ball , in 1949 . They moved to Mendoza , La Plata , and returned to Chascomús . They had six sons , of whom only Ricardo Alfonsín would also follow a political career . Alfonsín bought a local newspaper ( El Imparcial ) . He joined the Radical Civic Union ( UCR ) in 1946 , as a member of the Intransigent Renewal Movement , a faction of the party that opposed the incorporation of the UCR into the Democratic Union coalition . He was appointed president of the party committee in Chascomús in 1951 , and was elected to the city council in 1954 . He was detained for a brief time , during the reaction of the government of Juan Perón to the bombing of Plaza de Mayo . The Revolución Libertadora ousted Perón from the national government ; Alfonsín was again briefly detained and forced to leave his office in the city council . The UCR broke up into two parties : the Intransigent Radical Civic Union ( UCRI ) , led by Arturo Frondizi , and the People 's Radical Civic Union ( UCRP ) , led by Ricardo Balbín and Crisólogo Larralde . Alfonsín did not like the split , but opted to follow the UCRP . Alfonsín was elected deputy for the legislature of the Buenos Aires province in 1958 , on the UCRP ticket , and was reelected in 1962 . He moved to La Plata , capital of the province , during his tenure . President Frondizi was ousted by a military coup on 29 March 1962 , which also closed the provincial legislature . Alfonsín returned to Chascomús . The UCRP prevailed over the UCRI the following year , leading to the presidency of Arturo Umberto Illia . Alfonsín was elected a national deputy , and then vice president of the UCRP bloc in the congress . In 1963 he was appointed president of the party committee for the province of Buenos Aires . Illia was deposed by a new military coup in June 1966 , the Argentine Revolution . Alfonsín was detained while trying to hold a political rally in La Plata , and a second time when he tried to re @-@ open the UCRP committee . He was forced to resign as deputy in November 1966 . He was detained a third time in 1968 after a political rally in La Plata . He also wrote opinion articles in newspapers , under the pseudonyms Alfonso Carrido Lura and Serafín Feijó . The Dirty War began during this time , as many guerrilla groups rejected both the right @-@ wing military dictatorship and the civil governments , preferring instead a left @-@ wing dictatorship aligned with the Soviet Union , as in the Cuban Revolution . Alfonsín clarified in his articles that he rejected both the military dictatorship and the guerrillas , asking instead for free elections . The UCRP became the UCR once more ; and the UCRI was turned into the Intransigent Party . Alfonsín created the Movement for Renewal and Change within the UCR , to challenge Balbín 's leadership of the party . The military dictatorship finally called for free elections , allowing Peronism ( which had been banned since 1955 ) to take part in them . Balbín defeated Alfonsín in the primary elections , but lost in the main ones . Alfonsín was elected deputy once more . Illia was invited in 1975 to a diplomatic mission to the Soviet Union ; he declined and proposed instead . Upon his return , Alfonsín became one of the founding members of the Permanent Assembly for Human Rights . He served as the defense lawyer for Mario Roberto Santucho , leader of the ERP guerrillas , but only to carry out due process of law , and not because of a genuine desire to support him . The 1976 Argentine coup d 'état against President Isabel Martínez de Perón started the National Reorganization Process . Alfonsín filed several Habeas corpus motions , requesting the freedom of victims of forced disappearances . He also visited other countries , denouncing those disappearances and violations of human rights . He established the magazine Propuesta y control in 1976 , one of the few magazines that criticized the military dictatorship during its early stages . The magazine was published up to 1978 . His editorials were collected in 1980 in the book La cuestión argentina . He did not support the 1982 Falklands War , and criticized both the Argentine attack and the British counterattack . The Argentine defeat in the war marked the decline of the military dictatorship . The main political parties united in the Multipartidaria , issuing a joint request to the dictatorship to call for elections . Alfonsín proposed the appointment of Arturo Illia as the head of state of a transition government , similar to the Metapolitefsi in Greece . The Movement for Renewal and Change took control of the UCR ; Balbín had died the previous year . = = Presidential campaign = = Alfonsìn was appointed candidate of the UCR for the 1983 general elections , with Víctor Martínez as candidate for the vice @-@ presidency . Fernando de la Rúa , who would have run in the primary elections against him , declined his candidacy because of Alfonsín 's huge popularity . The publicity was managed by David Ratto , who created the slogan " Ahora Alfonsín " ( Spanish : " Now Alfonsín " ) , and the gesture of the shaking hands . His campaign used a non @-@ confrontational approach , in stark contrast with the Peronist candidate for the governorship of the Buenos Aires province , Herminio Iglesias . Iglesias burned a coffin with the seals of the UCR on live television , which generated a political scandal . Both Iglesias and Ítalo Luder , the Peronist candidate to the presidency , saw a decrease in their public image as a result . During the campaign , both parties made similar proposals to reduce authoritarianism and the political influence of the military , and to maintain the Argentine claim in the Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute . Alfonsìn denounced a pact between the military and the Peronist unions that sought an amnesty for the military . He maintained that the armed forced should be subject to the civilian government , and that unions should be regulated . He also proposed an investigation into the actions of the military during the Dirty War . He closed his campaign by reading the preamble of the constitution of Argentina . The last rally was at the Plaza de la República , and was attended by 400 @,@ 000 people . The elections were held on 30 October . The Alfonsín – Martínez ticket won with 51 @.@ 7 % of the vote , followed by Luder – Bittel with 40 @.@ 1 % . It was the first time since the rise of Perón that the Peronist party was defeated in elections without electoral fraud or proscription . The UCR won 128 seats in the Assembly , forming a majority ; and 18 seats in the Senate , constituting a minority . 18 provinces elected radical governors , and 17 elected governors from either the Justicialist or local parties . Alfonsín took office on 10 December , and gave a speech from the Buenos Aires Cabildo . = = Presidency = = = = = First days = = = The presidential inauguration of Alfonsín was attended by Isabel Perón . Despite internal recriminations for the defeat , the Peronist party agreed to support Alfonsín as president , to prevent a return of the military . By this time , the left @-@ wing terrorism had been neutralized and was no longer a menace . There were still factions in the military ambitious to keep an authoritarian government , and groups such as the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo seeking reparations for the actions of the military during the Dirty War . Three days after taking office , Alfonsín sent a bill to the Congress to revoke the self @-@ amnesty law established by the military . This made it possible for the judiciary to investigate the crimes committed during the Dirty War . During the campaign , Alfonsín had promised that he would do this while Luder had been non @-@ committal . Alfonsín also ordered the initiation of judicial cases against guerrilla leaders Mario Firmenich , Fernando Vaca Narvaja , Ricardo Obregón Cano , Rodolfo Galimberti , Roberto Perdía , Héctor Pardo and Enrique Gorriarán Merlo ; and military leaders Jorge Videla , Emilio Massera , Orlando Agosti , Roberto Viola , Armando Lambruschini , Omar Graffigna , Leopoldo Galtieri , Jorge Anaya and Basilio Dami Dozo . He also requested the extradition of guerrilla leaders who were living abroad . Most of the first cabinet , organised in Chascomús , was composed of trusted colleagues of Alfonsín . Alfonsín appointed as minister of labour Antonio Mucci , who belonged to a faction of the UCR that sought to reduce the influence of Peronism among labour unions , and promptly sent a bill to Congress designed to promote independent unions . Facing an economic crisis , he appointed Bernardo Grinspun as minister of the economy . He appointed Aldo Neri minister of health , Dante Caputo minister of foreign relations , Antonio Tróccoli minister of interior affairs , Roque Carranza minister of public works , Carlos Alconada Aramburu minister of education , and Raúl Borrás minister of defense . Juan Carlos Pugliese led the chamber of deputies , and Edison Otero was the provisional president of the senate . Many presidential negotiations took place at the Quinta de Olivos , the official residence of the president , rather than at the Casa Rosada . = = = Aftermath of the Dirty War = = = The first priority of Raúl Alfonsín was to consolidate democracy , incorporate the armed forces into their standard role in a civilian government , and prevent further military coups . Alfonsín first tried to reduce the political power of the military with budget cuts , reductions of military personnel and changing their political tasks . As for the crimes committed during the Dirty War , Alfonsín was willing to respect the command responsibility and accept the " superior orders " defense for the military of lower ranks , as long as the Junta leaders were sentenced under military justice . This project was resisted by human rights organisations such as Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo and public opinion , as it was expected that the defendants would be acquitted or receive low sentences . The military considered that the Dirty War was a legally sanctioned war , and considered the prosecutions to be unjustified . Alfonsín also established the National Commission on the Disappearance of Persons ( CONADEP ) , composed of several well @-@ known personalities , to document cases of forced disappearances , human rights violations and abduction of children . Alfonsín sent a military code bill to the Congress , so that the military would use it . In its " Nunca más " report ( Spanish : Never again ) , the CONADEP revealed the wide scope of the crimes committed during the Dirty War , and how the Supreme Council of the military had supported the military 's actions against the guerrillas . As a result , Alfonsín sponsored the Trial of the Juntas , in which , for the first time , the leaders of a military coup in Argentina were on trial . The first hearings began at the Supreme Court in April 1985 and lasted for the remainder of the year . In December , the tribunal handed down life sentences for Jorge Videla and former Navy Chief Emilio Massera , as well as 17 @-@ year sentences for Roberto Eduardo Viola . President Leopoldo Galtieri was acquitted of charges related to the repression , but he was court @-@ martialed in May 1986 for malfeasance during the Falklands War . Ramón Camps received a 25 @-@ year sentence . The trials did not focus only on the military : Mario Firmenich was captured in Brazil in 1984 and extradited to Argentina . José López Rega was extradited from Miami in 1986 , because of his links with the Argentine Anticommunist Alliance . The military were supported by the families of the victims of subversion , a group created to counter the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo . This group placed the blame of the Dirty War on the guerrillas , but had few followers . The trials were followed by bomb attacks and rumors of military protests and even a possible coup . Alfonsín sought to appease the military by raising their budget . As that was not enough , he proposed the full stop law , to set a deadline for Dirty War @-@ related prosecutions . The Congress approved the law , despite strong opposition from the public . Prosecutors rushed to start cases before the deadline , filing 487 charges against 300 officers , with 100 of them still in active service . Major Ernesto Barreiro refused to appear in court , and started a mutiny in Córdoba . Lieutenant Colonel Aldo Rico started another mutiny at Campo de Mayo , supporting Barreiro . The rebels were called " Carapintadas " ( Spanish : " Painted faces " ) because of their use of military camouflage . The CGT called a general strike in support of Alfonsín , and large masses rallied in the Plaza de Mayo to support the government . Alfonsín negotiated directly with the rebels and secured their surrender . He announced the end of the crisis from the balcony of the Casa Rosada . The mutineers eventually surrendered , but the government proceeded with the Law of Due Obedience to regulate the trials . However , the timing of both events was exploited by the military , and the opposition parties described the outcome as a surrender by Alfonsín . Aldo Rico escaped from prison in January 1988 and started a new mutiny in a distant regiment in the northeast . This time , both the military support for the mutiny and the public outcry against it were minimal . The army attacked him , and Rico surrendered after a brief combat . Colonel Mohamed Alí Seineldín launched a new mutiny in late 1988 . As in 1987 , the mutineers were defeated and jailed , but the military was reluctant to open fire against them . Alfonsín 's goal of reconciling the military with the civil population failed , as the latter rejected the military 's complaints , and the military was focused on internal issues . The Movimiento Todos por la Patria , a small guerrilla army led by Enrique Gorriarán Merlo , staged the attack on the Regiment of La Tablada in 1989 . The army killed many of their members , and quickly defeated the uprising . = = = Relation with unions = = = Peronism still controlled the labor unions , the most powerful ones in all of Latin America . The biggest one was the General Confederation of Labour ( CGT ) . Alfonsín sought to reduce the Peronist influence over the unions , fearing that they may become a destabilizing force for the fledgling democracy . He rejected their custom of holding single @-@ candidate internal elections , and deemed them totalitarian and not genuine representatives of the workforce . His proposal was to change the laws for those internal elections , remove the union leaders appointed during the dictatorship , and elect new ones under the new laws . The CGT rejected the proposal as interventionist , and prompted Peronist politicians to vote against it . The law was approved by the Chamber of Deputies but failed to pass in the Senate by one vote . A second bill proposed simply a call to elections , without supervision from the government , which was approved . As a result , the unions remained Peronist . The CGT was splintered in internal factions at the time . Lorenzo Miguel had close ties to the Justicialist party , and led " the 62 organisations " faction . Saúl Ubaldini was more confrontational , distrusted the politicians of the PJ , and was eventually appointed secretary general of the CGT . His lack of political ties allowed him to work as a mediator between the union factions . Carlos Alderete led a faction closer to Alfonsín , named " the 15 " unions . The government sought to deepen the internal divisions between the unions by appointing Alderete as minister of labour and promoting legislation to benefit his faction . He was removed after the defeat in the 1987 midterm elections , but the government stayed on good terms with his faction . Alfonsín kept a regulation from the dictatorship that allowed him to regulate the level of wages . He authorized wage increases every three months , to keep them up to the inflation rate . The CGT rejected this , and proposed instead that wages be determined by free negotiations . Alfonsín allowed strike actions , which were forbidden during the dictatorship , which gave the unions another way to expand their influence . There were thirteen general strikes and thousands of minor labor conflicts . However , unlike similar situations in the past , the CGT sided with Alfonsín during the military rebellions , and did not support the removal of a non @-@ Peronist president . The conflicts were caused by high inflation , and the unions requested higher wages in response to it . The unions got the support of the non @-@ unionized retirees , the church and left @-@ wing factions . Popular support for the government allowed it to endure in spite of opposition from the unions . = = = Social policies = = = With the end of the military dictatorship , Alfonsín pursued cultural and educational policies aimed at reducing the authoritarian customs of several institutions and groups . He also promoted freedom of the press . Several intellectuals and scientists who had left the country in the previous decade returned , which benefited the universities . The University of Buenos Aires returned to the quality levels that it had in the 1960s . Many intellectuals became involved in politics as well , providing a cultural perspective to the political discourse . Both Alfonsín and the Peronist Antonio Cafiero benefited . Divorce was legalized by a law passed in 1987 . The church opposed it , but it had huge popular support that included even Catholic factions , who reasoned that marital separation already existed , and divorce simply made it explicit . The church opposed Alfonsín after that point . The church successfully exerted pressure to prevent the abolition of religious education . In line with the teachings of Pope John Paul II , the Church criticized what it perceived as an increase in drugs , terrorism , abortion and pornography . = = = Foreign policy = = = Argentina had a tense relationship with the United Kingdom because of the recently ended Falklands War . The British government banned all foreign ships from the exclusion zone of the islands in 1986 . Argentina organised air and marine patrols , as well as military maneuvers in the Patagonia . However , this was not enough to placate the military hard @-@ liners in Argentina . Alfonsín proposed the postponement the sovereignty discussions , instead negotiating for a de jure cease of hostilities , with a reduction in the number of military forces and a normalization of Argentina – United Kingdom relations . The United Kingdom did not trust the proposal , suspecting that it was a cover @-@ up for sovereignty discussions . The Beagle conflict was still an unresolved problem with Chile , despite the 1978 Papal mediation . The military , troubled by the trial of the juntas , called for rejection of the proposed agreement and a continuation of the country 's claim over the islands . Alfonsín called for a referendum to settle the dispute . Despite opposition from the military and the Justicialist party , who called for abstention , support for the resolution referendum reached 82 % . The bill passed in the Senate by a single vote majority , as the PJ maintained its resistance . The Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1984 between Chile and Argentina was signed the following year , ending the conflict . The human rights violations committed by the Chilean president Augusto Pinochet remained a contentious issue , as well as the revelation of Chilean help to British forces during the Falklands War . The Argentine church invited Pope John Paul II for a second visit to Argentina in 1987 , to celebrate his successful mediation . He celebrated World Youth Day next to the Obelisk of Buenos Aires , and gave a mass at the Basilica of Our Lady of Luján . Argentina allied with Brazil , Uruguay and Peru , three countries that had also recently ended their local military dictatorships , to mediate in the conflict between the United States and the Nicaraguan Contras . They created the Contadora support group , to support the Contadora group from South America . Both groups negotiated together , but ultimately failed because of the reluctance of both Nicaragua and the United States to change their positions . The group changed its scope later to discuss foreign debt and diplomacy with the United Kingdom in relation to the Falklands conflict . Initially , Alfonsín refused to foster diplomatic relations with the Brazilian military government , and only did so when the dictatorship ended and José Sarney became president . One of their initial concerns was to increase Argentine – Brazilian trade . Both presidents met in Foz do Iguaçu and issued a joint declaration about the peaceful use of nuclear power . A second meeting in Buenos Aires strengthened the trade agreements . Argentina and Brazil signed the Program of Integration and Economic Cooperation ( PICE ) , and in 1988 both countries and Uruguay agreed to create a common market . This led to the 1991 Treaty of Asunción , that created the Mercosur . = = = Economic policy = = = Alfonsín began his term with many economic problems . The foreign debt was nearly 43 billion dollars by the end of the year , and the country had narrowly prevented a sovereign default in 1982 . During that year , the gross domestic product fell by 5 @.@ 6 % , and the manufacturing profits by 55 % . Unemployment was at nearly 10 % , and inflation was nearly 209 % . It also appeared unlikely that the country would receive the needed foreign investment . The country had a deficit of $ 6 @.@ 7 billion . Possible solutions such as a devaluation of the currency , privatization of industry , or restrictions on imports , would probably have proven to be unpopular . Bernardo Grinspun , the first minister of the economy , arranged an increase in wages , reaching the levels of 1975 . This caused inflation to reach 32 % . He also tried to negotiate more favourable terms on the country 's foreign debt , but the negotiations failed . Risking a default , he negotiated with the IMF , which requested spending cuts . International credits prevented default at the end of 1984 , but he resigned in March 1985 when the debt reached $ 1 billion and the IMF denied further credits . Grinspun was succeeded by Juan Vital Sourrouille , who designed the Austral plan . This plan froze prices and wages , stopped the printing of money , arranged spending cuts , and established a new currency , the Austral . The plan was a success in the short term , and choked inflation . Inflation rose again by the end of the year , the CGT opposed the wage freeze , and business community opposed the price freeze . Alfonsín thought that the privatization of some state assets and a deregulation of the economy might work , but those proposals were opposed by both the PJ and his own party . With the support of the World Bank , the government tried new measures in 1987 , including an increase in taxes , privatizations , and a decrease in government spending . Those measures could not be enforced ; the government had lost the 1987 midterm elections , " the 15 " unions that had earlier supported the government distanced themselves from it , and the business community was unable to suggest a clear course of action . The PJ , aiming for a victory in the 1989 presidential elections , opposed the measures that it believed would have a negative social impact . The " Spring plan " sought to keep the economy stable until the elections by freezing prices and wages and reducing the federal deficit . This plan had an even worse reception than the Austral plan , and none of the parties supported it . The World Bank and the IMF refused to extend credits to Argentina . Big exporters refused to sell dollars to the Central Bank , which depleted its reserves . The austral was devaluated in February 1989 , and the high inflation turned into hyperinflation . The 1989 presidential elections took place during this crisis , and the Justicialist Carlos Menem became the new president . = = = Midterm elections = = = The actions taken against the military contributed to a strong showing by the UCR in the November 1985 legislative elections . They gained one seat in the Lower House of Congress , which meant control of 130 of the 254 seats . The Justicialists lost eight seats ( leaving 103 ) and smaller , provincial parties made up the difference . Alfonsín surprised observers in April 1986 by announcing the creation of a panel entrusted to plan a transfer of the nation 's capital to Viedma , a small coastal city 800 km ( 500 mi ) south of Buenos Aires . His proposals boldly called for constitutional amendments creating a Parliamentary system , including a Prime Minister , and were well received by the Lower House , though they encountered strong opposition in the Senate . The government suffered a big setback in the 1987 legislative election . The UCR lost the majority in the chamber of deputies . All provinces elected Peronist governors , with the exception of Córdoba and Río Negro . Along with the city of Buenos Aires ( a federal district at the time ) , they were the only districts where the UCR prevailed . As a result , the government could not move forward with its legislative agenda , and the PJ only supported minor projects . The PJ was strengthened for the 1989 presidential elections , and the UCR sought to propose governor Eduardo Angeloz as candidate . Angeloz was a rival of Alfonsín within the party . = = Later years = = Amid rampant inflation , Angeloz was heavily defeated by PJ candidate Carlos Menem in the 1989 election . By the winter of 1989 , the inflation had grown so severe that Alfonsín transferred power to Menem on July 8 , five months earlier than scheduled . Alfonsín stayed on as president of the UCR , leaving after the party 's defeat in the 1991 legislative elections . Suffering damage to its image because of the hyperinflation of 1989 , the UCR lost in several districts . Alfonsín became president of the party again in 1993 . He supported the creation of a special budget for the province of Buenos Aires , led by governor Eduardo Duhalde . The radical legislator Leopoldo Moreau supported the new budget even more vehemently than the Peronists . Both parties had an informal alliance in the province . Alfonsín also supported the amendment to the constitution of Buenos Aires that allowed Duhalde to run for re @-@ election . President Carlos Menem sought a constitutional amendment to allow his re @-@ election , and Alfonsín opposed it . The victory in the 1993 midterm elections strengthened the PJ , which approved the bill in the Senate . Menem proposed a referendum on the amendment , to force the radical deputies to support it . He also proposed a bill for a law that would allow a constitutional amendment with a simple majority of the Congress . As a result , Alfonsín made the Pact of Olivos with him . With this agreement , the UCR would support Menem 's proposal , but with further amendments that would reduce presidential power . The Council of Magistrates of the Nation reduced the influence of the executive power over the judiciary , the city of Buenos Aires would become an autonomous territory allowed to elect its own mayor , and the presidential term of office would be reduced to four years . The presidential elections would include the two @-@ round system , and the electoral college would be abolished . Alfonsín was elected to the constituent assembly that worked for the 1994 amendment of the Argentine Constitution . A faction of the UCR , led by Fernando de la Rúa , opposed the pact , but the party as a whole supported Alfonsín . The UCR got only 19 % of the vote in the elections , attaining third position in the 1995 presidential elections behind the Frepaso , when Menem was re @-@ elected . Alfonsín resigned the presidency of the party in that year . The UCR and the Frepaso united as a political coalition , the Alliance for Work , Justice and Education , led by Alfonsín , Fernando de la Rúa and Rodolfo Terragno from the UCR , and Carlos Álvarez and Graciela Fernández Meijide from the Frepaso . The coalition won the 1997 legislative elections . Alfonsín did not agree with de la Rúa about the fixed exchange rate used by then . He thought that it had been a good measure in the past but had become detrimental to the Argentine economy , while de la Rúa supported it . Alfonsín suffered a car crash in the Río Negro province in 1999 , during the campaign of governor Pablo Verani . They were on Route 6 , and he was ejected from the car because he was not wearing a seat belt . He was hospitalized for 39 days . De la Rúa became president in the 1999 elections , defeating the governor of Buenos Aires , Eduardo Duhalde . Alfonsín was elected Senator for Buenos Aires Province in October 2001 . De la Rúa resigned during the December 2001 riots , and the Congress appointed Adolfo Rodríguez Saá , who resigned as well . Alfonsín instructed the radical legislators to support Duhalde as the new president . He also gave him two ministers , Horacio Jaunarena for Defense and Jorge Vanossi for Justice . The radical support helped Duhalde overcome the ambitions of Carlos Ruckauf and José Manuel de la Sota , who also had ambitions to be appointed president . Alfonsín 's health problems later in the year led him to step down , to be replaced by Diana Conti . In 2006 , Alfonsín supported a faction of the UCR that favoured the idea of carrying an independent candidate for the 2007 presidential elections . The UCR , instead of fielding its own candidate , endorsed Roberto Lavagna , a center @-@ left economist who presided over the dramatic recovery in the Argentine economy from 2002 until he parted ways with President Néstor Kirchner in December 2005 . Unable to sway enough disaffected Kirchner supporters , Lavagna garnered third place . Alfonsín was honoured by President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner with a bust of his likeness at the Casa Rosada on October 1 , 2008 . This was his last public appearance . = = Death = = Alfonsín died at home on 31 March 2009 , at the age of 82 , after being diagnosed a year before with lung cancer . The streets around his house at the Santa Fe avenue were filled with hundreds of people , who started a candlelight vigil . The radical Julio Cobos , Fernández de Kirchner 's vice president , was the acting president at the moment and ordered three days of national mourning . There was a ceremony in the Congress , where his body was displayed in the Blue Hall , that was attended by almost a thousand people . His widow María Lorenza Barreneche could not attend the funeral , because of her own poor health . It was attended by former presidents Carlos Menem , Fernando de la Rúa , Eduardo Duhalde and Néstor Kirchner , all the members of the Supreme Court of Argentina , mayor Mauricio Macri , governor Daniel Scioli , the president of Uruguay Tabaré Vázquez and several other politicians . The coffin was moved to La Recoleta Cemetery . He was placed next to the graves of other important historical figures of the UCR , such as Leandro N. Alem , Hipólito Yrigoyen and Arturo Illia . At the international level , Perú set a day of national mourning , and Paraguay set three days . The governments of Brazil , Chile , Colombia , France , Mexico , Paraguay , Peru , Spain , Uruguay and the United States sent messages of condolence . In addition to Tabaré Vázquez , Julio María Sanguinetti of Uruguay , and Fernando Henrique Cardoso of Brazil attended the ceremony . = = Legacy = = Historians Félix Luna , Miguel Angel de Marco and Fernando Rocchi all praise the role of Raúl Alfonsín in the aftermath of the Dirty War and the restoration of democracy . Luna also considers that Alfonsín was an effective president , and that he set an example of not using the state for personal gain . De Marco points out that it was a delicate time period , and any mistake could have endangered the newly founded democracy and led to another coup . The aforementioned historians do not agree , though , on their view of the Pact of Olivos . Luna considers that it was a necessary evil to prevent the chaos that would have been generated if Menem managed to proceed with the constitutional amendment without negotiating with the UCR . De Marco and Rocchi instead believe that it was the biggest mistake of Alfonsín 's political career . Alfonsín received the 1985 Princess of Asturias Award for international cooperation because of both his role in ending the Beagle dispute and his work to reestablish democracy in Argentina . Several months after his death , he was named " Illustrious Citizen of Buenos Aires Province " in 2008 , and " Illustrious Citizen of Buenos Aires " in 2009 . The latter award was granted posthumously and received by his son Ricardo Alfonsín .
= Live ! at the Star @-@ Club in Hamburg , Germany ; 1962 = Live ! at the Star @-@ Club in Hamburg , Germany ; 1962 is a double album featuring live performances by the English rock group The Beatles , recorded in late December 1962 at the Star @-@ Club during their final Hamburg residency . The album was released in 1977 in two different versions , comprising a total of 30 songs by The Beatles . The performances were recorded on a home tape machine using a single microphone , resulting in a low fidelity recording . Ted " Kingsize " Taylor began to investigate possible marketing of the tapes in 1973 . The tapes were eventually bought by Paul Murphy and subjected to extensive audio processing to improve the sound , leading to the 1977 album . Although the poor sound quality limits its commercial appeal , the album provides historic insight into the group 's club act in the period after Ringo Starr joined but before the emergence of Beatlemania . The Beatles were unsuccessful in legally blocking the initial release of the album ; the recordings were reissued in many forms until 1998 , when The Beatles were awarded full rights to the performances . = = History = = = = = Background = = = The Beatles ' five residencies in Hamburg during 1960 to 1962 allowed the Liverpool band to develop their performance skills and widen their reputation . Drummer Pete Best was added to the band in August 1960 to secure their first Hamburg booking , where they played for 48 nights at the Indra Club and then 58 nights at the Kaiserkeller . The Beatles returned to Hamburg in April 1961 to play at the Top Ten Club for three months . A new Hamburg music venue , the Star @-@ Club , opened on 13 April 1962 , with The Beatles booked for the first seven weeks . The Beatles returned to Hamburg in November and December 1962 for their fourth and fifth engagements there , which had been booked for the Star @-@ Club many months in advance . Unlike their previous three trips to Hamburg , their drummer was Starr , having replaced Best in August . The Beatles were reluctant to return for their final two @-@ week booking , which started 18 December , as they were gaining popularity in Britain and had just achieved their first charted single with " Love Me Do " . = = = Recording = = = Portions of The Beatles ' final Star @-@ Club performances ( along with other acts ) were recorded by the club 's stage manager , Adrian Barber , for Ted " Kingsize " Taylor . Barber used a Grundig home reel @-@ to @-@ reel recorder at a tape speed of 3 ¾ inches per second , with a single microphone placed in front of the stage . Taylor , leader of The Dominoes ( who were also playing at the club ) , said that John Lennon verbally agreed to the group being recorded in exchange for Taylor providing the beer during their performances . The tapes were originally described as having been recorded in the spring of 1962 , an attempt to pre @-@ date The Beatles ' June 1962 contract signing with Parlophone . However , song arrangements and dialogue from the tapes pointed to late December 1962 , and a recording date of 31 December 1962 ( the group 's last day in Hamburg ) was commonly cited . Later researchers have proposed that the tapes are from multiple days during the last week of December ; Allan Williams ( The Beatles ' booking agent at the time ) recalled that a total of about three hours was recorded over three or four sessions between Christmas and New Year 's Day . The tapes captured The Beatles performing at least 33 different titles , plus some repeated songs . Of the 30 songs that were commercially released from the tapes , only two were Lennon – McCartney compositions . The others were an assortment of cover versions , seventeen of which would be re @-@ made by The Beatles and appear on their various studio albums or Live at the BBC . The arrangements played at the Star @-@ Club are similar to the versions recorded later , albeit less refined , although there are a few cases with distinct differences . For example , " Mr. Moonlight " has a much quicker tempo , a guitar @-@ based instrumental break , and an intentionally altered lyric with Lennon proclaiming he is on his " nose " instead of his " knees " ; " Roll Over Beethoven " was described as " never taken at a more breakneck pace " . The recording equipment and method resulted in the tapes being unmistakably low fidelity . The vocals , even in the best cases , sound " somewhat muffled and distant " . The vocals on a few songs are so indistinct that labelling and liner notes on early releases gave incorrect information about who was singing and the exact song being performed . Much of The Beatles ' dialogue between songs is audible , which includes addressing the audience in both English and German , as well as repartee among themselves . The banter is irreverent and coarse at times , an aspect of their stage act that would soon cease under the influence of manager Brian Epstein . = = = Marketing attempts = = = Taylor said he had offered to sell the tapes to Epstein in the mid @-@ 1960s , but that Epstein did not consider them to be of commercial value and offered only £ 20 . Taylor said he kept the tapes at home , largely forgotten until 1973 when he decided to look into their marketability . Williams relates a different history than Taylor , stating that after Taylor returned to Liverpool , he left the tapes with a recording engineer for editing into a potential album . The project was never finished and the engineer later relocated , with the tapes being among many items left behind . In 1972 , Williams , Taylor , and the engineer gained access to the abandoned office and recovered the tapes " from beneath a pile of rubble on the floor . " When the existence of the tapes was first publicly reported in July 1973 , Williams was planning to ask Apple for at least £ 100 @,@ 000 . Williams said he later met with George Harrison and Starr to offer the tapes for £ 5000 , but they declined , citing financial difficulties at the time . Williams and Taylor teamed up with Paul Murphy , head of Buk Records , to find an outlet for the tapes . = = = Release = = = Murphy eventually bought the tapes himself and formed a new company , Lingasong , specifically for the project . He sold the worldwide distribution rights to Double H Licensing , which spent more than $ 100 @,@ 000 on elaborate audio processing and mixing of the songs under the direction of Larry Grossberg . The sequence of songs was rearranged , and some of the individual songs were edited to bypass flawed tape sections or make up for an incomplete recording . After an unsuccessful attempt by The Beatles to block it , the 26 @-@ song Live ! at the Star @-@ Club in Hamburg , Germany ; 1962 was released by Lingasong . The album first appeared in Germany in April 1977 in association with Bellaphon Records , and was released in the UK the following month . For the album 's June 1977 US release ( in association with Atlantic Records ) , four songs were removed and replaced with four different songs from the tapes . = = = Reissues = = = Over the next two decades , the recordings were licensed to several record companies , resulting in numerous releases with varying track selections . In 1979 , Pickwick Records performed some additional audio filtering and equalisation of the songs on the Lingasong US version , and released it over two volumes as First Live Recordings ; the set included the song " Hully Gully " that was mistakenly credited to The Beatles , but was actually performed by Cliff Bennett and the Rebel Rousers , another act on the Star @-@ Club bill . In 1981 , Audio Fidelity Enterprises released Historic Sessions in the UK , the first single package with all 30 Beatles tracks from the original Star @-@ Club releases . Several additional songs from the Star @-@ Club tapes have appeared on Beatles bootleg records over the years . In 1985 , a bootlegger known as " Richard " , who had already found infamy by issuing several titles with controversial covers and content , issued his own , bootleg , version of the Star Club tapes without any of the editing found on the official releases , entitled The Beatles vs. the Third Reich — directly parodying The Beatles vs. the Four Seasons in both name and cover . The release of the recordings on two CDs by industry giant Sony Music in 1991 sparked renewed legal attention by The Beatles ( as represented by Paul McCartney , Harrison , Starr , and Yoko Ono ) . Sony also produced a version specifically for their Columbia House music club , but Sony withdrew the titles in 1992 as a lawsuit was progressing . Lingasong 's CD release of the original set prompted another lawsuit from The Beatles in 1996 ; the case was decided in 1998 in favour of The Beatles , who were granted ownership of the tapes and exclusive rights to their use . Harrison appeared in person to provide evidence in the case , and his testimony was cited as an important factor in the judge 's decision . Harrison characterised the claim that Lennon gave Taylor permission for the recording as " a load of rubbish " , and added : " One drunken person recording another bunch of drunks does not constitute business deals . " = = Reception = = The album had limited commercial success , reaching a peak position of No. 111 during a seven @-@ week run on the US Billboard 200 album chart . Assessments of the album often weigh the poor sound quality against the historic importance and insight provided into The Beatles ' early stage act . Rolling Stone reviewer John Swenson called the album " poorly recorded but fascinating " and commented that it showed The Beatles as " raw but extremely powerful . " Allmusic , commenting on a reissue , wrote : " The results were very low @-@ fidelity , and despite The Beatles ' enormous success , it took Taylor fifteen years to find someone greedy and shameless enough to release them as a record " . Q Magazine described the recordings as having " certain historical interest " and remarked : " The show seems like a riot but the sound itself is terrible – like one hell of a great party going on next door . " George Harrison gave the assessment : " The Star @-@ Club recording was the crummiest recording ever made in our name ! " = = Track listing = = = = = Germany / UK version = = = ( Bellaphon BLS5560 / Lingasong LNL1 ) Side one Introduction / " I Saw Her Standing There " ( John Lennon , Paul McCartney ) – 0 : 34 / 2 : 22 " Roll Over Beethoven " ( Chuck Berry ) – 2 : 15 " Hippy Hippy Shake " ( Chan Romero ) – 1 : 42 " Sweet Little Sixteen " ( Berry ) – 2 : 45 " Lend Me Your Comb " ( Kay Twomey , Fred Wise , Ben Weisman ) – 1 : 44 " Your Feet 's Too Big " ( Ada Benson , Fred Fisher ) – 2 : 18 Side two " Twist and Shout " ( Phil Medley , Bert Russell ) – 2 : 03 " Mr. Moonlight " ( Roy Lee Johnson ) – 2 : 06 " A Taste of Honey " ( Bobby Scott , Ric Marlow ) – 1 : 45 " Bésame Mucho " ( Consuelo Velázquez , Sunny Skylar ) – 2 : 36 " Reminiscing " ( King Curtis ) – 1 : 41 " Kansas City / Hey , Hey , Hey , Hey " ( Jerry Leiber , Mike Stoller , Richard Penniman ) – 2 : 09 Side three " Nothin ' Shakin ' ( But the Leaves on the Trees ) " ( Eddie Fontaine , Cirino Colacrai , Diane Lampert , John Gluck ) – 1 : 15 " To Know Her Is to Love Her " ( Phil Spector ) – 3 : 02 " Little Queenie " ( Berry ) – 3 : 51 " Falling in Love Again ( Can 't Help It ) " ( Frederick Hollander , Sammy Lerner ) – 1 : 57 " Ask Me Why " ( Lennon , McCartney ) – 2 : 26 " Be @-@ Bop @-@ A @-@ Lula " ( Gene Vincent , Bill Davis ) – 2 : 29 Guest lead vocal by Fred Fascher , Star @-@ Club waiter " Hallelujah I Love Her So " ( Ray Charles ) – 2 : 10 Guest lead vocal by Horst Fascher , Star @-@ Club manager Side four " Red Sails in the Sunset " ( Jimmy Kennedy , Hugh Williams ) – 2 : 00 " Everybody 's Trying to Be My Baby " ( Carl Perkins ) – 2 : 25 " Matchbox " ( Carl Perkins ) – 2 : 35 " I 'm Talking About You " ( Berry ) – 1 : 48 " Shimmy Like Kate " ( Armand Piron , Fred Smith , Cliff Goldsmith ) – 2 : 17 Based on The Olympics ' arrangement of " I Wish I Could Shimmy Like My Sister Kate " ; sometimes misidentified as " Shimmy Shimmy " or " Shimmy Shake " " Long Tall Sally " ( Enotris Johnson , Robert Blackwell , Penniman ) – 1 : 45 " I Remember You " ( Johnny Mercer , Victor Schertzinger ) – 1 : 54 = = = US version = = = ( Lingasong / Atlantic LS @-@ 2 @-@ 7001 ) The US version includes the above except " I Saw Her Standing There " , " Twist and Shout " , " Reminiscing " , and " Ask Me Why " , and substitutes the following four songs : Introduction / " I 'm Gonna Sit Right Down and Cry ( Over You ) " ( Joe Thomas , Howard Biggs ) – 3 : 04 " Where Have You Been ( All My Life ) " ( Barry Mann , Cynthia Weil ) – 1 : 55 " Till There Was You " ( Meredith Willson ) – 1 : 59 " Sheila " ( Tommy Roe ) – 1 : 56 = = Personnel = = George Harrison – lead guitar ; harmony and backing vocals ; lead vocal on tracks 2 , 11 , 13 , 21 , US17 . John Lennon – rhythm guitar ; harmony and backing vocals ; harmonica on track 26 ; lead vocal on tracks 4 , 5 ( shared ) , 7 , 8 , 14 , 17 , 22 , 23 , 24 , US1 , US7 . Paul McCartney – bass guitar ; harmony and backing vocals ; lead vocal on tracks 1 , 3 , 5 ( shared ) , 6 , 9 , 10 , 12 , 15 , 16 , 20 , 25 , 26 , US11 . Ringo Starr – drums .
= Norwich Market = Norwich Market ( also known as Norwich Provision Market ) is an outdoor market consisting of around 200 stalls in central Norwich , England . Founded in the latter part of the 11th century to supply Norman merchants and settlers moving to the area following the Norman conquest of England , it replaced an earlier market a short distance away . It has been in operation on the present site for over 900 years . By the 14th century , Norwich was one of the largest and most prosperous cities in England , and Norwich Market was a major trading hub . Control of , and income from , the market was ceded by the monarchy to the city of Norwich in 1341 , from which time it provided a significant source of income for the local council . Freed from royal control , the market was reorganised to benefit the city as much as possible . Norwich and the surrounding region were devastated by plague and famine in the latter half of the 14th century , with the population falling by over 50 % . Following the plague years , Norwich came under the control of local merchants and the economy was rebuilt . In the early 15th century , a Guildhall was built next to the market to serve as a centre for local government and law enforcement . The largest surviving mediaeval civic building in Britain outside London , it remained the seat of local government until 1938 and in use as a law court until 1985 . In the Georgian era , Norwich became an increasingly popular destination with travellers and developed into a fashionable shopping town . Buildings around the market were developed into luxury shops and coaching inns . The eastern side of the market was particularly fashionable and became known as Gentleman 's Walk . The area around the market had become very congested by the 19th century , but the council was unable to raise funds for improvement and few alterations were made . Because many of the market 's stalls were privately owned , the council was unable to rearrange the market into a more rational layout . Following the First World War , the local authority began to systematically buy up all the stalls on the market , eventually bringing the entire market into public ownership . It was radically redesigned in the 1930s : stalls were arranged into parallel rows and a new City Hall was built along the entire western side of the marketplace to replace the by then inadequate Guildhall . This new arrangement survived with few significant changes for the rest of the 20th century . By the 1990s , the market was becoming decrepit and , in 2003 , proposals were made for another radical rebuilding of the area . These proposals were extremely controversial and were abandoned in 2004 in favour of a scheme which retained the parallel rows of stalls , but replaced the old stalls with steel units of four stalls each . The rebuilt market was completed in early 2006 and is one of the largest markets in Britain . = = Foundation = = The county town of Norfolk , Norwich is a city on the River Wensum in the East of England . Its origins are unclear , but by the reign of King Æthelstan ( 924 – 939 ) the city was a major trading centre and one of the most important boroughs in England . The Anglo @-@ Saxon settlement was centred around Tombland , a large open space at the point where the roads into Norwich converged . The plain of Tombland was the site of Norwich 's market . Following the Norman conquest of England ( 1066 – 1071 ) , Norwich was radically redesigned . Norwich Cathedral was built immediately to the east of Tombland and much of the old town to the southwest of Tombland was cleared for the motte of Norwich Castle . A new Norman town was built west of the Castle , in an area known as Mancroft . The new town at Mancroft included a market of its own to provide for the Norman settlers and merchants moving into the area , and possibly also to supply the castle 's garrison . The exact date of the foundation of the market at Mancroft is not recorded , but it is known to have been operational by the time the Domesday Book was compiled in 1086 . Granting the right to trade in Norman England was a part of the Royal Prerogative and , as with most fairs and markets of the period , the market at Mancroft was operated under licence from the King . The King 's Clerk had jurisdiction over all trade conducted at the market , and tolls and rents were collected on behalf of the King . Almost no records survive of the Norman market in the 11th to 13th centuries . It is known that shortly after the market 's establishment , a tollhouse was built nearby , which served as a collection point for taxes on trade . Although the precise location of the tollhouse is not recorded , it was immediately north of the market on part of the site now occupied by the Guildhall . At some point soon after its construction , the tollhouse also became the centre for the civil administration of the city . Although the Tombland market retained its charter to host an annual horse fair , over time the market at Mancroft supplanted that at Tombland as the principal market of the area . At the end of the 11th century , the Tombland market was removed during construction work on Norwich Cathedral . = = Norwich Market in the Middle Ages = = By the start of the 14th century , Norwich was one of Europe 's major cities . East Anglia was at this time one of the most densely populated areas in England , producing large amounts of grain , sheep , cattle and poultry . Much of this produce was traded in Norwich , an inland port roughly at the centre of the region . The City , meanwhile , had industrialized , its growth based on textiles , leather and metalworking , as well as being the administrative centre of the region . By 1300 , Norwich had a population of between 6 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 , with a total of around 20 @,@ 000 people living in the area . ( One 19th century historian estimated Norwich 's population pre @-@ 1349 at as high as 70 @,@ 000 . ) It was one of the largest and most prosperous cities in the country , and was considered the second city of England . Aside from occasional fairs , the majority of all goods produced in or imported to the region passed through the market at Mancroft . While there is some evidence that the market operated daily for a period around 1300 , it generally operated on Wednesdays and Saturdays . = = = Layout = = = The market had by this time taken on roughly the layout it retains today . It was a long rectangular open space aligned north – south , with the tollhouse ( the Guildhall after 1413 ) marking the northern end and the very large church of St Peter Mancroft marking the southern end . ( St Peter Mancroft was built in 1430 – 55 incorporating an earlier church built in 1075 and was financed by the market 's merchants . It retains its association with the market ; all stallholders retain the right to hold their weddings in the church and to be buried in the churchyard . ) The marketplace sloped downwards from west to east . A long straight passageway called the Nethererowe or Nether Row ( later renamed Gentleman 's Walk ) marked the eastern boundary . Another passage called the Overerowe , or Over Row ( later renamed St Peter 's Street , and since 1938 occupied by City Hall ) , marked the western boundary . The mediaeval market was divided into sections , each dealing with a particular trade . The stalls of the market were arranged in rows . They varied in width from 2 feet ( 60 cm ) to 15 feet ( 460 cm ) . Highly valuable , in the early years of the market they were generally owned by major institutions such as trade guilds and religious bodies , and generated a high income from rents . They also provided a steady income for the King , and later the city , from perpetual rents . The marketplace was surrounded by retail buildings , construction of which began in about 1300 . These were fixed , permanent structures , some of which had multiple storeys and cellars . The northern section of the main market place , immediately south of the tollhouse , housed fishmongers , butchers , ironmongers and woolsellers . This section of the market also housed the murage loft after 1294 , where tolls to fund the building of Norwich 's city walls were collected . The southern section of the main market place , north of St Peter Mancroft , housed a bread market and a number of stalls associated with Norwich 's significant cloth and leather industries . A broad space between the main marketplace and the Nethererowe was kept clear for the use of country smallholders , who would set up temporary booths and tents to sell their wares . South of St Peter Mancroft was a second marketplace dealing in wheat , poultry , cattle and sheep . Pigs , horses , timber and dye were not traded in the main market , but had dedicated markets elsewhere in the city . ( The modern Norwich place names of Timberhill , St John Maddermarket and Rampant Horse Street derive from their origins as the sites of the mediaeval timber , dye and horse markets respectively . ) = = = Transfer to city control = = = In 1341 , King Edward III visited Norwich for a jousting tournament , coinciding with the completion of the city 's defensive walls . Edward and his mother , Isabella of France , were very impressed by the city and , as a token of appreciation for bearing the costs of the defensive fortifications , Edward granted the franchise of the market to the city in perpetuity . The control by the King 's Clerk over trade at the market was ended and tolls and rents from the market from then on went directly to the city 's bailiffs ( the rulers of the city ) . With the powers of the King 's Clerk abolished , the bailiffs of Norwich set about regulating the operation of the market for what they felt was the greatest benefit to the city . To encourage fair competition among the market 's traders , it was forbidden to sell foodstuffs before the Cathedral bell had tolled for Lady Mass ( 6 @.@ 00 am ) . The practice of forestalling ( meeting merchants on their way to the market either to buy their goods for resale , or to prevent them from attending the market and thus make goods of the type they were selling scarce and hence more expensive ) was forbidden . Trading anywhere other than in the market was strongly discouraged and the right to re @-@ sell goods at a profit was restricted to Freemen of the city . The prices of bread and beer were fixed , and a set of standardised weights and measures was introduced , against which measures used by merchants would regularly be checked . Shortly after the transfer of the market to the city a market cross was erected near the centre of the main market ( opposite the present day entrance to Davey Place ) , the design of which is not recorded . In mid @-@ 1348 , the outbreak of bubonic plague known as the Great Mortality ( later referred to as the Black Death ) , which had swept across Europe during the past year , reached England for the first time with an outbreak in the south coast port of Melcombe . The plague spread gradually over the rest of the country with devastating effect , causing a mortality estimated at between 30 % – 45 % . In late March 1349 , the outbreak reached East Anglia and , for reasons which are not understood , increased drastically in intensity . In 1349 – 50 alone , more than half the population of East Anglia died . In 1369 , East Anglia , whose farming economy had collapsed in the wake of the plague , was struck by famine . Although the market continued to operate , in the immediate aftermath of the plague it was at a much reduced level and many stalls were left empty for some years after . The famine of 1369 overwhelmed Norwich 's burial grounds , necessitating an expansion of St Peter Mancroft 's churchyard . The southernmost rows of stalls in the main marketplace , which had been occupied by drapers and linen merchants , were removed to clear space for an enlarged churchyard . By 1377 , the population of Norwich had fallen from at least 20 @,@ 000 before the outbreak to below 6 @,@ 000 . Although social order was maintained throughout the plague years , the economy of the region was devastated . However , the surviving merchant community were very influential in the city and , in the wake of the catastrophe , set about increasing the council 's influence around the market , buying many of the surrounding shops . The council also bought a set of wharves along King Street near Dragon Hall in 1397 and decreed that all goods entering Norwich by water be unloaded there . This ensured almost complete control of Norwich trade by the merchants who now dominated the council . The market soon began to recover from the plague years to become a major trading hub again . Records of 1565 show 37 butchers ' stalls alone in the market , and Norwich also became a major centre for the import of exotic foods . Sugar , figs and prunes were traded in the market in the 16th century , and it is recorded that 20 @,@ 000 oranges and 1 @,@ 000 lemons were provided for the 1581 St Bartholomew 's Day fair . = = = Guildhall and new market cross = = = In 1404 , Norwich secured a royal charter granting it autonomy as " The County of the City of Norwich " . The local council was restructured into a body headed by a Mayor and administered by Sheriffs and Aldermen ; the Mayor also formally became Clerk of the Markets , but in practice the running of the markets was always delegated to deputies . By this time , the tollhouse was proving inadequate as the seat of local government and between 1407 – 13 it was demolished , along with an adjoining site which had housed a vegetable market , and was replaced by a new Guildhall . In keeping with Norwich 's status , it was one of the largest civic buildings in England outside London and housed all aspects of local government and justice for the new council . The Guildhall cost between £ 400 – £ 500 to build . ( As it was built primarily using pressed labour , modern equivalents of the building costs are virtually meaningless . The annual income of the city council at the time the Guildhall was built was around £ 120 . ) The eastern face of the Guildhall was built in a distinctive black and white checked design , representing the exchequer . The undercroft of the tollhouse was retained for use as a dungeon , while a new basement served as a lock @-@ up from the opening of the Guildhall until the 1980s . The murage loft in the market , redundant since the completion of the city walls , took over the functions of the old tollhouse and became the offices of the market supervisor and the collection office for market tolls and taxes . Between 1501 and 1503 , Mayor John Rightwise had the original market cross demolished and replaced with an elaborate new cross . This was octagonal in shape , stood on a plinth 30 feet ( 9 m ) wide , and rose to a height of 60 to 70 feet ( 18 to 21 m ) . The central structure contained an oratory , occupied by a priest . Rightwise 's new market cross only survived in its original form for a short time . During the English Reformation of the 1530s , the rood on the pinnacle was pulled down and the oratory became a storeroom . The octagonal plinth became a shopping arcade of small stalls . In 1549 , a temporary gallows was erected at the cross for the mass execution of 60 of the participants in Kett 's Rebellion , who had congregated in the marketplace during their brief capture of Norwich . In 1574 , a local law was enacted demanding that all unemployed men were to assemble at the market cross each morning at 5 @.@ 00 am , along with the tools of their trade , and remain there for an hour in the hope that they would be offered work ; a bonesetter was hired to treat any men who claimed they were unfit for work through injury . The success of this scheme is not recorded . By the 17th century , the building was known as the Market House , and was used for the sale of grain and other goods sold by the bushel ; a set of approved measures were chained to the pillars for public use . The archaic title of " Keeper of the Cross " was bestowed on the man appointed to sweep the marketplace weekly . The market cross also served as the focal point of Norfolk 's parliamentary elections . Candidates would bring large crowds of voters in by cart from the surrounding countryside and ply them with large quantities of free alcohol to ensure their support . Candidates would pay for lodgings for the voters , but , in closely fought elections , more voters than usual would be shipped in and every inn in the city would fill , forcing voters to sleep in and around the cross . Sir Thomas Browne described the voters around the market cross as " like flocks of sheep " during the unusually close elections of 1678 , at the height of the Exclusion Crisis . Following the counting of the vote , the winning candidate would be carried three times around the market , followed by torch @-@ bearers and trumpeters . By this time , the crowds would generally be extremely drunk on the liquor provided by the candidates , and elections would often degenerate into drunken revelry or fighting . Although it was popular with travelling vendors , particularly of small fancy goods , the maintenance of the market cross was costly and unpopular with Norwich 's citizens . In 1732 the cross was demolished , and the stone was sold for £ 125 . In 2005 the base of the cross was rediscovered in excavations during renovation of the market area , but has since been re @-@ covered . Its site is now outlined in red stones embedded in the market floor . = = Other uses of the market square in Tudor and Stuart England = = With few fixed structures in the main marketplace , the plain traditionally served as a public open space on days when the market was not operational . Before the Reformation in the 1530s , its main use was as a venue for religious festivals , particularly the annual procession of the Craft Guilds at Corpus Christi . Most public religious festivals were abandoned following the Reformation and the subsequent dissolution of many of the mediaeval guilds , and the leading event on Norwich 's civic calendar became the annual inauguration of the mayor , which took place each May . The inauguration ceremony was conducted by the civic authorities and by the surviving , and still powerful , Guild of St George , and combined elements of a public festival and a religious carnival . Four whifflers ( city officials carrying swords ) marched ahead of the procession to clear a path . Behind the whifflers , the incoming and outgoing mayors rode side @-@ by @-@ side , preceded by trumpeters and standard @-@ bearers carrying the banners of England and St George , and followed by the city 's Sheriffs and Aldermen in ceremonial gowns of violet and red , respectively . The procession was flanked by the city 's waits ( musicians playing loud wind instruments , usually the shawm ) ( a mediaeval double reed wind instrument with conical wooden body ) , and accompanied by dick fools ( clowns carrying wands and wearing red and yellow gowns adorned with bells and cats ' tails ) and a man costumed as a dragon . As well as the mayoral inaugurations , the marketplace was also the setting for other public events , particularly mourning processions on the deaths of monarchs , coronation celebrations , royal birthdays and celebrations of military victories . Firework displays and bonfires would be held on these occasions , accompanied by the local militia firing volleys and the ringing of the bells of the surrounding churches , while local residents and shopkeepers would illuminate their windows with lit candles . Often , particularly in the 18th century , temporary triumphal arches would be erected beside the Guildhall . Free beer would traditionally be distributed at these events , which would on occasion degenerate into drunken disorder . The market was also the location for public punishment of wrongdoers , and stocks and a pillory were set at a prominent position at the eastern end of the Guildhall . The stocks were used for the punishment of relatively minor offences such as breaching the regulations on the price of bread , public brawling or incivility to the Mayor ; wrongdoers would on occasion also be paraded around the market wearing paper hats bearing details of their offence . The pillory was used for more serious offences such as sedition . On at least two occasions in the late 16th century people convicted of sedition were nailed to the pillory by their ears ; on completion of their time on the pillory their ears were cut off . Public whippings of criminals were also conducted in the marketplace . Although not all executions in the period are recorded , it is known that public hangings also took place in the market square and around the market cross . By the 17th century , the market had also become the venue for many travelling entertainments . Exotic animals were displayed , including lions , tigers , camels and jackals , and displays by conjurers , puppeteers , singers , acrobats and other entertainers also regularly took place . Displays of human deformities were also popular ; records exist from the 1670s and 1680s of the Mayor granting exhibition licences to , among others , " a monstrous man with 2 bodies brought from the Indies by Sir Thomas Grantham " , " a girl of sixteen with no bones " , " a monstrous hayrie child " , and " a monstrous man taken from amongst the hills of Corinthia , he feeds on the roots of trees etc " . Stages erected by charlatans selling medicines and demonstrating miracle cures were often erected near the Guildhall , prompting regular complaints from fishmongers that the crowds were blocking access to their stalls ; on at least one occasion one of these travelling doctors had his licence withdrawn ' because of possible damage to the city 's economy by the distraction of " idle minds " from their work ' . = = Developments in the Georgian period = = Improvements in Norfolk 's road infrastructure and the development of the stagecoach system made Norwich an increasingly popular destination with travellers . Norwich was recovering from the plague years and was a major city , with attractions and social events second only to London itself . The increasingly prosperous country landowners of Norfolk and Suffolk began visiting Norwich more frequently and staying for longer when they did so . By the end of the 17th century many of the strict regulations regarding trade in Norwich were lifted or relaxed , and Norwich became a fashionable shopping town . Shops catering for the growing wealthy classes , such as booksellers , vintners and gunsmiths , grew around the market plain , especially in the large buildings along the eastern side of the market , the Nethererowe , which became so popular with the gentry it became known as Gentleman 's Walk . Gentleman 's Walk acquired a number of luxury shops , including John Toll 's drapers from which Elizabeth Gurney ( later Elizabeth Fry ) watched the election of 1796 , the wine and spirit dealership of Thomas Bignold who in company with other local shopkeepers founded a mutual association to provide fire insurance for the area 's shops which became Norwich Union , and Saunders Coffee House , patronised by the young Horatio and William Nelson . By this time , a row of stalls bordering on St Peter Mancroft 's churchyard had developed into a row of three and four storey houses running east to west , and a second row of buildings running north to south ran through the main market square . This row of houses cut off the main market from the eastern strip housing the butchers and fishmongers , known as the Upper Market , leaving only two narrow passageways as direct links between the two halves of the market square . ( Although the buildings dividing the upper and lower markets were demolished in the 1930s , one of these connecting passages survives as Pudding Lane . The name " Pudding Lane " derives from " ped " , an archaic word for the large baskets from which itinerant traders sold goods in the market . ) With increased numbers of people visiting Norwich , trade boomed in the inns around the marketplace . In addition to the existing taverns , at least four very large coaching inns opened along Gentleman 's Walk . By the latter half of the 18th century stagecoaches were leaving one or other of the inns almost daily to London , and the inns also served as the hub of a network of frequent services throughout East Anglia . Built around long narrow yards , as well as serving food and drink and providing lodgings , these coaching inns also served as temporary warehouses , auction rooms and gambling halls for travellers doing business in the market . The best known was the Angel , parts of which dated to the 15th century . As well as providing the other functions of the Norwich inns , its yard also served as a popular theatre and venue for other performers . ( Despite its significance as a city , Norwich did not have a dedicated theatre until 1758 . ) However , in 1699 part of the building collapsed during a performance by Thomas Doggett 's troupe of players , killing a woman and injuring many of the audience . The reputation of the Angel was severely damaged , and although still used for small scale entertainments such as puppet shows , it was never again used for full scale theatrical performances . Meanwhile , the livestock market south of St Peter Mancroft was becoming overwhelmingly crowded on market days . Eventually part of the eastern side of the castle mound was levelled , and in 1738 the livestock sales were moved to this new site . The old hay market remained on the old site for more than a century , until it was also moved to the new livestock market site in the early 19th century . The new livestock market was one of the last significant livestock markets in a British city centre , and developed a reputation as " the cruellest in the country " . = = 19th century improvements = = The relocation of the livestock market had done little to resolve the problems of congestion in and around the market . Many of the mediaeval access routes to the market were too narrow for wheeled transport , and the narrow alleys were also dark , dangerous and mostly unpaved . Although the market had been resurfaced during the 18th century , this had been with flint pebble cobblestones which were easily dislodged and trapped refuse . William Chase , editor of the first Norwich Directory , lobbied in the late 18th century for civic improvements and a rationalisation of the streets around the market . However , the economy of Norwich depended heavily on the textile industry , which had suffered badly from the loss of export markets during the French Wars , and funds for improvements were limited . By the beginning of the 19th century the only significant improvement had been the paving of Gentleman 's Walk . In 1805 a number of Improvement Commissions were established to propose solutions to the problems facing the area , but little action was taken . Local councils had no powers to levy rates to fund general civic improvements and as a consequence funds for improvement works had to be raised either through tolls and rents , via public appeals , or through long term borrowing , and the city was initially unable to raise sufficient funds . In 1813 the yard of the King 's Head coaching inn was widened to create Davey Place , a new street between the market and Back of the Inns , at that time a narrow passageway which ran parallel to Gentleman 's Walk behind the coaching inns . ( Although the inns no longer remain , Back of the Inns survives as a street name . ) In 1820 the Gasolier , Norwich 's first gas lamp , was installed in the market outside the entrance to Davey Place . Exchange Street , a new road running north from the northeast corner of the market , was completed in 1828 and a roadway was installed alongside the existing footpath . London Street , the main road connecting the market with the older areas of the city around Tombland and the Cathedral was widened in 1856 . In 1860 the decrepit fish market adjacent to the Guildhall , by now over 700 years old , was replaced with a new neoclassical building . In 1863 Gentleman 's Walk was paved properly with York stone , and in 1874 the cobbles of the marketplace were replaced by timber blocks . Although by this time the market operated on all working days , Sunday trading laws meant it was closed on Sundays . The market space on Sundays was used for public assemblies and gatherings . Meanwhile , Norwich railway station had opened in 1844 . Although many Norwich residents were reluctant to use the railway , and goods carriers initially found it more convenient to continue to collect goods from the coaching inns , as railway usage gradually increased the number of coaches and carts calling at the inns slowly dwindled , reducing congestion . In 1899 the Angel inn — renamed the Royal Hotel in 1840 on the occasion of Queen Victoria 's wedding — finally closed , and was replaced with George Skipper 's Royal Arcade , a shopping centre in the Art Nouveau style . Although the civic authorities initially resisted installing tramways in the city centre owing to concerns about nuisance and disruption , they eventually relented ; by the end of the 19th century Norwich had a total of 16 miles ( 26 km ) of tram routes , including a route along Gentleman 's Walk itself . While schemes to rationalise the layout of the market 's stalls had been proposed since the 18th century , they had foundered on the fact that so many of the stalls were privately owned . = = 1930s redevelopment = = In the wake of the First World War the council 's Markets Committee began a programme of gradually buying back all the privately owned stalls , with the intention of encouraging demobilised servicemen to work on the market . Within a few years the market was entirely publicly owned , and the council took responsibility for the upkeep of the market . The city also bought out and closed many of the 30 or more inns in the area , transferring their licences to the growing suburbs . Meanwhile , the Guildhall , designed to serve the post @-@ plague city with a population of around 6 @,@ 000 , was hopelessly inadequate as the administrative centre of a major modern city . As an interim solution the row of buildings dividing the upper and main markets had mostly been taken into public ownership and converted into civic offices , and in January 1914 the 1860 fish market had also been enlarged and converted into offices . The Liberal welfare reforms of the early 20th century and the Local Government Act 1929 had greatly increased the role of local government in public health and welfare , and by the 1930s Norwich council was suffering from a severe lack of office space . The council opted for a radical redevelopment of the area around the upper market . The row of buildings from St Peter Mancroft to the Guildhall , which divided the upper and lower markets , were demolished , opening up the marketplace , as were the buildings along the western side of the market . The mixture of stalls and booths which occupied the market itself were all removed , and replaced by 205 stalls in uniform parallel rows , topped with multi @-@ coloured sloping roofs ( known locally as " tilts " ) . During the rebuilding of the market square , the existing stalls were relocated to a number of temporary locations in the area to allow them to continue trading , including the courtyard and rear of the City Hall development and surrounding streets . In 1938 the coverings of the stalls were given the multi @-@ coloured stripes for which they became famous . In 1932 , despite concerns from some local residents and businesses about the huge expense at a time of recession , a new building was envisaged to replace the demolished civic buildings , spanning the entire length of the western edge of the now unified marketplace . From over 140 entries a design by Charles Holloway James and Stephen Rowland Pierce was selected . Heavily influenced by Scandinavian architecture , the design attracted negative criticism at the time , with John Piper saying that " fog is its friend " . Opened by King George VI in 1938 as City Hall , the building proved extremely successful , and was described by Nikolaus Pevsner as " the foremost English public building between the Wars " . Norwich 's war memorial , designed by Edwin Lutyens and opened in 1927 outside the Guildhall , was moved to a long narrow memorial garden on a raised terrace between City Hall and the enlarged market shortly after the opening of City Hall . The Guildhall remained in use as a law court until 1985 , and its basement remained in use as cells until that time . = = 1976 renovation = = Although superficially the market remained little changed in the decades following the 1930s redevelopment , by the 1960s it was falling into disrepair , and it no longer met modern hygiene regulations . A lack of funds delayed improvement works , and renovation works did not begin until February 1976 . Hot and cold running water and refrigeration were provided to those stalls handling food , and many of the stalls were converted into lockable units . New electrical mains cables were installed throughout the market , the site was resurfaced , and the elegant but aging 19th century lavatories were demolished . Aside from the demolition of the Victorian toilets , the only significant visible alteration was the addition of corrugated plastic covers over the walkways between the stalls . Although competition from supermarkets was by this time affecting shopping patterns , and the decline of market gardening meant a virtual end to stall @-@ holders selling their own produce , the market survived competitive pressures . Many stalls diversified into specialist foods , clothing and other goods and the high number of stalls allowed the market to sell a range of goods as great as that provided by the supermarkets . = = 2005 rebuilding = = While the 1976 renovations prolonged the life of the 1930s market , by the 1990s the market was once more becoming decrepit . The covers erected in 1976 over the walkways blocked sunlight , leaving much of the market dingy and poorly lit . The walkways themselves , already narrow , were becoming even more restricted as stalls erected external displays and additional weatherproofing . Removable shutters used to secure the stalls overnight were stacked against the sides of the stalls during trading hours , causing further obstruction , while on those stalls fitted with doors the doors opened outwards to maximise the limited space inside the units . In addition , the floors of stalls followed the slope of the hill , a gradient of about 1 : 12 , causing health problems for those market workers who had to stand at this angle for prolonged periods during the day . Norwich City Council decided that these problems needed to be addressed , and in December 2003 invited the public to choose between three proposals for a rebuilt market . These plans were extremely controversial . All three envisaged reducing the number of stalls from 205 to 140 – 160 in order to increase space , and all three involved splitting the market into isolated clusters of stalls , significantly altering its character and appearance . The Eastern Daily Press organised a campaign against the perceived unattractiveness of the designs , the proposed reduction in the number of stalls which would mean stallholders losing their jobs and the remaining stallholders facing rent increases to cover the difference , and the change to the character of central Norwich that such a radical redesign of the market would entail . A petition of over 12 @,@ 000 signatories rejecting all three proposed designs was gathered . Following a public meeting on 26 January 2004 the council backed down , and Hereward Cooke , deputy leader of the council , said that " We are finding out what the stall @-@ holders and people of Norwich want and we will try our best to fulfill their wishes " . Architect Michael Innes proposed a new design , which was accepted by the council . The new design was put in place in 2005 . Innes 's design retained the market 's layout of parallel rows of stalls with striped coloured roofs . The new stalls were built as steel and aluminium prefabricated units consisting of four stalls each , each stall having a level floor accessed by a step . These " pods " were arranged in rows , with 2 @-@ metre ( 6 ft 7 in ) wide walkways between the " pods " . Transparent retractable canopies were installed above the aisles , which could be opened and closed centrally . To allow the market to continue trading while the rebuilding took place , a set of temporary stalls were built in Gentleman 's Walk and surrounding streets . A third of the market 's stalls at a time traded from these temporary stalls while their stalls in the main market were replaced , a process taking four months for each third of the market . The rebuilding was officially completed on 25 March 2006 . Although generally popular with traders and shoppers , the redesign was criticised by The Times , who described it as " an anaemic shopping mall for health and safety inspectors : straight lines , wipe @-@ clean boxy cubicles , all life and love drained out . " Meanwhile , in November 2004 engineers identified cracks in the terrace supporting the Memorial Gardens , and they were closed to the public as a potential hazard . Eventually in 2009 work began on renovating the gardens . Lutyens 's memorial was dismantled and cleaned , and reassembled at a higher level to be visible from the street ; it was also rotated 180 ° to face City Hall , rather than the market . The terrace was strengthened , and the gardens were landscaped around a new sculpture by Paul de Monchaux on the original site of the memorial . Supermarkets continued to affect shopping patterns . In 1979 fruit and vegetable stalls occupied 70 of the market 's 205 stalls ; by 1988 greengrocers occupied only 28 stalls , and by 2010 there were only seven remaining fruit and vegetable stalls on the market . A wide variety of other stalls have taken their place , and the market remains active . One of the largest markets in Britain , it is a tourist attraction as well as remaining heavily used by local residents , and is a focal point of the city .
= 1984 Pacific typhoon season = The 1984 Pacific typhoon season has no official bounds , but most tropical cyclones tend to form in the northwestern Pacific Ocean between May and November . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northwestern Pacific Ocean . Tropical Storms formed in the entire west pacific basin were assigned a name by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center . Tropical depressions that enter or form in the Philippine area of responsibility are assigned a name by the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration or PAGASA . This can often result in the same storm having two names . A total of 30 tropical depressions formed in 1984 in the Western Pacific , of which 27 became tropical storms , 16 reached typhoon intensity , and two reached super typhoon strength . Eight tropical cyclones moved into mainland China , four struck Vietnam , four moved through the Philippines , and one cyclone moved into South Korea . The second consecutive typhoon season with a late start , all of the season activity was contained between June and December , with August and October the most active months , contributing to half of the seasonal tropical cyclone count . = = Season summary = = Despite its late start , a total of 30 tropical depressions formed this year in the Western Pacific , of which 27 became tropical storms . A total of 16 storms reached typhoon intensity , of which 2 reached super typhoon strength . Three of the systems formed in June , four in July , seven in August , four in September , eight in October , three in November , and one in December . Eight tropical cyclones moved into mainland China , four struck Vietnam , four moved through the Philippines , and one cyclone moved into South Korea . The most damaging and deadly typhoon this season was Ike , which led to significant damage and two @-@ thirds of the overall seasonal death toll , mainly from the Philippines . The longest lived cyclone was Bill , which persisted for two weeks during mid November . Despite the eight tropical cyclones moving into China , Hong Kong received only 18 percent of its annual rainfall from tropical cyclones , which was 35 percent below the annual average . = = Storms = = = = = Tropical Storm Vernon = = = Tropical Storm Vernon , the first of the year , developed in the South China Sea on June 7 . It moved northwest , and then westward in an environment of strong vertical wind shear , Vernon moved inland into Vietnam on June 10 . Flooding of rice , sweet potato , and sesame crops in Quang Nam @-@ Danang province was caused by Vernon . Combined with 1983 's late formation of Tropical Storm Sarah in June , this is only known time that two consecutive years had their first storm develop as late as June . = = = Severe Tropical Storm Wynne ( Asiang ) = = = The monsoon trough established itself across the South China Sea eastward into the Philippine Sea on June 14 . A tropical disturbance formed within this trough on June 16 in the northern Philippine Sea . Moving westward for much of its existence to the south of a narrow subtropical ridge , an upper level high developed over the strengthening low level circulation early on June 19 , which became a tropical depression that day . By that evening , the cyclone had strengthened into a tropical storm . Strong upper level ridging over mainland China led to easterly vertical wind shear , which limited intensification . The cyclone passed by the southern coast of Taiwan , which caused slight weakening as it entered the South China Sea . Passing south of Hong Kong , a U. S. Naval ship and Hong Kong both reported winds of 60 knots ( 110 km / h ) , with gusts to 82 knots ( 152 km / h ) reported at Tate 's Cairn and 70 knots ( 130 km / h ) noted out at sea . Southwest flow to the south of Wynne led to flooding in Luzon , where 100 square kilometres ( 25 @,@ 000 acres ) of riceland was destroyed . Three fisherman drowned north of Luzon . Late on June 25 , Wynne made landfall in China near the Luichow Peninsula , and then weakened rapidly inland . = = = Typhoon Alex ( Biring ) = = = On June 28 , a surface circulation formed in the Philippine Sea . Development of the system began in earnest on June 30 , and a tropical depression had formed early on July 1 , with tropical storm status attained later in the day . A ridge to its north eroded , allowing Alex to move north @-@ northwest towards Taiwan . Alex became the first typhoon of the season shortly before moving across the mountainous island . On July 5 , extratropical transition of Alex had begun . By late in the day , it was an extratropical cyclone along a frontal zone in the Sea of Japan . = = = Severe Tropical Storm Betty ( Konsing ) = = = Development of this system was slow within the eastern portion of the monsoon trough . By midday on July 2 , the disturbance was first noted about 1 @,@ 020 kilometres ( 630 mi ) southwest of Guam . The system moved northwest for much of its life cycle , initially following Alex and then the southwest side of the subtropical ridge . A broad tropical depression formed on the afternoon on July 5 within the disturbed weather area , weakening as it passed over Luzon . Late on July 7 , ship reports indicated the system had become a tropical storm . The cyclone moved within the radar fence of Hong Kong near its peak intensity before making landfall 250 kilometres ( 160 mi ) to its west @-@ southwest during the early afternoon of July 9 . Winds gusted to 70 knots ( 130 km / h ) at Green Island . Weakening over the topography of China was rapid thereafter , and the system dissipated by early on July 10 . = = = Typhoon Cary = = = Initiated by the tropical tropospheric trough ( TUTT ) , an area of convection was first noted southeast of the upper trough in an area with favorable upper level divergence on July 2 near 18N 168E . The disturbance moved west @-@ southwest and evolved into a tropical depression late on July 6 and a tropical storm soon after . The cyclone moved northwest towards a break in the subtropical ridge and reached typhoon status late on July 9 forming a large eye about 55 kilometres ( 34 mi ) in diameter . Rapid development continued for another 12 hours as it slowly moved through the ridge axis . The cyclone turned northeast late on July 10 as it began to be sheared significantly from the northwest . Shearing relented on July 11 allowing the eye to reform , this time 75 kilometres ( 47 mi ) wide . As the typhoon progressed more poleward , increased vertical wind shear and the entrainment of cooler and drier air began its extratropical transition . By late on July 14 , Cary had become an extratropical cyclone . The nontropical system then moved westward , eventually dissipating south of Japan . = = = Typhoon Dinah = = = For two weeks after Betty and Cary , high pressure dominated the northwest Pacific , with no sign of a monsoon trough . A cold front dropped into the area from the north , and remained stationary across much of the central North Pacific just north of Wake Island for nearly a week . An area of convection along the tail of the old frontal boundary formed on July 21 , and closed off a wind circulation just northwest of Wake Island . Drifting westward , the system did not develop considerably until July 23 . By late on July 24 , it became a tropical depression . Intensifying while moving west @-@ southwest , the system became a typhoon late on July 25 with a 55 kilometres ( 34 mi ) wide eye . Meanwhile , Tropical Storm Ed was approaching from the northwest and the ridge north of Dinah moved east , which turned the typhoon northwest . For 48 hours between July 26 and July 28 , Dinah and Ed were between 1 @,@ 165 kilometres ( 724 mi ) and 1 @,@ 670 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 040 mi ) from one another , and fujiwara interaction did impart a slight change onto Dinah 's track . On July 27 , while the cyclones were at their closest approach , Dinah weakened due to the more dominant outflow from Ed . The westerly shear led to a change in track to the east @-@ northeast for Dinah . On July 28 , once the cyclones moved farther apart , Dinah restrengthened rapidly and reached its maximum intensity by noon on July 29 . Moving north @-@ northeast around the western fringe of the subtropical ridge , Dinah 's motion accelerated , moving close to Marcus Island late that afternoon , causing extensive vegetation damage . The coast guard station on the island sustained US $ 30 @,@ 000 in damage ( 1984 dollars ) when sustained winds reached 63 knots ( 117 km / h ) , with gusts to 89 knots ( 165 km / h ) . Weakening as it continued to move north @-@ northeast , Dinah regained tropical storm status on July 31 . Veering more northeast and interacting with a nearby upper trough in the Westerlies , Dinah became an extratropical cyclone late on August 1 . The nontropical cyclone moved off the east , eventually crossing the International Dateline . = = = Typhoon Ed = = = Ed formed along the tail of a weakening cold front just south of Japan on July 23 . It took a day to become detached on satellite pictures , and become a tropical disturbance . On the morning of July 25 a surface circulation had formed and the cyclone became a tropical depression . By July 26 , it became a tropical storm . Initially it moved southeast during this period of strengthening as it approached Typhoon Dinah . As a shortwave trough in the Westerlies approached Ed , the cyclone turned north and moved away from Dinah . Ridging built in quickly behind the shortwave , and the cyclone turned west @-@ northwest ; a course it would maintain until landfall in mainland China . Strengthening continued , and Ed became an intense typhoon just south of Kyūshū . As it moved across the East China Sea , cooler waters and drier air led to weakening . Late on July 31 , Ed made landfall 110 kilometres ( 68 mi ) north of Shang @-@ Hai as a strong tropical storm . Turning northwest after landfall , Ed moved along the Chinese coast and gradually weakened . By late on August 1 , it had dissipated as a tropical cyclone . The Korean ship Ishlin Glory sank in the Korea Strait on July 29 , which led to one death and 11 others declared missing . The launch of the weather satellite GMS @-@ 3 was delayed by this typhoon 's passage nearby Japan . = = = Severe Tropical Storm Freda ( Ditang ) = = = The tail end of a trough extending southwest of Dinah west of Guam led to the development of this system . A tropical disturbance formed there on August 2 and developed a surface cyclone in the Philippine Sea later that day . A broad surface cyclone , the system tracked northwest and slowly developed . By late on August 5 , it became a tropical depression . During the morning of August 6 , it strengthened into a tropical storm while maintaining its broad center and a pair of circulation centers . The new northern center became dominant overnight . The system jumped northwest and quickly moved through the Formosa Straits before striking mainland China very early on August 8 . Two died in Taiwan due to Freda . After two days inland , Freda finally dissipated as a tropical cyclone , but its cloud pattern remained identifiable for an additional day or two thereafter . = = = Tropical Depression 09W ( Edeng — Gloring ) = = = A broad surface low formed in the near equatorial trough on August 7 about 1 @,@ 225 kilometres ( 761 mi ) south of Guam . Moving northwest , the disturbance slowly organized as it moved into the southeast portion of the monsoon trough . On August 10 , the low jogged northward for a day towards an upper level low northwest of Taiwan . Late on August 11 , the low became a tropical depression , which was named Edeng by PAGASA and designated 09W by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center . It then moved west @-@ northwest along the northern side of the monsoon trough as a sheared system due to moderate southerly flow aloft . A new circulation center developed , which led to PAGASA renaming the system Gloring as it neared the southern coast of Taiwan . The depression ultimately merged with a low pressure area over the South China Sea , which would develop into Tropical Storm Gerald . = = = Severe Tropical Storm Gerald ( Isang ) = = = Gerald formed within the monsoon trough in the northern South China Sea , where it meandered for its existence . The initial surface low formed on August 12 near 18N 117E . Slow development continued , and when the remains of Tropical Depression 09W / Gloring became absorbed by this cyclone , thunderstorm activity increased significantly . The system was a monsoon depression , with a central pressure of 997 hectopascals ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) and winds of up to 30 knots ( 56 km / h ) a bit to the south of the circulation center . The storm 's maximum sustained winds began to migrate closer to the center , and it became a tropical storm on the morning of August 16 . Drifting west , Gerald slowly intensified for the next couple days . As Holly developed east of Taiwan , its outflow sheared Gerald , keeping the system from becoming a typhoon . Holly 's proximity led to Gerald completing a small cyclonic loop on August 17 . As Holly turned northwest , Gerald drifted westward once again . By August 20 , Holly 's large circulation over the East China Sea lured Gerald northeast . Shearing again increased , weakening Gerald . The cyclone made landfall 95 kilometres ( 59 mi ) east @-@ northeast of Hong Kong as a tropical depression . Winds gusted to 62 knots ( 115 km / h ) at Tate 's Cairn . Once inland , it turned to the north and weakened rapidly . = = = Typhoon Holly ( Huaning ) = = = This system formed in the eastern end of the monsoon trough that spawned Gerald . A very large cyclone , it did not close off a wind circulation until it achieved tropical storm strength on the morning of August 16 . Like Freda and TD 09W , it had a broad center with light winds for much of its life cycle . Kadena Air Force Base , on Okinawa , measured 425 millimetres ( 16 @.@ 7 in ) of rainfall from this cyclone , and two periods of winds exceeding 50 knots ( 93 km / h ) on August 18 , and then again late August 19 and early August 20 . The cyclone moved westward under the base of the subtropical ridge and reached typhoon strength on the morning of August 18 . The system turned northwest and then north around the ridge 's periphery at a relatively slow rate of speed . As the system turned northeast and accelerated out of the East China Sea into the Korea Strait , it led to considerable damage in the Korean peninsula and across Kyūshū . One perished , eleven were injured , and nine went missing . Miyazake , on Kyūshū , measured 381 millimetres ( 15 @.@ 0 in ) of rainfall in a 24 ‑ hour period during Holly 's passage . This rainfall led to flooding and landslides . Interaction with nearby landmasses began to weaken Holly , and interaction with a mid @-@ level trough led to its extratropical transition . Holly became an extratropical cyclone as it approached Hokkaidō early on August 23 . = = = Tropical Depression 12W ( Lusing ) = = = Convection formed in the eastern end of the monsoon trough just north of Guam on August 20 , leading to the formation of a weak low pressure area by late morning August 21 . The system slowly consolidated as it moved northwest , and was separating from the monsoon trough on August 23 . Although convection increased in organization , the surface wind field did not respond . Nevertheless , it was deemed a tropical depression on the morning of August 24 . By the next morning , the surface circulation became exposed as upper level conditions worsened due to strong southerlies aloft . The cyclone was no longer deemed tropical at that time . The surface cyclone moved northwest , crossing the Ryūkyū Islands before it merged with a frontal zone in the northern East China Sea late on August 26 . = = = Typhoon Ike ( Nitang ) = = = This tropical cyclone formed on August 27 in the Philippine Sea , and strengthened as it moved westward into the southern Philippines , becoming a typhoon on August 31 . Typhoon Ike caused extreme wind and flooding damage when it crossed the Philippines , resulting in 1492 fatalities , one of the Philippines ' worst natural disaster in modern times , and its worst typhoon since Amy struck the archipelago in 1951 . A total of 200 @,@ 000 to 480 @,@ 000 were left homeless . Emerging from the Philippines as a strong tropical storm , Ike restrengthened as it tracked northwest through the South China Sea across northeast Hainan Island . Weakening back into a tropical storm , Ike moving inland into mainland China . In Hong Kong , winds gusted to 49 knots ( 91 km / h ) at Tate 's Cairn . Extensive crop damage was experienced in southern China , with Ike becoming the most significant tropical cyclone to strike Guangxi since 1954 . Total damage was reportedly US $ 111 million ( 1984 dollars ) . The name Ike was retired after this season . = = = Typhoon June ( Maring ) = = = A surface low formed within the monsoon trough on August 25 . The low drifted westward as convection tried to consolidate around the center . Strong upper level wind shear inhibited development for the next couple of days . It took until late on August 28 for a single circulation center to consolidate , and when it did , gale force winds around the center forced an upgrade from a monsoon depression to a tropical storm about 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) east of Luzon . Moving westward , it struck Luzon early on August 29 . By late morning , the system turned west @-@ northwest over the mountainous island , emerging into the South China Sea . A total of 121 lives were taken by June across the Philippines , and damage totaled US $ 5 million ( 1984 dollars . ) A weakness in the subtropical ridge to its north led to a turn to the northwest , and the system made landfall 240 kilometres ( 150 mi ) east of Hong Kong . Winds gusted to 38 knots ( 70 km / h ) at Tate 's Cairn , and total rainfall at Cheung Chau reached 187 @.@ 3 millimetres ( 7 @.@ 37 in ) . When Tropical Storm June hit southeast China on August 30 , 67 people were reported dead due to extensive flooding from June 's broad circulation . = = = Typhoon Kelly = = = Developing at the southern end of a shear line , a low level circulation formed on September 13 with increasing convective organization to the south of a cold core cyclone . Completing a cyclonic loop , the cyclone continued to develop despite cool air becoming entrained within its circulation . Approaching the upper level low , Kelly slowed down its northward motion and reached its maximum intensity . Soon afterwards , it rapidly accelerated northeast . Losing its tropical character late on September 17 , it became an extratropical cyclone on the morning of September 18 . This cyclone continued moving northeast for another few days , past the International Dateline and into the Gulf of Alaska . = = = Tropical Storm Lynn ( Osang ) = = = First noted as an area of poorly organized thunderstorms near Guam on September 19 , the disturbance moved westward across the northern Philippine Sea . As an upper tropospheric cyclone weakened east of Luzon on September 22 , upper level conditions improved , but no reflection at the surface was yet witnessed . The thunderstorms entered the South China Sea on September 23 while a lee side surface low formed along the monsoon trough west of Luzon due to the strong easterly low @-@ level flow . The disturbance rapidly consolidated , and it became a tropical depression early on September 24 . Slowly intensifying as it moved west @-@ northwest , Lynn became a tropical storm on September 25 . At this point , the storm track became west @-@ southwesterly and upper level winds began to shear thunderstorms north of the center . Weakening ensued , and Lynn struggled to maintain tropical storm intensity as it made landfall about 95 kilometres ( 59 mi ) southeast of Da Nang , Vietnam . The depression then turned northwest and dissipated near the Vietnam / Laos border early on September 28 . = = = Tropical Depression Paring = = = = = = Severe Tropical Storm Maury = = = The system formed near the intersection of the northeast end of the monsoon trough with a frontal boundary near Marcus Island just as Nina was developing 1300 km to its west on September 27 . By early on September 28 , it had become a tropical depression with tropical storm strength reached by noon as Maury moved north around Nina . Instead of recurving quickly around the subtropical ridge to its east and southeast , Maury slowed as it entered Nina 's larger circulation . Nina absorbed Maury 's circulation on October 1 as it overtook the storm from the southwest . = = = Tropical Storm Nina = = = Like Maury , Nina formed near the intersection of a frontal zone and the monsoon trough . On September 27 , a circulation formed about 925 kilometres ( 575 mi ) north @-@ northwest of Guam . An upper level high north of Guam allowed for further development . Moving north , the system detached from the monsoon trough , and it became a tropical depression on September 28 . Southerly shear across the system led to an initially subtropical appearance , as thunderstorms moved away from the center . This also prevented significant development . On September 29 , the main belt of the Westerlies captured the cyclone , displacing thunderstorms even farther east of the center . With the low level circulation exposed , Nina weakened into a tropical depression . By late on September 30 , the low level circulation moved back under the convection , which resulted in reintensification back to a tropical storm at the same time Maury was absorbed into its circulation . By late morning October 1 , Nina reached its maximum intensity , but extratropical transition was already underway . Central convection decreased , and Nina became an extratropical cyclone by October 2 . = = = Typhoon Ogden = = = A weak surface low formed west of Truk on October 3 , which contained little thunderstorm activity . Moving northwest , it joined the eastern section of the monsoon trough . Following the flow around the east side of the trough towards the north , poorly organized convection became associated with the persistent low . Once it neared the northeast fringe of the trough , convective organization improved . Although still a very broad system , it became a tropical depression on the morning of October 7 . Moving around the southwest part of a retreating subtropical ridge , Ogden sharply recurved . By early October 8 , it strengthened into a tropical storm and passed just east of Marcus Island . The cyclone attained typhoon intensity partially due to translational motion as it began to undergo extratropical transition on October 9 . Southwest shear began to significantly impact the system thereafter , which weakened the system into a tropical storm on October 10 . By noon , the system had fully evolved into an extratropical cyclone . The nontropical storm continued northeast towards the International Dateline . = = = Typhoon Phyllis = = = Phyllis formed within a surface trough left behind by Ogden . By late on October 7 , a surface low had formed east of Guam . The system drifted northeast . A compact system , the system became a tropical depression late on October 10 and a tropical storm on the morning of October 11 . Northward acceleration had begun , and Phyllis became a typhoon the morning of October 12 . A cut off low south of Honshū helped lead to strong southerly flow over Phyllis , which weakened the storm . The shear vector changed from southerly to easterly as the main belt of the Westerlies impacted the cyclone , which caused faster weakening . By the morning of October 14 , Phyllis became a wave along the cold front approaching the system from the west . = = = Tropical Storm Roy = = = Developing southwest of Guam as Phyllis was forming to its northeast , a weak circulation developed on October 9 . Upper level wind shear from Ogden slowed development into October 10 . Thereafter , convection became better organized with the system and it became a tropical depression by October 11 . A compact system , it became a tropical storm later that morning . Strong upper level easterlies halted development due to vertical wind shear . The low @-@ level monsoon flow became diverted from Roy to Phyllis , which removed a potential source of low @-@ level vorticity . Roy was an exposed circulation center on October 12 with decreasing convection when its lowest central pressure was reached . By the morning of October 13 , it lost its defined circulation center and had dissipated as a tropical cyclone . = = = Tropical Storm Susan = = = On October 10 , a circulation had formed in the central South China Sea . Slow to consolidate , the low accelerated west along the axis of the monsoon trough as it became a tropical depression late on October 11 . Developing as it veered west @-@ northwest , Susan became a minimal tropical storm as it made landfall just north of Nha Trang , Vietnam . The system turned northwest up the Mekong river valley , maintaining its identity as a convective area for the next three days . Extreme flooding struck eastern and central Vietnam on October 12 and caused 33 casualties and moderate crop damage . = = = Tropical Depression 23W = = = Developing within the monsoon trough , convection increased near Truk on October 16 . A central convective feature formed , and the system became a tropical depression that afternoon . Moving northwest , the depression weakened as it became sheared from the north and a larger circulation formed to its southeast , which evolved into Thad . = = = Typhoon Thad = = = Developing southeast of Guam as Tropical Depression 23W was dissipating , this convective cluster moved north @-@ northwest . Forming a circulation center near Truk , Thad became a tropical storm as it approached Guam on October 19 . Moving east of the island , Thad became an intense typhoon very early on October 22 . Recurving into the Westerlies thereafter , the cyclone slowly weakened as it accelerated northeast and became an extratropical cyclone by October 24 . = = = Super Typhoon Vanessa ( Reming ) = = = This system formed in the near equatorial trough southeast of Ponape a few days after Thad on October 20 . The system moved northwest to just north of Ponape as it slowly developed . The disturbance strengthened into a tropical depression by October 22 and a tropical storm October 23 despite some northwesterly shear from Thad . As a minimal typhoon , Vanessa moved about 165 kilometres ( 103 mi ) south of Guam , where winds gusted to 59 knots ( 109 km / h ) on Nimitz Hill . Damage on the island totaled US $ 1 @.@ 7 million ( 1984 dollars ) , mainly to the banana crop . Moving west @-@ northwest , Vanessa continued to strengthen , becoming a super typhoon . Super Typhoon Vanessa was the strongest typhoon of the season , reaching maximum sustained wind speeds of 190 miles per hour ( 310 km / h ) over the open waters of the West Pacific . At its peak , it had a pressure of 880 mb , only 10 millibars higher than the record @-@ setting Typhoon Tip of 1979 . Its central pressure fell 100 mb in 48 hours . The intense cyclone recurved on October 27 and October 28 as a cold front approached from the northwest . Vanessa slowly merged with the frontal boundary , becoming a storm @-@ force extratropical cyclone late on October 30 . Though the storm did not directly impact the Philippines , its outer bands triggered flooding that killed 63 people . = = = Severe Tropical Storm Warren ( Toyang ) = = = The initial disturbance formed at the end of a shear line about 555 kilometres ( 345 mi ) northeast of Mindinao . Embedded within the monsoon trough , it was a broad depression . It slowly weakened as it moved west @-@ southwest through the Philippines into the South China Sea on October 22 . Due to strengthening northeasterly low level flow , the circulation became better defined and conditions aloft favored strengthening . The system formed into a tropical depression late on October 23 despite easterly vertical wind shear . By early on October 24 , Warren became a tropical storm which then turned to the north . Between October 24 and October 26 , the cyclone performed a small cyclonic loop . On October 26 , Warren strengthened into a typhoon . The steering flow weakened around Warren at that time as Vanessa was moving to its northeast . Warren became entrained into Vanessa 's southwestern circulation , and turned east @-@ northeast . As Vanessa moved away from Warren , the cyclone performed an anticyclonic loop and turned back to the west on October 28 . Clark Air Force Base recorded 222 millimetres ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) of rainfall on October 28 and October 29 due to Warren . The heavy rains over the Philippines led to landslides which killed 42 people . The passenger ferry MV Venus capsized on October 28 , which led to an additional 36 deaths . The 930 @-@ ton ship Lorenzo Container VIII sank that day , which led to eight missing crew members . Another surge in the low @-@ level northeast flow to Warren 's north led to an expansion of its wind field . This cooler and drier air was also weakening the cyclone . On October 30 , the storm turned west @-@ southwest and continued weakening . By October 31 Warren had weakened to a tropical depression and it dissipated as a tropical cyclone over water . Its remaining convection moved into central Vietnam on November 1 . Its weakening center led to gales along the coast . By November 2 , Warren 's circulation center dissipated . = = = Tropical Depression Seniang = = = = = = Typhoon Agnes ( Undang ) = = = This system began as an area of convection along the equator on October 28 . Moving northwest , the system developed . On November 1 , the system became a tropical depression and then strengthened into a tropical storm . The storm turned west @-@ northwest due to a broad ridge to its north . Intensifying into a typhoon , Agnes became an intense typhoon as it approached the Philippines . Two months after Typhoon Ike hit the central Philippines , 140 miles per hour ( 230 km / h ) Typhoon Agnes struck just south of Borongan on November 4 . It crossed the islands and briefly weakened . Strengthening began as it moved through the South China Sea . It hit Quinhon , Vietnam as a 115 miles per hour ( 185 km / h ) typhoon on November 7 . Once onshore , Anges weakened rapidly before dissipating on November 8 . Across the Philippines , Agnes wrought catastrophic damage . A total of 201 @,@ 014 homes were destroyed and another 163 @,@ 506 were damaged , with loses amounting to 1 @.@ 9 billion pesos ( US $ 96 @.@ 6 million ) . At least 895 people perished in the storm while 275 others were reported missing . Another 2 @,@ 526 people were injured by the storm . Altogether , approximately 1 @.@ 9 million people were affected by the typhoon . Extensive damage also took place in Vietnam where at least 134 people were killed . At least 30 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed and another 120 @,@ 000 were flooded or damaged . = = = Super Typhoon Bill ( Welpring ) = = = An area of convection organized into a tropical depression on November 8 while east of Guam . It executed a small loop , reached tropical storm strength later on the 8th , and reached typhoon intensity on the 11th . Bill continued to strengthen as it tracked westward , reaching maximum sustained winds of 150 miles per hour ( 240 km / h ) on the 14th . Strong upper level winds weakened the storm , and as a break in the subtropical ridge brought the storm northward , upper level winds from Typhoon Clara weakened Bill to a tropical storm on the 18th . It looped southeastward while just east of Luzon , and looped again to the southwest on the 20th . Bill dissipated as a tropical cyclone on the November 22 , after causing minor damage on its path . = = = Typhoon Clara ( Yoning ) = = = A large , low @-@ latitude disturbance formed in the eastern Caroline islands on November 11 . By November 13 , the surface low was gaining significant amounts of convection . Its circulation was aided by a tropical disturbance to its south in the Solomon islands which enhanced westerly flow between the two systems , increasing the low level vorticity within the northern hemisphere system . Consolidation of the system began , and the system became a tropical depression on November 14 . Further development of this system into a tropical storm and typhoon was accompanied by an expansion in the size of its circulation . As Clara recurved east of 132E , it passed within 930 kilometres ( 580 mi ) of Bill , which radically changed Bill 's course and weakened both cyclones . Once Bill moved farther away , Clara reintensified into a strong typhoon by November 20 . Recurvature of Clara continued , and it became an extratropical cyclone along an approaching frontal zone , and was able to be followed through November 22 . Iwo @-@ Jima reported 40 knots ( 74 km / h ) winds with gusts to 63 knots ( 117 km / h ) as Clara passed by to the north . = = = Typhoon Doyle ( Aring ) = = = Its initial tropical disturbance was first noted near 5N 156E on December 1 . The system moved west @-@ northwest , slowly developing . A low @-@ level circulation in the Coral Sea helped enhance westerly flow to its south , which developed into a tropical depression late on December 4 and a tropical storm early on December 5 . Intensification continued , and typhoon strength was reached late on December 6 . Turning more northwest , the typhoon became intense early on December 8 . As it recurved northward , the cyclone weakened quickly late on December 9 and early on December 10 . The cyclone became an exposed circulation , and dissipated as a tropical cyclone over water late on December 11 . = = Storm names = = During the season 27 named tropical cyclones developed in the Western Pacific and were named by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center , when it was determined that they had become tropical storms . These names were contributed to a revised list which started on 1979 . = = = Philippines = = = The Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration uses its own naming scheme for tropical cyclones in their area of responsibility . PAGASA assigns names to tropical depressions that form within their area of responsibility and any tropical cyclone that might move into their area of responsibility . Should the list of names for a given year prove to be insufficient , names are taken from an auxiliary list , the first 6 of which are published each year before the season starts . Names not retired from this list will be used again in the 1988 season . This is the same list used for the 1980 season . PAGASA uses its own naming scheme that starts in the Filipino alphabet , with names of Filipino female names ending with " ng " ( A , B , K , D , etc . ) . Names that were not assigned / going to use are marked in gray . = = = Retirement = = = Due to a high death toll caused by Typhoon Ike , the name Ike was later retired and was replaced by Ian and was first used in the 1987 season . PAGASA did the same and retired the name Nitang and was replaced by Ningning for the 1988 season .
= HMS Calliope ( 1884 ) = HMS Calliope was a Calypso @-@ class corvette ( later classified as a third @-@ class cruiser ) of the Royal Navy which served from 1887 until 1951 . Exemplifying the transitional nature of the late Victorian navy , Calliope was a sailing corvette – last such ship built for the Royal Navy – but supplemented the full sail rig with a powerful engine . Steel was used for the hull , and like the earlier iron @-@ hulled corvettes , Calliope was cased with timber and coppered below the waterline , in the same manner as wooden ships . Calliope was known for " one of the most famous episodes of seamanship in the 19th century " , when the vessel was the only one present to avoid being sunk or stranded in the tropical cyclone that struck Apia , Samoa in 1889 . After retirement from active service , Calliope served as a training ship until 1951 , when the old corvette was sold for breaking . = = Design and construction = = Calliope and sister ship Calypso comprised the Calypso class of corvettes designed by Nathaniel Barnaby . Part of a long line of cruiser classes built for protecting trade routes and colonial police work , they were the last two sailing corvettes built for the Royal Navy . Corvettes had been built of iron since the Volage class of 1867 , but the Calypsos and the preceding Comus class were instead built of steel . Corvettes were designed to operate across the vast distances of Britain 's maritime empire , and could not rely on dry docks for maintenance . Since iron ( and steel ) hulls were subject to biofouling , and they could not easily be cleaned , the established practice of copper sheathing was extended to protect them ; the metal plating of the hull was timber @-@ cased and coppered below the waterline . The only armour was a 1 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 38 @-@ mm ) armoured deck covering the machinery spaces , but coal bunkers along the sides gave some protection to the machinery spaces . Calypso and Calliope differed from their nine predecessors of the Comus class in armament ; they were also slightly longer , had a deeper draught , and displaced 390 tons more . Originally planned as a ten @-@ gun corvette , Calliope was completed with four 6 @-@ inch ( 152 @.@ 4 mm ) breechloaders in sponsons fore and aft on each side , twelve 5 @-@ inch ( 127 @.@ 0 mm ) breechloaders in broadside between the 6 @-@ inch guns , and six quick @-@ firing Nordenfelts . The compound @-@ expansion steam engine was supplied with steam by 6 boilers and developed 4 @,@ 023 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 000 kW ) . This was 50 % more powerful than the predecessor class , which gave the corvette one more knot of speed , a difference that would be crucial in the disaster that made Calliope famous . Driving a single feathering screw , the engine could achieve a speed of 13 ¾ knots , or 14 ¾ knots with forced draught . The vessel nevertheless was a fully rigged sailing ship , allowing sustained service in areas where coaling stations were far apart . Calliope was well @-@ suited to distant cruising service for the British Empire at its Victorian peak . Although laid down in 1881 , Calliope was not launched until 1884 , and was placed in reserve at Portsmouth before completion . The ship was not activated until 25 January 1887 , when the vessel was placed in commission for the China Station , the sort of distant service for which the class had been designed . The same year , all corvettes and frigates were re @-@ classified as " cruisers " , with Calliope and Calypso falling into the " third @-@ class cruiser " category . = = Service with the fleet = = The British Empire was the largest on Earth , and Britain protected that empire and its trade routes with the world 's largest navy . Great Britain assumed the role of peacekeeper on the world 's oceans , and the Royal Navy was the instrument by which the Pax Britannica was kept . The global reach of the Royal Navy included the western Pacific Ocean , patrolled by the Australia Station . In 1887 Captain Henry Coey Kane took Calliope to the Pacific . At first assigned to the China Station , the vessel was reassigned to the Australia Station later in 1887 . The cruiser was in New Zealand at the end of that year , and was the first vessel to enter the new Calliope Dock . In early 1888 Calliope was sent north to watch over a looming diplomatic crisis and potential military confrontation in Samoa . This crisis had its roots in the Great Powers ' competition for colonies in the last decades of the 19th century . The German Empire , invigorated by its victory over France in the Franco @-@ Prussian War and by its unification under the Prussian monarchy , had newfound imperial ambitions that stretched beyond Europe . It had shared in the division of Africa , and in the 1880s looked to the Pacific as well . Ships of its Imperial Navy were sent to Apia in Samoa , where German agents had fomented rebellion against the indigenous government . They were countered there by the Asiatic Squadron of the United States Navy . The United States had nearly completed establishing control over its territories on the North American continent , leading American ambitions to stretch beyond its shores . The squadron was at Samoa to assert US interests in the Pacific and to watch the Germans . In March 1889 , the new corvette Calliope — sent to keep the peace and protect Britain 's interests in Samoa — joined the competing squadrons of the Imperial German and United States navies at Apia . The harbour there was primitive , small and nearly surrounded by reefs . Perhaps fit for four ships , the anchorage held seven warships and six merchant vessels on 14 March . The barometer began to fall that day and a tropical cyclone began to form . The 1889 Apia cyclone increased in ferocity over the next two days . Rain fell in sheets , cutting visibility . Winds of 70 to 100 knots ( 130 – 185 km / h ) blew directly into the anchorage , trapping the ships in the V @-@ shaped harbour . The harbour bottom was scoured by currents and anchors lost their purchase . Operating their engines at full speed to resist the wind and waves , ships nevertheless dragged their anchors and were inexorably driven landward . Vessels collided and were thrown on the reefs or ashore , and some sank . By 09 : 00 on the 16th , Calliope , although still riding at anchor , had been hit by one ship and narrowly missed by another , and Captain Kane decided to attempt to escape . To relieve the strain on the five anchor cables , Calliope 's boilers were producing maximum pressure ; the engines were being worked " red hot " , and the propeller was making 74 revolutions per minute , sufficient for 15 knots ( 28 km / h ) in calmer waters . In spite of this titanic effort , the ship was barely able to make headway against the winds and the seas in the harbour , and anchor cables began to part . To port and only 20 feet ( 6 m ) away was the coral reef . Ahead were the US ships USS Vandalia and USS Trenton ; to starboard were other warships . There was only a narrow opening between the vessels to one side and the ground to the other . Hemmed in by these obstacles and with the rudder at times within 6 feet ( 2 m ) of the reef , Calliope manoeuvred while still attached to the anchor cables , which began to give way . When Captain Kane saw an opening , he slipped the anchors and drove forward . Avoiding the helpless Vandalia , he approached the sinking Trenton , coming so close that Calliope 's fore yard @-@ arm passed over the American 's deck . As Calliope rolled to port , the yard lifted over Trenton . The crew of the helpless and doomed American ship cheered Calliope as the corvette slipped past . The British ship 's drive for the open sea was called by the American commander on the scene " one of the grandest sights a seaman or anyone else ever saw ; the lives of 250 souls depended on the hazardous adventure . " Making for the harbour mouth , the British ship 's bow and stern alternately rose and plunged into the incoming waves ; the propeller at times was spinning in air , requiring a careful hand on the throttle to keep the shaft from running away to destruction . Green seas were boarding the vessel and running the length of the deck . There were ten men on the wheel and more below handling relieving tackle on the tiller to assist in maintaining control of the rudder . Taking two hours to travel four cables , the cruiser finally escaped the anchorage into the open sea , an achievement not known to Calliope 's crew for some time , as sea spray and spume had reduced visibility to nothing . The storm kept Calliope at sea the next two days . Re @-@ entering the harbour on 19 March to search for the missing anchors , the crew discovered that all of the other ships — twelve in all — had been wrecked or sunk , and nearly every crew had been diminished by the loss of men killed by the storm . Unable to find the anchor amidst the wreckage , and his ship having sustained significant damage , Captain Kane decided to return to Australia . He turned over Calliope 's diving outfit to the US Navy to assist it in salvage , and received in return boats from the wrecked American ships to replace the boats which had been stripped from Calliope by the storm . Captain Kane then took his ship to Sydney , where they received a hero 's welcome . The narrowness of Calliope 's escape ; the excellence of the engines and the dedication of the crew , who kept the power plant in operation for many hours during the ordeal ; the seamanship of Captain Kane and officers ; their bravery in letting go of their anchor and facing the storm , trusting only in their ship and themselves ; and the respect and encouragement given to them by the crew of Trenton ; made Calliope famous . The engineer of Calliope , Henry George Bourke , was specially promoted from staff engineer to fleet engineer on 28 May 1889 , " for his services in Her Majesty 's ship ' Calliope , ' during the recent hurricane at Samoa . " He attributed his success to the superior properties of West Coast coal from New Zealand used to fire the ship 's boilers ; this statement attracted the custom of the British Admiralty when fuelling its ships in those waters . Captain Kane was made Companion of the Order of the Bath ( CB ) in the 1891 Queen 's Birthday Honours . He was cited by the Admiralty for his " nerve and decisions " , given the command of HMS Victory in 1892 , and in 1897 was promoted to rear @-@ admiral . Calliope returned to service on the Australian station after repairs were complete . At the end of 1889 the cruiser was recalled to the United Kingdom . = = In reserve = = Arriving back home in early 1890 , Calliope was placed in reserve and remained there for the next seven years . In June 1897 the cruiser was present at Queen Victoria 's Diamond Jubilee Review of the Fleet at Spithead . That same year Calliope became a tender to HMS Northampton , an older and larger armoured cruiser used as seagoing training ship for boys . Calliope also was occasionally used as a training cruiser herself , and toured the Mediterranean from February to April in 1900 , and again in March 1901 , and in March 1902 . During the summer 1902 she undertook a training cruise in home waters May – June 1902 under the command of Captain E. D. St. A. Ommanney , visiting Campbeltown , Belfast Lough , Portishead , Dartmouth , Lyme Regis and Guernsey ; before she took part in the Coronation Naval Review . Relieved of tender duty in 1905 , Calliope was returned to reserve and promptly stricken from the effective list . The cruiser laid up at Portsmouth , and in 1906 was listed for sale for a time . The next year Calliope was moved to North East England for a new career . = = Training ship = = On 29 October 1907 Calliope became a drill ship at Newcastle upon Tyne for the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve , Tyne Division , and served there for over four decades . The cruiser surrendered the name " Calliope " to a C @-@ class cruiser between 1915 and 1931 , and became Helicon . After the newer Calliope was paid off in the 1930s , Helicon reverted to Calliope and retained that name until sold in 1951 . When finally scrapped in 1953 , the steering wheel was presented to the government of Western Samoa . The mahogany panelling from the officers ' wardroom was reclaimed in 1953 and now forms the wings to the 18th century organ in the west gallery of Christ Church , North Shields , Tyne and Wear . The name " Calliope " also lives on in the Royal Navy . In 1951 the ship 's successor as training ship on the Tyne took that name , and now the shore establishment itself bears the title and honours the memory of HMS Calliope .
= Ununseptium = Ununseptium is a superheavy artificial chemical element with an atomic number of 117 and a temporary symbol of Uus . Also known as eka @-@ astatine or element 117 , it is the second @-@ heaviest known element and penultimate element of the 7th period of the periodic table . As of 2016 , fifteen ununseptium atoms have been observed : six when it was first synthesized in 2010 , seven in 2012 , and two in 2014 . The discovery of ununseptium was announced in Dubna , Russia , by a Russian – American collaboration in 2010 , which makes it the most recently discovered element as of 2016 . One of its daughter isotopes was created directly in 2011 , partially confirming the results of the experiment . The experiment itself was repeated successfully by the same collaboration in 2012 and by a joint German – American team in 2014 . In 2015 , the Joint Working Party of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry and the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics , which evaluates claims of discovery of new elements , has recognized the element and assigned the priority to the Russian – American team . In June 2016 , the IUPAC published a declaration stating that the discoverers suggested a name of tennessine ( / ˈtɛnᵻsaɪn / or / ˈtɛnᵻsiːn / ) , symbol Ts , named after Tennessee , United States . The name is set to be formally accepted in or after November 2016 . " Ununseptium " is a temporary systematic element name formed from Latin roots " one " , " one " , and " seven " ; it is intended to be used until a permanent one is assigned . The working name " element 117 " is commonly used by researchers and in the literature . Ununseptium may be located in the " island of stability " , a concept that explains why some superheavy elements are more stable compared to an overall trend of decreasing stability for elements beyond lead on the periodic table . The synthesized ununseptium atoms have lasted tens and hundreds of milliseconds . In the periodic table , ununseptium is expected to be a member of group 17 , all other members of which are halogens . Some of its properties are likely to be significantly different from those of the halogens due to relativistic effects . Unlike the halogens , ununseptium is likely to neither commonly form anions nor achieve high oxidation states . A few key properties , such as its melting and boiling points and its first ionization energy , are nevertheless expected to follow the periodic trends of the halogens . = = History = = = = = Pre @-@ discovery = = = In December 2004 , the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research ( JINR ) team in Dubna , Moscow Oblast , Russia , proposed a joint experiment with the Oak Ridge National Laboratory ( ORNL ) in Oak Ridge , Tennessee , United States , to synthesize element 117 — so @-@ called for the 117 protons in its nucleus . Their proposal involved fusing a berkelium ( element 97 ) target and a calcium ( element 20 ) beam , conducted via bombardment of the berkelium target with calcium nuclei . The ORNL — then world 's only producer of berkelium — could not then provide the element , as they had temporarily ceased production , and re @-@ initiating it again would be too costly . Plans to synthesize element 117 were suspended in favor of the synthesis of element 118 , which was produced earlier by bombarding a californium target with calcium . The required berkelium @-@ 249 is a by @-@ product in californium @-@ 252 production , and obtaining the required amount of berkelium was an even more difficult task than obtaining that of californium , as well as costly : it would cost around 3 @.@ 5 million dollars , and the parties agreed to wait for a commercial order of californium production , from which berkelium could be extracted . The JINR team sought to use berkelium because calcium @-@ 48 , the isotope of calcium used in the beam , has 20 protons and 28 neutrons , making a neutron – proton ratio of 1 @.@ 4 ; and it is the lightest stable or near @-@ stable nucleus with such a large neutron excess . The second @-@ lightest such nucleus , palladium @-@ 110 ( 46 protons , 64 neutrons , neutron – proton ratio of 1 @.@ 391 ) , is much heavier . Thanks to the neutron excess , the resulting nuclei were expected to be heavier and closer to the sought @-@ after island of stability . Since ununseptium has 117 protons in its nucleus and calcium has 20 , they needed to use berkelium , which has 97 protons in its nucleus . In February 2005 , the leader of the JINR team — Yuri Oganessian — held a colloquium at ORNL and attended a symposium at Vanderbilt University ( Nashville , Tennessee , U.S. ) celebrating the career of a long @-@ standing collaborator of Oganessian , Joseph Hamilton , where Oganessian , Hamilton , and James Roberto ( then the deputy director for science and technology at Oak Ridge ) established a collaboration between JINR , ORNL , and Vanderbilt ; the team at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory ( LLNL ) in Livermore , California , U.S. , was soon invited to join . = = = Discovery = = = In the spring of 2008 , the ORNL started production of californium for a commercial order by an oil company ; Hamilton learned that in the summer , making a deal on subsequent extraction of berkelium . In September 2008 , Oganessian , Hamilton , and Roberto assembled to coordinate planning on the experiment . In November 2008 , the U.S. Department of Energy , the state department oversight over the reactor in Oak Ridge , allowed the scientific use of the extracted berkelium . The production lasted 250 days and ended in late December 2008 , resulting in 22 milligrams of berkelium , enough to perform the experiment . In January 2009 , the berkelium was removed from the reactor ; it was subsequently cooled for 90 days and then chemically purified for another 90 days . Its half @-@ life is only 330 days : after that time , half the berkelium produced would have decayed away . Because of this , the berkelium target had to be quickly transported to Russia ; for the experiment to be viable , it had to begin within six months of its departure from the United States . The target was packed into five lead containers to be sent on a commercial flight from New York to Moscow . Russian customs officials twice refused to let the target enter the country because of missing or incomplete paperwork . Over the span of a few days , the target traveled over the Atlantic Ocean five times . On its arrival in Russia in early June 2009 , the berkelium was transferred to Research Institute of Atomic Reactors ( RIAR ) in Dimitrovgrad , Ulyanovsk Oblast , where it was deposited as a 300 @-@ nanometer @-@ thin layer on a titanium film . In July 2009 , it was then transported to Dubna , where it was installed in the particle accelerator at JINR . The calcium @-@ 48 beam was generated by chemically extracting the small quantities of calcium @-@ 48 present in naturally occurring calcium , enriching it 500 times in the closed town of Lesnoy , Sverdlovsk Oblast , Russia . The experiment began on July 28 , 2009 . In January 2010 , scientists at the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions announced internally that they had detected the decay of a new element with atomic number 117 via two decay chains : one of an odd @-@ odd isotope undergoing 6 alpha decays before spontaneous fission , and one of an odd @-@ even isotope undergoing 3 alpha decays before fission . The obtained data from the experiment was sent to the LLNL for further analysis . On April 9 , 2010 , an official report was released in the journal Physical Review Letters identifying the isotopes as 294Uus and 293Uus , which were shown to have half @-@ lives on the order of tens or hundreds of milliseconds . The work was signed by all parties involved in the experiment to some extent : JINR , ORNL , LLNL , RIAR , Vanderbilt , and the University of Nevada ( Las Vegas , Nevada , U.S. ) , which provided data analysis support . The isotopes were formed as follows : 249 97Bk + 48 20Ca → 297 117Uus * → 294 117Uus + 3 1 0n ( 1 event ) 249 97Bk + 48 20Ca → 297 117Uus * → 293 117Uus + 4 1 0n ( 5 events ) = = = Confirmation = = = All of ununseptium 's daughter isotopes ( decay products ) were previously unknown ; therefore , their properties could not be used to confirm the claim of discovery . In 2011 , when one of the decay products ( ununpentium @-@ 289 ) was synthesized directly , its properties matched those measured in the claimed indirect synthesis from the decay of ununseptium . The discoverers did not submit a claim for their findings in 2007 – 2011 when the Joint Working Party was reviewing claims of discoveries of new elements . The Dubna team repeated the experiment in 2012 , creating seven atoms of ununseptium and confirming their earlier synthesis of ununoctium ( produced after some time when a significant quantity of the berkelium @-@ 249 target had beta decayed to californium @-@ 249 ) . The results of the experiment matched the previous outcome ; the scientists have since filed an application to register the element . In 2014 , a joint German – American collaboration of scientists from the ORNL and the GSI Helmholtz Center for Heavy Ion Research in Darmstadt , Germany , claimed to have confirmed discovery of the element . The team repeated the Dubna experiment using the Darmstadt accelerator , creating two atoms of ununseptium @-@ 294 . In December 2015 , the JWP officially recognized the discovery , and thus the listed discoverers — JINR , LLNL , and ORNL — were given the right to suggest an official name for the element . = = = Naming = = = Using Mendeleev 's nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements , ununseptium should be known as eka @-@ astatine . Using the 1979 IUPAC recommendations , the element should be temporarily called ununseptium ( symbol Uus ) until the discovery is confirmed and a permanent name chosen ; the temporary name is formed from Latin roots " one " , " one " , and " seven " , a reference to the element 's atomic number of 117 . Many scientists in the field call it " element 117 " , with the symbol ( 117 ) or 117 . According to guidelines of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) valid at the moment of the discovery approval , the permanent names of new elements should have ended in " -ium " ; this included ununseptium , even if the element was a halogen , which traditionally have names ending in " -ine " ; however , the new recommendations published in 2016 recommended using the " -ine " ending for new group 17 elements . After the original synthesis in 2010 , scientists declared naming was a sensitive question , and it was avoided as far as possible . However , Hamilton declared that year , " I was crucial in getting the group together and in getting the 249Bk target essential for the discovery . As a result of that , I ’ m going to get to name the element . I can ’ t tell you the name , but it will bring distinction to the region " . In June 2016 , IUPAC published a declaration stating the discoverers submitted their suggestions for naming the new elements to the IUPAC ; the suggestion for the element 117 was tennessine , with a symbol of Ts , after " the region of Tennessee " . The names are recommended for acceptance by the IUPAC Inorganic Chemistry Division ; formal acceptance should occur after a five @-@ months term expires after the declaration has been published . = = Predicted properties = = = = = Nuclear stability and isotopes = = = The stability of nuclei quickly decreases with the increase in atomic number after curium , element 96 , whose half @-@ life is four orders of magnitude longer than that of any subsequent element . All isotopes with an atomic number above 101 undergo radioactive decay with half @-@ lives of less than 30 hours . No elements with atomic numbers above 82 ( after lead ) have stable isotopes . Nevertheless , because of reasons not yet well understood , there is a slight increase of nuclear stability around atomic numbers 110 – 114 , which leads to the appearance of what is known in nuclear physics as the " island of stability " . This concept , proposed by University of California professor Glenn Seaborg , explains why superheavy elements last longer than predicted . Ununseptium is the second @-@ heaviest element created so far , and has a half @-@ life of less than one second ; this is longer than the predicted value used in the discovery report . The Dubna team believes that the synthesis of the element is direct experimental proof of the existence of the island of stability . It has been calculated that the isotope 295Uus would have a half @-@ life of 18 ± 7 milliseconds and that it may be possible to produce this isotope via the same berkelium – calcium reaction used in the discoveries of the known isotopes , 293Uus and 294Uus . The chance of this reaction producing 295Uus is estimated to be , at most , one @-@ seventh the chance of producing 294Uus . Calculations using a quantum tunneling model predict the existence of several isotopes of ununseptium up to 303Uus . The most stable of these is expected to be 296Uus with an alpha @-@ decay half @-@ life of 40 milliseconds . A liquid drop model study on the element 's isotopes shows similar results ; it suggests a general trend of increasing stability for isotopes heavier than 301Uus , with partial half @-@ lives exceeding the age of the universe for the heaviest isotopes like 335Uus when beta decay is not considered . = = = Atomic and physical = = = Ununseptium is expected to be a member of group 17 in the periodic table , below the five halogens ; fluorine , chlorine , bromine , iodine , and astatine , each of which has seven valence electrons with a configuration of ns2np5 . For ununseptium , being in the seventh period ( row ) of the periodic table , continuing the trend would predict a valence electron configuration of 7s27p5 , and it would therefore be expected to behave similarly to the halogens in many respects that relate to this electronic state . Significant differences are likely to arise , largely due to spin – orbit interaction — the mutual interaction between the motion and spin of electrons . The spin – orbit interaction is especially strong for the superheavy elements because their electrons move faster — at velocities comparable to the speed of light — than those in lighter atoms . In ununseptium atoms , this lowers the 7s and the 7p electron energy levels , stabilizing the corresponding electrons , although two of the 7p electron energy levels are more stabilized than the other four . The stabilization of the 7s electrons is called the inert pair effect ; the effect that separates the 7p subshell into the more @-@ stabilized and the less @-@ stabilized parts is called subshell splitting . Computational chemists understand the split as a change of the second ( azimuthal ) quantum number l from 1 to 1 / 2 and 3 / 2 for the more @-@ stabilized and less @-@ stabilized parts of the 7p subshell , respectively . For many theoretical purposes , the valence electron configuration may be represented to reflect the 7p subshell split as 7s27p2 1 / 27p3 3 / 2 . Differences for other electron levels also exist . For example , the 6d electron levels ( also split in two , with four being 6d3 / 2 and six being 6d5 / 2 ) are both raised , so they are close in energy to the 7s ones , although no 6d electron chemistry has been predicted for ununseptium . The difference between the 7p1 / 2 and 7p3 / 2 levels is abnormally high ; 9 @.@ 8 eV . Astatine 's 6p subshell split is only 3 @.@ 8 eV , and its 6p1 / 2 chemistry has already been called " limited " . These effects cause ununseptium 's chemistry to differ from those of its upper neighbors ( see below ) . Ununseptium 's first ionization energy — the energy required to remove an electron from a neutral atom — is predicted to be 7 @.@ 7 eV , lower than those of the halogens , again following the trend . Like its neighbors in the periodic table , ununseptium is expected to have the lowest electron affinity — energy released when an electron is added to the atom — in its group ; 2 @.@ 6 or 1 @.@ 8 eV . The electron of the hypothetical hydrogen @-@ like ununseptium atom — oxidized so it has only one electron , Uus116 + — is predicted to move so quickly that its mass is 1 @.@ 9 times that of a non @-@ moving electron , a feature attributable to relativistic effects . For comparison , the figure for hydrogen @-@ like astatine is 1 @.@ 27 and the figure for hydrogen @-@ like iodine is 1 @.@ 08 . Simple extrapolations of relativity laws indicate a contraction of atomic radius . Advanced calculations show that the radius of an ununseptium atom that has formed one covalent bond would be 165 pm , while that of astatine would be 147 pm . With the seven outermost electrons removed , ununseptium is finally smaller ; 57 pm for ununseptium and 61 pm for astatine . The melting and boiling points of ununseptium are not known ; earlier papers predicted about 350 – 500 ° C and 550 ° C respectively , or 350 – 550 ° C and 610 ° C respectively . These values exceed those of astatine and the lighter halogens , following periodic trends . A later paper predicts the boiling point of ununseptium to be 345 ° C ( that of astatine is estimated as 309 ° C , 337 ° C , or 370 ° C , although experimental values of 230 ° C and 411 ° C have been reported ) . The density of ununseptium is expected to be between 7 @.@ 1 and 7 @.@ 3 g · cm − 3 , continuing the trend of increasing density among the halogens ; that of astatine is estimated to be between 6 @.@ 2 and 6 @.@ 5 g · cm − 3 . = = = Chemical = = = Unlike the previous group 17 elements , ununseptium may not exhibit chemical behavior common to the halogens . For example , extant members of the group routinely accept an electron to achieve the more stable electronic configuration of a noble gas , one having eight electrons ( octet ) in its valence shell This ability weakens as atomic weight increases going down the group ; ununseptium would be the least willing to accept an electron . Of the oxidation states it is predicted to form , − 1 is expected to be the least common . There is another opportunity for ununseptium to complete its octet — by forming a covalent bond . Like the halogens , when two ununseptium atoms meet they are expected to form a Uus – Uus bond to give a diatomic molecule . Such molecules are commonly bound via single sigma bonds between the atoms ; these are different from pi bonds , which are divided into two parts , each shifted in a direction perpendicular to the line between the atoms , and opposite one another rather than being located directly between the atoms they bind . Sigma bonding has been calculated to show a great antibonding character in the At2 molecule and is not as favorable energetically . Ununseptium is predicted to continue the trend ; a strong pi character should be seen in the bonding of Uus2 . The molecule UusCl is predicted to go further , being bonded with a single pi bond . Aside from the unstable − 1 state , three more oxidation states are predicted ; + 5 , + 3 , and + 1 . The + 1 state should be especially stable because of the destabilization of the three outermost 7p3 / 2 electrons , forming a stable , half @-@ filled subshell configuration ; astatine shows similar effects . The + 3 state should be important , again due to the destabilized 7p3 / 2 electrons . The + 5 state is predicted to be uncommon because the 7p1 / 2 electrons are oppositely stabilized . The + 7 state has not been shown — even computationally — to be achievable . Because the 7s electrons are greatly stabilized , it has been hypothesized that ununseptium effectively has only five valence electrons . The simplest possible ununseptium compound would be the monohydride , UusH . The bonding is expected to be provided by a 7p3 / 2 electron of ununseptium and the 1s electron of hydrogen . The non @-@ bonding nature of the 7p1 / 2 spinor is because ununseptium is expected not to form purely sigma or pi bonds . Therefore , the destabilized ( thus expanded ) 7p3 / 2 spinor is responsible for bonding . This effect lengthens the UusH molecule by 17 picometers compared with the overall length of 195 pm . Since the ununseptium p electron bonds are two @-@ thirds sigma , the bond is only two @-@ thirds as strong as it would be if ununseptium featured no spin – orbit interactions . The molecule thus follows the trend for halogen hydrides , showing an increase in bond length and a decrease in dissociation energy compared to AtH . The molecules TlUus and UutUus may be viewed analogously , taking into account an opposite effect shown by the fact that the element 's p1 / 2 electrons are stabilized . These two characteristics result in a relatively small dipole moment ( product of difference between electric charges of atoms and displacement of the atoms ) for TlUus ; only 1 @.@ 67 D , the positive value implying that the negative charge is on the ununseptium atom . For UutUus , the strength of the effects are predicted to cause a transfer of the electron from the ununseptium atom to the ununtrium atom , with the dipole moment value being − 1 @.@ 80 D. The spin – orbit interaction increases the dissociation energy of the UusF molecule because it lowers the electronegativity of ununseptium , causing the bond with the extremely electronegative fluorine atom to have a more ionic character . Ununseptium monofluoride should feature the strongest bonding of all group 17 element monofluorides . VSEPR theory predicts a bent @-@ T @-@ shaped molecular geometry for the group 17 trifluorides . All known halogen trifluorides have this molecular geometry and have a structure of AX3E2 — a central atom , denoted A , surrounded by three ligands , X , and two unshared electron pairs , E. If relativistic effects are ignored , UusF3 should follow its lighter congeners in having a bent @-@ T @-@ shaped molecular geometry . More sophisticated predictions show that this molecular geometry would not be energetically favored for UusF3 , predicting instead a trigonal planar molecular geometry ( AX3E0 ) . This shows that VSEPR theory may not be consistent for the superheavy elements . The UusF3 molecule is predicted to be significantly stabilized by spin – orbit interactions ; a possible rationale may be the large difference in electronegativity between ununseptium and fluorine , giving the bond a partially ionic character .
= 1958 Atlantic hurricane season = The 1958 Atlantic hurricane season included every tropical cyclone either affecting or threatening land . There were ten named storms as well as one pre @-@ season tropical depression . Seven of the storms became hurricanes , including five that were major hurricanes , or the equivalent of a Category 3 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . The strongest storm was Hurricane Helene , which became a strong Category 4 hurricane with 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) winds and an barometric pressure of 930 mbar ( 27 @.@ 46 inHg ) while just offshore the southeastern United States . In May , a subtropical depression formed in the Caribbean and dropped heavy rainfall near Miami , Florida . The first named storm of the season was Alma , which killed three people and caused flooding in Texas . Hurricane Daisy in August was a major hurricane that paralleled the eastern coast of the United States , although due to its small size it did not cause much damage . Hurricane Ella affected much of the northern Caribbean and Texas , most significantly the Dominican Republic where 30 people died . Ella also killed six people in Cuba , where it made landfall as a major hurricane . A few weeks later , Tropical Storm Gerda also struck the Dominican Republic and killed three people . The costliest storm of the season was Helene , which caused $ 11 @.@ 2 million in damage ( 1958 USD ) , mostly in North Carolina . Although it passed within 10 mi ( 16 km ) of the state , its effects were mostly limited to the coast , and the hurricane killed one person . The last storm of the season , Janice , killed eight people in Jamaica when its precursor dropped 20 in ( 510 mm ) of rainfall , and one person was killed in the Bahamas . = = Season summary = = The ten tropical storms during the season is comparable to the 20 year average of ten . In contrast to the previous season when most storms were in the Gulf of Mexico , most storms in 1958 occurred over the western Atlantic Ocean . The first storm , Alma , formed in the middle of June . Subsequently , a trough persisted along the eastern United States , which suppressed tropical cyclone formation . Conditions remained unfavorable in July due to a large ridge suppressing the westerlies . In August , a persistent trough caused three storms – Becky , Cleo , and Daisy – to recurve and remain over the ocean . Most storms formed from the middle of August through the middle of October , when polar air reached as far south as Florida due to a shift in the ridge . Before the season started , the United States Weather Bureau office in Miami began setting up a teleprinter to distribute hourly advisories to newspapers and the American Red Cross . The hurricane season officially began on June 15 , and lasted until November 15 . When the season started , the Lakeland Frost Warning Service sent four employees to assist the Miami Weather Bureau . The Hurricane Hunters flew daily to investigate potential storms in the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico . In addition , there was a set of radars from Texas to Maine to track storms . Beginning in 1958 , the Weather Bureau predicted the change in tide due to a storm with the assistance of a tide specialist . During the season , a reporter – daughter of Weather Bureau director Gordon Dunn – flew into Hurricane Daisy , becoming the first woman to fly into a hurricane . Utilizing radars along the East Coast of the United States , the Weather Bureau tracked both Hurricanes Daisy and Helene for 575 mi ( 925 km ) , which was the first such occurrence of that feat . The season 's activity was reflected with a cumulative accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 121 . ACE , broadly speaking , is a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high values . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength . = = Storms = = = = = Tropical Storm One = = = A small circulation crossed Panama from the Pacific Ocean on May 17 , and by the following day it was a developing depression near San Andrés in the western Caribbean . The system gradually organized over warm waters while moving to the northwest , developing a well @-@ defined low pressure area by May 23 as it approached western Cuba . Later that day , the depression crossed the western portion of the island before turning to the northeast . On May 24 , the system passed southeast of Florida , dropping heavy rainfall that peaked at 12 @.@ 07 in ( 307 mm ) in Homestead . May 1958 was the second wettest May since 1911 , of which half of the precipitation fell during the depression . Several other locations in the Miami area reported record or near @-@ record rainfall for the month . The high rainfall disrupted planting of vegetables , and there was some crop damage . Flooding entered homes and businesses , forcing some evacuations . About 2 @,@ 900 people lost telephone service , and there was a brief water outage on Key Biscayne . There were also hundreds of vehicle accidents related to the storm . After affecting Florida , the depression continued to the northeast , and although it had a warm core , it was not able to develop significantly due to lack of temperature instability , as well as another low developing southwest of the circulation . The depression was briefly forecast to strike North Carolina , but instead an eastward moving ridge kept it offshore . In Hatteras , North Carolina , the depression dropped 3 in ( 76 mm ) of rainfall . The influx of cold air transitioned the depression to an extratropical cyclone on May 28 . An approaching cold front absorbed the depression and produced heavy rainfall in eastern Canada . = = = Tropical Storm Alma = = = A tropical wave was first observed in the central Caribbean Sea on June 9 . By the following day , there was evidence of a weak closed circulation off the south coast of Jamaica . Moving generally westward , on June 12 it crossed the Yucatán Peninsula , and the system emerged into the Bay of Campeche the next day . On June 14 , a tropical depression formed about halfway between the Yucatán Peninsula and Tamaulipas . Within six hours , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Alma about 150 mi ( 240 km ) east of Tampico . Later that day , a ship reported a pressure of 997 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) and high seas , and early on June 15 a United States Coast Guard plane measured winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) near the northeast Mexican coast . That day , Alma made landfall about 70 mi ( 110 km ) south of Brownsville , Texas in northeastern Mexico . The storm moved ashore in northeastern Tamaulipas early on June 15 before crossing into southern Texas . After weakening to a tropical depression , Alma straddled the Rio Grande before dissipating in western Texas late on June 16 . The United States Coast Guard recommended people to evacuate in beach areas near Brownsville , Texas . As it moved ashore , Alma produced a high tide of 2 @.@ 9 ft ( 0 @.@ 88 m ) along Padre Island , and one person drowned near Galveston due to heavy surf . The highest wind gust was 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) at Port Isabel , causing minor damage . However , Alma dropped heavy rainfall further inland , reaching about 20 in ( 510 mm ) near Medina . The rains caused floods that resulted in heavy damage to property and crops . Some rivers and streams rose above their banks due to floods , creating torrents of up to 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) in some arroyos . The floods covered highways and forced about 100 people to evacuate near Sabinal . The rains also knocked out telephone lines in Uvalde County , and temporarily trapped hundreds of scouts . One person drowned along the Concho River , and three people overall died due to the system . = = = Tropical Storm Becky = = = Based on reports from the Cape Verde islands offshore Africa , it is estimated a tropical depression developed on August 8 . It moved westward due to the subtropical ridge to its north , a motion the depression would continue for much of its duration . Nearby ship reports indicated gradual strengthening , and the depression became a tropical storm on August 11 . At 0400 UTC on August 12 , the San Juan Weather Bureau office initiated advisories on Tropical Storm Becky about halfway between the Lesser Antilles and Cape Verde . That day , the Hurricane Hunters flew into the storm , reporting a pressure of 1 @,@ 006 mbar ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) and flight level winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) ; its peak surface winds were estimated at 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . Also on August 12 , a storm warning was issued for the northern Leeward Islands , and a storm watch was issued for the United States Virgin Islands and northern Puerto Rico . After peaking in intensity , Becky continued quickly to the west @-@ northwest , and its fast motion may have prevented further strengthening . On August 14 , a flight reported hurricane @-@ force wind gusts in rainbands 210 mi ( 340 km ) east @-@ northeast of the center . The next day , the circulation became poorly defined , and by August 16 , Becky had become extratropical after it merged with an approaching cold front . The storm turned to the north and northeast , dissipating later on August 17 . As Becky was transitioning into an extratropical storm , it produced high waves along the southeastern coast of the United States . = = = Hurricane Cleo = = = A well @-@ developed tropical wave spawned a tropical storm on August 11 to the south of Cape Verde . It moved westward , and ships in the area indicated that it had a large circulation . The Hurricane Hunters flew into the system and observed a well @-@ developed hurricane with winds of 146 mph ( 235 km / h ) , which were the highest measured winds . As a result , the San Juan Weather Bureau Office initiated advisories on Hurricane Cleo and issued a hurricane watch for the Lesser Antilles . Subsequent analysis determined that Cleo became a hurricane on August 13 . A weak trough near 50 ° W allowed the hurricane to turn to the north , and Cleo continued to intensify , based on improved definition of the eye on radar imagery . A flight into the storm late on August 16 indicated a pressure of 947 mbar ( 28 @.@ 0 inHg ) with winds of 140 mph ( 230 km / h ) early on August 16 . After maintaining peak winds for about six hours , Cleo began weakening . It turned more to the northwest due to a strengthening ridge to the northeast and the hurricane 's outflow weakening the trough . An approaching cold front turned Cleo to the northeast on August 18 and caused it to accelerate . That day , it passed about 450 mi ( 720 km ) east of Bermuda . On August 20 , the hurricane became extratropical to the southeast of Newfoundland . In St. John 's , the storm dropped about 2 in ( 51 mm ) of rainfall . The remnants of Cleo turned to the east and east @-@ southeast , dissipating on August 22 between the Azores and Portugal . = = = Hurricane Daisy = = = A tropical wave moved through the Lesser Antilles on August 20 and gradually spread north . On August 24 , a nearby ship reported a low pressure area and strong winds , indicating the formation of a small tropical cyclone near the Bahamas . After a Hurricane Hunters flight indicated winds of 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) , the Weather Bureau initiated advisories on Tropical Storm Daisy early on August 25 to the north of the Bahamas . That day it became a hurricane , and initially it moved slowly to the northwest due to a ridge to the northeast . On August 26 , a trough turned Daisy to the northeast , and the hurricane continued to intensify due to an anticyclone aloft . By early August 28 , the hurricane reached peak winds of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) , and a minimum pressure of 948 mbar ( 28 @.@ 0 inHg ) while offshore South Carolina . Daisy accelerated to the north , passing about 75 mi ( 121 km ) east of Hatteras , North Carolina ; there , gusts peaked at 36 mph ( 58 km / h ) due to the storm 's small size . For much of its duration , Hurricane Daisy was visible from radar along the eastern United States , which assisted in tracking the storm . Passing east of Hatteras , Daisy dropped moderate rainfall , peaking at 5 @.@ 92 in ( 150 mm ) near Morehead City , North Carolina , before turning to the northeast on August 29 . The Weather Bureau issued a hurricane warning from Block Island to Provincetown , Massachusetts due to the projected path near New England . Later on August 29 , Daisy passed about 70 mi ( 110 km ) southeast of Nantucket . Nearby Block Island reported peak gusts of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) , and a Texas Tower 120 mi ( 190 km ) east of Cape Cod reported gusts to 87 mph ( 140 km / h ) . The storm also produced high tides and light rainfall , and forced 600 people to evacuate Nantucket . Due to its small size , there was no major damage in the United States . After affecting Nantucket , Daisy weakened and became extratropical by early on August 30 . The remnants turned to the east , passing south of Nova Scotia before dissipating on August 31 . In Canada , the storm damaged a boat in the Bay of Fundy that drifted for two days until reaching Saint John , New Brunswick . = = = Hurricane Ella = = = A tropical wave spawned a tropical depression near the Lesser Antilles on August 30 , which quickly became Tropical Storm Ella . It quickly intensified in the eastern Caribbean into a hurricane by August 31 while passing south of Puerto Rico ; there , the outer rainbands caused some flooding that caused minor damage . On September 1 , Ella strengthened to winds of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) , as measured by the Hurricane Hunters . At that intensity , the hurricane passed just south of the Dominican Republic before making landfall in southwestern Haiti . In the Dominican Republic , heavy rainfall and floods caused $ 100 @,@ 000 in damage , mostly in the country 's southwestern portion . Heavy rainfall caused widespread flooding in southwestern Haiti , and thousands of people became homeless after their houses were damaged . Near Les Cayes , 30 people were killed due to flash flooding . After affecting Haiti , Ella weakened to a Category 1 hurricane before moving ashore in southeastern Cuba early on September 2 . While traversing the island , Ella weakened to a tropical storm and was unable to restrengthen . Near Santiago de Cuba , the Bayamo River washed away 25 houses and killed five people . One other person died in the country due to the hurricane . After Ella reached the Gulf of Mexico on September 3 , its structure was disrupted , and it remained a tropical storm as it continued to the west @-@ northwest . Its outer rainbands produced gusts of 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) in Grand Isle , Louisiana . Ella struck Texas on September 6 and dissipated soon thereafter . At its final landfall , the storm produced 13 @.@ 6 in ( 350 mm ) of rainfall in Galveston , Texas , and in the city , one person died after falling overboard a boat . = = = Hurricane Fifi = = = A ship on September 4 indicated a tropical depression developed from a tropical wave to the east of the Lesser Antilles . The system initially had two circulations that consolidated into one by September 5 . That day , Hurricane Hunters observed 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) winds , which prompted the Weather Bureau to upgrade it to Tropical Storm Fifi . Due to the storm 's fast track to the northwest , a gale warning and hurricane watch were issued for the Leeward and northern Windward Islands . On September 6 , Fifi intensified into a hurricane and reached peak winds of 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) , around the same time that it passed about 150 mi ( 240 km ) northeast of the Leeward Islands . Later , Fifi began weakening , and by September 8 it was downgraded to tropical storm status . The westerlies turned Fifi to the northeast on September 10 . After passing southeast of Bermuda , the storm dissipated on September 11 . = = = Tropical Storm Gerda = = = A tropical wave was first observed on September 11 about 400 mi ( 640 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles . It moved westward , and based on surface reports from the island chain , a tropical depression developed west of Martinique on September 13 . The system moved quickly to the west @-@ northwest , becoming a tropical storm by late on September 13 . The Hurricane Hunters encountered winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) on September 14 just offshore the Dominican Republic ; on that basis the system was designated Tropical Storm Gerda . Shortly thereafter , the storm struck the Barahona peninsula . The high terrain of Hispaniola quickly weakened Gerda , and on September 15 the Hurricane Hunters could not detect a closed circulation . It is estimated that Gerda dissipated offshore southeastern Cuba . The wave continued west , later reaching the Gulf of Mexico . Aided by an approaching trough , a small low pressure area redeveloped on September 19 , which struck southern Texas and moved to the northeast . This low eventually dissipated over Louisiana on September 22 , having produced gusts of 52 mph ( 84 km / h ) along the Texas coast . When the precursor to Gerda passed through the Lesser Antilles , it dropped 15 in ( 380 mm ) of rain . Stations in the United States Virgin Islands reported winds up to 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) . The storm 's threat prompted gale warnings along the southern coast of Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic . In the former island , Gerda killed three people . Two people drowned after falling off a boat on Vieques island , and the other died after his house collapsed while he was inside . The storm damaged coffee , banana , and plantain crops in Puerto Rico . Winds reached 54 mph ( 87 km / h ) in the Dominican Republic . = = = Hurricane Helene = = = A tropical wave was first observed near Cape Verde on September 16 . On September 21 , the Hurricane Hunters observed a circulation , which indicated a tropical depression had formed east of the northern Leeward Islands . It moved to the west @-@ northwest , becoming Tropical Storm Helene on September 23 . The next day Helene became a hurricane , aided by an anticyclone aloft . It moved around a large ridge , bringing its center toward the southeastern United States . As the hurricane approached the Carolinas , the hurricane rapidly intensified as the eye became visible on radar , and Helene reached peak winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) on the morning of September 27 . An approaching trough turned the hurricane to the northeast , and Helene came within 10 mi ( 15 km ) of the coast of North Carolina . It slowly weakened , and at the same time its size expanded . On September 29 , Helene became extratropical as it was moving over Newfoundland . The remnants continued to the northeast , later turning to the southeast and dissipating on October 4 just west of Great Britain . While paralleling the southeastern United States , Helene produced a peak storm surge of 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) near Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point in North Carolina . A station in Wilmington reported sustained winds of 88 mph ( 142 km / h ) and a peak gust of 135 mph ( 220 km / h ) , exceeding the previous record for measured wind speed there by a wide margin . At Cape Fear , winds were estimated at 125 mph ( 200 km / h ) , with gusts as high as 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) . Rainfall from Helene peaked at 8 @.@ 29 in ( 211 mm ) in Wilmington International Airport , although rainfall spread as far north as New England . Damage in the United States totaled $ 11 @.@ 2 million , and there was one indirect fatality . In Atlantic Canada , Helene produced high winds and heavy rainfall , causing power outages in Prince Edward Island and Cape Breton Island . A wharf in Caribou , Nova Scotia was destroyed by rough seas generated by Helene , and at least 1 @,@ 000 lobster traps were carried out to sea as a result . = = = Hurricane Ilsa = = = On September 24 , ship reports near an area of disturbed weather east of the Lesser Antilles prompted a Hurricane Hunters flight . By the time the aircraft investigated the system , they discovered a tropical storm with winds of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) , which was named Ilsa by the Weather Bureau . Subsequent analysis estimated that the storm became a tropical depression earlier that day . Ilsa quickly intensified into a hurricane on September 25 , by which time it was located about 1 @,@ 100 mi ( 1 @,@ 800 km ) southeast of Hurricane Helene . Over the subsequent few days , the two hurricanes underwent the Fujiwhara effect , in which Ilsa turned to the north and Helene turned to the northeast . Ilsa quickly intensified on September 26 , developing a well @-@ defined eye and spiral rainbands . Early on September 27 , it reached peak winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) , and subsequently it weakened . On September 29 the hurricane turned to the northeast and accelerated , becoming extratropical and dissipating by the next day . Early in the duration of Ilsa , the Weather Bureau issued a gale warning and hurricane watch for the Leeward Islands , Virgin Islands , and northern Puerto Rico . However , no damage was reported . The storm caused extensive beach erosion and squally conditions in Bermuda . = = = Hurricane Janice = = = A tropical wave moved through the Lesser Antilles on September 30 . It moved westward through the Caribbean , developing a broad circulation by October 3 as it approached Jamaica . The weak circulation gradually became better organized , developing into a tropical depression near the Cayman Islands on October 4 . The system quickly intensified into Tropical Storm Janice as it moved toward the coast of Cuba . An eastward @-@ moving cold front turned the storm to the north and northeast , and Janice crossed central Cuba early on October 6 . The storm intensified while moving through the Bahamas , becoming a hurricane on October 7 . Janice slowed that day and reached peak winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . On October 9 , the hurricane turned to the east @-@ northeast , and by that time had weakened slightly ; however , the next day it re @-@ attained its previous peak intensity while passing northwest of Bermuda , reaching a minimum pressure of 968 mbar ( 28 @.@ 6 inHg ) . On October 12 , Janice became extratropical in the northern Atlantic Ocean , and the next day merged with a stronger non @-@ tropical low offshore Atlantic Canada . The precursor to Janice dropped heavy rainfall in Jamaica , reaching over 20 in ( 510 mm ) in some locations . Rain @-@ induced flooding destroyed homes , wrecked crops , and damaged coastal wharves and roads . Eight people were killed , and the floods were considered the worst in 25 years . When Janice was still over Cuba , the Weather Bureau issued gale warnings from Vero Beach , Florida to Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . In the Bahamas , Janice produced peak winds of 63 mph ( 101 km / h ) on San Salvador Island . In Nassau , one person was killed while trying to move a boat . A dredger was lost and a yacht was seriously damaged in the Bahamas , and damage in the country reached $ 200 @,@ 000 . = = = Tropical Storm Twelve = = = = = Storm names = = The following names were used for named storms ( tropical storms and hurricanes ) that formed in the North Atlantic in 1958 .
= Deinosuchus = Deinosuchus ( / ˌdaɪnəˈsjuːkəs / DY @-@ nə @-@ SEW @-@ kəs ) is an extinct genus related to the alligator that lived 80 to 73 million years ago ( Ma ) , during the late Cretaceous period . The name translates as " terrible crocodile " and is derived from the Greek deinos ( δεινός ) , " terrible " , and soukhos ( σοῦχος ) , " crocodile " . The first remains were discovered in North Carolina ( United States ) in the 1850s ; the genus was named and described in 1909 . Additional fragments were discovered in the 1940s and were later incorporated into an influential , though inaccurate , skull reconstruction at the American Museum of Natural History . Knowledge of Deinosuchus remains incomplete , but better cranial material found in recent years has expanded scientific understanding of this massive predator . Although Deinosuchus was far larger than any modern crocodile or alligator , with the largest adults measuring 10 @.@ 6 m ( 35 ft ) in total length , its overall appearance was fairly similar to its smaller relatives . It had large , robust teeth built for crushing , and its back was covered with thick hemispherical osteoderms . One study indicated Deinosuchus may have lived for up to 50 years , growing at a rate similar to that of modern crocodilians , but maintaining this growth over a much longer time . Deinosuchus fossils have been found in 10 US states , including Texas , Montana , and many along the East Coast . Fossils have also been found in northern Mexico . It lived on both sides of the Western Interior Seaway , and was an opportunistic apex predator in the coastal regions of eastern North America . Deinosuchus reached its largest size in its western habitat , but the eastern populations were far more abundant . Opinion remains divided as to whether these two populations represent separate species . Deinosuchus was probably capable of killing and eating large dinosaurs . It may have also fed upon sea turtles , fish , and other aquatic and terrestrial prey . = = Description = = = = = Morphology = = = Despite its large size , the overall appearance of Deinosuchus was not considerably different from that of modern crocodilians . Deinosuchus had an alligator @-@ like , broad snout , with a slightly bulbous tip . Each premaxilla contained four teeth , with the pair nearest to the tip of the snout being significantly smaller than the other two . Each maxilla ( the main tooth @-@ bearing bone in the upper jaw ) contained 21 or 22 teeth . The tooth count for each dentary ( tooth @-@ bearing bone in the lower jaw ) was at least 22 . All the teeth were very thick and robust ; those close to the rear of the jaws were short , rounded , and blunt . They appear to have been adapted for crushing , rather than piercing . When the mouth was closed , only the fourth tooth of the lower jaw would have been visible . Modern saltwater crocodiles ( Crocodylus porosus ) have the strongest recorded bite of any living animal , with a maximum force of 16 @,@ 414 N ( 3 @,@ 690 lbf ) . The bite force of Deinosuchus has been estimated to be 18 @,@ 000 N ( 4 @,@ 000 lbf ) to 100 @,@ 000 N ( 22 @,@ 000 lbf ) . It has been argued that even the largest and strongest theropod dinosaurs , such as Tyrannosaurus , probably had bite forces inferior to that of Deinosuchus . Deinosuchus had a secondary bony palate , which would have permitted it to breathe through its nostrils while the rest of the head remained submerged underwater . The vertebrae were articulated in a procoelous manner , meaning they had a concave hollow on the front end and a convex bulge on the rear ; these would have fit together to produce a ball and socket joint . The secondary palate and procoelous vertebrae are advanced features also found in modern eusuchian crocodilians . The osteoderms ( scutes ) covering the back of Deinosuchus were unusually large , heavy , and deeply pitted ; some were of a roughly hemispherical shape . Deep pits and grooves on these osteoderms served as attachment points for connective tissue . Together , the osteoderms and connective tissue would have served as load @-@ bearing reinforcement to support the massive body of Deinosuchus out of water . These deeply pitted osteoderms have been used to suggest that , despite its bulk , Deinosuchus could probably have walked on land much like modern @-@ day crocodiles . = = = Size = = = The large size of Deinosuchus has generally been recognized despite the fragmentary nature of the fossils assigned to it . However , estimates of how large it really was have varied considerably over the years . The original estimate from 1954 for the type specimen of the then @-@ named " Phobosuchus riograndensis " were based on a skull of 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) and a lower jaw of 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) long , reconstructed with similar proportions to the Cuban crocodile giving a total estimated length of 15 m ( 49 ft ) . However , this reconstruction is currently considered to be inaccurate . Using more complete remains , it was estimated in 1999 that the size attained by specimens of Deinosuchus varied from 8 to 10 m ( 26 to 33 ft ) with weights from 2 @.@ 5 to 5 t ( 2 @.@ 8 to 5 @.@ 5 short tons ) . This was later corroborated when it was noted that most known specimens of D. rugosus usually had skulls of about 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) with estimated total lengths of 8 m ( 26 ft ) and weights of 2 @.@ 3 t ( 2 @.@ 5 short tons ) . A reasonably well @-@ preserved skull specimen discovered in Texas indicated the animal 's head measured about 1 @.@ 31 m ( 4 @.@ 3 ft ) , and its body length was estimated at 9 @.@ 8 m ( 32 ft ) . However , the largest fragmentary remains of D. riograndensis were 1 @.@ 5 times the size of those of the average D. rugosus and it was determined that the largest individuals of this species may have been up to 12 m ( 39 ft ) in length and perhaps weighed as much as 8 @.@ 5 t ( 9 @.@ 4 short tons ) . A particularly large mandibular fragment from a D. riograndensis specimen was estimated to have come from an individual with a skull length of about 147 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 84 ft ) . This length was used in conjunction with a regression equation relating skull length to total length in the American alligator to estimate a total length of 10 @.@ 6 metres ( 35 ft ) for this particularly specimen . This is only slightly lower than previous estimates for the species . Deinosuchus has often been described as the largest crocodyliform of all time . However other crocodyliformes such as Purussaurus , Rhamphosuchus , and Sarcosuchus may have equaled or exceeded it in size . = = Paleobiology = = = = = Habitat = = = Deinosuchus was present on both sides of the Western Interior Seaway . Specimens have been found in 10 U.S. states : Utah , Montana , Wyoming , New Mexico , New Jersey , Georgia , Alabama , Mississippi , Texas , and North Carolina . A Deinosuchus osteoderm from the San Carlos Formation was also reported in 2006 , so the giant crocodilian 's range may have included parts of northern Mexico . Deinosuchus fossils are most abundant in the Gulf Coastal Plain region of Georgia , near the Alabama border . All known specimens of Deinosuchus were found in rocks dated to the Campanian stage of the Late Cretaceous period . The oldest examples of this genus lived approximately 80 Ma , and the youngest lived around 73 Ma . The distribution of Deinosuchus specimens indicates these giant crocodilians may have preferred estuarine environments . In the Aguja Formation of Texas , where some of the largest specimens of Deinosuchus have been found , these massive predators probably inhabited brackish @-@ water bays . Although some specimens have also been found in marine deposits , it is not clear whether Deinosuchus ventured out into the ocean ( like modern @-@ day saltwater crocodiles ) ; these remains might have been displaced after the animals died . Deinosuchus has been described as a " conspicuous " component of a purportedly distinct biome occupying the southern half of Late Cretaceous North America . = = = Diet = = = In 1954 , Edwin H. Colbert and Roland T. Bird speculated that Deinosuchus " may very well have hunted and devoured some of the dinosaurs with which it was contemporaneous " . Colbert restated this hypothesis more confidently in 1961 : " Certainly this crocodile must have been a predator of dinosaurs ; otherwise why would it have been so overwhelmingly gigantic ? It hunted in the water where the giant theropods could not go . " David R. Schwimmer proposed in 2002 that several hadrosaurid tail vertebrae found near Big Bend National Park show evidence of Deinosuchus tooth marks , strengthening the hypothesis that Deinosuchus fed on dinosaurs in at least some instances . In 2003 , Christopher A. Brochu agreed that Deinosuchus " probably dined on ornithopods from time to time . " Deinosuchus is generally thought to have employed hunting tactics similar to those of modern crocodilians , ambushing dinosaurs and other terrestrial animals at the water 's edge and then submerging them until they drowned . A 2014 study suggested that it would have been able to perform a " death roll " , like modern crocodiles . Schwimmer and G. Dent Williams proposed in 1996 that Deinosuchus may have preyed on marine turtles . Deinosuchus would probably have used the robust , flat teeth near the back of its jaws to crush the turtle shells . The " side @-@ necked " sea turtle Bothremys was especially common in the eastern habitat of Deinosuchus , and several of its shells have been found with bite marks that were most likely inflicted by the giant crocodilian . Schwimmer concluded in 2002 that the feeding patterns of Deinosuchus most likely varied by geographic location ; the smaller Deinosuchus specimens of eastern North America would have been opportunistic feeders in an ecological niche similar to that of the modern American alligator . They would have consumed marine turtles , large fish , and smaller dinosaurs . The bigger , but less common , Deinosuchus that lived in Texas and Montana might have been more specialized hunters , capturing and eating large dinosaurs . Schwimmer noted no theropod dinosaurs in Deinosuchus 's eastern range approached its size , indicating the massive crocodilian could have been the region 's apex predator . In 2016 , Mark Witton took a rigorous look at Deinosuchus ' diet . His results show that , although Deinosuchus did eat dinosaurs , its diet was mostly made up of sea turtles . = = = Growth rates = = = A 1999 study by Gregory M. Erickson and Christopher A. Brochu suggested the growth rate of Deinosuchus was comparable to that of modern crocodilians , but was maintained over a far longer time . Their estimates , based on growth rings in the dorsal osteoderms of various specimens , indicated each Deinosuchus might have taken over 35 years to reach full adult size , and the oldest individuals may have lived for more than 50 years . This was a completely different growth strategy than that of large dinosaurs , which reached adult size much more quickly and had shorter lifespans . According to Erickson , a full @-@ grown Deinosuchus " must have seen several generations of dinosaurs come and go " . Schwimmer noted in 2002 that Erickson and Brochu 's assumptions about growth rates are only valid if the osteodermal rings reflect annual periods , as they do in modern crocodilians . According to Schwimmer , the growth ring patterns observed could have been affected by a variety of factors , including " migrations of their prey , wet @-@ dry seasonal climate variations , or oceanic circulation and nutrient cycles " . If the ring cycle were biannual rather than annual , this might indicate Deinosuchus grew faster than modern crocodilians , and had a similar maximum lifespan . = = Discovery and naming = = In 1858 , geologist Ebenezer Emmons described two large fossil teeth found in Bladen County , North Carolina . Emmons assigned these teeth to Polyptychodon , which he then believed to be " a genus of crocodilian reptiles " . Later discoveries showed that Polyptychodon was actually a pliosaur , a type of marine reptile . The teeth described by Emmons were thick , slightly curved , and covered with vertically grooved enamel ; he assigned them a new species name , P. rugosus . Although not initially recognized as such , these teeth were probably the first Deinosuchus remains to be scientifically described . Another large tooth that likely came from Deinosuchus , discovered in neighboring Sampson County , was named Polydectes biturgidus by Edward Drinker Cope in 1869 . In 1903 , at Willow Creek , Montana , several fossil osteoderms were discovered " lying upon the surface of the soil " by John Bell Hatcher and T.W. Stanton . These osteoderms were initially attributed to the ankylosaurid dinosaur Euoplocephalus . Excavation at the site , carried out by W.H. Utterback , yielded further fossils , including additional osteoderms , as well as vertebrae , ribs , and a pubis . When these specimens were examined , it became clear that they belonged to a large crocodilian and not a dinosaur ; upon learning this , Hatcher " immediately lost interest " in the material . After Hatcher died in 1904 , his colleague W.J. Holland studied and described the fossils . Holland assigned these specimens to a new genus and species , Deinosuchus hatcheri , in 1909 . Deinosuchus comes from the Greek δεινός / deinos , meaning " terrible " , and σοῦχος / suchos , meaning " crocodile " . A 1940 expedition by the American Museum of Natural History yielded more fossils of giant crocodilians , this time from Big Bend National Park in Texas . These specimens were described by Edwin H. Colbert and Roland T. Bird in 1954 , under the name Phobosuchus riograndensis . Donald Baird and Jack Horner later assigned the Big Bend remains to Deinosuchus , which has been accepted by most modern authorities . The genus name Phobosuchus , which was initially created by Baron Franz Nopcsa in 1924 , has since been discarded because it contained a variety of different crocodilian species that turned out to not be closely related to each other . The American Museum of Natural History incorporated the skull and jaw fragments into a plaster restoration , modeled after the present @-@ day Cuban crocodile . Colbert and Bird stated this was a " conservative " reconstruction , since an even greater length could have been obtained if a long @-@ skulled modern species , such as the saltwater crocodile had been used as the template . Because it was not then known that Deinosuchus had a broad snout , Colbert and Bird miscalculated the proportions of the skull , and the reconstruction greatly exaggerated its overall width and length . Despite its inaccuracies , the reconstructed skull became the best @-@ known specimen of Deinosuchus , and brought public attention to this giant crocodilian for the first time . Numerous additional specimens of Deinosuchus were discovered over the next several decades . Most were quite fragmentary , but they expanded knowledge of the giant predator 's geographic range . As noted by Chris Brochu , the osteoderms are distinctive enough that even " bone granola " can adequately confirm the presence of Deinosuchus . Better cranial material was also found ; by 2002 , David R. Schwimmer was able to create a composite computer reconstruction of 90 % of the skull . = = Classification and species = = Since the discovery of the earliest fragmentary remains that will come to be known as Deinosuchus , it was found that it was a relative of crocodiles , going as far as placing it in the same family ( crocodylidae ) in 1954 , this assignment was mostly supported by dental features but was overturned in 1999 when the finding of new specimens from Texas and Georgia helped place Deinosuchus in a phylogenetic analysis , finding it in a basal position within the clade Alligatoroidea along with Leidyosuchus . This classification was bolstered in 2005 by the discovery of a well @-@ preserved Deinosuchus brain case from the Blufftown Formation of Alabama , which shows some features reminiscent of those in the modern American alligator , Deinosuchus however , was not a direct ancestor of modern alligators . The species pertaining to Deinosuchus since the resurrection of the generic name in 1979 have been traditionally recognized as D. rugosus from the eastern side of the Western Interior Seaway and the larger D. riograndensis from the western side , characterized by differences of the shape of their osteoderms and teeth , this view was not always favored by all researchers and in 2002 it was proposed that there was only one species , Deinosuchus rugosus , with the differences found between the two species explained as the result of the larger size of the western morph . This proposal faced support and criticism and was dropped in 2010 when new fossils of specimens from both sides of the interior seaway showed that the differences between the two morphs were not just size related , teeth from large eastern specimens retained the common characteristics of other specimens of the region and osteoderms from small specimens of the western morph were no different from those of large ones , supporting the specific separation of the two morphs , now formalized as D. rugosus and D. riograndensis .
= 2001 North Indian Ocean cyclone season = The 2001 North Indian Ocean cyclone season was fairly quiet , although activity was evenly spread between the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal . There were six depressions tracked by the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) , which is the official Regional Specialized Meteorological Center for the northern Indian Ocean . The agency also tracked four cyclonic storms , which have maximum winds of at least 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) sustained over 3 minutes . The American @-@ based Joint Typhoon Warning Center tracked an additional storm – Tropical Storm Vamei – which crossed from the South China Sea at a record @-@ low latitude . The first storm originated on May 21 , and became the strongest recorded storm in the Arabian Sea at the time . The IMD estimated peak 3 minute winds of 215 km / h ( 135 mph ) while the storm was off the west coast of India . The storm weakened greatly before making landfall in Gujarat , and although impact on land was minor , it left up to 950 fishermen missing . A few weeks later , the first Bay of Bengal system originated – a short @-@ lived depression that dropped heavy rainfall upon striking Odisha . After a period of inactivity during the monsoon season , there were cyclonic storms in September and October in the northern Arabian Sea . Both lasted only a few days and dissipated due to unfavorable wind shear . Another cyclonic storm formed in the Bay of Bengal and struck Andhra Pradesh , which dropped heavy rainfall that was equivalent to 300 % of the average October precipitation total . The rains caused flooding , particularly in Cuddapah , where a dam was deliberately opened and inundated the town overnight . There were 153 deaths due to the storm and RS5 billion ( Indian rupees , $ 104 million USD ) in damage . The final storm of the season tracked by the IMD was a short @-@ lived depression in November in the Bay of Bengal . = = Season summary = = The India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) in New Delhi – the official Regional Specialized Meteorological Center for the northern Indian Ocean as recognized by the World Meteorological Organization – issued warnings for tropical cyclones developing in the region . The basin 's activity is sub @-@ divided between the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal on opposite coasts of India , and is generally split before and after the monsoon season . The IMD utilized satellite imagery to track storms , and used the Dvorak technique to estimate intensity . Toward the end of the year , convection was generally lower than normal in the Bay of Bengal , despite being a typical hotspot for activity . There were no deaths or damage throughout the year outside of India , and damage there was lower than what occurred in the previous few seasons . = = Storms = = = = = Extremely Severe Cyclonic Storm ARB 01 = = = The first storm of the season originated from a tropical disturbance that formed east of Somalia on May 18 . Over the following few days , the system gradually organized , becoming a depression on May 21 . It moved eastward toward the coastline of southwestern India and rapidly intensified on May 22 , strengthening from a deep depression to a very severe cyclonic storm within 24 hours . After approaching the coastline , the storm turned to the north and northwest away from land due to a ridge . Based on the well @-@ defined eye and the storm 's satellite presentation , the IMD estimated peak winds of 215 km / h ( 135 mph ) on May 24 , and the JTWC estimated 1 minute winds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) . It became the strongest storm on record in the Arabian Sea , only to be surpassed by Cyclone Gonu in 2007 . Soon after reaching peak intensity , the cyclone rapidly weakened as it turned northward . By May 28 , it had deteriorated into a deep depression , and the IMD downgraded the storm to a remnant low before the circulation reached the Gujarat coast . Ahead of the storm , all ports in Gujarat , including Kandla , one of the largest in the country , were closed as a precautionary measure . Over 10 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from coastal areas in the threatened region . Offshore , between 1 @,@ 500 and 2 @,@ 000 fishing vessels lost contact with the mainland immediately after the storm . However , because the storm remained offshore , the coast only experienced minor damage , although rainfall was widespread . About 200 houses were washed away in Kosamba , and one person died in Jamnagar . About 950 fishermen were missing after the storm , which prompted a helicopter search . = = = Cyclonic Storm ARB 02 = = = An upper @-@ level disturbance spawned a low pressure area in the eastern Arabian Sea on September 24 . It initially consisted of a well @-@ defined circulation on the eastern edge of an area of convection about 370 km ( 230 mi ) west @-@ southwest of Mumbai . With low wind shear beneath the subtropical ridge , the system gradually organized and developed curved banding features while moving west @-@ northwestward . At 0900 UTC on September 24 , the IMD classified the system as a depression , and nine hours later upgraded it further to a deep depression . On the same day , the JTWC issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert , although they did not begin advisories due to the center being on the east side of the convection . At 0900 UTC on September 25 , the IMD upgraded the system to a cyclonic storm , estimating peak winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . Early on September 26 , the circulation moved beneath the convection , prompting the JTWC to begin advisories on Tropical Cyclone 02A . Around that time , the storm 's outskirts dropped light rainfall in western India . Forecasters initially anticipated that the storm would strengthen to winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) and strike the southern Arabian Peninsula . However , persistent wind shear dislocated the circulation from the convection and imparted weakening . The IMD downgraded the storm to a deep depression and later depression on September 27 , by which time the thunderstorms were rapidly dwindling . The JTWC issued their last advisory on September 28 after the circulation had no nearby convection . At that time , the storm was located 185 km ( 115 mi ) east @-@ southeast of Masirah Island off Oman . The IMD also downgraded the depression to a low pressure area on September 28 and noted that the remnant system became poorly defined the following day . = = = Cyclonic Storm ARB 03 = = = Similar to the previous storm , an area of convection formed in the Arabian Sea about 185 km ( 115 mi ) west @-@ southwest of Mumbai on October 7 . It was associated with a circulation that moved westward from the Indian Coast , which formed as a well @-@ defined low pressure area over western India . The convection organized and increased , aided by low wind shear and good outflow . Late on October 8 , the IMD classified the system as a depression , and early the next day upgraded it to a deep depression . A low @-@ level circulation formed beneath a well @-@ defined mid @-@ level storm , with intense convection and strong winds north of the center . At 06 : 00 UTC on October 9 , the JTWC began classifying the system as Tropical Cyclone 03A . With increasing banding features , the storm strengthened while moving west @-@ northwestward , steered by a ridge to the north . At 09 : 00 UTC that day , the IMD upgraded the system to a cyclonic storm , estimating peak winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . Soon thereafter , the storm began weakening due to increased dry air and the upper @-@ level environment becoming unfavorable . The thunderstorms diminished and disappeared over the circulation by October 10 . That day , the JTWC discontinued advisories , and the IMD downgraded it to a remnant low pressure area south of Pakistan . The storm brushed the Indian coast with rainfall , reaching 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) in Gujarat state , although there was no major damage . = = = Cyclonic Storm BOB 01 = = = Early on October 14 , a low pressure area formed off the eastern coast of India . While moving generally westward , the system quickly organized into a depression that day . On October 15 , the IMD estimated peak winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) , based on satellite imagery appearance warranting a Dvorak rating of 2 @.@ 5 ; this made it a cyclonic storm . However , the circulation remained removed from the deep convection . Early on November 16 , the storm made landfall near Nellore , Andhra Pradesh . It quickly weakened over land , degenerating into a remnant low pressure area over Rayalaseema on October 17 . While moving ashore , the storm dropped heavy rainfall in Andhra Pradesh and extending into Tamil Nadu , causing flooding in some areas for the first time in 40 years . In a 24 ‑ hour period , Sullurpeta recorded 261 mm ( 10 @.@ 3 in ) of precipitation , and 13 stations recorded daily totals of over 100 mm ( 4 in ) ; the highest two @-@ day rainfall total was 676 @.@ 5 mm ( 26 @.@ 63 in ) , and some areas received 300 % of the average October rainfall within 36 hours . Damage was heaviest in Andhra Pradesh , particularly in Nellore , Chittoor , and Kadapa , although floods also extended into Bihar . Several regional roads and rail lines were damaged , including portions of National Highway 5 , which stranded hundreds of trucks ; the routes were reopened within two weeks . The rains breached 1 @,@ 635 water tanks , while 125 @,@ 000 ha ( 310 @,@ 000 acres ) of crop fields , mostly rice and groundnuts , were impaired . About 1 @,@ 000 head of cattle were killed as well . In Cuddapah , excess water was released from irrigation dams along the Buggavanka River ; water levels rose 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) in the middle of the night , catching residents off guard , and damaging 18 @,@ 244 houses . The dam was also breached in Nellore , and many towns in the region were inundated or isolated for two days . Across the state , the storm damaged 55 @,@ 747 houses , accounting for RS5 billion ( Indian rupees , $ 104 million USD ) in losses . There were 153 deaths related to the floods and the storm , mostly in Cuddapah . Following the storm , the Indian Red Cross Society used funds related to previous floods and an earthquake to help 2 @,@ 000 families . After the floods , the Indian government provided food and housing to 61 @,@ 681 residents in 130 shelters , and distributed 20 kg of rice to each household . The army flew helicopters to drop off food , candles , and kerosene to stranded families in Cuddapah . Stagnant waters were disinfected after the floods , and deceased cattle were burned to reduce infection . = = = Other storms = = = For several days , the JTWC monitored a disturbance in the northern Bay of Bengal for potential development , associated with the southwest monsoon . On June 9 , a low pressure area formed , and it became well @-@ defined by June 11 . By that time , there was convection located west of an exposed circulation . Early the following day , the IMD classified it as a depression , estimating peak winds of 45 km / h ( 30 mph ) . Strong wind shear prevented much development . Shortly after forming , the system moved northwestward and made landfall near Paradip , Odisha . It quickly weakened below depression intensity on June 13 while progressing inland , degenerating into a remnant low near Madhya Pradesh on June 15 . The system dropped heavy rainfall along its path , with a daily peak of 350 mm ( 14 in ) in Vidarbha . On November 7 , a cycling area of convection was persistent off the east coast of India , associated with a broad circulation embedded within a trough . The thunderstorms expanded and gradually organized , aided by good outflow and low wind shear . On November 11 , the IMD upgraded the system to a depression off Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh . On the same day , the JTWC began classifying the depression as Tropical Cyclone 04B . Located within a weakness of the ridge , the depression moved slowly to the north and northeast , and was initially expected to move ashore . However , increasing shear removed the convection from the center , and the storm remained offshore while weakening . On November 12 , the IMD downgraded the system back to a low pressure area . The storm brought rainfall to coastal portions of eastern India , peaking at 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) in Paradip . The near @-@ equator Tropical Storm Vamei crossed Sumatra from the South China Sea at the end of December . According to the Japan Meteorological Agency – the official agency covering the western Pacific Ocean – the storm dissipated on December 28 along the east coast of Sumatra . On the next day , the remnants entered the Bay of Bengal , and thunderstorms soon reformed over the circulation due to weak to moderate wind shear . After the remnants of Vamei organized further , the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 05B on December 30 , although the agency later treated it as a continuation of the original storm . Moving west @-@ northwest , the storm re @-@ intensified to a secondary peak of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . However , an increase in shear left the circulation exposed from the convection . Vamei quickly weakened , dissipating early on January 1 , 2002 . The IMD never tracked the storm .
= External cardinal = In the category of the members of the College of Cardinals in the central Middle Ages ( 11th to 13th century ) , an external cardinal ( as opposed to a " curial cardinal " ) was a Cardinal of the Holy Roman Church who did not reside in the Roman Curia , because of simultaneously being a bishop of the episcopal see other than suburbicarian , or abbot of an abbey situated outside Rome . In the wider sense , it may also concern cardinals who were appointed to the external episcopal sees and resigned their memberships in the College of Cardinals with this appointment . As well , it can concern cardinals who were generally curial cardinals , but for some time exercised the posts of administrators or prelates of the external churches . Today , the great majority of the cardinals are archbishops of the main metropolitan dioceses of the world and reside in their countries . Apart from the exclusive right of the election of the new pope , their dignity is purely honorific . However , originally the College of Cardinals was simply a college of the clergy of the City of Rome , constituted of the bishops of the seven dioceses ( called suburbicarian sees ) bordering the diocese of Rome ( cardinal @-@ bishops ) , priests of the parochial churches of Rome ( cardinal @-@ priests ) and deacons heading the ecclesiastical regions of the city of Rome ( cardinal @-@ deacons ) . Unlike today , the cardinals had real jurisdiction over the dioceses , parochial churches ( called tituli ) or deaconries to which they were attached . The phenomenon of the external cardinalate in the late Middle Ages constituted the first exception to the rule , that cardinals – members of the clergy of the diocese of Rome – cannot serve simultaneously in another , external church , which is now common practice . = = History = = = = = Origins and development = = = The College of Cardinals originated from the college of the main clergy of the city of Rome . The title of cardinal initially concerned only the priests of the 28 parochial churches of the Eternal City ( tituli ) , who were required to assist the pope in the liturgical service in the four Basilicas of Rome ( Vatican Basilica , Liberian Basilica , Basilica of St. Paul Outside the Walls and San Lorenzo fuori le Mura ) . Later ( probably in the 8th century ) the term was extended to the bishops of the seven dioceses bordering the diocese of Rome : Ostia , Porto , Albano , Palestrina , Silva Candida ( 1079 replaced by Segni ) , Gabii @-@ Lavicum ( whose name later changed to Tusculum , and later to Frascati ) and Velletri ( after 1060 replaced by Sabina ) . These bishops ( cardinal @-@ bishops ) performed the liturgical service in the Lateran Basilica . Finally , the deacons serving in the papal household or heading the ecclesiastical regions of the city ( and later attached to the churches called deaconries ) , also became the cardinals ( cardinal @-@ deacons ) . The cardinals of the Holy Roman Church up to the 11th century had strictly liturgical duties and generally took no part in the government of the Church . Cardinal bishops were equal to the other bishops , even if celebrating the rite of consecration of the new pope gave them considerable prestige , while the dignity of the cardinal priest or deacon was considered lower than that of a bishop . The liturgical service in the five patriarchal basilicas of Rome , as well as day pastoral duties in constant presence of the cardinals at Rome . This situation started to gradually change with the ascension of Pope Leo IX ( 1049 – 1054 ) and the beginning of the Reform Papacy . This pope , in order to reform the corrupted Roman clergy , appointed several new cardinals from the monastic centers outside Rome , such as Monte Cassino , Remiremont and Cluny . These new cardinals became his close advisors . Leo ’ s successors continued this trend and Nicholas II in 1059 gave the cardinals the exclusive right to elect a new pope . At the end of the 11th century the boca formed a single College of Cardinals , which became the main body of the papal government — they served as experts or judges in the legal causes ( auditors ) , countersigned the solemn papal privileges , acted as governors of the cities or provinces of the Papal States or were sent by the popes on important diplomatic missions . The cardinals became the most important members of the Roman Curia , and as such were still required to reside in the papal court , unless they were dispatched for a legatine mission in the name of the pope . Almost simultaneously to the development of the College of Cardinals as a body of papal advisors , the popes started to elevate to the cardinalate some " external " abbots . After such appointments , they continued to reside in their abbeys and did not become members of the Papal curia . On the other hands , the elections of the cardinals to the posts of abbots of external monasteries were also ratified by the popes . The main goal of such appointments was probably to strengthen the ties between some important monastic centers with the Roman Church . The first known instances of such appointments concerned the abbey of Montecassino , one of the main centers supporting reform of the Church . In 1057 cardinal @-@ deacon Frederick de Lorraine ( the future pope Stephen X ) was elected abbot of Montecassino ; Pope Victor II confirmed his election and simultaneously named him cardinal @-@ priest of S. Crisogono . His successor as abbot of Montecassino , Desiderio , was also quickly promoted to the cardinalate , but continued to act also as abbot . From 1057 until 1259 / 62 at least eight abbots of Montecassino were simultaneously members of the College of Cardinals . Also some other Italian ( e.g. Subiaco , Farfa , Vallombrosa , S. Sophia in Benevento ) and French abbeys ( St. Victor at Marseille ) were for some time ruled by the cardinal @-@ abbots . During the Investiture Controversy , both the legitimate Popes as well as Antipope Clement III developed another , not entirely new , practice . They appointed their cardinals to the important Episcopal sees in Italy in order to assure their government by their own trusted collaborators . Antipope Clement III named cardinals Hugo Candidus and Roberto of S. Marco bishops of Fermo and Faenza respectively . Popes Victor III and Urban II appointed their cardinals to the episcopal sees of Brescia ( Herimanus ) and Reggio @-@ Emilia ( Bonussenior ) . The practice was continued by successive popes , who named their cardinals particularly to the recently reestablished Latin archiepiscopal sees in southern Italy ( Siponto , Brindisi , Salerno , Benevento ) . Also , three successive archbishops of Pisa : Uberto Rossi Lanfranchi ( 1133 – 1137 / 38 ) , Balduino ( 1138 – 1145 ) and Villano Caetani ( 1146 – 1175 ) were initially the cardinals . Up to the pontificate of Pope Alexander III ( 1159 – 1181 ) , all the cardinals who were appointed to the external episcopal sees , resigned their membership in the College of Cardinals after receiving episcopal consecration , which clearly shows that the episcopate was considered a higher dignity than that of cardinal @-@ priest or deacon . On the other hand , the bishops were never appointed cardinals . Certainly , the episcopate and cardinalate were considered incompatible dignities . However , during Alexander ’ s pontificate a change is apparent ; although there were still the cases of the cardinals leaving the College of Cardinals after assuming episcopal office ( Lombardo of Benevento , Rainaldo of Gaeta ) , there also appeared members of the College who were simultaneously cardinals and bishops . Perhaps Alexander III followed here an example of his rival , Antipope Victor IV , who in 1162 appointed Aicardo Cornazzano bishop of Parma and cardinal @-@ priest . The first such instance in the legitimate obedience was Conrad of Wittelsbach , who was appointed cardinal @-@ priest of S. Marcello in December 1165 and subsequently promoted to the suburbicarian see of Sabina , but continued to act also as archbishop of Mainz . Archbishop of Reims Guillaume aux Blanches Mains was named cardinal priest of S. Sabina in 1179 , but retained archdiocese of Reims ; similarly bishops Giovanni of Toscanella , Ruffino of Rimini and Gerardo of Novara , elevated to the cardinalate in 1189 , 1190 and 1211 respectively . On the other hand , when cardinal @-@ priest Uberto Crivelli was elected and consecrated archbishop of Milan in 1185 , he retained his cardinalate and his Roman titulus ( S. Lorenzo in Damaso ) . The posts of cardinal and bishop were no longer considered incompatible with each other . Moreover , the rank of cardinal @-@ priest or cardinal @-@ deacon became equal to that of bishop . However , it seems that the elected , but not yet consecrated , bishops who were appointed cardinals were generally obliged to resign their sees . Further development occurred in the pontificate of Clement III ( 1187 – 1191 ) . Cardinals elected to the external sees renounced their titular churches but without resigning their membership in the College of Cardinals . They used the title cardinalis Sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae in addition to the episcopal title , without indicating their cardinalitial order or titular church . The first such case was that of Adelardo Cattaneo , cardinal @-@ priest of S. Marcello from 1185 and bishop of Verona 1188 – 1214 . That he resigned the church of San Marcello appears not only from his titulature in the documents , but also from the fact that during his lifetime a new cardinal @-@ priest of this title ( Fidanzio ) was appointed . The case of Adelardo was followed by the cardinal @-@ archbishops Guy Paré of Reims ( 1204 ) , Uberto Pirovano of Milan ( 1207 ) and Stephen Langton of Canterbury ( 1207 ) under Pope Innocent III . At the end of 12th century ca . 15 % of the members of the College of Cardinals were " external " cardinals . = = = End of the medieval " external " cardinalate = = = Despite the cases mentioned above , the pontificate of Innocent III marks also the beginning of the end of the " external " cardinalate . Stephen Langton was the last cardinal allowed by the Pope to become a diocesan bishop of the external see . From that time the popes constantly rejected all such postulations made by the cathedral chapters , indicating that the presence of the cardinals in the papal curia is indispensable . On the other hand , bishops appointed to the College of Cardinals were obliged to resign their sees ( although it must be remarked that until the end of the 13th century they were appointed always to the rank of cardinal @-@ bishop ) . It is still possible to find a few cases of the cardinals who exercised the posts of administrators of the episcopal sees , but only for a short time , often as part of their legatine duties . The last instance of external cardinal sensu stricto was abbot Riccardo of Montecassino ( 1252 – 1259 / 62 ) . Generally already in the pontificate of Gregory IX ( 1227 – 1241 ) , the College of Cardinals became an exclusively curial body , without any " external " element , and remained such until the Great Western Schism ( 1378 – 1417 ) . However , during this time the rank of cardinal became also the highest in the Catholic Church , inferior only to the Pope . The phenomenon of the " external " cardinalate was revived during the Great Western Schism , but in another form and for other reasons . Popes from the rival obediences gave the cardinalitial dignities to the churchmen serving European monarchs ( Crown @-@ cardinals ) without calling them to the Roman Curia , in order to assure the support of the monarchs . These cardinals continued to reside in their countries . Additionally , the curial cardinals in 13th century started to cumulate a great number of the benefices , from the time of the Schism including also the episcopal sees . After the Council of Trent ( 1545 – 1563 ) , the cardinals occupying external bishoprics were generally obliged to reside in them . Today , the majority of the cardinals are simultaneously diocesan archbishops or bishops , and they have no real jurisdiction over their titular churches at Rome . = = Titulature and engagement in the papal government = = There was no consistency to the titulature used by the " external " cardinals in the official documents issued by the popes , secular rulers or by themselves . Cardinal @-@ abbots subscribed or were called sometimes only as cardinals , sometimes only as abbots , and sometimes using both titles . Abbot Mainardo of Pomposa subscribed papal bulls only as cardinal @-@ bishop of Silva Candida . Desiderius of Montecassino subscribed papal bulls as abbot and cardinal or only as cardinal , while the papal privileges for the abbey Montecassino call him either cardinal and abbot or only abbot . Abbot Richard of St.-Victor used the forms “ cardinal and abbot ” or only abbot . Leonato of S. Clemente in Casauria in the private documents subscribed as cardinal and abbot but the papal privileges issued for him call him only abbot without indicating his cardinalate . Cardinals who simultaneously were also bishops usually appear in the documents with both titles : cardinalitial and episcopal . The only exceptions are archbishop Uberto Crivelli of Milan , who subscribed papal bulls only as cardinal , and Ruggiero of Benevento , who generally was styled only as archbishop , while his cardinalate was mentioned very infrequently . Even more differentiated was the engagement of the " external " cardinals in the Church government and the papal policy , even if limited evidence does not fully highlight this question . Certainly some of them spent some time working in the papal curia , which is attested by their subscriptions on the papal bulls . Among the signatories of the papal privileges appear abbots Desiderius of Montecassino , Mainardo of Pomposa , Giovanni of Subiaco , Richard of St.-Victor , Oderisio de Marsi of Montecassino , Bernardo degli Uberti of Vallombrosa , Amico of S. Vincenzo , Adenulf of Farfa , Benedetto of Torre Maggiore and Giovanni of S. Sophia , as well as the bishops Hugo Candidus , Konrad von Wittelsbach , Guillaume of Reims , Uberto Crivelli of Milan , Giovanni of Toscanella and Ruffino of Rimini . The last three seem to have been de facto curial cardinals , having spent at the papal court most of their time . On the other hand , cardinals like Pietro of S. Benedetto in Salerno , Rainaldo of Montecassino , Simone of Subiaco , Leonato of S. Clemente in Casauria , Ruggiero of Benevento , Roffredo of Montecassino or Riccardo of Montecassino seem to have never participated in the curial business . Also cardinals Adelardo Cattaneo of Verona , Guy Paré of Reims , Uberto Pirovano of Milan and Stephen Langton of Canterbury after their episcopal appointments are no longer attested in the papal curia . Several " external " cardinals acted as papal legates or vicars , often in the region of their episcopal seat or abbey . Among them were : Peter Igneus of S. Salvatore – legate in Germany ( 1079 ) and France ( 1080 ) , Mainardo of Pomposa – legate before Emperor Henry IV ( 1065 ) and in Milan ( 1067 ) Richard of St.-Victor – legate in Spain for many years Konrad von Wittelsbach – legate in Germany from 1177 Guillaume of Reims – legate in France from 1179 Ruffino of Rimini – legate in Imola ( ca.1191 ) Gerardo de Sessio – legate in Lombardy ( 1210 – 11 ) Besides , some " external " cardinals participated in the papal elections : Desiderius of Montecassino and Richard of St.-Victor in 1086 , Oderisio de Marsi in 1088 , Enrico of Mazara and Amico of S. Vincenzo in 1118 , Simone Borelli in 1159 , Uberto Crivelli in 1185 , probably also Konrad von Wittelsbach in 1185 , Giovanni of Toscanella in 1191 and 1198 , and Ruffino of Rimini in 1191 . Three " external " cardinals became popes : Frederick of Montecassino became Pope Stephen IX in 1057 , Desiderius of Montecassino became Pope Victor III in 1086 and Uberto Crivelli of Milan became Pope Urban III in 1185 . = = Lists of the " external " cardinals = = Note : The " external " cardinals have been divided into four subcategories , of whom only the first two concern the " external " cardinals sensu stricto . Some cardinals belonged to more than one subcategory . The disputed cases are listed separately at the end of the each subsection . Cardinals created by antipopes ( " pseudocardinals " ) are also included . = = = Cardinal @-@ abbots = = = The list is arranged chronologically by the date of appointment of the abbot to the cardinalate or of the cardinal to the abbacy . = = = = Disputed cases = = = = = = = Cardinals – diocesan bishops ( 11 – 13th century ) = = = The list is arranged chronologically by the date of appointment of the bishop to the cardinalate or of the cardinal to the episcopate . = = = = Disputed case = = = = = = = Cardinals who renounced their cardinalate after appointments to the external bishoprics = = = The list is arranged chronologically by the date of appointment of the cardinal to the external episcopal see and his renouncement of the cardinalate . = = = = Disputed cases = = = = = = = Cardinals who served as administrators or prelates of the external churches ( until 13th century ) = = = = = Rejected episcopal elections of the cardinals in 13th century = =
= Manchester Mark 1 = The Manchester Mark 1 was one of the earliest stored @-@ program computers , developed at the Victoria University of Manchester from the Small @-@ Scale Experimental Machine ( SSEM ) or " Baby " ( operational in June 1948 ) . It was also called the Manchester Automatic Digital Machine , or MADM . Work began in August 1948 , and the first version was operational by April 1949 ; a program written to search for Mersenne primes ran error @-@ free for nine hours on the night of 16 / 17 June 1949 . The machine 's successful operation was widely reported in the British press , which used the phrase " electronic brain " in describing it to their readers . That description provoked a reaction from the head of the University of Manchester 's Department of Neurosurgery , the start of a long @-@ running debate as to whether an electronic computer could ever be truly creative . The Mark 1 was to provide a computing resource within the university , to allow researchers to gain experience in the practical use of computers , but it very quickly also became a prototype on which the design of Ferranti 's commercial version could be based . Development ceased at the end of 1949 , and the machine was scrapped towards the end of 1950 , replaced in February 1951 by a Ferranti Mark 1 , the world 's first commercially available general @-@ purpose electronic computer . The computer is especially historically significant because of its pioneering inclusion of index registers , an innovation which made it easier for a program to read sequentially through an array of words in memory . Thirty @-@ four patents resulted from the machine 's development , and many of the ideas behind its design were incorporated in subsequent commercial products such as the IBM 701 and 702 as well as the Ferranti Mark 1 . The chief designers , Frederic C. Williams and Tom Kilburn , concluded from their experiences with the Mark 1 that computers would be used more in scientific roles than in pure mathematics . In 1951 , they started development work on Meg , the Mark 1 's successor , which would include a floating point unit . = = Background = = In 1936 , mathematician Alan Turing published a definition of a theoretical " universal computing machine " , a computer which held its program on tape , along with the data being worked on . Turing proved that such a machine was capable of solving any conceivable mathematical problem for which an algorithm could be written . During the 1940s , Turing and others such as Konrad Zuse developed the idea of using the computer 's own memory to hold both the program and data , instead of tape , but it was mathematician John von Neumann who became widely credited with defining that stored @-@ program computer architecture , on which the Manchester Mark 1 was based . The practical construction of a von Neumann computer depended on the availability of a suitable memory device . The University of Manchester 's Small @-@ Scale Experimental Machine ( SSEM ) , the world 's first stored @-@ program computer , had successfully demonstrated the practicality of the stored @-@ program approach and of the Williams tube , an early form of computer memory based on a standard cathode ray tube ( CRT ) , by running its first program in June 1948 . Early electronic computers were generally programmed by being rewired , or via plugs and patch panels ; there was no separate program stored in memory , as in a modern computer . It could take several days to reprogram ENIAC , for instance . Stored @-@ program computers were also being developed by other researchers , notably the National Physical Laboratory 's Pilot ACE , Cambridge University 's EDSAC , and the US Army 's EDVAC . The SSEM and the Mark 1 differed primarily in their use of Williams tubes as memory devices , instead of mercury delay lines . From about August 1948 , the SSEM was intensively developed as a prototype for the Manchester Mark 1 , initially with the aim of providing the university with a more realistic computing facility . In October 1948 , UK Government Chief Scientist Ben Lockspeiser was given a demonstration of the prototype Mark 1 while on a visit to the University of Manchester . Lockspeiser was so impressed by what he saw that he immediately initiated a government contract with the local firm of Ferranti to make a commercial version of the machine , the Ferranti Mark 1 . In his letter to the company , dated 26 October 1948 , Lockspeiser authorised the company to " proceed on the lines we discussed , namely , to construct an electronic calculating machine to the instructions of Professor F. C. Williams " . From that point on , development of the Mark 1 had the additional purpose of supplying Ferranti with a design on which to base their commercial machine . The government 's contract with Ferranti ran for five years from November 1948 , and involved an estimated £ 35 @,@ 000 per year . = = Development and design = = The SSEM had been designed by the team of Frederic C. Williams , Tom Kilburn and Geoff Tootill . To develop the Mark 1 they were joined by two research students , D. B. G. Edwards and G. E. Thomas ; work began in earnest in August 1948 . The project soon had the dual purpose of supplying Ferranti with a working design on which they could base a commercial machine , the Ferranti Mark 1 , and of building a computer that would allow researchers to gain experience of how such a machine could be used in practice . The first of the two versions of the Manchester Mark 1 – known as the Intermediary Version – was operational by April 1949 . However , this first version lacked features such as the instructions necessary to programmatically transfer data between the main store and its newly developed magnetic backing store , which had to be done by halting the machine and manually initiating the transfer . These missing features were incorporated in the Final Specification version , which was fully working by October 1949 . The machine contained 4 @,@ 050 valves and had a power consumption of 25 kilowatts . To increase reliability , purpose @-@ built CRTs made by GEC were used in the machine instead of the standard devices used in the SSEM . The SSEM 's 32 @-@ bit word length was increased to 40 bits . Each word could hold either one 40 @-@ bit number or two 20 @-@ bit program instructions . The main store initially consisted of two double @-@ density Williams tubes , each holding two arrays of 32 x 40 @-@ bit words – known as pages – backed up by a magnetic drum capable of storing an additional 32 pages . The capacity was increased in the Final Specification version to eight pages of main store on four Williams tubes and 128 magnetic drum pages of backing store . The 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) diameter drum , initially known as a magnetic wheel , contained a series of parallel magnetic tracks around its surface , each with its own read / write head . Each track held 2 @,@ 560 bits , corresponding to two pages ( 2 × 32 × 40 bits ) . One revolution of the drum took 30 milliseconds , during which time both pages could be transferred to the CRT main memory , although the actual data transfer time depended on the latency , the time it took for a page to arrive under the read / write head . Writing pages to the drum took about twice as long as reading . The drum 's rotational speed was synchronised to the main central processor clock , which allowed for additional drums to be added . Data was recorded onto the drum using a phase modulation technique still known today as Manchester coding . The machine 's instruction set was increased from the 7 of the SSEM to 26 initially , including multiplication done in hardware . This increased to 30 instructions in the Final Specification version . Ten bits of each word were allocated to hold the instruction code . The standard instruction time was 1 @.@ 8 milliseconds , but multiplication was much slower , depending on the size of the operand . The machine 's most significant innovation is generally considered to be its incorporation of index registers , commonplace on modern computers . The SSEM had included two registers , implemented as Williams tubes : the accumulator ( A ) and the program counter ( C ) . As A and C had already been assigned , the tube holding the two index registers , originally known as B @-@ lines , was given the name B. The contents of the registers could be used to modify program instructions , allowing convenient iteration through an array of numbers stored in memory . The Mark 1 also had a fourth tube , ( M ) , to hold the multiplicand and multiplier for a multiplication operation . = = Programming = = Of the 20 bits allocated for each program instruction , 10 were used to hold the instruction code , which allowed for 1 @,@ 024 ( 210 ) different instructions . The machine had 26 initially , increasing to 30 when the function codes to programmatically control the data transfer between the magnetic drum and the cathode ray tube ( CRT ) main store were added . On the Intermediary Version programs were input by key switches , and the output was displayed as a series of dots and dashes on a cathode ray tube known as the output device , just as on the SSEM from which the Mark 1 had been developed . However , the Final Specification machine , completed in October 1949 , benefitted from the addition of a teleprinter with a 5 @-@ hole paper @-@ tape reader and punch . Mathematician Alan Turing , who had been appointed to the nominal post of Deputy Director of the Computing Machine Laboratory at the University of Manchester in September 1948 , devised a base 32 encoding scheme based on the standard ITA2 5 @-@ bit teleprinter code , which allowed programs and data to be written to and read from paper tape . The ITA2 system maps each of the possible 32 binary values that can be represented in 5 bits ( 25 ) to a single character . Thus " 10010 " represents " D " , " 10001 " represents " Z " , and so forth . Turing changed only a few of the standard encodings ; for instance , 00000 and 01000 , which mean " no effect " and " linefeed " in the teleprinter code , were represented by the characters " / " and " @ " respectively . Binary zero , represented by the forward slash , was the most common character in programs and data , leading to sequences written as " / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / " . One early user suggested that Turing 's choice of a forward slash was a subconscious choice on his part , a representation of rain seen through a dirty window , reflecting Manchester 's " famously dismal " weather . Because the Mark 1 had a 40 @-@ bit word length , eight 5 @-@ bit teleprinter characters were required to encode each word . Thus for example the binary word : 10001 10010 10100 01001 10001 11001 01010 10110 would be represented on paper tape as ZDSLZWRF . The contents of any word in store could also be set via the teleprinter 's keyboard , and output onto its printer . The machine worked internally in binary , but it was able to carry out the necessary decimal to binary and binary to decimal conversions for its input and output respectively . There was no assembly language defined for the Mark 1 . Programs had to be written and submitted in binary form , encoded as eight 5 @-@ bit characters for each 40 @-@ bit word ; programmers were encouraged to memorize the modified ITA2 coding scheme to make their job easier . Data was read and written from the papertape punch under program control . The Mark 1 had no system of hardware interrupts ; the program continued after a read or write operation had been initiated until another input / output instruction was encountered , at which point the machine waited for the first to complete . The Mark 1 had no operating system ; its only system software was a few basic routines for input and output . As in the SSEM from which it was developed , and in contrast to the established mathematical convention , the machine 's storage was arranged with the least significant digits to the left ; thus a one was represented in five bits as " 10000 " , rather than the more conventional " 00001 " . Negative numbers were represented using two 's complement , as most computers still do today . In that representation , the value of the most significant bit denotes the sign of a number ; positive numbers have a zero in that position and negative numbers a one . Thus the range of numbers that could be held in each 40 @-@ bit word was − 239 to + 239 − 1 ( decimal : -549,755,813,888 to + 549 @,@ 755 @,@ 813 @,@ 887 ) . = = First programs = = The first realistic program to be run on the Mark 1 was a search for Mersenne primes , in early April 1949 , which ran error free for nine hours on the night of 16 / 17 June 1949 . The algorithm was specified by Max Newman , head of the Mathematics Department at the University of Manchester , and the program was written by Kilburn and Tootill . Turing later wrote an optimised version of the program , dubbed the Mersenne Express . The Manchester Mark 1 continued to do useful mathematical work until 1950 , including an investigation of the Riemann hypothesis and calculations in optics . = = Later developments = = Tootill was temporarily transferred from the University of Manchester to Ferranti in August 1949 , to continue work on the Ferranti Mark 1 's design , and spent four months working with the company . The Manchester Mark 1 was dismantled and scrapped towards the end of 1950 , replaced a few months later by the first Ferranti Mark 1 , the world 's first commercially available general @-@ purpose computer . Between 1946 and 1949 , the average size of the design team working on the Mark 1 and its predecessor , the SSEM , had been about four people . During that time 34 patents were taken out based on the team 's work , either by the Ministry of Supply or by its successor , the National Research Development Corporation . In July 1949 , IBM invited Williams to the United States on an all @-@ expenses @-@ paid trip to discuss the Mark 1 's design . The company subsequently licensed several of the patented ideas developed for the machine , including the Williams tube , in the design of its own 701 and 702 computers . The most significant design legacy of the Manchester Mark 1 was perhaps its incorporation of index registers , the patent for which was taken out in the names of Williams , Kilburn , Tootill , and Newman . Kilburn and Williams concluded that computers would be used more in scientific roles than pure maths , and decided to develop a new machine that would include a floating point unit . Work began in 1951 , and the resulting machine , which ran its first program in May 1954 , was known as Meg , or the megacycle machine . It was smaller and simpler than the Mark 1 , and much faster for maths problems . Ferranti produced a version of Meg with the Williams tubes replaced by the more reliable core memory , marketed as the Ferranti Mercury . = = Cultural impact = = The successful operation of the Manchester Mark 1 and its predecessor , the SSEM , was widely reported in the British press , which used the phrase " electronic brain " to describe the machines . Lord Louis Mountbatten had earlier introduced that term in a speech delivered to the British Institution of Radio Engineers on 31 October 1946 , in which he speculated about how the primitive computers then available might evolve . The excitement surrounding the reporting in 1949 of what was the first recognisably modern computer provoked a reaction unexpected by its developers ; Sir Geoffrey Jefferson , professor of neurosurgery at the University of Manchester , on being asked to deliver the Lister Oration on 9 June 1949 chose " The Mind of Mechanical Man " as his subject . His purpose was to " debunk " the Manchester project . In his address he said : Not until a machine can write a sonnet or compose a concerto because of thoughts and emotions felt , and not by the chance fall of symbols , could we agree that machine equals brain – that is , not only write it but know that it had written it . No machine could feel pleasure at its success , grief when its valves fuse , be warmed by flattery , be made miserable by its mistakes , be charmed by sex , be angry or miserable when it cannot get what it wants . The Times reported on Jefferson 's speech the following day , adding that Jefferson forecast that " the day would never dawn when the gracious rooms of the Royal Society would be converted into garages to house these new fellows " . This was interpreted as a deliberate slight to Newman , who had secured a grant from the society to continue the work of the Manchester team . In response Newman wrote a follow @-@ up article for The Times , in which he claimed that there was a close analogy between the structure of the Mark 1 and the human brain . His article included an interview with Turing , who added : This is only a foretaste of what is to come , and only the shadow of what is going to be . We have to have some experience with the machine before we really know its capabilities . It may take years before we settle down to the new possibilities , but I do not see why it should not enter any of the fields normally covered by the human intellect and eventually compete on equal terms .
= Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid = Abū Sulaymān Khālid ibn al @-@ Walīd ibn al @-@ Mughīrah al @-@ Makhzūmī ( Arabic : أبو سليمان خالد بن الوليد بن المغيرة المخزومي ; 585 – 642 ) also known as Sayf Allāh al @-@ Maslūl ( Arabic : سيف الله المسلول ; Drawn Sword of God ) , was a companion of the Prophet Muhammad . He is noted for his military tactics and prowess , commanding the forces of Medina under Muhammad and the forces of his immediate successors of the Rashidun Caliphate , Abu Bakr and Umar ibn Khattab . It was under his military leadership that Arabia , for the first time in history , was united under a single political entity , the Caliphate . Commanding the forces of the nascent Islamic State , Khalid was victorious in over a hundred battles , against the forces of the Byzantine @-@ Roman Empire , Sassanid @-@ Persian Empire , and their allies , in addition to other Arab tribes . His strategic achievements include the conquest of Arabia during the Ridda Wars , Persian Mesopotamia and Roman Syria within several years from 632 to 636 . He is also remembered for his decisive victories at Yamamah , Ullais , and Firaz , and his tactical successes at Walaja and Yarmouk . Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid ( Khalid son of al @-@ Walid ) was from the Meccan tribe of Quraysh , from a clan that initially opposed Muhammad . He played a vital role in the Meccan victory at the Battle of Uhud against the Muslims . He converted to Islam , and joined Muhammad after the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah and participated in various expeditions for him , such as the Battle of Mu 'tah . It was the first battle between the Romans and the Muslims . Khalid ibn Al @-@ Walid reported that the fighting was so intense , that he used nine swords , which broke in the battle . Khalid took over after Zayd ibn Haritha , then Jafar ibn Abi Talib , then Abdullah ibn Rawahah were killed . After Muhammad 's death , he played a key role in commanding Medinan forces for Abu Bakr in the Ridda wars , conquering central Arabia and subduing Arab tribes . He captured the Sassanid Arab client Kingdom of Al @-@ Hirah , and defeated the Sassanid Persian forces during his conquest of Iraq ( Mesopotamia ) . He was later transferred to the western front to capture Roman Syria and the Byzantine Arab client state of the Ghassanids . Although Umar later relieved him of high command , he nevertheless remained the effective leader of the forces arrayed against the Byzantines during the early stages of the Byzantine – Arab Wars . Under his command , Damascus was captured in 634 and the key Arab victory against the Byzantine forces was achieved at the Battle of Yarmouk ( 636 ) , which led to the conquest of the Bilad al @-@ Sham ( Levant ) . In 638 , at the zenith of his career , he was dismissed from military services . Khalid is said to have fought around a hundred battles , both major battles and minor skirmishes as well as single duels , during his military career . Having remained undefeated , he is claimed by some to be one of the finest military generals in history . = = Early life = = Khalid was born c . 592 in Mecca . His father was Walid ibn al @-@ Mughirah , Sheikh of the Banu Makhzum , a clan of the Arab tribe of Quraysh . Walid was known in Mecca by the title of al @-@ Waheed - " the One " . Khalid 's mother was Lubabah al @-@ Sughra bint al @-@ Harith , a paternal sister of Maymunah bint al @-@ Harith . Soon after his birth , in accordance with the traditions of the Quraysh , Khalid was sent to a Bedouin tribe in the desert , where a foster mother nursed him and brought him up in the clear , dry and unpolluted air of the desert . At the age of five or six , he returned to his parents in Mecca . During his childhood Khalid suffered a mild attack of smallpox , which he survived , but it left some pockmarks on his left cheek . The three leading clans of Quraysh at that time were Banu Hashim , Banu Abd ad @-@ Dar and Banu Makhzum , the latter clan being responsible for the matters of warfare . As a member of the Makhzum clan , who were amongst the best horsemen in Arabia , Khalid learned to ride and use such weapons as the spear , the lance , the bow and the sword . The lance was said to be his favorite among the weapons . In youth he was admired as a renowned warrior and wrestler among the Quraysh . Khalid was a cousin of Umar , the future second Caliph , and they looked very similar . = = Muhammad 's era ( 610 – 632 ) = = Not much is known about Khalid during the early days of the preaching of Muhammad . His father was known for his hostility against Muhammad . Following the migration of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina , many battles were fought between the new Muslim community at Medina and the confederacy of the Quraysh . Khalid did not participate in the Battle of Badr — the first battle fought between Muslims and Qurayshites — but his brother Walid ibn Walid was caught and made a prisoner . Khalid and his elder brother Hasham ibn Walid went to Medina to ransom Walid , but soon after he was ransomed , Walid , amidst the journey back to Mecca , escaped and went back to Muhammad and converted to Islam . Khalid 's leadership was instrumental in turning the tables and ensuring a Meccan victory during the Battle of Uhud ( 625 ) . In 627 AD he was a part of Quraysh 's campaign against the Muslims , resulting in the Battle of the Trench , Khalid 's last battle against Muslims . = = = Conversion to Islam = = = A peace agreement of ten years was concluded between the Muslims and Quraysh of Mecca at the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah in 628 . It has been recorded that Muhammad told Khalid 's brother , Walid bin Walid , that : " A man like Khalid , can 't keep himself away from Islam for long " . Walid wrote letters to Khalid persuading him to convert . Khalid , who was not unduly drawn towards the idols of the Kaaba , decided to convert to Islam and is said to have shared this matter with his childhood friend Ikrimah ibn Abi Jahl who opposed him . Khalid was threatened by Abu Sufyan ibn Harb with dire consequences , but was restrained by Ikrimah who is reported to have said : " Steady , O Abu Sufyan ! Your anger may well lead me also to join Muhammad . Khalid is free to follow whatever religion he chooses " . In May 629 , Khalid set out for Medina . On the way he met ' Amr ibn al- ' As and Uthman ibn Talhah , who were also going to Medina to convert to Islam . They arrived at Medina on 31 May 629 and went to the house of Muhammad . Khalid was received by his elder brother Walid bin al @-@ Walid and was first among the three men to enter Islam . = = = Military Campaigns during Muhammad 's era = = = An expedition was immediately prepared to take punitive action against the Ghassanids . Muhammad appointed Zayd ibn Harithah as the commander of the force . In the event of Zayd 's death , the command was to be taken over by Ja`far ibn Abī Tālib , and if Jafar were to be killed , the command would be in the hands of `Abd Allah ibn Rawahah . In the event that all three were killed , the men of the expedition were to select a commander from amongst themselves . All three named commanders were slain during the battle , and Khalid was selected as the commander . He was able to maintain his heavily outnumbered army of 3 @,@ 000 men against an army of 10 @,@ 000 of the Byzantine Empire and Ghassanid Arabs in what would be known as the Battle of Mu 'tah . Khalid assumed command of the Muslim army at the crucial moment , and turned what would have been a bloody slaughter into a strategic retreat and saved the Muslim army from total annihilation . During nightfall , Khalid sent some columns behind the main army , and the next morning prior to the battle they were instructed to join the Muslim army in small bands , one after the other , giving an impression of a fresh reinforcement , thus lowering the opponent 's morale . Khalid somehow stabilized the battle lines for that day , and during the night his men retreated back to Arabia . Believing a trap was waiting for them , the Byzantine troops did not pursue . Khalid is said to have fought valiantly at the Battle of Mu 'tah and to have broken nine swords during the battle . After the Battle of Mu 'tah , Khalid was given the title Sword of God for bringing back his army to fight another day . = = = = Later military campaigns = = = = A year later , in 630 , the Muslims advanced from Medina to conquer Mecca . In the Conquest of Mecca Khalid commanded one of the four Muslims armies that entered Mecca from four different routes , and routed the Qurayshi cavalry . Later that year , he participated in the Battle of Hunayn and the Siege of Ta 'if . He was part of the Tabuk campaign under the command of Muhammad , and from there he was sent to Daumat @-@ ul @-@ Jandal where he fought and captured the Arab Prince of Daumat @-@ ul @-@ Jandal , forcing Daumat @-@ ul @-@ Jandal to submit . In 631 he participated in the farewell hajj of Muhammad . During which he is said to have collected a few hairs of Muhammad as a holy relic , believing that they would help him win his battles . = = = = Military campaigns as commander = = = = On January 630 AD , 8AH , 9th month , of the Islamic Calendar . Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid was sent to destroy the Idol Goddess al @-@ Uzza , worshipped by polytheists . He did this , killing one Ethiopian woman . Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid was also sent to invite the Banu Jadhimah tribe to Islam . They started saying ' Saba 'na , Saba 'na ' ( we became Sabians ) , so Khalid took them prisoners and started executing some of them , due to past enmity , before being stopped by Abdur Rahman bin Awf . Some men from Banu Jadhimah had previously killed Al @-@ Fakih Ibn Al @-@ Mughirah Al @-@ Makhzumi , the uncle of Khalid , and Awf Ibn Abd @-@ Awf , father of Abdur Rahman bin Awf . Muhammad got very angry when he heard of Khalid 's behavior ; then paid money to the relatives of the dead and compensated for the property destroyed and he kept repeating aloud : " O God , I am innocent of what Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid has done ! " Muhammad also sent Khalid on an expedition to Dumatul Jandal , to attack the Christian Prince Ukaydir who lived in a castle there . This took place in March 631 AD , 9AH , 11th month of the Islamic Calendar . In this campaign , Khaled took the Prince hostage and threatened to kill him until the door of the castle was opened . Muhammad then later ransomed him in exchange for 2000 camels , 800 sheep , 400 sets of armour , 400 lances , and a pledge to pay Jizyah . In April 631 AD , Muhammad again sent Khalid on an 2nd expedition to Dumatul Jandal to destroy the pagan Idol , Wadd . Khalid destroyed the statue as well as the shrine and killed those who resisted . = = Abu Bakr 's era ( 632 – 634 ) = = = = = Conquest of Arabia = = = After the death of Muhammad , many powerful Arab tribes broke away in open revolt against the rule of Medina . Caliph Abu Bakr sent his armies to counter the rebels and apostates . Khalid was one of Abu Bakr ’ s main advisers and an architect of the strategic planning of the Riddah wars . He was given the command over the strongest Muslim army and was sent towards central Arabia , the most strategically sensitive area where the most powerful rebel tribes resided . The region was closest to the Muslim stronghold of Medina and was the greatest threat to the city . Khalid first set out for the rebel tribes of Tayy and Jalida , where Adi ibn Hatim — a prominent companion of Muhammad , and a chieftain of the Tayy tribe — arbitrated , and the tribes submitted to the Caliphate . In mid @-@ September 632 AD , Khalid defeated Tulaiha , a main rebel leader who claimed prophethood as a means to draw support for himself . Tulaiha 's power was crushed after his remaining followers were defeated at the Battle of Ghamra . Khalid next marched to Naqra and defeated the rebel tribe of Banu Saleem at the Battle of Naqra . The region was secured after the Battle of Zafar in October 632 with the defeat of a tribal mistress , Salma . Once the region around Medina , the Islamic capital , was recaptured , Khalid entered Nejd , a stronghold of the Banu Tamim tribes . Many of the clans hastened to visit Khalid and submit to the rule of the Caliphate . But the Banu Yarbu ' tribe , under Sheikh Malik ibn Nuwayrah , hung back . Malik avoided direct contact with Khalid 's army and ordered his followers to scatter , and he and his family apparently moved away across the desert . He also collected taxes and sent his men to Medina to deliver them . Nevertheless , Malik was accused of rebelling against the state of Medina and charged for entering into an anti @-@ Caliphate alliance with Sajjah , a self @-@ proclaimed prophetess . Malik was arrested along with his clansmen , and asked by Khalid about his crimes . Upon hearing Malik 's response : " your master said this , your master said that " referring to Abu Bakr , Khalid declared Malik a rebel apostate and ordered his execution . Abu Qatada Ansari , a companion of Muhammad , who accompanied Khalid from Medina was so shocked at Malik 's murder by Khalid that he immediately returned to Medina , and told Abu Bakr that he refused to serve under a commander who had killed a Muslim . The death of Malik and Khalid 's taking of his wife Layla created controversy . Some officers of his army — including Abu Qatadah — believed that Khalid killed Malik to take his wife . After the pressure exerted by Umar — Khalid 's cousin and one of Caliph Abu Bakr 's main advisors — Abu Bakr called Khalid back to Medina to explain himself . Although Khalid had declared Malik an apostate , in Medina , ‘ Umar told Khâlid : “ You enemy of Allâh ! You killed a Muslim man and then leap upon his wife . By Allâh , I will stone you " . Some have argued that Umar later dismissed him from army service over this . Khalid then crushed the most powerful threat to the nascent Islamic state of Medina : Musaylimah , a claimant to prophethood , who had already defeated two Muslim armies . In the third week of December 632 , Khalid won a decisive victory against Musaylimah at the Battle of Yamama . Musaylimah died in the battle , and nearly all resistance from rebelling tribes collapsed . = = = Invasion of Persian Empire = = = With the collapse of the rebellion , and Arabia united under the central authority of the caliph at Medina , Abu Bakr decided to expand his empire . It is unclear what his intentions were , whether it was a full scale expansion plan or pre @-@ emptive attacks to secure more territory to create a buffer zone between the Islamic state and the powerful Sassanid and Byzantine empires . Khalid was sent to the Persian Empire with an army consisting of 18 @,@ 000 volunteers to conquer the richest province of the Persian empire , Euphrates region of lower Mesopotamia , ( present day Iraq ) . Khalid entered lower Mesopotamia with this force . It is recorded that before engaging the Sassanid forces Khalid wrote a letter to taunt his opponents to surrender : Submit to Islam and be safe . Or agree to the payment of the Jizya ( tax ) , and you and your people will be under our protection , else you will have only yourself to blame for the consequences , for I bring the men who desire death as ardently as you desire life . He won quick victories in four consecutive battles : the Battle of Chains , fought in April 633 ; the Battle of River , fought in the third week of April 633 ; the Battle of Walaja , fought in May 633 ( where he successfully used a double envelopment manoeuvre ) , and Battle of Ullais , fought in the mid @-@ May 633 . In the last week of May 633 , al @-@ Hira , the regional capital city of lower Mesopotamia , fell to Khalid . The inhabitants were given peace on the terms of annual payment of jizya ( tribute ) and agreed to provide intelligence for Muslims . After resting his armies , in June 633 , Khalid laid siege to Anbar which despite fierce resistance fell in July 633 as a result of the siege imposed on the town . Khalid then moved towards the south , and captured Ein ul Tamr in the last week of July , 633 . By then , nearly all of lower Mesopotamia , ( the northern Euphrates region ) , was under Khalid 's control . Meanwhile , Khalid received a call for relief from northern Arabia at Daumat @-@ ul @-@ Jandal , where another Muslim Arab general , Ayaz bin Ghanam , was being surrounded by rebel tribes . August 633 , Khalid went to Daumat @-@ ul @-@ jandal and defeated the rebels in the Battle of Daumat @-@ ul @-@ jandal , capturing the city fortress . On his journey back to Mesopotamia , Khalid is said to have made a secret trip to Mecca to participate in Hajj . On his return from Arabia , Khalid received intelligence entailing a concentration of a large Persian army and Christian Arab auxiliaries . These forces were based in four different camps in the Euphrates region at Hanafiz , Zumail , Saniyy and the largest being at Muzayyah . Khalid avoided a pitched battle with a large united Persian force and decided to attack and destroy each of the camps in a separate night attacks from three sides . He divided his army in three units , and attacked the Persian forces in coordinated assaults from three different directions during the night , starting from the Battle of Muzayyah , then the Battle of Saniyy , and finally the Battle of Zumail in November 633 AD . This string of Muslim victories curtailed Persian efforts to recapture lower Mesopotamia and left the Persian capital Ctesiphon unguarded and vulnerable to Muslim attack . Before assaulting the Persian capital , Khalid decided to eliminate all Persian forces from the south and west , and thus marched against the border city of Firaz , where he defeated a combined force of Sassanid Persians , Byzantine Romans and Christian Arabs and captured the city 's fortress during the Battle of Firaz in December 633 . This was the last battle in his conquest of lower Mesopotamia . While Khalid was on his way to attack Qadissiyah , a key fort on the way to Ctesiphon , he received a letter from Abu Bakr and was sent to the Byzantine front in Syria to assume the command of Muslim armies with the intent of conquering Roman Syria . During his stay in Iraq , Khalid was also installed as military governor of the conquered territory . = = = Invasion of the Byzantine Empire = = = After the successful invasion of the Sassanid Persian province of Iraq , Caliph Abu Bakr sent an expedition to invade the Levant ( Roman Syria ) . The invasion was to be carried out by four corps , each with its own assigned targets . The Byzantines responded to this threat by concentrating their units at Ajnadyn ( a place in Palestine , probably al @-@ Lajjun ) from different garrisons . This move tied down the Muslim troops at border regions , as with this large force at their rear , Muslim armies were no longer free to march to central or northern Syria . Muslim forces apparently were too small in numbers to counter the Byzantine threat , and Abu Ubaidah ibn al @-@ Jarrah , the chief Muslim commander of the Syrian front , requested reinforcements from Abu Bakr . The latter responded by sending reinforcements led by Khalid . There were two routes towards Syria from Iraq , one was via Daumat @-@ ul @-@ Jandal ( Now known as Skaka ) and the other was through Mesopotamia passing though Ar @-@ Raqqah . Since the Muslim forces in Syria were in need of urgent reinforcement , Khalid avoided the conventional route to Syria via Daumat @-@ ul @-@ Jandal because it was a long and would take weeks to reach Syria . He also avoided the Mesopotamian route because of the presence of Roman garrisons in northern Syria and Mesopotamia . Engaging them at the time when Muslim armies were being outflanked in Syria , was also ruled out since it would mean fighting on two fronts . Khalid selected a rather shorter route to Syria which unconventionally passed though the Syrian Desert . He marched his army though the desert , where traditions tells that his soldiers marched for two days without a single drop of water , before reaching a pre @-@ decided water source at an oasis . Khalid is said to have solved the water shortage issue using a Bedouin method . Camels were made to drink water after intentionally denying them water for a lengthy time period , encouraging the camels to drink a lot of water at one time . Camels have the ability to store water in their stomach which in turn could be obtained by slaughtering them when necessary . Muslim troops rode entirely on camels and this method became an effective one for the Muslim army . Khalid entered Syria in June 634 and quickly captured the border forts of Sawa , Arak , Palmyra , al @-@ Sukhnah , al @-@ Qaryatayn and Hawarin . The latter two were captured after the Battle of Qaryatayn and the Battle of Hawarin . After subduing these desert forts , Khalid 's army moved towards Bosra , a town near the Syria @-@ Arabia border and the capital of the Arab Christian Ghassanid kingdom , a vassal of the eastern Byzantine Empire . He bypassed Damascus while crossing a mountain pass which is now known as " Sanita @-@ al @-@ Uqab " ( " the Uqab pass " ) after the name of Khalid 's army standard . On his way at Maraj @-@ al @-@ Rahat , Khalid routed a Ghassanid army in the brief Battle of Marj @-@ al @-@ Rahat . With the news of Khalid 's arrival , Abu Ubaidah ordered Shurhabil ibn Hasana , one of the four corps commanders , to attack the city of Bosra . The latter laid siege to Bosra with his army of 4 @,@ 000 men . The Byzantine and Christian Arab garrison which outnumbered Shurhabil 's forces , made a sally and were likely to annihilate them when Khalid 's cavalry arrived from the desert and attacked the rear of the Byzantine forces , relieving Shurhabil . The garrison retreated to the city 's fortress . Abu Ubaidah joined Khalid at Bosra and Khalid , as per the caliph 's instructions , took over the supreme command . The fortress of Bosra surrendered in mid @-@ July 634 , effectively ending the Ghassanid dynasty . After capturing Bosra , Khalid instructed all the corps to join him at Ajnadayn where they fought a decisive battle against the Byzantines on 30 July 634 . Modern historians consider this battle to have been the key in breaking Byzantine power in Syria . Defeat at the Battle of Ajnadayn left Syria vulnerable to the Muslim army . Khalid decided to capture Damascus , the Byzantine stronghold . At Damascus , Thomas , son @-@ in @-@ law of Byzantine Emperor Heraclius , was in charge of the city 's defense . Receiving intelligence of Khalid ’ s march towards Damascus he prepared the city 's defences . He wrote to Emperor Heraclius , who was at Emesa that time , for reinforcement . Moreover , Thomas , in order to delay or halt Khalid 's advance and to attain time to prepare for a siege , sent his armies to move forward . Two of his armies were routed first at Yaqusa in mid @-@ August and the other at Maraj as @-@ Saffar on 19 August . Meanwhile , Heraclius ' reinforcements reached Damascus before the other column of Heraclius reached the city which Khalid laid siege to on 20 August . To isolate Damascus from the rest of the region , Khalid placed the detachments south on the road to Palestine and in north at the Damascus @-@ Emesa route , and several other smaller detachments on routes towards Damascus . Heraclius ' reinforcements were intercepted and routed by Khalid at the Battle of Sanita @-@ al @-@ Uqab 30 km from Damascus . Khalid led an assault and conquered Damascus on 18 September 634 after a 30 @-@ day siege . According to some sources , the siege is purported to have lasted some four or six months . Emperor Heraclius having received the news of the fall of Damascus , left for Antioch from Emesa . Khalid 's cavalry attacked the Byzantine garrison of Damascus , which was also heading towards Antioch , catching up to them using an unknown shortcut , at the Battle of Maraj @-@ al @-@ Debaj , 150 km north of Damascus . Abu Bakr died during the siege of Damascus and Umar became the new Caliph . He dismissed his cousin Khalid from his command and appointed Abu Ubaidah ibn al @-@ Jarrah the new commander in chief of Islamic forces in Syria . Abu Ubaidah got the letter of his appointment and Khalid 's dismissal during the siege , but he delayed the announcement until the city was conquered . = = Caliph Umar 's era ( 634 – 642 ) = = = = = Dismissal of Khalid from command = = = On 22 August 634 , Abu Bakr died , having made Umar , Khalid 's cousin , his successor . Umar 's first move was to relieve Khalid from supreme command of Muslim Forces and appoint Abu Ubaidah ibn al @-@ Jarrah as the new commander in chief of the Islamic army . The relationship between Khalid and Umar had been tense since the incident of Malik ibn Nuwayrah . Khalid had become a trial of disbelief ( because of his undefeated wars ) for the Muslims as they had attributed the wins of battles to the personality and figure of Khalid ; Umar was reported as saying : " I did not fire Khalid ibn al Waleed because I am angry with him or because of betrayal of trust or responsibility but the reason was just that I wanted people to know that it is Allah who gives victory " . This resulted in the dismissal of Khalid from supreme command and later in 638 , from military services . Khalid , gave a pledge of loyalty to the new caliph and continued service as an ordinary commander under Abu Ubaidah . He is reported to have said : " If Abu Bakr is dead and Umar is Caliph , then we hear and obey " . There was inevitably a slowdown in the pace of military operations , as Abu Ubaidah ibn al @-@ Jarrah would move slowly and steadily and was a more cautious commander . The conquest of Syria continued under his Generalship and , Abu Ubaidah being an admirer of Khalid , gave him command of the cavalry and used him as a military advisor . = = = Conquest of Central Levant = = = Soon after the appointment of Abu @-@ Ubaidah as commander in chief , he sent a small detachment to the annual fair held at Abu @-@ al @-@ Quds , modern day Abla , near Zahlé 50 km east of Beirut . There was a Byzantine and Christian Arab garrison guarding that fair , however the size of the garrison was miscalculated by the Muslim informants . The garrison quickly encircled the small Muslim force . Before it would have been completely destroyed , Abu Ubaidah , having received new intelligence , sent Khalid to rescue the Muslim army . Khalid engaged and defeated them in the Battle of Abu @-@ al @-@ Quds on 15 October 634 and returned with tons of looted booty from the fair and hundreds of Roman prisoners . With Central Syria captured , the Muslims had dealt a decisive blow to the Byzantines . The communication between Northern Syria and Palestine was now cut off . Abu Ubaidah decided to march to Fahl ( Pella ) , which is about 500 ft ( 150 m ) below sea level , and where a strong Byzantine garrison and survivors of Battle of Ajnadayn were present . The region was crucial because from here the Byzantine army could strike eastwards and cut the supply lines and communications to Arabia . Moreover , with this large garrison at the rear , Palestine could not be invaded . The Muslim army moved to Fahl with Khalid leading the advance guard , only to find the plain being flooded by Byzantines engineers blocking the Jordan River . The Byzantine army was eventually defeated at the Battle of Fahl on the night 23 January 635 . = = = Battle for Emesa and 2nd Battle of Damascus = = = With the victory at Fahl , the Muslim army split , Amr ibn al @-@ Aas and Shurhabil ibn Hasana moved south to capture Palestine , while Abu Ubaidah and Khalid moved north to capture Northern Syria . While the Muslims were occupied at Fahl , Heraclius , sensing the opportunity , quickly sent an army under General Theodras to recapture Damascus . Shortly after Heraclius dispatched this new army , the Muslims having finished the business at Fahl , were on their way to Emesa . The Byzantine army met the Muslims half way to Emesa , at Maraj @-@ al @-@ Rome . During the night Theodras sent half of his army towards Damascus to launch a surprise attack on the Muslim garrison . Khalid 's spy informed him about the move , Khalid having received permission from Abu Ubaidah , quickly moved towards Damascus with his mobile guard . While Abu Ubaidah fought and defeated the Roman army in the Battle of Maraj @-@ al @-@ Rome , Khalid moved to Damascus with his Mobile guard attacking and routing General Theodras in the 2nd battle of Damascus . A week later , Abu Ubaida capture Baalbek ( Heliopolis ) , where the great Temple of Jupiter stood , and sent Khalid straight towards Emesa . Emesa and Chalcis asked for peace for a year . Abu Ubaidah , accepted the offer and rather than invading the districts of Emesa and Chalcis , he consolidated his rule in conquered land and captured Hama , Ma ’ arrat an Nu ’ man . However , the peace treaties were on Heraclius ' instructions to lull the Muslims and to secure time for preparation of defenses of Northern Syria . Having mustered sizable armies at Antioch , Heraclius sent them to reinforce strategically important areas of Northern Syria , most importantly the strong fortress of Chalcis . With the arrival of Byzantine army in the city , the peace treaty was violated . Abu Ubadiah and Khalid then marched to Emesa , and a Byzantine army that halted Khalid ’ s advance guard was routed and the Muslims besieged Emesa which was finally completed in March 636 after two months of siege . = = = Battle of Yarmouk = = = After capturing Emesa , the Muslims moved north to capture the whole of the Northern Syria . Meanwhile , Heraclius had concentrated a large army at Antioch to roll back Syria . Khalid got the news from Roman prisoners in Northern Syria . After his past experiences Heraclius had been avoiding pitched battles with the Muslims . He planned to isolate the Muslim corps from each other , and separately encircle and destroy the Muslim armies . Five massive armies were launched in Syria from different routes in June 636 to recapture it . Khalid , sensing Heraclius ' plan , feared that the Muslim armies would indeed be isolated and destroyed . In a council of war he suggested that Abu Ubaidah draw all the Muslim armies to one place so as to fight a decisive battle with the Byzantines . As per Khalid 's suggestion , Abu Ubaidah ordered all the Muslim armies in Syria to evacuate the conquered land and concentrate at Jabiya . This maneuver gave a decisive blow to Heraclius ' plan , as he did not wish to engage his troops in an open battle with the Muslims , where the Muslim light cavalry could be effectively used against the heavy and less mobile Byzantine cavalry . From Jabiya , on Khalid ’ s suggestion , Abu Ubaidah ordered the Muslim army to withdraw to the plain of the Yarmouk River , which had a good supply of pasture and water and where cavalry could be used more effectively . Abu Ubaidah , in a council of war , transferred the supreme command of the Muslim forces to Khalid , who acted as a field commander in the battle and was the mastermind of the annihilation of the Byzantine army . On 15 August , the Battle of Yarmouk was fought , it lasted for 6 days and ended in a devastating defeat for the Byzantines . The Battle of Yarmouk is considered to be one of the most decisive battles of history . It was a historic defeat that sealed the fate of Byzantium in the Levant , the magnitude of the defeat was so intense that Byzantine forces were unable to recover from it for some time . It left the whole of the Byzantine Empire vulnerable to the Muslim Arab armies . The battle was the greatest battle ever fought on Syrian soil up to that point , and is believed to be the tactical marvel of Khalid . = = = Capturing Jerusalem = = = With the Byzantine army shattered and routed , the Muslims quickly recaptured the territory that they conquered prior to Yarmouk . The Muslim forces moved south to a last Byzantine stronghold , Jerusalem , where many of the Byzantine survivors of the disaster at Yarmouk took shelter . The Siege of Jerusalem lasted four months after which the city agreed to surrender , but only to the caliph in person . Amr ibn al @-@ Aas , one of the four corps commander , suggested that Khalid should be sent as caliph , because of his very strong resemblance with Caliph Umar . Khalid was recognized and eventually , Umar came and Jerusalem surrendered in April 637 . After Jerusalem , the Muslim armies broke up once again . Yazid ’ s corps came to Damascus and captured Beirut . Amr and Shurhabil ’ s corps went on to conquer the rest of Palestine , while Abu Ubaidah and Khalid , at the head of a 17 @,@ 000 strong army moved north to conquer whole of the Northern Syria . = = = Conquest of Northern Syria = = = With Emesa already in hand , Abu Ubaidah and Khalid moved towards Chalcis , which was strategically the most significant fort of Byzantines . Through Chalcis , the Byzantines would guard Anatolia , Heraclius ' homeland Armenia and the Asian zone 's capital Antioch . Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid with his elite mobile guard towards Chalcis . The fort was guarded by the Greek troops under their commander , Menas , who was reported to be of high prestige , second only to the emperor himself . Menas , diverting from conventional Byzantine tactics , decided to face Khalid and destroy the leading elements of the Muslim army before the main body could join them at Hazir , 5 km east of Chalcis . The Roman army was totally annihilated at the Battle of Hazir , which even forced Umar to praise Khalid 's military genius . Umar is reported to have said : " Khalid is truly the commander , May Allah have mercy upon Abu Bakr . He was a better judge of men than I have been " . Abu Ubaidah soon joined Khalid at the virtually impregnable fort of Chalcis , which surrendered in June 637 . With this strategic victory , the territory north of Chalcis lay open to the Muslims . Khalid and Abu Ubaidah next captured Aleppo from desperate Byzantine troops in October 637 . The next objective was the splendid city of Antioch , the capital of the Asian zone of the Byzantine Empire . Before marching towards Antioch , Khalid and Abu Ubaidah decided to isolate the city from Anatolia ; this was done by capturing all the fortresses that were providing strategic defense to Antioch , most importantly A 'zāz at north east of Antioch . In order to save the empire from annihilation , a desperate battle was fought between the Muslim army and that of the defenders of Antioch outside the city near Orontes river , popularly known as Battle of Iron bridge . The Byzantine army was composed of the survivors of Yarmouk and other Syrian campaigns . After being defeated , the Byzantines retreated to Antioch and the Muslims besieged the city . Having little hope of help from emperor , Antioch surrendered on 30 October 637 , with the terms that all Byzantine troops would be given safe passage to Constantinople . Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid northwards , while he marched south and captured Lazkia , Jabla , Tartus and the coastal areas west of Anti @-@ Lebanon mountains . Khalid moved north and raided territory up to the Kızıl River ( Kızılırmak ) in Anatolia . Emperor Heraclius had already left Antioch for Edessa before the arrival of the Muslims . He arranged for the necessary defenses in Jazira and Armenia and left for his capital Constantinople . On his way to Constantinople he had a narrow escape when Khalid , after the capturing Marash , was heading south towards Munbij . Heraclius hastily took the mountainous path and , passing though the Cilician Gates , is reported to have said : Farewell , a long farewell to Syria , my fair province . Thou art an infidel 's ( enemy 's ) now . Peace be with you , O ' Syria – what a beautiful land you will be for the enemy hands . With the devastating defeat at Yarmouk his empire was extremely vulnerable to Muslim invasion . With few military resources left he was no longer in a position to attempt a military come back in Syria . To gain time for the preparations of the defense of the rest of his empire , Heraclius needed the Muslims occupied in Syria . He sought help of the Christian Arabs of Jazira who mustered up a large army and marched against Emesa , Abu Ubaidah ’ s headquarters . Abu Ubaidah withdrew all his forces from Northern Syria to Emesa , and Christian Arabs laid siege to Emesa . Khalid was in favor of an open battle outside fort , but Abu Ubaidah rather sent the matter to Umar , who brilliantly handled it . Umar sent detachment of Muslim armies from Iraq to invade Jazira , homeland of the invading Christian Arabs , from three different routes . Moreover , another detachment was sent to Emesa from Iraq under Qa ’ qa ibn Amr , a veteran of Yarmouk who was sent to Iraq for the Battle of al @-@ Qādisiyyah . Umar himself marched from Medina ahead of 1 @,@ 000 men . The Christian Arabs , under this overwhelming response , abandoned the siege and hastily withdrew to Jazira . At this point Khalid and his mobile guard came out of Emesa and devastated their army , attacking them from rear . This was Heraclius ' last attempt to achieve a comeback on the Syrian front . = = = Campaigns in Armenia and Anatolia = = = After the battle , Umar ordered the conquest of Jazira which was completed by late summer 638 . After the conquest of Jazira Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid and Ayadh bin Ghanim ( conqueror of Jazira ) to invade the Byzantine territory north of Jazira . They marched independently and captured Edessa , Amida ( Diyarbakır ) , Malatya and raided Byzantine Armenia up to Ararat region and also reportedly raided central Anatolia . Heraclius had already abandoned all the forts between Antioch and Tartus to create a buffer zone or no man 's land between Muslim controlled areas and main land Anatolia . Umar for the time stopped his armies from advancing further into Anatolia , and instead ordered Abu Ubaidah , now governor of Syria , to consolidate his rule in conquered land of the Levant . At this point Umar is reported to have said : " I wish there was a wall of fire between us and Romans , so that they could not enter our territory nor we could enter theirs " . Due to the dismissal of Khalid from the army and a famine and plague the next year , the Muslim armies were kept from invading Anatolia . The expedition to Anatolia and Armenia marked the end of the military career of Khalid . = = = Dismissal from army = = = Khalid , by now , was at the height of his career , he was famous and loved by his men , for the Muslim community he was a national hero , and was publicly known as Sayf @-@ ullah ( " Sword of Allah " ) . An event happened shortly after Khalid 's capture of Marash ( Kahramanmaraş ) , in the autumn of 638 , he came to know of Ash 'as , a famous poet and warrior on Persian front , reciting a poem in praise of Khalid and receiving a gift of 10 @,@ 000 dirhams from him , apparently from the state treasury . Umar and his senate identified this act as misuse of state treasure , though not as punishing as to lose one 's office , Khalid was already warned not act as alone , he should seek permission from his commander or Caliph for such actions . He immediately wrote a letter to Abu Ubaidah asking him to bring Khalid in front of the congregation , his turban , and take off his cap . Umar wanted Abu Ubaida to ask Khalid from what funds he gave to Ash 'as : from his own pocket or from the state treasury ? If he confessed to having used the spoils , he was guilty of misappropriation . If he claimed that he gave from his own pocket , he was guilty of extravagance . In either case he would be dismissed , and Abu Ubaida would take charge of his duties . Abu Ubaida was himself an admirer of Khalid and loved him as his younger brother , and so said that he was not capable of doing it . Instead , Bilal ibn Ribah was appointed for this task and called back Khalid from Chalcis to Emessa , where he was charged publicly . Khalid stated that he gave money from his own pocket and thus was declared innocent in that charge . However , when he went to Abu Ubaida , he told him that he had been dismissed on the order of Umar and is required to go back to Medina . Khalid went to Chalcis and said farewell to his mobile guard . He then went to Medina to meet Umar . He protested about what he considered to be injustice . Umar is said to have praised him in these words : " You have done ; And no man has done as you have done . But it is not people who do ; It is Allah who does ... " Later Umar explained his dismissal of Khalid : I have not dismissed Khalid because of my anger or because of any dishonesty on his part , but because people glorified him and were misled . I feared that people would rely on him . I want them to know that it is Allah who give us victory ; and there should be no mischief in the land . It was in this way that Khalid 's successful military career came to an end . = = = Death = = = Although it is believed that relations between Umar and Khalid , cousins , were always something short of cordial , both of them apparently harboured no ill @-@ will towards each other . Upon his death , he bequeathed his property to Umar and made him the executor of his will and estate . Within less than four years of his dismissal , Khalid died and was buried in 642 in Emesa , where he lived since his dismissal from military services . His tomb is now part of a mosque called Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid Mosque . Khalid 's tombstone depicts a list of over 50 victorious battles that he commanded without defeat ( not including small battles ) . It is said that he had wanted to die as a martyr in the field of battle , and was apparently disappointed when he knew that he would die in bed . Khalid expressed the pain of this sadness through one last , anguished sentence : I 've fought in so many battles seeking martyrdom that there is no spot in my body left without a scar or a wound made by a spear or sword . And yet here I am , dying on my bed like an old camel . May the eyes of the cowards never rest . The wife of Khalid , upon feeling such a pain of her husband told Khalid : " You were given the title of ' Saif @-@ ullah ' meaning , ' The Sword of Allah ' and , the sword of Allah is not meant to be broken and hence , it is not your destiny to be a ' martyr ' but to die like a conqueror . " = = List of battles = = = = Legacy = = = = = Military = = = Khalid is said to have fought around a hundred battles , both major battles and minor skirmishes as well as single duels , during his military career . Having remained undefeated , he is claimed by some to be one of the finest military generals in history . Khalid was the architect of most of the early Muslim military doctrines , he was pioneer of almost every major tactic that Muslims used during Early Islamic conquest . One of Khalid 's major achievements in this context was utilizing the individual skills of Arab Bedouin warriors to a larger scale . He is believed to have developed them into an almost regular unit called Mubarizun ( " champions " ) , who would issue personal challenges to the enemy officers . These were highly trained and skilled swordsmen , whom Khalid utilized effectively to slay as many enemy officers as possible , giving a psychological blow to enemy morale . The Battle of Ajnadayn is perhaps the best example of this form of psychological warfare . Moreover , his biggest achievement was the conversion of Arab tactical doctrine into a strategic system . Until Khalid , the Arabs were basically raiders and skirmishers . Khalid turned those skirmishing tactics into something that could be used anywhere . Thus he would skirmish the enemy to death : he would bring his army in front of his enemies and wait until the whole battle degenerated into a skirmishing affair between small units . Then , after exhausting the enemy units , he would launch his cavalry at their flanks employing Hammer and Anvil tactics . Much of Khalid 's strategic and tactical genius lies in his use of extreme methods . He apparently put more emphasis on annihilating enemy troops , rather than achieving victory by simply defeating them . For instance his employment of the double envelopment maneuver against the numerically superior Persian army at the Battle of Walaja , and his maneuver at the Battle of Yarmouk where he virtually trapped the Byzantine army between three steep ravines by stealthily capturing their only escape route , a bridge , at their rear . Khalid utilized his better understanding of terrain in every possible way to gain strategic superiority over his enemies . During his Persian campaigns , he initially never entered deep into Persian territory and always kept the Arabian desert at his rear , allowing his forces to retreat there in case of a defeat . It was only after all the strong Persian and Persian @-@ allied forces were routed that he penetrated deep into Euphrates region and captured the regional capital of Iraq , Al @-@ Hira . Again , at Yarmouk , the terrain would help him in executing his grand strategy of annihilating the Byzantines . In their mobility , Khalid 's troops had no match until the Mongol hordes of the 13th century . In fact the tactics of the desert Arabs and steppe Mongols were somewhat identical . Entire troops of Khalid would ride on camels while on march , whereas the Mongols used horses , with the difference that the Arabs did not make use of mounted archers . His most commonly used maneuver was surprise attack , such as his night attacks from three different sides on Persian camps at Zumail , Muzayyah and Saniyy , his highly mobile army successfully maneuvering in a 100 km area , quickly destroying encampments of the Persians and their Arab allies . The Battle of Maraj @-@ al @-@ Debaj being no exception , where once again his highly mobile army maneuvered around a Byzantine army , appearing from four directions and opening several fronts at a time , a maneuver which later in 13th century became one of the Mongol armies ' principal maneuvers . The historian Waqidi writes that after the battle of Battle of Maraj @-@ al @-@ Debaj , Emperor Heraclius sent an ambassador to ask Khalid to return his daughter . The ambassador gave Khalid the letter from the Emperor which read as follows : Khalid said to the ambassador : The ambassador took the daughter of Heraclius , and returned to Antioch . An example of Khalid 's strategic maneuverability was his advance into Roman Syria . Emperor Heraclius had sent all his available garrisoned troops into Syria , towards Ajnadayn , to hold the Muslim troops at the Syria @-@ Arabia border region . The possible route of any Muslim reinforcement was expected to be the conventional Syria @-@ Arabia road in the south , but Khalid , who was then in Iraq , took the most unexpected route : marching through the waterless Syrian desert , to the surprise of the Byzantines , he appeared in northern Syria . Catching the Byzantines off guard , he quickly captured several towns , virtually cutting off the communications of the Byzantine army at Ajnadayn with its high command at Emesa , where emperor Heraclius himself resided . Khalid 's elite light cavalry , the Mobile guard , acted as the core of the Muslim cavalry during the invasion of Syria . It was composed of highly trained and seasoned soldiers , the majority of whom had been under Khalid 's standard during his Arabian and Persian campaigns . Muslim cavalry was a light cavalry force armed with 5 meter long lances . They could charge at an incredible speed and would usually employ a common tactic of Kar wa far literary meaning " engage @-@ disengage " , or in modern term : “ hit @-@ and @-@ run . ” They would charge on enemy flanks and rear , their maneuverability making them very effective against heavily armored Byzantine and Sassanid cataphracts . Khalid 's famous flanking charge on the final day of the Battle of Yarmouk stands as testimony to just how well he understood the potentials and strengths of his mounted troops . The Arabs soldiers were far more lightly armored then their Roman and Persian contemporaries , which made them vulnerable in close combat at set @-@ piece battles and to missile fire of enemy archers . Khalid therefore never blundered in the battle and would rely on intelligence reports from spies that he would hire from local population on liberal rewards . Persian Historian Al @-@ Tabari said : He ( Khalid ) neither slept himself , nor did he let others sleep ; nothing could be kept hidden from him . = = = Political = = = Khalid also remained military Governor of Iraq from 632 – 633 and Governor of Chalcis , the most strategic cantonment in Northern Syria . Though he was never active politically , it was rumored that his fame alarmed Umar , who then recalled him from the army . However , to Umar 's recall of Khalid , was largely related to the Muslim population 's belief in Khalid being irreplaceable . To relieve them of this belief , Umar recalled Khalid , to which Khalid agreed . Umar is said to have later regretted this decision . It is said that after the Hajj of 642 , Umar had decided to re @-@ appoint Khalid to the military services , apparently to command the Muslim conquest of Persia that was to begin shortly . But fate had decided otherwise , as when he reached Medina , news of Khalid 's death reached him . The news of Khalid 's death broke like a storm over Medina . The women took to the streets , led by the women of the Banu Makhzum ( Khalid 's tribe ) , wailing and beating their chests . Though Umar , from the very first day had given orders that there would be no wailing for departed Muslims , as forbidden in Islam , in this one case he made an exception . Umar said : Let the women of the Banu Makhzum say what they will about Abu Sulaiman ( Khalid ) , for they do not lie , over the likes of Abu Sulaiman weep those who weep . It is also recorded that once Umar was sitting with his companions , someone recalled Khalid , Umar reportedly said : " By God , he was Islam 's shield against the enemies , his heart was pure from every animosity " . According to some narrations , on Umar ’ s death bed , he named people who he would have appointed as successors to the Caliphate if they had been alive , and amongst those he named was Khalid . = = = Religious standing = = = Khalid ibn Walid was a Sahabi ( a companion of Muhammad ) , a fact which makes him a very respectable figure among Sunni Muslims . According to authentic Sunni hadeeths he was first referred to as " a Sword amongst the Swords of Allah " by Muhammad while the Prophet was describing the Battle of Mu 'tah . Shia Muslims , however , do not esteem him because they believe that he helped Abu Bakr in suppressing the supporters of their Imam Ali , who , according to them , was appointed by Muhammad as his political successor . = = = In popular culture = = = In the series Omar , a TV show about the first years of Islam , the character of Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid was portrayed by the Syrian actor Mehyar Khaddour . The character of Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid was one of the main characters in the show . Khalid 's reputation as a formidable general led to his inclusion as a " Great General " in Civilization V and the Warlords expansion to the Civilization IV video game , which attempts to include real historical people in its gameplay . The Pakistan Army 's main battle tank ( MBT ) , Al @-@ Khalid is named after Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid . The Pakistan Navy 's Agosta 90B class submarine , PNS / M Khalid ( S137 ) The Bangladesh Navy 's frigate BNS Khalid Ibni Walid is named after him . Kazi Nazrul Islam wrote a popular poem named " Khaled " while he was suffering from malaria , showing his respect to Khaled and grief for his colonized countrymen . The troops sent by the Pakistan Army in the Gulf War in Operation Desert Storm was named " Khalid Bin Walid Independent Armoured Brigade Group . " It has been in active service in Saudi Arabia since . = = Family = = Walid reportedly had many wives and many children from them . Only the names of his following children are recorded in history . Walid 's sons were : ( Khalid 's brothers ) Hisham ibn Walid Walid ibn Walid Ammarah ibn Walid Abdul Shams ibn Walid . Walid 's daughters were : ( Khalid 's sisters ) Faktah bint Walid Fatimah bint Walid . Najiyah bint al @-@ Walid ( Disputed ) . It is unknown how many children Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid had , but names of his three sons and one known daughter are mentioned in history which are as follows : Sulaiman bin Khalid Abdulrehman ibn Khalid Muhajir bin Khalid . Sulaiman , Khalid 's eldest son , was killed during the Muslim conquest of Egypt , although other sources claim he was slain during the Muslim siege of Diyarbakir in 639 . Muhajir bin Khalid died in the Battle of Siffin while fighting from Caliph Ali 's side and Abdulreman ibn Khalid remained Governor of Emesa during the time of third Caliph Uthman ibn Affan and participated in the Battle of Siffin as one of the generals of Muawiyah I , he was also the part of Umayyad army that besieged Constantinople in 664 . Abdulreman ibn Khalid was later to be appointed the successor of Caliph Muawiyah but according to some narrations , he was poisoned by Muawiyah , because Muawiyah wanted to make his son Yazid I to be his successor . The male line of descent from Khalid is believed to have ended with his grandson , Khalid bin Abdur @-@ Rahman bin Khalid .
= Eye ( cyclone ) = The eye is a region of mostly calm weather at the center of strong tropical cyclones . The eye of a storm is a roughly circular area , typically 30 – 65 km ( 20 – 40 miles ) in diameter . It is surrounded by the eyewall , a ring of towering thunderstorms where the most severe weather occurs . The cyclone 's lowest barometric pressure occurs in the eye and can be as much as 15 percent lower than the pressure outside the storm . In strong tropical cyclones , the eye is characterized by light winds and clear skies , surrounded on all sides by a towering , symmetric eyewall . In weaker tropical cyclones , the eye is less well defined and can be covered by the central dense overcast , an area of high , thick clouds that show up brightly on satellite imagery . Weaker or disorganized storms may also feature an eyewall that does not completely encircle the eye or have an eye that features heavy rain . In all storms , however , the eye is the location of the storm 's minimum barometric pressure - the area where the atmospheric pressure at sea level is the lowest . = = Structure = = A typical tropical cyclone will have an eye of approximately 30 – 65 km ( 20 – 40 mi ) across , usually situated at the geometric center of the storm . The eye may be clear or have spotty low clouds ( a clear eye ) , it may be filled with low- and mid @-@ level clouds ( a filled eye ) , or it may be obscured by the central dense overcast . There is , however , very little wind and rain , especially near the center . This is in stark contrast to conditions in the eyewall , which contains the storm 's strongest winds . Due to the mechanics of a tropical cyclone , the eye and the air directly above it are warmer than their surroundings . While normally quite symmetric , eyes can be oblong and irregular , especially in weakening storms . A large ragged eye is a non @-@ circular eye which appears fragmented , and is an indicator of a weak or weakening tropical cyclone . An open eye is an eye which can be circular , but the eyewall does not completely encircle the eye , also indicating a weakening , moisture @-@ deprived cyclone . Both of these observations are used to estimate the intensity of tropical cyclones via Dvorak analysis . Eyewalls are typically circular ; however , distinctly polygonal shapes ranging from triangles to hexagons occasionally occur . While typical mature storms have eyes that are a few dozen miles across , rapidly intensifying storms can develop an extremely small , clear , and circular eye , sometimes referred to as a pinhole eye . Storms with pinhole eyes are prone to large fluctuations in intensity , and provide difficulties and frustrations for forecasters . Small / minuscule eyes — those less than 10 nmi ( 19 km , 12 mi ) across — often trigger eyewall replacement cycles , where a new eyewall begins to form outside the original eyewall . This can take place anywhere from fifteen to hundreds of kilometers ( ten to a few hundred miles ) outside the inner eye . The storm then develops two concentric eyewalls , or an " eye within an eye " . In most cases , the outer eyewall begins to contract soon after its formation , which chokes off the inner eye and leaves a much larger but more stable eye . While the replacement cycle tends to weaken storms as it occurs , the new eyewall can contract fairly quickly after the old eyewall dissipates , allowing the storm to re @-@ strengthen . This may trigger another cycle of eyewall replacement . Eyes can range in size from 320 km ( 200 mi ) ( Typhoon Carmen ) to a mere 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) ( Hurricane Wilma ) across . While it is uncommon for storms with large eyes to become very intense , it does occur , especially in annular hurricanes . Hurricane Isabel was the eleventh most powerful North Atlantic hurricane in recorded history , and sustained a large , 65 – 80 km ( 40 – 50 mi ) -wide eye for a period of several days . = = Formation and detection = = Tropical cyclones typically form from large , disorganized areas of disturbed weather in tropical regions . As more thunderstorms form and gather , the storm develops rainbands which start rotating around a common center . As the storm gains strength , a ring of stronger convection forms at a certain distance from the rotational center of the developing storm . Since stronger thunderstorms and heavier rain mark areas of stronger updrafts , the barometric pressure at the surface begins to drop , and air begins to build up in the upper levels of the cyclone . This results in the formation of an upper level anticyclone , or an area of high atmospheric pressure above the central dense overcast . Consequently , most of this built up air flows outward anticyclonically above the tropical cyclone . Outside the forming eye , the anticyclone at the upper levels of the atmosphere enhances the flow towards the center of the cyclone , pushing air towards the eyewall and causing a positive feedback loop . However , a small portion of the built @-@ up air , instead of flowing outward , flows inward towards the center of the storm . This causes air pressure to build even further , to the point where the weight of the air counteracts the strength of the updrafts in the center of the storm . Air begins to descend in the center of the storm , creating a mostly rain @-@ free area — a newly formed eye . There are many aspects of this process which remain a mystery . Scientists do not know why a ring of convection forms around the center of circulation instead of on top of it , or why the upper @-@ level anticyclone only ejects a portion of the excess air above the storm . Many theories exist as to the exact process by which the eye forms : all that is known for sure is that the eye is necessary for tropical cyclones to achieve high wind speeds . The formation of an eye is almost always an indicator of increasing tropical cyclone organisation and strength . Because of this , forecasters watch developing storms closely for signs of eye formation . For storms with a clear eye , detection of the eye is as simple as looking at pictures from a weather satellite . However , for storms with a filled eye , or an eye completely covered by the central dense overcast , other detection methods must be used . Observations from ships and Hurricane Hunters can pinpoint an eye visually , by looking for a drop in wind speed or lack of rainfall in the storm 's center . In the United States , South Korea , and a few other countries , a network of NEXRAD Doppler weather radar stations can detect eyes near the coast . Weather satellites also carry equipment for measuring atmospheric water vapor and cloud temperatures , which can be used to spot a forming eye . In addition , scientists have recently discovered that the amount of ozone in the eye is much higher than the amount in the eyewall , due to air sinking from the ozone @-@ rich stratosphere . Instruments sensitive to ozone perform measurements , which are used to observe rising and sinking columns of air , and provide indication of the formation of an eye , even before satellite imagery can determine its formation . = = Associated phenomena = = = = = Eyewall replacement cycles = = = Eyewall replacement cycles , also called concentric eyewall cycles , naturally occur in intense tropical cyclones , generally with winds greater than 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) , or major hurricanes ( Category 3 or higher on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale ) . When tropical cyclones reach this intensity , and the eyewall contracts or is already sufficiently small ( see above ) , some of the outer rainbands may strengthen and organize into a ring of thunderstorms — an outer eyewall — that slowly moves inward and robs the inner eyewall of its needed moisture and angular momentum . Since the strongest winds are located in a cyclone 's eyewall , the tropical cyclone usually weakens during this phase , as the inner wall is " choked " by the outer wall . Eventually the outer eyewall replaces the inner one completely , and the storm can re @-@ intensify . The discovery of this process was partially responsible for the end of the U.S. government 's hurricane modification experiment Project Stormfury . This project set out to seed clouds outside the eyewall , causing a new eyewall to form and weakening the storm . When it was discovered that this was a natural process due to hurricane dynamics , the project was quickly abandoned . Almost every intense hurricane undergoes at least one of these cycles during its existence . Hurricane Allen in 1980 went through repeated eyewall replacement cycles , fluctuating between Category 5 and Category 3 status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale several times . Hurricane Juliette was a rare documented case of triple eyewalls . = = = Moats = = = A moat in a tropical cyclone is a clear ring outside the eyewall , or between concentric eyewalls , characterized by subsidence — slowly sinking air — and little or no precipitation . The air flow in the moat is dominated by the cumulative effects of stretching and shearing . The moat between eyewalls is an area in the storm where the rotational speed of the air changes greatly in proportion to the distance from the storm 's center ; these areas are also known as rapid filamentation zones . Such areas can potentially be found near any vortex of sufficient strength , but are most pronounced in strong tropical cyclones . = = = Eyewall mesovortices = = = Eyewall mesovortices are small scale rotational features found in the eyewalls of intense tropical cyclones . They are similar , in principle , to small " suction vortices " often observed in multiple @-@ vortex tornadoes . In these vortices , wind speeds may be greater than anywhere else in the eyewall . Eyewall mesovortices are most common during periods of intensification in tropical cyclones . Eyewall mesovortices often exhibit unusual behavior in tropical cyclones . They usually rotate around the low pressure center , but sometimes they remain stationary . Eyewall mesovortices have even been documented to cross the eye of a storm . These phenomena have been documented observationally , experimentally , and theoretically . Eyewall mesovortices are a significant factor in the formation of tornadoes after tropical cyclone landfall . Mesovortices can spawn rotation in individual thunderstorms ( a mesocyclone ) , which leads to tornadic activity . At landfall , friction is generated between the circulation of the tropical cyclone and land . This can allow the mesovortices to descend to the surface , causing tornadoes . = = = Stadium effect = = = The stadium effect is a phenomenon observed in strong tropical cyclones . It is a fairly common event , where the clouds of the eyewall curve outward from the surface with height . This gives the eye an appearance resembling an open dome from the air , akin to a sports stadium . An eye is always larger at the top of the storm , and smallest at the bottom of the storm because the rising air in the eyewall follows isolines of equal angular momentum , which also slope outward with height . In tropical cyclones with very small eyes , the sloping phenomenon is much more pronounced . = = = Eye @-@ like features = = = An eye @-@ like structure is often found in intensifying tropical cyclones . Similar to the eye seen in hurricanes or typhoons , it is a circular area at the circulation center of the storm in which convection is absent . These eye @-@ like features are most normally found in intensifying tropical storms and hurricanes of Category 1 strength on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . For example , an eye @-@ like feature was found in Hurricane Beta when the storm had maximum wind speeds of only 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) , well below hurricane force . The features are typically not visible on visible wavelengths or infrared wavelengths from space , although they are easily seen on microwave satellite imagery . Their development at the middle levels of the atmosphere is similar to the formation of a complete eye , but the features might be horizontally displaced due to vertical wind shear . = = Hazards = = Though the eye is by far the calmest part of the storm , with no wind at the center and typically clear skies , over the ocean it is possibly the most hazardous area . In the eyewall , wind @-@ driven waves all travel in the same direction . In the center of the eye , however , the waves converge from all directions , creating erratic crests that can build on each other to become rogue waves . The maximum height of hurricane waves is unknown , but measurements during Hurricane Ivan when it was a Category 4 hurricane estimated that waves near the eyewall exceeded 40 m ( 130 ft ) from peak to trough . A common mistake , especially in areas where hurricanes are uncommon , is for residents to exit their homes to inspect the damage while the calm eye passes over , only to be caught off guard by the violent winds in the opposite eyewall . = = Other cyclones = = Though only tropical cyclones have structures officially termed " eyes " , there are other weather systems that can exhibit eye @-@ like features . = = = Polar lows = = = Polar lows are mesoscale weather systems , typically smaller than 1 @,@ 000 km ( 600 mi ) across , found near the poles . Like tropical cyclones , they form over relatively warm water and can feature deep convection and winds of gale force or greater . Unlike storms of tropical nature , however , they thrive in much colder temperatures and at much higher latitudes . They are also smaller and last for shorter durations , with few lasting longer than a day or so . Despite these differences , they can be very similar in structure to tropical cyclones , featuring a clear eye surrounded by an eyewall and bands of rain and snow . = = = Extratropical cyclones = = = Extratropical cyclones are areas of low pressure which exist at the boundary of different air masses . Almost all storms found at mid @-@ latitudes are extratropical in nature , including classic North American nor 'easters and European windstorms . The most severe of these can have a clear " eye " at the site of lowest barometric pressure , though it is usually surrounded by lower , non @-@ convective clouds and is found near the back end of the storm . = = = Subtropical cyclones = = = Subtropical cyclones are low @-@ pressure systems with some extratropical characteristics and some tropical characteristics . As such , they may have an eye while not being truly tropical in nature . Subtropical cyclones can be very hazardous , generating high winds and seas , and often evolve into fully tropical cyclones . For this reason , the National Hurricane Center began including subtropical storms in its naming scheme in 2002 . = = = Tornadoes = = = Tornadoes are destructive , small @-@ scale storms , which produce the fastest winds on earth . There are two main types — single @-@ vortex tornadoes , which consist of a single spinning column of air , and multiple @-@ vortex tornadoes , which consist of small " suction vortices , " resembling mini @-@ tornadoes themselves , all rotating around a common center . Both of these types of tornadoes are theorized to have calm centers , referred to by some meteorologists as " eyes . " These theories are supported by doppler velocity observations by weather radar and eyewitness accounts . = = Extraterrestrial vortices = = NASA reported in November 2006 that the Cassini spacecraft observed a " hurricane @-@ like " storm locked to the south pole of Saturn with a clearly defined eyewall . The observation was particularly notable as eyewall clouds had not previously been seen on any planet other than Earth ( including a failure to observe an eyewall in the Great Red Spot of Jupiter by the Galileo spacecraft ) . In 2007 , very large vortices on both poles of Venus were observed by the Venus Express mission of the European Space Agency to have a dipole eye structure .
= 11001001 = " 11001001 " is the 15th episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation . It was first broadcast on February 1 , 1988 , in the United States in broadcast syndication . It was written by Maurice Hurley and Robert Lewin , and directed by Paul Lynch . Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of the Starfleet starship Enterprise @-@ D. In this episode , members of an alien race called the Bynars hijack a nearly evacuated Enterprise while retrofitting the computer in space dock . Make @-@ up supervisor Michael Westmore created the look of the Bynars , who were four women in extensive make @-@ up . The musical score was scored by Ron Jones . Reviewers praised the Bynars themselves , and the response to the episode was generally positive , with one critic calling it the best of the season . It was awarded an Emmy Award for Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series . = = Plot = = The Federation starship Enterprise arrives at Starbase 74 for a routine maintenance check . Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) and Commander William Riker ( Jonathan Frakes ) greet Starbase Commander Quinteros ( Gene Dynarski ) and a pair of small humanoid aliens known as Bynars ; the Bynars heavily rely on their computer technology and work in pairs for best efficiency . Much of the crew take shore leave while Picard , Riker and a skeleton crew remain aboard . Riker is intrigued by the Bynars ' claimed upgrades to the holodeck and starts a program in a jazz bar . The program includes a woman named Minuet ( Carolyn McCormick ) , by whom Riker is fascinated , both as a beautiful and charming woman , but also by the level of sophistication in her responses . Riker shortly returns , and Picard walks in on him kissing Minuet , and he too is amazed by the simulation . Meanwhile , the Bynars discreetly create a catastrophic failure in the ship 's warp core . Lt. Cmdr. Data ( Brent Spiner ) and Geordi La Forge ( LeVar Burton ) are unable to locate Picard or Riker and , assuming them to already be on the Starbase , order an emergency evacuation . They set the ship to leave the Starbase and warp to a safe location before it would explode . However , once they are clear of the dock , the failure disappears and the ship sets course for the Bynar system , the planet Bynaus orbiting Beta Magellan . Data , La Forge , and Quinteros realize that the Bynars are still aboard the ship , but there are currently no other working vessels to follow them . Back on the Enterprise , Riker and Picard leave the simulation to find the ship empty and at warp to the Bynar system , with the ship 's controls locked to the bridge . Fearing that the Bynars have taken over the ship for nefarious purposes , they set the ship to self @-@ destruct in 5 minutes and then take the bridge by inter @-@ ship transporter beam and find the Bynars there unconscious . After cancelling the self @-@ destruct , they find the Bynars have uploaded massive amounts of information to the Enterprise computers , but they are unable to decode it . Realizing that Minuet was purposely created by the Bynars as a distraction , Picard and Riker ask the simulation about what is going on as the ship nears the orbit of Bynar . Minuet explains that a star near the Bynar homeworld had gone supernova , and the EMP it emitted would knock out their computer systems , effectively killing the Bynars . They had used the Enterprise to upload their computer information for safekeeping and then planned to download it back to the Bynar computers after the threat of the EMP had passed . With Data 's help , Picard and Riker successfully download the data , and the Bynars recover . They apologize for their actions , having feared that Starfleet would refuse to help , though Picard notes they only had to ask . As the Enterprise returns to Starbase , Riker returns to the holodeck to thank Minuet but finds that without the Bynar data , the simulation has regressed to the expected norm for the holodeck , and while Minuet still exists , she is not the same as before . Riker reports to Picard that Minuet is gone . = = Production = = The episode at one point was called " 10101001 " . It was originally intended that this episode would take place prior to " The Big Goodbye " , with the Bynars modifications causing the problems with the holodeck seen in that episode . Instead it was changed to the Bynars aiming to fix the holodeck to prevent those problems re @-@ occurring . The Bynars themselves were played by young women . Children were considered for the parts , but the production team thought that it would be too problematic because of the limited time they could work each day and the need to hire teachers . Each actress was required to wear extensive make @-@ up , which was created by make @-@ up supervisor Michael Westmore . A large single @-@ piece bald cap was made from the same mold for each actress , which required some customised trimming to get it to fit properly . To cover up problems with the seams of the cap , some fake hair was added on the Bynars ' necks . Each actress also controlled the flashing light inside the apparatus on the side of the headpiece through a battery pack attached to the waistband of their costumes . To disguise their voices , the pitch was lowered in post production . It was originally planned to add subtitles over the Bynars ' conversations between themselves . The image of the Starbase orbiting a planet was re @-@ used from Star Trek III : The Search for Spock . The score was created by Ron Jones , who incorporated jazz themes composed by John Beasley . The episode was written by Maurice Hurley and Robert Lewin . Hurley was pleased with the outcome of the episode , praising the work of Westmore on the Bynars ' makeup and the performance of Jonathan Frakes . Frakes enjoyed the episode too , saying , " A fabulous show . Those were the kind of chances we took first season that when they worked , they worked great . It was a very chancy show and I loved it . " Director Paul Lynch also thought that the Bynars were " great " . Carolyn McCormick appeared as Minuet and subsequently became a regular cast member in Law and Order . She returned to the role of Minuet in the season four episode " Future Imperfect " . Gene Dynarski had previously appeared as Ben Childress in Star Trek : The Original Series episode " Mudd 's Women " and Krodak in " The Mark of Gideon " . = = Reception = = " 11001001 " aired in broadcast syndication during the week commencing February 7 , 1988 . It received Nielsen ratings of 10 @.@ 7 , reflecting the percentage of all households watching the episode during its timeslot . These ratings were lower than both the episodes broadcast both before and afterwards . For their work in this episode , Bill Wistrom , Wilson Dyer , Mace Matiosian , James Wolvington , Gerry Sackman and Keith Bilderbeck were awarded an Emmy Award for Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series . Several reviewers re @-@ watched the episode after the end of the series . James Hunt reviewed the episode for the website " Den of Geek " in January 2013 . He was surprised by the episode as he " went in expecting something that was typically season one awful , and got something that was actually a lot of fun " . He thought that the theme of symbiosis between man and machine , and thought it was the best episode until that point in season one and one of the best of the season overall . Zack Handlen watched the episode for The A.V. Club in May 2010 . He too was surprised by what he found . Handlen said that " last time I saw it , I thought Riker and Minuet 's interactions were cheesy as hell . They didn 't bother me so much now , because they don 't go on very long , and there 's something hilarious about a man trying to seduce a computer simulation designed to respond to his seductions " . But he said , " I had fun with this , which I wasn 't expecting " , and " thought this was solid " . He gave the episode a B grade . Keith DeCandido reviewed the episode for Tor.com in June 2011 . He described it as " one of the strongest first @-@ season episodes " , and the Bynars as " one of the finest alien species Trek has provided " . He also thought that turning off the auto @-@ destruct with two minutes to go instead of mere seconds neatly avoided a cliché , and gave it a score of seven out of ten . Michelle Erica Green for TrekNation watched the episode in June 2007 . She thought that it came " very close to being a really good episode " . She also thought that Picard and Riker 's actions were the " most boneheaded joint behavior by the top two officers " , in that they got distracted by a female character on the holodeck and didn 't notice the ship being evacuated . Jamahl Epsicokhan at his website " Jammer 's Reviews " described " 11001001 " as " easily season one 's best and most memorable episode " . He thought that it was the " season 's most solid sci @-@ fi concept " and that the series was " firing on all cylinders , with everything coming together , from plot to character , to sensible use of technology and action " . He gave it a score of four out of four . = = Home media release = = The first home media release of " 11001001 " was on VHS cassette , appearing on August 26 , 1992 , in the United States and Canada . The episode was later included on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season one DVD box set , released in March 2002 , and then released as part of the season one Blu @-@ ray set on July 24 , 2012 .
= SMS Scharnhorst = SMS Scharnhorst ( " His Majesty 's Ship Scharnhorst " ) was an armored cruiser of the Imperial German Navy , built at the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg , Germany . She was the lead ship of her class , which also included her sister SMS Gneisenau . Scharnhorst and her sister were enlarged versions of the preceding Roon class ; they were equipped with a greater number of main guns and were capable of a higher top speed . The ship was named after the Prussian military reformer General Gerhard von Scharnhorst and commissioned into service on 24 October 1907 . Scharnhorst served briefly with the High Seas Fleet in Germany in 1908 , though most of this time was spent conducting sea trials . She was assigned to the German East Asia Squadron based in Tsingtao , China , in 1909 . After arriving , she replaced the cruiser Fürst Bismarck as the squadron flagship , a position she would hold for the rest of her career . Over the next five years , she went on several tours of various Asian ports to show the flag for Germany . She frequently carried the squadron commanders to meet with Asian heads of state and was present in Japan for the coronation of the Taishō Emperor in 1912 . After the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Scharnhorst and Gneisenau , accompanied by three light cruisers and several colliers , sailed across the Pacific Ocean — in the process evading the various Allied naval forces sent to intercept them — before arriving off the southern coast of South America . On 1 November 1914 , Scharnhorst and the rest of the East Asia Squadron encountered and overpowered a British squadron at the Battle of Coronel . The stinging defeat prompted the British Admiralty to dispatch two battlecruisers to hunt down and destroy von Spee 's flotilla , which they accomplished at the Battle of the Falkland Islands on 8 December 1914 . = = Design = = Scharnhorst was 144 @.@ 6 meters ( 474 ft 5 in ) long overall and had a beam of 21 @.@ 6 m ( 70 ft 10 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 37 m ( 27 ft 6 in ) . The ship displaced 11 @,@ 616 tonnes ( 11 @,@ 433 long tons ) as designed and 12 @,@ 985 t ( 12 @,@ 780 long tons ) at deep load . She was powered by three triple @-@ expansion steam engines with eighteen coal @-@ fired water @-@ tube boilers . Her engines were rated at 25 @,@ 644 indicated horsepower ( 19 @,@ 123 kW ) , for a top speed of 22 @.@ 5 knots ( 41 @.@ 7 km / h ; 25 @.@ 9 mph ) . Scharnhorst 's crew consisted of 52 officers and 788 enlisted men ; of these , 14 officers and 62 enlisted men were assigned to the squadron commander 's staff and were additional to the standard complement . Scharnhorst 's primary armament consisted of eight 21 cm ( 8 @.@ 2 inch ) SK L / 40 guns , four in twin gun turrets , one fore and one aft of the main superstructure , and the remaining four were mounted in single wing turrets . Secondary armament included six 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 inch ) SK L / 40 guns in casemates and eighteen 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 45 inch ) guns mounted in casemates . She was also equipped with four 45 cm ( 18 in ) submerged torpedo tubes . One was mounted in the bow , one on each broadside , and the fourth was placed in the stern . The ship 's armored belt was 15 cm thick and the gun turrets had 18 cm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) thick faces . Her deck was 3 @.@ 5 to 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 to 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick , with the heavier armor protecting the ship 's engine and boiler rooms and ammunition magazines . = = Service history = = Named for Generalleutnant ( Lieutenant General ) Gerhard von Scharnhorst , a Prussian military reformer during the Napoleonic Wars , Scharnhorst was laid down at the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg , Germany on 22 March 1905 , under construction number 175 . She was launched on 23 March 1906 , and Generalfeldmarschall ( Field Marshal ) Gottlieb Graf von Haeseler gave the speech and christened the ship at her launching ceremony . The new armored cruiser was commissioned into the fleet a year and a half later on 24 October 1907 . She thereafter began sea trials and while conducting speed tests , she exceeded her design speed by one knot , reaching 23 @.@ 5 knots ( 43 @.@ 5 km / h ; 27 @.@ 0 mph ) . From 6 to 11 November , her trials were interrupted by a voyage to Vlissingen in the Netherlands and Portsmouth in Britain in company with Kaiser Wilhelm II 's yacht Hohenzollern and the light cruiser Königsberg . On 14 January 1908 , Scharnhorst ran aground off the Bülk Lighthouse and suffered serious underwater damage . Repairs were effected at Blohm & Voss and lasted until 22 February . Shortly thereafter , the cruiser resumed her trials , which continued until the end of April . On 1 May , she replaced Yorck as the flagship of the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet , under the command of Konteradmiral ( Rear Admiral ) August von Heeringen . Over the course of the rest of the year , she participated in the normal peacetime routine of training exercises and fleet maneuvers . = = = East Asia Squadron = = = On 11 March 1909 , Scharnhorst was assigned to the Ostasiengeschwader ( East Asia Squadron ) ; Yorck replaced her as the reconnaissance squadron flagship . After completing preparations for the voyage , Scharnhorst departed Kiel on 1 April ; aboard was Konteradmiral Friedrich von Ingenohl , who was to take command of the East Asia Squadron upon his arrival . On 29 April , Scharnhorst rendezvoused with Fürst Bismarck , the flagship of the East Asia Squadron , in Colombo . There , Scharnhorst took over the role of squadron flagship . At the time , the squadron also included the light cruisers Leipzig and Arcona and several gunboats and torpedo boats . In July and August , Scharnhorst went on a cruise in the Yellow Sea and in August surveyed ports in the area . She spent December and early January 1910 in Hong Kong for the Christmas and New Year 's festivities in company with Leipzig and the gunboat Luchs . In January , Scharnhorst , Leipzig , and Luchs went on a tour of East Asian ports , including Bangkok , Manila , and stops in Sumatra and North Borneo . By 22 March , Scharnhorst and Leipzig had returned to the German port at Tsingtao . In the meantime , Arcona had left the East Asia Squadron in February ; her replacement , Nürnberg , arrived on 9 April . Ingenohl , by now promoted to Vizeadmiral ( Vice Admiral ) , departed on 6 June and was replaced by Konteradmiral Erich Gühler . The new squadron commander took Scharnhorst and Nürnberg on a tour of Germany 's Pacific colonies , starting on 20 June . Stops included the Mariana Islands , Truk , and Apia in German Samoa . In the last port , the cruisers met the unprotected cruisers Cormoran and Condor , the station ships for the South Seas Station . While there , the new light cruiser Emden arrived on 22 July to further strengthen the East Asia Squadron . In 1910 , Scharnhorst won the Kaiser 's Schießpreis ( Shooting Prize ) for excellent gunnery in the East Asia Squadron . On 25 November , Scharnhorst and the rest of the squadron went on a trip to Hong Kong and Nanjing ; while in Hong Kong , an outbreak of typhus struck . Among those who were infected was Gühler , who succumbed to the disease on 21 January 1911 . In the meantime , unrest had broken out in Ponape , which required the presence of Emden and Nürnberg . Scharnhorst instead went on a tour of Southeast Asian ports , including Saigon , Singapore , and Batavia . She then returned to Tsingtao by way of Hong Kong and Amoy , arriving on 1 March . There , Konteradmiral Günther von Krosigk was waiting to take command of the squadron . Two weeks later , the squadron was reinforced by the arrival of Scharnhorst 's sister ship Gneisenau on 14 March . From 30 March to 12 May , Scharnhorst went on a cruise in Japanese waters with Krosigk aboard . She thereafter steamed to the northern area of the German protectorate in early July ; at the time tensions were high in Europe due to the Agadir Crisis . Krosigk attempted to keep the situation calm in East Asia and he took his flagship on a tour of harbors in the Yellow Sea . By 15 September , the cruiser was back in Tsingtao . After arriving in Tsingtao , Scharnhorst went into dock for her annual repair ; Krosigk accordingly shifted his flag to Gneisenau temporarily . On 10 October , the Xinhai Revolution against the Qing Dynasty broke out , which caused a great deal of tension amongst the Europeans , who recalled the attacks on foreigners during the Boxer Rebellion of 1900 – 01 . The rest of the East Asia Squadron was placed on alert to protect German interests and additional troops were sent to protect the German consulate . But the feared attacks on Europeans did not materialize and so the East Asia Squadron was not needed . By late November , Scharnhorst was back in service and Krosigk returned to the ship . She cruised to Shanghai by way of Tientsin and Yantai , arriving on 12 December . From 14 to 24 January 1912 , Scharnhorst toured the ports of the central China coast and returned to Tsingtao on 9 March , where the rest of the squadron had assembled . On 13 April , the ships went on a month @-@ long cruise to Japanese waters , returning to Tsingtao on 13 May . From 17 July to 4 September , Scharnhorst went on another tour of Japanese ports and during this period she also visited Vladivostok in Russia and several ports in the Yellow Sea . On 30 July , the Meiji Emperor died ; Scharnhorst escorted Leipzig , which carried Prince Heinrich , Wilhelm II 's brother , to the Meiji Emperor 's funeral and the coronation ceremony for the Taishō Emperor . The ships remained in Japan from 5 to 26 September . After returning to Tsingtao , Prince Heinrich conducted an inspection of the entire East Asia Squadron . On 4 December , Krosigk handed over command of the squadron to Konteradmiral Maximilian von Spee . On 27 December , Spee took Scharnhorst and Gneisenau on a tour of the southwest Pacific , including stops in Amoy , Singapore , and Batavia . The two cruisers reached Tsingtao on 2 March 1913 . From 1 April to 7 May , Scharnhorst took Spee to Japan to meet the Taishō Emperor . Starting on 22 June , Spee began a tour of Germany 's Pacific colonies aboard his flagship . The ship stopped in the Marianas , the Admiralty Islands , the Hermit Islands , Rabaul in Neupommern , and Friedrich @-@ Wilhelmshafen in German New Guinea . While in Rabaul on 21 July , Spee received word of further unrest in China , which prompted his return to the Wusong roadstead outside Shanghai by 30 July . After the situation calmed , Spee was able to take his ships on a short cruise to Japan , which began on 11 November . Scharnhorst and the rest of the squadron returned to Shanghai on 29 November , before she departed for another trip to Southwest Asia . Spee met with Chulalongkorn , the King of Siam , and also visited Sumatra , North Borneo , and Manila . Scharnhorst returned to Tsingtao on 19 March 1914 . In early May , Spee , by now promoted to Vizeadmiral , took Scharnhorst and the torpedo boat SMS S90 on a visit to Port Arthur and then to Tianjin ; Spee continued on to Beijing , where he met with Yuan Shikai , the first President of the Republic of China . He came back aboard Scharnhorst on 11 May and the ship returned to Tsingtao . Spee thereafter began preparations for a cruise to German New Guinea ; Scharnhorst departed on 20 June , leaving only Emden behind in Tsingtao . Gneisenau rendezvoused with Scharnhorst in Nagasaki , Japan , where they received a full supply of coal . They then sailed south , arriving in Truk in early July where they would restock their coal supplies . While en route , they received news of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand , heir to the throne of Austria @-@ Hungary . On 17 July , the East Asia Squadron arrived in Ponape in the Caroline Islands . Spee now had access to the German radio network and he learned of the Austro @-@ Hungarian declaration of war on Serbia and the Russian mobilization against Austria @-@ Hungary and possibly Germany . On 31 July , word came that the German ultimatum that Russia demobilize its armies was set to expire . Spee ordered his ships be stripped for war . On 2 August , Wilhelm II ordered German mobilization against Russia and its ally , France . = = = World War I = = = When the First World War broke out , the East Asia Squadron consisted of Scharnhorst , Gneisenau , Emden , Nürnberg , and Leipzig . At the time , Nürnberg was returning from the west coast of the United States , where Leipzig had just replaced her , and Emden was still in Tsingtao . On 6 August 1914 , Scharnhorst , Gneisenau , the supply ship Titania , and the Japanese collier Fukoku Maru were still in Ponape . Von Spee had issued orders to recall the light cruisers , which had been dispersed on cruises around the Pacific . Nürnberg joined von Spee that day , after which Spee moved his ships to Pagan Island in the Northern Mariana Islands , a German possession in the central Pacific . All available colliers , supply ships , and passenger liners were ordered to meet the East Asia Squadron in Pagan and Emden joined the squadron there on 12 August . The auxiliary cruiser Prinz Eitel Friedrich joined Spee 's ships there as well . The four cruisers , accompanied by Prinz Eitel Friedrich and several colliers , then departed the central Pacific , bound for Chile . On 13 August , Commodore Karl von Müller , captain of the Emden , persuaded Spee to detach his ship as a commerce raider . On 14 August , the East Asia Squadron departed Pagan for Enewetak Atoll in the Marshall Islands , with Scharnhorst in the lead . The ships again coaled after their arrival on 20 August . To keep the German high command informed , on 8 September von Spee detached Nürnberg to Honolulu to send word through neutral countries . Nürnberg returned with news of the Allied capture of German Samoa , which had taken place on 29 August . Scharnhorst and Gneisenau sailed to Apia to investigate the situation . Spee had hoped to catch a British or Australian warship by surprise , but upon his arrival on 14 September , he found no warships in the harbor . On 22 September , Scharnhorst and the rest of the East Asia Squadron arrived at the French colony of Papeete . The Germans attacked the colony , and in the ensuing Battle of Papeete , they sank the French gunboat Zélée . The ships came under fire from French shore batteries but were undamaged . Fear of mines in the harbor prevented von Spee from seizing the coal in the harbor . By 12 October , Scharnhorst and the rest of the squadron had reached Easter Island . There they were joined by Dresden and Leipzig , which had sailed from American waters , on 12 and 14 October , respectively . Leipzig also brought three more colliers with her . After a week in the area , the ships departed for Chile . On the evening of 26 October , Scharnhorst and the rest of the squadron steamed out of Mas a Fuera , Chile and headed eastward , arriving in Valparaíso on 30 October . On 1 November , Spee learned from Prinz Eitel Friedrich that the British light cruiser HMS Glasgow had been anchored in Coronel the previous day , so he turned towards the port to try to catch her alone . = = = = Battle of Coronel = = = = The British had scant resources to oppose the German squadron off the coast of South America . Rear Admiral Christopher Cradock commanded the armored cruisers HMS Good Hope and Monmouth , Glasgow , and the converted armed merchant cruiser Otranto . The flotilla was reinforced by the elderly pre @-@ dreadnought battleship Canopus and the armored cruiser Defence . The latter , however , did not arrive until after the Battle of Coronel . Canopus was left behind by Cradock , who probably felt her slow speed would prevent him from bringing the German ships to battle . The East Asia Squadron arrived off Coronel on the afternoon of 1 November ; to Spee 's surprise , he encountered Good Hope , Monmouth , and Otranto in addition to Glasgow . Canopus was still some 300 miles ( 480 km ) behind , with the British colliers . At 16 : 17 , Glasgow spotted the German ships . Cradock formed a line of battle with Good Hope in the lead , followed by Monmouth , Glasgow , and Otranto in the rear . Spee decided to hold off engaging until the sun had set more , at which point the British ships would be silhouetted by the sun , while his own ships would be obscured against the coast behind them . Cradock realized the uselessness of Otranto in the line of battle and detached her . By 18 : 07 , the distance between the two squadrons had fallen to 13 @,@ 500 m ( 44 @,@ 300 ft ) and Spee ordered his ships to open fire thirty minutes later ; each ship engaged their opposite in the British line . Scharnhorst engaged Good Hope and hit her on the third salvo , striking between her forward gun turret and her conning tower and starting a major fire . Once the German gunners found the range , they began firing rapidly , with one salvo of high @-@ explosive shells every fifteen seconds . Oberleutnant zur See ( Lieutenant at Sea ) Knoop , the spotting officer aboard Scharnhorst , reported that " Continual hits could be observed ... in the midships Good Hope was hit repeatedly , with much fire resulting ... the interior of this part of the ship was on fire , which could be seen through the portholes , shining brightly . " In the meantime , Glasgow began to shoot at both Scharnhorst and Gneisenau , since she could no longer engage the German light cruisers . One of her 4 @-@ inch ( 100 mm ) shells struck Scharnhorst in the forecastle but failed to explode . By 18 : 50 , Monmouth had been badly damaged by Gneisenau and she fell out of line ; Gneisenau therefore joined Scharnhorst in battling Good Hope . At the same time , Nürnberg closed to point @-@ blank range of Monmouth and poured shells into her . At 19 : 23 , Good Hope 's guns fell silent following two large explosions ; the German gunners ceased fire shortly thereafter . Good Hope disappeared into the darkness . Spee ordered his light cruisers to close with his battered opponents and finish them off with torpedoes , while he took Scharnhorst and Gneisenau further south to get out of the way . Glasgow was forced to abandon Monmouth after 19 : 20 when the German light cruisers approached , before fleeing south and meeting with Canopus . A squall prevented the Germans from discovering Monmouth , but she eventually capsized and sank at 20 : 18 . More than 1 @,@ 600 men were killed in the sinking of the two armored cruisers , including Cradock . German losses were negligible . However , the German ships had expended over 40 % of their ammunition supply . Scharnhorst was hit twice during the engagement , but both shells failed to explode . The second hit passed through her third funnel and did not explode ; she was struck by shell splinters that damaged her wireless antenna array . She suffered no casualties and the only German injuries were two slightly wounded men aboard Gneisenau . After the battle , Spee took his ships north to Valparaiso . Since Chile was neutral , only three ships could enter the port at a time ; Spee took Scharnhorst , Gneisenau , and Nürnberg in first on the morning of 3 November , leaving Dresden and Leipzig with the colliers at Mas a Fuera . There , Spee 's ships could take on coal while he conferred with the Admiralty Staff in Germany to determine the strength of remaining British forces in the region . The ships remained in the port for only 24 hours , in accordance with the neutrality restrictions , and arrived at Mas a Fuera on 6 November , where they took on more coal from captured British and French steamers . On 10 November , Dresden and Leipzig were detached for a stop in Valparaiso , and five days later , Spee took the rest of the squadron south to St. Quentin Bay in the Gulf of Penas . On 18 November , Dresden and Leipzig met Spee while en route and the squadron reached St. Quentin Bay three days later . There , they took on more coal , since the voyage around Cape Horn would be a long one and it was unclear when they would have another opportunity to coal . = = = = Battle of the Falkland Islands = = = = Once word of the defeat reached London , the Royal Navy set to organizing a force to hunt down and destroy the East Asia Squadron . To this end , the powerful new battlecruisers Invincible and Inflexible were detached from the Grand Fleet and placed under the command of Vice Admiral Doveton Sturdee . The two ships left Devonport on 10 November and while en route to the Falkland Islands , they were joined by the armored cruisers Carnarvon , Kent , and Cornwall , the light cruisers Bristol and Glasgow , and Otranto . The force of eight ships reached the Falklands by 7 December , where they immediately coaled . In the meantime , Spee 's ships departed St. Quentin Bay on 26 November and rounded Cape Horn on 2 December . They captured the Canadian barque Drummuir , which had a cargo of 2 @,@ 500 t ( 2 @,@ 500 long tons ; 2 @,@ 800 short tons ) of good @-@ quality Cardiff coal . Leipzig took the ship under tow and the following day the ships stopped off Picton Island . The crews transferred the coal from Drummuir to the squadron 's colliers . On the morning of 6 December , Spee held a conference with the ship commanders aboard Scharnhorst to determine their next course of action . The Germans had received numerous fragmentary and contradictory reports of British reinforcements in the region ; Spee and two other captains favored an attack on the Falklands , while three other commanders argued that it would be better to bypass the islands and attack British shipping off Argentina . Spee 's opinion carried the day and the squadron departed for the Falklands at 12 : 00 on 6 December . Gneisenau and Nürnberg were delegated for the attack ; they approached the Falklands the following morning , with the intention of destroying the wireless transmitter there . Observers aboard Gneisenau spotted smoke rising from Port Stanley , but assumed it was the British burning their coal stocks to prevent the Germans from seizing them . As they closed on the harbor , 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) shells from Canopus , which had been beached as a guard ship , began to fall around the German ships , which prompted Spee to break off the attack . The Germans took a south @-@ easterly course at 22 kn ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) after having reformed by 10 : 45 . Scharnhorst was the center ship , with Gneisenau and Nürnberg ahead and Dresden and Leipzig astern . The fast battlecruisers quickly got up steam and sailed out of the harbor to pursue the slower East Asia Squadron . By 13 : 20 , the British ships had caught up with Scharnhorst and the other cruisers and began firing at a range of 14 km ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) . Spee realized his armored cruisers could not escape the much faster battlecruisers and ordered the three light cruisers to attempt to break away while he turned about and allowed the British battlecruisers to engage the outgunned Scharnhorst and Gneisenau . Meanwhile , Sturdee detached his cruisers to pursue the German light cruisers . Invincible opened fire at Scharnhorst while Inflexible attacked Gneisenau and Spee ordered his two armored cruisers to similarly engage their opposites . Spee had taken the lee position ; the wind kept his ships swept of smoke , which improved visibility for his gunners . This forced Sturdee into the windward position and its corresponding worse visibility . Scharnhorst straddled Invincible with her third salvo and quickly scored two hits on the British battlecruiser . The German flagship was herself not hit during this phase of the battle . Sturdee attempted to widen the distance by turning two points to the north to prevent Spee from closing to within the range of his numerous secondary guns . Spee counteracted this maneuver by turning rapidly to the south , which forced Sturdee to turn south as well to keep within range . This allowed Scharnhorst and Gneisenau to turn back north and get close enough to engage with their secondary 15 cm guns . Their shooting was so accurate that it forced the British to haul away a second time . After resuming the battle , the British gunfire became more accurate ; Scharnhorst was hit several times and fires broke out . The pace of her gunfire started to slacken , though she continued to score hits on Invincible . Sturdee then turned to port in an attempt to take the leeward position , but Spee countered the turn to retain his favorable position ; the maneuvering did , however , reverse the order of the ships , so Scharnhorst now engaged Inflexible . By this stage of the battle , Scharnhorst had a slight list to port and was about a meter lower in the water . Her third funnel had been shot away . Gneisenau was briefly obscured by smoke , which led both battlecruisers to target Scharnhorst . By 16 : 00 , Spee ordered Gneisenau to attempt to escape while he reversed course and attempted to launch torpedoes at his pursuers . The port list had increased significantly by this point and she was well down by the bow , with only 2 meters ( 6 ft 7 in ) of freeboard . At 16 : 17 , the ship finally capsized to port and sank ; the British , their attention now focused on Gneisenau , made no attempt to rescue the crew . All 860 officers and men on board , including Spee , went down with the ship . Gneisenau , Leipzig , and Nürnberg were also sunk . Only Dresden managed to escape , but she was eventually tracked to the Juan Fernandez Islands and sunk . The complete destruction of the squadron killed about 2 @,@ 200 German sailors and officers , including two of Spee 's sons . In mid @-@ 1915 , a coastal steamer found the body of a German sailor off the coast of Brazil . The sailor had a watertight cartridge case from a 21 cm shell attached ; inside was one of the Reichskriegsflaggen ( Imperial war flags ) flown aboard Scharnhorst . The sailor was buried in Brazil and the flag was eventually returned to Germany , where it was placed on display at the Museum für Meereskunde ( Marine Science ) in Berlin , though it was lost during World War II . In the mid @-@ 1930s , the new German navy , the Kriegsmarine , built a battleship named for Scharnhorst . At the launching of the new Scharnhorst in October 1936 , the widow of the earlier ship 's captain was present .
= Vitamin = A vitamin is an organic compound and a vital nutrient that an organism requires in limited amounts . An organic chemical compound ( or related set of compounds ) is called a vitamin when the organism cannot synthesize the compound in sufficient quantities , and it must be obtained through the diet ; thus , the term " vitamin " is conditional upon the circumstances and the particular organism . For example , ascorbic acid ( one form of vitamin C ) is a vitamin for humans , but not for most other animal organisms . Supplementation is important for the treatment of certain health problems , but there is little evidence of nutritional benefit when used by otherwise healthy people . By convention the term vitamin includes neither other essential nutrients , such as dietary minerals , essential fatty acids , or essential amino acids ( which are needed in greater amounts than vitamins ) nor the great number of other nutrients that promote health , and are required less often to maintain the health of the organism . Thirteen vitamins are universally recognized at present . Vitamins are classified by their biological and chemical activity , not their structure . Thus , each " vitamin " refers to a number of vitamer compounds that all show the biological activity associated with a particular vitamin . Such a set of chemicals is grouped under an alphabetized vitamin " generic descriptor " title , such as " vitamin A " , which includes the compounds retinal , retinol , and four known carotenoids . Vitamers by definition are convertible to the active form of the vitamin in the body , and are sometimes inter @-@ convertible to one another , as well . Vitamins have diverse biochemical functions . Some , such as vitamin D , have hormone @-@ like functions as regulators of mineral metabolism , or regulators of cell and tissue growth and differentiation ( such as some forms of vitamin A ) . Others function as antioxidants ( e.g. , vitamin E and sometimes vitamin C ) . The largest number of vitamins , the B complex vitamins , function as enzyme cofactors ( coenzymes ) or the precursors for them ; coenzymes help enzymes in their work as catalysts in metabolism . In this role , vitamins may be tightly bound to enzymes as part of prosthetic groups : For example , biotin is part of enzymes involved in making fatty acids . They may also be less tightly bound to enzyme catalysts as coenzymes , detachable molecules that function to carry chemical groups or electrons between molecules . For example , folic acid may carry methyl , formyl , and methylene groups in the cell . Although these roles in assisting enzyme @-@ substrate reactions are vitamins ' best @-@ known function , the other vitamin functions are equally important . Until the mid @-@ 1930s , when the first commercial yeast @-@ extract vitamin B complex and semi @-@ synthetic vitamin C supplement tablets were sold , vitamins were obtained solely through food intake , and changes in diet ( which , for example , could occur during a particular growing season ) usually greatly altered the types and amounts of vitamins ingested . However , vitamins have been produced as commodity chemicals and made widely available as inexpensive semisynthetic and synthetic @-@ source multivitamin dietary and food supplements and additives , since the middle of the 20th century . Study of structural activity , function and their role in maintaining health is called vitaminology . = = List of vitamins = = Each vitamin is typically used in multiple reactions , and therefore most have multiple functions . = = Health effects = = Vitamins are essential for the normal growth and development of a multicellular organism . Using the genetic blueprint inherited from its parents , a fetus begins to develop , at the moment of conception , from the nutrients it absorbs . It requires certain vitamins and minerals to be present at certain times . These nutrients facilitate the chemical reactions that produce among other things , skin , bone , and muscle . If there is serious deficiency in one or more of these nutrients , a child may develop a deficiency disease . Even minor deficiencies may cause permanent damage . For the most part , vitamins are obtained with food , but a few are obtained by other means . For example , microorganisms in the intestine — commonly known as " gut flora " — produce vitamin K and biotin , while one form of vitamin D is synthesized in the skin with the help of the natural ultraviolet wavelength of sunlight . Humans can produce some vitamins from precursors they consume . Examples include vitamin A , produced from beta carotene , and niacin , from the amino acid tryptophan . Once growth and development are completed , vitamins remain essential nutrients for the healthy maintenance of the cells , tissues , and organs that make up a multicellular organism ; they also enable a multicellular life form to efficiently use chemical energy provided by food it eats , and to help process the proteins , carbohydrates , and fats required for respiration . = = = Supplements = = = In those who are otherwise healthy , there is little evidence that supplements have any benefits with respect to cancer or heart disease . Vitamin A and E supplements not only provide no health benefits for generally healthy individuals , but they may increase mortality , though the two large studies that support this conclusion included smokers for whom it was already known that beta @-@ carotene supplements can be harmful . While other findings suggest that vitamin E toxicity is limited to only a specific form when taken in excess . The European Union and other countries of Europe have regulations that define limits of vitamin ( and mineral ) dosages for their safe use as food supplements . Most vitamins that are sold as food supplements cannot exceed a maximum daily dosage . Vitamin products above these legal limits are not considered food supplements and must be registered as prescription or non @-@ prescription ( over @-@ the @-@ counter drugs ) due to their potential side effects . As a result , most of the fat @-@ soluble vitamins ( such as the vitamins A , D , E , and K ) that contain amounts above the daily allowance are drug products . The daily dosage of a vitamin supplement for example cannot exceed 300 % of the recommended daily allowance , and for vitamin A , this limit is even lower ( 200 % ) . Such regulations are applicable in most European countries . Dietary supplements often contain vitamins , but may also include other ingredients , such as minerals , herbs , and botanicals . Scientific evidence supports the benefits of dietary supplements for persons with certain health conditions . In some cases , vitamin supplements may have unwanted effects , especially if taken before surgery , with other dietary supplements or medicines , or if the person taking them has certain health conditions . They may also contain levels of vitamins many times higher , and in different forms , than one may ingest through food . = = = Effect of cooking = = = Shown below is percentage loss of vitamins after cooking averaged for common foods such as vegetables , meat or fish . It should be noted however that some vitamins may become more " bio @-@ available " – that is , usable by the body – when steamed or cooked . The table below shows whether various vitamins are susceptible to loss from heat — such as heat from boiling , steaming , cooking etc . — and other agents . The effect of cutting vegetables can be seen from exposure to air and light . Water @-@ soluble vitamins such as B and C seep into the water when a vegetable is boiled . = = = Deficiencies = = = Humans must consume vitamins periodically but with differing schedules , to avoid deficiency . The body 's stores for different vitamins vary widely ; vitamins A , D , and B12 are stored in significant amounts , mainly in the liver , and an adult 's diet may be deficient in vitamins A and D for many months and B12 in some cases for years , before developing a deficiency condition . However , vitamin B3 ( niacin and niacinamide ) is not stored in significant amounts , so stores may last only a couple of weeks . For vitamin C , the first symptoms of scurvy in experimental studies of complete vitamin C deprivation in humans have varied widely , from a month to more than six months , depending on previous dietary history that determined body stores . Deficiencies of vitamins are classified as either primary or secondary . A primary deficiency occurs when an organism does not get enough of the vitamin in its food . A secondary deficiency may be due to an underlying disorder that prevents or limits the absorption or use of the vitamin , due to a " lifestyle factor " , such as smoking , excessive alcohol consumption , or the use of medications that interfere with the absorption or use of the vitamin . People who eat a varied diet are unlikely to develop a severe primary vitamin deficiency . In contrast , restrictive diets have the potential to cause prolonged vitamin deficits , which may result in often painful and potentially deadly diseases . Well @-@ known human vitamin deficiencies involve thiamine ( beriberi ) , niacin ( pellagra ) , vitamin C ( scurvy ) , and vitamin D ( rickets ) . In much of the developed world , such deficiencies are rare ; this is due to ( 1 ) an adequate supply of food and ( 2 ) the addition of vitamins and minerals to common foods ( fortification ) . In addition to these classical vitamin deficiency diseases , some evidence has also suggested links between vitamin deficiency and a number of different disorders . = = = Side @-@ effects = = = In large doses , some vitamins have documented side @-@ effects that tend to be more severe with a larger dosage . The likelihood of consuming too much of any vitamin from food is remote , but overdosing ( vitamin poisoning ) from vitamin supplementation does occur . At high enough dosages , some vitamins cause side @-@ effects such as nausea , diarrhea , and vomiting . When side @-@ effects emerge , recovery is often accomplished by reducing the dosage . The doses of vitamins differ because individual tolerances can vary widely and appear to be related to age and state of health . In 2008 , overdose exposure to all formulations of vitamins and multivitamin @-@ mineral formulations was reported by 68 @,@ 911 individuals to the American Association of Poison Control Centers ( nearly 80 % of these exposures were in children under the age of 6 ) , leading to 8 " major " life @-@ threatening outcomes , but no deaths . = = Pharmacology = = Vitamins are classified as either water @-@ soluble or fat @-@ soluble . In humans there are 13 vitamins : 4 fat @-@ soluble ( A , D , E , and K ) and 9 water @-@ soluble ( 8 B vitamins and vitamin C ) . Water @-@ soluble vitamins dissolve easily in water and , in general , are readily excreted from the body , to the degree that urinary output is a strong predictor of vitamin consumption . Because they are not as readily stored , more consistent intake is important . Many types of water @-@ soluble vitamins are synthesized by bacteria . Fat @-@ soluble vitamins are absorbed through the intestinal tract with the help of lipids ( fats ) . Because they are more likely to accumulate in the body , they are more likely to lead to hypervitaminosis than are water @-@ soluble vitamins . Fat @-@ soluble vitamin regulation is of particular significance in cystic fibrosis . = = History = = The value of eating a certain food to maintain health was recognized long before vitamins were identified . The ancient Egyptians knew that feeding liver to a person would help cure night blindness , an illness now known to be caused by a vitamin A deficiency . The advancement of ocean voyages during the Renaissance resulted in prolonged periods without access to fresh fruits and vegetables , and made illnesses from vitamin deficiency common among ships ' crews . In 1747 , the Scottish surgeon James Lind discovered that citrus foods helped prevent scurvy , a particularly deadly disease in which collagen is not properly formed , causing poor wound healing , bleeding of the gums , severe pain , and death . In 1753 , Lind published his Treatise on the Scurvy , which recommended using lemons and limes to avoid scurvy , which was adopted by the British Royal Navy . This led to the nickname limey for British sailors . Lind 's discovery , however , was not widely accepted by individuals in the Royal Navy 's Arctic expeditions in the 19th century , where it was widely believed that scurvy could be prevented by practicing good hygiene , regular exercise , and maintaining the morale of the crew while on board , rather than by a diet of fresh food . As a result , Arctic expeditions continued to be plagued by scurvy and other deficiency diseases . In the early 20th century , when Robert Falcon Scott made his two expeditions to the Antarctic , the prevailing medical theory at the time was that scurvy was caused by " tainted " canned food . During the late 18th and early 19th centuries , the use of deprivation studies allowed scientists to isolate and identify a number of vitamins . Lipid from fish oil was used to cure rickets in rats , and the fat @-@ soluble nutrient was called " antirachitic A " . Thus , the first " vitamin " bioactivity ever isolated , which cured rickets , was initially called " vitamin A " ; however , the bioactivity of this compound is now called vitamin D. In 1881 , Russian surgeon Nikolai Lunin studied the effects of scurvy at the University of Tartu in present @-@ day Estonia . He fed mice an artificial mixture of all the separate constituents of milk known at that time , namely the proteins , fats , carbohydrates , and salts . The mice that received only the individual constituents died , while the mice fed by milk itself developed normally . He made a conclusion that " a natural food such as milk must therefore contain , besides these known principal ingredients , small quantities of unknown substances essential to life . " However , his conclusions were rejected by his advisor , Gustav von Bunge , even after other students reproduced his results . A similar result by Cornelius Pekelharing appeared in a Dutch medical journal in 1905 , but it was not widely reported . In East Asia , where polished white rice was the common staple food of the middle class , beriberi resulting from lack of vitamin B1 was endemic . In 1884 , Takaki Kanehiro , a British trained medical doctor of the Imperial Japanese Navy , observed that beriberi was endemic among low @-@ ranking crew who often ate nothing but rice , but not among officers who consumed a Western @-@ style diet . With the support of the Japanese navy , he experimented using crews of two battleships ; one crew was fed only white rice , while the other was fed a diet of meat , fish , barley , rice , and beans . The group that ate only white rice documented 161 crew members with beriberi and 25 deaths , while the latter group had only 14 cases of beriberi and no deaths . This convinced Takaki and the Japanese Navy that diet was the cause of beriberi , but they mistakenly believed that sufficient amounts of protein prevented it . That diseases could result from some dietary deficiencies was further investigated by Christiaan Eijkman , who in 1897 discovered that feeding unpolished rice instead of the polished variety to chickens helped to prevent beriberi in the chickens . The following year , Frederick Hopkins postulated that some foods contained " accessory factors " — in addition to proteins , carbohydrates , fats etc . — that are necessary for the functions of the human body . Hopkins and Eijkman were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1929 for their discoveries . In 1910 , the first vitamin complex was isolated by Japanese scientist Umetaro Suzuki , who succeeded in extracting a water @-@ soluble complex of micronutrients from rice bran and named it aberic acid ( later Orizanin ) . He published this discovery in a Japanese scientific journal . When the article was translated into German , the translation failed to state that it was a newly discovered nutrient , a claim made in the original Japanese article , and hence his discovery failed to gain publicity . In 1912 Polish @-@ born biochemist Casimir Funk , working in London , isolated the same complex of micronutrients and proposed the complex be named " vitamine " . It was later to be known as vitamin B3 ( niacin ) , though he described it as " anti @-@ beri @-@ beri @-@ factor " ( which would today be called thiamine or vitamin B1 ) . Funk proposed the hypothesis that other diseases , such as rickets , pellagra , coeliac disease , and scurvy could also be cured by vitamins . Max Nierenstein a friend and reader of Biochemistry at Bristol University reportedly suggested the " vitamine " name ( from " vital amine " ) . ) . The name soon became synonymous with Hopkins ' " accessory factors " , and , by the time it was shown that not all vitamins are amines , the word was already ubiquitous . In 1920 , Jack Cecil Drummond proposed that the final " e " be dropped to deemphasize the " amine " reference , after researchers began to suspect that not all " vitamines " ( in particular , vitamin A ) have an amine component . In 1930 , Paul Karrer elucidated the correct structure for beta @-@ carotene , the main precursor of vitamin A , and identified other carotenoids . Karrer and Norman Haworth confirmed Albert Szent @-@ Györgyi 's discovery of ascorbic acid and made significant contributions to the chemistry of flavins , which led to the identification of lactoflavin . For their investigations on carotenoids , flavins and vitamins A and B2 , they both received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1937 . In 1931 , Albert Szent @-@ Györgyi and a fellow researcher Joseph Svirbely suspected that " hexuronic acid " was actually vitamin C , and gave a sample to Charles Glen King , who proved its anti @-@ scorbutic activity in his long @-@ established guinea pig scorbutic assay . In 1937 , Szent @-@ Györgyi was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery . In 1943 , Edward Adelbert Doisy and Henrik Dam were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of vitamin K and its chemical structure . In 1967 , George Wald was awarded the Nobel Prize ( along with Ragnar Granit and Haldan Keffer Hartline ) for his discovery that vitamin A could participate directly in a physiological process . = = = Etymology = = = The term vitamin was derived from " vitamine " , a compound word coined in 1912 by the Polish biochemist Kazimierz Funk when working at the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine . The name is from vital and amine , meaning amine of life , because it was suggested in 1912 that the organic micronutrient food factors that prevent beriberi and perhaps other similar dietary @-@ deficiency diseases might be chemical amines . This was true of thiamine , but after it was found that other such micronutrients were not amines the word was shortened to vitamin in English . = = Society and culture = = Once discovered , vitamins were actively promoted in articles and advertisements in McCall 's , Good Housekeeping , and other media outlets . Marketers enthusiastically promoted cod @-@ liver oil , a source of Vitamin D , as " bottled sunshine " , and bananas as a “ natural vitality food " . They promoted foods such as yeast cakes , a source of B vitamins , on the basis of scientifically @-@ determined nutritional value , rather than taste or appearance . World War II researchers focused on the need to ensure adequate nutrition , especially in processed foods . Robert W. Yoder is credited with first using the term vitamania , in 1942 , to describe the appeal of relying on nutritional supplements rather than on obtaining vitamins from a varied diet of foods . The continuing preoccupation with a healthy lifestyle has led to an obsessive consumption of additives the beneficial effects of which are questionable . = = = Governmental regulation = = = Most countries place dietary supplements in a special category under the general umbrella of foods , not drugs . As a result , the manufacturer , and not the government , has the responsibility of ensuring that its dietary supplement products are safe before they are marketed . Regulation of supplements varies widely by country . In the United States , a dietary supplement is defined under the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994 . There is no FDA approval process for dietary supplements , and no requirement that manufacturers prove the safety or efficacy of supplements introduced before 1994 . The Food and Drug Administration must rely on its Adverse Event Reporting System to monitor adverse events that occur with supplements . In 2007 , the US Code of Federal Regulations ( CFR ) Title 21 , part III took effect , regulating GMP practices in the manufacturing , packaging , labeling , or holding operations for dietary supplements . Even though product registration is not required , these regulations mandate production and quality control standards ( including testing for identity , purity and adulterations ) for dietary supplements . In the European Union , the Food Supplements Directive requires that only those supplements that have been proven safe can be sold without a prescription . For most vitamins , pharmacopoeial standards have been established . In the United States , the United States Pharmacopeia ( USP ) sets standards for the most commonly used vitamins and preparations thereof . Likewise , monographs of the European Pharmacopoeia ( Ph.Eur. ) regulate aspects of identity and purity for vitamins on the European market . = = = Naming = = = The reason that the set of vitamins skips directly from E to K is that the vitamins corresponding to letters F – J were either reclassified over time , discarded as false leads , or renamed because of their relationship to vitamin B , which became a complex of vitamins . The German @-@ speaking scientists who isolated and described vitamin K ( in addition to naming it as such ) did so because the vitamin is intimately involved in the coagulation of blood following wounding ( from the German word Koagulation ) . At the time , most ( but not all ) of the letters from F through to J were already designated , so the use of the letter K was considered quite reasonable . The table nomenclature of reclassified vitamins lists chemicals that had previously been classified as vitamins , as well as the earlier names of vitamins that later became part of the B @-@ complex . There are other missing B vitamins which were reclassified or determined not to be vitamins . For example , B9 is folic acid and five of the folates are in the range B11 through B16 , forms of other vitamins already discovered , not required as a nutrient by the entire population ( like B10 , PABA for internal use ) , biologically inactive , toxic , or with unclassifiable effects in humans , or not generally recognised as vitamins by science , such as the highest @-@ numbered , which some naturopath practitioners call B21 and B22 . There are also nine lettered B complex vitamins ( e.g. Bm ) . There are other D vitamins now recognised as other substances , which some sources of the same type number up to D7 . The controversial cancer treatment laetrile was at one point lettered as vitamin B17 . There appears to be no consensus on any vitamins Q , R , T , V , W , X , Y or Z , nor are there substances officially designated as Vitamins N or I , although the latter may have been another form of one of the other vitamins or a known and named nutrient of another type . = = Anti @-@ vitamins = = Anti @-@ vitamins are chemical compounds that inhibit the absorption or actions of vitamins . For example , avidin is a protein in egg whites that inhibits the absorption of biotin . Pyrithiamine is similar to thiamine , vitamin B1 , and inhibits the enzymes that use thiamine .
= Kelvin Scottish = Kelvin Scottish Omnibuses Ltd was a bus operating subsidiary of the Scottish Transport Group based in Bishopbriggs , Strathclyde , Scotland . It was formed in March 1985 from parts of Walter Alexander & Sons ( Midland ) Ltd and Central SMT , initially with six depots and a varied fleet of 381 vehicles . The company expanded its operations in Glasgow prior to bus deregulation in 1986 . New services were introduced in competition with Strathclyde Buses , many using Routemaster double @-@ deckers operated by conductors . Kelvin suffered from vehicle maintenance problems , and on two occasions was forced to hire vehicles from other companies to ensure operation of all its routes . After Kelvin lost money in 1987 , the depot at Milngavie was closed and many routes withdrawn . In July 1989 Kelvin was merged with Central Scottish to form Kelvin Central Buses . This company was sold to its employees on privatisation , before being taken over by Strathclyde Buses . It is now part of First Glasgow . = = Operation = = Operating from its head office in Bishopbriggs and depots in Old Kilpatrick , Milngavie , Kirkintilloch , Kilsyth , Stepps and Cumbernauld , Kelvin Scottish had an operating area bounded by Loch Lomond to the west , Cumbernauld to the east , the Campsie Fells to the north and the River Clyde to the south . Kelvin was the largest operator in Dunbartonshire and north east Glasgow , and was responsible for urban , rural and interurban services . Its operating area had previously been served by Central SMT and Walter Alexander & Sons ( Midland ) . = = History = = Kelvin was created by the Scottish Bus Group ( SBG ) as a limited company wholly owned by the group in March 1985 in preparation for bus deregulation the following year , and began operation three months later . It was the largest of the four new companies created by the SBG in 1985 , with an initial fleet of 381 vehicles , of which almost 300 were sourced from the former Alexander ( Midland ) fleet . In early 1986 , maintenance problems saw a number of vehicles banned from use by vehicle examiners from the Ministry of Transport . The company was forced to hire eight vehicles from other companies to keep services running ; they remained in the fleet for four weeks while the regular vehicles were repaired . Similar issues resurfaced in February 1987 , when twelve vehicles were hired for three weeks . Although deregulation itself took place in October 1986 , Kelvin received permission to introduce its new routes from 31 August . A number of new services were started in competition with Strathclyde Buses , running from Glasgow to Clydebank , Drumchapel , Easterhouse and Springburn . Strathclyde responded by extending its services into Clydebank , Cumbernauld , Dumbarton , Kirkintilloch and Milngavie . In 1987 Kelvin made a reported loss of £ 3 million , leading to the closure of the depot at Milngavie . Many of the competing routes introduced in 1986 were withdrawn in July 1987 , and 70 vehicles were taken out of service . Two years later both Kelvin and neighbouring Central were severely affected by a strike by 700 of the companies ' drivers , caused by the dismissal of four shop stewards . In July 1989 , it was announced that SBG was to be privatised . In an effort to make Kelvin Scottish more attractive on the approach to privatisation , Kelvin was merged with Central Scottish to form Kelvin Central Buses Ltd . Upon the merger , Kelvin Scottish ceased trading as a stand @-@ alone subsidiary . = = Subsequent history = = Following the privatisation of Scottish Bus Group in 1991 , Kelvin Central was sold to its employees . In 1994 it was taken over by Strathclyde Buses , which was itself bought out by FirstGroup two years later . Kelvin Central was renamed to First Glasgow ( No.2 ) Ltd. in May 1998 , with a red livery adopted . Its operations are now part of First Glasgow . = = Branding and promotions = = The company initially adopted a simple two @-@ tone blue livery with a logo incorporating the Flag of Scotland and the words " Scottish " and " Kelvin " ; a more striking livery consisting of two lighter shades of blue and yellow applied diagonally was introduced in September 1985 . This was revised in early 1988 to yellow and light blue with a dark blue diagonal stripe . As a result of increased competition in Dunbartonshire following deregulation , Kelvin decided to introduce additional fleetnames to its vehicles to establish local identities . From April 1987 onwards Dumbarton BUS appeared on vehicles operating in Dumbarton and Loch Lomondside . In October Kirkie BUS was introduced onto Kirkintilloch @-@ based vehicles and Cumbernauld 's Buses onto vehicles stationed in that town . In 1988 a new fares scheme , the Glasgow Gold Card , was introduced , offering weekly travel on all SBG routes in the city . A Kelvin Routemaster bus was painted in a gold livery to advertise the ticket , and remained in the livery until withdrawal by Kelvin Central in 1991 . = = Fleet = = The fleet acquired by Kelvin at its formation was very mixed . Of the 381 vehicles initially used , 135 were double @-@ deck . Nine types of vehicles were operated . The largest constituent was 153 Leyland Leopard single @-@ deckers ; the first new buses were six Leyland Tigers ordered by Central Scottish prior to the creation of Kelvin . A fleet of 40 Routemaster buses were purchased from London Transport in 1986 to launch the new services in competition with Strathclyde Buses . Kelvin had not previously employed conductors , but introduced them for these services . This meant the vehicles did not have to spend as long loading at bus stops as one @-@ person operated buses and were able to offer quicker journeys through Glasgow . The Routemasters proved popular with both passengers and staff and continued to operate into the 1990s under successor company Kelvin Central , which was one of the last operators of the type in regular service in Scotland . Although the original fleet did not include any minibuses , a large number of Mercedes @-@ Benz vehicles were introduced from September 1986 on a high @-@ frequency route in central and northern Glasgow ; it did not prove profitable and was converted to full @-@ size operation a year later , with many of the minibuses transferred to other SBG subsidiaries . Another unusual vehicle in the Kelvin fleet was the only Leyland Lynx bought by Scottish Bus Group , which was delivered new in 1989 . Six rare Leyland Lion double @-@ deckers were ordered in 1988 , but owing to a large cut in Kelvin 's peak vehicle requirement they did not enter service with the company and were instead sent to Clydeside Scottish .
= Ragnall mac Somairle = Ragnall mac Somairle ( also known in Gaelic as Raghnall , Raonall , Raonull ; in English as Ranald , Reginald ; in Latin as Reginaldus ; and in Old Norse as Rögnvaldr , Røgnvaldr , Rǫgnvaldr ; died 1191 / 1192 – c . 1210 / 1227 ) was a significant late twelfth century magnate , seated on the western seaboard of Scotland . He was probably a younger son of Somairle mac Gilla Brigte , Lord of Argyll and his wife , Ragnhildr , daughter of Óláfr Guðrøðarson , King of the Isles . The twelfth @-@ century Kingdom of the Isles , ruled by Ragnall 's father and maternal @-@ grandfather , existed within a hybrid Norse @-@ Gaelic milieu , which bordered an ever strengthening and consolidating Kingdom of Scots . In the mid twelfth century , Somairle rose in power and won the Kingdom of the Isles from his brother @-@ in @-@ law . After Somairle perished in battle against the Scots in 1164 , much of his kingdom was probably partitioned between his surviving sons . Ragnall 's allotment appears to have been in the southern Hebrides and Kintyre . In time , Ragnall appears to have risen in power and became the leading member of Somairle 's descendants , the meic Somairle ( or Clann Somairle ) . Ragnall is known to have styled himself " King of the Isles , Lord of Argyll and Kintyre " and " Lord of the Isles " . His claim to the title of king , like other members of the meic Somairle , is derived through Ragnhildr , a member of the Crovan dynasty . Ragnall disappears from record after he and his sons were defeated by his brother Áengus . Ragnall 's death @-@ date is unknown , although certain dates between 1191 and 1227 are all possibilities . Surviving contemporary sources reveal that Ragnall was a significant patron of the Church . Although his father appears to have aligned himself with traditional forms of Christianity , Ragnall himself is associated with newer reformed religious orders from the continent . Ragnall 's now non @-@ existent seal , which pictured a knight on horseback , also indicates that he attempted to present himself as an up @-@ to @-@ date ruler , not unlike his Anglo @-@ French contemporaries of the bordering Kingdom of Scots . Ragnall is known to have left two sons , Ruaidrí and Domnall , who went on to found powerful Hebridean families . Either Ragnall or Ruaidrí had daughters who married Ragnall 's first cousins Rögnvaldr and Óláfr , two thirteenth @-@ century kings of the Crovan dynasty . = = Origins of the meic Somairle = = Ragnall was a son of Somairle mac Gilla Brigte , Lord of Argyll ( died 1164 ) and his wife , Ragnhildr , daughter of Óláfr Guðrøðarson , King of the Isles . Somairle and Ragnhildr had at least three sons : Dubgall ( died after 1175 ) , Ragnall , Áengus ( died 1210 ) , and probably also a fourth , Amlaíb . Dubgall appears to have been the couple 's eldest son . Little is certain of the origins of Ragnall 's father , although his marriage suggests that he belonged to a family of some substance . In the first half of the twelfth century , the Hebrides and the Isle of Man ( Mann ) were encompassed within the Kingdom of the Isles , which was ruled by Somairle 's father @-@ in @-@ law , a member of the Crovan dynasty . Somairle 's rise to power may well have begun at about this time , as the few surviving sources from the era suggest that Argyll may have begun to slip from the control of David I , King of Scots ( died 1153 ) . Somairle first appears on record in 1153 , when he rose in rebellion with his nephews , the sons of the royal pretender Máel Coluim mac Alaxandair ( fl . 1134 ) , against the recently enthroned Máel Coluim IV , King of Scots ( died 1165 ) . In the same year , Somairle 's father @-@ in @-@ law was murdered after ruling the Kingdom of the Isles about forty years . Óláfr was succeeded by his son , Guðrøðr ; and sometime afterwards , Somairle participated in a coup within the kingdom by presenting Dubgall as a potential king . In consequence , Somairle and his brother @-@ in @-@ law fought a naval battle in 1156 , after which much of the Hebrides appear to have fallen under Somairle 's control . Two years later , he defeated Guðrøðar outright and took control of the entire island @-@ kingdom . In 1164 , Somairle again rose against the King of Scots , and is recorded in various early sources to have commanded a massive invasion force of men from throughout the Isles , Argyll , Kintyre , and Scandinavian Dublin . Somairle 's host sailed up the Clyde , and made landfall near what is today Renfrew , where they were crushed by the Scots , and he himself was slain . Following Somairle 's demise , Guðrøðr returned to the Isles and seated himself on Mann , although the Hebridean @-@ territories won by Somairle in 1156 were retained by his descendants , the meic Somairle . Although contemporary sources are silent on the matter , it is more than likely that on Somairle 's demise , his territory was divided amongst his surviving sons . The precise allotment of lands is unknown ; even though the division of lands amongst later generations of meic Somairle can be readily discerned , such boundaries are unlikely to have existed during the chaotic twelfth century . It is possible that the territory of the first generation of meic Somairle may have stretched from Glenelg in the north , to the Mull of Kintyre in the south ; with Áengus ruling in the north , Dubgall centred in Lorne ( with possibly the bulk of the inheritance ) , and Ragnall in Kintyre and the southern islands . = = Internal conflict = = Little is known of Somairle 's descendants in the decades following his demise . Dubgall does not appear on record until 1175 , when he is attested far from the Isles in Durham , by the Durham Cathedral 's Liber Vitae . Nothing is certain of Dubgall 's later activities , and it is possible that , by the 1180s , Ragnall had begun to encroach upon Dubgall 's territories and his position as head of the meic Somairle . The fact that Dubgall is not accorded any title by the Liber Vitae could be evidence that Ragnall had displaced him upon Somairle 's demise , or that the chronicle 's account of Dubgall 's connection with the kingship is merely the work of thirteenth @-@ century bias favouring the powerful meic Dubgaill , Dubgaill 's descendants . In 1192 , the Chronicle of Mann records that Ragnall and his sons were defeated in a particularly bloody battle against Áengus . The chronicle does not identify the location of the battle , or elaborate under what circumstances it was fought . However , it is possible that the conflict took place in the northern part of the meic Somairle domain , where some of Áengus ' lands may have lain . Although the hostile contact between Ragnall and Áengus could have been result of Ragnall 's rise in power at Dubgall 's expense , the clash of 1192 may also mark Ragnall 's downfall . One of several ecclesiastical sources that deal specifically with Ragnall is an undated grant to the Cluniac priory at Paisley . Since this grant probably dates to the period after Ragnall 's defeat to Áengus , it may be evidence of an attempt made by Ragnall to secure an alliance with Alan fitz Walter , Steward of Scotland ( died 1204 ) . The patrons of this priory were members of Alan 's own family , a powerful kindred that had recently begun to expand its influence westwards from Renfrew , to the frontier of the Scottish realm and the fringes of Argyll . Since Bute seems to have fallen into the hands of this kindred at about the time of Ragnall 's grant , it is possible that Alan took advantage of the internal conflict between the meic Somairle , and seized the island before 1200 . Alternately , Alan may have received the island from Ragnall as payment for military support against Áengus , who appears to have gained the upper hand over Ragnall by 1192 . Alan 's expansion and influence in territories outwith the bounds of the Scottish kingdom may have been perceived as a threat by William I , King of Scots ( died 1214 ) , and may partly explain the king 's construction of a royal castle at Ayr in 1195 . This fortress extended Scottish royal authority into the outer Firth of Clyde region , and was probably intended to dominate not only William 's peripheral barons , but also independent rulers just beyond the borders of the Scottish realm . In fact , Alan 's westward expansion appears to have suddenly ceased at about 1200 , and may have been a consequence of royal anxiety concerning an alliance with Ragnall . = = Titles and seal = = A royal inspection of Saddell Abbey , dated to 1508 , reveals that Ragnall styled himself in a Latin charter to the abbey rex insularum , dominus de Ergile et Kyntyre ( " King of the Isles , Lord of Argyll and Kintyre " ) , a title which may indicate that Ragnall claimed all the possessions of his father . In what is probably a later charter , Ragnall is styled in Latin dominus de Inchegal ( " Lord of the Isles " ) in his grant to the priory of Paisley . Although Ragnall 's abandonment of the title " king " in favour of " lord " may not be significant , it could be connected with his defeat to Áengus , or to the expansion and rise in power of Ragnall 's namesake and first cousin Rögnvaldr Guðrøðarson , King of the Isles ( died 1229 ) . The style dominus de Inchegal is not unlike dominus Insularum ( " Lord of the Isles " ) , a title first adopted in 1336 by Ragnall 's great @-@ great @-@ grandson , Eoin Mac Domhnaill , Lord of the Isles ( died c . 1387 ) , the first of four successive Lords of the Isles . Ragnall 's grant to the priory of Paisley is preserved in two documents : one dates to the late twelfth- or early thirteenth century , and a later copy is contained in an instrument which dates to 1426 . Appended to the latter document is a description of a seal impressed in white wax , which the fifteenth @-@ century notary alleged to have belonged to Ragnall . On one side , the seal is described to have depicted a ship , filled with men @-@ at @-@ arms . On the reverse side , the seal was said to have depicted a man on horseback , armed with a sword in his hand . Ragnall is the only member of the meic Somairle known to have styled himself in documents rex insularum . His use of both the title and seal are probably derived from those of the leading members of the Crovan dynasty , such as his namesake Rögnvaldr , who not only bore the same title but was said to have borne a similar two @-@ sided seal . The descriptions of the cousins ' seals shows that these devices combined the imagery of a Norse @-@ Gaelic galley and an Anglo @-@ French knight . The maritime imagery probably symbolised the power of a ruler of an island @-@ kingdom , and the equestrian imagery appears to have symbolised feudal society , in which the cult of knighthood had reached its peak in the twelfth- and early thirteenth centuries . The use of such seals by leading Norse @-@ Gaelic lords , seated on the periphery of the kingdoms of Scotland and England , probably illustrates their desire to present themselves as up @-@ to @-@ date and modern to their contemporaries in Anglo @-@ French society . = = Norse @-@ Gaelic namesake = = The Gaelic Ragnall corresponds to the Old Norse Rögnvaldr . Both names were Latinised to Reginaldus . The fact that two closely related Hebridean rulers , Ragnall and Rögnvaldr , shared the same personal names , the same grandfather , and ( at times ) the same title , has perplexed modern historians and possibly mediaeval chroniclers as well . = = = Conquest in Caithness = = = A particular thorn in the side of the Scottish Crown at the turn of the thirteenth century was Haraldr Maddaðarson , Earl of Orkney and Caithness ( died 1206 ) . At some point in the last half of the twelfth century , Haraldr put aside his first wife , a daughter of an Earl of Fife , and married Hvarflöð , a daughter of an Earl of Ross . The latter woman was a member of the powerful meic Áedha , a northern kindred who had been in open conflict with the Scottish Crown throughout the twelfth century . Previous Orcadian earls had extended influence into Ross , and it may well have been through Hvarflöð , and the claims to the earldom that she passed to their children , that drew Haraldr into conflict with the Scots . Howden 's account of events reveals that Haraldr and his family gained control of Moray early in 1196 , and charter evidence suggests that William and royal forces were in the north that summer . Although the Chronicle of Melrose appears to indicate that Hvarflöð and Haraldr 's eldest son was defeated in 1197 , it is possible that this event dates to 1196 instead and relates to William 's aforesaid northern campaign . Fordun 's account records that William successfully asserted royal power in the northern regions ; and Howden 's account species that the king stripped Haraldr of his lordship in Caithness , and handed it over to Haraldr Eiríksson , a claimant to the Orcadian earldom . At some point after this , Howden 's account reveals that Haraldr overcame and killed Haraldr Eiríksson , and the Icelandic Annals specifically date the latter 's fall to 1198 . It may have been at this point where Rögnvaldr entered into the fray . Orkneyinga saga states that , once William learned that Haraldr had taken control of Caithness , Rögnvaldr was tasked by the king to intervene on the Scots ' behalf . Having received the king 's message , the saga records that Rögnvaldr duly gathered an armed host from the Isles , Kintyre , and Ireland , and went forth into Caithness and subdued the region . Howden 's account appears to confirm Rögnvaldr 's participation in the region , albeit under slightly different circumstances , as it states that Haraldr approached the king and attempted to purchase the earldom . William , however , refused the offer , after which Howden 's version of events relates that " Reginaldus " , the son of a Manx king , succeeded in purchasing the earldom . Although Rögnvaldr was likely the sea @-@ king who assisted the Scots against Haraldr , there is evidence suggesting that it may have been Ragnall instead . For example , the saga makes the erroneous statement that Rögnvaldr was descended from Ingibjörg Pálsdóttir , a woman who was much more likely to have been Ragnall 's grandmother than Rögnvaldr 's . The saga also notes that Rögnvaldr 's military force was partly gathered from Kintyre , which may be more likely of Ragnall than Rögnvaldr , since Ragnall is known to have specifically styled himself dominus Ergile et Kyntyre . Also , transcriptions and translations of Howden 's account of the episode have generally stated that " Reginaldus " was a son of Somairle . A recent reanalysis of the main extant version of Howden 's chronicle has shown , however , that this particular part of the text originally read in Latin Reginaldus filius rex de Man , and was later altered to include Somairle 's name above the last three words . Since the source of the original manuscript probably read in Latin Reginaldus filius Godredi , the sea @-@ king in question appears to have been Rögnvaldr rather than Ragnall . Whether Ragnall or Rögnvaldr , William 's act of using a grandson of Óláfr in Caithness may have been an example of the king playing one member of the jarlsaetten against another . The jarlsaetten were people who possessed a claim to an earldom , in accordance with Norse custom , by right of their descent from previous earls . There are earlier instances of such claimants requesting Scottish kings for what they considered their birthright , and William certainly did this when he granted Caithness to Haraldr Eiríksson , a grandson of Rögnvaldr Kali Kolsson , Earl of Orkney . If Ragnall was indeed a descendant of Ingibjörg , a daughter of Páll Hákonarson , Earl of Orkney ( died 1137 ) , he was directly descended from previous Scandinavian earls . Whereas Óláfr 's marriage to Ingibjörg may have meant that Rögnvaldr was regarded as a member of the jarlsaetten as well , and a cousin to Haraldr himself . = = = Scandinavian sojourn = = = There is another instance where an historical source mentions a man who could refer to either Ragnall or Rögnvaldr . The early thirteenth @-@ century Böglunga sögur indicates at one point that men of two Norwegian factions decided to launch a raiding expedition into the Isles . One particular version of the sagas in this source states that Rögnvaldr ( styled " King of Mann and the Isles " ) and Guðrøðr ( styled " King on Mann " ) had not paid their taxes due to the Norwegian kings . In consequence , the saga records that the Isles were ravaged until the two travelled to Norway and reconciled themselves with Ingi Bárðarson , King of Norway ( died 1217 ) , whereupon the two took their lands from Ingi as a lén or fief . The aforesaid kings of Böglunga sögur most likely refer to Rögnvaldr and his son , Guðrøðr ( died 1231 ) , although it is not impossible that the king ' Rögnvaldr ' in this source may instead refer to Ragnall , and that the king ' Guðrøðr ' in it may actually refer to Rögnvaldr himself , since the latter 's father was named Guðrøðr . Whatever the case , the events depicted in Böglunga sögur appear to show that , in the wake of destructive Norwegian activity in the Isles , which may have been some sort of officially sanctioned punishment from Scandinavia , Rögnvaldr and his son ( or instead perhaps Ragnall and Rögnvaldr ) travelled to Norway where they rendered homage to the Norwegian king , and made compensation for unpaid taxes . = = = Muchdanach and Murcardus = = = According to the seventeenth @-@ century History of the MacDonalds , at one point during Ragnall 's tenure his followers fought and slew a certain " Muchdanach " , ruler of Moidart and Ardnamurchan , and thereby acquired the latter 's lands . Muchdanach may be identical to a certain " Murcardus " , a man described by the Chronicle of Mann as one whose " power and energy " were felt throughout the Kingdom of the Isles , and whose slaying is recorded in 1188 , the year of Rögnvaldr 's assumption of the kingship . The chronicle 's brief account of Murcardus appears to reveal that he was a member of the kingdom 's elite , but whether his killing was connected to Rögnvaldr 's accession is unknown . If Muchdanach and Murcardus were indeed the same individual , the History of the MacDonalds would appear to preserve the memory of meic Somairle intrusion into Garmoran , and the episode itself may be an example of feuding between the meic Somairle and Crovan dynasty . = = Ecclesiastical activities = = = = = The Diocese of Argyll = = = The ecclesiastical jurisdiction within the kingdom of Somairle 's predecessors was the far @-@ flung Diocese of the Isles . Little is known of its early history , although its origins may well lie with the Uí Ímair imperium . In the mid twelfth century , during the reign of Ragnall 's maternal uncle Guðrøðr Óláfsson , King of the Isles ( died 1187 ) , the diocese came to be incorporated into the newly established Norwegian Archdiocese of Nidaros . In effect , the political reality of the Diocese of the Isles — its territorial borders and nominal subjection to Norway — appears to have mirrored that of the Kingdom of the Isles . Before the close of the twelfth century , however , evidence of a new ecclesiastical jurisdiction — the Diocese of Argyll — begins to emerge during ongoing contentions between the meic Somairle and the Crovan dynasty . In the early 1190s , the Chronicle of Mann reveals that Cristinus , Bishop of the Isles , an Argyllman who was probably a meic Somairle candidate , was deposed and replaced by Michael ( died 1203 ) , a Manxman who appears to have been backed by Rögnvaldr . Cristinus ' tenure appears to have spanned at least two decades , during a sustained period of meic Somairle power in the Isles . His downfall , however , came about at about time of the Crovan dynasty 's resurgence under Rögnvaldr . The latter succeeded his father only years before , in 1187 , and appears to have capitalised upon the infighting amongst the meic Somairle , and possibly even the downfall of Ragnall himself . Although the first known Bishop of Argyll , Haraldr , is accorded a tenure during the first quarter of the thirteenth century , it is likely that there were earlier bishops unknown to surviving sources . In fact , the diocese first appears on record in Liber Censuum , a Papal document dating to the last decade of the twelfth century ; and it is possible that Cristinus , or an unknown successor , or perhaps even Haraldr himself , was the first dicocesan bishop . Whatever the case , Cristinus ' tenure in the Isles may have witnessed an ecclesiastical reorientation , or shift of sorts , towards Argyll . Although the early diocesan succession of Argyll is uncertain , the jurisdiction itself appears to have lain outwith the domain of Rögnvaldr 's direct control , allowing the meic Somairle to readily act as religious patrons without his interference . Like the Kingdom of the Isles itself , the great geographic size of the Diocese of the Isles appears to have contributed to the alienation of outlying areas , and to its eventual disintegration . In fact , there is reason to suspect that portions of the new diocese were likewise detached from the Scottish dioceses of Dunblane , Dunkeld , and Moray . Although the Scottish Crown may have welcomed the formation of the new diocese , as it may have formed part of a plan to project Scottish royal authority into the region , the meic Somairle rulers of the region were in fact hostile to the Scots , and the diocese 's seat on Lismore — albeit first recorded in the early fourteenth century — lay far outwith the Scottish king 's sphere of influence . Whatever the case , the foundation of the Diocese of Argyll appears to have been a drawn @-@ out and gradual process that was unlikely to have been the work of one particular man — such as Somerled , Dubgall , or Ragnall himself . Although the early diocese suffered from prolonged vacancies , as only two bishops are recorded to have occupied the see before the turn of the mid thirteenth century , over time it became firmly established in the region , allowing the meic Somairle to retain local control of ecclesiastical power and prestige . = = = Iona Abbey , Iona Nunnery , and St Oran 's Chapel = = = In the sixth century , exiled @-@ Irishman Colum Cille ( died 597 ) seated himself on Iona , from where he oversaw the foundation of numerous daughter @-@ houses in the surrounding islands and mainland . Men of his own choosing , many from his own extended family , were appointed to administrate these dependent houses . In time , a lasting monastic network — an ecclesiastical familia — was centred on the island , and led by his successors . During the ongoing Viking onslaught in the ninth century , the leadership of the familia relocated to Kells . In the twelfth century , Flaithbertach Ua Brolcháin , Abbot of Derry ( died 1175 ) , the comarba ( " successor " ) of Colum Cille , relocated from Kells to Derry . In 1164 , at a time when Somairle ruled the entire Kingdom of the Isles , the Annals of Ulster indicates that he attempted to reinstate the monastic familia on Iona under Flaithbertach 's leadership . Unfortunately for Somairle , the proposal was met with significant opposition , and with his death in the same year , his intentions of controlling the kingdom , diocese , as well as the leadership of the familia came to nothing . About forty years after Somairle 's death , a Benedictine monastery was established on Iona . The monastery 's foundation charter dates to December 1203 , which suggests that Ragnall may have been responsible for its erection , as claimed by early modern tradition preserved in the eighteenth @-@ century Book of Clanranald . Be that as it may , there is no hard evidence linking Ragnall to the house 's foundation . Since the charter reveals that the monastery received substantial endowments from throughout the meic Somairle domain , the foundation appears to have been supported by other leading members the kindred , such as Dubgall himself ( if he was still alive ) or his son , Donnchad . The charter placed the monastery under the protection of Pope Innocent III ( died 1216 ) , which secured its episcopal independence from the Diocese of the Isles . However , the price for the privilege of Iona 's papal protection appears to have been the adoption of the Benedictine Rule , and the supersession of the centuries @-@ old institution of Colum Cille . The decision of the meic Somairle to establish the Benedictines on Iona completely contrasted the ecclesiastical actions of Somairle himself , and provoked a prompt and violent response from Colum Cille 's familia . According to the Annals of Ulster , after Cellach , Abbot of Iona built the new monastery in 1204 , a large force of Irishmen , led by the Bishops of Tyrone and Tirconell and the Abbots of Derry and Inishowen , made landfall on Iona and burnt the new buildings to the ground . The sentiments of the familia may well be preserved in a contemporary poem which portrays Colum Cille lamenting the violation of his rights , and cursing the meic Somairle . Unfortunately for the familia , the Benedictine presence on Iona was there to stay , and the old monastery of Colum Cille was nearly obliterated by the new monastery . Somairle 's attempt to revive Iona brought him into conflict with secular and ecclesiastical power in northern Ireland . If Ragnall was indeed responsible for the foundation of the Benedictine monastery about four decades afterwards , it may indicate that he was following in his father 's footsteps , and asserting himself as a king in the Isles . Sometime before the end of the twelfth century , or else early in the thirteenth century after the foundation of the Benedictine monastery , an Augustinian nunnery was established just south of the site . The Book of Clanranald reveals that Ragnall was traditionally regarded as its founder , and states his sister , Bethóc , was remembered as a prioress there . Although this source 's claim that the nunnery was originally a Benedictine foundation is erroneous , its statement that Bethóc was a " religious woman " is corroborated by the seventeenth @-@ century record of an inscribed stone on the island , said to have read in Gaelic " Behag nijn Sorle vic Ilvrid priorissa " . Ragnall , therefore , may well have founded the nunnery , and his sister could well have been its first prioress . Like the abbey itself , the remains of the nunnery reveal Irish influences , indicating that the Augustinian nunnery likely had Irish affiliations . In fact , apparent similarities between the layout of the abbey and that of the original church of the cathedral priory at Downpatrick suggests that the Benedictine foundation on Iona was related to the earlier introduction of the same order at Downpatrick by John de Courcy ( died 1219 ? ) . The latter was an English adventurer who had conquered Ulster about twenty years previous , and had married Affrica ( died in or after 1219 ) , Rögnvaldr 's sister . The possible ecclesiastical connections between the Downpatrick and Iona , therefore , may partly exemplify the complex interrelationships within the Irish Sea region . Iona is popularly said to have been the traditional burial place of Scottish kings from the advent of the Alpínid dynasty . Contemporary evidence for such claims , however , date only to about the twelfth- or thirteenth centuries . The so @-@ called traditions , therefore , appear to have been constructed to advance Iona 's prestige as a royal burial site , and may well have been instigated and encouraged by the meic Somairle . Iona was certainly the burial place of Ragnall 's later descendants , and leading members of West Highland nobility . The oldest intact building on the island is St Oran 's Chapel . Judging from certain Irish influences in its architecture , the chapel is thought to date to about the mid twelfth century . The building is known to have been used as a mortuary house by Ragnall 's later descendants , and it is possible that either he or his father were responsible for its erection . On the other hand , it is also possible that the chapel was constructed by the kings of the Crovan dynasty : either Guðrøðr , who was buried on the island in 1188 , or else Guðrøðr 's father ( Ragnall 's maternal @-@ grandfather ) Óláfr . = = = Saddell Abbey = = = A member of the meic Somairle , possibly Ragnall himself , or else his father , could have founded Saddell Abbey , a rather small Cistercian house , situated in the traditional heartland of the meic Somairle . This , now ruinous monastery , apparently a daughter house of Mellifont Abbey , is the only Cistercian house known to have been founded in the West Highlands . Surviving evidence from the monastery itself suggests that Ragnall was probably the founder . For example , when the monastery 's charters were confirmed in 1393 by Pope Clement VII ( died 1394 ) , and in 1498 and 1508 by James IV , King of Scots ( died 1513 ) , the earliest grant produced by the house was that of Ragnall . Furthermore , the confirmations of 1393 and 1508 specifically state that Ragnall was indeed the founder , as does clan tradition preserved in the Book of Clanranald . However , evidence that Somairle was the founder may be preserved in a thirteenth @-@ century French list of Cistercian houses which names a certain " Sconedale " under the year 1160 . One possibility is that , whilst Somairle may well have begun the planning of a Cistercian house at Saddell , it was actually Ragnall who provided it with its first endowments . Somairle 's attempt to relocate Colum Cille 's familia to Iona , however , was undertaken during an era when Cistercians were already established in Ireland and the Isles , which may be evidence that Somairle was something of an " ecclesiastical traditionalist " who found newer reformed orders of continental Christianity unpalatable . Whatever the case , the ecclesiastical activities of his immediate descendants , especially the foundations and endowments of Ragnall himself , reveal that the meic Somairle were not averse to such continental orders . During his career , Somairle waged war upon the Scots and perished in an invasion of Scotland proper , which could suggest that Ragnall 's ecclesiastical activities were partly undertaken to improve relations with the King of Scots . Additionally , in an age when monasteries were often built by rulers as status symbols of their wealth and power , the foundations and endowments of Ragnall may have been undertaken as a means to portray himself as an up @-@ to @-@ date ruler . = = Death = = The year and circumstances of Ragnall 's death are uncertain , as surviving contemporary sources failed to mark his demise . According to clan tradition preserved in the Book of Clanranald , Ragnall may have died in 1207 . However , no corroborating evidence supports this date , and there is reason to believe that dates in this source are unreliable . In fact , this source misplaces Somairle 's death by sixteen years , which may indicate that Ragnall himself died some sixteen years earlier ( in 1191 ) . If this date is correct then Ragnall 's death may be related to his defeat suffered at the hands of his brother . However , the Chronicle of Mann , which records the 1192 conflict between Ragnall and Áengus , gives no hint of Ragnall 's demise in its account . Another possibility is that Ragnall may have been slain sometime around 1209 and 1210 , during yet more internal conflict amongst the meic Somairle . A reanalysis of the Book of Clanranald has shown that , instead of 1207 , this source may actually date Ragnall 's demise to 1227 . However , this date may well be too late for man who was an adult by 1164 . Ragnall 's grant to Paisley may leave clues to his fate . The similarity between this charter and another granted to the priory by his son , Domnall , may be evidence that the documents were drawn up at about the same time . If so , Ragnall 's charter may be evidence that he survived his defeat at the hands of Áengus , and the two charters may indicate that Ragnall was nearing the end of his life . Ragnall 's grant may also indicate that he entered into a confraternity with the monks at Paisley . If the charter was indeed granted near the end of his life , it is also possible that Ragnall ended his days there . Since the priory was one of the religious houses founded by the meic Somairle , his possible retirement there may partly explain why Ragnall disappears from record after 1192 . = = Family and legacy = = The name of Ragnall 's wife , " Fonia " , as recorded in their grant to the priory of Paisley , may be an attempt to represent the Gaelic name Findguala in Latin . According to late Hebridean tradition , preserved in the garbled History of the MacDonalds , Ragnall was married to " MacRandel 's daughter , or , as some say , to a sister of Thomas Randel , Earl of Murray " . This tradition cannot be correct due to its chronology , since Thomas Randolph , the first Earl of Moray , and his like @-@ named son and successor , both died in 1332 . One possibility , however , is that the tradition may instead refer to an earlier earl — Uilleam mac Donnchada ( died 1151 – 1154 ) . If so , Ragnall 's son , Domnall , may have been named after Uilleam 's son , Domnall ( died 1187 ) . The latter was a leading member of the meic Uilleim , a kindred who were in open conflict against the Scottish kings from the late twelfth- to early thirteenth centuries . Ragnall is known to have left two sons : Ruaidrí ( died 1247 ) and Domnall . Domnall 's line , the meic Domnaill ( or Clann Domnaill ) , went on to produce the powerful Lords of the Isles who dominated the entire Hebrides and expansive mainland @-@ territories from the first half of the fourteenth- to the late fifteenth centuries . Ruaidrí founded the meic Ruaidrí ( or Clann Ruaidrí ) , a more obscure kindred who were seated in Garmoran . Ruaidrí seems to have been the senior of Ragnall 's sons , and is first recorded by name in 1214 . Four years previous , Áengus and his sons are recorded by the Chronicle of Mann to have been slain by Ragnall 's sons . This particular record could be evidence that Áengus had succeeded Ragnall , after which the latter 's sons extinguished Áengus 's line , and Ruaidrí assumed control of the meic Somairle succession . It is very likely that either Ragnall or Ruaidrí had daughters who married Rögnvaldr and his younger half @-@ brother , Óláfr Guðrøðarson ( died 1237 ) . The chronicle states that Rögnvaldr had Óláfr marry " Lauon " , the daughter of a certain nobleman from Kintyre , who was also the sister of his own ( unnamed ) wife . The precise identification of this father @-@ in @-@ law is uncertain , although historical sources concerning the contemporary meic Somairle link this kindred with Kintyre more than any other region , and both Ragnall and Ruaidrí were contemporaneously styled " Lord of Kintyre " . It is possible that the first marriage took place sometime before 1210 , perhaps not long after 1200 , considering the age of Rögnvaldr 's son , Guðrøðr . These unions appear to have been orchestrated to patch up relations between the meic Somairle and the Crovan dynasty , rival kindreds who had bitterly contested the kingship of the Isles for about sixty years . In fact , it is possible that Rögnvaldr 's kingship was formally recognised by Ruaidrí , the leading meic Somairle dynast , who thereby established himself as a leading magnate within a reunified Kingdom of the Isles . Ragnall is chiefly remembered in early modern Hebridean tradition as the genealogical link between Somairle and Domnall later 's descendants . Unsupported claims made by the Book of Clanranald present Ragnall as " the most distinguished of the Gall or Gaedhil for prosperity , sway of generosity , and feats of arms " , and report that he " received a cross from Jerusalem " . The latter statement may imply that Ragnall undertook ( or planned to undertake ) a pilgrimage or crusade . Although Ragnall 's involvement in such an enterprise is not impossible , the claim is uncorroborated by contemporary sources . The mid sixteenth @-@ century description of the Hebrides and the Islands of the Clyde authored by Donald Monro ( died in or after 1575 ) reveals that Ragnall 's reign was still remembered in the Isles during the sixteenth century . In this account , Monro credited Ragnall with establishing the law code administered by leading Hebrideans hundreds of years after his floruit . = = Ancestry = =
= Hurricane Connie = Hurricane Connie in August 1955 contributed to significant flooding across the eastern United States , just days before Hurricane Diane affected the same general area . Connie formed on August 3 from a tropical wave in the eastern Atlantic Ocean . It moved quickly west @-@ northwestward , strengthening into a well @-@ developed hurricane by August 5 . Initially , it posed a threat to the Lesser Antilles , although it passed about 50 mi ( 80 km ) north of the region . The outer rainbands produced hurricane @-@ force wind gusts and intense precipitation , reaching 8 @.@ 65 in ( 220 mm ) in Puerto Rico . In the United States Virgin Islands , three people died due to the hurricane , and a few homes were destroyed . In Puerto Rico , Connie destroyed 60 homes and caused crop damage . After affecting Puerto Rico , Connie turned to the northwest , reaching peak winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) . The hurricane weakened while slowing and turning to the north , and struck North Carolina on August 12 at Category 2 intensity , the first of three damaging tropical cyclones in the 1955 Atlantic hurricane season to hit the state . Ahead of the storm , the United States Weather Bureau issued widespread hurricane warnings , resulting in 14 @,@ 000 people evacuating southeastern North Carolina . Connie produced strong winds , high tides , and heavy rainfall as it moved ashore , causing heavy crop damage and 27 deaths in the state . Connie tracked roughly along the eastern coast of Virginia before turning northwest , and it progressed inland until dissipating on August 15 near Sault Ste . Marie , Michigan . Four people were killed in Washington , D.C. due to a traffic accident . In Chesapeake Bay , Connie capsized a boat , killing 14 people and prompting a change in Coast Guard regulation . There were six deaths each in Pennsylvania and New Jersey , and eleven deaths in New York , where record rainfall flooded homes and subways . At least 225 @,@ 000 people lost power during the storm . Damage in the United States totaled around $ 86 million , although the rains from Connie contributed to flooding from Hurricane Diane that caused $ 700 million in damage . The remnants of Connie destroyed a few houses and boats in Ontario and killed three people in Ontario . = = Meteorological history = = A tropical wave developed into a tropical cyclone on August 3 to the west of the Cape Verde islands , based on reports from two ships . It moved rapidly to the west @-@ northwest , quickly intensifying into Tropical Storm Connie . A Hurricane Hunters flight on August 4 reported a developing eye feature , and the next day Connie rapidly strengthened into a 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) major hurricane . On August 6 , it passed about 60 mi ( 97 km ) north of the Lesser Antilles and Puerto Rico . By that time , Connie had attained peak winds of 140 mph ( 230 km / h ) , making it a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson scale . For four days , Connie maintained its peak intensity as its track shifted from the west @-@ northwest toward the northwest , passing to the northeast of the Bahamas as it rounded a large ridge . On August 7 , its eye had decreased to a diameter of 7 mi ( 11 km ) . By August 10 , the eye had lost its definition as Connie slowed its northwest track . It began a west @-@ northwest drift due to slight Fujiwhara interaction with developing Hurricane Diane to its southeast , as well as a building ridge to its northeast . The hurricane turned to the north on August 11 and was steadily weakening , due to the combination of upwelling and entrainment of cool air . Connie turned toward the north @-@ northeast on August 12 , by which time it had weakened to a minimal hurricane . Late on August 12 , Hurricane Connie made landfall near Fort Macon State Park in North Carolina . According to the Atlantic hurricane database , Connie moved ashore as a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , although the Hurricane Research Division initially suggested that the hurricane hit North Carolina with winds of at least 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) but those reports were found to be too high in reanalysis . Connie briefly moved offshore before striking land again near Cape Charles along the Eastern Shore of Virginia . It progressed inland , weakening to a tropical storm over Virginia and moving northward through the Chesapeake Bay . Connie turned to the northwest , passing through much of Pennsylvania before weakening to a tropical depression near the Pennsylvania / New York border . After crossing Lake Ontario and southwestern Ontario , the system moved through Lake Huron , dissipating on August 15 near Sault Ste . Marie , Michigan . = = Preparations = = On August 5 , Hurricane Connie began to become an apparent threat to the northeastern Caribbean Islands , with maximum winds in the storm reaching 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) . The National Weather Bureau issued hurricane warnings for Barbuda , Saba and Antigua . The Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico were placed on hurricane alert as warnings were possible later that day . After Connie affected Puerto Rico , a storm warning was issued for the northern coast of the Dominican Republic , and a hurricane warning was issued for the eastern Bahamas . While Connie was meandering in the western Atlantic Ocean , its potential track posed problems for forecasters . On August 7 , a hurricane warning was issued from North Carolina to Norfolk , Virginia , with a hurricane alert further north to New York City . The Weather Bureau later extended the hurricane warnings to Delaware Breakwater , with storm warnings further northeast to Provincetown , Massachusetts . The alert for North Carolina was up for about three days until Connie moved inland . Ahead of the storm , the United States military flew planes away from the coast to safer shelters further inland . Two people were killed when they crashed the Navy plane they were evacuating . Naval ships rode out the storm at sea , while small boats were secured at port . The American Red Cross opened shelters and mobilized 41 officials with experience in hurricanes . The Coast Guard ordered four towns along beaches to evacuate , and overall about 14 @,@ 000 people evacuated the coastline , some to the 79 Red Cross shelters opened up . About 2 @,@ 000 people evacuated from flood @-@ prone areas in New Bern , North Carolina . In Philadelphia , the Boy Scouts evacuated 800 scouts from Camp Delmont due to the threat of the hurricane . The threat of Connie also canceled a flight by President Dwight Eisenhower from Gettysburg to Washington , D.C. , prompting him to travel instead by car . Residents were also evacuated in coastal portions of New Jersey . = = Impact = = = = = Caribbean = = = As the hurricane passed about 50 mi ( 80 km ) north of the Lesser Antilles , the outer rainbands of Connie produced wind gusts as high as 104 mph ( 166 km / h ) on Tortola in the British Virgin Islands . Wind gusts reached 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) in Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands , although there were estimates of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) wind gusts on Saint Thomas . The outer rainbands of Connie also produced heavy rainfall in the northeastern Caribbean . The highest precipitation total in Puerto Rico was 8 @.@ 65 in ( 220 mm ) along the lower Río Blanco , of which 7 @.@ 50 in ( 191 mm ) fell in one day . Rainfall reached 7 @.@ 04 in ( 179 mm ) in Charlotte Amalie on Saint Thomas . Two people drowned on the island , and one person was electrocuted due to Connie 's passage . The hurricane also destroyed a few shacks and boats on Saint Thomas . Along the northern coast of Puerto Rico , the threat of Connie forced 40 @,@ 000 people to evacuate their homes . High waves and other impact from the storm destroyed 60 poorly @-@ built houses . Connie also damaged crops and utilities in Puerto Rico . = = = United States and Canada = = = As Connie struck North Carolina , it produced sustained winds of 72 mph ( 116 km / h ) in Morehead City , with gusts to 83 mph ( 134 km / h ) . Wind gusts near where the hurricane moved ashore reached 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , although it was not confirmed whether the gust was estimated or measured . Frying Pan Shoals offshore the state reported a gust of 92 mph ( 148 km / h ) . Along Connie 's western periphery , the rainbands spawned at least six tornadoes , of which five in South Carolina and one in North Carolina . The hurricane produced tides that were up to 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) above normal while moving slowly ashore , which resulted in significant beach erosion . Tides were higher at Swansboro , North Carolina than during Hurricane Hazel the previous October , and many piers that were rebuilt after Hazel were damaged or destroyed by Connie . The storm surge flooded low @-@ lying portions of Wilmington and destroyed 40 buildings in Myrtle Beach , South Carolina . High waves in advance of the storm flooded coastal roads along the Outer Banks . Rainfall amounts of over 10 in ( 250 mm ) in the area west of where Connie made landfall . Stream flooding occurred as far inland as Raleigh , but was most significant near the coast . Along the Pamlico River in Washington National Guardsmen were ordered to help about 1 @,@ 000 people evacuate during the storm . Outer rainbands knocked out power lines in coastal North Carolina , and flooding @-@ induced rainfall closed U.S. Route 17 near New Bern . Throughout North Carolina , the hurricane caused about $ 40 million in damage , of which about 75 % was from crop damage . There were 27 deaths in the state related to Connie , including traffic deaths , drownings , people in damaged buildings , and electrocutions . Damage was minimal in Myrtle Beach , South Carolina . Hurricane @-@ force winds extended into Virginia . In the state , severe river flooding was reported from the coast , inland to Richmond , which caused localized damage . Ten stations in the state , and sixteen in neighboring Maryland , reached the highest stage on record . As Connie progressed northward , it continued to drop significant amounts of precipitation . Totals of over 10 in ( 250 mm ) were reported on both sides of the Chesapeake Bay , in Pennsylvania , and in southeastern New York . Rainfall in Richmond , Virginia totaled 8 @.@ 79 in ( 223 mm ) on August 12 , breaking the day 's precipitation record . Record rainfall also occurred in Philadelphia and New York City . The highest precipitation related to Connie was 13 @.@ 24 in ( 336 mm ) at Fort Schuyler in New York . Rainfall also extended as far west as Michigan and as far east as Maine . Across the northeastern United States , high rainfall from the hurricane resulted in disastrous flooding , along with Diane which moved ashore four days after Connie ; this was due to unusually moist air across the region , which resulted from above average water and air temperatures . Many areas were in drought conditions before the flooding . The combination of strong winds and high waves quickly wrecked a 125 ft ( 38 m ) schooner in the Chesapeake Bay . Capsizing near Fairhaven , Maryland , the boat , named the Levin J. Marvel , was 64 years old , and was described as " unseaworthy " when it left from Annapolis , Maryland . Of the 23 passengers and four crew members , 14 people drowned , making it " one of the worst maritime calamities in the history of Tidewater Maryland " , as described by The Baltimore Sun . The other passengers were later rescued , some of whom after holding onto wreckage . In Virginia , flooding washed out a portion of the Richmond , Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad near Lankford , and covered portions of U.S. 1 and U.S. 301 . The storm downed trees and caused scattered power outages for at least 5 @,@ 000 people in the state . In Washington D.C. , a car accident caused by slick roads resulted in the death of four people after a car was sideswiped and knocked into a swollen creek where the occupants drowned . In Delaware , the rains caused flooding that was described as " inconsequential " by the United States Geological Survey , due to preceding drought conditions . Rainfall reached 9 in ( 230 mm ) in southeastern Pennsylvania , causing flooding that entered basements in low @-@ lying areas and covered roads . Two people drowned after floods swept away their cars . There were six deaths in the state , and also six deaths in neighboring New Jersey . Hurricane Connie brought the heaviest rain seen in New York in over 50 years during its passage , dropping 5 @.@ 32 in ( 135 mm ) in New York City within a 20 @-@ hour span . Large areas of the city , including subways and thousands of houses , were flooded , and about 100 @,@ 000 people were left without power . Between New York and New Jersey , about 225 @,@ 000 people lost power . High winds and tides from the storm caused the cancellation of ferry service , and forced LaGuardia Airport to temporarily shut down after it was flooded 1 ft ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) deep . The rains caused heavy damage across southeastern New York , and 11 people were killed across the state . In coastal Connecticut , the rainfall from Connie increased levels along streams , but there was little damage . Overall damage in the United States was estimated at about $ 86 @,@ 065 @,@ 000 , mostly in North Carolina , Virginia , and Maryland . Further inland , gusts from Connie reached 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) along Lake Huron in Michigan , which caused high waves that damaged or sank many small boats . Damage in the state was estimated at $ 150 @,@ 000 . Before Connie affected Canada , residents in Humber valley prepared for potential evacuations , after Hurricane Hazel in the previous October produced deadly flooding . When the remnants of Connie entered Ontario as a tropical depression on August 23 , it continued to produce winds of up to 46 mph ( 75 km / h ) , and the storm dropped 2 @.@ 56 in ( 65 mm ) of rainfall near the Great Lakes . In Burlington , 27 boats were destroyed , and one person drowned in Lake Erie after his boat sank . Two other people drowned in the province . Connie destroyed six houses and damaged several others due to high waves . The storm also caused power outages and damage to the tobacco crop . = = Aftermath = = Flooding caused by Connie generally did not attract much media attention ; however , the floods were important in setting the conditions for later significant flooding across the northeastern United States . Just five days after Connie struck North Carolina , Hurricane Diane affected the same area , but instead of continuing to the northwest it turned to the northeast . Diane produced further rainfall in already wet areas from Connie . Damage from Diane totaled at least $ 700 million , and six states were declared federal disaster areas from the combined hurricanes ' impact ; this allowed federal assistance for the affected areas . The loss of the Levin J. Marvel during the hurricane prompted the United States Congress to pass a law in 1956 , which allowed the Coast Guard to inspect all vessels with more than six passengers ; the previous law only allowed inspections for boats of more than 700 tons , greatly higher than the 183 tons that the Marvel weighed . A federal courthouse charged the inexperienced captain with negligence , giving him a one @-@ year probation . Due to its destructive impacts , the name Connie was retired , and will never again be used for an Atlantic hurricane .
= Axis naval activity in Australian waters = Although Australia was remote from the main battlefronts , there was considerable Axis naval activity in Australian waters during the Second World War . A total of 54 German and Japanese warships and submarines entered Australian waters between 1940 and 1945 and attacked ships , ports and other targets . Among the best @-@ known attacks are the sinking of HMAS Sydney by a German raider in November 1941 , the bombing of Darwin by Japanese naval aircraft in February 1942 , and the Japanese midget submarine attack on Sydney Harbour in May 1942 . In addition , many Allied merchant ships were damaged or sunk off the Australian coast by submarines and mines . Japanese submarines also shelled several Australian ports and submarine @-@ based aircraft flew over several Australian capital cities . The Axis threat to Australia developed gradually and until 1942 was limited to sporadic attacks by German armed merchantmen . The level of Axis naval activity peaked in the first half of 1942 when Japanese submarines conducted anti @-@ shipping patrols off Australia 's coast , and Japanese naval aviation attacked several towns in northern Australia . The Japanese submarine offensive against Australia was renewed in the first half of 1943 but was broken off as the Allies pushed the Japanese onto the defensive . Few Axis naval vessels operated in Australian waters in 1944 and 1945 , and those that did had only a limited impact . Due to the episodic nature of the Axis attacks and the relatively small number of ships and submarines committed , Germany and Japan were not successful in disrupting Australian shipping . While the Allies were forced to deploy substantial assets to defend shipping in Australian waters , this did not have a significant impact on the Australian war effort or American @-@ led operations in the South West Pacific Area . = = Australia Station and Australian defences = = The definition of " Australian waters " used throughout this article is , broadly speaking , the area which was designated the Australia Station prior to the outbreak of war . This vast area consisted of the waters around Australia and eastern New Guinea , and stretching south to Antarctica . From east to west , it stretched from 170 ° east in the Pacific Ocean to 80 ° east in the Indian Ocean , and from north to south it stretched from the Equator to the Antarctic . While the eastern half of New Guinea was an Australian colonial possession during the Second World War and fell within the Australia Station , the Japanese operations in these waters formed part of the New Guinea and Solomon Islands Campaigns and were not directed at Australia . The defence of the Australia Station was the Royal Australian Navy 's main concern throughout the war . While RAN ships frequently served outside Australian waters , escort vessels and minesweepers were available to protect shipping in the Australia Station at all times . These escorts were supported by a small number of larger warships , such as cruisers and armed merchant cruisers , for protection against surface raiders . While important military shipping movements were escorted from the start of the war , convoys were not instituted in Australian waters until June 1942 . The Australian naval authorities did , however , close ports to shipping at various times following real or suspected sightings of enemy warships or mines prior to June 1942 . The Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) was also responsible for the protection of shipping within the Australia Station . Throughout the war , RAAF aircraft escorted convoys and conducted reconnaissance and anti @-@ submarine patrols from bases around Australia . The main types of aircraft used for maritime patrol were Avro Ansons , Bristol Beauforts , Consolidated PBY Catalinas and Lockheed Hudsons . Following the outbreak of the Pacific War , RAAF fighter squadrons were also stationed to protect key Australian ports and escorted shipping in areas where air attack was feared . The Allied naval forces assigned to the Australia Station were considerably increased following Japan 's entry into the war and the beginning of the United States military build @-@ up in Australia . These naval forces were supported by a large increase in the RAAF 's maritime patrol force and the arrival of United States Navy patrol aircraft . Following the initial Japanese submarine attacks , a convoy system was instituted between Australian ports , and by the end of the war the RAAF and RAN had escorted over 1 @,@ 100 convoys along the Australian coastline . As the battlefront moved to the north and attacks in Australian waters became less frequent , the number of ships and aircraft assigned to shipping protection duties within the Australia Station was considerably reduced . In addition to the air and naval forces assigned to protect shipping in Australian waters , fixed defences were constructed to protect the major Australian ports . The Australian Army was responsible for developing and manning coastal defences to protect ports from attacks by enemy surface raiders . These defences commonly consisted of a number of fixed guns defended by anti @-@ aircraft guns and infantry . The Army 's coastal defences were considerably expanded as the threat to Australia increased between 1940 and 1942 , and reached their peak strength in 1944 . The Royal Australian Navy was responsible for developing and manning harbour defences in Australia 's main ports . These defences consisted of fixed anti @-@ submarine booms and mines supported by small patrol craft , and were also greatly expanded as the threat to Australia increased . The RAN also laid defensive minefields in Australian waters from August 1941 . While the naval and air forces available for the protection of shipping in Australian waters were never adequate to defeat a heavy or coordinated attack , they proved sufficient to mount defensive patrols against the sporadic and generally cautious attacks mounted by the Axis navies during the war . = = 1939 – 1941 = = = = = German surface raiders in 1940 = = = While German surface raiders operated in the western Indian Ocean in 1939 and early 1940 , they did not enter Australian waters until the second half of 1940 . The first Axis ships in Australian waters were the unarmed Italian ocean liners Remo and Romolo , which were in Australian waters when Fascist Italy entered the war on 11 June 1940 , Eastern Australian Time . While Remo was docked at Fremantle and was easily captured , Romolo proved harder to catch , as she had left Brisbane on 5 June bound for Italy . Following an air and sea search , Romolo was intercepted by HMAS Manoora near Nauru on 12 June and was scuttled by her captain to avoid capture . The German surface raider Orion was the first Axis warship to operate in Australian waters during World War II . After operating off the northern tip of New Zealand and the South Pacific , Orion entered Australian waters in the Coral Sea in August 1940 and closed to within 120 nmi ( 140 mi ; 220 km ) north @-@ east of Brisbane on 11 August . Following this , Orion headed east and operated off New Caledonia before proceeding south into the Tasman Sea , sinking the merchant ship Notou south @-@ west of Noumea on 16 August and the British merchant ship Turakina in the Tasman Sea four days later . Orion sailed south @-@ west after sinking Turakina , passing south of Tasmania , and operated without success in the Great Australian Bight in early September . While Orion laid four dummy mines off Albany , Western Australia on 2 September , she departed to the south @-@ west after being spotted by an Australian aircraft the next day . After unsuccessfully patrolling in the Southern Ocean , Orion sailed for the Marshall Islands to refuel , arriving there on 10 October . Pinguin was the next raider to enter Australian waters . Pinguin entered the Indian Ocean from the South Atlantic in August 1940 and arrived off Western Australia in October . Pinguin captured the 8 @,@ 998 long tons ( 9 @,@ 142 t ) Norwegian tanker Storstad off North West Cape on 7 October and proceeded east with the captured ship . Pinguin laid mines between Sydney and Newcastle on 28 October , and Storstad laid mines off the Victorian coast on the nights of 29 – 31 October . Pinguin also laid further mines off Adelaide in early November . The two ships then sailed west for the Indian Ocean . Pinguin and Storstad were not detected during their operations off Australia 's eastern and southern coasts , and succeeded in sinking three ships . Mines laid by Storstad sank two ships off Wilsons Promontory in early November , and the mines laid off Sydney by Pinguin sank one ship and a further merchant ship was damaged after striking a mine off Adelaide . Pinguin added to her tally of successes in Australian waters by sinking three merchant ships in the Indian Ocean during November . On 7 December 1940 , the German raiders Orion and Komet arrived off the Australian protectorate of Nauru . During the next 48 hours , the two ships sank four merchant ships off the undefended island . Heavily loaded with survivors from their victims , the raiders departed for Emirau Island where they unloaded their prisoners . After an unsuccessful attempt to lay mines off Rabaul on 24 December , Komet made a second attack on Nauru on 27 December and shelled the island 's phosphate plant and dock facilities . This attack was the last Axis naval attack in Australian waters until November 1941 . Consequences of the raid on Nauru led to serious concern about the supply of phosphates from there and nearby Ocean Island , though the general situation with naval forces allowed only limited response to threats to the isolated islands . There was some redeployment of warships and a proposal to deploy six inch naval guns to the islands despite provisions of the mandate prohibiting fortification but a shortage of such guns resulted in a change to a proposed two field guns for each island . The most serious effect of the raid was the fall in phosphate output in 1941 though decisions as early as 1938 to increase stockpiles of raw rock in Australia mitigated that decline . Another consequence was the institution of the first Trans @-@ Tasman commercial convoys with Convoy VK.1 composed of Empire Star , Port Chalmers , Empress of Russia , and Maunganui leaving Sydney 30 December 1940 for Auckland escorted by HMNZS Achilles . = = = German surface raiders in 1941 = = = Following the raids on Nauru , Komet and Orion sailed for the Indian Ocean , passing through the Southern Ocean well to the south of Australia in February and March 1941 respectively . Komet re @-@ entered the Australia station in April en route to New Zealand , and Atlantis sailed east through the southern extreme of the Australia Station in August . Until November , the only casualties from Axis ships on the Australia Station were caused by mines laid by Pinguin in 1940 . The small trawler Millimumul was sunk with the loss of seven lives after striking a mine off the New South Wales coast on 26 March 1941 , and two ratings from a Rendering Mines Safe party were killed while attempting to defuse a mine which had washed ashore in South Australia on 14 July . On 19 November 1941 , the Australian light cruiser HMAS Sydney — which had been highly successful in the Battle of the Mediterranean — encountered the disguised German raider Kormoran , approximately 150 mi ( 130 nmi ; 240 km ) south west of Carnarvon , Western Australia . Sydney intercepted Kormoran and demanded that she prove her assumed identity as the Dutch freighter Straat Malakka . During the interception , Sydney 's captain brought his ship dangerously close to Kormoran . As a result , when Kormoran was unable to prove her identity and avoid a battle she had little hope of surviving , the raider was able to use all her weaponry against Sydney . In the resulting battle , Kormoran and Sydney were both crippled , with Sydney sinking with the loss of all her 645 crew and 78 of Kormoran 's crew being either killed in the battle or dying before they could be rescued by passing ships . Kormoran was the only Axis ship to conduct attacks in Australian waters during 1941 and the last Axis surface raider to enter Australian waters until 1943 . There is no evidence to support claims that a Japanese submarine participated in the sinking of HMAS Sydney . The only German ship to enter the Australia Station during 1942 was the blockade runner and supply ship Ramses , which was sunk by HMAS Adelaide and HNLMS Jacob van Heemskerk on 26 November , shortly after Ramses left Batavia bound for France . All of Ramses ' crew survived the sinking and were taken prisoner . = = 1942 = = The naval threat to Australia increased dramatically following the outbreak of war in the Pacific . During the first half of 1942 , the Japanese mounted a sustained campaign in Australian waters , with Japanese submarines attacking shipping and aircraft carriers conducting a devastating attack on the strategic port of Darwin . In response to these attacks the Allies increased the resources allocated to protecting shipping in Australian waters . = = = Early Japanese submarine patrols ( January – March 1942 ) = = = The first Japanese submarines to enter Australian waters were I @-@ 121 , I @-@ 122 , I @-@ 123 and I @-@ 124 , from the Imperial Japanese Navy 's ( IJN 's ) Submarine Squadron 6 . Acting in support of the Japanese offensive in the Netherlands East Indies these boats laid minefields in the approaches to Darwin and the Torres Strait between 12 and 18 January 1942 . These mines did not sink or damage any Allied ships . After completing their mine laying missions the four Japanese boats took station off Darwin to provide the Japanese fleet with warning of Allied naval movements . On 20 January 1942 the Australian Bathurst @-@ class corvettes HMAS Deloraine , Katoomba and Lithgow sank I @-@ 124 near Darwin . This was the only full @-@ sized submarine sunk by the Royal Australian Navy in Australian waters during World War II . Being the first accessible ocean @-@ going IJN submarine lost after Pearl Harbor , USN divers attempted to enter I @-@ 124 in order to obtain its code books , but were unsuccessful . Following the conquest of the western Pacific the Japanese mounted a number of reconnaissance patrols into Australian waters . Three submarines ( I @-@ 1 , I @-@ 2 and I @-@ 3 ) operated off Western Australia in March 1942 , sinking the merchant ships Parigi and Siantar on 1 and 3 March respectively . In addition , I @-@ 25 conducted a reconnaissance patrol down the Australian east coast in February and March . During this patrol Nobuo Fujita from the I @-@ 25 flew a Yokosuka E14Y1 floatplane over Sydney ( 17 February ) , Melbourne ( 26 February ) and Hobart ( 1 March ) . Following these reconnaissances , I @-@ 25 sailed for New Zealand and conducted overflights of Wellington and Auckland on 8 March and 13 March respectively . = = = Japanese naval aviation attacks ( February 1942 – November 1943 ) = = = The bombing of Darwin on 19 February 1942 , was the heaviest single attack mounted by the Imperial Japanese Navy against mainland Australia . On 19 February , four Japanese aircraft carriers ( Akagi , Kaga , Hiryū and Sōryū ) launched a total of 188 aircraft from a position in the Timor Sea . The four carriers were escorted by four cruisers and nine destroyers . These 188 naval aircraft inflicted heavy damage on Darwin and sank nine ships . A raid conducted by 54 land @-@ based bombers later the same day resulted in further damage to the town and RAAF Base Darwin and the destruction of 20 Allied military aircraft . Allied casualties were 236 killed and between 300 and 400 wounded , the majority of whom were non @-@ Australian Allied sailors . Only four Japanese aircraft were confirmed to have been destroyed by Darwin 's defenders . The bombing of Darwin was the first of many Japanese naval aviation attacks against targets in Australia . The carriers Shōhō , Shōkaku and Zuikaku — which escorted the invasion force dispatched against Port Moresby in May 1942 — had the secondary role of attacking Allied bases in northern Queensland once Port Moresby was secured . These attacks did not occur , however , as the landings at Port Moresby were cancelled when the Japanese carrier force was mauled in the Battle of the Coral Sea . Japanese aircraft made almost 100 raids , most of them small , against northern Australia during 1942 and 1943 . Land @-@ based IJN aircraft took part in many of the 63 raids on Darwin which took place after the initial attack . The town of Broome , Western Australia experienced a devastating attack by IJN fighter planes on 3 March 1942 , in which at least 88 people were killed . Long @-@ range seaplanes operating from bases in the Solomon Islands made a number of small attacks on towns in Queensland . Japanese naval aircraft operating from land bases also harassed coastal shipping in Australia 's northern waters during 1942 and 1943 . On 15 December 1942 , four sailors were killed when the merchant ship Period was attacked off Cape Wessel . The small general purpose vessel HMAS Patricia Cam was sunk by a Japanese floatplane near the Wessel Islands on 22 January 1943 with the loss of nine sailors and civilians . Another civilian sailor was killed when the merchant ship Islander was attacked by a floatplane during May 1943 . = = = Attacks on Sydney and Newcastle ( May – June 1942 ) = = = In March 1942 , the Japanese military adopted a strategy of isolating Australia from the United States by capturing Port Moresby in New Guinea , the Solomon Islands , Fiji , Samoa and New Caledonia . This plan was frustrated by the Japanese defeat in the Battle of the Coral Sea and was postponed indefinitely after the Battle of Midway . Following the defeat of the Japanese surface fleet , the IJN submarines were deployed to disrupt Allied supply lines by attacking shipping off the Australian east coast . On 27 April 1942 , the submarines I @-@ 21 and I @-@ 29 left the major Japanese naval base at Truk Lagoon in the Japanese territory of the Caroline Islands to conduct reconnaissance patrols of Allied ports in the South Pacific . The goal of these patrols was to find a suitable target for the force of midget submarines , designated the Eastern Detachment of the Second Special Attack Flotilla , which was available in the Pacific . I @-@ 29 entered Australian waters in May and made an unsuccessful attack on the neutral Soviet freighter Wellen off Newcastle on 16 May . I @-@ 29 's floatplane overflew Sydney on 23 May 1942 , finding a large number of major Allied warships in Sydney Harbour . I @-@ 21 reconnoitred Suva , Fiji and Auckland , New Zealand in late May but did not find worthwhile concentrations of shipping in either port . On 18 May , the Eastern Detachment of the Second Special Attack Flotilla left Truk Lagoon under the command of Captain Hankyu Sasaki . Sasaki 's force comprised I @-@ 22 , I @-@ 24 and I @-@ 27 . Each submarine was carrying a midget submarine . After the intelligence gathered by I @-@ 21 and I @-@ 29 was assessed , the three submarines were ordered on 24 May to attack Sydney . The three submarines of the Eastern Detachment rendezvoused with I @-@ 21 and I @-@ 29 35 mi ( 30 nmi ; 56 km ) off Sydney on 29 May . In the early hours of 30 May , I @-@ 21 's floatplane conducted a reconnaissance flight over Sydney Harbour that confirmed the concentration of Allied shipping sighted by I @-@ 29 's floatplane was still present and was a worthwhile target for a midget submarine raid . On the night of 31 May , three midget submarines were launched from the Japanese force outside the Sydney Heads . Although two of the submarines ( Midget No. 22 and Midget A , also known as Midget 24 ) successfully penetrated the incomplete Sydney Harbour defences , only Midget A actually attacked Allied shipping in the harbour , firing two torpedoes at the American heavy cruiser USS Chicago . These torpedoes missed Chicago but sank the depot ship HMAS Kuttabul , killing 21 seamen on board , and seriously damaged the Dutch submarine K IX . All of the Japanese midget submarines were lost during this operation ( Midget No. 22 and Midget No. 27 were destroyed by the Australian defenders and Midget A was scuttled by her crew after leaving the Harbour ) . Following this raid , the Japanese submarine force operated off Sydney and Newcastle , sinking the coaster Iron Chieftain off Sydney on 3 June . On the night of 8 June , I @-@ 24 conducted a bombardment of the eastern suburbs of Sydney and I @-@ 21 bombarded Newcastle . Fort Scratchley at Newcastle returned fire , but did not hit I @-@ 21 . While these bombardments did not cause any casualties or serious damage , the bombardments generated concern over further attacks against the east coast . Following the attacks on shipping in the Sydney region , the Royal Australian Navy instituted convoys between Brisbane and Adelaide . All ships of over 1 @,@ 200 long tons ( 1 @,@ 200 t ) and with speeds of less than 12 kn ( 14 mph ; 22 km / h ) were required to sail in convoy when travelling between cities on the east coast . The Japanese submarine force left Australian waters in late June 1942 having sunk a further two merchant ships . The small number of sinkings achieved by the five Japanese submarines sent against the Australian east coast in May and June did not justify the commitment of so many submarines . = = = Further Japanese submarine patrols ( July – August 1942 ) = = = The Australian authorities enjoyed only a brief break in the submarine threat . In July 1942 , a division of three submarines ( I @-@ 11 , I @-@ 174 and I @-@ 175 ) from Japanese Submarine Squadron 3 commenced operations off the East Coast . These three submarines sank five ships ( including a small fishing trawler ) and damaged several others during July and August . In addition , I @-@ 32 conducted a patrol off the southern coast of Australia while en route from New Caledonia to Penang , though the submarine was not successful in sinking any ships in this area . Following the withdrawal of this force in August , no further submarine attacks were mounted against Australia until January 1943 . While Japanese submarines sank 17 ships in Australian waters in 1942 ( 14 of which were near the Australian coast ) the submarine offensive did not have a serious impact on the Allied war effort in the South West Pacific or the Australian economy . Nevertheless , by forcing ships sailing along the east coast to travel in convoy the Japanese submarines were successful in reducing the efficiency of Australian coastal shipping . This lower efficiency translated into between 7 @.@ 5 % and 22 % less tonnage being transported between Australian ports each month ( no accurate figures are available and the estimated figure varied between months ) . These convoys were effective , however , with no ship travelling as part of a convoy being sunk in Australian waters during 1942 . = = 1943 = = Japanese submarines returned to Australian waters in January 1943 and conducted a campaign against Australian shipping during the first half of the year . The IJN also conducted a diversionary bombardment of Port Gregory , a small West Australian town . = = = East coast submarine patrols ( January – June 1943 ) = = = Japanese submarine operations against Australia in 1943 began when I @-@ 10 and I @-@ 21 sailed from Rabaul on 7 January to reconnoitre Allied forces around Nouméa and Sydney respectively . I @-@ 21 arrived off the coast of New South Wales just over a week later . I @-@ 21 operated off the east coast until late February and sank six ships during this period , making it the most successful submarine patrol conducted in Australian waters during the Second World War . In addition to these sinkings , I @-@ 21 's floatplane conducted a successful reconnaissance of Sydney Harbour on 19 February 1943 . In March , I @-@ 6 and I @-@ 26 entered Australian waters . While I @-@ 6 laid nine German @-@ supplied acoustic mines in the approaches to Brisbane this minefield was discovered by HMAS Swan and neutralised before any ships were sunk . Although I @-@ 6 returned to Rabaul after laying her mines , the Japanese submarine force in Australian waters was expanded in April when the four submarines of Submarine Squadron 3 ( I @-@ 11 , I @-@ 177 , I @-@ 178 and I @-@ 180 ) arrived off the east coast and joined I @-@ 26 . This force had the goal of attacking reinforcement and supply convoys travelling between Australia and New Guinea . As the Japanese force was too small to cut off all traffic between Australia and New Guinea , the Squadron commander widely dispersed his submarines between the Torres Strait and Wilson 's Promontory with the goal of tying down as many Allied ships and aircraft as possible . This offensive continued until June and the five Japanese submarines sank nine ships and damaged several others . In contrast to 1942 , five of the ships sunk off the Australian east coast were travelling in escorted convoys at the time they were attacked . The convoy escorts were not successful in detecting any submarines before they launched their attacks or counter @-@ attacking these submarines . The last attack by a Japanese submarine off the east coast of Australia was made by I @-@ 174 on 16 June 1943 when she sank the merchant ship Portmar and damaged U.S. Landing Ship Tank LST @-@ 469 as they were travelling in Convoy GP55 off the New South Wales north coast . Some historians believe that RAAF aircraft searching for I @-@ 174 may have sunk I @-@ 178 during the early hours of 18 June , but the cause of this submarine 's loss during a patrol off eastern Australia has not been confirmed . The single greatest loss of life resulting from a submarine attack in Australian waters occurred in the early hours of 14 May 1943 when I @-@ 177 torpedoed and sank the Australian hospital ship Centaur off Point Lookout , Queensland . After being hit by a single torpedo , Centaur sank in less than three minutes with the loss of 268 lives . While hospital ships — such as Centaur — were legally protected against attack under the terms of the Geneva Conventions , it is unclear whether Commander Hajime Nakagawa of I @-@ 177 was aware that Centaur was a hospital ship . While she was clearly marked with a red cross and was fully illuminated , the light conditions at the time may have resulted in Nakagawa not being aware of Centaur 's status , making her sinking a tragic accident . However , as Nakagawa had a poor record as a submarine captain and was later convicted of machine gunning the survivors of a British merchant ship in the Indian Ocean , it is probable that the sinking of Centaur was due to either Nakagawa 's incompetence or indifference to the laws of warfare . The attack on Centaur sparked widespread public outrage in Australia . The Japanese submarine offensive against Australia was broken off in July 1943 when the submarines were redeployed to counter Allied offensives elsewhere in the Pacific . The last two Japanese submarines to be dispatched against the Australian east coast , I @-@ 177 and I @-@ 180 , were redirected to the central Solomon Islands shortly before they would have arrived off Australia in July . The Australian Naval authorities were concerned about a resumption of attacks , however , and maintained the coastal convoy system until late 1943 when it was clear that the threat had passed . Coastal convoys in waters south of Newcastle ceased on 7 December and convoys off the north @-@ east coast and between Australia and New Guinea were abolished in February and March 1944 respectively . = = = Bombardment of Port Gregory ( January 1943 ) = = = In contrast to the large number of submarines which operated off the east coast , only a single Japanese submarine was dispatched against the Australian west coast . On 21 January 1943 , I @-@ 165 left her base at Surabaya , East Java , destined for Western Australia . The submarine — under Lt. Cdr . Kennosuke Torisu — was tasked with creating a diversion to assist the evacuation of Japanese forces from Guadalcanal following their defeat there . Another submarine — I @-@ 166 — had undertaken a diversionary bombardment of the Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands on 25 December 1942 . It appears that Torisu 's original objective was to bombard the port of Geraldton , Western Australia . After a six @-@ day voyage southward , I @-@ 165 reached Geraldton on 27 January . However , Torisu believed that he had sighted lights of aircraft or a destroyer near the town and broke off his attack . I @-@ 165 instead headed north for Port Gregory a former whaling , lead and salt port . At around midnight on 28 January , the submarine 's crew fired 10 rounds from her 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) deck gun at the town . The shells appear to have completely missed Port Gregory and did not result in any damage or casualties for the town was not occupied and the raid initially went unnoticed . While gunfire was sighted by nearby coastwatchers , Allied naval authorities only learned of the attack when Lt. Cdr . Torisu 's battle report radio signal was intercepted and decoded a week later . As a result , the attack was not successful in diverting attention away from Guadalcanal . I @-@ 165 returned twice to Australian waters . In September 1943 , she made an uneventful reconnaissance of the north west coast . I @-@ 165 conducted another reconnaissance patrol off north western Australian between 31 May and 5 July 1944 . This was the last time a Japanese submarine entered Australian waters . = = = German raider Michel ( June 1943 ) = = = Michel was the final German surface raider to enter Australian waters and the Pacific . Michel departed from Yokohama , Japan on her second raiding cruise on 21 May 1943 and entered the Indian Ocean in June . On 14 June she sank the 7 @,@ 715 long tons ( 7 @,@ 839 t ) Norwegian tanker Høegh Silverdawn about 1 @,@ 800 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 nmi ; 2 @,@ 900 km ) north @-@ west of Fremantle . Michel followed up this success two days later by sinking a second Norwegian tanker , the 9 @,@ 940 long tons ( 10 @,@ 100 t ) Ferncastle , in the same area . Both tankers were sailing from Western Australia to the Middle East and 47 Allied sailors and passengers were killed as a result of the attacks . Following these sinkings Michel sailed well to the south of Australia and New Zealand and operated in the eastern Pacific . On 3 September , she sank the 9 @,@ 977 long tons ( 10 @,@ 137 t ) Norwegian tanker India west of Easter Island with all hands , while the tanker was sailing from Peru to Australia . = = 1944 – 1945 = = The Axis naval threat to Australia declined in line with the Allied successes in the Pacific Theatre in 1944 , and only three ships were sunk by Axis naval vessels on the Australia Station during 1944 and 1945 . While the Japanese conducted their only landing on the Australian mainland during 1944 , this was a small reconnaissance operation . As the threat from Axis attacks declined the Allies further reduced the forces assigned to protecting shipping in Australian waters . These forces were not completely disbanded until the end of the war , however . = = = The Japanese landing in Australia ( January 1944 ) = = = While the Japanese government never adopted proposals to invade Australia , a single reconnaissance landing was made on the Australian mainland . Between 17 and 20 January 1944 , members of a Japanese intelligence unit named Matsu Kikan ( " Pine Tree " ) made a reconnaissance mission to a sparsely populated part of the Kimberley region of Western Australia . The unit , operating from Kupang , West Timor , used a converted 25 long tons ( 25 t ) civilian vessel called Hiyoshi Maru and posed as a fishing crew . The mission was led by Lt. Susuhiko Mizuno of the Japanese Army and included another three Japanese army personnel , six Japanese naval personnel and 15 West Timorese sailors . Their orders , from the 19th Army headquarters at Ambon , were to verify reports that the U.S. Navy was building a base in the area . In addition , the Matsu Kikan personnel were ordered to collect information which would assist any covert reconnaissance or raiding missions on the Australian mainland . Hiyoshi Maru left Kupang on 16 January and was given air cover for the outward leg by an Aichi D3A2 " Val " dive bomber which reportedly attacked an Allied submarine en route . On 17 January , Hiyoshi Maru visited the Ashmore Reef area . The following day the crew landed on the tiny and uninhabited Browse Island , about 100 mi ( 87 nmi ; 160 km ) north west of the mainland . On the morning of 19 January , Hiyoshi Maru entered York Sound on the mainland . Although the crew saw smoke emanating from hills to the east of their location , they nevertheless anchored and camouflaged the vessel with tree branches . Local historians state that Matsu Kikan landing parties went ashore near the mouth of the Roe River ( 15 ° 08 ′ 16 ″ S 125 ° 23 ′ 11 ″ E ) . They reportedly explored onshore for about two hours , and some members of the mission filmed the area using an 8 mm camera . The Matsu Kikan personnel spent the night on the boat and reconnoitred the area again the following day , before returning to Kupang . The Japanese did not sight any people or signs of recent human activity and little of military significance was learnt from the mission . = = = Japanese operations in the Indian Ocean ( March 1944 ) = = = In February 1944 , the Japanese Combined Fleet withdrew from its base at Truk and was divided between Palau and Singapore . The appearance of a powerful Japanese squadron at Singapore concerned the Allies , as it was feared that this force could potentially conduct raids in the Indian Ocean and against Western Australia . On 1 March , a Japanese squadron consisting of the heavy cruisers Aoba ( flagship ) , Tone and Chikuma — under Vice Admiral Naomasa Sakonju — sortied from Sunda Strait to attack Allied shipping sailing on the main route between Aden and Fremantle . The only Allied ship this squadron encountered was the British steamer Behar , which was sunk midway between Ceylon and Fremantle on 9 March . Following this attack the squadron broke off its mission and returned to Batavia as it was feared that Allied ships responding to Behar 's distress signal posed an unacceptable risk . While 102 survivors from Behar were rescued by Tone , 82 of these prisoners were murdered after the cruiser arrived in Batavia on 16 March . Following the war Vice Adm. Sakonju was executed for war crimes which included the killing of these prisoners , while the former commander of Tone , Capt. Haruo Mayazumi , was sentenced to seven years imprisonment . The sortie mounted by Aoba , Tone and Chikuma was the last raid mounted by Axis surface ships against the Allied lines of communication in the Indian Ocean , or elsewhere , during World War II . While the Japanese raid into the Indian Ocean was not successful , associated Japanese shipping movements provoked a major Allied response . In early March 1944 , Allied intelligence reported that two battleships escorted by destroyers had left Singapore in the direction of Surabaya and a U.S. submarine made radar contact with two large Japanese ships in the Lombok Strait . The Australian Chiefs of Staff Committee reported to the Government on 8 March that there was a possibility that these ships could have entered the Indian Ocean to attack Fremantle . In response to this report , all ground and naval defences at Fremantle were fully manned , all shipping was ordered to leave Fremantle and several RAAF squadrons were redeployed to bases in Western Australia . This alert proved to be a false alarm , however . The Japanese ships detected in the Lombok Strait were actually the light cruisers Kinu and Ōi which were covering the return of the surface raiding force from the central Indian Ocean . The alert was lifted at Fremantle on 13 March and the RAAF squadrons began returning to their bases in eastern and northern Australia on 20 March . = = = The German submarine offensive ( September 1944 – January 1945 ) = = = On 14 September 1944 , the commander of the Kriegsmarine — Großadmiral ( Grand Admiral ) Karl Dönitz — approved a proposal to send two Type IXD U @-@ Boats into Australian waters with the objective of tying down Allied anti @-@ submarine assets in a secondary theatre . The U @-@ Boats involved was drawn from the Monsun Gruppe ( " Monsoon Group " ) , and the two selected for this operation were German submarine U @-@ 168 and German submarine U @-@ 862 . An additional submarine — U @-@ 537 — was added to this force at the end of September . Due to the difficulty of maintaining German submarines in Japanese bases , the German force was not ready to depart from its bases in Penang and Batavia ( Jakarta ) until early October . By this time , the Allies had intercepted and decoded German and Japanese messages describing the operation and were able to vector Allied submarines onto the German boats . The Dutch submarine Zwaardvisch sank U @-@ 168 on 6 October near Surabaya and the American submarine USS Flounder sank U @-@ 537 on 10 November near the northern end of the Lombok Strait . Due to the priority accorded to the Australian operation , U @-@ 196 was ordered to replace U @-@ 168 . However , U @-@ 196 disappeared in the Sunda Strait some time after departing from Penang on 30 November . The cause of U @-@ 196 's loss is unknown , though it was probably due to an accident or mechanical fault . The only surviving submarine of the force assigned to attack Australia — U @-@ 862 , under Korvettenkapitän Heinrich Timm — departed Batavia on 18 November 1944 , and arrived off the south west tip of Western Australia on 26 November . The submarine had great difficulty finding targets as the Australian naval authorities , warned of U @-@ 862 's approach , had directed shipping away from the routes normally used . U @-@ 862 unsuccessfully attacked the Greek freighter Ilissos off the South Australian coast on 9 December , with bad weather spoiling both the attack and subsequent Australian efforts to locate the submarine . Following her attack on Ilissos , U @-@ 862 continued east along the Australian coastline , becoming the only German submarine to operate in the Pacific Ocean during the Second World War . After entering the Pacific U @-@ 862 scored her first success on this patrol when she attacked the U.S.-registered liberty ship Robert J. Walker off the South Coast of New South Wales on 24 December 1944 . The ship sank the following day . Following this attack , U @-@ 862 evaded an intensive search by Australian aircraft and warships and departed for New Zealand . As U @-@ 862 did not find any worthwhile targets off New Zealand , the submarine 's commander planned to return to Australian waters in January 1945 and operate to the north of Sydney . U @-@ 862 was ordered to break off her mission in mid @-@ January , however , and return to Jakarta . On her return voyage , the submarine sank another U.S. liberty ship — Peter Silvester — approximately 820 nmi ( 940 mi ; 1 @,@ 520 km ) southwest of Fremantle on 6 February 1945 . Peter Silvester was the last Allied ship to be sunk by the Axis in the Indian Ocean during the war . U @-@ 862 arrived in Jakarta in mid February 1945 and is the only Axis ship known to have operated in Australian waters during 1945 . Following Germany 's surrender , U @-@ 862 became the Japanese submarine I @-@ 502 but was not used operationally . While Allied naval authorities were aware of the approach of the German strike force and were successful in sinking two of the four submarines dispatched , efforts to locate and sink U @-@ 862 once she reached Australian waters were continually hampered by a lack of suitable ships and aircraft and a lack of personnel trained and experienced in anti @-@ submarine warfare . As the southern coast of Australia was thousands of kilometres behind the active combat front in South @-@ East Asia and had not been raided for several years , it should not be considered surprising that few anti @-@ submarine assets were available in this area in late 1944 and early 1945 . = = Conclusions = = = = = Casualties = = = A total of six German surface raiders , four Japanese aircraft carriers , seven Japanese cruisers , nine Japanese destroyers and twenty eight Japanese and German submarines operated in Australian waters between 1940 and 1945 . These 54 warships sank 53 merchant ships and three warships within the Australia Station , resulting in the deaths of over 1 @,@ 751 Allied military personnel , sailors and civilians . Over 88 people were also killed by IJN air attacks on towns in northern Australia . In exchange , the Allies sank one German surface raider , one full @-@ sized Japanese submarine and two midget submarines within Australian waters , resulting in the deaths of 157 Axis sailors . A further two German submarines were sunk while en route to Australian waters with the loss of 81 sailors . The six German and three Japanese surface raiders that operated within Australian waters sank 18 ships and killed over 826 sailors ( including the 82 prisoners murdered on board Tone in 1944 ) . Kormoran was the only Axis surface ship to be sunk within the Australia Station , and 78 of her crew were killed . The 17 ships in the Japanese carrier force that raided Darwin in 1942 sank nine ships and killed 251 people for the loss of four aircraft . A further 14 sailors and civilians were killed in the sinking of HMAS Patricia Cam and the attacks on Period and Islander in 1943 and 88 people were killed during the raid on Broome in 1942 . The 28 Japanese and German submarines that operated in Australian waters between 1942 and 1945 sank a total of 30 ships with a combined tonnage of 151 @,@ 000 long tons ( 153 @,@ 000 t ) ; 654 people , including 200 Australian merchant seamen , were killed on board the ships attacked by submarines . It has also been estimated that the RAAF lost at least 23 aircraft and 104 airmen to flying accidents during anti @-@ submarine patrols off the Australian coast . In exchange , the Allies sank only a single full @-@ sized Japanese submarine in Australian waters ( I @-@ 124 ) and two of the three midgets that entered Sydney Harbour . A total of 79 Japanese sailors died in these sinkings , and a further two sailors died on board the third midget , which was scuttled after leaving Sydney Harbour . = = = Assessment = = = While the scale of the Axis naval offensive directed against Australia was small compared to other naval campaigns of the war such as the Battle of the Atlantic , they were still " the most comprehensive and widespread series of offensive operations ever conducted by an enemy against Australia " . Due to the limited size of the Australian shipping industry and the importance of sea transport to the Australian economy and Allied military in the South West Pacific , even modest shipping losses had the potential to seriously damage the Allied war effort in the South West Pacific . Despite the vulnerability of the Australian shipping industry , the Axis attacks did not seriously affect the Australian or Allied war effort . While the German surface raiders which operated against Australia caused considerable disruption to merchant shipping and tied down Allied naval vessels , they did not sink many ships and only operated in Australian waters for a few short periods . The effectiveness of the Japanese submarine campaign against Australia was limited by the inadequate numbers of submarines committed and flaws in Japan 's submarine doctrine . The submarines were , however , successful in forcing the Allies to devote considerable resources to protecting shipping in Australian waters between 1942 and late 1943 . The institution of coastal convoys between 1942 and 1943 may have also significantly reduced the efficiency of the Australian shipping industry during this period . The performance of the Australian and Allied forces committed to the defence of shipping on the Australia station was mixed . While the threat to Australia from Axis raiders was " anticipated and addressed " , only a small proportion of the Axis ships and submarines which attacked Australia were successfully located or engaged . Several German raiders operated undetected within Australian waters in 1940 as the number of Allied warships and aircraft available were not sufficient to patrol these waters and the loss of HMAS Sydney was a high price to pay for sinking Kormoran in 1941 . While the Australian authorities were quick to implement convoys in 1942 and no convoyed ship was sunk during that year , the escorts of the convoys that were attacked in 1943 were not successful in either detecting any submarines before they launched their attack or successfully counter @-@ attacking these submarines . Factors explaining the relatively poor performance of Australian anti @-@ submarine forces include their typically low levels of experience and training , shortages of ASW assets , problems with co @-@ ordinating searches and the poor sonar conditions in the waters surrounding Australia . Nevertheless , " success in anti @-@ submarine warfare cannot be measured simply by the total of sinkings achieved " and the Australian defenders may have successfully reduced the threat to shipping in Australian waters by making it harder for Japanese submarines to carry out attacks . = = = Books and printed material = = = Australia in the War of 1939 – 1945 G. Herman Gill ( 1957 ) , Australia in the War of 1939 – 1945 . Series 2 – Navy . Volume I 1939 – 1942 . Australian War Memorial , Canberra . G. Herman Gill ( 1968 ) , Australia in the War of 1939 – 1945 . Series 2 – Navy . Volume II – Royal Australian Navy , 1942 – 1945 . Australian War Memorial , Canberra . Douglas Gillison ( 1962 ) , Australia in the War of 1939 – 1945 . Series 3 - Air . Volume I – Royal Australian Air Force , 1939 – 1942 . Australian War Memorial , Canberra . George Odgers ( 1968 ) , Australia in the War of 1939 – 1945 . Series 3 - Air . Volume II – Air War Against Japan , 1943 – 1945 . Australian War Memorial , Canberra . Gavin Long ( 1973 ) , The Six Years War . A Concise History of Australia in the 1939 – 45 War . Australian War Memorial and Australian Government Publishing Service , Canberra . ISBN 0 @-@ 642 @-@ 99375 @-@ 0 Steven L Carruthers ( 1982 ) , Australia Under Siege : Japanese Submarine Raiders , 1942 . Solus Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 9593614 @-@ 0 @-@ 5 John Coates ( 2001 ) , An Atlas of Australia 's Wars . Oxford University Press , Melbourne . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 554119 @-@ 7 Crowhurst , Geoff ( 2012 ) . " Who Sank I @-@ 178 ? " . The Navy 75 ( 1 ) : 27 – 30 . ISSN 1322 @-@ 6231 . Tom Frame ( 1993 ) , HMAS Sydney . Loss and Controversy . Hodder & Stoughton , Sydney . ISBN 0 @-@ 340 @-@ 58468 @-@ 8 Tom Frame ( 2004 ) , No Pleasure Cruise : The Story of the Royal Australian Navy . Allen & Unwin , Sydney . ISBN 1 @-@ 74114 @-@ 233 @-@ 4 Henry P. Frei ( 1991 ) , Japan 's Southward Advance and Australia . From the Sixteenth Century to World War II . Melbourne University Press , Melbourne . ISBN 0 @-@ 522 @-@ 84392 @-@ 1 David Horner ( 1993 ) . ' Defending Australia in 1942 ' in War and Society , Volume 11 , Number 1 , May 1993 . David Jenkins ( 1992 ) , Battle Surface ! Japan 's Submarine War Against Australia 1942 – 44 . Random House Australia , Sydney . ISBN 0 @-@ 09 @-@ 182638 @-@ 1 Paul Kemp ( 1997 ) , U @-@ Boats Destroyed . German Submarine Losses in the World Wars . Arms and Armour , London . ISBN 1 @-@ 85409 @-@ 321 @-@ 5 Tom Lewis ( 2003 ) . A War at Home . A Comprehensive guide to the first Japanese attacks on Darwin . Tall Stories , Darwin . ISBN 0 @-@ 9577351 @-@ 0 @-@ 3 Samuel Eliot Morison ( 1949 ( 2001 reprint ) ) . Coral Sea , Midway and Submarine Actions , May 1942 – August 1942 , Volume 4 of History of United States Naval Operations in World War II . University of Illinois Press , Champaign . ISBN 0 @-@ 252 @-@ 06995 @-@ 1 Robert Nichols ' The Night the War Came to Sydney ' in Wartime Issue 33 , 2006 . Albert Palazzo ( 2001 ) . The Australian Army : A History of its Organisation 1901 – 2001 . Oxford University Press , Melbourne , 2001 . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 551506 @-@ 4 Seapower Centre - Australia ( 2005 ) . The Navy Contribution to Australian Maritime Operations . Defence Publishing Service , Canberra . ISBN 0 @-@ 642 @-@ 29615 @-@ 4 David Stevens , ' The War Cruise of I @-@ 6 , March 1943 ' in Australian Defence Force Journal No. 102 September / October 1993 . Pages 39 – 46 . David Stevens ( 1997 ) , U @-@ Boat Far from Home . Allen & Unwin , Sydney . ISBN 1 @-@ 86448 @-@ 267 @-@ 2 David Stevens , ' Forgotten assault ' in Wartime Issue 18 , 2002 . David Stevens ( 2005 ) , RAN Papers in Australian Maritime Affairs No. 15 A Critical Vulnerability : The impact of the submarine threat on Australia 's maritime defence 1915 – 1954 . Seapower Centre - Australia , Canberra . ISBN 0 @-@ 642 @-@ 29625 @-@ 1 Sydney David Waters ( 1956 ) , The Royal New Zealand Navy . Historical Publications Branch , Wellington .
= SMS Königsberg ( 1915 ) = SMS Königsberg was the lead ship of the Königsberg class of light cruisers , built for the German Imperial Navy during World War I. She took the name of the earlier Königsberg , which had been destroyed during the Battle of Rufiji Delta in 1915 . The new ship was laid down in 1914 at the AG Weser shipyard , launched in December 1915 , and commissioned into the High Seas Fleet in August 1916 . Armed with eight 15 cm SK L / 45 guns , the ship had a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 kn ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) . Königsberg saw action with the II Scouting Group ; in September 1917 she participated in Operation Albion , a large amphibious operation against the Baltic islands in the Gulf of Riga . Two months later , she was attacked by British battlecruisers in the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight . She was hit by the battlecruiser HMS Repulse , which caused a large fire and reduced her speed significantly . She escaped behind the cover of two German battleships , however . She was to have taken part in a sortie by the entire High Seas Fleet to attack the British Grand Fleet in the final days of the war , but unrest broke out that forced the cancellation of the plan . The ship carried Rear Admiral Hugo Meurer to Scapa Flow to negotiate the plan for interning the High Seas Fleet . Königsberg was not interned , however , so she escaped the scuttling of the German fleet and was instead ceded to France as a war prize . She was renamed Metz and served with the French Navy until 1933 , before being scrapped in 1936 . = = Construction and specifications = = Königsberg was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Gazelle " and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in 1914 . She was launched on 18 December 1915 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 12 August 1916 . The ship was 151 @.@ 4 meters ( 497 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 14 @.@ 2 m ( 47 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 96 m ( 19 @.@ 6 ft ) forward . She displaced 7 @,@ 125 t ( 7 @,@ 012 long tons ; 7 @,@ 854 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of steam turbines powered by ten coal @-@ fired and two oil @-@ fired Marine @-@ type boilers . These provided a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 kn ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) and a range of 4 @,@ 850 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 980 km ; 5 @,@ 580 mi ) at 12 kn ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . The ship was armed with eight 15 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , four were located amidships , two on either side , and two were arranged in a super firing pair aft . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 040 rounds of ammunition , for 130 shells per gun . Königsberg also carried two 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns mounted on the centerline astern of the funnels . She was also equipped with a pair of 60 cm ( 24 in ) torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes in deck @-@ mounted swivel launchers amidships . She also carried 200 mines . The ship was protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the deck was covered with 60 mm thick armor plate . = = Service history = = = = = Operation Albion = = = In early September 1917 , following the German conquest of the Russian port of Riga , the German navy decided to eliminate the Russian naval forces that still held the Gulf of Riga . The Admiralstab ( the Navy High Command ) planned an operation to seize the Baltic island of Ösel , and specifically the Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe Peninsula . On 18 September , the order was issued for a joint operation with the army to capture Ösel and Moon Islands ; the primary naval component was to comprise the flagship , Moltke , along with the III and IV Battle Squadrons of the High Seas Fleet . The invasion force amounted to approximately 24 @,@ 600 officers and enlisted men . Königsberg and the rest of the II Scouting Group provided the cruiser screen for the task force . The operation began on the morning of 12 October , when Moltke and the III Squadron ships engaged Russian positions in Tagga Bay while the IV Squadron shelled Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe Peninsula on Saaremaa . Königsberg , still Reuter 's flagship , steamed in Tagga Bay , with the commander of the ground troops General Ludwig von Estorff and his staff aboard . Estorff coordinated the operations of the German infantry , who quickly subdued Russian opposition . On 18 – 19 October , Königsberg and the rest of the II Scouting Group covered minesweepers operating off the island of Dagö , but due to insufficient minesweepers and bad weather , the operation was postponed . On the 19th , Königsberg , her sister ship Nürnberg , and the cruiser Danzig were sent to intercept two Russian torpedo boats reported to be in the area . Reuter could not locate the vessels , and broke off the operation . By 20 October , the islands were under German control and the Russian naval forces had either been destroyed or forced to withdraw . The Admiralstab ordered the naval component to return to the North Sea . = = = Actions in the North Sea = = = On 17 November 1917 , Königsberg saw action at the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight . At the time , she was assigned to the II Scouting Group as the flagship of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter . Along with three other cruisers from the II Scouting Group , Königsberg escorted minesweepers clearing paths in minefields laid by the British . The dreadnought battleships Kaiser and Kaiserin stood by in distant support . Six British battlecruisers supported a force of light cruisers that attacked the German minesweepers . Königsberg and the other three cruisers covered the fleeing minesweepers before retreating under a smoke screen . During the engagement , the battlecruiser HMS Repulse scored a hit on Königsberg , which did minor damage but started a serious fire . The shell hit reduced her speed to 17 kn ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) , though by then the German battleships had intervened . The British broke off the attack when the German battleships arrived on the scene , after which the Germans also withdrew . On 23 – 24 April 1918 , the ship participated in an abortive fleet operation to attack British convoys to Norway . The I Scouting Group and II Scouting Group , along with the Second Torpedo @-@ Boat Flotilla were to attack a heavily guarded British convoy to Norway , with the rest of the High Seas Fleet steaming in support . The Germans failed to locate the convoy , which had in fact sailed the day before the fleet left port . As a result , Admiral Reinhard Scheer broke off the operation and returned to port . = = = Fate = = = In October 1918 , Königsberg and the rest of the II Scouting Group were to lead a final attack on the British navy . Königsberg , Cöln , Dresden , and Pillau were to attack merchant shipping in the Thames estuary while Karlsruhe , Nürnberg , and Graudenz were to bombard targets in Flanders , to draw out the British Grand Fleet . Scheer , promoted to Großadmiral and give the position of the commander in chief of the fleet , and the new fleet commander Admiral Franz von Hipper intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy , in order to secure a better bargaining position for Germany , whatever the cost to the fleet . On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships mutinied . The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation . When informed of the situation , the Kaiser stated , " I no longer have a navy . " While disorder consumed the bulk of the fleet , Kommodore Andreas Michelsen organized a group to attack any British attempt to take advantage of the fleet 's disarray . He pieced together a group of around sixty ships , including Königsberg and several other light cruisers . On 9 November , reports of British activity in the German Bight prompted Königsberg and several destroyers to make a sweep . After the reports proved false , the flotilla returned to Borkum , where they learned of the Kaiser 's abdication . Following the Armistice that ended the fighting , Königsberg took Rear Admiral Hugo Meurer to Scapa Flow to negotiate with Admiral David Beatty , the commander of the Grand Fleet , for the place of internment of the German fleet . The ship arrived in Scapa Flow on 15 November , flying a white flag . The accepted arrangement was for the High Seas Fleet to meet the combined Allied fleet in the North Sea and proceed to the Firth of Forth before transferring to Scapa Flow , where they would be interned . Most of the High Seas Fleet 's ships , including Königsberg 's sister ships Karlsruhe , Emden , and Nürnberg , were interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow , under the command of Reuter . Königsberg instead remained in Germany , returning Meurer from the negotiations with Beatty by the time the fleet left for internment . On 21 June 1919 , Reuter ordered the scuttling of the fleet . Königsberg was meanwhile stricken from the naval register on 31 May 1920 and ceded to France as " A " . The ship was taken to Cherbourg on 20 July . She was renamed Metz and served with the French Navy until 1933 . She was ultimately broken up for scrap in 1936 .
= Ralph Neville = Ralph Neville ( or Ralf Nevill ; died 1244 ) was a medieval clergyman and politician who served as Bishop of Chichester and Lord Chancellor of England . Neville first appears in the historical record in 1207 in the service of King John of England , and remained in royal service throughout the rest of his life . By 1213 Neville had custody of the Great Seal of England , although he was not named chancellor , the office responsible for the seal , until 1226 . He was rewarded with the bishopric of Chichester in 1222 . Although he was also briefly Archbishop @-@ elect of Canterbury and Bishop @-@ elect of Winchester , both elections were set aside , or quashed , and he held neither office . As keeper of the seal , and subsequently as chancellor , Neville was noted for his impartiality , and he oversaw a number of changes in the way the chancery operated . Neville was deprived of the Great Seal in 1238 after quarrelling with the king , but continued to hold the title of chancellor until his death . He died in his London palace , built on a street later renamed Chancery Lane owing to his connection with the chancery . = = Early life = = Neville , who was illegitimate , had at least three brothers : Nicholas de Neville , a canon at Chichester Cathedral ; William de Neville , treasurer of the see of Chichester ; and Robert de Neville , holder of a prebend at Chichester . The identity of their father is unknown , but another likely sibling was Roger , who held land in Lincolnshire . Robert became Chancellor of the Exchequer , and Nicholas a baron of the Exchequer . Ralph Neville was also related to Hugh de Neville , King John of England 's chief forester . Neville was a royal clerk to King John in the spring of 1207 , and in December of that year was at Marlborough Castle on royal business . Earlier references to a Ralph Neville who in 1207 delivered items to Hugh de Neville , or the Ralph Neville who was the same Hugh de Neville 's chaplain , may be to the future bishop , but the evidence is inconclusive . Hugh de Neville and Neville subsequently worked together , and corresponded on both business and personal affairs . Both men claimed the other as a kinsman . Neville 's activities during the years immediately after 1207 are unknown , owing to the lack of royal records , but in December 1213 he was given custody of the Great Seal of the kingdom . He was Dean of Lichfield by 11 April 1214 , at which time he held a prebend in the diocese of London . Neville was appointed to the royal chancery in about 1214 , largely through the patronage of Peter des Roches , the Bishop of Winchester and one of the king 's favourites . From March to October 1214 , Neville was in France with the king . After the king returned to England after 1214 , Neville remained in royal service until at least May 1216 , although without custody of the Great Seal . His activities during the final period of John 's reign prior to the king 's sudden death in October 1216 are unknown . = = Royal service and Bishop of Chichester = = Neville was keeper of the royal seal under the new king , Henry III ( r . 1216 – 1272 ) from about 6 November 1218 . He had been at the royal court since May 1218 , and was given custody of the seal as soon as it was made up . One of the first documents subsequently sealed was a declaration that no charters or other rights would be granted in perpetuity until Henry attained his majority . Neville was also vice @-@ chancellor of England under the chancellorship of Richard Marsh , who had been elected as Bishop of Durham in 1217 and spent most of his time attending to ecclesiastical affairs in his northern diocese . In fact , if not in name , Neville was responsible for all the duties of the chancellorship , and he exercised most of the power of that office , although Marsh continued to hold the title of chancellor until his death in 1226 . When instability threatened the royal government in May and June 1219 Neville was ordered by Pandulf , the papal legate , to remain in London with the Great Seal while a royal council was held at Gloucester . The council resulted in royal government coming under the control of Hubert de Burgh the Justiciar , Pandulf , and Peter des Roches , the Bishop of Winchester . Neville received a papal dispensation for his illegitimacy on 25 January 1220 , on the recommendation of the king , Stephen Langton the Archbishop of Canterbury , other bishops , and the papal legate Cardinal Guala Bicchieri , all of whom testified to his good reputation and character . In late October he was named chancellor of the see of Chichester , but was then elected Bishop of Chichester on about 1 November 1222 . He was given control of the temporalities of the bishopric on 3 November 1222 , and was consecrated on 21 April 1224 . In April 1223 Neville was ordered by Pope Honorius III to cease using the Great Seal on the command of the justiciar or other members of the minority council , but instead to do so only at the king 's command , essentially ending the royal minority . But it did not finally end until December 1223 , and even then , as the king had not yet been officially declared of age , the ban on grants without a fixed time limit remained in force . = = Lord Chancellor = = Neville was named Lord Chancellor of England on 17 May 1226 . The appointment was made by the great council during the minority of King Henry III , and Neville obtained a grant of the office for life . Unlike Hubert de Burgh , who lost his offices when Henry III attained his majority and took control of the government , Neville remained chancellor with only slight disagreements until 1238 , although a confirmation of the lifetime nature of his tenure was made in 1232 . Under Neville , the first signs that the chancery was becoming a department of the government , rather than just a royal department that was part of the royal household , began to emerge . The contemporary writer Matthew Paris praised Neville for his actions as chancellor , claiming that he treated all equally and was transparent in discharging his duties , which was important , as the chancellor 's office controlled access to the king . Neville oversaw a number of changes in chancery procedures , splitting off the liberate rolls from the letters close in 1226 and reviving the keeping of the charter rolls in 1227 . He also issued writs on his own authority , the so @-@ called writs de cursu . Neville received a number of gifts and privileges from the king while chancellor , including the right of exemption from the seizure of his possessions by any royal or other secular official . The king also agreed not to interfere with the execution of Neville 's last will and testament . Surviving letters from the precentor of Chichester Cathedral beg the bishop to come to Chichester over Easter to celebrate the Easter Mass and to deal with pressing issues in the diocese . Neville 's duties as chancellor kept him from attending to much of the business of his diocese , but he employed clerics to administer the ecclesiastical offices of his diocese and in general his relationship with his cathedral chapter appears to have been good . He employed a teacher of theology for his cathedral , and supported students at schools in Lincoln , Oxford , and Douai . He worked to protect the rights , lands , and privileges of his diocese and cathedral chapter from encroachment by others , both secular and clerical . On one occasion he threatened to excommunicate the Earl of Arundel or the earl 's men for hunting on land the bishop considered to be his own . Neville was elected Archbishop of Canterbury on about 24 September 1231 by the monks of Canterbury , but his election was quashed in early 1232 by Pope Gregory IX , on the grounds that Neville was an illiteratus or illiterate , even though he had been found to be literatus in 1214 when appointed dean ; literatus in this sense meant " learned " rather than " literate " . Other concerns were that Simon Langton , the Archdeacon of Canterbury , described Neville as a courtier instead of a true priest , and claimed that Neville 's goal was to free England from its feudal ties to the papacy . As well as his chancery duties , Neville occasionally sat with the barons of the exchequer or with royal justices , and he had a role in the appointment of royal justices . In 1230 he was regent of England while Henry was absent in France , during which time he met with Llywelyn the Great in an unsuccessful attempt to negotiate an agreement that would resolve the disputes between the English and the Welsh . In 1232 , during the events surrounding the de Burgh 's downfall Neville , along with Ranulf , the Earl of Chester , urged that de Burgh should not be dragged from sanctuary to face the royal accusations against him . Neville 's pleas prevailed for a time , but eventually de Burgh was removed from sanctuary . The king attempted to deprive Neville of the chancellorship in 1236 , which the bishop countered by claiming that as he had been appointed during the royal minority with the consent of the great council , only the council could dismiss him . In 1238 the cathedral chapter of the see of Winchester elected as Bishop of Winchester first William de Raley in opposition to the king 's choice of William the Bishop of Valence , and when that election was quashed , they elected Neville . His election to Winchester was quashed in 1239 , leading to a quarrel with Henry III . Valence was the uncle of Eleanor of Provence , whom Henry had married in 1236 . Valence had gained much influence with the king quite quickly , and worked to eliminate the older royal officials and institute reforms in the royal administration . This , along with the disputed election to Winchester , was the cause of Neville 's fall from favour . Although Henry deprived Neville of the custody of the Great Seal from 1238 until 1242 , Neville retained the title of chancellor until his death , thus entitling him to the revenues he would normally have received from the office . The Great Seal itself was held by a number of minor officials , probably to allow Henry greater control over its use by preventing the establishment of another powerful official who might interfere with his plans . But they lacked the power base that Neville had possessed , which enabled him to oppose the king . In 1239 Neville may have been offered the custody of the Great Seal , which he refused . In May 1242 Neville was once again responsible for the seal while Henry was in France , a responsibility apparently shared with the regent . After the king 's return in September 1243 Neville did seal a few documents with the Great Seal until his death a few months later . = = Death and writings = = Neville died between 1 and 4 February 1244 at the palace he had built in London in what was then New Street , subsequently renamed Chancery Lane because of his being Lord Chancellor . He was buried in Chichester Cathedral , behind the high altar . After Neville 's death Matthew Paris described him as " a man laudable in all things , and a pillar of fidelity in the business of the kingdom and the king " . Some of the provisions of his will are known : he left some jewellery and gems to the king , some of his lands were given to his successors as bishop , and other lands and items were bequeathed to his cathedral chapter at Chichester . He also endowed a distribution of bread to the poor residents of Chichester , a gift that continued into the 20th century . Neville also endowed a chapel near Chichester with two clergy to pray for the soul of King John . Many of Neville 's letters survive , as they were collected by him during his lifetime . They are currently in the National Archives of the United Kingdom , having previously formed part of the Public Record Office . The letters were published in Sussex Archaeological Collections volume 3 in 1850 and were edited by William Henry Blaauw . Neville was instrumental in promoting the career of his brother William , but non @-@ relatives also benefited from his patronage : one of Neville 's clerks , Silvester de Everdon , was a member of the chancery until 1246 , when he was selected as Bishop of Carlisle .
= Kraken ( roller coaster ) = Kraken ( named for the fictional sea monster of the same name ) is a steel floorless roller coaster located at SeaWorld Orlando in the United States . Manufactured by Bolliger & Mabillard , the ride features a total of seven inversions including two vertical loops , a dive loop , a spiraling camelback ( zero @-@ g roll ) , a cobra roll and a flat spin Kraken opened on June 1 , 2000 . It is also the world 's second longest floorless coaster at 4 @,@ 177 feet ( 1 @,@ 273 m ) . = = History = = In 1999 , Six Flags Great Adventure spent $ 42 million on new attractions including a prototype Floorless Coaster by Bolliger & Mabillard , Medusa ( later Bizarro ) . The immediate popularity of the ride , led to SeaWorld Orlando and three other amusement parks to announce plans to install Floorless Coasters in 2000 ; aside from the announcement of Kraken on May 6 , 1999 , Six Flags Discovery Kingdom announced Medusa , Geauga Lake announced Dominator , and Six Flags Fiesta Texas announced Superman : Krypton Coaster . Kraken was announced as costing approximately $ 18 – 20 million . Kraken 's announcement more than one year out from its opening was an attempt by the park to drive international attendance . Construction for the ride was well underway in January 2000 . During construction , Superior Rigging & Erection was responsible for erecting the supports and track of the roller coaster . On June 1 , 2000 , Kraken officially opened to the public . At the time of opening Kraken held the record for the tallest and longest roller coaster in the state of Florida . It held this record until 2006 when Disney 's Animal Kingdom opened the 4 @,@ 424 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 1 @,@ 348 m ) Expedition Everest . = = Characteristics = = = = = Statistics = = = The 4 @,@ 177 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 1 @,@ 273 m ) Kraken stands 153 feet ( 47 m ) tall . With a top speed of 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) , the ride was the fastest roller coaster at SeaWorld Orlando until the opening of Mako in Summer of 2016 . The ride features seven inversions including two vertical loops , a dive loop , a spiraling camelback ( zero @-@ g roll ) , a cobra roll and a flat spin ( corkscrew ) . = = = Trains = = = Kraken operates with three floorless trains . Each train seats 32 riders in eight rows of four . This gives the ride a theoretical hourly capacity of 1500 riders per hour . The open @-@ air trains feature seats which leave riders ' legs dangling above the track . Riders are restrainted with over @-@ the @-@ shoulder restraints ( OTSRs ) . As the trains are floorless , the station has a retractable floor for safe boarding . = = = Theme = = = Kraken is themed after the mythological sea monster of the same name , kept caged by Poseidon . Much of the ride is located above water , with three sections featuring subterranean dives . The ride 's station and surrounding area are themed as Kraken 's lair . Eels are said to be Kraken 's young and therefore feature throughout the ride 's queue . A SeaWorld Orlando spokesman stated " although it 's a roller coaster , the theme of the ride brings it back to the sea , and to our ( SeaWorld Orlando 's ) core " . = = Ride experience = = After riders have boarded the station floor is retracted and the front gates open , Kraken departs with a right U @-@ turn out of the station . This leads directly to the 153 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 47 m ) chain lift hill . At the top , the train crests the lift hill and follows a fairly level turn to the right before dropping 144 feet ( 44 m ) towards the ground . The ride then enters the first vertical loop followed by the dive loop . A spiraling camelback ( zero @-@ g roll ) , where riders experience a feeling of weightlessness , is followed by a cobra roll . A banked turn to the left leads into the mid @-@ course brake run . The exit from the mid @-@ course brake run drops down directly into the second vertical loop . A subterranean dive into Kraken 's lair is followed by a flat spin The ride concludes with a final brake run and a short path back to the station . = = Reception = = The Orlando Sentinel commended the ride for " perfect timing and keeping folks guessing " , giving the ride ratings of 4 out of 5 for both thrill and theming . Sentinel reporter Dewayne Bevil , ranks the ride at number 7 in his Top 50 Orlando Theme Park Attractions list . Although it was reported that the ride would be more exciting than The Incredible Hulk at the nearby Islands of Adventure theme park , Mike Thomas of the Sentinel concluded that " Hulk clobbers the competition " , with Kraken taking the number two spot . In an interview for the Los Angeles Times Jerry Dane of the Florida Coaster Club described the floorless experience like " you are hung out there open and free " . Dane also commended the ride 's ability to provide different , yet equally good experiences in a variety of seats . In 2012 , Kraken was featured on the Travel Channel TV series Insane Coaster Wars , and received first place in the public @-@ voted " Wrong Way Up " category . Theme Park Review 's Robb Alvey shared the view the Kraken was better than the competition which included Dollywood 's Wild Eagle and Dorney Park 's Hydra the Revenge . In Amusement Today 's annual Golden Ticket Awards , Kraken was ranked in the top 50 steel roller coasters numerous times since its opening . It debuted on the poll at position 48 in 2003 , peaked at position 26 in 2005 , before it off the poll in 2009 . In Mitch Hawker 's worldwide Best Roller Coaster Poll , Kraken entered at position 12 in 2001 , before peaking at 10 the following year . The ride 's ranking in subsequent polls is shown in the table below .
= Headlines ( Friendship Never Ends ) = " Headlines ( Friendship Never Ends ) " is a song performed by British girl group Spice Girls for their greatest hits album Greatest Hits . It was written by the Spice Girls , Richard Stannard and Matt Rowe , whilst produced by the latter two . It was released as the only single from the album on 5 November 2007 , by Virgin Records . The song was the first commercial single release to feature the group 's original lineup since Geri Halliwell left in 1998 . It was also the official Children in Need single of 2007 . As of 2016 , it is the final release from the group . " Headlines ( Friendship Never Ends ) " is a midtempo ballad song , which lyrically talks about the group reuniting , and about their friendship throughout two decades together . The song received generally mixed reviews from music critics , with some calling it a " classic " from the group , while others felt it was not good enough . " Headlines ( Friendship Never Ends ) " was a moderate success worldwide , peaking at number eleven on the UK singles chart , becoming the group 's first single not to peak inside the top ten , or indeed the top two . However , it reached the top @-@ ten in Italy , Scotland and Spain . An accompanying music video for " Headlines ( Friendship Never Ends ) " was directed by Anthony Mandler at Pinewood Studios and premiered in early November 2007 . The video depicts the girls in a stately room , with plum colored walls and antique furniture , wearing gowns designed by Roberto Cavalli . " Headlines ( Friendship Never Ends ) " was performed by the group at the 2007 Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show , Children in Need 2007 marathon , as well as on their reunion tour , The Return of the Spice Girls , which occurred in 2007 and 2008 . = = Background = = The plan of a Spice Girls ' reunion was first confirmed by Mel B in June 2005 . She stated , " We 'll get back together because we all want to . I know everyone is up for it . There is going to be a greatest hits album and we 've got loads of new songs that nobody has heard yet . " On 28 June 2007 , the group held a press conference at The O2 Arena revealing their intention to reunite . During the conference , the group confirmed their intention to embark upon a worldwide concert tour , starting in Vancouver on 2 December 2007 . " I want to be a Spice Girl again . We are like sisters and we have our arguments , but by the end of the day we get back together " , said Emma Bunton , while Melanie Chisholm commented that the tour " will be a proper good farewell to our fans " . The group 's comeback single , " Headlines ( Friendship Never Ends ) " , was announced as the official Children in Need charity single for 2007 , and released on radio on 23 October , whilst released digitally on 5 November and commercially on 19 November 2007 . Geri Halliwell described the single as a " big love song " and " a Spice Girl classic " . Chisholm , in her 2008 appearance on Never Mind The Buzzcocks , commented that she thought the song was not good at all , and that at least she was against the release of any new material when the record company was trying to market the Greatest Hits release . She would later say " Headlines grew on me , it really came in to its own when we toured it , and it really felt lovely on stage " . = = Composition = = " Headlines ( Friendship Never Ends ) " was written by the Spice Girls , along with Richard Stannard and Matt Rowe , who also produced the song . Musically , " Headlines ( Friendship Never Ends ) " is a midtempo ballad . It is written in the key of C ♯ minor , and moves at a slow tempo of 76 beats per minute . Lyrically , it talks about the group reuniting , mainly talking about their friendship throughout two decades together . They sing : " Let 's make the headlines / loud and true / I wanna tell the world I 'm giving it all to you / Let 's make the headlines / loud and clear / the best things only happen when you are near " . The song is built around acoustic guitar , syncopated rhythms , and lilting croon @-@ styled vocals . According to Spence D. from IGN , the song " pretty much fits the mold of the Girls previous outings of this down tempo variety " , like " 2 Become 1 " and " Viva Forever " . He commented , " if it hadn 't been singled out as a new track you 'd easily swear that it was a " lost " B @-@ side from one of their previous albums " . For Nick Levine from Digital Spy , " The Spice Girls ' comeback single is as hip and modern as Jeremy Clarkson 's dress sense : the simple drum loop could have been laid down while they were recording their debut album ; the flamenco guitar riffs are pure ' Viva Forever ' ; and , nine years down the line , Mel C is still taking on all the money notes , adding some real oomph to the middle 8 " . = = Reception = = = = = Critical response = = = " Headlines ( Friendship Never Ends ) " has received generally mixed reviews from music critics . Talia Kraines , writing for BBC Music was positive in her review , and called the song a " classic Spice ballad " . According to a writer from The Daily Collegian , " for the naysayers , who say the Spice Girls time has passed , two new tunes , " Headlines ( Friendship Never Ends ) " and " Voodoo " may grab your attention " . Nick Levine from Digital Spy commented in his positive review , " ' Headlines ' won 't be the first tune you skip to on the Spice Girls ' Greatest Hits album – or , in all honesty , the tenth – but , as its pretty , gently melodic chorus surges gracefully , the feeling that comes over you is unmistakable . Nostalgia 's a funny old thing , isn 't it ? " NME gave it a mixed review , and said " new ballad " Headlines " is functional but lacks a certain , ahem , zig @-@ a @-@ zig aaaaaaargh . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic gave it a mixed review , as he commented that , along with " Voodoo " , it was " forgetable " and a " sleepy " song . The reviewer also said that the song " isn 't as self @-@ referential or clever as its title suggests " . However , Rosie Swash from The Guardian provided a negative review , stating , " the Spice Girls have never been the most sincere bunch of women and between an entirely forgettable melody and lyrics that go round in circles of crap about reaching into your soul and the time being now or never " , completing that the biggest sound the song made was " the echo of total hollowness " . = = = Chart performance = = = " Headlines ( Friendship Never Ends ) " was first released in the United Kingdom . The song debuted at number twenty on 17 November 2007 on the UK Singles Chart , based on digital downloads . After two weeks , the song climbed and peaked at number eleven on the chart , becoming the group 's first single not to peak inside the top ten , or indeed the top two . However , the single managed to go to number three on the UK Physical Singles Chart . The song debuted at its peak of number 90 on the US Billboard Hot 100 , staying on the charts only for the week of 24 November 2007 . " Headlines ( Friendship Never Ends ) " debuted at number 42 on the Canadian Hot 100 , only staying for one week in the chart . The song debuted at number 67 on the Austrian Singles Chart , the group 's lowest charting single in that country . The song debuted at number 52 on the Dutch Single Top 100 on the issue date 17 November 2007 . It later slipped to number 93 after one week , thus becoming the group 's third single to miss the top ten in that country . On the issue dated 15 November 2007 , " Headlines ( Friendship Never Ends ) " debuted at number three on the Swedish Singles Chart , the Spice Girls ' highest single since 1998 's " Goodbye " . The song stayed on the charts for five weeks . The song peaked at number two in Italy , becoming a success in that country , staying in the charts for seven weeks . = = Music video = = On the 15 October 2007 episode of Dancing With the Stars , it was confirmed by Mel B that the Spice Girls would be filming a music video for " Headlines ( Friendship Never Ends ) " the following week . The filming took place at Pinewood Studios , on 19 October 2007 , and was directed by Anthony Mandler . The video was reportedly filmed in midst of conflict between the girls , however , these claims were denied by Mel B , who commented " We had such a laugh . It was great to be together again " , and Beckham , who noted " What 's really wonderful is just being able to hang out with the girls again like this " . A world exclusive screening of the video , which launched the run up to Children in Need night , aired on BBC One on 2 November 2007 . The video opens on a stately room , with plum colored walls and antique furniture . Bunton opens a large , black door and is followed by Halliwell , Beckham , Mel B and Chisholm . The girls are dressed in beautiful gowns throughout the video , presumably designed by Roberto Cavalli , who designed the costumes for their then @-@ upcoming tour . Vignettes of the girls singing together and separately are sewn together to create a collage . Fading in and out , the music video ends with the girls combined together although they are at different places . = = Live performances = = In November 2007 , the group performed together for the first time in nearly a decade at the 2007 Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show , held in Los Angeles , California . The group dressed in military @-@ themed outfits performed their old hit single " Stop " miming to a backing track , in front of giant glittering lights that spelled out " Spice " in the background . Then they performed " Headlines " , wearing beautiful gowns from Roberto Cavalli , but the performance was excluded from the TV broadcast for unknown reasons . A taped performance of the group lyp @-@ synching the song , while dressed in black outfits , aired on 17 November 2007 for the Children in Need 2007 marathon . " Headlines ( Friendship Never Ends ) " was also performed on their reunion tour , Return of the Spice Girls in 2007 and 2008 . Kitty Empire from The Guardian reviewed the performance negatively , saying the song " was so unworthy of headlines that not even their fans have bought it " . = = Format and track listing = = This is the format and track listing of the major single release of " Headlines ( Friendship Never Ends ) " . CD single " Headlines ( Friendship Never Ends ) " - 3 : 28 " Wannabe " [ Soul Seekerz 2007 Mix ] - 6 : 56 = = Credits and personnel = = Spice Girls – lyrics , vocals Richard Stannard - lyrics , production Matt Rowe - lyrics , production Mark " Spike " Stent – audio mixing Published by Kobalt Music / Sony / ATV Music Publishing / Copyright Control / Peer Music ( UK ) Ltd . = = Charts = =
= Josiah Willard Gibbs = Josiah Willard Gibbs ( February 11 , 1839 – April 28 , 1903 ) was an American scientist who made important theoretical contributions to physics , chemistry , and mathematics . His work on the applications of thermodynamics was instrumental in transforming physical chemistry into a rigorous deductive science . Together with James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann , he created statistical mechanics ( a term that he coined ) , explaining the laws of thermodynamics as consequences of the statistical properties of ensembles of the possible states of a physical system composed of many particles . Gibbs also worked on the application of Maxwell 's equations to problems in physical optics . As a mathematician , he invented modern vector calculus ( independently of the British scientist Oliver Heaviside , who carried out similar work during the same period ) . In 1863 , Yale awarded Gibbs the first American doctorate in engineering . After a three @-@ year sojourn in Europe , Gibbs spent the rest of his career at Yale , where he was professor of mathematical physics from 1871 until his death . Working in relative isolation , he became the earliest theoretical scientist in the United States to earn an international reputation and was praised by Albert Einstein as " the greatest mind in American history " . In 1901 , Gibbs received what was then considered the highest honor awarded by the international scientific community , the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London , " for his contributions to mathematical physics " . Commentators and biographers have remarked on the contrast between Gibbs 's quiet , solitary life in turn of the century New England and the great international impact of his ideas . Though his work was almost entirely theoretical , the practical value of Gibbs 's contributions became evident with the development of industrial chemistry during the first half of the 20th century . According to Robert A. Millikan , in pure science Gibbs " did for statistical mechanics and for thermodynamics what Laplace did for celestial mechanics and Maxwell did for electrodynamics , namely , made his field a well @-@ nigh finished theoretical structure . " = = Biography = = = = = Family background = = = Gibbs was born in New Haven , Connecticut . He belonged to an old Yankee family that had produced distinguished American clergymen and academics since the 17th century . He was the fourth of five children and the only son of Josiah Willard Gibbs and his wife Mary Anna , née Van Cleve . On his father 's side , he was descended from Samuel Willard , who served as acting President of Harvard College from 1701 to 1707 . On his mother 's side , one of his ancestors was the Rev. Jonathan Dickinson , the first president of the College of New Jersey ( later Princeton University ) . Gibbs 's given name , which he shared with his father and several other members of his extended family , derived from his ancestor Josiah Willard , who had been Secretary of the Province of Massachusetts Bay in the 18th century . The elder Gibbs was generally known to his family and colleagues as " Josiah " , while the son was called " Willard " . Josiah Gibbs was a linguist and theologian who served as professor of sacred literature at Yale Divinity School from 1824 until his death in 1861 . He is chiefly remembered today as the abolitionist who found an interpreter for the African passengers of the ship Amistad , allowing them to testify during the trial that followed their rebellion against being sold as slaves . = = = Early years = = = Willard Gibbs was educated at the Hopkins School and entered Yale College in 1854 , aged 15 . At Yale , Gibbs received prizes for excellence in mathematics and Latin , and he graduated in 1858 , near the top of his class . He remained at Yale as a graduate student at the Sheffield Scientific School . At age 19 , soon after his graduation from college , Gibbs was inducted into the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences , a scholarly institution composed primarily of members of the Yale faculty . Relatively few documents from the period survive and it is difficult to reconstruct the details of Gibbs 's early career with precision . In the opinion of biographers , Gibbs 's principal mentor and champion , both at Yale and in the Connecticut Academy , was probably the astronomer and mathematician Hubert Anson Newton , a leading authority on meteors , who remained Gibbs 's lifelong friend and confidant . After the death of his father in 1861 , Gibbs inherited enough money to make him financially independent . Recurrent pulmonary trouble ailed the young Gibbs and his physicians were concerned that he might be susceptible to tuberculosis , which had killed his mother . He also suffered from astigmatism , whose treatment was then still largely unfamiliar to oculists , so that Gibbs had to diagnose himself and grind his own lenses . Though in later years he used glasses only for reading or other close work , Gibbs 's delicate health and imperfect eyesight probably explain why he did not volunteer to fight in the Civil War of 1861 – 65 . He was not conscripted and he remained at Yale for the duration of the war . In 1863 , Gibbs received the first Doctorate of Philosophy ( Ph.D. ) in engineering granted in the US , for a thesis entitled " On the Form of the Teeth of Wheels in Spur Gearing " , in which he used geometrical techniques to investigate the optimum design for gears . In 1861 , Yale had become the first US university to offer a Ph.D. degree and Gibbs 's was only the fifth Ph.D. granted in the US in any subject . After graduation , Gibbs was appointed as tutor at the College for a term of three years . During the first two years he taught Latin and during the third " natural philosophy " ( i.e. , physics ) . In 1866 , he patented a design for a railway brake and read a paper before the Connecticut Academy , entitled " The Proper Magnitude of the Units of Length " , in which he proposed a scheme for rationalizing the system of units of measurement used in mechanics . After his term as tutor ended , Gibbs traveled to Europe with his sisters . They spent the winter of 1866 – 67 in Paris , where Gibbs attended lectures at the Sorbonne and the Collège de France , given by such distinguished mathematical scientists as Joseph Liouville and Michel Chasles . Having undertaken a punishing regime of study , Gibbs caught a serious cold and a doctor , fearing tuberculosis , advised him to rest on the Riviera , where he and his sisters spent several months and where he made a full recovery . Moving to Berlin , Gibbs attended the lectures taught by mathematicians Karl Weierstrass and Leopold Kronecker , as well as by chemist Heinrich Gustav Magnus . In August 1867 , Gibbs 's sister Julia was married in Berlin to Addison Van Name , who had been Gibbs 's classmate at Yale . The newly married couple returned to New Haven , leaving Gibbs and his sister Anna in Germany . In Heidelberg , Gibbs was exposed to the work of physicists Gustav Kirchhoff and Hermann von Helmholtz , and chemist Robert Bunsen . At the time , German academics were the leading authorities in the natural sciences , especially chemistry and thermodynamics . Gibbs returned to Yale in June 1869 and briefly taught French to engineering students . It was probably also around this time that he worked on a new design for a steam @-@ engine governor , his last significant investigation in mechanical engineering . In 1871 , he was appointed Professor of Mathematical Physics at Yale , the first such professorship in the United States . Gibbs , who had independent means and had yet to publish anything , was assigned to teach graduate students exclusively and was hired without salary . = = = Middle years = = = Gibbs published his first work in 1873 , at the unusually advanced age of 34 . His papers on the geometric representation of thermodynamic quantities appeared in the Transactions of the Connecticut Academy . These papers introduced the use of different type phase diagrams , which were his favorite aids to the imagination process when doing research , rather than the mechanical models , such as the ones that Maxwell used in constructing his electromagnetic theory , which might not completely represent their corresponding phenomena . Although the journal had few readers capable of understanding Gibbs 's work , he shared reprints with correspondents in Europe and received an enthusiastic response from James Clerk Maxwell at Cambridge . Maxwell even made , with his own hands , a clay model illustrating Gibbs 's construct . He then produced two plaster casts of his model and mailed one to Gibbs . That cast is on display at the Yale physics department . Maxwell included a chapter on Gibbs 's work in the next edition of his Theory of Heat , published in 1875 . He explained the usefulness of Gibbs 's graphical methods in a lecture to the Chemical Society of London and even referred to it in the article on " Diagrams " that he wrote for the Encyclopædia Britannica . Prospects of collaboration between him and Gibbs were cut short by Maxwell 's early death in 1879 , aged 48 . The joke later circulated in New Haven that " only one man lived who could understand Gibbs 's papers . That was Maxwell , and now he is dead . " Gibbs then extended his thermodynamic analysis to multi @-@ phase chemical systems ( i.e. , to systems composed of more than one form of matter ) and considered a variety of concrete applications . He described that research in a monograph titled " On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances " , published by the Connecticut Academy in two parts that appeared respectively in 1875 and 1878 . That work , which covers about three hundred pages and contains exactly seven hundred numbered mathematical equations , begins with a quotation from Rudolf Clausius that expresses what would later be called the first and second laws of thermodynamics : " The energy of the world is constant . The entropy of the world tends towards a maximum . " Gibbs 's monograph rigorously and ingeniously applied his thermodynamic techniques to the interpretation of physico @-@ chemical phenomena , explaining and relating what had previously been a mass of isolated facts and observations . The work has been described as " the Principia of thermodynamics " and as a work of " practically unlimited scope " . It solidly laid the foundation for physical Chemistry . Wilhelm Ostwald , who translated Gibbs 's monograph into German , referred to Gibbs as the " founder of chemical energetics " . According to modern commentators , It is universally recognised that its publication was an event of the first importance in the history of chemistry ... Nevertheless it was a number of years before its value was generally known , this delay was due largely to the fact that its mathematical form and rigorous deductive processes make it difficult reading for anyone , and especially so for students of experimental chemistry whom it most concerns . Gibbs continued to work without pay until 1880 , when the new Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore , Maryland offered him a position paying $ 3 @,@ 000 per year . In response , Yale offered him an annual salary of $ 2 @,@ 000 , which he was content to accept . = = = Later years = = = From 1880 to 1884 , Gibbs worked on developing the exterior algebra of Hermann Grassmann into a vector calculus well @-@ suited to the needs of physicists . With this object in mind , Gibbs distinguished between the dot and cross products of two vectors and introduced the concept of dyadics . Similar work was carried out independently , and at around the same time , by the British mathematical physicist and engineer Oliver Heaviside . Gibbs sought to convince other physicists of the convenience of the vectorial approach over the quaternionic calculus of William Rowan Hamilton , which was then widely used by British scientists . This led him , in the early 1890s , to a controversy with Peter Guthrie Tait and others in the pages of Nature . Gibbs 's lecture notes on vector calculus were privately printed in 1881 and 1884 for the use of his students , and were later adapted by Edwin Bidwell Wilson into a textbook , Vector Analysis , published in 1901 . That book helped to popularize the " del " notation that is widely used today in electrodynamics and fluid mechanics . In other mathematical work , he re @-@ discovered the " Gibbs phenomenon " in the theory of Fourier series ( which , unbeknownst to him and to later scholars , had been described fifty years before by an obscure English mathematician , Henry Wilbraham ) . From 1882 to 1889 , Gibbs wrote five papers on physical optics , in which he investigated birefringence and other optical phenomena and defended Maxwell 's electromagnetic theory of light against the mechanical theories of Lord Kelvin and others . In his work on optics just as much as in his work on thermodynamics , Gibbs deliberately avoided speculating about the microscopic structure of matter and purposefully confined his research problems to those can be solved from broad general principles and experimentally confirmed facts.The methods that he used were highly original and the obtained results showed decisively the correctness of Maxwell ’ s electromagnetic theory . Gibbs coined the term statistical mechanics and introduced key concepts in the corresponding mathematical description of physical systems , including the notions of chemical potential ( 1876 ) , statistical ensemble ( 1902 ) . Gibbs 's derivation of the phenomenological laws of thermodynamics from the statistical properties of systems with many particles was presented in his highly influential textbook Elementary Principles in Statistical Mechanics , published in 1902 , a year before his death . Gibbs 's retiring personality and intense focus on his work limited his accessibility to students . His principal protégé was Edwin Bidwell Wilson , who nonetheless explained that " except in the classroom I saw very little of Gibbs . He had a way , toward the end of the afternoon , of taking a stroll about the streets between his study in the old Sloane Laboratory and his home — a little exercise between work and dinner — and one might occasionally come across him at that time . " Gibbs did supervise the doctoral thesis on mathematical economics written by Irving Fisher in 1891 . After Gibbs 's death , Fisher financed the publication of his Collected Works . Another distinguished student was Lee De Forest , later a pioneer of radio technology . Gibbs died in New Haven on April 28 , 1903 , at the age of 64 , victim of an acute intestinal obstruction . A funeral was conducted two days later at his home on 121 High Street , and his body was buried in the nearby Grove Street Cemetery . In May , Yale organized a memorial meeting at the Sloane Laboratory . The eminent British physicist J. J. Thomson was in attendance and delivered a brief address . = = = Personal life and character = = = Gibbs never married , living all his life in his childhood home with his sister Julia and her husband Addison Van Name , who was the Yale librarian . Except for his customary summer vacations in the Adirondacks ( at Keene Valley , New York ) and later at the White Mountains ( in Intervale , New Hampshire ) , his sojourn in Europe in 1866 – 69 was almost the only time that Gibbs spent outside New Haven . He joined Yale 's College Church ( a Congregational church ) at the end of his freshman year and remained a regular attendant for the rest of his life . Gibbs generally voted for the Republican candidate in presidential elections but , like other " Mugwumps " , his concern over the growing corruption associated with machine politics led him to support Grover Cleveland , a conservative Democrat , in the election of 1884 . Little else is known of his religious or political views , which he mostly kept to himself . Gibbs did not produce a substantial personal correspondence and many of his letters were later lost or destroyed . Beyond the technical writings concerning his research , he published only two other pieces : a brief obituary for Rudolf Clausius , one of the founders of the mathematical theory of thermodynamics , and a longer biographical memoir of his mentor at Yale , H. A. Newton . In Edward Bidwell Wilson 's view , Gibbs was not an advertiser for personal renown nor a propagandist for science ; he was a scholar , scion of an old scholarly family , living before the days when research had become résearch ... Gibbs was not a freak , he had no striking ways , he was a kindly dignified gentleman . According to Lynde Wheeler , who had been Gibbs 's student at Yale , in his later years Gibbs was always neatly dressed , usually wore a felt hat on the street , and never exhibited any of the physical mannerisms or eccentricities sometimes thought to be inseparable from genius ... His manner was cordial without being effusive and conveyed clearly the innate simplicity and sincerity of his nature . He was a careful investor and financial manager , and at his death in 1903 his estate was valued at $ 100 @,@ 000 ( roughly $ 2 @.@ 63 million today ) . For many years he served as trustee , secretary , and treasurer of his alma mater , the Hopkins School . US President Chester A. Arthur appointed him as one of the commissioners to the National Conference of Electricians , which convened in Philadelphia in September 1884 , and Gibbs presided over one of its sessions . A keen and skilled horseman , Gibbs was seen habitually in New Haven driving his sister 's carriage . In an obituary published in the American Journal of Science , Gibbs 's former student Henry A. Bumstead referred to Gibbs 's personal character : Unassuming in manner , genial and kindly in his intercourse with his fellow @-@ men , never showing impatience or irritation , devoid of personal ambition of the baser sort or of the slightest desire to exalt himself , he went far toward realizing the ideal of the unselfish , Christian gentleman . In the minds of those who knew him , the greatness of his intellectual achievements will never overshadow the beauty and dignity of his life . = = Major scientific contributions = = = = = Chemical thermodynamics = = = Gibbs 's papers from the 1870s introduced the idea of expressing the internal energy U of a system in terms of the entropy S , in addition to the usual state @-@ variables of volume V , pressure p , and temperature T. He also introduced the concept of the chemical potential <formula> of a given chemical species , defined to be the rate of the increase in U associated with the increase in the number N of molecules of that species ( at constant entropy and volume ) . Thus , it was Gibbs who first combined the first and second laws of thermodynamics by expressing the infinitesimal change in the internal energy , dU , of a closed system in the form : <formula> where T is the absolute temperature , p is the pressure , dS is an infinitesimal change in entropy and dV is an infinitesimal change of volume . The last term is the sum , over all the chemical species in a chemical reaction , of the chemical potential , μi , of the ith species , multiplied by the infinitesimal change in the number of moles , dNi of that species . By taking the Legendre transform of this expression , he defined the concepts of enthalpy , H and Gibbs free energy , G. <formula> This compares to the expression for Helmholtz free energy , A. <formula> When the Gibbs free energy for a chemical reaction is negative the reaction will proceed spontaneously . When a chemical system is at equilibrium the change in Gibbs free enery is zero . An equilibrium constant is simply related to the free energy change when the reactants are in their standard states . <formula> Chemical potential is usually defined as partial molar Gibbs free energy . <formula> Gibbs also obtained what later came to be known as the " Gibbs – Duhem equation " . The publication of the paper " On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances " ( 1874 – 78 ) is now regarded as a landmark in the development of chemistry . In it , Gibbs developed a rigorous mathematical theory for various transport phenomena , including adsorption , electrochemistry , and the Marangoni effect in fluid mixtures . He also formulated the phase rule <formula> for the number F of variables that may be independently controlled in an equilibrium mixture of C components existing in P phases . Phase rule is very useful in diverse areas , such as metallurgy , mineralogy , and petrology . It can also be applied to various research problems in physical chemistry . = = = Statistical mechanics = = = Together with James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann , Gibbs founded " statistical mechanics " , a term that he coined to identify the branch of theoretical physics that accounts for the observed thermodynamic properties of systems in terms of the statistics of ensembles of all possible physical states of a system composed of many particles . He introduced the concept of " phase of a mechanical system " . He used the concept to define the microcanonical , canonical , and grand canonical ensembles , thus obtaining a more general formulation of the statistical properties of many @-@ particle systems than Maxwell and Boltzmann had achieved before him . According to Henri Poincaré , writing in 1904 , even though Maxwell and Boltzmann had previously explained the irreversibility of macroscopic physical processes in probabilistic terms , " the one who has seen it most clearly , in a book too little read because it is a little difficult to read , is Gibbs , in his Elementary Principles of Statistical Mechanics . " Gibbs 's analysis of irreversibility , and his formulation of Boltzmann 's H @-@ theorem and of the ergodic hypothesis , were major influences on the mathematical physics of the 20th century . Gibbs was well aware that the application of the equipartition theorem to large systems of classical particles failed to explain the measurements of the specific heats of both solids and gases , and he argued that this was evidence of the danger of basing thermodynamics on " hypotheses about the constitution of matter " . Gibbs 's own framework for statistical mechanics , based on ensembles of macroscopically indistinguishable microstates , could be carried over almost intact after the discovery that the microscopic laws of nature obey quantum rules , rather than the classical laws known to Gibbs and to his contemporaries . His resolution of the so @-@ called " Gibbs paradox " , about the entropy of the mixing of gases , is now often cited as a prefiguration of the indistinguishability of particles required by quantum physics . = = = Vector analysis = = = British scientists , including Maxwell , had relied on Hamilton 's quaternions in order to express the dynamics of physical quantities , like the electric and magnetic fields , having both a magnitude and a direction in three @-@ dimensional space . Gibbs , however , noted that the product of quaternions always had to be separated into two parts : a one @-@ dimensional ( scalar ) quantity and a three @-@ dimensional vector , so that the use of quaternions introduced mathematical complications and redundancies that could be avoided in the interest of simplicity and to facilitate teaching . He therefore proposed defining distinct dot and cross products for pairs of vectors and introduced the now common notation for them . He was also largely responsible for the development of the vector calculus techniques still used today in electrodynamics and fluid mechanics . While he was working on vector analysis in the late 1870s , Gibbs discovered that his approach was similar to the one that Grassmann had taken in his " multiple algebra " . Gibbs then sought to publicize Grassmann 's work , stressing that it was both more general and historically prior to Hamilton 's quaternionic algebra . To establish priority of Grassmann ’ s ideas , Gibbs convinced Grassmann 's heirs to seek the publication in Germany of the essay " Theorie der Ebbe und Flut " on tides that Grassmann had submitted in 1840 to the faculty at the University of Berlin , in which he had first introduced the notion of what would later be called a vector space ( linear space ) . As Gibbs had advocated in the 1880s and 1890s , quaternions were eventually all but abandoned by physicists in favor of the vectorial approach developed by him and , independently , by Oliver Heaviside . Gibbs applied his vector methods to the determination of planetary and comet orbits . He also developed the concept of mutually reciprocal triads of vectors that later proved to be of importance in crystallography . = = = Physical optics = = = Though Gibbs 's research on physical optics is less well known today than his other work , it made a significant contribution to classical electromagnetism by applying Maxwell 's equations to the theory of optical processes such as birefringence , dispersion , and optical activity . In that work , Gibbs showed that those processes could be accounted for by Maxwell 's equations without any special assumptions about the microscopic structure of matter or about the nature of the medium in which electromagnetic waves were supposed to propagate ( the so @-@ called luminiferous ether ) . Gibbs also stressed that the absence of a longitudinal electromagnetic wave , which is needed to account for the observed properties of light , is automatically guaranteed by Maxwell 's equations ( by virtue of what is now called their " gauge invariance " ) , whereas in mechanical theories of light , such as Lord Kelvin 's , it must be imposed as an ad hoc condition on the properties of the aether . In his last paper on physical optics , Gibbs concluded that it may be said for the electrical theory [ of light ] that it is not obliged to invent hypotheses , but only to apply the laws furnished by the science of electricity , and that it is difficult to account for the coincidences between the electrical and optical properties of media unless we regard the motions of light as electrical . Shortly afterwards , the electromagnetic nature of light was demonstrated by the experiments of Heinrich Hertz in Germany . = = Scientific recognition = = Gibbs worked at a time when there was little tradition of rigorous theoretical science in the United States . His research was not easily understandable to his students or his colleagues and he made no effort to popularize his ideas or to simplify their exposition to make them more accessible . His seminal work on thermodynamics was published mostly in the Transactions of the Connecticut Academy , a journal edited by his librarian brother @-@ in @-@ law , which was little read in the USA and even less so in Europe . When Gibbs submitted his long paper on the equilibrium of heterogeneous substances to the Academy , both Elias Loomis and H. A. Newton protested that they did not understand Gibbs 's work at all , but they helped to raise the money needed to pay for the typesetting of the many mathematical symbols in the paper . Several Yale faculty members , as well as business and professional men in New Haven , contributed funds for that purpose . Even though it had been immediately embraced by Maxwell , Gibbs 's graphical formulation of the laws of thermodynamics only came into widespread use in the mid 20th century , with the work of László Tisza and Herbert Callen . According to James Gerald Crowther , in his later years [ Gibbs ] was a tall , dignified gentleman , with a healthy stride and ruddy complexion , performing his share of household chores , approachable and kind ( if unintelligible ) to students . Gibbs was highly esteemed by his friends , but American science was too preoccupied with practical questions to make much use of his profound theoretical work during his lifetime . He lived out his quiet life at Yale , deeply admired by a few able students but making no immediate impress on American science commensurate with his genius . On the other hand , Gibbs did receive the major honors then possible for an academic scientist in the US . He was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1879 and received the 1880 Rumford Prize from the American Academy of Arts and Sciences for his work on chemical thermodynamics . He was also awarded honorary doctorates by Princeton University and Williams College . In Europe , Gibbs was inducted as honorary member of the London Mathematical Society in 1892 and elected Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1897 . He was elected as corresponding member of the Prussian and French Academies of Science and received honorary doctorates from the universities of Dublin , Erlangen , and Christiania ( now Oslo ) . The Royal Society further honored Gibbs in 1901 with the Copley Medal , then regarded as the highest international award in the natural sciences , noting that he had been " the first to apply the second law of thermodynamics to the exhaustive discussion of the relation between chemical , electrical and thermal energy and capacity for external work . " Gibbs , who remained in New Haven , was represented at the award ceremony by Commander Richardson Clover , the US naval attaché in London . In his autobiography , mathematician Gian @-@ Carlo Rota tells of casually browsing the mathematical stacks of Sterling Library and stumbling on a handwritten mailing list , attached to some of Gibbs 's course notes , which listed over two hundred notable scientists of his day , including Poincaré , Boltzmann , David Hilbert , and Ernst Mach . From this , Rota concluded that Gibbs 's work was better known among the scientific elite of his day than the published material suggests . Lynde Wheeler reproduces that mailing list in an appendix to his biography of Gibbs . That Gibbs succeeded in interesting his European correspondents in his work is demonstrated by the fact that his monograph " On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances " was translated into German ( then the leading language for chemistry ) by Wilhelm Ostwald in 1892 and into French by Henri Louis Le Châtelier in 1899 . = = Influence = = Gibbs 's most immediate and obvious influence was on physical chemistry and statistical mechanics , two disciplines which he greatly helped to found . During Gibbs 's lifetime , his phase rule was experimentally validated by Dutch chemist H. W. Bakhuis Roozeboom , who showed how to apply it in a variety of situations , thereby assuring it of widespread use . In industrial chemistry , Gibbs 's thermodynamics found many applications during the early 20th century , from electrochemistry to the development of the Haber process for the synthesis of ammonia . When Dutch physicist J. D. van der Waals received the 1910 Nobel Prize " for his work on the equation of state for gases and liquids " he acknowledged the great influence of Gibbs 's work on that subject . Max Planck received the 1918 Nobel Prize for his work on quantum mechanics , particularly his 1900 paper on Planck 's law for quantized black @-@ body radiation . That work was based largely on the thermodynamics of Kirchhoff , Boltzmann , and Gibbs . Planck declared that Gibbs 's name " not only in America but in the whole world will ever be reckoned among the most renowned theoretical physicists of all times . " The first half of the 20th century saw the publication of two influential textbooks that soon came to be regarded as founding documents of chemical thermodynamics , both of which used and extended Gibbs 's work in that field : these were Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Processes ( 1923 ) , by Gilbert N. Lewis and Merle Randall , and Modern Thermodynamics by the Methods of Willard Gibbs ( 1933 ) , by Edward A. Guggenheim . Gibbs 's work on statistical ensembles , as presented in his 1902 textbook , has had a great impact in both theoretical physics and in pure mathematics . According to mathematical physicist Arthur Wightman , It is one of the striking features of the work of Gibbs , noticed by every student of thermodynamics and statistical mechanics , that his formulations of physical concepts were so felicitously chosen that they have survived 100 years of turbulent development in theoretical physics and mathematics . Initially unaware of Gibbs 's contributions in that field , Albert Einstein wrote three papers on statistical mechanics , published between 1902 and 1904 . After reading Gibbs 's textbook ( which was translated into German by Ernst Zermelo in 1905 ) , Einstein declared that Gibbs 's treatment was superior to his own and explained that he would not have written those papers if he had known Gibbs 's work . Gibbs 's early papers on the use of graphical methods in thermodynamics reflect a powerfully original understanding of what mathematicians would later call " convex analysis " , including ideas that , according to Barry Simon , " lay dormant for about seventy @-@ five years " . Important mathematical concepts based on Gibbs 's work on thermodynamics and statistical mechanics include the Gibbs lemma in game theory , the Gibbs inequality in information theory , as well as Gibbs sampling in computational statistics . The development of vector calculus was Gibbs 's other great contribution to mathematics . The publication in 1901 of E. B. Wilson 's textbook Vector Analysis , based on Gibbs 's lectures at Yale , did much to propagate the use of vectorial methods and notation in both mathematics and theoretical physics , definitively displacing the quaternions that had until then been dominant in the scientific literature . At Yale , Gibbs was also mentor to Lee De Forest , who went on to invent the triode amplifier and has been called the " father of radio " . De Forest credited Gibbs 's influence for the realization " that the leaders in electrical development would be those who pursued the higher theory of waves and oscillations and the transmission by these means of intelligence and power . " Another student of Gibbs who played a significant role in the development of radio technology was Lynde Wheeler . Gibbs also had an indirect influence on mathematical economics . He supervised the thesis of Irving Fisher , who received the first Ph.D. in economics from Yale in 1891 . In that work , published in 1892 as Mathematical Investigations in the Theory of Value and Prices , Fisher drew a direct analogy between Gibbsian equilibrium in physical and chemical systems , and the general equilibrium of markets , and he used Gibbs 's vectorial notation . Gibbs 's protegé Edwin Bidwell Wilson became , in turn , a mentor to leading American economist and Nobel Laureate Paul Samuelson . In 1947 , Samuelson published Foundations of Economic Analysis , based on his doctoral dissertation , in which he used as epigraph a remark attributed to Gibbs : " Mathematics is a language . " Samuelson later explained that in his understanding of prices his " debts were not primarily to Pareto or Slutsky , but to the great thermodynamicist , Willard Gibbs of Yale . " Mathematician Norbert Wiener cited Gibbs 's use of probability in the formulation of statistical mechanics as " the first great revolution of twentieth century physics " and as a major influence on his conception of cybernetics . Wiener explained in the preface to his book The Human Use of Human Beings that it was " devoted to the impact of the Gibbsian point of view on modern life , both through the substantive changes it has made to working science , and through the changes it has made indirectly in our attitude to life in general . " = = Commemoration = = When the German physical chemist Walther Nernst visited Yale in 1906 to give the Silliman lecture , he was surprised to find no tangible memorial for Gibbs . He therefore donated his $ 500 lecture fee to the university to help pay for a suitable monument . This was finally unveiled in 1912 , in the form of a bronze bas @-@ relief by sculptor Lee Lawrie , installed in the Sloane Physics Laboratory . In 1910 , the American Chemical Society established the Willard Gibbs Award for eminent work in pure or applied chemistry . In 1923 , the American Mathematical Society endowed the Josiah Willard Gibbs Lectureship , " to show the public some idea of the aspects of mathematics and its applications " . In 1945 , Yale University created the J. Willard Gibbs Professorship in Theoretical Chemistry , held until 1973 by Lars Onsager . Onsager , who much like Gibbs focused on applying new mathematical ideas to problems in physical chemistry , won the 1968 Nobel Prize in chemistry . In addition to establishing the Josiah Willard Gibbs Laboratories and the J. Willard Gibbs Assistant Professorship in Mathematics , Yale has hosted two symposia dedicated to Gibbs 's life and work , one in 1989 and another on the centenary of his death , in 2003 . Rutgers University endowed a J. Willard Gibbs Professorship of Thermomechanics , held as of 2014 by Bernard Coleman . Gibbs was elected in 1950 to the Hall of Fame for Great Americans . The oceanographic research ship USNS Josiah Willard Gibbs ( T @-@ AGOR @-@ 1 ) was in service with the United States Navy from 1958 to 1971 . Gibbs crater , near the eastern limb of the Moon , was named in the scientist 's honor in 1964 . Edward Guggenheim introduced the symbol G for the Gibbs free energy in 1933 , and this was used also by Dirk ter Haar in 1966 . This notation is now universal and is recommended by the IUPAC . In 1960 , William Giauque and others suggested the name " gibbs " ( abbreviated gbs . ) for the unit of entropy , calorie / Kelvin , but this usage did not become common and the corresponding SI unit , Joule / Kelvin , carries no special name . In 1954 , a year before his death , Albert Einstein was asked by an interviewer who were the greatest thinkers that he had known . Einstein replied : " Lorentz " , adding " I never met Willard Gibbs ; perhaps , had I done so , I might have placed him beside Lorentz . " = = = In literature = = = In 1909 , the American historian and novelist Henry Adams finished an essay entitled " The Rule of Phase Applied to History " , in which he sought to apply Gibbs 's phase rule and other thermodynamic concepts to a general theory of human history . William James , Henry Bumstead , and others criticized both Adams 's tenuous grasp of the scientific concepts that he invoked , as well as the arbitrariness of his application of those concepts as metaphors for the evolution of human thought and society . The essay remained unpublished until it appeared posthumously in 1919 , in The Degradation of the Democratic Dogma , edited by Henry Adams 's younger brother Brooks . In the 1930s , feminist poet Muriel Rukeyser became fascinated by Willard Gibbs and wrote a long poem about his life and work ( " Gibbs " , included in the collection A Turning Wind , published in 1939 ) , as well as a book @-@ length biography ( Willard Gibbs , 1942 ) . According to Rukeyser : Willard Gibbs is the type of the imagination at work in the world . His story is that of an opening up which has had its effect on our lives and our thinking ; and , it seems to me , it is the emblem of the naked imagination — which is called abstract and impractical , but whose discoveries can be used by anyone who is interested , in whatever " field " — an imagination which for me , more than that of any other figure in American thought , any poet , or political , or religious figure , stands for imagination at its essential points . In 1946 , Fortune magazine illustrated a cover story on " Fundamental Science " with a representation of the thermodynamic surface that Maxwell had built based on Gibbs 's proposal . Rukeyser had called this surface a " statue of water " and the magazine saw in it " the abstract creation of a great American scientist that lends itself to the symbolism of contemporary art forms . " The artwork by Arthur Lidov also included Gibbs 's mathematical expression of the phase rule for heterogeneous mixtures , as well as a radar screen , an oscilloscope waveform , Newton 's apple , and a small rendition of a three @-@ dimensional phase diagram . Gibbs 's nephew , Ralph Gibbs Van Name , a professor of physical chemistry at Yale , was unhappy with Rukeyser 's biography , in part because of her lack of scientific training . Van Name had withheld the family papers from her and , after her book was published in 1942 to positive literary but mixed scientific reviews , he tried to encourage Gibbs 's former students to produce a more technically oriented biography . Rukeyser 's approach to Gibbs was also sharply criticized by Gibbs 's former student and protégé Edwin Wilson . With Van Name 's and Wilson 's encouragement , physicist Lynde Wheeler published a new biography of Gibbs in 1951 . Both Gibbs and Rukeyser 's biography of him figure prominently in the poetry collection True North ( 1997 ) by Stephanie Strickland . In fiction , Gibbs appears as the mentor to character Kit Traverse in Thomas Pynchon 's novel Against the Day ( 2006 ) . That novel also prominently discusses the birefringence of Iceland spar , an optical phenomenon that Gibbs investigated . = = = Gibbs stamp ( 2005 ) = = = In 2005 , the United States Postal Service issued the American Scientists commemorative postage stamp series designed by artist Victor Stabin , depicting Gibbs , John von Neumann , Barbara McClintock , and Richard Feynman . The first day of issue ceremony for the series was held on May 4 at Yale University 's Luce Hall and was attended by John Marburger , scientific advisor to the President of the United States , Rick Levin , president of Yale , and family members of the scientists honored , including physician John W. Gibbs , a distant cousin of Willard Gibbs . Kenneth R. Jolls , a professor of chemical engineering at Iowa State University and an expert on graphical methods in thermodynamics , consulted on the design of the stamp honoring Gibbs . The stamp identifies Gibbs as a " thermodynamicist " and features a diagram from the 4th edition of Maxwell 's Theory of Heat , published in 1875 , which illustrates Gibbs 's thermodynamic surface for water . Microprinting on the collar of Gibbs 's portrait depicts his original mathematical equation for the change in the energy of a substance in terms of its entropy and the other state variables . = = Outline of principal work = = Physical chemistry : free energy , phase diagram , phase rule , transport phenomena Statistical mechanics : statistical ensemble , phase space , chemical potential , Gibbs entropy , Gibbs paradox Mathematics : Vector Analysis , convex analysis , Gibbs phenomenon Electromagnetism : Maxwell 's equations , birefringence = = = Primary = = = L. P. Wheeler , E. O. Waters and S. W. Dudley ( eds . ) , The Early Work of Willard Gibbs in Applied Mechanics , ( New York : Henry Schuman , 1947 ) . ISBN 1 @-@ 881987 @-@ 17 @-@ 5 . This contains previously unpublished work by Gibbs , from the period between 1863 and 1871 . J. W. Gibbs , " On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances " , Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences , 3 , 108 – 248 , 343 – 524 , ( 1874 – 1878 ) . Reproduced in both The Scientific Papers ( 1906 ) , pp. 55 – 353 and The Collected Works of J. Willard Gibbs ( 1928 ) , pp. 55 – 353 . E. B. Wilson , Vector Analysis , a text @-@ book for the use of students of Mathematics and Physics , founded upon the Lectures of J. Willard Gibbs , ( New Haven : Yale University Press , 1929 [ 1901 ] ) . J. W. Gibbs , Elementary Principles in Statistical Mechanics , developed with especial reference to the rational foundation of thermodynamics , ( New York : Dover Publications , 1960 [ 1902 ] ) . Gibbs 's other papers are included in both : The Scientific Papers of J. Willard Gibbs , in two volumes , eds . H. A. Bumstead and R. G. Van Name , ( Woodbridge , CT : Ox Bow Press , 1993 [ 1906 ] ) . ISBN 0 @-@ 918024 @-@ 77 @-@ 3 , ISBN 1 @-@ 881987 @-@ 06 @-@ X. For scans of the 1906 printing , see vol . I and vol . II . The Collected Works of J. Willard Gibbs , in two volumes , eds . W. R. Longley and R. G. Van Name , ( New Haven : Yale University Press , 1957 [ 1928 ] ) . For scans of the 1928 printing , see vol . I and vol . II . = = = Secondary = = = H. A. Bumstead , " Josiah Willard Gibbs " , American Journal of Science ( ser . 4 ) 16 , 187 – 202 ( 1903 ) doi : 10 @.@ 2475 / ajs.s4 @-@ 16 @.@ 93 @.@ 187 . Reprinted with some additions in both The Scientific Papers , vol . I , pp. xiii – xxviiii ( 1906 ) and The Collected Works of J. Willard Gibbs , vol . I , pp. xiii – xxviiii ( 1928 ) . Also available here [ 1 ] . D. G. Caldi and G. D. Mostow ( eds . ) , Proceedings of the Gibbs Symposium , Yale University , May 15 – 17 , 1989 , ( American Mathematical Society and American Institute of Physics , 1990 ) . W. H. Cropper , " The Greatest Simplicity : Willard Gibbs " , in Great Physicists , ( Oxford : Oxford University Press , 2001 ) , pp. 106 – 123 . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 517324 @-@ 4 M. J. Crowe , A History of Vector Analysis : The Evolution of the Idea of a Vectorial System , ( New York : Dover , 1994 [ 1967 ] ) . ISBN 0 @-@ 486 @-@ 67910 @-@ 1 J. G. Crowther , Famous American Men of Science , ( Freeport , NY : Books for Libraries Press , 1969 [ 1937 ] ) . ISBN 0 @-@ 8369 @-@ 0040 @-@ 5 F. G. Donnan and A. E. Hass ( eds . ) , A Commentary on the Scientific Writings of J. Willard Gibbs , in two volumes , ( New York : Arno , 1980 [ 1936 ] ) . ISBN 0 @-@ 405 @-@ 12544 @-@ 5 . Only vol I. is currently available online . P. Duhem , Josiah @-@ Willard Gibbs à propos de la publication de ses Mémoires scientifiques , ( Paris : A. Herman , 1908 ) . C. S. Hastings , " Josiah Willard Gibbs " , Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences , 6 , 373 – 393 ( 1909 ) . M. J. Klein , " Gibbs , Josiah Willard " , in Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography , vol . 5 , ( Detroit : Charles Scriber 's Sons , 2008 ) , pp. 386 – 393 . M. Rukeyser , Willard Gibbs : American Genius , ( Woodbridge , CT : Ox Bow Press , 1988 [ 1942 ] ) . ISBN 0 @-@ 918024 @-@ 57 @-@ 9 R. J. Seeger , J. Willard Gibbs , American mathematical physicist par excellence , ( Oxford and New York : Pergamon Press , 1974 ) . ISBN 0 @-@ 08 @-@ 018013 @-@ 2 L. P. Wheeler , Josiah Willard Gibbs , The History of a Great Mind , ( Woodbridge , CT : Ox Bow Press , 1998 [ 1951 ] ) . ISBN 1 @-@ 881987 @-@ 11 @-@ 6 A. S. Wightman , " Convexity and the notion of equilibrium state in thermodynamics and statistical mechanics " . Published as an introduction to R. B. Israel , Convexity in the Theory of Lattice Gases , ( Princeton , NJ : Princeton University Press , 1979 ) , pp. ix – lxxxv . ISBN 0 @-@ 691 @-@ 08209 @-@ X E. B. Wilson , " Reminiscences of Gibbs by a student and colleague " , Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society , 37 , 401 – 416 ( 1931 ) .
= Saurolophus = Saurolophus ( / sɔːˈrɒləfəs / ; meaning " lizard crest " ) is a genus of large saurolophine hadrosaurid dinosaurs that lived about 70 @.@ 0 – 68 @.@ 5 million years ago , in the Late Cretaceous of North America and Asia ; it is one of the few genera of dinosaurs known from multiple continents . It is distinguished by a spike @-@ like crest which projects up and back from the skull . Saurolophus was a herbivorous dinosaur which could move about either bipedally or quadrupedally . The type species , S. osborni , was described by Barnum Brown in 1912 from Canadian fossils . A second valid species , S. angustirostris , is represented by numerous specimens from Mongolia , and was described by Anatoly Konstantinovich Rozhdestvensky . = = Description = = Saurolophus is known from material including nearly complete skeletons , giving researchers a clear picture of its bony anatomy . S. osborni , the rarer Albertan species , was around 9 @.@ 8 m ( 32 ft ) long , with its skull 1 @.@ 0 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) long . Its weight is estimated at 1 @.@ 9 tonnes ( 2 @.@ 1 tons ) . S. angustirostris , the Mongolian species , was larger ; the type skeleton is roughly 12 m ( 39 ft ) long , and larger remains are reported . Aside from size , the two species are virtually identical , with differentiation hindered by lack of study . The most distinctive feature of Saurolophus is its cranial crest , which is present in young individuals , but is smaller . It is long and spike @-@ like and projects upward and backward at about a 45 ° angle , starting from over the eyes . This crest is often described as solid , but appears to be solid only at the point , with internal chambers that may have had a respiratory and / or heat @-@ regulation function . The holotype of S. angustirostris is a skull and postcrania , so the cranium of the species is well @-@ described . Bell et al. re @-@ evaluated the entire species in a 2011 publication with Acta Palaeontologica Polonica . Their description found the skull to be generalized among hadrosaurines , and are much larger than any skulls of S. osborni . The most unusual feature for a hadrosaurine is the long , protruding , solid crest that extends upwards diagonally from the back of the skull roof . Unlike lambeosaurines , the crests are made up completely of the nasal bone . The premaxilla bones make up almost 50 % of the entire skull length , and both sides are filled with small holes . Only in adult individuals has the front of the premaxillary contact been fused . Longer than the premaxilla , the nasal bones are the longest in the skull . They make up the entire length of the crest , and are never preserved as fused . = = Classification = = Barnum Brown , who described the first specimens , put it in its own subfamily in " Trachodontidae " ( = Hadrosauridae ) , the Saurolophinae . At the time , this also included Corythosaurus and Hypacrosaurus , the only well @-@ known examples of what would become the Lambeosaurinae . Brown thought that Saurolophus had an expanded tip to the ischium bone in the hip , as dinosaurs now recognized as lambeosaurines had , but this appears to have been based on a mistakenly associated lambeosaurine ischium . Additionally , he misinterpreted the crests of Saurolophus and lambeosaurines as being made of the same bones . Most publications before 2010 classified Saurolophus as a member of Hadrosaurinae , often known colloquially as the " flat @-@ headed hadrosaurs " . In 2010 , the subfamily Saurolophinae was brought back into use because Hadrosaurus appears to have branched off prior to the " hadrosaurine " – lambeosaurine split . As a result , Hadrosaurinae by definition cannot include the traditional " hadrosaurines " . Saurolophinae is the oldest available name for the former " hadrosaurine " clade . Saurolophus , as the name suggests , is a saurolophine , as it has a saurolophine pelvis and a ( largely ) solid crest . The following cladogram of hadrosaurid relationships was published in 2013 by Alberto Prieto @-@ Márquez et al. in Acta Palaeontologica Polonica : = = Discovery and history = = Barnum Brown recovered the first described remains of Saurolophus in 1911 , including a nearly complete skeleton ( AMNH 5220 ) . Now on display in the American Museum of Natural History , this skeleton was the first nearly complete dinosaur skeleton from Canada . It was found in rocks of early Maastrichtian age , in the Upper Cretaceous Horseshoe Canyon Formation ( then known as the Edmonton Formation ) near Tolman Ferry on the Red Deer River in Alberta . Brown wasted little time in describing his material , giving it its own subfamily . Saurolophus was an important early reference for other hadrosaurs , as seen in the names of Prosaurolophus ( " before Saurolophus " ) and Parasaurolophus ( " near Saurolophus " ) . However , little additional material has been recovered and described . Instead , more abundant remains from Asia have provided more data . Initial remains were not promising ; a partial fragmentary ischium from Heilongjiang , China , that Riabinin named S. kryschtofovici . Much better remains were soon recovered , though , but from Mongolia 's early Maastrichtian @-@ age Nemegt Formation . The 1946 – 1949 Russian @-@ Mongolian paleontological expeditions recovered the large skeleton that became S. angustirostris as described by Anatoly Rozhdestvensky . Other skeletons from a variety of growth stages have also been discovered , and S. angustirostris is now the most abundant Asian hadrosaurid . In 1939 – 40 , two partial skeletons were found in the late Maastrichtian age Moreno Formation of California . These specimens were referred to cf . Saurolophus sp . In 2010 , one of the skulls was instead assigned to Edmontosaurus . A 2013 placed the two specimens in a new species , S. morrisi . In 2014 , the species was reassigned to a new genus , Augustynolophus . = = = Species = = = Two species are regarded as valid today : the type species S. osborni , and S. angustirostris . S. osborni ( Brown , 1912 ) is known from a skull and skeleton , two other complete skulls , and skull fragments . S. angustirostris ( Rozhdestvensky , 1952 ) is known from at least 15 specimens . It differs from S. osborni by some details of the skull , as well as in the pattern of scales found in skin impressions . The Mongolian species had a longer skull ( by 20 % ) and the front of the snout ( the premaxillary bones ) were more upwardly directed . S. angustirostris also had a distinctive row of square scales along the back and tail , which was smooth in S. osborni . In S. angustirostris , the scales on the tail flank were arranged in vertical patterns , which may have corresponded to striped coloration in life . This area was covered in radial scale patterns in S. osborni , possibly indicating a more mottled or spotted coloration . S. kryschtofovici ( Riabinin , 1930 ) is not considered valid ; either it is regarded as a dubious name , or as a synonym of S. angustirostris ( although the name antedates S. angustirostris ) . Until a 2011 reevaluation of the species by Phil R. Bell , S. angustoristris was not well @-@ described . No autapomorphies , unique derived traits , had been established distinguishing it from S. osborni . Bell found in a publication earlier in the year that the two previous studies of S. angustirostris , by Rozhdestvensky in 1952 , and Maryanska and Osmolska in 1981 , do not provide a comprehensive enough description to compare the species with S. osborni . = = Paleoecology = = S. osborni is known only from the upper part ( unit 4 ) of the Horseshoe Canyon Formation . It lived alongside other dinosaur species including the ornithopods Hypacrosaurus altispinus and Parksosaurus warreni , ankylosaurid Anodontosaurus lambei , pachycephalosaurid Sphaerotholus edmontonense , ornithomimids Ornithomimus brevitertius and an unnamed species of Struthiomimus , small theropods including Atrociraptor marshalli and Albertonykus borealis , and the tyrannosauroid Albertosaurus sarcophagus . The dinosaurs from this formation form part of the Edmontonian land vertebrate age . The Horseshoe Canyon Formation is interpreted as having a significant marine influence , due to an encroaching Western Interior Seaway , the shallow sea that covered the midsection of North America through much of the Cretaceous . S. osborni may have preferred to stay inland . A 2001 study suggested that Saurolophus osborni was part of a distinct inland fauna characterized by an association between Anchiceratops ornatus and it , while the contemporary coastal fauna was characterized by the association of Pachyrhinosaurus canadensis and Edmontosaurus regalis . However , the association between S. osborni and Anchiceratops was later noted to be in error , Anchiceratops only occurs lower in the Horseshoe Canyon Formation , before the major transgression of the Western Interior Seaway represented by the Drumheller Marine Tongue . S. angustirostris was one of the largest herbivores of the Nemegt Formation , which lacked large horned dinosaurs , but had sauropods and a more diverse theropod fauna . It coexisted with the rare hadrosaurid Barsboldia , flat @-@ headed pachycephalosaurian Homalocephale and domed Prenocephale , the large ankylosaurid Saichania , rare saltasaurid sauropods Nemegtosaurus and Opisthocoelicaudia , the alvarezsaurid Mononykus , three types of troodontids including Zanabazar , several oviraptorosaurians including Rinchenia and Nomingia , the ostrich @-@ mimics Gallimimus and Deinocheirus , therizinosaurid Therizinosaurus , tyrannosaurid relative Bagaraatan , and the tyrannosaurid Tarbosaurus . Unlike other Mongolian formations like the well @-@ known Djadochta Formation that includes Velociraptor and Protoceratops , the Nemegt is interpreted as being well @-@ watered , like the Dinosaur Park Formation in Alberta . When examined , the rock facies of the Nemegt formation suggest the presence of stream and river channels , mudflats , and shallow lakes . Sediments also indicate that a rich habitat existed , offering diverse food in abundant amounts that could sustain Cretaceous dinosaurs . = = Paleobiology = = As a hadrosaurid , Saurolophus would have been a bipedal / quadrupedal herbivore , eating a variety of plants . Its skull permitted a grinding motion analogous to chewing , and its teeth were continually replacing and packed into dental batteries that contained hundreds of teeth , only a relative handful of which were in use at any time . Plant material would have been cropped by its broad beak , and held in the jaws by a cheek @-@ like organ . Its feeding range would have extended from the ground to about 4 m ( 13 ft ) above . Common S. angustirostris would have been an important large herbivore in the Nemegt Formation , but S. osborni was rare in the Horseshoe Canyon Formation and faced competition from other duckbills ( genus Hypacrosaurus ) . Comparisons between the scleral rings of Saurolophus and modern birds and reptiles suggest that it may have been cathemeral , active throughout the day at short intervals . = = = Crest = = = The distinctive spike @-@ like crest of Saurolophus has been interpreted in multiple ways , and could have had multiple functions . Brown compared it to the crest of a chameleon , and suggested it could provide an area for muscle attachment and a connection point for a nonbody back frill like that seen in the basilisk lizard . Peter Dodson interpreted similar features in other duckbills as having use in sexual identification . Maryańska and Osmólska , noting the hollow base , suggested that the crest increased the surface area of the respiratory cavity , and helped in thermoregulation . James Hopson supported a function as a visual signal , and further mentioned the possibility that the inflatable skin flaps over the nostrils could have acted as resonators and additional visual signals . This idea has been picked up by authors of popular dinosaur works , such as David B. Norman , who discussed hadrosaurid display at length and included a life restoration of such an adaptation in action . The unique crest of Saurolophus is made up almost completely by the nasal bones , and in S. angustirostris it is solid . In adult specimens the crests are a rounded triangular shape in cross section . The crest protrudes past the edge of the skull backwards . Thin processes from the frontals and prefrontals extend along the underside of the crest , probably to strengthen it . At the end of the crest is a swelling of the nasal , which is often termed differently . = = = Ontogeny = = = Though the growth rates of Saurolophus are poorly understood , a group of perinatal Saurolophus was recently discovered in an area of the Gobi Desert known as " The Dragon 's Tomb " . The animals uncovered had skull lengths less than five percent of the length of the skulls of the adults , indicating they were in the earliest developmental stage at the time of their deaths The discovery of Saurolophus neonates also indicates the distinct crest found in adults was poorly developed in infancy . It remains unknown if the animals were still within their eggs or if they had hatched before they died . The specimens were described in the journal PLOS ONE on October 14 , 2015 by Leonard Dewaele et al .
= Hearts and Minds ( Lost ) = " Hearts and Minds " is the thirteenth episode of the first season of the American television series Lost . The episode sees Boone Carlyle ( Ian Somerhalder ) experience a vision quest , believing his stepsister Shannon ( Maggie Grace ) to be dead . Through a series of flashbacks , it is revealed that Boone is in love with Shannon , and that they slept together prior to crashing on the island . The episode was directed by Rod Holcomb and written by Carlton Cuse and Javier Grillo @-@ Marxuach . The writers sought to reveal the backstory of Boone and Shannon by surprising viewers with the nature of their relationship . At the same time , they wanted to use the relationship to bring Boone and Locke closer together , and decided on a vision quest to make this happen . " Hearts and Minds " first aired on January 12 , 2005 , on ABC . The episode was watched by an estimated 20 @.@ 81 million viewers and received mixed to negative critical reception . Critics tended to view Shannon and Boone 's story as uninteresting , but expressed appreciation for John Locke 's ( Terry O 'Quinn ) " darkly mysterious " actions . = = Plot = = = = = Flashbacks = = = Shannon calls Boone and , after he overhears sounds of violence , asks him to come to Sydney . When he gets there , he sees that her boyfriend , Bryan ( Charles Mesure ) , has been beating her . Boone reports this to the police , and reveals that Shannon is his stepsister . While Boone is speaking to the officer , James " Sawyer " Ford ( Josh Holloway ) is brought to the station handcuffed shouting in anger . The detective ignores Boone . Boone offers Bryan $ 25 @,@ 000 to break up with Shannon but Bryan asks for $ 50 @,@ 000 and Boone agrees . Boone also reveals that Bryan is not the first man he has paid off to leave Shannon alone . Shannon refuses to leave with Boone . He realizes that Shannon lied to him to get the money , and she has done this all the other times he had to pay off her boyfriends . Bryan says that Boone 's mother stole money away from her , and she is getting what is rightfully hers . After a brief fight with Bryan in which he is beaten , Boone leaves . That night , a drunk Shannon comes to Boone 's hotel room and tells him that Bryan stole the money . She tells Boone that she knows he loves her and , although he first tries to refuse her advances , they sleep together . Later , Shannon persuades Boone not to tell their parents . = = = On the Island = = = On Day 24 , October 15 , 2004 , Boone sees that Shannon Rutherford 's ( Maggie Grace ) relationship with Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) is getting more personal . Boone tries to tell Sayid that he would be better off staying away from Shannon , but he is ignored . Boone and Locke have been trying to open the mysterious hatch , but tell the other survivors they are hunting for boar . Hugo " Hurley " Reyes ( Jorge Garcia ) scolds Boone for not bringing back any boar , but John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) tells Boone that what he and Boone are doing with the hatch is far more important than hunting . At the hatch , Locke makes a paste and tells Boone it is for later . Locke suggests that staring at the hatch will tell them how to open it . Boone informs Locke he is tired of lying , and wants to tell Shannon about the hatch . Locke knocks him unconscious with the handle of his knife , and Boone awakes to find himself tied up . Locke applies a strange paste on Boone 's head wound and leaves a knife embedded in the ground in front of Boone so he 'll be able to free himself . Locke explains that he will be able to reach it once he is properly motivated . After several unsuccessful attempts to do so , Boone hears Shannon 's screams and the sounds of the ' monster ' approaching . This is the impetus he needs , and after a short struggle , and in excruciating pain , he is finally able to reach the weapon . He then frees himself and searches for his sister . Boone runs through the jungle , and locates Shannon tied to a tree . Boone frees her and they run away from the pursuing monster . The monster takes Shannon , and a distraught Boone later finds her mutilated body by a creek , watching her die . That night Boone returns to the camp and tries to kill Locke , screaming that he had killed his sister , but Locke reveals that Shannon is alive . The paste caused Boone to have a vision that , according to Locke , is crucial to his experience on the island . Boone says seeing Shannon dead made him feel relieved . Locke says to come with him , and the two disappear into the jungle . Meanwhile , Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) shows Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) to a garden that Sun @-@ Hwa Kwon ( Yunjin Kim ) has started . Kate discovers that Sun speaks English when the two are working in the garden , and Sun asks her not to tell anyone . Locke finds Sayid trying to make sense of Danielle Rousseau 's maps , and gives him a compass . Sayid tells Jack that according to Locke 's compass , north is not where it should be , causing him to believe that the instrument is defective . Hurley and Jin @-@ Soo Kwon ( Daniel Dae Kim ) spend the day fishing . After Hurley fails to catch anything and accidentally steps on a sea urchin after giving up , Jin treats the wound and later gives Hurley a fish . = = Production = = Boone was the focus of " Hearts and Minds " , a character who had not yet had his backstory told . Ian Somerhalder was the first actor cast in the series ; while the role required him to find life living in the wild foreign and difficult , the actor was raised on a Louisianan ranch and was thus used to " learn [ ing ] how to survive . " He said , " [ Boone ] was very fragile in [ the Island 's ] environment , where I wouldn 't have been . " The episode 's guest stars included Charles Mesure as Bryan , Adam Leadbeater as Malcolm , and Kelly Rice as Nicole . Executive producer Carlton Cuse and supervising producer Javier Grillo @-@ Marxuach , who wrote the episode , decided that its plot would be centered on cementing Boone and Locke 's relationship , by making the former go through a test of character . The episode 's plot evolved gradually , with the vision quest being one of the first ideas to include . This led to the depiction of the Shannon @-@ Boone relationship – which had not yet been explored – and making it the " axis " on which to tie Locke and Boone together . Cuse said that the series had hit a point narratively where Boone had become Locke 's " acolyte , " and he needed to " sort of shed his obsession with Shannon in order to move forward in terms of his relationship with Locke . " The producers also thought it would be interesting for there to be more to Shannon and Boone 's relationship than just Boone 's possessive brotherly interest . According to Cuse , the plot twist had become a Lost characteristic so they wanted to surprise the audience by having the Shannon @-@ Boone relationship be sexual in nature . The idea for the two came from an observation that their bickering resembled an older married couple ; to support this , they made the characters step @-@ siblings as it had not yet been established what their sibling bond exactly was . This was Cuse 's first writing credit for Lost , having joined the series during the seventh episode . He desired to cement Boone 's relationship with Locke , but was unsure how to connect the two characters in a meaningful way . The writers chose a vision quest but decided to make this " closed to the audience " and not let them know it was even occurring . Initially , it was conceived that Boone would be convinced into eating Locke 's drug , but director Rod Holcomb and the writers thought it would have made the hallucination easier to guess , and changed it into spreading the concoction into a head injury . Locke knocking Boone out " marked a huge turning point " in the development of his character . According to the writers , there was huge debate over whether Locke was good or bad ; his decision was meant to be a shocking moment for viewers , since they thought people would view it as a sign that Locke was turning bad . This was characteristic of the series – the writers liked to depict a character in a certain way so that one 's opinion would be made up , then they would reveal something else that would change one 's mind . Locke 's scene with Sayid was introduced late into production , because the episode was running short and Locke did not have scenes without Boone ; Sayid 's scene with Jack was also added later . Many future plot points are introduced into the episode , such as Sayid observing a magnetical anomaly , main characters crossing paths ( Sawyer is being arrested in the police station where Boone is filing a complaint ) and Michael 's box of drawings , which sets up the following episode , " Special " . = = Reception = = " Hearts and Minds " first aired on January 12 , 2005 in the United States . The episode 's broadcast gained an estimated 20 @.@ 81 million viewers , making it ABC 's sixth most watched episode for the week . It earned a ratings share of 7 @.@ 9 / 21 among adults aged 18 to 49 and a 4 @.@ 1 / 13 share among teenagers , both measures attaining series highs . With this , Lost and Alias helped ABC win the night . It was down 780 @,@ 000 viewers on the previous episode , " Whatever the Case May Be " , but was up 5 @.@ 12 million on the season average of 15 @.@ 69 million viewers . Critical reception of the episode was mixed to negative . Chris Carabott of IGN criticized the decision to focus the episode around Shannon and Boone , characters he felt " [ brought ] very little to the table " , at the expense of other " more intriguing " storylines and characters . He called the episode " awkward and uninspired " , though commented that it was saved by the character development of Locke . Carabott rated the episode 6 @.@ 6 out of 10 , signifying a " passable " episode . Entertainment Weekly writer Adam B. Vary graded the episode with a B + and praised Somerhalder for bringing " some real pathos to his conflicted feelings for Shannon ; he also found Locke to be " at his best when his motivations are darkly mysterious . " Writing for Zap2it , Ryan McGee characterized the episode as having a " weak backstory with a creeptastic ending , " although he enjoyed Locke for being " incredibly sage and incredibly terrifying all at once . " In her 2006 work Finding Lost : The Unofficial Guide , Nikki Stafford critiqued the writers for having some of the characters act inconsistently with the events of previous episodes , citing Jack and Kate 's " jokey and sweet " interactions as an example . Robert Dougherty , author of the 2008 book Lost Episode Guide for Others : An Unofficial Anthology , compared Shannon and Boone 's relationship to that of a soap opera . Other than the revelations surrounding their relationship and Locke 's actions however , Dougherty did not think the episode would have much of an impact on the series ' overall story . Therese Odell of the Houston Chronicle reviewed the episode twice , once in September 2007 , then again following a repeat viewing in July 2009 . She called it " profoundly weird " , and described it as a " transition episode " , noting that on her original viewing she found it irritating , eager for the story to advance , but upon re @-@ watching it enjoyed it more , praising the " lovely exploration of Boone 's character " . Following the series ' conclusion , IGN ranked " Hearts and Minds " 109th out of all episodes , commenting that as few viewers were interested in Shannon and Boone , it was difficult to be interested in an episode centered on them , particularly as it had little long @-@ term impact . A similar ranking of episodes by Todd VanDerWerff for the Los Angeles Times placed " Hearts and Minds " 104th .
= Rodrigo ( musician ) = Rodrigo Alejandro Bueno ( / roʊˈdriːɡoʊ ɑːlɛˈxɑːndroʊ bʊˈɛnoʊ / ; May 24 , 1973 – June 24 , 2000 ) , known by his stage name Rodrigo or his nickname " El Potro " ( " the Colt " ) , was an Argentine singer of cuarteto music . Bueno 's style was marked by his on @-@ stage energy and charisma . His short , dyed hair and casual clothes differed from typical cuarteto singers with strident colors and long curly hair . During his career , Bueno expanded cuarteto music to the Argentine national scene , remaining one of the main figures of the genre . The son of Eduardo Alberto Bueno , a record shop owner and music producer , and Beatriz Olave , a songwriter and newsstand owner , Rodrigo Bueno was born into the cuarteto musical scene in Córdoba , Argentina . He first appeared on television was at the age of two , on the show Fiesta de Cuarteto , along with family friend Juan Carlos " La Mona " Jiménez . With the help of his father , he recorded an album of children 's songs , Disco Baby , at the age of five . During his preteen years he informally joined the local band Chébere during live performances . He dropped out of school at the age of twelve and successfully auditioned for the band Manto Negro . After five years without success in Córdoba , Bueno 's father decided to try to launch his son 's career as a soloist in Buenos Aires , Argentina . In 1990 Bueno released his first record , La Foto de tu Cuerpo , on Polygram Records . Bueno introduced his next album , Aprendiendo a Vivir , with a live performance at the nightclub Fantástico Bailable . The performance brought him his first recognition in the tropical music scene . In 1995 , Bueno signed a contract with Sony Music that lasted only for the release of the album Sabroso ; the next year he signed a contract with Magenta Records that granted him one percent of his record sales . He discarded salsa and merengue from his repertoire , recording and performing exclusively cuarteto . His first release with the label , Lo Mejor del Amor , became an instant radio hit , earning him national fame and an ACE Award for Best Musical Act . The success was followed by La Leyenda Continúa ( certified gold by CAPIF ) and Cuarteteando . His 1999 release A 2000 became the theme of a series of concerts begun in the Astral Theater and held the following year in the Luna Park Arena under the name of Cuarteto Característico Rodrigo A 2000 ( " Characteristic Cuarteto , Rodrigo to 2000 " ) . The show sold out the stadium thirteen times , while the album A 2000 was certified quadruple platinum . Bueno 's schedule at the time included twenty @-@ five to thirty shows weekly . Due to his demanding tours , Bueno began consuming beer to excess , which began to interfere with his performing . His stress level was further increased from receiving multiple death threats . Following a concert at the nightclub Escándalo in La Plata , Bueno was returning to the city of Buenos Aires on the evening of June 24 , 2000 . After his path was blocked by another driver who had passed him on the turnpike , Bueno tried to chase the vehicle to move in front of it again . In the process , he lost control of his SUV and crashed against a barrier . He was ejected from the SUV and he died instantly . His death caused an immediate sensation in the Argentine media , with speculation about a possible murder conspiracy . After a short trial , the driver of the other vehicle was found not guilty ; the judge considered Bueno to have been responsible for driving imprudently . = = Career = = = = = Early life and beginnings in music = = = Rodrigo Alejandro Bueno was born on May 24 , 1973 , in Córdoba , Argentina as the first of three brothers . His father , Eduardo Alberto Bueno , was a record store owner and music producer for Columbia Records as well as BMG , a subsidiary of Sony Music Entertainment . His mother , Beatriz Olave , was a newsstand owner and songwriter . Growing up , Bueno was influenced by the cuarteto scene . He made his first television appearance at the age of two on the show Fiesta del Cuarteto ; he appeared with an acquaintance of the family , Juan Carlos " La Mona " Jiménez . Jiménez would later become his main musical influence , along with the bands Cuarteto de Oro , Berna and La Leo . During family meetings , Bueno would sing their songs for his relatives into a wooden microphone , a gift from his carpenter uncle . At the age of five , with the help of his father , he recorded his first album , Disco Baby . One of the songs from the set , a cover of a María Elena Walsh song , was used as the opening theme of the children 's show Carozo y Narizota , broadcast on El Trece ( Channel 13 ) in Argentina . Growing up , Bueno worked as a paperboy at the newsstand of his grandmother , Hortensia . In 1984 , he attended concerts of the local band Chébere and was occasionally invited to join them on stage . The next year , he dropped out of school and started working at his father 's record shop , where he sometimes sang for the costumers . A friend of his father belonged to the local band Manto Negro and offered Rodrigo a spot in the band . This is where he formally started his career in music , signing his first contract and earning his first salary as a musician at age thirteen . Bueno had written songs since the age of ten , but he would not show them to his colleagues because of his grammar mistakes . = = = Becoming a soloist and rise to fame = = = As Rodrigo failed to achieve success in Córdoba after five years with Manto Negro , his father and manager Eduardo decided to launch Rodrigo 's career as a soloist in Buenos Aires . In 1990 , he published his debut album , La Foto de tu Cuerpo , through Polygram Records . Although he described himself as a " cuarteto fan " , his first album had a rock style . In 1991 , he published his next album , Aprendiendo a Vivir , which he promoted with his first appearance in Buenos Aires at the nightclub Fantástico Bailable . The success of his performance propelled the sales of the record and gained Bueno the acknowledgement of the tropical music scene . It was followed by Completamente Enamorado , Muy Bueno and Made in Argentina , which met with moderate success . In 1993 , his father died of a heart attack in Bueno 's arms prior to a concert where he would promote his new release La Joya . Bueno was forced to perform and later considered retiring . After six months of mourning , he returned with Made in Córdoba . As his popularity in Buenos Aires was rising , he left Polygram Records and signed a contract with Sony Music . During his short stint with the company , he recorded Sabroso , composed of salsa and merengue songs . Despite Bueno 's rising popularity , the recording executives still did not believe he could become a major success . After experimenting with salsa and merengue , then performing as a ballad crooner , he shifted his style and repertoire entirely to cuarteto . In 1996 , he signed a contract with Magenta Records that gave him 1 % of his total record sales . The songs from his first album release , Lo Mejor del Amor , became major radio hits that propelled him to national fame and earned him an ACE Award for Best Musical Act from the Argentine Association of Entertainment Journalists . The next year he published La Leyenda Continua , recorded live at Fantástico Bailable . The record was later certified gold by the Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers . The success of those albums was followed by Cuarteteando , which included the hit songs " Ocho Cuarenta " , and " Y voló , voló " . La Leyenda Continúa and Cuarteteando sold 60 @,@ 000 copies each . = = = Cuarteto Característico Rodrigo A 2000 live performances = = = In December 1999 , Bueno published the album A 2000 , which he promoted with a series of four sold @-@ out concerts at the Astral Theater on Corrientes Avenue , the city 's entertainment and cultural center . Bueno began 2000 with a major tour of Argentina 's main summer spots on its Atlantic Coast . He performed 49 concerts in nine days , including one in front of more than 100 @,@ 000 people in the tourist hotspot of Mar del Plata . Following the success of the show at the Astral Theater , Bueno presented a series of concerts called Cuarteto Característico Rodrigo A 2000 ( Characteristic Cuarteto , Rodrigo to 2000 ) in the Luna Park Arena starting on April 5 , 2000 . The only rehearsal was performed with the band Cuarteto Leo , held in the club Mundo Bailable , owned by his manager Jose Luis Gozalo . Gozalo invested ARS80,000 ( equivalent to US $ 109 @,@ 900 in 2016 ) in publicity , while he requested Tito Lectoure , the owner of the arena , to advance him ARS50,000 ( equivalent to US $ 68 @,@ 700 in 2016 ) from the ticket sales to pay previous debts . The show was also financed by the alfajor manufacturer Jorgito and the bus company Flecha Bus , while the wardrobe was provided by Ona Sáez . Due to the venue 's fame for hosting boxing matches , the concerts were conceptualized with boxing elements . Bueno performed dressed in boxing trunks and made his entrance to the stage wearing a robe and walking through a hall in the crowd to the ring @-@ themed stage , emulating a boxing match . With an estimated length of two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours , the show included original songs , as well as classics of the cuarteto genre as a tribute to his early influence Cuarteto Leo . Gozalo negotiated the broadcast of the first concert with Azul Televisión . The filming of subsequent performances was halted by the Kirovsky brothers , owners of Magenta Records . The brothers sent a cease and desist order to the channel , claiming that Magenta owned Bueno 's personality rights . The sold @-@ out event , originally scheduled for eight performances , was extended to a total of thirteen sold @-@ out concerts grossing a total of ARS1.3 million . ( equivalent to US $ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) . Meanwhile , the album A 2000 was certified quadruple platinum by CAPIF , selling 750 @,@ 000 copies . In addition to the show , Bueno was also performing an estimated of twenty @-@ five to thirty concerts per week , including nightclubs , television and other concerts . On April 8 , he received the keys to the city of Formosa after having offered a concert in spite of the celebrations of its 121st anniversary . Due to the effort that the appearances required , Bueno starting drinking beer to excess . His stress was also increased by multiple death threats , including a gang shooting near his house in Córdoba . He also received a bullet with his name engraved on it , according to recollections by Joaquín Levinton , lead singer of the band Turf . His personal profits at the time came from receiving 1 % royalties on an estimated ARS9 million ( equivalent to US $ 12 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) in record sales , as well as an additional ARS600,000 ( equivalent to US $ 824 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) for album re @-@ editions and ARS500,000 ( equivalent to US $ 687 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) for a merchandise deal with Torneos y Competencias . Affected by his lifestyle and by disputes with Magenta Records , Bueno announced his impending retirement on April 11 , 2000 . He detailed that he would finish his scheduled concerts , including a Christmas tour throughout the United States . His last live performance , scheduled to take place at the Estadio Monumental Antonio Vespucio Liberti , was to be released as his final album entitled Adiós Rodrigo . Bueno added that he would become a record producer and move to the United States . = = Death = = = = = Background = = = On June 23 , 2000 , at 20 : 00 , Bueno attended a taping of La Biblia y el Calefón hosted by Jorge Guinzburg on Canal 13 . When the show ended at 22 : 45 , Bueno went to the restaurant El Corralón in Buenos Aires ' Palermo neighborhood , where he dined with his family , Fernando Olmedo ( son of the comedian Alberto Olmedo ) and comedian Pepe Parada . Olmedo remarked that he had never seen one of Bueno 's shows , and Bueno invited him to a show that same night at the club Escándalo in La Plata . Bueno gave a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hour performance in front of an audience of 2 @,@ 000 . When the concert was over , he was asked to stay at the club to rest , but Bueno refused , expressing his desire to drive . = = = The accident = = = In the early hours of June 24 , after the show in La Plata , Bueno was driving back to Buenos Aires in a Ford Explorer SUV with his ex @-@ wife , Patricia Pacheco ; his son , Ramiro ; Fernando Olmedo ; musician Jorge Moreno ; and radio host Alberto Pereyra . According to eyewitness accounts , after stopping at a toll booth in the Hudson area of the Buenos Aires - La Plata Highway at between 0330 and 0345 , Bueno 's path was blocked by a white Chevrolet K5 Blazer four @-@ wheel drive with tinted windows . In anger , Bueno started chasing the Blazer . He tried to pass it by closing onto it with the front of his SUV . After brushing the side of the Blazer , he lost control of his Explorer and crashed against a highway barrier . The SUV tumbled 400 meters ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) and the driver 's door and left back door opened . Bueno and Olmedo , who were not wearing seat belts , were thrown from the car around kilometer 24 @.@ 5 – 25 of the highway . Bueno died instantaneously , and Olmedo died forty minutes later at Evita Pueblo Hospital . The other passengers survived with minor injuries . Bueno 's remains were taken to Lanús , where he was scheduled to perform that Saturday night , and where he was later declared an " Illustrous Citizen " by mayor Manuel Quindimil . His funeral took place there . An estimated 20 @,@ 000 mourners passed his body and police presence was granted after minor incidents took place . A helicopter and 400 police officers were deployed , while six medical units were dispatched to assist a number of fans that fainted . Along with other famous singers who died at the same age , he became part of the 27 Club . = = = Controversy , investigation of the accident and initial reaction = = = Bueno was booked to appear on Saturday on the show Siempre Sábado . Instead , his band played in the show as a tribute without anybody singing . Conspiracy theories surfaced claiming that Bueno 's death was linked to a " Bailanta Mafia " and that he received death threats in the days prior the accident . Bueno 's mother did not attend his funeral , but she appeared on the show and said that the questions of accident versus murder would soon be clarified . The forensic report stated that he died of " cranioencephalic trauma " . Luis Armelo , the correctional prosecutor of Quilmes called the case a homicidio culposo con lesiones ( negligent homicide with injuries ) . The 1st Police Precinct of Berazategui identified the driver of the Chevrolet Blazer as Alfredo Pesquera , a local businessman . The next year , Pesquera was taken to trial . The prosecutor alleged that his maneuver eventually led to the death of Bueno and requested a thirteen @-@ year sentence . In December 2001 , Ariel González Eli Abe and Margarita Allaza de Iturburu , members of the 2nd Criminal Tribunal of Quilmes , concluded that the death of Bueno was caused by his own unsafe driving . Pesquera was declared innocent and released . Following Bueno 's death , four teen fans committed suicide . The sales of his records and merchandise skyrocketed . Bueno sold 500 @,@ 000 records during his lifetime , and the sales quintupled a month after his death , with his last album selling more than a million copies . The records grossed a total of ARS15 million ( equivalent to US $ 20 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) , three times the total amount that he made during his career . Reruns of his concerts garnered large audiences when they were broadcast on television stations such as Azul Televisión , América 2 and Crónica TV . A series of tribute albums was released in the subsequent months by the companies owning his catalogs . His band divided into La Banda del Potro , represented by Leader Music , and Auténtica Banda de Rodrigo , represented by Magenta Records . Both bands released 11 albums , grossing a total of ARS1 million ( equivalent to US $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) . In 2000 , while Bueno 's popularity was soaring in Buenos Aires , consulting agency Delfos found that among people in Córdoba , 72 % preferred the music of " La Mona " Jiménez while 15 % preferred Bueno . The following year , Jiménez was listed at 46 % , while the numbers for Bueno increased to 40 % . In 2011 , a new theory surfaced after the newspaper Crónica spoke to the police about the cause of the accident . The police source mentioned the possibility that Rodrigo 's intensive routine might have increased the production of adrenaline in his body . The investigators explained that , if Rodrigo did not release the excess adrenaline through urination after his last concert , he could have lost his sense of distance in relation to Pesquera 's Blazer . This could have caused Rodrigo to apply the brake and turn the wheel violently . = = = Lawsuits over the estate and burial = = = Initially Bueno 's mother claimed to be the absolute owner of his recorded material as well as profits . Judge Ricardo Sangiorg of the 76th Civil Court froze all of the assets held in bank accounts and copyrighted material hosted by SADAIC and the Argentine Musician 's Union , as requested by the legal group Cúneo Libarona @-@ Ballester , the representatives of Patricia Pacheco and her son Ramiro . Pacheco claimed that Ramiro Pacheco was the legitimate son of Bueno and requested a DNA test to verify it . The lawyers sent legal notices to Olave , her lawyer Miguel Angel Pierri and Gozalo stating that none of the assets of Bueno 's estate could be used or spent until it was decided which one of the parties would inherit them . The DNA tests confirmed that Ramiro Pacheco was the son of Bueno and his surname was changed . Rodrigo 's account at Credicoop Bank contained US $ 300 @,@ 000 , but it was emptied by his brother Ulises before it was blocked by Judge Sangiorg . The copyright holdings could not be transferred to Ramiro Bueno , since the original compositions of his father as well as other assets were registered on his behalf under the name of Ulises . Beatriz Olave negotiated deals over the image of Bueno for use on the jersey of the soccer team Club Atlético Belgrano . The disposition of Rodrigo 's body became a subject of dispute . A possible cremation and transport of the ashes to the Córdoba province was denied by judicial authorities in case a future autopsy was needed . The idea of a burial at the Lanús Municipal Cemetery was rejected by his mother due to concerns about vandalism . Instead , she decided to place the body in Las Praderas Cemetery in Monte Grande . Since the investigation into Bueno 's death was still open and further tests might be performed , his body was placed in a container by the Justice Ministry . In 2005 , five years after his death , the case was closed and the burial was authorized . The body was placed in a marble mausoleum . His mother , manager and friends attended a memorial service where they placed a trophy over the marble grave , symbolizing the appreciation of his relatives , fans and friends . = = Legacy = = Bueno spread cuarteto , originally a typical genre from the Córdoba Province , to a national level . Shortly after his death on the 27th kilometer of the Buenos Aires @-@ La Plata Highway , fans built a " sanctuary " memorial including a statue as a tribute . An estimated crowd of 15 @,@ 000 fans gathered there on the first anniversary of his death in 2001 . The memorial suffered several attacks through the years for unclear reasons . One year after his death , Sony Records released the album Todos Juntos con Rodrigo , which includes the original songs from Sabroso with added vocals from Argentine and international singers such as Celia Cruz and Luciano Pereyra . It soon went gold in Argentina with sales of 30 @,@ 000 records . The same year , he posthumously received two Carlos Gardel Awards . He received Best Male Tropical Performer for the album A 2000 and Song of the Year for his original " Soy Cordobés " . In 1999 , Bueno introduced cuarteto singer Walter Olmos to the public scene with performances in several of his concerts in the Buenos Aires province . After Bueno 's death , Olmos was popularly regarded as his musical heir , but he only enjoyed brief success before his death while playing Russian roulette in 2002 . Rodrigo , La Película ( Rodrigo , The Movie ) opened on April 12 , 2001 at a record 136 Argentine theaters . The movie depicts a love story involving a teenage girl who idolized the singer with a montage of real concerts and songs as background . The film was not as successful as anticipated , however , and was regarded by some as an attempt to make a profit out of the memory of the singer . The entertainment magazine Sin Cortes described it as a " failed film " that " took advantage of the Rodrigo phenomena " . Bueno , a Club Atlético Belgrano fan , is still regarded as an important figure within the club 's fan base . A group of fans visited his mausoleum in 2011 on the 11th anniversary of his death . The team 's jersey depicted his face as a tribute during the 2002 – 03 season of Argentina 's Football First Division . In 2012 , the club 's administration decided to raise funds to build a bronze statue of the singer to be placed in Gigante de Alberdi Stadium . In 2010 , on the tenth anniversary of his death , the Buenos Aires Chamber of Deputies declared him as a salient personality of popular culture in the province . Bueno was the subject of tributes on Argentine television , including one from the show Gracias por Venir , which was attended by some of his relatives and close friends . A tribute concert was performed on January 16 , 2013 during the opening of the first Cuarteto Carnival , based on the Bahian Carnival . During the Newsstand Day ( Día del Canillita ) celebrations , Governor of Córdoba José Manuel de la Sota announced his plans to commission a statue of Bueno . It was placed on the Buen Pastor esplanade , and unveiled prior to the Cuarteto Carnival tribute concert . In 2014 , another statue was erected to commemorate the fourteenth anniversary of Bueno 's death . The bronx @-@ made sculpture was financed by the City of Buenos Aires , and placed in front of the disco Fantastico Bailable , in the Once neighborhood . The ceremony was conducted by Bueno 's friend and television host Daniel " Tota " Santillan . The attendance included Deputy Mayor María Eugenia Vidal and Cabinet Chief Horacio Rodríguez Larreta ; Bueno 's family , business associates and his fans . A villa miseria in Buenos Aires ' Costanera Sur Ecological Reserve was named after him . In January 2015 a new Rodrigo statue was unveiled . Located at the entrance of El Corralón restaurant , the figure featured the singer dressed with the boxer outfit he wore during his Luna Park performances . = = Music style and image = = Bueno 's band was a typical cuarteto band , composed of fourteen musicians . Percussion predominated , with a main drummer and additional timbales , complemented by an accordion and an electric organ . The vocal part of the band featured a male quartet as a chorus . Characterized by his " raspy and strong " voice and charismatic on @-@ stage performances , Bueno became an instant success on the Argentine musical scene . His image differed from that of other tropical music bands that wore bright colors and had long , curly hair . Bueno 's hair was short , dyed usually in blue , turquoise , red or violet . He wore fitted shirts with jeans and cowboy boots . He was known for his mixture of facial gestures and poses that accompanied his bravado image . Bueno was heavily involved with the creative process of his act . He produced his own records , wrote his own songs and designed the visuals for his shows , including the looks of the stage and graphic campaigns , such as flyers and posters . = = Personal life = = Bueno was married two times and had two children . In 1992 , he married Mariana Marcone of Uruguay ; they had a daughter the next year . The marriage lasted only a couple of months after the birth . His son Ramiro was born in 1997 during his brief second marriage to Patricia Pacheco . Bueno 's cousin , Juan Carlos Olave , is a professional footballer . = = Discography = = = = Music videos = =

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