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= SMS Kronprinz ( 1867 ) = For the German battleship that served during World War I , see SMS Kronprinz SMS Kronprinz was a unique German ironclad warship built for the Prussian Navy in 1866 – 1867 . Kronprinz was laid down in 1866 at the Samuda Brothers shipyard at Cubitt Town in London . She was launched in May 1867 and commissioned into the Prussian Navy that September . The ship was the fourth ironclad ordered by the Prussian Navy , after Arminius , Prinz Adalbert , and Friedrich Carl , though she entered service before Friedrich Carl . Kronprinz was built as an armored frigate , armed with a main battery of sixteen 21 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) guns ; several smaller guns were added later in her career . Kronprinz saw limited duty during the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 – 1871 . Engine troubles aboard the ship , along with the two other armored frigates in her squadron , prevented operations against the French blockade . Only two sorties in which Kronprinz participated were conducted , both of which did not result in combat . The ship served in the subsequent Imperial Navy until she was converted into a training ship for boiler room personnel in 1901 . The ship was ultimately broken up for scrap in 1921 . = = Design = = = = = General characteristics and propulsion = = = Kronprinz was 88 @.@ 20 meters ( 289 @.@ 4 ft ) long at the waterline and 89 @.@ 44 m ( 293 @.@ 4 ft ) long overall . She had a beam of 15 @.@ 20 m ( 49 @.@ 9 ft ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 85 m ( 25 @.@ 8 ft ) forward and 7 @.@ 45 m ( 24 @.@ 4 ft ) aft . The ship was designed to displace 5 @,@ 767 metric tons ( 5 @,@ 676 long tons ; 6 @,@ 357 short tons ) at a normal loading , and up to 6 @,@ 760 t ( 6 @,@ 650 long tons ; 7 @,@ 450 short tons ) with a combat load . The ship 's hull was constructed with transverse and longitudinal iron frames . It contained nine watertight compartments and a double bottom that ran for 43 percent of the length of the vessel . The ship was an excellent sea boat ; the ship was responsive to commands from the helm but had a large turning radius . The ship 's crew numbered 33 officers and 508 enlisted men . Kronprinz carried a number of smaller boats , including a large tender , two launches , a pinnace , two cutters , two yawls , and one dinghy . The ship 's propulsion system was built by John Penn and Sons of Greenwich , England . A horizontal two @-@ cylinder single expansion steam engine powered the ship . It drove a two @-@ bladed screw 6 @.@ 50 m ( 21 @.@ 3 ft ) in diameter . Eight trunk boilers , with four fireboxes in each , were divided into two boiler rooms . The boilers supplied steam to the engine at 2 standard atmospheres ( 200 kPa ) . The propulsion system was rated at 4 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 400 kW ) and a top speed of 13 @.@ 5 knots ( 25 @.@ 0 km / h ; 15 @.@ 5 mph ) , though on trials Kronprinz managed to make 4 @,@ 870 ihp ( 3 @,@ 630 kW ) and 14 @.@ 7 knots ( 27 @.@ 2 km / h ; 16 @.@ 9 mph ) . The ship carried up to 646 t ( 636 long tons ; 712 short tons ) of coal , which enabled a maximum range of 3 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 900 km ; 3 @,@ 700 mi ) at a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) and a range of 1 @,@ 730 nmi ( 3 @,@ 200 km ; 1 @,@ 990 mi ) at 14 knots . A barque rig with a surface area of 1 @,@ 980 square meters supplemented the steam engine . Steering was controlled with a single rudder . = = = Armament and armor = = = As built , Kronprinz was equipped with thirty @-@ two rifled 72 @-@ pounder cannon . After her delivery to Germany , these guns were replaced with a pair of 21 @-@ centimeter ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) L / 22 guns and fourteen 21 cm L / 19 guns . The L / 22 gun could depress to − 5 degrees and elevate to 13 degrees , which provided a range of 5 @,@ 900 m ( 6 @,@ 500 yd ) . The shorter barreled L / 19 guns had a wider range of elevation , from − 8 to 14 @.@ 5 degrees , but the shorter barrel imposed a lower muzzle velocity , which correspondingly reduced the range of the gun to 5 @,@ 200 m ( 5 @,@ 700 yd ) . The two types of gun fired the same shell , of which the total supply numbered 1 @,@ 656 rounds of ammunition . The fourteen L / 19 guns were placed in a central battery amidships , seven on either broadside . The L / 22 guns were placed on either end of the ship . Later in her career , six revolver cannon and five 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes were added . Two of the tubes were placed in the bow , two on the ship 's sides , and one in the stern on the port side . All were placed above water , and were supplied with 12 torpedoes . Kronprinz 's armor consisted of wrought iron backed with heavy teak planking . The iron component of the waterline armored belt ranged in thickness from 76 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) in the stern to 124 mm ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) amidships and 114 mm ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) toward the bow . The entire belt was backed with 254 mm ( 10 @.@ 0 in ) of teak . The central battery was protected by 114 to 121 mm ( 4 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 8 in ) of sloped iron plating on 254 mm of timber . The battery 's roof was protected by 9 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 35 in ) thick iron plating . = = Service history = = Kronprinz was laid down in 1866 at the Samuda Brothers shipyard in London . The British naval architect Edward Reed designed the ship , and resulted in a vessel similar to the contemporary , French @-@ built Prussian ironclad Friedrich Carl . The ship was launched on 6 May 1867 and commissioned into the Prussian Navy four months later on 19 September 1867 . On the voyage from England to Prussia , the ship lost her main mast in a storm . The ship immediately went into dock for refitting upon arrival in Prussia ; the mast was repaired and the ship 's armament was converted from the initial arrangement . At the outbreak of the Franco @-@ Prussian War in 1870 , the greatly numerically inferior Prussian Navy assumed a defensive posture against a naval blockade imposed by the French Navy . Kronprinz and the broadside ironclads Friedrich Carl and König Wilhelm , along with the small ironclad ram Prinz Adalbert , had been steaming in the English Channel before the French declared war ; they had left Plymouth on 10 July with the intention of steaming to Fayal in the Azores . On the 13th , however , they put into port and learned of the rising tension between France and Prussia . The ships therefore returned to Wilhelmshaven immediately , arriving on 16 July . France declared war on Prussia three days later on 19 July . Kronprinz , Friedrich Carl , and König Wilhelm were concentrated in the North Sea at the port of Wilhelmshaven.They were subsequently joined there by the turret ship Arminius , which had been stationed in Kiel . For the duration of the conflict , Kronprinz was commanded by Captain Reinhold von Werner . Despite the great French naval superiority , the French had conducted insufficient pre @-@ war planning for an assault on the Prussian naval installations , and concluded that it would only be possible with Danish assistance , which was not forthcoming . The four ships , under the command of Vice Admiral Jachmann , made an offensive sortie in early August 1870 out to the Dogger Bank , though they encountered no French warships . Kronprinz and the other two broadside ironclads thereafter suffered from chronic engine trouble , which left Arminius alone to conduct operations . Kronprinz , Friedrich Carl , and König Wilhelm stood off the island of Wangerooge for the majority of the conflict , while Arminius was stationed in the mouth of the Elbe river . On 11 September , the three broadside ironclads were again ready for action ; they joined Arminius for another major operation into the North Sea . It too did not encounter French opposition , as the French Navy had by this time returned to France . Engine problems plagued the ship throughout her career ; Kronprinz 's engines broke down during the fleet maneuvers in May 1883 . Two of the three other armored frigates also broke down , which forced the cancellation of the maneuvers . Kronprinz had anti @-@ torpedo nets installed in 1885 ; these were removed in 1897 . The ship served on active duty with the fleet until 22 August 1901 , when she was stricken from the naval register . She was reconstructed at the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel that year . The propulsion system was overhauled and the eight J Penn & Sons boilers were removed . Two Dürr and two Thornycroft boilers were installed in their place . Her barque rig was cut down to 1 @,@ 409 square meters ( 15 @,@ 170 sq ft ) . After emerging from the reconstruction , Kronprinz served as a training ship for engine @-@ room personnel , based in Kiel . The ship was ultimately sold to Bonn , a German ship @-@ breaking firm , on 3 October 1921 for 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 marks . Kronprinz was broken up for scrap in Rendsburg @-@ Audorf later that year .
= SG @-@ 1000 = The SG @-@ 1000 ( Japanese : エスジー・セン , Hepburn : Esu Jī Sen ) , also known as the Sega Computer Videogame SG @-@ 1000 , is a cartridge @-@ based home video game console manufactured by Sega and released in Japan , Australia , and other countries . It was Sega 's first entry into the home video game hardware business , and provided the basis for the more successful Master System . Introduced in 1983 , the SG @-@ 1000 was released on the same day that Nintendo released the Family Computer ( Famicom for short ) in Japan . The SG @-@ 1000 was released in several forms , including the SC @-@ 3000 computer and the redesigned SG @-@ 1000 II ( エスジー・セン・ツー , Esu Jī Sen Tsū , also known as the SG @-@ 1000 Mark II ) , released in 1984 . Developed in response to a downturn in arcades in 1982 , the SG @-@ 1000 was created on the advice of Hayao Nakayama , president of Sega Enterprises , Ltd . Shortly after the release , Sega Enterprises was sold to CSK Corporation , which was followed by the release of the SG @-@ 1000 II . Due to the release of the Famicom , and the number of consoles present in the market at the time , the SG @-@ 1000 was not commercially successful . = = History = = In the early 1980s , Sega Enterprises , Inc . , then a subsidiary of Gulf and Western , was one of the top five arcade game manufacturers active in the United States , as company revenues rose to $ 214 million . A downturn in the arcade business starting in 1982 seriously hurt the company , leading Gulf & Western to sell its North American arcade manufacturing organization and the licensing rights for its arcade games to Bally Manufacturing . The company retained Sega 's North American R & D operation , as well as its Japanese subsidiary , Sega Enterprises , Ltd . With its arcade business in decline , Gulf & Western executives turned to Sega Enterprises , Ltd . ' s president , Hayao Nakayama , for advice on how to proceed . Nakayama advocated that the company leverage its hardware expertise gained through years working in the arcade industry to move into the home console market in Japan , which was in its infancy at the time . Nakayama received permission to proceed , leading to the release of Sega 's first home video game system , the SG @-@ 1000 . The SG @-@ 1000 was first released in Japan on July 15 , 1983 , at JP ¥ 15 @,@ 000 . It was released on the same day as Nintendo launched the Family Computer in Japan . A computer version with a built @-@ in keyboard was released simultaneously by Sega as the SC @-@ 3000 , also known as the Sega Personal Computer SC @-@ 3000 , as well as the upgraded SC @-@ 3000H . The SG @-@ 1000 was released in Australia through John Sands Electronics , and in Italy , Spain , and other countries . An unauthorized clone system known as the Telegames Personal Arcade was produced , and is able to play SG @-@ 1000 and ColecoVision games . The SG @-@ 1000 's launch did not prove to be successful . Reasons for this include the Famicom 's more advanced hardware , the number of available game consoles at the time from companies including Tomy and Bandai , and the North American video game crash of 1983 . Shortly after launch , Gulf & Western began to divest itself of its non @-@ core businesses after the death of company founder Charles Bluhdorn , so Nakayama and former Sega CEO David Rosen arranged a management buyout of the Japanese subsidiary in 1984 with financial backing from CSK Corporation , a prominent Japanese software company . Nakayama was then installed as CEO of the new Sega Enterprises , Ltd . Following the buyout , Sega released another console , the SG @-@ 1000 II , on July 31 , 1984 at ¥ 15 @,@ 000 . It featured hardware tweaks from the original model , including detachable controllers and the ability to play Sega Card games . The SG @-@ 1000 II did not sell well , leading to Sega 's decision to continue work on its video game hardware . This would result in the release of the Sega Mark III in Japan in 1985 , which later became the Master System worldwide . The last cartridge released was Portrait of Loretta on February 18 , 1987 . In 2006 , the GameTap subscription gaming service added an emulator of the SG @-@ 1000 , and several playable titles . = = Technical specifications = = The SG @-@ 1000 is powered by an 8 @-@ bit Zilog Z80 central processing unit running at 3 @.@ 58 MHz for the SG @-@ 1000 and SG @-@ 1000 II , and at 4 MHz for the SC @-@ 3000 . Its video processor is a Texas Instruments TMS9928A , capable of displaying up to 16 colors , and its sound processor is a Texas Instruments SN76489 . All three chips were used in the ColecoVision . The system includes 8 kbit of random access memory ( RAM ) and 128 kbit ( 16KB ) of video RAM . The controller is hardwired to the system in the original model , and detachable in the SG @-@ 1000 II . Video and audio output are supplied through an RF switch . Power is supplied through a 9V DC connector connected to an AC adapter . Several peripherals exist for the SG @-@ 1000 series . Available at ¥ 13 @,@ 800 at its time of release , the SK @-@ 1100 keyboard connects through the expansion slot and is compatible with all models . Multiple controllers were created , including the SJ @-@ 200 joystick attached to the SG @-@ 1000 , and the SJ @-@ 150 joypad , made for use with the SG @-@ 1000 II . A racing wheel known as the SH @-@ 400 was made for use with games such as Monaco GP . The C @-@ 1000 Card Catcher , sold at ¥ 1 @,@ 000 , allowing players to play Sega Card titles . Additional accessories existed solely for use with the SC @-@ 3000 , including the SR @-@ 1000 cassette deck , the SP @-@ 400 4 @-@ color plotter printer , and the SF @-@ 7000 expansion device which adds a floppy disk drive and additional memory . = = Game library = = The SG @-@ 1000 's game library comprises 68 standard cartridge releases and 29 Sega Card releases . All games play on each model , although 26 cartridge releases require the keyboard accessory or the SC @-@ 3000 . All titles are fully compatible with the Mark III and Master System . Titles for the system include Flicky , Congo Bongo , Sega @-@ Galaga , and Girl 's Garden , the first video game directed by Sonic the Hedgehog creator Yuji Naka . The library included licensed titles , such as Golgo 13 . Packaging and game manuals came with both Japanese and English text until 1984 , when manuals were switched to Japanese only and the size of the cartridge box was reduced . Comparisons have been made to the appearance of SG @-@ 1000 games to those released for the ColecoVision , and the graphics have been criticized in light of the simultaneous release of the Famicom . Controls have been criticized for lack of responsiveness ; writing for Wired , reviewer Chris Kohler says of Flicky , " the jumping control is so terrible that getting back up to the exit is insanely difficult . " = = Reception and legacy = = The SG @-@ 1000 made little impact on the video game industry . Retro Gamer writer Damien McFerran said it was an " abject failure " , but called it and the SG @-@ 1000 II " the Japanese forefathers of the Master System " . Writing for Wired , Chris Kohler criticized the poor response of the controller 's joystick and the lack of an RCA output . He said the release timing hurt its success ; " [ al ] though its graphics were of better quality than most consoles on the market , it had the bad luck to be released in the same month as Nintendo ’ s world @-@ changing Famicom , which had killer apps like Donkey Kong and could run circles around Sega ’ s hardware . " Of its legacy , Kohler said , " Few have heard of it , even fewer have played it , and the games weren ’ t that great anyway . "
= SS Washingtonian ( 1913 ) = SS Washingtonian was a cargo ship launched in 1913 by the Maryland Steel Company as one of eight sister ships for the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company . At the time of her launch , she was the largest cargo ship under American registry . During the United States occupation of Veracruz in April 1914 , Washingtonian was chartered by the United States Department of the Navy for service as a non @-@ commissioned refrigerated supply ship for the U.S. fleet stationed off the Mexican coast . In January 1915 , after a little more than one year of service , Washingtonian collided with the schooner Elizabeth Palmer off the Delaware coast and sank in ten minutes with the loss of her $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cargo of 10 @,@ 000 long tons ( 10 @,@ 200 t ) of raw Hawaiian sugar . In the days after Washingtonian 's sinking , the price of sugar in the United States increased almost 9 % , partly attributed to the loss of Washingtonian 's cargo . Lying under approximately 100 feet ( 30 m ) of water , Washingtonian 's wreck is one of the most popular recreational dive sites on the eastern seaboard . = = Design and construction = = In November 1911 , the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company placed an order with the Maryland Steel Company of Sparrows Point , Maryland , for two new cargo ships — Panaman and Washingtonian . The contract cost of the ships was set at the construction cost plus an 8 % profit for Maryland Steel , but capped at a maximum cost of $ 640 @,@ 000 each . The construction was financed by Maryland Steel with a credit plan that called for a 5 % down payment in cash and nine monthly installments for the balance . The deal had provisions that allowed some of the nine installments to be converted into longer @-@ term notes or mortgages . The final cost of Washingtonian , including financing costs , was $ 71 @.@ 49 per deadweight ton , which totaled just under $ 733 @,@ 000 . Washingtonian ( Maryland Steel yard no . 131 ) was the second ship built under the contract . The ship was 6 @,@ 649 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and was 360 feet 11 inches ( 110 @.@ 01 m ) in length ( between perpendiculars ) and 50 feet 2 inches ( 15 @.@ 29 m ) abeam . She had a deadweight tonnage of 10 @,@ 250 LT DWT , and , at the time of her launch , was the largest American @-@ flagged cargo ship . Washingtonian had a speed of 12 @.@ 5 knots ( 23 @.@ 2 km / h ) , and was powered by a single steam engine with oil @-@ fired boilers which drove a single screw propeller . Washingtonian 's cargo holds , providing a storage capacity of 490 @,@ 858 cubic feet ( 13 @,@ 899 @.@ 6 m3 ) , were outfitted with a complete refrigeration plant so she could carry perishable products from the West to the East Coast , such as Pacific Northwest salmon or fresh produce from Southern California farms . = = Service = = When Washingtonian began sailing for American @-@ Hawaiian , the company shipped cargo from East Coast ports via the Tehuantepec Route to West Coast ports and Hawaii , and vice versa . Shipments on the Tehuantepec Route arrived at Mexican ports — Salina Cruz , Oaxaca , for eastbound cargo , and Coatzacoalcos , Veracruz , for westbound cargo — and traversed the Isthmus of Tehuantepec on the Tehuantepec National Railway . Eastbound shipments were primarily sugar and pineapple from Hawaii , while westbound cargoes were more general in nature . Washingtonian sailed in this service , but it is not known whether she sailed on the east or west side of North America . After the United States occupation of Veracruz on 21 April 1914 ( which took place while six American @-@ Hawaiian ships were being held in various Mexican ports ) , the Huerta @-@ led Mexican government closed the Tehuantepec National Railway to American shipping . This loss of access ( the Panama Canal was not yet open ) caused American @-@ Hawaiian to return to its historic route of sailing around South America via the Straits of Magellan in late April . During the U.S. occupation , Washingtonian was chartered by the Navy Department to serve as a non @-@ commissioned refrigerator and supply ship for the U.S. fleet off Mexico . She was outfitted for her first voyage at the New York Navy Yard and sailed with 500 @,@ 000 pounds ( 230 @,@ 000 kg ) of fresh meat for the Navy and the United States Army . Washingtonian sailed in a rotation with the commissioned Navy stores ships USS Culgoa and USS Celtic . With the opening of the Panama Canal on 15 August , American @-@ Hawaiian ships switched to taking the canal route . In late August , American @-@ Hawaiian announced that Washingtonian — her Navy charter ended by this time — would sail on a San Francisco – Panama Canal – Boston route , sailing opposite Mexican , Honolulan , and sister ship Pennsylvanian . Washingtonian sailed from Los Angeles in early October with a load of California products — including canned and dried fruits , beans , and wine — for New York and Boston . After delivering that load , Washingtonian headed for Honolulu , Hawaii , to take on a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 10 @,@ 000 t ) load of raw sugar valued at about $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . Departing Honolulu on 20 December , Washingtonian arrived at Balboa on 17 January 1915 and transited the Panama Canal . Sailing from Cristóbal two days later , she headed for the Delaware Breakwater en route to Philadelphia . = = Collision = = At 3 : 30 a.m. on 26 January , some 20 nautical miles ( 37 km ) from Fenwick Island , Delaware , the American schooner Elizabeth Palmer was under full sail at 8 knots ( 15 km / h ) on a southwest by south course . Elizabeth Palmer 's captain saw a large steam vessel , Washingtonian , on an apparent collision course ahead , but did not change course since navigational rules of the time required steam @-@ powered vessels to yield to vessels under sail power . The captain of Washingtonian , two quartermasters , and a seaman were all on watch and saw Elizabeth Palmer , but misjudged the schooner 's rapid pace . When Washingtonian , underway at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ) , did not change course or speed , Elizabeth Palmer impacted the starboard side of the steamer , leaving a large hole that sank Washingtonian ten minutes later . Less than a mile ( 2 km ) away , Elizabeth Palmer , with her jib boom and the top of her foremast stripped away by the impact , began taking on water through her split seams . When it became apparent that the big schooner would sink , her captain ordered her abandonment , and she slowly settled and went down about an hour after the collision . After Washingtonian 's crew abandoned ship , one crewman , a water tender , was found to be missing and was presumed drowned . Washingtonian 's 39 survivors and all 13 crew members from Elizabeth Palmer were picked up about an hour after the collision by the passenger liner Hamilton of the Old Dominion Line , which arrived at New York the next day . The collision had repercussions for American @-@ Hawaiian and the world sugar market . The financial impact of the collision on American @-@ Hawaiian , estimated at $ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , was devastating . Contemporary news reports in The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal both told of the collision 's impact on the sugar market . Claus A. Spreckels , president of Federal Sugar Refining , noted that the loss of even such a large cargo would not normally have much effect on the sugar market . However , weather in Cuba , then the largest supplier of sugar for the United States , had reduced that island nation 's crop by more than 200 @,@ 000 tons . Further affecting the situation was World War I , then ongoing in Europe , which had reduced the tonnage of shipping available to transport commodities like sugar . With all of these factors , the asking price for sugar futures contracts for February 1915 delivery was 2 @.@ 90 cents per pound ( 6 @.@ 39 cents per kg ) a week before Washingtonian 's sinking , but had risen to 3 @.@ 16 cents per pound ( 6 @.@ 96 cents per kg ) the day after the sinking . Washingtonian 's wreck , a skeletal framework of hull plates and bulkheads , lies upside down in about 100 feet ( 30 m ) of water , and is one of the most @-@ visited wreck sites along the eastern seaboard . Washingtonian 's wreck is a popular night dive , and also a favorite with sport divers for catching lobster .
= Executive magistrates of the Roman Republic = The executive magistrates of the Roman Republic were officials of the ancient Roman Republic ( c . 510 BC – 44 BC ) , elected by the People of Rome . Ordinary magistrates ( magistratus ) were divided into several ranks according to their role and the power they wielded : censors , consuls ( who functioned as the regular head of state ) , praetors , curule aediles , and finally quaestor . Any magistrate could obstruct ( veto ) an action that was being taken by a magistrate with an equal or lower degree of magisterial powers . By definition , plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles were technically not magistrates as they were elected only by the plebeians , but no ordinary magistrate could veto any of their actions . Dictator was an extraordinary magistrate normally elected in times of emergency ( usually military ) for a short period . During this period , the dictator 's power over the Roman government was absolute , as they were not checked by any institution or magistrate . = = Ranks = = The magistrates ( magistratus ) were elected by the People of Rome , which consisted of plebeians ( commoners ) and patricians ( aristocrats ) . Each magistrate was vested with a degree of power , called " major powers " or maior potestas. dictators had more " major powers " than any other magistrate , and thus they outranked all other magistrates ; but were originally intended only to be a temporary tool for times of state emergency . Thereafter in descending order came the censor ( who , while the highest @-@ ranking ordinary magistrate by virtue of his prestige , held little real power ) , the consul , the praetor , the curule aedile , and the quaestor . Any magistrate could obstruct ( veto ) an action that was being taken by a magistrate with an equal or lower degree of magisterial powers . If this obstruction occurred between two magistrates of equal rank , such as two praetors , then it was called par potestas ( negation of powers ) . To prevent this , magistrates used a principle of alteration , assigned responsibilities by lot or seniority , or gave certain magistrates control over certain functions . If this obstruction occurred against a magistrate of a lower rank , then it was called intercessio , where the magistrate literally interposed his higher rank to obstruct the lower @-@ ranking magistrate . By definition , plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles were technically not magistrates since they were elected only by the plebeians . As such , no ordinary magistrate could veto any of their actions . = = Powers = = Only the Roman citizens ( both plebeians and patricians ) had the right to confer magisterial powers ( potestas ) on any individual magistrate . The most important power was imperium , which was held by consuls ( the chief magistrates ) and by praetors ( the second highest @-@ ranking ordinary magistrate ) . Defined narrowly , imperium simply gave a magistrate the authority to command a military force . Defined more broadly , however , imperium gave a magistrate the constitutional authority to issue commands ( military , diplomatic , civil , or otherwise ) . A magistrate 's imperium was at its apex while the magistrate was abroad . While the magistrate was in the city of Rome itself , however , he had to completely surrender his imperium , so that liberty ( libertas ) was maximized . Magistrates with imperium sat in a curule chair , and were attended by lictors ( bodyguards ) who carried axes called fasces which symbolized the power of the state to punish and to execute . Only a magistrate with imperium could wear a bordered toga , or be awarded a triumph . All magistrates had the power of coercion ( coercitio ) , which was used by magistrates to maintain public order . A magistrate had many ways with which to enforce this power . Examples include flogging , imprisonment , fines , mandating pledges and oaths , enslavement , banishment , and sometimes even the destruction of a person 's house . While in Rome , all citizens had an absolute protection against Coercion . This protection was called " Provocatio " ( see below ) , which allowed any citizen to appeal any punishment . However , the power of Coercion outside the city of Rome was absolute . Magistrates also had both the power and the duty to look for omens from the Gods ( auspicia ) , which could be used to obstruct political opponents . By claiming to witness an omen , a magistrate could justify the decision to end a legislative or senate meeting , or the decision to veto a colleague . While the magistrates had access to oracular documents , the Sibylline books , they rarely consulted with these books , and even then , only after seeing an omen . All senior magistrates ( consuls , praetors , censors , and plebeian tribunes ) were required to actively look for omens ( auspicia impetrativa ) ; simply having omens thrust upon them ( auspicia oblativa ) was generally not adequate . Omens could be discovered while observing the heavens , while studying the flight of birds , or while studying the entrails of sacrificed animals . When a magistrate believed that he had witnessed such an omen , he usually had a priest ( augur ) interpret the omen . A magistrate was required to look for omens while presiding over a legislative or senate meeting , and while preparing for a war . One check over a magistrate 's power was collegiality ( collega ) , which required that each magisterial office be held concurrently by at least two people . For example , two consuls always served together . The check on the magistrate 's power of Coercion was Provocatio , which was an early form of due process ( habeas corpus ) . Any Roman citizen had the absolute right to appeal any ruling by a magistrate to a plebeian tribune . In this case , the citizen would cry " provoco ad populum " , which required the magistrate to wait for a tribune to intervene , and make a ruling . Sometimes , the case was brought before the College of tribunes , and sometimes before the Plebeian Council ( popular assembly ) . Since no tribune could retain his powers outside of the city of Rome , the power of Coercion here was absolute . An additional check over a magistrate 's power was that of Provincia , which required a division of responsibilities . Once a magistrate 's annual term in office expired , he had to wait ten years before serving in that office again . Since this did create problems for some magistrates ( in particular , consuls and praetors ) , these magistrates occasionally had their imperium " prorogued " ( prorogare ) , which allowed them to retain the powers of the office as a Promagistrate . The result was that private citizens ended up with consular and praetorian imperium , without actually holding either office . Often , they used this power to act as provincial governors . = = Ordinary magistrates = = The consul of the Roman Republic was the highest @-@ ranking ordinary magistrate . Two consuls were elected for an annual term ( from January through December ) by the assembly of Roman soldiers , the Centuriate Assembly . After they were elected , they were granted imperium powers by the assembly . If a consul died before his term ended , another consul ( the consul suffectus ) , was elected to complete the original consular term . Throughout the year , one consul was superior in rank to the other consul . This ranking flipped every month , between the two consuls . Once a consul 's term ended , he held the honorary title of consulare for the rest of his time in the senate , and had to wait for ten years before standing for reelection to the consulship. consuls had supreme power in both civil and military matters , which was due , in part , to the fact that they held the highest ordinary grade of imperium ( command ) powers . While in the city of Rome , the consul was the head of the Roman government . While components of public administration were delegated to other magistrates , the management of the government was under the ultimate authority of the consul . The consuls presided over the Roman Senate and the Roman assemblies , and had the ultimate responsibility to enforce policies and laws enacted by both institutions . The consul was the chief diplomat , carried out business with foreign nations , and facilitated interactions between foreign ambassadors and the senate . Upon an order by the senate , the consul was responsible for raising and commanding an army . While the consuls had supreme military authority , they had to be provided with financial resources by the Roman Senate while they were commanding their armies . While abroad , the consul had absolute power over his soldiers , and over any Roman province . The praetors administered civil law and commanded provincial armies , and , eventually , began to act as chief judges over the courts . Praetors usually stood for election with the consuls before the assembly of the soldiers , the Centuriate Assembly . After they were elected , they were granted imperium powers by the assembly . In the absence of both senior and junior consuls from the city , the Urban praetor governed Rome , and presided over the Roman Senate and Roman assemblies . Other praetors had foreign affairs @-@ related responsibilities , and often acted as governors of the provinces . Since praetors held imperium powers , they could command an army . Every five years , two censors were elected for an eighteen @-@ month term . Since the censorship was the most prestigious of all offices , usually only former consuls were elected to it. censors were elected by the assembly of Roman Soldiers , the Centuriate Assembly , usually after the new consuls and praetors for the year began their term . After the censors had been elected , the Centuriate Assembly granted the new censors censorial power. censors did not have imperium powers , and they were not accompanied by any lictors . In addition , they did not have the power to convene the Roman Senate or Roman assemblies . Technically they outranked all other ordinary magistrates ( including consuls and praetors ) . This ranking , however , was solely a result of their prestige , rather than any real power they had . Since the office could be easily abused ( as a result of its power over every ordinary citizen ) , only former consuls ( usually patrician consuls ) were elected to the office . This is what gave the office its prestige . Their actions could not be vetoed by any magistrate other than a plebeian tribune , or a fellow censor . No other ordinary magistrate could veto a censor because no ordinary magistrate technically outranked a censor. tribunes , by virtue of their sacrosanctity as the representatives of the people , could veto anything or anyone. censors usually did not have to act in unison , but if a censor wanted to reduce the status of a citizen in a census , he had to act in unison with his colleague . Censors could enroll citizens in the senate , or purge them from the senate . A censor had the ability to fine a citizen , or to sell his property , which was often a punishment for either evading the census or having filed a fraudulent registration . Other actions that could result in a censorial punishment were the poor cultivation of land , cowardice or disobedience in the army , dereliction of civil duties , corruption , or debt . A censor could reassign a citizen to a different tribe ( a civil unit of division ) , or place a punitive mark ( nota ) besides a man 's name on the register . Later , a law ( one of the Leges Clodiae or " Clodian Laws " ) allowed a citizen to appeal a censorial nota . Once a census was complete , a purification ceremony ( the lustrum ) was performed by a censor , which typically involved prayers for the upcoming five years . This was a religious ceremony that acted as the certification of the census , and was performed before the Centuriate Assembly. censors had several other duties as well , including the management of public contracts and the payment of individuals doing contract work for the state . Any act by the censor that resulted in an expenditure of public money required the approval of the senate . Aediles were officers elected to conduct domestic affairs in Rome , and often assisted the higher magistrates . The office was not on the cursus honorum , and therefore did not mark the beginning of a political career . Every year , two curule aediles and two plebeian aediles were elected . The Tribal Assembly , while under the presidency of a higher magistrate ( either a consul or praetor ) , elected the two curule aediles . While they had a curule chair , they did not have lictors , and thus they had no power of coercion . The Plebeian Council ( principal popular assembly ) , under the presidency of a plebeian tribune , elected the two plebeian aediles. aediles had wide ranging powers over day @-@ to @-@ day affairs inside the city of Rome , and over the maintenance of public order . They had the power over public games and shows , and over the markets . They also had the power to repair and preserve temples , sewers and aqueducts , to maintain public records , and to issue edicts . Any expenditure of public funds , by either a curule aedile or a plebeian aedile , had to be authorized by the senate . The office of quaestor was considered the lowest @-@ ranking of all major political offices. quaestors were elected by the Tribal Assembly , and the assignment of their responsibilities was settled by lot . Magistrates often chose which quaestor accompanied them abroad , and these quaestors often functioned as personal secretaries responsible for the allocation of money , including army pay . Urban quaestors had several important responsibilities , such as the management of the public treasury , ( the aerarium Saturni ) where they monitored all items going into , and coming out of , the treasury . In addition , they often spoke publicly about the balances available in the treasury . The quaestors could only issue public money for a particular purpose if they were authorized to do so by the senate . The quaestors were assisted by scribes , who handled the actual accounting for the treasury . The treasury was a repository for documents , as well as for money . The texts of enacted statutes and decrees of the Roman Senate were deposited in the treasury under the supervision of the quaestors . = = Plebeian magistrates = = Since the plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles were elected by the plebeians ( commoners ) in the Plebeian Council , rather than by all of the People of Rome ( plebeians and the aristocratic patrician class ) , they were technically not magistrates . While the term " plebeian magistrate " ( magistratus plebeii ) has been used as an approximation , it is technically a contradiction . The plebeian aedile functioned as the tribune 's assistant , and often performed similar duties as did the curule aediles ( discussed above ) . In time , however , the differences between the plebeian aediles and the curule aediles disappeared . Since the tribunes were considered to be the embodiment of the plebeians , they were sacrosanct . Their sacrosanctity was enforced by a pledge , taken by the plebeians , to kill any person who harmed or interfered with a tribune during his term of office . All of the powers of the tribune derived from their sacrosanctity . One obvious consequence of this sacrosanctity was the fact that it was considered a capital offense to harm a tribune , to disregard his veto , or to interfere with a tribune . The sacrosanctity of a tribune ( and thus all of his legal powers ) were only in effect so long as that tribune was within the city of Rome . If the tribune was abroad , the plebeians in Rome could not enforce their oath to kill any individual who harmed or interfered with the tribune . Since tribunes were technically not magistrates , they had no magisterial powers ( " major powers " or maior potestas ) , and thus could not rely on such powers to veto . Instead , they relied on the sacrosanctity of their person to obstruct . If a magistrate , an assembly or the senate did not comply with the orders of a tribune , the tribune could ' interpose the sacrosanctity of his person ' ( intercessio ) to physically stop that particular action . Any resistance against the tribune was tantamount to a violation of his sacrosanctity , and thus was considered a capital offense . Their lack of magisterial powers made them independent of all other magistrates , which also meant that no magistrate could veto a tribune . tribunes could use their sacrosanctity to order the use of capital punishment against any person who interfered with their duties. tribunes could also use their sacrosanctity as protection when physically manhandling an individual , such as when arresting someone . On a couple of rare occasions ( such as during the tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus ) , a tribune might use a form of blanket obstruction , which could involve a broad veto over all governmental functions . While a tribune could veto any act of the senate , the assemblies , or the magistrates , he could only veto the act , and not the actual measure . Therefore , he had to physically be present when the act was occurring . As soon as that tribune was no longer present , the act could be completed as if there had never been a veto . tribunes , the only true representatives of the people , had the authority to enforce the right of Provocatio , which was a theoretical guarantee of due process , and a precursor to our own habeas corpus . If a magistrate was threatening to take action against a citizen , that citizen could yell " provoco ad populum " , which would appeal the magistrate 's decision to a tribune . A tribune had to assess the situation , and give the magistrate his approval before the magistrate could carry out the action . Sometimes the tribune brought the case before the College of tribunes or the Plebeian Council for a trial . Any action taken in spite of a valid provocatio was on its face illegal . = = Extraordinary Magistrates = = In times of emergency ( military or otherwise ) , a Roman dictator ( magister populi or " Master of the Nation " ) was appointed for a six @-@ month term . The dictator 's power over the Roman government was absolute , as they were not checked by any institution or magistrate . While the consul Cicero and the contemporary historian Livy do mention the military uses of the dictatorship , others , such as the contemporary historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus , mention its use for the purposes of maintaining order during times of plebeian unrest . For a dictator to be appointed , the Roman Senate had to pass a decree ( a senatus consultum ) , authorizing a Roman consul to nominate a dictator , who then took office immediately . Often the dictator resigned his office as soon as the matter that caused his appointment was resolved . Ordinary magistrates ( such as consuls and praetors ) retained their offices , but lost their independence and became agents of the dictator . If they disobeyed the dictator , they could be forced out of office . While a dictator could ignore the right of Provocatio , that right , as well as the plebeian tribune 's independence , theoretically still existed during a dictator 's term . A dictator 's power was equivalent to that of the power of the two consuls exercised conjointly , without any checks on their power by any other organ of government . Thus , dictatorial appointments were tantamount to a six @-@ month restoration of the monarchy , with the dictator taking the place of the old Roman king . This is why , for example , each consul was accompanied by twelve lictors outside the pomerium or six inside , whereas the dictator ( as the Roman King before him ) was accompanied by twenty four lictors outside the pomerium or twelve inside . Each dictator appointed a Master of the Horse ( magister equitum or Master of the Knights ) , to serve as his most senior lieutenant . The Master of the Horse had constitutional command authority ( imperium ) equivalent to a praetor , and often , when they authorized the appointment of a dictator , the senate specified who was to be the Master of the Horse . In many respects , he functioned more as a parallel magistrate ( like an inferior co @-@ consul ) than he did as a direct subordinate . Whenever a dictator 's term ended , the term of his Master of the Horse ended as well . Often , the dictator functioned principally as the master of the infantry ( and thus the legions ) , while the Master of the Horse ( as the name implies ) functioned as the master of the cavalry . The dictator , while not elected by the people , was technically a magistrate since he was nominated by an elected consul . The Master of the Horse was also technically a magistrate , since he was nominated by the dictator . Thus , both of these magistrates were referred to as " Extraordinary Magistrates " . The last ordinary dictator was appointed in 202 BC . After 202 BC , extreme emergencies were addressed through the passage of the senatus consultum ultimum ( " ultimate decree of the senate " ) which suspended civil government , and declared something analogous to martial law . It declared " videant consules ne res publica detrimenti capiat " ( " let the consuls see to it that the state suffer no harm " ) which , in effect , vested the consuls with dictatorial powers . There were several reasons for this change . Up until 202 BC , dictators were often appointed to fight plebeian unrest . In 217 BC , a law was passed that gave the popular assemblies the right to nominate dictators . This , in effect , eliminated the monopoly that the aristocracy had over this power . In addition , a series of laws were passed , which placed additional checks on the power of the dictator .
= Peter of Bruys = Peter of Bruys ( also known as Pierre De Bruys or Peter de Bruis ; fl . 1117 – c.1131 ) was a popular French religious teacher , who is called a heresiarch ( leader of a heretical movement ) by the Roman Catholic Church because he criticized infant baptism , opposed the erecting of churches and the veneration of crosses , opposed the doctrine of transubstantiation , and denied the efficacy of prayers for the dead . An angry mob killed him in or around the year 1131 . Information concerning Peter of Bruys is derived from two extant sources , the treatise of Peter the Venerable against his followers and from a passage written by Peter Abelard . = = Life and teachings = = Sources suggest that Peter was born at Bruis in southeastern France . The history of his early life is unknown , but it is certain that he was a Roman Catholic priest who had been deprived of his office by the Church hierarchy for teaching unorthodox doctrine . He began his preaching in Dauphiné and Provence probably between 1117 and 1120 . The local bishops , who oversaw the dioceses of Embrun , Die , and Gap , suppressed his teachings within their jurisdictions . In spite of the official repression , Peter 's teachings gained adherents at Narbonne , Toulouse , and in Gascony . Peter of Bruys admitted the doctrinal authority of the Gospels in their literal interpretation ; the other New Testament writings he seems to have considered valueless , as he doubted their apostolic origin . He questioned the Old Testament and rejected the authority of the Church Fathers and that of the Roman Catholic Church itself . Petrobrusians also opposed clerical celibacy , infant baptism , prayers for the dead , and organ music . = = = Treatise of Peter the Venerable = = = In the preface to his treatise that attacked Peter of Bruys , Peter the Venerable summed up the five teachings he saw as the errors of the Petrobrusians . Peter the Venerable , also known as Peter of Montboissier , was an abbot and an important religious writer who became a popular figure in the church , an internationally known scholar , and an associate of many national and religious leaders of his day . The first " error " was their denial " that children , before the age of understanding , can be saved by the baptism ... According to the Petrobrusians not another ’ s , but one ’ s own faith , together with baptism , saves , as the Lord says , ' He who will believe and be baptised will be saved , but he who will not believe will be condemned . ' " This idea ran counter to the medieval Church 's teaching , particularly in the Latin West where , following the theology of Augustine , the baptism of infants and children played an essential role in their salvation from the ancestral guilt of original sin . The second error charged ( with some exaggeration ) was that the Petrobrusians said , “ Edifices for temples and churches should not be erected ... The Petrobrusians are quoted as saying , ' It is unnecessary to build temples , since the church of God does not consist in a multitude of stones joined together , but in the unity of the believers assembled . ' ” On the other hand , the medieval Church taught that cathedrals and churches were created to glorify God , and believed it appropriate that those buildings should be as grand and beautiful as wealth and skill could make them . The third error enumerated by Peter the Venerable was that the Petrobrusians “ command the sacred crosses to be broken in pieces and burned , because that form or instrument by which Christ was so dreadfully tortured , so cruelly slain , is not worthy of any adoration , or veneration or supplication , but for the avenging of his torments and death it should be treated with unseemly dishonor , cut in pieces with swords , burnt in fire . ” This was seen as an iconoclastic heresy and as acts of sacrilege by the medieval Church , as well as by Catholics to this day . The fourth error , according to Peter the Venerable , was that the Petrobrusians denied sacramental grace , rejecting the rite of Communion entirely , let alone the doctrine of the real presence or the nascent Scholastic account of transubstantiation . “ They deny , not only the truth of the body and blood of the Lord , daily and constantly offered in the church through the sacrament , but declare that it is nothing at all , and ought not to be offered to God . They say , ' Oh , people , do not believe the bishops , priests , or clergy who seduce you ; who , as in many things , so in the office of the altar , deceive you when they falsely profess to make the body of Christ , and give it to you for the salvation of your souls . ' " The term " transubstantiation " , used to describe the transformation of the consecrated bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ , was first used by Hildebert de Lavardin in about 1079 . This theory had long been widely accepted as orthodox doctrine at the time of the attacks by Peter of Bruys . In less than two centuries , in 1215 , the Fourth Lateran Council officially declared transubstantiation the necessary , orthodox Catholic explanation of the Eucharist . The fifth error was that “ they deride sacrifices , prayers , alms , and other good works by the faithful living for the faithful dead , and say that these things cannot aid any of the dead even in the least ... The good deeds of the living cannot profit the dead , because transferred from this life their merits cannot be increased or diminished , because beyond this life there is no longer place for merits , only for retribution . Nor can a dead man hope to gain from anybody that which he did not obtain while alive in the world . Therefore those things are pointless that are done by the living for the dead , because they are mortal and have passed by death beyond the way for all flesh , into the state of the future world , and took with them all their merit , to which nothing can be added . ” = = Death and legacy = = As Peter the Venerable recorded , crosses were singled out for special iconoclasm . Peter of Bruys felt that crosses should not deserve veneration . Crosses became for the Petrobrusians objects of desecration and were destroyed in bonfires . In or around the year 1126 , Peter was publicly burning crosses in St Gilles near Nîmes . The local Roman Catholic populace , angered by Peter 's destruction of the crosses , cast him into the flames of his own bonfire . Henry of Lausanne , a former Cluniac monk , adopted the Petrobrusians ' teachings about 1135 and spread them in a modified form after Peter 's death . The teachings of Peter of Bruys continued to be frequently condemned by the Roman Catholic Church , meriting mention at the Second Lateran Council in 1139 . Henry of Lausanne 's followers became known as Henricians . Both the Henrician and the Petrobrusian sects began to die out in 1145 , the year St Bernard of Clairvaux began preaching for a return to Roman orthodoxy in southern France . In a letter to the people of Toulouse , undoubtedly written at the end of 1146 , Bernard calls upon them to extirpate the last remnants of the heresy . As late as 1151 , however , some Henricians still remained active in Languedoc . In that year , the Benedictine monk and English chronicler Matthew Paris related that a young girl who claimed to be miraculously inspired by the Virgin Mary was reputed to have converted a great number of the disciples of Henry of Lausanne . The sects both disappear from the historical record after this reference . There is no evidence that Peter Waldo or any other later religious figures were directly influenced by Peter of Bruys . His low view of the Old Testament and the New Testament epistles was not shared by later Protestant figures such as Martin Luther or John Smyth . In spite of this , Peter of Bruys is considered a prophet of the Reformation by some evangelical Protestants and Anabaptists .
= Bob Cousy = Robert Joseph " Bob " Cousy ( born August 9 , 1928 ) is an American retired professional basketball player . Cousy played point guard with the Boston Celtics from 1950 to 1963 and briefly with the Cincinnati Royals in the 1969 – 70 season . Cousy first demonstrated his basketball abilities while playing for his high school varsity team in his junior year . He obtained a scholarship to the College of the Holy Cross , where he led the Crusaders to berths in the 1948 NCAA Tournament and 1950 NCAA Tournament and was named an NCAA All @-@ American for 3 seasons . Cousy was initially drafted as the third overall pick in the first round of the 1950 NBA draft by the Tri @-@ Cities Blackhawks , but after he refused to report , he was picked up by Boston . Cousy had a very successful career with the Celtics , playing on six championship teams , being voted into 13 NBA All @-@ Star Games and 12 All @-@ NBA First and Second Teams and winning the NBA Most Valuable Player Award in 1957 . In his first 11 seasons in the NBA , Cousy led the league in assists eight straight times and introduced a new blend of ball @-@ handling and passing skills that earned him the nicknames " Cooz , " " The Houdini of the Hardwood , " and — as he was regularly introduced at Boston Garden — " Mr. Basketball . " After his playing career , he coached the Royals for several years , and even made a short comeback for them at age 41 . He then became a broadcaster for Celtics games . He was elected into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 1971 , and in his honor , the Celtics retired his # 14 jersey and hung it in the rafters of Boston Garden . Cousy was named to the NBA 25th Anniversary Team in 1971 , the NBA 35th Anniversary Team in 1981 , and the NBA 's 50th Anniversary All @-@ Time Team in 1996 , making him one of only four players that were selected to each of those teams . He was also the first president of National Basketball Players Association . = = Early years = = Cousy was the only son of poor French immigrants living in New York City . He grew up in the Yorkville neighborhood of Manhattan 's East Side , in the midst of the Great Depression . His father Joseph was a cab driver , who earned extra income by moonlighting . The elder Cousy had served in the German Army during World War I. Shortly after the war , his first wife died of pneumonia , leaving behind a young daughter . He married Julie Corlet , a secretary and French teacher from Dijon . At the time of the 1930 census , the family was renting an apartment in Astoria , Queens , for $ 50 per month . The younger Cousy spoke French for the first 5 years of his life , and started to speak English only after entering primary school . He spent his early days playing stickball in a multicultural environment , regularly playing with African Americans , Jews and other ethnic minority children . These experiences ingrained him with a strong anti @-@ racist sentiment , an attitude he prominently promoted during his professional career . When he was 12 , his family moved to a rented house in St. Albans , Queens . That summer , the elder Cousy put a $ 500 down payment for a $ 4 @,@ 500 house four blocks away . He rented out the bottom two floors of the three @-@ story building to tenants to help make his mortgage payments on time . = = = High school = = = Cousy took up basketball at the age of 13 , as a student at St. Pascal 's elementary school , and was " immediately hooked " . The following year , he entered Andrew Jackson High School in St Albans . His basketball success was not immediate , and in fact he was cut from the school team in his first year . Later that year , he joined the St. Albans Lindens of the Press League , a basketball league sponsored by the Long Island Press , where he developed his basketball skills and gained much @-@ needed experience . The next year , however , he was again cut during the tryouts for the school basketball team . That same year , he fell out of a tree and broke his right hand . The injury forced him to play left @-@ handed until his hand healed , making him effectively ambidextrous . In retrospect , he described this accident as " a fortunate event " and cited it as a factor in making him more versatile on the court . During a Press League game , the high school basketball coach saw him play . He was impressed by the budding star 's ability to play with both hands , and invited Cousy to come to practice the following day to try out for the junior varsity team . He did well enough to become a permanent member of the JV squad . He continued to practice day and night , and by his junior year was sure he was going to be promoted to the varsity ; but failing his citizenship course made him ineligible for the first semester . He joined the varsity squad midway through the season , however , scoring 28 points in his first game . He had no intention of attending college , but after he started to make a name for himself on the basketball court he started to focus on improving in both academics and basketball skills to make it easier for him to get into college . He again excelled in basketball his senior year , leading his team to the Queens divisional championship and amassing more points than any other New York City high school basketball player . He was even named captain of the Journal @-@ American All @-@ Scholastic team . He then began to plan for college . His family had wanted him to attend a Catholic school , and he wanted to go somewhere outside New York City . Boston College recruited him , and he considered accepting the BC offer , but it had no dormitories , and he was not interested in being a commuter student . Soon afterward , he received an offer from the College of the Holy Cross in Worcester , Massachusetts about forty miles ( 64 kilometers ) west of Boston . He was impressed by the school , and accepted the basketball scholarship it offered him . He spent the summer before matriculating working at Tamarack Lodge in the Catskill Mountains and playing in a local basketball league along with a number of established college players . = = = College basketball career = = = He was one of six freshmen on the Holy Cross Crusaders ' varsity basketball team in 1946 – 47 . From the start of the season , coach Doggie Julian chose to play the six freshmen off the bench in a two @-@ team system , so that each player would get some time on the court . As members of the " second team " , they would come off the bench nine and a half minutes into the game , where they would relieve the " first team " starters . They would sometimes get to play as much as a third or even half of the game , but even so Cousy was so disappointed with the lack of playing time that he went to the campus chapel after practice to pray that Julian would give him more of a chance to show off his basketball talents on the court . Early in the season , however , he got into trouble with Julian , who accused him of being a showboater on court . Even as late as that 1946 – 47 season basketball was a static game , depending on slow , deliberate player movement and flat @-@ footed shots . Far different was Cousy 's up @-@ tempo , streetball @-@ like game , marked by ambidextrous finesse play and notable for behind @-@ the @-@ back dribbling and no @-@ look , behind @-@ the @-@ back and half @-@ court passing . Even so , he had enough playing time in games to score 227 points for the season , finishing with the third @-@ highest total on the team . The team , with stars George Kaftan and Joe Mullaney , finished the 1946 – 47 basketball season 24 – 3 . On the basis of that record , the Crusaders got into the 1947 NCAA Tournament as the last seed in the then only eight @-@ team tournament . In the first game , Holy Cross defeated Navy 55 @-@ 47 in front of a sell @-@ out crowd at Madison Square Garden . Mullaney led the team in scoring with 18 points , due mostly in part to Navy coach Ben Carnevale 's decision to have his players back off from Mullaney , who was reputed as being more of a playmaker than a shooter . In the semifinal game , the Crusaders faced CCNY , coached by Nat Holman , one of the game 's earliest innovators . The Crusaders , led by Kaftan 's thirty points , easily defeated the Beavers 60 – 45 . In the championship game , Holy Cross faced Oklahoma , coached by Bruce Drake , in another sold @-@ out game at Madison Square Garden . Kaftan followed up his 30 @-@ point semifinal heroics with a mere 18 points in the title game , which was far more than enough for the Crusaders to defeat the Sooners 58 – 47 . Cousy played poorly , however , scoring only four points on 2 @-@ for @-@ 13 shots . Holy Cross became the first New England college to win the NCAA tournament . On their arrival back in Worcester , the team was given a hero 's welcome by about ten thousand cheering fans who met their train at Union Station . The following season Julian limited Cousy 's playing time , to the point that the frustrated sophomore contemplated transferring out of Holy Cross . Cousy wrote a letter to coach Joe Lapchick of St. John 's University in New York , informing him that he was considering a transfer there . Lapchick wrote back to Cousy that he considered Julian " one of the finest basketball coaches in America " and that he believed Julian had no bad intentions in restricting his playing time . He told Cousy that Julian would use him more often during his later years with the team . Lapchick alerted Cousy that transferring was a very risky move : according to NCAA rules , the player would be required to sit out a year before becoming eligible to play for the school to which he transferred . During Cousy 's senior year of 1949 @-@ 1950 , his fate changed in a match against Loyola of Chicago at Boston Garden . With 5 minutes left and Holy Cross trailing , the crowd started to chant " We want Cousy ! " until coach Julian relented . In these few minutes , Cousy scored 11 points and hit a game @-@ winning buzzer @-@ beater coming off a behind @-@ the @-@ back dribble . The performance established him as a team leader , and he then led Holy Cross to 26 straight wins and a Number 4 national ranking , going on to become a three @-@ time All @-@ American . Bob Cousy ended his college career in the 1950 NCAA Tournament , when Holy Cross fell to North Carolina State in an opening round game at Madison Square Garden . CCNY would go on to win the tournament . Cousy ended his college basketball career just in the nick of time . The following year , college basketball would be rocked by the biggest point @-@ shaving scandal in the history of the sport . = = Boston Celtics = = = = = The first years ( 1950 – 56 ) = = = Cousy turned pro and made himself available for the 1950 NBA draft when the Boston Celtics had just concluded the 1949 – 50 NBA season with a poor 22 – 46 win @-@ loss record and had the first draft pick . It was strongly anticipated that they would draft the highly coveted local favorite Cousy . However , coach Red Auerbach snubbed him for center Charlie Share , saying : " Am I supposed to win , or please the local yokels ? " The local press strongly criticized Auerbach , but other scouts were also skeptical about Cousy , viewing him as flamboyant but ineffective . One scout wrote in his report : " The first time he tries that fancy Dan stuff in this league , they 'll cram the ball down his throat . " As a result , the Tri @-@ Cities Blackhawks drafted Cousy , but the point guard was unenthusiastic about his new employer . Cousy was trying to establish a driving school in Worcester , Massachusetts and did not want to move into a left field consisting of three small towns of Moline , Rock Island and Davenport . As compensation for having to give up his driving school , Cousy demanded a salary of $ 10 @,@ 000 from Blackhawks owner Ben Kerner . When Kerner only offered him $ 6 @,@ 000 , Cousy refused to report . The latter was then picked up by the Chicago Stags , but when they folded , league Commissioner Maurice Podoloff declared three Stags available for a dispersal draft : Stags scoring champion Max Zaslofsky , Andy Phillip and Cousy . Walter A. Brown , owner of the Boston Celtics , was one of the three club bosses invited . He later made it clear that he was hoping for Zaslofsky , would have tolerated Phillip , and did not want Cousy . When the Celtics drew Cousy , Brown confessed : " I could have fallen to the floor . " Hence , Cousy became a Celtic , with Brown reluctantly giving him a $ 9 @,@ 000 salary . It was not long before both Auerbach and Brown changed their minds . With an average of 15 @.@ 6 points , 6 @.@ 9 rebounds and 4 @.@ 9 assists a game , Cousy received the first of his 13 consecutive All @-@ NBA Team call @-@ ups , and led a Celtics team with future Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Famer Ed Macauley and Bones McKinney to a 39 – 30 record in the 1950 – 51 NBA season . However , in the 1951 NBA Playoffs , the Celtics were beaten by the New York Knicks . The next year , the Celtics added future Hall @-@ of @-@ Fame guard Bill Sharman , and by averaging 21 @.@ 7 points , 6 @.@ 4 rebounds and 6 @.@ 7 assists per game , Cousy earned his first All @-@ NBA First Team nomination . Nonetheless , the Celtics lost to the Knicks in the 1952 NBA Playoffs . In the following season , Cousy made further progress . Averaging 7 @.@ 7 assists per game , he won the first of his eight consecutive assists titles . These numbers were made despite the fact that the NBA had not yet introduced the shot clock , making the game static and putting prolific assist givers at a disadvantage . Powered by Auerbach 's quick fastbreak @-@ dominated tactics , the Celtics won 46 games and beat the Syracuse Nationals 2 – 0 in the 1953 NBA Playoffs . Game 2 ended 111 – 105 in a 4 @-@ overtime thriller , in which Cousy had a much @-@ lauded game . Despite having an injured leg , he scored 25 points after four quarters , scored 6 of his team 's 9 points in the first overtime , hit a clutch free throw in the last seconds , and scored all 4 of Boston 's points in the second overtime . He scored 8 more points in the third overtime , among them a 25 @-@ ft. buzzer beater . In the fourth overtime , he scored 9 of Boston 's 12 points . Cousy played 66 minutes , and scored 50 points after making a still @-@ standing record of 30 free throws in 32 attempts . This game is regarded by the NBA as one of the finest scoring feats ever , in line with Wilt Chamberlain 's 100 @-@ point game . However , for the third time in a row , the Knicks beat Boston in the next round . In the next three years , Cousy firmly established himself as one of the league 's best point guards . Leading the league in assists all 3 seasons , and averaging 20 points and 7 rebounds , the versatile Cousy earned himself three more All @-@ NBA First Team and All @-@ Star honors , and was also Most Valuable Player of the 1954 NBA All @-@ Star Game . In terms of playing style , Cousy introduced an array of visually attractive street basketball moves , described by the NBA as a mix of ambidextrous , behind @-@ the @-@ back dribbling and " no @-@ look passes , behind @-@ the @-@ back feeds or half @-@ court fastbreak launches " . Cousy 's modus operandi contrasted with the rest of the NBA , which was dominated by muscular low post scorers and deliberate set shooters . Soon , he was called " Houdini of the Hardwood " after the magician Harry Houdini . Cousy 's crowd @-@ pleasing and effective play drew the crowd into the Boston Garden and also won over coach Auerbach , who no longer saw him as a liability , but as an essential building block for the future . The Celtics eventually added two talented forwards , future Hall @-@ of @-@ Famer Frank Ramsey and defensive specialist Jim Loscutoff . Along with Celtics colleague Bob Brannum , Loscutoff also became Cousy 's unofficial bodyguard , retaliating against opposing players who would try to hurt him . The Celtics were unable to make their mark in the 1954 NBA Playoffs , 1955 NBA Playoffs , and 1956 NBA Playoffs , where they lost three times in a row against the Nationals . Cousy attributed the shortcomings to fatigue , stating : " We would get tired in the end and could not get the ball " . As a result , Auerbach sought a defensive center who could get easy rebounds , initiate fast breaks and close out games . = = = Dynasty years ( 1957 – 63 ) = = = Before the 1956 – 57 NBA season , Auerbach acquired two future Hall @-@ of @-@ Famers : forward Tom Heinsohn , and defensive center Bill Russell . Powered by these new recruits , the Celtics went 44 – 28 in the regular season , and Cousy averaged 20 @.@ 6 points , 4 @.@ 8 rebounds and a league @-@ leading 7 @.@ 5 assists , earning his first NBA Most Valuable Player Award ; he also won his second NBA All @-@ Star Game MVP award . The Celtics reached the 1957 NBA Finals , and powered by Cousy on offense and rugged center Russell on defense , they beat the Hawks 4 – 3 , who were noted for future Hall @-@ of @-@ Fame power forward Bob Pettit and former teammates Macauley and Hagan . Cousy finally won his first title . In the 1957 – 58 NBA season , Cousy had yet another highly productive year , with his 20 @.@ 0 points , 5 @.@ 5 rebounds and 8 @.@ 6 assists per game leading to nominations into the All @-@ NBA First Team and the All @-@ Star team . He again led the NBA in assists . The Celtics reached the 1958 NBA Finals against the Hawks , but when Russell succumbed to a foot injury in Game 3 , the Celtics faded and bowed out four games to two . This was the last losing NBA playoff series in which Cousy would play . In the following 1958 – 59 NBA season , the Celtics got revenge on their opposition , powered by an inspired Cousy , who averaged 20 @.@ 0 points , 5 @.@ 5 rebounds and a league @-@ high 8 @.@ 6 assists a game , won another assists title and another pair of All @-@ NBA First Team and All @-@ Star team nominations . Late in the season , Cousy reasserted his playmaking dominance by setting an NBA record with 28 assists in a game against the Minneapolis Lakers . While that record was broken 19 years later , Cousy also set a record for 19 assists in a half which has never been broken . The Celtics stormed through the playoffs and , behind Cousy 's 51 total assists ( still a record for a four @-@ game NBA Finals series ) , defeated the Minneapolis Lakers in the first 4 – 0 sweep ever in the 1959 NBA Finals . In the 1959 – 60 NBA season , Cousy was again productive , his 19 @.@ 4 points , 4 @.@ 7 rebounds and 9 @.@ 5 assists per game earning him his eighth consecutive assists title and another joint All @-@ NBA First Team and All @-@ Star team nomination . Again , the Celtics defeated all opposition and won the 1960 NBA Finals 4 – 3 against the Hawks . A year later , the 32 @-@ year @-@ old Cousy scored 18 @.@ 1 points , 4 @.@ 4 rebounds and 7 @.@ 7 assists per game , winning another pair of All @-@ NBA First Team and All @-@ Star nominations , but failing to win the assists crown after eight consecutive seasons . However , the Celtics won the 1961 NBA Finals after convincingly beating the Hawks 4 – 1 . In the 1961 – 62 NBA season , the aging Cousy slowly began to fade statistically , averaging 15 @.@ 7 points , 3 @.@ 5 rebounds and 7 @.@ 8 assists , and was voted into the All @-@ NBA Second Team after ten consecutive First Team nominations . Still , he enjoyed a satisfying postseason , winning the 1962 NBA Finals after 4 – 3 battles against two upcoming teams , the Philadelphia Warriors and Los Angeles Lakers . The Finals series against the Lakers was especially dramatic , because Lakers guard Frank Selvy failed to make a last @-@ second buzzer beater in Game 7 which would have won the title . Finally , in the 1962 – 63 NBA season , the last of his career , Cousy averaged 13 @.@ 2 points , 2 @.@ 5 rebounds and 6 @.@ 8 assists , and collected one last All @-@ Star and All @-@ NBA Second Team nomination . In the 1963 NBA Finals , the Celtics again won 4 – 2 against the Lakers , and Cousy finished his career on a high note : in the fourth quarter of Game 6 , Cousy sprained an ankle and had to be helped to the bench . He went back in with Boston up 1 . Although he did not score again , his was credited with providing an emotional lift that carried the Celtics to victory , 112 – 109 . The game ended with Cousy throwing the ball into the rafters . At age 35 , Cousy held his retirement ceremony on March 17 , 1963 in a packed Boston Garden . The event became known as the Boston Tear Party , when the crowd 's response overwhelmed Cousy , left him speechless , and caused his planned 7 @-@ minute farewell to go on for 20 . Joe Dillon , a water worker from South Boston , Massachusetts , and a devoted Celtics fan , screamed " We love ya , Cooz , " breaking the tension and the crowd went into cheers . As a testament to Cousy 's legacy , President John F. Kennedy wired to Cousy : " The game bears an indelible stamp of your rare skills and competitive daring . " = = Post @-@ player career = = After retiring as a player , Cousy published his autobiography Basketball Is My Life in 1963 , and in the same year became coach at Boston College . In the 1965 ECAC Holiday Basketball Festival at Madison Square Garden , Providence defeated Boston College 91 @-@ 86 in the title game , when the Friars were led by Tourney MVP and All @-@ American Jimmy Walker . Providence was coached by Joe Mullaney , who was Cousy 's teammate at Holy Cross when the two men were players there in 1947 . In his six seasons there , he had a record of 117 wins and 38 losses and was named New England Coach of the Year for 1968 and 1969 . Cousy led the Eagles to three NIT appearances , including a berth in the 1969 NIT Championship and two National Collegiate Athletic Association tournaments , including the 1967 Eastern Regional Finals . Cousy grew bored with college basketball and returned to the NBA as coach of the Cincinnati Royals , team of fellow Hall @-@ of @-@ Fame point guard Oscar Robertson . He later said about this engagement , " I did it for the money . I was made an offer I couldn 't refuse . " In 1970 , the 41 @-@ year @-@ old Cousy even made a late @-@ season comeback as a player to boost ticket sales . Despite his meager output of 5 points in 34 minutes of playing time in seven games , ticket sales jumped by 77 percent . He continued as coach of the team after it moved from Cincinnati to Kansas City / Omaha , but stepped down as the Kings ' coach early in the 1973 – 74 NBA season with a 141 – 209 record . In later life , Cousy was Commissioner of the American Soccer League from 1974 to 1979 . He has been a color analyst on Celtics telecasts since the 1980s . " In addition , Cousy had a role in the basketball film Blue Chips in 1993 , in which he played a college athletic director . Today he is a marketing consultant for the Celtics , and occasionally makes broadcast appearances with Mike Gorman and ex @-@ Celtic teammate Tom Heinsohn . = = = Coaching record = = = = = = = College coaching record = = = = = = = = NBA coaching record = = = = = = Legacy = = In 1954 , the NBA had no health benefits , pension plan , minimum salary , and the average player 's salary was $ 8 @,@ 000 a season . To combat this , Cousy organized the National Basketball Players Association , the first trade union among those in the four major North American professional sports leagues . Cousy served as its first president until 1958 . In his 13 @-@ year , 924 @-@ game NBA playing career , Cousy finished with 16 @,@ 960 points , 4 @,@ 786 rebounds and 6 @,@ 955 assists , translating to averages of 18 @.@ 4 points , 5 @.@ 2 rebounds and 7 @.@ 5 assists per game . He was regarded as the first great point guard of the NBA , winning eight of the first 11 assist titles in the league , all of them en bloc , and had a highly successful career , winning six NBA titles , one MVP award , 13 All @-@ Star and 12 All @-@ NBA First and Second Team call @-@ ups and two All @-@ Star MVP awards . With his eye @-@ catching dribbling and unorthodox passing , Cousy popularized modern guard play and raised the profile of the Boston Celtics and the entire NBA . His fast @-@ paced playing style was later emulated by the likes of Pete Maravich and Magic Johnson . In recognition of his feats , Cousy was inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 1971 and honored by the Celtics , which retired his # 14 jersey . Celtics owner Walter Brown said : " The Celtics wouldn 't be here without him [ Cousy ] . He made basketball in this town . If he had played in New York he would have been the biggest thing since [ New York Yankees baseball legend ] Babe Ruth . I think he is anyway . " In addition , on May 11 , 2006 , ESPN.com rated Cousy as the fifth greatest point guard of all time , lauding him as " ahead of his time with his ballhandling and passing skills " and pointing out he is one of only five point guards ever to win a NBA Most Valuable Player award . On November 16 , 2008 Cousy 's college # 17 was hoisted to the Hart Center rafters . During halftime of a game between the Holy Cross Crusaders and St. Joseph 's Hawks , Cousy , George Kaftan , Togo Palazzi , and Tommy Heinsohn 's numbers became the first to hang from the gymnasium 's ceiling . = = Personal life = = Cousy married his college sweetheart , Missie Ritterbusch , in December 1950 , six months after he graduated from Holy Cross . They lived in Worcester , Massachusetts , and had two daughters , Missie died on September 20 , 2013 , after suffering from dementia for several years . Cousy was well @-@ known , both on and off the court , for his public stance against racism , a result of his upbringing in a multicultural environment . In 1950 , the Celtics played a game in the then @-@ segregated city of Charlotte , North Carolina , and teammate Chuck Cooper — the first African @-@ American in NBA history to be drafted — would have been denied a hotel room . Instead of taking the hotel room , Cousy insisted on travelling with Cooper on an uncomfortable overnight train . He described their visit to a segregated men 's toilet — Cooper was prohibited from using the clean " for whites " bathroom and had to use the shabby " for colored " facility — as one of the most shameful experiences of his life . He also sympathized with the plight of black Celtics star Bill Russell , who was frequently a victim of racism . Cousy was close to his Celtics mentor , head coach Red Auerbach , and was one of the few permitted to call him " Arnold " , his given name , instead of his nickname " Red " .
= 1952 Winter Olympics = The 1952 Winter Olympics ( Norwegian : Vinter @-@ OL 1952 ) , officially known as the VI Olympic Winter Games ( French : Les VIes Jeux olympiques d 'hiver ) , took place in Oslo , Norway , from 14 to 25 February . Discussions about Oslo hosting the Winter Olympic Games began as early as 1935 ; the city wanted to host the 1948 Games , but World War II made that impossible . Instead , Oslo won the right to host the 1952 Games in a contest that included Cortina d 'Ampezzo in Italy and Lake Placid in the United States . All of the venues were in Oslo 's metropolitan area except for the alpine skiing events , which were held at Norefjell , 113 km ( 70 mi ) from the capital . A new hotel was built for the press and dignitaries , along with three dormitories to house athletes and coaches , creating the first modern athlete 's village . The city of Oslo bore the financial burden of hosting the Games in return for the revenue they generated . The Games attracted 694 athletes representing 30 countries , who participated in four sports and 22 events . Japan and Germany made their returns to winter Olympic competition , after being forced to miss the 1948 Games in the aftermath of World War II . Germany was represented solely by West German athletes because East Germany declined to compete as a unified team . Portugal and New Zealand made their Winter Olympic debuts , and for the first time women were allowed to compete in cross @-@ country skiing . Norwegian truck driver Hjalmar Andersen won three out of four speed skating events to become the most decorated athlete at the Games . Germany resumed its former prominence in bobsleigh , with wins in the four- and two @-@ man events . Dick Button of the United States performed the first triple jump in international competition to claim his second consecutive men 's figure skating Olympic title . The 1952 Games featured one demonstration sport , bandy , but only three Nordic countries competed in the tournament . Norway dominated the overall medal count with 16 medals , seven of them gold . The Games closed with the presentation of a flag that would be passed from one Winter Olympics host city to the next . The flag , which became known as the " Oslo flag " , has been displayed in the host city during each subsequent Winter Games . = = Host city selection = = Oslo had unsuccessfully bid to host the 1936 Winter Olympics , losing to Germany , which had hosted the 1936 Summer Olympics . At that time , the nation that hosted the Summer Olympics also hosted the Winter Olympics . After the 1936 Games , the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) decided to award the Winter and Summer Games to different countries , but the Games were suspended during World War II . London hosted the first post @-@ war Games , the 1948 Summer Olympics , and recommended Oslo as the host city for the 1948 Winter Games , but the city council declined . Instead , the 1948 Winter Olympics were held in St. Moritz , Switzerland . Norwegians were undecided about hosting a Winter Olympics . Culturally , they were opposed to competitive winter sports , particularly skiing events , despite the success of Norwegian athletes at previous Winter Games . But the organizers believed the 1952 Games could be an opportunity to promote national unity and to show the world that Norway had recovered from the war . Vying with Oslo for the right to host the Games were Cortina d 'Ampezzo , Italy , and Lake Placid , United States . The IOC voted to award the 1952 Winter Games to Oslo on 21 June 1947 at the 40th IOC Session in Stockholm , Sweden . Later , Cortina d 'Ampezzo was awarded the 1956 Games , and Lake Placid — which had hosted the 1932 Winter Olympics — was chosen to host the 1980 Winter Games . Norway became the first Scandinavian country to host a Winter Olympics , and the 1952 Winter Games were the first to be held in a nation 's capital . = = = Results = = = = = Organization = = A special committee was assigned to organize the 1952 Games , which consisted of four Norwegian sports officials and four representatives from the municipality of Oslo , including mayor Brynjulf Bull . The committee was in place by December 1947 . The city of Oslo funded the Games entirely , in exchange for keeping all the revenue generated . To accommodate the influx of athletes and coaches , quarters for competitors and support staff were designed and constructed , with three new facilities ( forerunners of the athlete 's villages of later Games ) built . The city of Oslo paid to have a new hotel constructed , the Viking , used for IOC delegates , out @-@ of @-@ town dignitaries , and as the communication hub of the Games . For the first time in a Winter Games , an indoor ice hockey arena was constructed , which hosted the eight @-@ team tournament . Oslo 's existing central arena , Bislett Stadium , was used for the opening and closing ceremonies , and for speed skating events . Improvements to the arena included better sound and lighting systems , remodeled club house and press rooms , and the addition of a medical center . = = Politics = = In the aftermath of the German occupation of Norway during World War II , anti @-@ German sentiment began to affect preparations for the 1952 Olympics . Discussions were held to consider whether Germany should be allowed to participate in the Games . When in 1950 , the West German Olympic Committee requested recognition by the IOC , it raised the question of whether their participation would cause political boycotts in the upcoming Games . Once the IOC recognized the West German Olympic Committee , West Germany was then formally invited to compete at the 1952 Winter Games . East Germany was invited to participate with West Germany , as a unified team , but they declined . At first Norway was reluctant to welcome German athletes and others considered Nazi sympathizers . For example , Norwegian speed skater Finn Hodt was not allowed to compete in the Norwegian speed skating team because he collaborated with the Nazis during the war . Eventually , despite the concern , Norway agreed to allow German and Japanese athletes to compete . The Soviet Union sent no athletes to Oslo , despite being recognized by the IOC . They had intended to enter a team in the ice hockey tournament , but applied too late to join the International Ice Hockey Federation . = = Events = = Medals were awarded in 22 events contested in four sports ( eight disciplines ) . Bobsleigh ( 2 ) ( ) Ice hockey ( 1 ) ( ) Skating Figure skating ( 3 ) ( ) Speed skating ( 4 ) ( ) Skiing Alpine skiing ( 6 ) ( ) Nordic skiing ( ) Cross @-@ country skiing ( 4 ) ( ) Nordic combined ( 1 ) ( ) Ski jumping ( 1 ) ( ) = = = Opening ceremonies = = = The opening ceremonies were held in Bislett Stadium on 15 February . King George VI of Great Britain had died on 6 February 1952 , eight days before the start of the Games . As a result , all national flags were flown at half @-@ mast , and Princess Ragnhild opened the Games in place of her grandfather , King Haakon VII , who was in London attending the funeral . This was the first time an Olympic Games had been declared open by a woman . The parade of nations was held according to tradition , with Greece first , the rest of the nations proceeding by Norwegian alphabetical order , with the host nation last . The British , Australian , Canadian and New Zealand teams all wore black arm bands at the opening ceremonies in memory of their monarch . After the parade of nations the Olympic flame was lit . On 13 February , at the start of the inaugural Winter Olympics torch relay , the torch was lit in the hearth of the Morgedal House , birthplace of skiing pioneer Sondre Norheim . The torch relay lasted two days and took place entirely on skis . At the opening ceremonies the final torch bearer , Eigil Nansen , received the Olympic torch and skied to a flight of stairs where he removed his skis , ascended , and ignited the flame . The bobsleigh and alpine skiing events were held the day before the opening ceremonies . Competitors in these events were unable to attend the festivities in Oslo ; consequently simple opening ceremonies were held at Frognerseteren , site of the bobsleigh events , and Norefjell , site of the alpine skiing events . = = = Bobsleigh = = = After a 16 @-@ year hiatus from the Olympics Germany made a triumphant return to the bobsleigh competition , winning the two- and four @-@ man events . The results for both bobsleigh events were the same , with the United States and Switzerland taking silver and bronze respectively . Fritz Feierabend from Switzerland competed in both the two- and four @-@ man competitions . His two bronze medals were the fourth and fifth in an Olympic career that spanned 16 years and three Olympics . There were no weight restrictions on the bobsleigh athletes , and the average weight for each member of the winning German four @-@ man team was 117 kg ( 258 lb ) , which was more than the Olympic heavyweight boxing champion in 1952 . Seeing the undue advantage overweight athletes brought to their teams , the International Federation for Bobsleigh and Toboganning instituted a weight limit for future Olympics . = = = Speed skating = = = All of the speed skating events were held at Bislett Stadium . Americans Ken Henry and Don McDermott placed first and second in the 500 @-@ meter race , but Norwegian truck driver Hjalmar Andersen electrified the partisan crowd by winning the 1 @,@ 500 , 5 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 @-@ meter events ; his margins of victory were the largest in Olympic history . Dutchman Wim van der Voort placed second in the 1 @,@ 500 meters and his countryman Kees Broekman placed second to Andersen in the 5 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 @-@ meter races , becoming the first Olympic speed skating medalists from the Netherlands . Absent from the competition was former world champion Kornél Pajor . The Hungarian @-@ born speed skater had won both long distance races at the World Championships held in Oslo in 1949 and then defected to Sweden , but was unable to obtain Swedish citizenship in time to compete in 1952 . = = = Alpine skiing = = = There were three alpine skiing events on the Olympic program : the slalom , giant slalom and downhill . Both men and women competed in all three events , held at Norefjell and Rødkleiva . The giant slalom made its Olympic debut at the 1952 Games . Austrian skiers dominated the competition , winning seven out of a possible 18 medals , including Othmar Schneider who won gold and silver in the men 's slalom and downhill . Norwegian Stein Eriksen won gold in the men 's giant slalom and silver in the slalom . Greek slalom skier Antoin Miliordos fell 18 times on his run and crossed the finish line backwards . American skier Andrea Mead Lawrence was the only double gold medalist , winning the giant slalom and the slalom . She was the first skier from the United States to win two alpine skiing gold medals . = = = Cross @-@ country skiing = = = All the cross @-@ country events were held next to the ski jump hill at Holmenkollbakken . As had been the case in 1948 there were three men 's events : 18 kilometers , 50 kilometers , and a relay . Added to the Olympic program for the first time was a ten @-@ kilometer race for women . All the cross @-@ country medals were won by Nordic countries , and Finnish skiers won eight of the twelve possible . Lydia Wideman of Finland became the first female Olympic champion in cross @-@ country skiing ; her teammates Mirja Hietamies and Siiri Rantanen won silver and bronze respectively . Veikko Hakulinen won the 50 @-@ kilometer men 's race to begin an Olympic career that would culminate in seven medals , three of them gold . Hallgeir Brenden won the 18 @-@ kilometer race and helped Norway take the silver in the 4 × 10 @-@ kilometer relay . Brenden went on to win another gold in the men 's 15 @-@ kilometer race in 1956 , and a silver in the relay in 1960 . = = = Nordic combined = = = The nordic combined event was held at the cross @-@ country and ski jump venues . For the first time , the ski jump part took place first with competitors taking three jumps from the Holmenkollbakken . The 18 km cross country skiing event took place the next day . Results were tallied by the best two marks were scored , along with the results of the cross @-@ country race , to determine a winner . Norwegians Simon Slåttvik and Sverre Stenersen won the gold and bronze respectively . Stenersen went on to win the gold at the 1956 Games in the same event . Heikki Hasu from Finland won the silver , preventing a Norwegian sweep of the medals . = = = Ski jumping = = = Crowds in excess of 100 @,@ 000 greeted the ski jumpers as they competed at Holmenkollbakken . In 1952 there was only one event , the men 's normal hill , which was held on 24 February . The King , Prince Harald , and Princess Ragnhild were in attendance . The Norwegian athletes did not disappoint the crowd , as Arnfinn Bergmann and Torbjørn Falkanger placed first and second ; Swedish jumper Karl Holmström took the bronze . Norwegian athletes won the ski jumping gold medal in every Winter Olympics from 1924 to 1952 . = = = Figure skating = = = There were three events in the Olympic figure skating competition : men 's singles , women 's singles and mixed pairs . The events were held at Bislett Stadium on a rink constructed inside the speed skating track . The collusion of judges to influence results was an emerging trend in the years leading up to the Oslo Games . Between 1949 and 1952 the International Skating Union had banned five judges for attempting to fix scores , although no evidence of wrongdoing was found in the judging of the Olympic competitions . Dick Button of the United States won the men 's singles event . Helmut Seibt of Austria took silver and James Grogan of the United States won bronze . Button became the first figure @-@ skater to land a triple jump in competition when he performed the triple loop in the men 's free skate . British skater Jeannette Altwegg won the gold medal in the women 's singles , the silver was awarded to American Tenley Albright , who went on to win gold at the 1956 Winter Games in Cortina d 'Ampezzo , and Jacqueline du Bief of France won the bronze . The German husband and wife pair of Ria and Paul Falk won the mixed pairs competition . They defeated Americans Karol and Peter Kennedy , who placed second , and Hungarian siblings Marianna and László Nagy , who won the bronze medal . = = = Ice hockey = = = A majority of the ice hockey matches took place at Jordal Amfi , a new hockey stadium built for the Olympics . Nine teams played in the tournament and Canada again won the gold medal . Canada had won all but one Olympic hockey tournament thus far , but in 1956 the Soviet team began to compete and ended Canadian dominance . Canada was represented by the Edmonton Mercurys , an amateur hockey team sponsored by the owner of a Mercury automobile dealership . Canada played the United States to a three all tie on the final day to clinch the Gold , and assure the Americans of Silver . Norwegian newspaper Dagbladet criticized the result , calling the game , " fixed in advance . " Sweden and Czechoslovakia ended up tied for third and played an extra game for the bronze medal , which went to Sweden . The Czechs believed they had already won the Bronze when they defeated the Swedes on the final day , calling the decision to play a tie @-@ breaking game a , " plot of the capitalist countries . " Teams from North America were criticized for their rough play ; although body checking was legal , it was not often used by European teams , and opponents and spectators alike took a dim view of that style of play . = = = Bandy = = = The IOC lobbied the organizing committee to host either military patrol or curling as a demonstration sport . The committee instead selected bandy , which had never been included in the Winter Games . Bandy which is popular in nordic countries , is played by teams of eleven on an outdoor soccer field @-@ sized ice rink , using a small ball and sticks about 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 @.@ 9 ft ) long . As it was a demonstration sport , the players were ineligible for medals . Three nations participated : Finland , Norway and Sweden . Each of the three teams won one game and lost one game ; with Sweden winning the competition based on number of goals scored , followed by Norway in second place , and Finland in third place . Two of the games were played at Dæhlenenga Stadium and one at Bislett Stadium . = = = Closing ceremonies = = = At the 1952 Winter Games the closing ceremonies were a distinct program listing , unlike previous Winter Games when the closing ceremonies were held directly after the final event . The closing ceremonies were held in Bislett Stadium , on Monday evening , 25 February . The flag bearers entered the stadium in the same order they followed for the opening ceremonies . That evening four medal ceremonies were also held for the women 's cross @-@ country race , the men 's cross @-@ country relay , the ski jumping competition , and the ice hockey tournament . Since 1920 , the " Antwerp flag " has been passed from host city to host city during closing ceremonies for the Summer Games . The city of Oslo gave an Olympic flag to establish the same tradition for the Winter Games . Brynjulf Bull , Oslo 's mayor , passed the flag to the president of the IOC , Sigfrid Edström , who declared the flag was to pass from host city to host city for future Winter Games . The flag , which came to be known as the " Oslo Flag " , has since been preserved in a display case , with the name of every Winter Olympics host city engraved on brass plaques , and is brought to each Winter Games to be displayed . A replica is used during the closing ceremonies . After the flag ceremony the Olympic flame was extinguished , a special speed skating race was held , and the figure skating competitors gave an exhibition , followed by 40 children dressed in national costumes performing an ice dance . For a finale , to the close the Games , the lights were extinguished and a 20 @-@ minute fireworks display lit up the night sky . = = Calendar = = All dates are in Central European Time ( UTC + 1 ) The official opening ceremonies were held on 15 February , although two smaller ceremonies were held on 14 February to conform with competition schedules . From 15 February until 25 February , the day of the closing ceremonies , at least one event final was held each day . † Bandy was a demonstration sport at the 1952 Winter Games , and no medals were awarded . ‡ The numeral indicates the number of event finals for each sport held that day . = = Venues = = With a seating capacity of 29 @,@ 000 , Bislett Stadium became the centrepiece of the Games . It was the venue for the speed skating events and the figure skating competition . Bislett was large enough for a 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) speed skating track , and a figure skating ice @-@ rink of 30 by 60 m ( 98 by 197 ft ) ; a snow bank separated the track and the rink . Because Bislett was an outdoor arena , the organizing committee chose Tryvann Stadion and Hamar Stadion as secondary alternative skating venues to be used the case of bad weather . In 1994 Hamar became the venue for the speed skating events at the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer . The Oslo Winter Games were the first to feature an Olympic ice hockey tournament held on artificial ice . A new stadium was built for the hockey tournament in a residential area of eastern Oslo , called Jordal Amfi , which accommodated 10 @,@ 000 spectators in stands rising steeply from the rink . Twenty @-@ three of the 36 hockey matches were played at Jordal Amfi , with the remaining matches played at Kadettangen , Dælenenga idrettspark , Lillestrøm Stadion and Marienlyst Stadion . The cross @-@ country races and ski @-@ jump competition were held at Holmenkollbakken , located roughly 8 km ( 5 mi ) from the center of Oslo . The expected number of spectators caused concerns about traffic , so a new road was constructed and the existing thoroughfare widened . Holmenkollbakken was built in 1892 and improvements were needed to meet international standards . The original wood ski @-@ jump was replaced with a concrete tower and jump that was 87 m ( 285 ft ) long . New stands were built to seat 13 @,@ 000 people , and an area was added at the base of the hill to accommodate 130 @,@ 000 spectators . The hills and terrain in the surrounding area met the competitive demands for an elite cross @-@ country ski event . A notice board was posted at the start and finish lines to help spectators monitor the progress of the competitors . The cross @-@ country and nordic combined races began and ended at the base of the ski jump hill . The stands for the ski jump competition had to be removed during the cross @-@ country races ; spectators had only a small area from which to watch the races but were allowed on the course to cheer on the competitors . The alpine skiing events were split between Norefjell and Rødkleiva . The slalom courses were at Rødkleiva , located on the same mountain as Holmenkollen and Frognerseteren . The course had an elevation difference , from start to finish , of 200 m ( 660 ft ) and was 480 m ( 1 @,@ 570 ft ) in length . A rope tow had to be built to bring the skiers from the bottom to the top of the hill . The downhill race and the giant slalom — which made its Olympic deput in 1952 — were held at Norefjell , which was 113 km ( 70 mi ) from Oslo and the only venue located away from the capital city . Work had to be done to make the area suitable for Olympic competition . A bridge across Lake Krøderen was built to help alleviate transportation congestion . A new hotel , two ski lifts , and a new road were also constructed . There was no permanent bobsleigh run in Norway . Instead the organizers built a temporary course out of snow and ice . This is often wrongly assumed to have been built at Korketrekkeren . From Frognerseteren a separate1,508 m ( 4 @,@ 948 ft ) long , thirteen @-@ turn course was designed and built . The bobsleigh run was first constructed and tested in 1951 , then rebuilt for the Games in 1952 . A car was used to return the bobsleighs to the start of the track . = = Participating nations = = Thirty nations sent competitors , which was the highest number of participants at a Winter Games . New Zealand and Portugal took part in the Winter Olympic Games for the first time . Australia , Germany , and Japan returned after a 16 @-@ year absence . South Korea , Liechtenstein , and Turkey competed in 1948 but did not participate in the 1952 Games . = = Medal count = = These are the nations that topped the medal count at the 1952 Winter Games .
= Brad Pitt = William Bradley " Brad " Pitt ( born December 18 , 1963 ) is an American actor and producer . He has received multiple awards and nominations including an Academy Award as producer under his own company Plan B Entertainment . Pitt first gained recognition as a cowboy hitchhiker in the road movie Thelma & Louise ( 1991 ) . His first leading roles in big @-@ budget productions came with the dramas A River Runs Through It ( 1992 ) and Legends of the Fall ( 1994 ) , and Interview with the Vampire ( 1994 ) . He gave critically acclaimed performances in the crime thriller Seven and the science fiction film 12 Monkeys ( both 1995 ) , the latter earning him a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor and an Academy Award nomination . Pitt starred in the cult film Fight Club ( 1999 ) and the major international hit Ocean 's Eleven ( 2001 ) and its sequels , Ocean 's Twelve ( 2004 ) and Ocean 's Thirteen ( 2007 ) . His greatest commercial successes have been Troy ( 2004 ) , Mr. & Mrs. Smith ( 2005 ) , and World War Z ( 2013 ) . Pitt received his second and third Academy Award nominations for his leading performances in The Curious Case of Benjamin Button ( 2008 ) and Moneyball ( 2011 ) . He produced The Departed ( 2006 ) and 12 Years a Slave ( 2013 ) , both of which won the Academy Award for Best Picture , and also The Tree of Life , Moneyball , and The Big Short ( 2015 ) , all of which garnered Best Picture nominations . Pitt has been cited as one of the most influential and powerful people in the American entertainment industry . Divorced from actress Jennifer Aniston , to whom he was married for five years , he has been married to actress Angelina Jolie since 2014 . They have six children together , three of whom were adopted internationally . = = Early life = = William Bradley Pitt was born in Shawnee , Oklahoma , to William Alvin Pitt , who ran a trucking company , and Jane Etta ( née Hillhouse ) , a school counsellor . The family soon moved to Springfield , Missouri , where he lived together with his younger siblings , Doug ( born 1966 ) and Julie Neal ( born 1969 ) . Born into a conservative household , he was raised as Southern Baptist , but has since stated that he does not " have a great relationship with religion " and that he " oscillate [ s ] between agnosticism and atheism . " Pitt has described Springfield as " Mark Twain country , Jesse James country " , having grown up with " a lot of hills , a lot of lakes " . Pitt attended Kickapoo High School , where he was a member of the golf , swimming and tennis teams . He participated in the school 's Key and Forensics clubs , in school debates , and in musicals . Following his graduation from high school , Pitt enrolled in the University of Missouri in 1982 , majoring in journalism with a focus on advertising . As graduation approached , Pitt did not feel ready to settle down . He loved films — " a portal into different worlds for me " — and , since films were not made in Missouri , he decided to go to where they were made . Two weeks before earning his degree , Pitt left the university and moved to Los Angeles , where he took acting lessons and worked odd jobs . = = Career = = = = = 1987 – 1993 : Early work = = = While struggling to establish himself in Los Angeles , Pitt took lessons from acting coach Roy London . Pitt 's acting career began in 1987 , with uncredited parts in the films No Way Out , No Man 's Land and Less Than Zero . His television debut came in May 1987 with a two @-@ episode role on the NBC soap opera Another World . In November of the same year Pitt had a guest appearance on the ABC sitcom Growing Pains . He appeared in four episodes of the CBS primetime series Dallas between December 1987 and February 1988 as Randy , the boyfriend of Charlie Wade ( played by Shalane McCall ) . Later in 1988 , Pitt made a guest appearance on the Fox police drama 21 Jump Street . In the same year , the Yugoslavian – U.S. co @-@ production The Dark Side of the Sun ( 1988 ) gave Pitt his first leading film role , as a young American taken by his family to the Adriatic to find a remedy for a skin condition . The film was shelved at the outbreak of the Croatian War of Independence , and was not released until 1997 . Pitt made two motion picture appearances in 1989 : the first in a supporting role in the comedy Happy Together ; the second a featured role in the horror film Cutting Class , the first of Pitt 's films to reach theaters . He made guest appearances on television series Head of the Class , Freddy 's Nightmares , Thirtysomething , and ( for a second time ) Growing Pains . Pitt was cast as Billy Canton , a drug addict who takes advantage of a young runaway ( played by Juliette Lewis ) in the 1990 NBC television movie Too Young to Die ? , the story of an abused teenager sentenced to death for a murder . Ken Tucker , television reviewer for Entertainment Weekly wrote : " Pitt is a magnificent slimeball as her hoody boyfriend ; looking and sounding like a malevolent John Cougar Mellencamp , he 's really scary . " The same year , Pitt co @-@ starred in six episodes of the short @-@ lived Fox drama Glory Days and took a supporting role in the HBO television film The Image . His next appearance came in the 1991 film Across the Tracks ; Pitt portrayed Joe Maloney , a high school runner with a criminal brother , played by Rick Schroder . After years of supporting roles in film and frequent television guest appearances , Pitt attracted wider recognition in his supporting role in Ridley Scott 's 1991 road film Thelma & Louise . He played J.D. , a small @-@ time criminal who befriends Thelma ( Geena Davis ) . His love scene with Davis has been cited as the event that defined Pitt as a sex symbol . After Thelma & Louise , Pitt starred in the 1991 film Johnny Suede , a low @-@ budget picture about an aspiring rock star , and the 1992 live @-@ action / animated fantasy film Cool World , although neither furthered his career , having poor reviews and box office performance . Pitt took the role of Paul Maclean in the 1992 biographical film A River Runs Through It , directed by Robert Redford . His portrayal of the character was described by People 's Janet Mock as a career @-@ making performance , proving that Pitt could be more than a " cowboy @-@ hatted hunk . " He has admitted to feeling under pressure when making the film and thought it one of his " weakest performances ... It 's so weird that it ended up being the one that I got the most attention for . " Pitt believed that he benefited from working with such a talented cast and crew . He compared working with Redford to playing tennis with a superior player , saying " when you play with somebody better than you , your game gets better . " In 1993 , Pitt reunited with Juliette Lewis for the road film Kalifornia . He played Early Grayce , a serial killer and the boyfriend of Lewis 's character in a performance described by Peter Travers of Rolling Stone as " outstanding , all boyish charm and then a snort that exudes pure menace . " Pitt also garnered attention for a brief appearance in the cult hit True Romance as a stoner named Floyd , providing much needed comic relief to the action film . He capped the year by winning a ShoWest Award for Male Star of Tomorrow . = = = 1994 – 98 : Critical success = = = 1994 marked a significant turning point in Pitt 's career . Starring as the vampire Louis de Pointe du Lac in the romantic horror film Interview with the Vampire , based on Anne Rice 's 1976 novel of the same name , he was part of an ensemble cast that included Tom Cruise , Kirsten Dunst , Christian Slater , and Antonio Banderas . Despite his winning two MTV Movie Awards at the 1995 ceremony , his performance was poorly received . According to the Dallas Observer , " Brad Pitt ... is a large part of the problem [ in the film ] . When directors play up his cocky , hunkish , folksy side ... he 's a joy to watch . But there 's nothing about him that suggests inner torment or even self @-@ awareness , which makes him a boring Louis . " Following the release of Interview with the Vampire , Pitt starred in Legends of the Fall ( 1994 ) , based on a novel by the same name by Jim Harrison , set in the American West during the first four decades of the twentieth century . Portraying Tristan Ludlow , son of Colonel William Ludlow ( Anthony Hopkins ) a Cornish immigrant , Pitt received his first Golden Globe Award nomination , in the Best Actor category . Aidan Quinn and Henry Thomas co @-@ starred as Pitt 's brothers . Although the film 's reception was mixed , many film critics praised Pitt 's performance . Janet Maslin of The New York Times said , " Pitt 's diffident mix of acting and attitude works to such heartthrob perfection it 's a shame the film 's superficiality gets in his way . " The Deseret News predicted that Legends of the Fall would solidify Pitt 's reputation as a lead actor . In 1995 , Pitt starred alongside Morgan Freeman and Gwyneth Paltrow in the crime thriller Seven , playing a detective on the trail of a serial killer . Pitt called it a great movie and declared the part would expand his acting horizons . He expressed his intent to move on from " this ' pretty boy ' thing ... and play someone with flaws . " His performance was critically well received , with Variety saying that it was screen acting at its best , further remarking on Pitt 's ability to turn in a " determined , energetic , creditable job " as the detective . Seven earned $ 327 million at the international box office . Following the success of Seven , Pitt took a supporting role as Jeffrey Goines in Terry Gilliam 's 1995 science @-@ fiction film 12 Monkeys . The movie received predominantly positive reviews , with Pitt praised in particular . Janet Maslin of the New York Times called Twelve Monkeys " fierce and disturbing " and remarked on Pitt 's " startlingly frenzied performance " , concluding that he " electrifies Jeffrey with a weird magnetism that becomes important later in the film . " He won a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor for the film and received his first Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor . The following year he had a role in the legal drama Sleepers ( 1996 ) , based on Lorenzo Carcaterra 's novel of the same name . The film received mixed reviews . In the 1997 film The Devil 's Own Pitt starred , opposite Harrison Ford , as the Irish Republican Army terrorist Rory Devany , a role for which he was required to learn an Irish accent . Critical opinion was divided on his accent ; " Pitt finds the right tone of moral ambiguity , but at times his Irish brogue is too convincing – it 's hard to understand what he 's saying " , wrote the San Francisco Chronicle . The Charleston Gazette opined that it had favored Pitt 's accent over the movie . The Devil 's Own grossed $ 140 million worldwide , but was a critical failure . Later that year he led as Austrian mountaineer Heinrich Harrer in the Jean @-@ Jacques Annaud film Seven Years in Tibet . Pitt trained for months for the role , which demanded significant mountain climbing and trekking practice , including rock climbing in California and the European Alps with his co @-@ star David Thewlis . The film received mostly negative reviews , and was generally considered a disappointment . Pitt had the lead role in 1998 's fantasy romance film Meet Joe Black . He portrayed a personification of death inhabiting the body of a young man to learn what it is like to be human . The film received mixed reviews , and many were critical of Pitt 's performance . According to Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle , Pitt was unable to " make an audience believe that he knows all the mysteries of death and eternity . " Roger Ebert stated " Pitt is a fine actor , but this performance is a miscalculation . " = = = 1999 – 2003 = = = In 1999 , Pitt portrayed Tyler Durden in Fight Club , a film adaptation of Chuck Palahniuk 's novel of the same name , directed by David Fincher . Pitt prepared for the part with lessons in boxing , taekwondo , and grappling . To look the part , Pitt consented to the removal of pieces of his front teeth which were restored when filming ended . While promoting Fight Club , Pitt said that the film explored not taking one 's aggressions out on someone else but to " have an experience , take a punch more and see how you come out on the other end . " Fight Club premiered at the 1999 Venice International Film Festival . Despite divided critical opinion on the film as a whole , Pitt 's performance was widely praised . Paul Clinton of CNN noted the risky yet successful nature of the film , while Variety remarked upon Pitt 's ability to be " cool , charismatic and more dynamically physical , perhaps than ... his breakthrough role in Thelma and Louise " . In spite of a worse @-@ than @-@ expected box office performance , Fight Club became a cult classic after its DVD release in 2000 . Following Fight Club , Pitt was cast as an Irish Gypsy boxer with a barely intelligible accent in Guy Ritchie 's 2000 gangster film Snatch . Several reviewers were critical of Snatch ; however , most praised Pitt . Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle said Pitt was " ideally cast as an Irishman whose accent is so thick even Brits can 't understand him " , going on to say that , before Snatch , Pitt had been " shackled by roles that called for brooding introspection , but recently he has found his calling in black comic outrageousness and flashy extroversion ; " while Amy Taubin of The Village Voice claimed that " Pitt gets maximum comic mileage out of a one @-@ joke role " . The following year Pitt starred opposite Julia Roberts in the romantic comedy The Mexican , a film that garnered a range of reviews but enjoyed box office success . Pitt 's next role , in 2001 's $ 143 million @-@ grossing Cold War thriller Spy Game , was as Tom Bishop , an operative of the CIA 's Special Activities Division , mentored by Robert Redford 's character . Mark Holcomb of Salon.com enjoyed the film , although he noted that neither Pitt nor Redford provided " much of an emotional connection for the audience " . On November 22 , 2001 , Pitt made a guest appearance in the eighth season of the television series Friends , playing a man with a grudge against Rachel Green , played by Jennifer Aniston , to whom Pitt was married at the time . For this performance he was nominated for an Emmy Award in the category of Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series . In December 2001 , Pitt had the role of Rusty Ryan in the heist film Ocean 's Eleven , a remake of the 1960 Rat Pack original . He joined an ensemble cast including George Clooney , Matt Damon , Andy García , and Julia Roberts . Well received by critics , Ocean 's Eleven was highly successful at the box office , earning $ 450 million worldwide . Pitt appeared in two episodes of MTV 's reality series Jackass in February 2002 , first running through the streets of Los Angeles with several cast members in gorilla suits , and participating in his own staged abduction in another episode . In the same year , Pitt had a cameo role in George Clooney 's directorial debut Confessions of a Dangerous Mind . He took on his first voice @-@ acting roles in 2003 , speaking as the titular character of the DreamWorks animated film Sinbad : Legend of the Seven Seas and playing Boomhauer 's brother , Patch , in an episode of the animated television series King of the Hill . = = = 2004 – present = = = Pitt had two major film roles in 2004 , starring as Achilles in Troy , and making a second appearance as Rusty Ryan , in the sequel Ocean 's Twelve . He spent six months sword training before the filming of Troy , based on the Iliad . An on @-@ set injury to his Achilles tendon delayed production on the picture for several weeks . Stephen Hunter of The Washington Times stated that Pitt excelled at such a demanding role . Troy was the first film produced by Plan B Entertainment , a film production company he had founded two years earlier with Jennifer Aniston and Brad Grey , CEO of Paramount Pictures . Ocean 's Twelve earned $ 362 million worldwide , and Pitt and Clooney 's dynamic was described by CNN 's Paul Clinton as " the best male chemistry since Paul Newman and Robert Redford . " In 2005 , Pitt starred in the Doug Liman @-@ directed action comedy Mr. & Mrs. Smith , in which a bored married couple discover that each is an assassin sent to kill the other . The feature received reasonable reviews but was generally lauded for the chemistry between Pitt and Angelina Jolie , who played his character 's wife Jane Smith . The Star Tribune noted that " while the story feels haphazard , the movie gets by on gregarious charm , galloping energy and the stars ' thermonuclear screen chemistry . " Mr. & Mrs. Smith earned $ 478 million worldwide , making it one of the biggest hits of 2005 . For his next feature film , Pitt starred opposite Cate Blanchett in Alejandro González Iñárritu 's multi @-@ narrative drama Babel ( 2006 ) . Pitt 's performance was critically well @-@ received , and the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer said that he was credible and gave the film visibility . Pitt later said he regarded taking the part as one of the best decisions of his career . The film was screened at a special presentation at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival and was later featured at the 2006 Toronto International Film Festival . Babel received seven Academy and Golden Globe award nominations , winning the Best Drama Golden Globe , and earned Pitt a nomination for the Best Supporting Actor Golden Globe . That same year , Pitt 's company Plan B Entertainment produced The Departed , which won the Academy Award for Best Picture . Pitt was credited on @-@ screen as a producer ; however , only Graham King was ruled eligible for the Oscar win . Reprising his role as Rusty Ryan in a third picture , Pitt starred in 2007 's Ocean 's Thirteen . While less lucrative than the first two films , this sequel earned $ 311 million at the international box office . Pitt 's next film role was as American outlaw Jesse James in the 2007 Western drama The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford , adapted from Ron Hansen 's 1983 novel of the same name . Directed by Andrew Dominik and produced by Pitt 's company Plan B Entertainment , the film premiered at the 2007 Venice Film Festival , with Pitt playing a " scary and charismatic " role , according to Lewis Beale of Film Journal International , and earning Pitt the Volpi Cup award for Best Actor at the 64th Venice International Film Festival . He eventually collected the award one year later at the 2008 festival . Pitt 's next appearance was in the 2008 black comedy Burn After Reading , his first collaboration with the Coen brothers . The film received a positive reception from critics , with The Guardian calling it " a tightly wound , slickly plotted spy comedy " , noting that Pitt 's performance was one of the funniest . He was later cast as Benjamin Button , the lead in David Fincher 's 2008 film The Curious Case of Benjamin Button , a loosely adapted version of a 1921 short story by F. Scott Fitzgerald . The story follows a man who is born an octogenarian and ages in reverse , with Pitt 's " sensitive " performance making Benjamin Button a " timeless masterpiece , " according to Michael Sragow of The Baltimore Sun . The performance earned Pitt his first Screen Actors Guild Award nomination , as well as a fourth Golden Globe and second Academy Award nomination , all in the category for Best Actor . The film received thirteen Academy Award nominations in total , and grossed $ 329 million at the box office worldwide . Pitt 's next leading role came in 2009 with the Quentin Tarantino @-@ directed war film Inglourious Basterds , which premiered at the 2009 Cannes Film Festival . Pitt played Lieutenant Aldo Raine , an American resistance fighter battling Nazis in German @-@ occupied France . The film was a box office hit , taking $ 311 million worldwide , and garnered generally favorable reviews . The film received multiple awards and nominations , including eight Academy Award nominations and seven MTV Movie Award nominations , including Best Male Performance for Pitt . He next voiced the superhero character Metro Man in the 2010 animated feature Megamind . Pitt appeared in Terrence Malick 's experimental drama The Tree of Life , co @-@ starring Sean Penn , which won the Palme d 'Or at the 2011 Cannes Film Festival . In a performance that attracted strong praise , he portrayed the Oakland Athletics general manager Billy Beane in the drama Moneyball , which is based on the 2003 book of the same name written by Michael Lewis . Moneyball received six Academy Award nominations including Best Actor for Pitt . His next role was as mob hitman Jackie Cogan in Andrew Dominik 's 2012 Killing Them Softly , based on the novel Cogan 's Trade by George V. Higgins . In 2013 , Pitt starred in World War Z , a thriller about a zombie apocalypse , based on Max Brooks ' novel of the same name . Pitt also produced the film . World War Z grossed $ 540 million at the box office worldwide , becoming Pitt 's highest grossing picture . Next in 2013 , he produced , and played a small role in , 12 Years a Slave , a historical drama based on the autobiography of Solomon Northup . The film received critical acclaim and was nominated for nine Academy Awards , winning three , including Best Picture . Also in 2013 , Pitt had a supporting role in Ridley Scott 's The Counselor . Plan B productions landed its first television series on the 2013 – 2014 schedule , as their joint venture with ABC Studios , the sci @-@ fi / fantasy drama Resurrection , was picked up by ABC . Pitt starred in Fury , a World War II film directed and written by David Ayer , and co @-@ starring Shia LaBeouf , Logan Lerman , Jon Bernthal and Michael Pena . The film was released on October 17 , 2014 . By the end of its run , Fury proved to be a commercial and critical success ; it grossed more than $ 211 million worldwide and received highly positive reviews from critics . In 2015 , Pitt starred opposite his wife , Jolie , in her third directorial effort , By the Sea , a romantic drama about a marriage in crisis , based on her screenplay . The film was their first collaboration since 2005 's Mr. & Mrs. Smith . Pitt 's next role came with the biographical comedy @-@ drama The Big Short , which he also produced . The film was a commercial and critical success . It went on to gross over 102 million worldwide and received positive reviews from critics . The film was nominated for five Academy Awards , including Best Picture , earning Pitt his third Academy Award nomination as producer . In 2016 , Pitt will star in the Netflix satirical comedy War Machine . = = Humanitarian and political causes = = Pitt visited the University of Missouri campus in October 2004 to encourage students to vote in the 2004 U.S. presidential election , in which he supported John Kerry . Later in October he publicly supported the principle of public funding for embryonic stem @-@ cell research . " We have to make sure that we open up these avenues so that our best and our brightest can go find these cures that they believe they will find , " he said . In support of this he endorsed Proposition 71 , a California ballot initiative intended to provide state government funding for stem @-@ cell research . Pitt supports the ONE Campaign , an organization aimed at combating AIDS and poverty in the developing world . He narrated the 2005 PBS public television series Rx for Survival : A Global Health Challenge , which discusses current global health issues . The following year Pitt and Jolie flew to Haiti , where they visited a school supported by Yéle Haïti , a charity founded by Haitian @-@ born hip hop musician Wyclef Jean . In May 2007 , Pitt and Jolie donated $ 1 million to three organizations in Chad and Sudan dedicated to those affected by the crisis in the Darfur region . Along with Clooney , Damon , Don Cheadle , David Pressman , and Jerry Weintraub , Pitt is one of the founders of Not On Our Watch , an organization that focuses global attention on stopping " mass atrocities " . Pitt has a sustained interest in architecture , even taking time away from film to study computer @-@ aided design at the Los Angeles offices of renowned architect Frank Gehry . He narrated Design e2 , a PBS television series focused on worldwide efforts to build environmentally friendly structures through sustainable architecture and design . He founded the Make It Right Foundation in 2006 , organizing housing professionals in New Orleans to finance and construct 150 sustainable , affordable new houses in New Orleans 's Ninth Ward following the devastation caused by Hurricane Katrina . The project involves 13 architectural firms and the environmental organization Global Green USA , with several of the firms donating their services . Pitt and philanthropist Steve Bing have each committed $ 5 million in donations . The first six homes were completed in October 2008 , and in September 2009 Pitt received an award in recognition of the project from the U.S. Green Building Council , a non @-@ profit trade organization that promotes sustainability in how buildings are designed , built and operated . Pitt met with U.S. President Barack Obama and Speaker of the House of Representatives Nancy Pelosi in March 2009 to promote his concept of green housing as a national model and to discuss federal funding possibilities . In September 2006 , Pitt and Jolie established a charitable organization , the Jolie @-@ Pitt Foundation , to aid humanitarian causes around the world . The foundation made initial donations of $ 1 million each to Global Action for Children and Doctors Without Borders , followed by an October 2006 donation of $ 100 @,@ 000 to the Daniel Pearl Foundation , an organization created in memory of the late American journalist Daniel Pearl . According to federal filings , Pitt and Jolie invested $ 8 @.@ 5 million into the foundation in 2006 ; it gave away $ 2 @.@ 4 million in 2006 and $ 3 @.@ 4 million in 2007 . In June 2009 the Jolie @-@ Pitt Foundation donated $ 1 million to a U.N. refugee agency to help Pakistanis displaced by fighting between troops and Taliban militants . In January 2010 the foundation donated $ 1 million to Doctors Without Borders for emergency medical assistance to help victims of the Haiti earthquake . Pitt is a supporter of same @-@ sex marriage . In an October 2006 interview with Esquire , Pitt said that he would marry Jolie when everyone in America is legally able to marry . In September 2008 , he donated $ 100 @,@ 000 to the campaign against California 's 2008 ballot proposition Proposition 8 , an initiative to overturn the state Supreme Court decision that had legalized same @-@ sex marriage . In March 2012 , Pitt was featured in a performance of Dustin Lance Black 's play , ' 8' — a staged reenactment of the federal trial that overturned California 's Prop 8 ban on same @-@ sex marriage — as Judge Vaughn Walker . In September 2012 , Pitt reaffirmed his support of President Obama , saying , " I am an Obama supporter and I 'm backing his US election campaign . " = = Personal life = = = = = Relationships = = = In the late 1980s and early 1990s , Pitt was involved in successive relationships with several of his co @-@ stars , including Robin Givens ( Head of the Class ) , Jill Schoelen ( Cutting Class ) , and Juliette Lewis ( Too Young to Die ? and Kalifornia ) . In addition , Pitt had a much @-@ publicized romance and engagement to his Seven co @-@ star Gwyneth Paltrow , whom he dated from 1994 to 1997 . Pitt met Friends actress Jennifer Aniston in 1998 and married her in a private wedding ceremony in Malibu on July 29 , 2000 . For years their marriage was considered a rare Hollywood success ; however , in January 2005 , Pitt and Aniston announced they had decided to separate . Two months later , Aniston filed for divorce , citing irreconcilable differences . Pitt and Aniston 's divorce was finalized by the Los Angeles Superior Court on October 2 , 2005 . Despite media reports that Pitt and Aniston had an acrimonious relationship , Pitt said in a February 2009 interview that he and Aniston " check in with each other " , adding that they were both big parts of each other 's lives . During Pitt 's divorce proceedings , his involvement with his Mr. & Mrs. Smith co @-@ star Angelina Jolie attracted media attention . While Pitt stated that there was no infidelity , he also stated that he " fell in love " with Jolie on the set . In April 2005 , one month after Aniston filed for divorce , a set of paparazzi photographs emerged showing Pitt , Jolie and her son Maddox at a beach in Kenya ; the press interpreted the pictures as evidence of a relationship between Pitt and Jolie . During 2005 , the two were seen together with increasing frequency , and the entertainment media dubbed the couple " Brangelina " . On January 11 , 2006 , Jolie confirmed to People that she was pregnant with Pitt 's child , thereby publicly acknowledging their relationship for the first time . Pitt and Jolie announced their engagement in April 2012 after seven years together . They were married on August 23 , 2014 , in a private ceremony in Château Miraval , France . = = = Children = = = In July 2005 , Pitt accompanied Jolie to Addis Ababa , Ethiopia , where she adopted her second child , Zahara Marley . On December 3 , 2005 , Pitt was in the process of becoming the adoptive father of both children ; on January 19 , 2006 , a California judge granted Jolie 's request to change the children 's surnames from " Jolie " to " Jolie @-@ Pitt " . The adoptions were finalized soon after . Jolie gave birth to daughter Shiloh Nouvel in Swakopmund , Namibia , on May 27 , 2006 . Pitt confirmed that their newborn daughter would have a Namibian passport . The couple sold the first pictures of Shiloh through the distributor Getty Images ; the North American rights were purchased by People for over $ 4 @.@ 1 million , while Hello ! obtained the British rights for approximately $ 3 @.@ 5 million . The proceeds from the sale were donated to charities serving African children . Madame Tussauds in New York unveiled a wax figure of two @-@ month @-@ old Shiloh ; it marked the first time an infant was recreated in wax by Madame Tussauds . On March 15 , 2007 , Jolie adopted three @-@ year @-@ old Pax Thien from an orphanage in Ho Chi Minh City , Vietnam . Pitt adopted Pax in the United States on February 21 , 2008 . At the Cannes Film Festival in May 2008 , Jolie confirmed that she was expecting twins . She gave birth to son Knox Léon and daughter Vivienne Marcheline on July 12 , 2008 in Nice , France . The rights for the first images of Knox and Vivienne were jointly sold to People and Hello ! for $ 14 million — the most expensive celebrity pictures ever taken . The couple donated the proceeds to the Jolie @-@ Pitt Foundation . = = In the media = = Pitt 's perceived sex appeal has been picked up by many sources , including Empire , who named him one of the 25 sexiest stars in film history in 1995 . The same year , Pitt won People 's Sexiest Man Alive , an accolade he won again in 2000 . Pitt appeared on Forbes 's annual Celebrity 100 list of the 100 most powerful celebrities in 2006 , 2007 , and 2008 , at No. 20 , No. 5 , and No. 10 respectively . In 2007 , he was listed among the Time 100 , a compilation of the 100 most influential people in the world , as selected annually by TIME . The magazine credited Pitt with using " his star power to get people to look [ to where ] cameras don 't usually catch " . Pitt was again included in the Time 100 in 2009 , this time in the Builders and Titans list . Starting in 2005 , Pitt 's relationship with Angelina Jolie became one of the most reported celebrity stories worldwide . After confirming that Jolie was pregnant in early 2006 , the significant media hype surrounding the couple reached what Reuters , in a story titled " The Brangelina fever , " called " the point of insanity " . To avoid media attention , the couple flew to Namibia for the birth of their daughter Shiloh , which was described by the media as " the most anticipated baby since Jesus Christ . " Similarly , intense media interest greeted the announcement two years later of Jolie 's second pregnancy ; for the two weeks Jolie spent in a seaside hospital in Nice , reporters and photographers camped outside on the promenade to report on the birth . In a 2006 global industry survey by ACNielsen in 42 international markets , Pitt , together with Jolie , was found to be the favorite celebrity endorser for brands and products worldwide . Pitt has appeared in several television commercials . For the U.S. market , he starred in a Heineken commercial aired during the 2005 Super Bowl ; it was directed by David Fincher , who had directed Pitt in Seven , Fight Club , and The Curious Case of Benjamin Button . Other commercial appearances came in television spots including Acura Integra , in which he was featured opposite Russian model Tatiana Sorokko , as well as SoftBank , and Edwin Jeans . On June 2 , 2015 , the minor planet 29132 Bradpitt was named in his honor . = = Awards and nominations = = = = Filmography ( selected ) = =
= NSB El 17 = The NSB El 17 is a class of twelve electric locomotives built by Thyssen @-@ Henschel and Norsk Elektrisk & Brown Boveri ( NEBB ) for the Norwegian State Railways ( NSB ) . The class was built in two batches , the first delivered in 1982 and numbered 2221 – 2226 , and the second delivered in 1987 and numbered 2227 – 2232 . The traction system of the El 17 was based on the DB Class 120 of Germany ( BBC , AEG and Siemens ) and were among the first in the world to feature three @-@ phase asynchronous motors . The units were ordered to be used on the intercity Bergen , Dovre and Sørland Lines , but were plagued with technical faults ( overheating traction equipment , transient voltages , etc . ) . The unreliability and lack of sufficient power forced NSB to instead use them in the regional Vestfold and Gjøvik Lines . With the delivery of the El 18 , the first series was retired or used as shunters . The second series has been used on the Flåm Line since 1998 . The locomotives have a maximum 3 @,@ 000 kilowatts ( 4 @,@ 000 hp ) power output and a 240 kN ( 54 @,@ 000 lbf ) tractive effort , allowing the locomotive to haul a six @-@ car train . They run on a 15 kV 16 2 ⁄ 3 Hz AC power supply and are capable of operating at 150 km / h ( 93 mph ) . The units have a Bo 'Bo ' wheel arrangement , have regenerative brakes and weigh 64 tonnes ( 63 long tons ; 71 short tons ) . The series was delivered at the same time as the Di 4 and have some similarities with the class . = = History = = During the late 1970s , NSB was in need of new rolling stock for their intercity trains . At first electric multiple units were considered , but NSB instead chose to order locomotives and waggons , to have greater operational flexibility . The choice fell on the German DB Class 120 , which was the first three @-@ phase asynchronous locomotive in the world in " almost " regular service ( prototype 120 @.@ 0 in test service 1979 , the serial version 120 @.@ 1 from 1986 ) . However , the Norwegian variation was scaled down due to the maximum axle load ( 16 @.@ 0 t or 15 @.@ 7 long tons or 17 @.@ 6 short tons , Class 120 has 21 @.@ 0 t or 20 @.@ 7 long tons or 23 @.@ 1 short tons ) and had a lower power output than the Class 120 . Because of this , the El 17 is less powerful than its three predecessors , El 14 , El 15 and El 16 ( 3 @.@ 0 MW instead of 4 @.@ 4 MW ) . When the order was placed , it was the first Norwegian electric locomotive with the mechanical components built in Germany . At the same time , NSB ordered five six @-@ axle diesel @-@ electric locomotives from Thyssen @-@ Henschel ( Mark Di 4 ) , almost the same as the Danish Mark ME 1500 . The Di 4 / ME 1500 have many similarities to its electric counterpart El 17 . The two were planned to have the same rectifiers and motors , but due to weight restrictions the El 17 received the same type as Class 120 . The first six locomotives , numbered 2221 – 2226 , were delivered in 1982 . At the same time , the delivery of the B7 passenger cars from Strømmens Verksted was made , and the first train with an El 17 and B7s in regular service operated on the Dovre Line on 14 September 1982 . The El 17 was plagued with problems ( overheated components , etc . ) , and NSB quickly decided to operate them in pairs in case one unit should fail . On 6 July 1982 , there was a fire in 2224 , and it was sent to Thyssen @-@ Henschel to be redesigned . NSB initially placed the unit in service with a round trip from Oslo to Trondheim each day . Due to the technical malfunctions , all the six original trains were rebuilt several times ; in the end , they all had different technical solutions . Eventually NSB felt confident that they had found a technical solution that would be satisfactory , and ordered another six units to allow all trains on the Dovre , Bergen and Sørland Lines to be hauled with the class . Units 2227 – 2232 were delivered in 1987 , and put into regular service on the Sørland Line . Although better than the first series , the second series was also prone to technical problems , and never entered regular service on the Bergen Line . During the 1990s , they were also put into service on the regional rail services on the Vestfold and Gjøvik Lines . The units were never well @-@ liked by NSB , in part because of the bad name the first series had given , and partly because the number of available units was unpredictable . It also took a while for NSB to discover that asynchronous locomotives needed to be operated differently . The locomotives had been designed to haul a six @-@ car train , but NSB regularly needed to haul eight @-@ car trains , and therefore instead used the more powerful El 16 . In the early 1990s , NSB decided that they would replace the intercity trains with the Class 73 tilting multiple unit , and the locomotives for loco @-@ hauled trains with the Swiss @-@ designed El 18 ( also with electric equipment from ABB , former BBC ) . In 1997 , no . 2226 was put aside , and scrapped the following year . From 1998 , the second series of El 17 was put into service on the Flåm Line , a steep tourist line that connects to the Bergen Line . The units were painted green and connected at each end of a train of six B3 passenger cars . From 2003 , the first series was taken out of regular service , and units 2222 , 2224 and 2225 were put into shunting service at Lodalen . Unit 2223 was transferred to the Norwegian Railway Museum , where it was put on display . = = Specifications = = The El 17 was built by the manufacturer Thyssen @-@ Henschel of Germany . The locomotives have three @-@ phase asynchronous motors with a continuous output power of 3 @,@ 000 kilowatts ( 4 @,@ 000 hp ) , allowing a maximum speed of 150 kilometres per hour ( 93 mph ) . The units receive 15 kV 16 2 ⁄ 3 Hz AC power from a pantograph and are the first class of locomotive for NSB that has regenerative brakes . The electrical equipment was designed by the manufacturer BBC ( German plant Mannheim ) but built by the Norwegian manufacturer Norsk Elektrisk & Brown Boveri ( NEBB ) . Each locomotive is equipped with four NEBB BQg 3855 motors , giving a Bo 'Bo ' wheel arrangement and a maximum tractive effort of 240 kilonewtons ( 54 @,@ 000 lbf ) on dry rails . The El 17 is an electric locomotive designed for intercity trains , but is also capable of hauling light freight trains . The body is welded as a self @-@ containing construction . The roof ( light alloy ) sections can be removed , and the locomotives were the first Norwegian locomotives to have a center aisle in the machine room . The locomotives are 16 @.@ 30 metres ( 53 ft 6 in ) long , have a wheel diameter of 1 @,@ 100 millimetres ( 3 ft 7 in ) and weigh 64 @.@ 0 tonnes ( 63 @.@ 0 long tons ; 70 @.@ 5 short tons ) . The locomotives can run in multiple ; by using a UIC 568 signalling cable , the locomotives do not need to be adjacent to each other in the train. the El 17 has the unique pointed front that was first used on the El 16 , and is also found on the Di 4 and Di 6 classes .
= Dinheirosaurus = Dinheirosaurus is a genus of diplodocid sauropod dinosaur that is known from fossils uncovered in modern @-@ day Portugal . It may represent a species of Supersaurus . The only species is Dinheirosaurus lourinhanensis , first described by José Bonaparte and Octávio Mateus in 1999 for vertebrae and some other material from the Lourinhã Formation . Although the precise age of the formation is not known , it can be dated around the early Tithonian of the Late Jurassic . The known material includes two cervical vertebrae , nine dorsal vertebrae , a few ribs , a fragment of a pubis , and many gastroliths . Of the material , only the vertebrae are diagnostic , with the ribs and pubis being too fragmentary or general to distinguish Dinheirosaurus . This material was first described as in the genus Lourinhasaurus , but differences were noticed and in 1999 Bonaparte and Mateus redescribed the material under the new binomial Dinheirosaurus lourinhanensis . Another specimen , ML 418 , thought to be Dinheirosaurus , is now known to be from another Portuguese diplodocid . This means that Dinheirosaurus lived alongside many theropods , sauropods , thyreophorans and ornithopods , as well as at least one other diplodocid . Dinheirosaurus is a diplodocid , a relative of Apatosaurus , Diplodocus , Barosaurus , Supersaurus , and Tornieria . Among those , the closest relative to Dinheirosaurus is Supersaurus , and together they form a clade of primitive diplodocids . While they were once considered to be diplodocines they are likely more basal than Apatosaurus . = = Discovery and naming = = ML 414 was first uncovered in 1987 by Mr. Carlos Anunciação . He was associated with the Museu da Lourinhã , and after the excavations which lasted from the time of discovery until 1992 , the specimen was then moved in to the museum , and catalogued under the number 414 . Dantas et al. preliminarily announced ML 414 as soon as the excavations were complete . To remove the fossils from the surrounding rock , a bulldozer and tilt hammer were needed . The fossils were situated at the top of a costal cliff , and once removed , were shipped to Lourinhã in two blocks with the help of a crane . A year before being described as a new taxon , Dantas et al. assigned ML 414 to Lourinhasaurus alenquerensis , previously grouped under Apatosaurus . José Bonaparte and Octávio Mateus studied the material of Lourinhasaurus , concluding one specimen , under the name ML 414 , to be more closely related to diplodocids of the Morrison Formation , and thus warranting a new binomial name . This new species was described as Dinheirosaurus lourinhanensis , with a full meaning of " Porto Dinheiro lizard from Lourinhã " . Dinheirosaurus material included vertebrae , ribs , partial pelvis , and gastroliths . The vertebrae were certainly from the cervical and dorsal regions , and are articulated . The two cervicals are not greatly preserved , although the twelve dorsals are articulated and in good condition . Other vertebral material includes seven centra that are fragmentary and a few neural arches , which are unattached . 12 dorsal ribs are preserved , as well as some appendicular elements . David Weishampel et al. did not recognize all the material as belonging to Dinheirosaurus , and only found 9 dorsals in the holotype , while also misinterpreting the pubis as a limb fragment . They also incorrectly stated that it was found in the Camadas de Alcobaça Formation . Another pair of vertebrae , under collection number ML 418 , was originally assigned to Dinheirosaurus by Bonaparte and Mateus , but is now considered to be a distinct new unnamed genus of diplodocid . = = Description = = Dinheirosaurus is an average sized diplodocid , and had an elongated neck and tail . The main features of the genus are based on its vertebral anatomy , and multiple vertebrae from across the spine have been found . In total , Dinheirosaurus would have had an approximate length of 25 m ( 82 ft ) . Dinheirosaurus is not known well from non @-@ vertebral material , currently only consisting of partial ribs and a fragment of a pelvis . One of the ribs attached to the cervicals , and is quite fragmentary . It is elongated , although that might be a feature of distortion . Also undescribed by Bonaparte & Mateus are a set of thoratic ribs . Two ribs are from the left side of the animal . They are T @-@ shaped in cross section , and display plesiomorphic features , although their incomplete state makes their identification uncertain . Multiple right ribs are preserved , including both the shafts and heads . They are similar to the left ribs , which also show that they lack pneumtization . Other appendicular ( non @-@ vertebral ) material includes a very incomplete and fragmentary shaft of the pubis , and over one hundred gastroliths . The pubis displays practically no anatomical features , and the gastroliths were not described in detail by Mannion et al. in 2012 . = = = Vertebrae = = = The most distinguishing material of Dinheirosaurus comes from the vertebrae , which are well represented and described . Of the cervicals , only two of the assumed fifteen are preserved . According to Bonaparte & Mateus ( 1999 ) , the cervicals would number 13 and 14 . Apparently cervical 15 was lost during the excavation and removal of the holotype and only specimen of Dinheirosaurus . As of the original description , the thirteenth cervical was only prepared on the lateroventral portion . The length of the centrum is 71 cm ( 28 in ) , and the fourteenth cervical is quite similar overall . 63 cm ( 25 in ) is the total measurement of the 14th cervicals centrum , which is well preserved , complete , and concave along the bottom edge . The neural of the spine , while compressed from above compared to the cervicals of Diplodocus , is massive , and projects upwards towards its posterior end . A relatively complete series of dorsal vertebrae are known , which number one to seven . All of the dorsals , however , are distorted upwards due to their state of preservation . Bonaparte & Mateus ( 1999 ) noted that the position of the dorsals was not certain , and that in fact the first dorsal could have been the last cervical or even the second dorsal . A similar numbering was found in Diplodocus , with the first and second dorsals similar in anatomy to the last and second @-@ last cervical . The dorsal vary in length from the 58 cm ( 23 in ) of the first dorsal to the 25 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) of the seventh , eight and ninth dorsals . Height in the vertebrae is also quite variable , with the shortest height being 51 cm ( 20 in ) tall to 76 cm ( 30 in ) tall , increasing from the first dorsal . = = Classification = = Dinheirosaurus is not extremely well known , and as a consequence , its phylogenetic position is not certain . In 2012 during a redescription of the taxon by Philip Mannion et al . , it was recovered , in both cladograms , to be sister species to Supersaurus vivianae and together forming the most basal diplodocines . A 2012 cladogram , published by Mannion et al. and using a modified matrix of Whitlock ( 2011 ) found that Dinheirosaurus was more primitive than Torneria and more derived than Apatosaurus . However , a cladogram from 2014 found that their group was supported , but in fact more primitive than Apatosaurus , and therefore outside Diplodocinae . In 2015 , Dinheirosaurus lourinhanensis was considered a species of Supersaurus in a new combination S. lourinhanensis . Their results are shown below . Previously , Dinheirosaurus was classified within a Diplodocidae excluding Apatosaurus , for the differences anatomically are quite great . Bonaparte & Mateus found that a few features present suggested that Dinheirosaurus was more derived than Diplodocus , but plesiomorphic features also present conclude that they branched separately and Dinheirosaurus is not the descendant of Diplodocus . A 2004 study by Upchurch et al. found that Dinheirosaurus was an intermediate diplodocoid , along with Cetiosauriscus , Amphicoelias , and Losillasaurus . = = Paleobiology = = As a diplodocid , it is probable that Dinheirosaurus possessed a whip @-@ tail . If it did , it is likely that its tail could be used like a bullwhip , with supersonic speed . Being related to both Apatosaurus and Diplodocus , Dinheirosaurus probably possessed a squared snout . This means that it was probably a non @-@ selective ground @-@ feeding sauropod . = = = Digestion = = = Dinheirosaurus is one of relatively few sauropods for which gastroliths were found obviously alongside the type specimen . In 2007 , an experiment using Dinheirosaurus , Diplodocus ( = Seismosaurus ) , and Cedarosaurus tested if sauropods used their gastroliths in an avian @-@ style gastric mill . The analysis took into account that among the hundreds of sauropods found , gastroliths are only known from a few associated specimens . Authors chose to use the three sauropods with the most associated gastroliths , Dinheirosaurus , Diplodocus , and Cedarosaurus , because of the large amount of gastroliths found in birds . When birds were typically found to have 1 @.@ 05 % of their body weight gastroliths , the sauropod Diplodocus , which had the highest amount of gastroliths , only amassed to 0 @.@ 03 % body weight . This means that since the other sauropods Dinheirosaurus and Cedarosaurus had less gastroliths to body mass , an avian @-@ style gastric mill is unlikely to have evolved in sauropods , and they instead might have used gastroliths to absorb minerals . = = Paleoecology = = Dinheirosaurus was one of many dinosaurs to have lived in the Lourinhã Formation during the Late Jurassic . Many theropods , sauropods , and especially ornithischians are also from the Lourinhã Formation , which contains a similar fauna to the North American Morrison Formation . Many theropods are known including an unnamed genus of abelisaurid ; the allosaurid Allosaurus europaeus ; the ceratosaurid Ceratosaurus dentisculatus ; the coelurosaurians Aviatyrannis jurassica , and cf . Richardoestesia ; an intermediate theropod ; and the megalosaurid Torvosaurus gurneyi . Sauropods are less common , with only an intermediate diplodocid as well as Dinheirosaurus ; the camarasaurid Lourinhasaurus alenquerensis ; the turiasaur Zby atlanticus ; and the brachiosaurid Lusotitan known . Ornithischians are well represented , with identified remains persisting to Trimucrodon cuneatus ; Alocodon kuehnei ; the stegosaurians Dacentrurus armatus , Miragaia longicollum , and Stegosaurus ungulatus ; the ankylosaurid Dracopelta zbyszewskii ; the ornithopods Draconyx loureiroi , Camptosaurus sp . , Phyllodon henkelli , and cf . Dryosaurus sp . = = = Biogeography = = = Many eusauropods , including Dinheriosaurus have been found in the Late Jurassic of Europe . The sauropods are from around the base of the Tithonian as based on the presence of Anchispirocyclina lusitanica . One sauropod , a diplodocid currently based on an unnamed specimen including vertebrae and some bones , is clearly different from Dinheirosaurus and Losillasaurus , confirming the presence of a least two and possibly more diplodocids in the Late Jurassic of Spain and Portugal . This is unique in the variety of diplodocoids in all Europe , with the only other genera possibly non @-@ diplodocoid ( Cetiosauriscus ) , or classified in Rebbachisauridae . This suggests that the biogeography of primitive sauropods is incomplete , with possible primitive eusauropods and diplodocids surviving in the Late Jurassic , potentially until the Berriasian .
= On the Art of the Cinema = On the Art of the Cinema ( Korean : 영화예술론 , lit . ' Film Art Theory ' ) is a 1973 treatise by the North Korean leader Kim Jong @-@ il . It is considered the most authoritative work on North Korean filmmaking . The book sets forth several original theories , which can be applied to the practices of filmmaking , the arts , and beyond . Of these the theory of literature as " humanics " and the " seed theory " are the most important ones . Humanics centers on the question of a good and worthy life . In art , it emphasizes truly independent individuals who are capable of transforming society . The seed theory has become essential to North Korean film theory . It seeks to direct all artistic creation through a single ideological foundation , or " seed " . In an individual work , the seed is the synthesis of its subject matter and idea and the basis of its propaganda message . These ideas complement the themes of nationalistic form and socialist content of films . Many ideas presented in the book are justifications for the creation of propaganda supporting the Workers ' Party of Korea 's policies . On the Art of the Cinema had major political implications on Kim Jong @-@ il 's succession of Kim Il @-@ sung . Kim Jong @-@ il gained political and cultural influence in North Korean society and government by authoring the book . The impact of On the Art of the Cinema on North Korean filmmaking is disputed . Films from before and after the publication of the treatise are similar in style and many contemporary films breach various rules laid out in the treatise . = = Background = = After graduating from Kim Il @-@ sung University in 1964 , Kim Jong @-@ il devoted himself to cultural , ideological and propaganda work at the Department of Organization and Guidance of the Central Committee of the party . Although Kim is known to have been privately interested in Hollywood films , he forbade discussion on foreign film concepts at the Aesthetic Review Meeting , an important annual film conference . After he had ordered the entire conference archive to be destroyed , Kim urged participants to be exclusively concerned with the teachings of Kim Il @-@ sung and the party in creative work . Since then , Kim Jong @-@ il 's influence in film and literary administration grew , and he resisted liberal artistic influence from the de @-@ Stalinizing Soviet Union . From 1968 , Kim began to work on film adaptations of guerilla plays originating from the 1930s . Kim had personally guided the production of films , such as Sea of Blood , ( parts one and two , 1969 ) , The Fate of a Self @-@ Defence Corps Man ( Chosŏn 'gŭl : 한 자위단원의 운명 ; MR : Han chawi tanwŏn ŭi unmyŏng , 1970 ) and The Flower Girl ( 1972 ) . Afterwards , Kim Jong @-@ il began producing revolutionary operas . Kim had worked in the government arts administration for almost ten years by this time . He then wrote a series of essays based on speeches he had given to directors and screenwriters over the preceding five years , and published it as On the Art of the Cinema on April 11 , 1973 . It was his first major work . Through the rest of the 1970s , Kim continued to oversee cultural activities . = = Ideas = = In the treatise , Kim Jong @-@ il seeks to apply the principles of the North Korean Juche ideology to questions of film , literature and art . According to Kim , " revolutionizing " cinema is a means of revolutionizing the whole of art and literature and exposing society to the Workers ' Party 's " monolithic ideology " and Juche . Building upon socialist realist literary theory and Kim Il @-@ sung 's thought , Kim Jong @-@ il constructs what has been described as a " Juche realism " . A key aim of Kim is to employ heroic film fiction to transform man into a socialist man : " Juche @-@ type man " . The book deals comprehensively with aspects of cinema , including film and literary theory , acting , performance , score music , the screen , camerawork , costumes , make @-@ up , and props . Of particular importance are themes of directing and producing as the driving forces of filmmaking . Ideas in the book are elucidated by drawing examples from North Korean films , of which Sea of Blood is the most referred one . On the Art of the Cinema presents two major theories : the theory of literature as " humanics " and the " seed theory " . Both are considered justifications for the party 's control over artistic creation . Other ideas developed by the treatise are the so @-@ called " modeling theory " and " speed campaign " . Compliance with these principles earns an artwork the title of " collective work " . Films should be realistic , which is possible only when the filmmakers have lived with the popular masses , much like the ideal of the revolutionaries of the Korean resistance . However , this " realism " entails unadulterated worship for the leader and Juche , making it incomparable to conventional types of realism in film , like Italian neorealism . Kim builds on the idea that contemporary North Korea has transcended class conflict and no real conflicts exist to be portrayed in cinema , bar historical and external ones . This can be seen as a reassertion of the Stalinist Zhdanov Doctrine . No " negative people " who would disagree with the party 's policies can exist . Depicting conflicts within North Korean society in film could be considered being critical of the regime . When historical themes are depicted , traditions should be portrayed selectively to support present ideological needs , purged of " feudal ideologies " of traditional tales and legends . = = = Literature as humanics = = = The theory of literature as " humanics " ( MR : inganhak ) developed by Kim Jong @-@ il establishes that literature exists within the human domain . A key theme of humanics is the question of good and worthy life , allowing for propagandist and moralistic art . The idea of Chajusŏng ( Korean for " independent spirit " ) is also prominent in the theory of humanics . Chajusŏng is the metaphysical essence of humans struggling against oppression . Philosophically , it depends on the indeterministic view on free will in Juche . The hero of the story , in particular , embodies Chajusŏng . According to Kim , " humanics literature " gives emphasis to the development of truly independent individuals as called for by the Juche era . This brings about a transformation of the society as a whole . In North Korean literature , Chajusŏng is used as a justification of state control on literary creation and a nationalistic policy of socialism in one country . = = = Seed theory = = = The " seed theory " ( Chosŏn 'gŭl : 종자론 ; MR : chongjaron ) forms the essence of On the Art of the Cinema and , consequently , North Korean film theory in general . It has been called a " strange concept " , a method of coercing artists to follow the party line , and a means of canceling out individual creativity . Kim Jong @-@ il equates a film with a living organism , noting that in this analogy the seed is its kernel . The idea is that , if all artistic interpretation is done through a single ideological foundation , or " seed " , the resulting cinema is whole . This makes all members of a creative teamwork for a single goal , in spite of differences in personalities . The director 's task is to prevent anything foreign to the seed from entering cinema . The seed is the fundamental consciousness underlying artistic creativity . In more concrete terms , the seed is the basis of the propaganda message of the film : " a strong , convincing idea of what to tell " . The seed synthesizes the subject matter and the idea of a work , thus providing both the form and content . In this capacity , it fuses together the Marxist – Leninist literary theory concepts of " material " , " theme " and " thought " . The film should contribute to the ruling ideology and employ aesthetics and storytelling that support the propaganda message . For example , the seed of film The Fate of a Self @-@ Defence Corps Man revolves around the choice facing the main character , Gap Ryong : to perish under oppression or sacrificing one 's self for the revolution . Its seed could be summarized as " whether or not Gap Ryong participates in the revolutionary movement , he dies " . Surplus value , Kim argues , is the seed of Marx 's Capital . The seed theory became influential in the literary circles of North Korea and writers sought to backtrack the seeds in classics preceding Kim 's treatise . In addition to questions of art , the seed theory was adopted to a wider range of industrial and economic activities . = = = Modeling theory and speed campaign = = = According to the " modeling theory " , liberation struggles should be portrayed so as to combine national and class struggle . This is achieved through idolizing portrayal of the North Korean people and by producing role @-@ models . The " speed campaign " ( MR : sokto @-@ jon ) calls for rapid production of films . According to Kim Jong @-@ il , by producing films as fast as possible , the overall revolutionary process is expedited . The origins of the speed campaign are in the shooting of The Fate of a Self @-@ Defence Corps Man in just 40 days when it was anticipated to take a full year . The practice was carried out after publication of On the Art of the Cinema , too . For instance , the eight @-@ part film series Unsung Heroes ( 1979 – 1981 ) was produced by following the speed campaign principle . Each film took just 45 days to produce . Subsequently speed campaigns have been carried out not only in art , but also economic matters . It was thought of as equally important with Kim Il @-@ sung 's Chollima Movement , and remains an influential concept associated with Kim Jong @-@ il 's leadership . = = Reception and influence = = While official biographies of Kim Jong @-@ il describe On the Art of the Cinema as comprehensive , original and " supported by impeccable logic " , Whitney Mallett calls it boring and repetitive . Anna Broinowski calls On the Art of the Cinema " turgid , whimsical and clunky " . David @-@ West , however , points out that the work shows " some understanding of the constructive elements of the literary text " . The work is considered the most authoritative guide on filmmaking in North Korea . However , the real extent of its influence is doubted . According to Johannes Schönherr , the work offers little new to North Korean cinema , and many of the ideas presented are unoriginal and obvious , particularly to the specialist audience of professional filmmakers Kim is writing for . Films from before and after the publication of the treatise are remarkably similar , suggesting that it had little impact on North Korean film industry in practice . Many traits of contemporary North Korean cinema , such as repetitiveness , slow editing style and old theatrical acting , go against the teachings of On the Art of the Cinema . Whatever change there was in North Korean cinema , can be attributed to political and economic pressures . Instead of contributing anything new , the work reformulates Kim Il @-@ sung 's ideas about the importance of film to art and as a propaganda tool . Rather than the theoretical breakthrough it is taught as , it is an account of Kim Jong @-@ il 's personal experiences in the film industry and an attempt to thwart the " sloppiness and thoughtlessness " he had encountered . Kim himself considered his treatise a failure . Films it had contributed to were enjoyed at home , but abroad they were ridiculed . North Korean cinema could not compete with the quality of foreign , and in particular South Korean , films . This directly prompted him to kidnap Shin Sang @-@ ok , South Korea 's most famous film director , in 1978 . Shin and his wife , actress Choi Eun @-@ hee , were kept in North Korea for eight years under cruel conditions . Nevertheless , Shin studied On the Art of the Cinema to please Kim with the kaijū film Pulgasari , which credits Kim as the executive producer . Kim was delighted with the film and allowed Shin and Choi to travel to Vienna , where they were supposed to negotiate a deal for a sequel . The couple used the opportunity to escape , and ended up in America . Politically , the treatise was a success . At the time of writing On the Art of the Cinema , Kim 's father Kim Il @-@ sung was systematically rallying support for the younger Kim to prepare for his succession . By authoring the work , Kim Jong @-@ il gained social and political power . He secured his father 's confidence , thus making succession possible . Kim Jong @-@ il continued to write on the arts until the 1990s and published treatises On the Art of Opera ( 1974 ) , On the Art of the Drama ( 1988 ) , On the Art of Dance ( 1990 ) , On the Art of Music ( 1991 ) , On Fine Art ( 1991 ) , On Architecture ( 1991 ) , On Juche Literature ( 1992 ) , and On Acrobatics . On the Art of the Cinema is mandatory reading for North Korean students of literature . North Korean filmmakers must also study the work , or even memorize it . On the Art of the Cinema also influenced South Korea 's minjung @-@ oriented People 's Cinema ( MR : minjung yŏnghwa ) movement that was born out of the Gwangju Democratization Movement . The work 's influence goes beyond Korea , too . Australian Anna Broinowski directed Aim High in Creation ! , a movie about making a propaganda film abiding by Kim 's instructions . Danish documentarist Mads Brügger in his The Red Chapel is shown continuously consulting the treatise for artistic guidance . = = Release details = = The work is included in Selected Works of Kim Jong Il Vol . 5 . ( enlarged edition ) . The first three chapters of On the Art of the Cinema are also published as Life and Literature , The Cinema and Directing and The Character and the Actor , respectively . A reprint of the English edition of On the Art of the Cinema has been issued by University Press of the Pacific . Three speeches that were not included in the English editions – " Some Problems Arising in the Creation of Masterpieces " ( 1968 ) , " Let Us Create More Revolutionary Films Based on Socialist Life " ( 1970 ) , and " On the Ideological and Artistic Characteristics of the Masterpiece , The Fate of a Self @-@ Defence Corps Man " ( 1970 ) – are included in the Korean edition from 1977 . Translations of On the Art of the Cinema include Arabic , Chinese , English , French , German , Russian and Spanish .
= Boeing 747 = The Boeing 747 is an American wide @-@ body commercial jet airliner and cargo aircraft , often referred to by its original nickname , Jumbo Jet , or Queen of the Skies . Its distinctive " hump " upper deck along the forward part of the aircraft makes it among the world 's most recognizable aircraft , and it was the first wide @-@ body produced . Manufactured by Boeing 's Commercial Airplane unit in the United States , the original version of the 747 had two and a half times greater capacity than the Boeing 707 , one of the common large commercial aircraft of the 1960s . First flown commercially in 1970 , the 747 held the passenger capacity record for 37 years . The four @-@ engine 747 uses a double deck configuration for part of its length . It is available in passenger , freighter and other versions . Boeing designed the 747 's hump @-@ like upper deck to serve as a first class lounge or extra seating , and to allow the aircraft to be easily converted to a cargo carrier by removing seats and installing a front cargo door . Boeing did so because the company expected supersonic airliners ( development of which was announced in the early 1960s ) to render the 747 and other subsonic airliners obsolete , while the demand for subsonic cargo aircraft would be robust well into the future . The 747 was expected to become obsolete after 400 were sold , but it exceeded critics ' expectations with production passing the 1 @,@ 000 mark in 1993 . By June 2016 , 1 @,@ 522 aircraft had been built , with 21 of the 747 @-@ 8 variants remaining on order . The 747 @-@ 400 , the most common passenger version in service , has a high @-@ subsonic cruise speed of Mach 0 @.@ 85 – 0 @.@ 855 ( up to 570 mph or 920 km / h ) with an intercontinental range of 7 @,@ 260 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 350 mi or 13 @,@ 450 km ) . The 747 @-@ 400 passenger version can accommodate 416 passengers in a typical three @-@ class layout , 524 passengers in a typical two @-@ class layout , or 660 passengers in a high density one @-@ class configuration . The newest version of the aircraft , the 747 @-@ 8 , is in production and received certification in 2011 . Deliveries of the 747 @-@ 8F freighter version to launch customer Cargolux began in October 2011 ; deliveries of the 747 @-@ 8I passenger version to Lufthansa began in May 2012 . = = Development = = = = = Background = = = In 1963 , the United States Air Force started a series of study projects on a very large strategic transport aircraft . Although the C @-@ 141 Starlifter was being introduced , they believed that a much larger and more capable aircraft was needed , especially the capability to carry outsized cargo that would not fit in any existing aircraft . These studies led to initial requirements for the CX @-@ Heavy Logistics System ( CX @-@ HLS ) in March 1964 for an aircraft with a load capacity of 180 @,@ 000 pounds ( 81 @,@ 600 kg ) and a speed of Mach 0 @.@ 75 ( 500 mph or 805 km / h ) , and an unrefueled range of 5 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 260 km ) with a payload of 115 @,@ 000 pounds ( 52 @,@ 200 kg ) . The payload bay had to be 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 18 m ) wide by 13 @.@ 5 feet ( 4 @.@ 11 m ) high and 100 feet ( 30 @.@ 5 m ) long with access through doors at the front and rear . Featuring only four engines , the design also required new engine designs with greatly increased power and better fuel economy . In May 1964 , airframe proposals arrived from Boeing , Douglas , General Dynamics , Lockheed , and Martin Marietta ; engine proposals were submitted by General Electric , Curtiss @-@ Wright , and Pratt & Whitney . After a downselect , Boeing , Douglas , and Lockheed were given additional study contracts for the airframe , along with General Electric and Pratt & Whitney for the engines . All three of the airframe proposals shared a number of features . As the CX @-@ HLS needed to be able to be loaded from the front , a door had to be included where the cockpit usually was . All of the companies solved this problem by moving the cockpit above the cargo area ; Douglas had a small " pod " just forward and above the wing , Lockheed used a long " spine " running the length of the aircraft with the wing spar passing through it , while Boeing blended the two , with a longer pod that ran from just behind the nose to just behind the wing . In 1965 Lockheed 's aircraft design and General Electric 's engine design were selected for the new C @-@ 5 Galaxy transport , which was the largest military aircraft in the world at the time . The nose door and raised cockpit concepts would be carried over to the design of the 747 . = = = Airliner proposal = = = The 747 was conceived while air travel was increasing in the 1960s . The era of commercial jet transportation , led by the enormous popularity of the Boeing 707 and Douglas DC @-@ 8 , had revolutionized long @-@ distance travel . Even before it lost the CX @-@ HLS contract , Boeing was pressed by Juan Trippe , president of Pan American World Airways ( Pan Am ) , one of their most important airline customers , to build a passenger aircraft more than twice the size of the 707 . During this time , airport congestion , worsened by increasing numbers of passengers carried on relatively small aircraft , became a problem that Trippe thought could be addressed by a large new aircraft . In 1965 , Joe Sutter was transferred from Boeing 's 737 development team to manage the design studies for a new airliner , already assigned the model number 747 . Sutter initiated a design study with Pan Am and other airlines , to better understand their requirements . At the time , it was widely thought that the 747 would eventually be superseded by supersonic transport aircraft . Boeing responded by designing the 747 so that it could be adapted easily to carry freight and remain in production even if sales of the passenger version declined . In the freighter role , the clear need was to support the containerized shipping methodologies that were being widely introduced at about the same time . Standard containers are 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) square at the front ( slightly higher due to attachment points ) and available in 20 and 40 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 and 12 m ) lengths . This meant that it would be possible to support a 2 @-@ wide 2 @-@ high stack of containers two or three ranks deep with a fuselage size similar to the earlier CX @-@ HLS project . In April 1966 , Pan Am ordered 25 747 @-@ 100 aircraft for US $ 525 million . During the ceremonial 747 contract @-@ signing banquet in Seattle on Boeing 's 50th Anniversary , Juan Trippe predicted that the 747 would be " ... a great weapon for peace , competing with intercontinental missiles for mankind 's destiny " . As launch customer , and because of its early involvement before placing a formal order , Pan Am was able to influence the design and development of the 747 to an extent unmatched by a single airline before or since . = = = Design effort = = = Ultimately , the high @-@ winged CX @-@ HLS Boeing design was not used for the 747 , although technologies developed for their bid had an influence . The original design included a full @-@ length double @-@ deck fuselage with eight @-@ across seating and two aisles on the lower deck and seven @-@ across seating and two aisles on the upper deck . However , concern over evacuation routes and limited cargo @-@ carrying capability caused this idea to be scrapped in early 1966 in favor of a wider single deck design . The cockpit was , therefore , placed on a shortened upper deck so that a freight @-@ loading door could be included in the nose cone ; this design feature produced the 747 's distinctive " bulge " . In early models it was not clear what to do with the small space in the pod behind the cockpit , and this was initially specified as a " lounge " area with no permanent seating . ( A different configuration that had been considered in order to keep the flight deck out of the way for freight loading had the pilots below the passengers , and was dubbed the " anteater " . ) One of the principal technologies that enabled an aircraft as large as the 747 to be conceived was the high @-@ bypass turbofan engine . The engine technology was thought to be capable of delivering double the power of the earlier turbojets while consuming a third less fuel . General Electric had pioneered the concept but was committed to developing the engine for the C @-@ 5 Galaxy and did not enter the commercial market until later . Pratt & Whitney was also working on the same principle and , by late 1966 , Boeing , Pan Am and Pratt & Whitney agreed to develop a new engine , designated the JT9D to power the 747 . The project was designed with a new methodology called fault tree analysis , which allowed the effects of a failure of a single part to be studied to determine its impact on other systems . To address concerns about safety and flyability , the 747 's design included structural redundancy , redundant hydraulic systems , quadruple main landing gear and dual control surfaces . Additionally , some of the most advanced high @-@ lift devices used in the industry were included in the new design , to allow it to operate from existing airports . These included slats running almost the entire length of the wing , as well as complex three @-@ part slotted flaps along the trailing edge of the wing . The wing 's complex three @-@ part flaps increase wing area by 21 percent and lift by 90 percent when fully deployed compared to their non @-@ deployed configuration . Boeing agreed to deliver the first 747 to Pan Am by the end of 1969 . The delivery date left 28 months to design the aircraft , which was two @-@ thirds of the normal time . The schedule was so fast paced that the people who worked on it were given the nickname " The Incredibles " . Developing the aircraft was such a technical and financial challenge that management was said to have " bet the company " when it started the project . = = = Production plant = = = As Boeing did not have a plant large enough to assemble the giant airliner , they chose to build a new plant . The company considered locations in about 50 cities , and eventually decided to build the new plant some 30 miles ( 50 km ) north of Seattle on a site adjoining a military base at Paine Field near Everett , Washington . It bought the 780 @-@ acre ( 3 @.@ 2 km2 ) site in June 1966 . Developing the 747 had been a major challenge , and building its assembly plant was also a huge undertaking . Boeing president William M. Allen asked Malcolm T. Stamper , then head of the company 's turbine division , to oversee construction of the Everett factory and to start production of the 747 . To level the site , more than four million cubic yards ( three million cubic meters ) of earth had to be moved . Time was so short that the 747 's full @-@ scale mock @-@ up was built before the factory roof above it was finished . The plant is the largest building by volume ever built , and has been substantially expanded several times to permit construction of other models of Boeing wide @-@ body commercial jets . = = = Development and testing = = = Before the first 747 was fully assembled , testing began on many components and systems . One important test involved the evacuation of 560 volunteers from a cabin mock @-@ up via the aircraft 's emergency chutes . The first full @-@ scale evacuation took two and a half minutes instead of the maximum of 90 seconds mandated by the Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) , and several volunteers were injured . Subsequent test evacuations achieved the 90 @-@ second goal but caused more injuries . Most problematic was evacuation from the aircraft 's upper deck ; instead of using a conventional slide , volunteer passengers escaped by using a harness attached to a reel . Tests also involved taxiing such a large aircraft . Boeing built an unusual training device known as " Waddell 's Wagon " ( named for a 747 test pilot , Jack Waddell ) that consisted of a mock @-@ up cockpit mounted on the roof of a truck . While the first 747s were still being built , the device allowed pilots to practice taxi maneuvers from a high upper @-@ deck position . On September 30 , 1968 , the first 747 was rolled out of the Everett assembly building before the world 's press and representatives of the 26 airlines that had ordered the airliner . Over the following months , preparations were made for the first flight , which took place on February 9 , 1969 , with test pilots Jack Waddell and Brien Wygle at the controls and Jess Wallick at the flight engineer 's station . Despite a minor problem with one of the flaps , the flight confirmed that the 747 handled extremely well . The 747 was found to be largely immune to " Dutch roll " , a phenomenon that had been a major hazard to the early swept @-@ wing jets . During later stages of the flight test program , flutter testing showed that the wings suffered oscillation under certain conditions . This difficulty was partly solved by reducing the stiffness of some wing components . However , a particularly severe high @-@ speed flutter problem was solved only by inserting depleted uranium counterweights as ballast in the outboard engine nacelles of the early 747s . This measure caused anxiety when these aircraft crashed , as did China Airlines Flight 358 at Wanli in 1991 and El Al Flight 1862 at Amsterdam in 1992 which had 282 kilograms ( 622 lb ) of uranium in the tailplane . The flight test program was hampered by problems with the 747 's JT9D engines . Difficulties included engine stalls caused by rapid throttle movements and distortion of the turbine casings after a short period of service . The problems delayed 747 deliveries for several months , up to 20 aircraft at the Everett plant were stranded while awaiting engine installation . The program was further delayed when one of the five test aircraft suffered serious damage during a landing attempt at Renton Municipal Airport , site of the company 's Renton factory . On December 13 , 1969 a test aircraft was being taken to have test equipment removed and a cabin installed when pilot Ralph C. Cokely undershot the airport 's short runway . The 747 's right , outer landing gear was torn off and two engine nacelles were damaged . However , these difficulties did not prevent Boeing from taking a test aircraft to the 28th Paris Air Show in mid @-@ 1969 , where it was displayed to the public for the first time . The 747 received its FAA airworthiness certificate in December 1969 , clearing it for introduction into service . The huge cost of developing the 747 and building the Everett factory meant that Boeing had to borrow heavily from a banking syndicate . During the final months before delivery of the first aircraft , the company had to repeatedly request additional funding to complete the project . Had this been refused , Boeing 's survival would have been threatened . The firm 's debt exceeded $ 2 billion , with the $ 1 @.@ 2 billion owed to the banks setting a record for all companies . Allen later said , " It was really too large a project for us . " Ultimately , the gamble succeeded , and Boeing held a monopoly in very large passenger aircraft production for many years . = = = Entry into service = = = On January 15 , 1970 , First Lady of the United States Pat Nixon christened Pan Am 's first 747 , at Dulles International Airport ( later Washington Dulles International Airport ) in the presence of Pan Am chairman Najeeb Halaby . Instead of champagne , red , white , and blue water was sprayed on the aircraft . The 747 entered service on January 22 , 1970 , on Pan Am 's New York – London route ; the flight had been planned for the evening of January 21 , but engine overheating made the original aircraft unusable . Finding a substitute delayed the flight by more than six hours to the following day . The 747 enjoyed a fairly smooth introduction into service , overcoming concerns that some airports would not be able to accommodate an aircraft that large . Although technical problems occurred , they were relatively minor and quickly solved . After the aircraft 's introduction with Pan Am , other airlines that had bought the 747 to stay competitive began to put their own 747s into service . Boeing estimated that half of the early 747 sales were to airlines desiring the aircraft 's long range rather than its payload capacity . While the 747 had the lowest potential operating cost per seat , this could only be achieved when the aircraft was fully loaded ; costs per seat increased rapidly as occupancy declined . A moderately loaded 747 , one with only 70 percent of its seats occupied , used more than 95 percent of the fuel needed by a fully occupied 747 . The recession of 1969 @-@ 1970 greatly affected Boeing . For the year and a half after September 1970 it only sold two 747s in the world , and did not sell any to an American carrier for almost three years . When economic problems in the United States and other countries after the 1973 oil crisis led to reduced passenger traffic , several airlines found they did not have enough passengers to fly the 747 economically , and they replaced them with the smaller and recently introduced McDonnell Douglas DC @-@ 10 and Lockheed L @-@ 1011 TriStar trijet wide bodies ( and later the 767 and A300 twinjets ) . Having tried replacing coach seats on its 747s with piano bars in an attempt to attract more customers , American Airlines eventually relegated its 747s to cargo service and in 1983 exchanged them with Pan Am for smaller aircraft ; Delta Air Lines also removed its 747s from service after several years . Delta later reacquired 747s after it merged with Northwest Airlines . International flights that bypassed traditional hub airports and landed at smaller cities became more common throughout the 1980s , and this eroded the 747 's original market . However , many international carriers continued to use the 747 on Pacific routes . In Japan , 747s on domestic routes were configured to carry close to the maximum passenger capacity . = = = Improved 747 versions = = = After the initial 747 @-@ 100 model , Boeing developed the -100B , a higher maximum takeoff weight ( MTOW ) variant , and the -100SR ( Short Range ) , with higher passenger capacity . Increased maximum takeoff weight allows aircraft to carry more fuel and have longer range . The -200 model followed in 1971 , featuring more powerful engines and a higher MTOW . Passenger , freighter and combination passenger @-@ freighter versions of the -200 were produced . The shortened 747SP ( special performance ) with a longer range was also developed , and entered service in 1976 . The 747 line was further developed with the launch of the 747 @-@ 300 in 1980 . The 300 series resulted from Boeing studies to increase the seating capacity of the 747 , during which modifications such as fuselage plugs and extending the upper deck over the entire length of the fuselage were rejected . The first 747 @-@ 300 , completed in 1983 , included a stretched upper deck , increased cruise speed , and increased seating capacity . The -300 variant was previously designated 747SUD for stretched upper deck , then 747 @-@ 200 SUD , followed by 747EUD , before the 747 @-@ 300 designation was used . Passenger , short range and combination freighter @-@ passenger versions of the 300 series were produced . In 1985 , development of the longer range 747 @-@ 400 began . The variant had a new glass cockpit , which allowed for a cockpit crew of two instead of three , new engines , lighter construction materials , and a redesigned interior . Development cost soared , and production delays occurred as new technologies were incorporated at the request of airlines . Insufficient workforce experience and reliance on overtime contributed to early production problems on the 747 @-@ 400 . The -400 entered service in 1989 . In 1991 , a record @-@ breaking 1 @,@ 087 passengers were airlifted aboard a 747 to Israel as part of Operation Solomon . The 747 remained the heaviest commercial aircraft in regular service until the debut of the Antonov An @-@ 124 Ruslan in 1982 ; variants of the 747 @-@ 400 would surpass the An @-@ 124 's weight in 2000 . The Antonov An @-@ 225 Mriya cargo transport , which debuted in 1988 , remains the world 's largest aircraft by several measures ( including the most accepted measures of maximum takeoff weight and length ) ; one aircraft has been completed and is in service as of 2012 . The Hughes H @-@ 4 Hercules is the largest aircraft by wingspan , but it only completed a single flight . = = = Further developments = = = Since the arrival of the 747 @-@ 400 , several stretching schemes for the 747 have been proposed . Boeing announced the larger 747 @-@ 500X and -600X preliminary designs in 1996 . The new variants would have cost more than US $ 5 billion to develop , and interest was not sufficient to launch the program . In 2000 , Boeing offered the more modest 747X and 747X stretch derivatives as alternatives to the Airbus A3XX . However , the 747X family was unable to attract enough interest to enter production . A year later , Boeing switched from the 747X studies to pursue the Sonic Cruiser , and after the Sonic Cruiser program was put on hold , the 787 Dreamliner . Some of the ideas developed for the 747X were used on the 747 @-@ 400ER , a longer range variant of the 747 @-@ 400 . After several variants were proposed but later abandoned , some industry observers became skeptical of new aircraft proposals from Boeing . However , in early 2004 , Boeing announced tentative plans for the 747 Advanced that were eventually adopted . Similar in nature to the 747 @-@ X , the stretched 747 Advanced used technology from the 787 to modernize the design and its systems . The 747 remained the largest passenger airliner in service until the Airbus A380 began airline service in 2007 . On November 14 , 2005 , Boeing announced it was launching the 747 Advanced as the Boeing 747 @-@ 8 . The last 747 @-@ 400s were completed in 2009 . As of 2011 , most orders of the 747 @-@ 8 have been for the freighter variant . On February 8 , 2010 , the 747 @-@ 8 Freighter made its maiden flight . The first delivery of the 747 @-@ 8 went to Cargolux in 2011 . The 1,500th produced Boeing 747 was delivered in June 2014 . In January 2016 , Boeing stated it was reducing 747 @-@ 8 production to six a year beginning in September 2016 , incurring a $ 569 million post @-@ tax charge against its fourth @-@ quarter 2015 profits . At the end of 2015 , the company had 20 orders outstanding . On January 29 , 2016 , Boeing announced that it had begun the preliminary work on the modifications to a commercial 747 @-@ 8 for the next Air Force One Presidential aircraft , expected to be operational by 2020 . On 12 July 2016 Boeing announced that it had finalized terms of acquisition with Volga @-@ Dnepr Group for 20 747 @-@ 8 freighters , valued at approximately $ 7 @.@ 58 billion at list prices . Four aircraft have already been delivered . Volga @-@ Dnepr Group is the parent of three major Russian air @-@ freight carriers - Volga @-@ Dnepr Airlines , AirBridgeCargo Airlines and Atran Airlines - and received its first 747 @-@ 8 freighter in 2012 . The new 747 @-@ 8 freighters will replace AirBridgeCargo ’ s current 747 @-@ 400 aircraft and expand the airline ’ s fleet and will be acquired through a mix of direct purchases and leasing over the next six years , Boeing said . = = Design = = The Boeing 747 is a large , wide @-@ body ( two @-@ aisle ) airliner with four wing @-@ mounted engines . The wings have a high sweep angle of 37 @.@ 5 degrees for a fast , efficient cruise of Mach 0 @.@ 84 to 0 @.@ 88 , depending on the variant . The sweep also reduces the wingspan , allowing the 747 to use existing hangars . Seating capacity is more than 366 with a 3 – 4 – 3 seat arrangement ( a cross section of 3 seats , an aisle , 4 seats , another aisle , and 3 seats ) in economy class and a 2 – 3 – 2 arrangement in first class on the main deck . The upper deck has a 3 – 3 seat arrangement in economy class and a 2 – 2 arrangement in first class . Raised above the main deck , the cockpit creates a hump . The raised cockpit allows front loading of cargo on freight variants . The upper deck behind the cockpit provides space for a lounge or extra seating . The " stretched upper deck " became available as an option on the 747 @-@ 100B variant and later as standard on the 747 @-@ 300 . The 747 cockpit roof section also has an escape hatch from which crew can exit in the event of an emergency if they cannot exit through the cabin . The 747 's maximum takeoff weight ranges from 735 @,@ 000 pounds ( 333 @,@ 400 kg ) for the -100 to 970 @,@ 000 lb ( 439 @,@ 985 kg ) for the -8 . Its range has increased from 5 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 100 mi , 9 @,@ 800 km ) on the -100 to 8 @,@ 000 nmi ( 9 @,@ 200 mi , 14 @,@ 815 km ) on the -8I . The 747 has redundant structures along with four redundant hydraulic systems and four main landing gears with four wheels each , which provide a good spread of support on the ground and safety in case of tire blow @-@ outs . The main gear are redundant so that landing can be performed on two opposing landing gears if the others do not function properly . In addition , the 747 has split control surfaces and was designed with sophisticated triple @-@ slotted flaps that minimize landing speeds and allow the 747 to use standard @-@ length runways . For transportation of spare engines , 747s can accommodate a non @-@ functioning fifth @-@ pod engine under the port wing of the aircraft between the inner functioning engine and the fuselage . = = Variants = = The 747 @-@ 100 was the original variant launched in 1966 . The 747 @-@ 200 soon followed , with its launch in 1968 . The 747 @-@ 300 was launched in 1980 and was followed by the 747 @-@ 400 in 1985 . Ultimately , the 747 @-@ 8 was announced in 2005 . Several versions of each variant have been produced , and many of the early variants were in production simultaneously . The International Civil Aviation Organization ( ICAO ) classifies variants using a shortened code formed by combining the model number and the variant designator ( e.g. " B741 " for all -100 models ) . = = = 747 @-@ 100 = = = The first 747 @-@ 100s were built with six upper deck windows ( three per side ) to accommodate upstairs lounge areas . Later , as airlines began to use the upper deck for premium passenger seating instead of lounge space , Boeing offered a ten @-@ window upper deck as an option . Some early -100s were retrofitted with the new configuration . The -100 was equipped with Pratt & Whitney JT9D @-@ 3A engines . No freighter version of this model was developed , but many 747 @-@ 100s were converted into freighters . A total of 167 747 @-@ 100s were built . = = = = 747SR = = = = Responding to requests from Japanese airlines for a high @-@ capacity aircraft to serve domestic routes between major cities , Boeing developed the 747SR as a short @-@ range version of the 747 @-@ 100 with lower fuel capacity and greater payload capability . With increased economy class seating , up to 498 passengers could be carried in early versions and up to 550 in later models . The 747SR had an economic design life objective of 52 @,@ 000 flights during 20 years of operation , compared to 24 @,@ 600 flights in 20 years for the standard 747 . The initial 747SR model , the -100SR , had a strengthened body structure and landing gear to accommodate the added stress accumulated from a greater number of takeoffs and landings . Extra structural support was built into the wings , fuselage , and the landing gear along with a 20 percent reduction in fuel capacity . The initial order for the -100SR — four aircraft for Japan Air Lines ( JAL , later Japan Airlines ) — was announced on October 30 , 1972 ; rollout occurred on August 3 , 1973 , and the first flight took place on August 31 , 1973 . The type was certified by the FAA on September 26 , 1973 , with the first delivery on the same day . The -100SR entered service with JAL , the type 's sole customer , on October 7 , 1973 , and typically operated flights within Japan . Seven -100SRs were built between 1973 and 1975 , each with a 520 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 240 @,@ 000 kg ) MTOW and Pratt & Whitney JT9D @-@ 7A engines derated to 43 @,@ 000 pounds @-@ force ( 190 @,@ 000 N ) of thrust . Following the -100SR , Boeing produced the -100BSR , a 747SR variant with increased takeoff weight capability . Debuting in 1978 , the -100BSR also incorporated structural modifications for a high cycle @-@ to @-@ flying hour ratio ; a related standard -100B model debuted in 1979 . The -100BSR first flew on November 3 , 1978 , with first delivery to All Nippon Airways ( ANA ) on December 21 , 1978 . A total of twenty -100BSRs were produced for ANA and JAL . The -100BSR had a 600 @,@ 000 lb MTOW and was powered by the same JT9D @-@ 7A or General Electric CF6 @-@ 45 engines used on the -100SR . ANA operated this variant on domestic Japanese routes with 455 or 456 seats until retiring its last aircraft in March 2006 . In 1986 , two -100BSR SUD models , featuring the stretched upper deck ( SUD ) of the -300 , were produced for JAL . The type 's maiden flight occurred on February 26 , 1986 , with FAA certification and first delivery on March 24 , 1986 . JAL operated the -100BSR SUD with 563 seats on domestic routes until their retirement in the third quarter of 2006 . While only two -100BSR SUDs were produced , in theory , standard -100Bs can be modified to the SUD certification . Overall , twenty @-@ nine 747SRs were built , consisting of seven -100SRs , twenty -100BSRs , and two -100BSR SUDs . = = = = 747 @-@ 100B = = = = The 747 @-@ 100B model was developed from the -100SR , using its stronger airframe and landing gear design . The type had an increased fuel capacity of 48 @,@ 070 US gal ( 182 @,@ 000 l ; 40 @,@ 030 imp gal ) , allowing for a 5 @,@ 000 @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 9 @,@ 300 km ; 5 @,@ 800 mi ) range with a typical 452 @-@ passenger payload , and an increased MTOW of 750 @,@ 000 lb ( 340 @,@ 000 kg ) was offered . The first -100B order , one aircraft for Iran Air , was announced on June 1 , 1978 . This aircraft first flew on June 20 , 1979 , received FAA certification on August 1 , 1979 , and was delivered the next day . Nine -100Bs were built , one for Iran Air and eight for Saudi Arabian Airlines . Unlike the original -100 , the -100B was offered with Pratt & Whitney JT9D @-@ 7A , General Electric CF6 @-@ 50 , or Rolls @-@ Royce RB211 @-@ 524 engines . However , only RB211 @-@ 524 ( Saudia ) and JT9D @-@ 7A ( Iran Air ) engines were ordered . The last 747 @-@ 100B , EP @-@ IAM was retired by Iran Air in 2014 , the last commercial operator of the 747 @-@ 100 and -100B . = = = 747SP = = = The development of the 747SP stemmed from a joint request between Pan American World Airways and Iran Air , who were looking for a high @-@ capacity airliner with enough range to cover Pan Am 's New York – Middle Eastern routes and Iran Air 's planned Tehran – New York route . The Tehran – New York route , when launched , was the longest non @-@ stop commercial flight in the world . The 747SP is 48 feet 4 inches ( 14 @.@ 73 m ) shorter than the 747 @-@ 100 . Fuselage sections were eliminated fore and aft of the wing , and the center section of the fuselage was redesigned to fit mating fuselage sections . The SP 's flaps used a simplified single @-@ slotted configuration . The 747SP , compared to earlier variants , had a tapering of the aft upper fuselage into the empennage , a double @-@ hinged rudder , and longer vertical and horizontal stabilizers . Power was provided by Pratt & Whitney JT9D @-@ 7 ( A / F / J / FW ) or Rolls @-@ Royce RB211 @-@ 524 engines . The 747SP was granted a supplemental certificate on February 4 , 1976 and entered service with launch customers Pan Am and Iran Air that same year . The aircraft was chosen by airlines wishing to serve major airports with short runways . A total of 45 747SPs were built , with the 44th 747SP delivered on August 30 , 1982 . In 1987 , Boeing re @-@ opened the 747SP production line after five years to build one last 747SP for an order by the United Arab Emirates government . In addition to airline use , one 747SP was modified for the NASA / German Aerospace Center SOFIA experiment . Iran Air is the last civil operator of the type ; its final 747 @-@ SP ( EP @-@ IAC ) is to be retired in June 2016 . = = = 747 @-@ 200 = = = While the 747 @-@ 100 powered by Pratt & Whitney JT9D @-@ 3A engines offered enough payload and range for US domestic operations , it was marginal for long international route sectors . The demand for longer range aircraft with increased payload quickly led to the improved -200 , which featured more powerful engines , increased MTOW , and greater range than the -100 . A few early -200s retained the three @-@ window configuration of the -100 on the upper deck , but most were built with a ten @-@ window configuration on each side . The 747 @-@ 200 was produced in passenger ( -200B ) , freighter ( -200F ) , convertible ( -200C ) , and combi ( -200M ) versions . The 747 @-@ 200B was the basic passenger version , with increased fuel capacity and more powerful engines ; it entered service in February 1971 . In its first three years of production , the -200 was equipped with Pratt & Whitney JT9D @-@ 7 engines ( initially the only engine available ) . Range with a full passenger load started at over 5 @,@ 000 nmi ( 9 @,@ 300 km ) and increased to 6 @,@ 000 nmi ( 11 @,@ 000 km ) with later engines . Most -200Bs had an internally stretched upper deck , allowing for up to 16 passenger seats . The freighter model , the 747 @-@ 200F , could be fitted with or without a side cargo door , and had a capacity of 105 tons ( 95 @.@ 3 tonnes ) and an MTOW of up to 833 @,@ 000 lb ( 378 @,@ 000 kg ) . It entered service in 1972 with Lufthansa . The convertible version , the 747 @-@ 200C , could be converted between a passenger and a freighter or used in mixed configurations , and featured removable seats and a nose cargo door . The -200C could also be fitted with an optional side cargo door on the main deck . The combi model , the 747 @-@ 200M , could carry freight in the rear section of the main deck via a side cargo door . A removable partition on the main deck separated the cargo area at the rear from the passengers at the front . The -200M could carry up to 238 passengers in a three @-@ class configuration with cargo carried on the main deck . The model was also known as the 747 @-@ 200 Combi . As on the -100 , a stretched upper deck ( SUD ) modification was later offered . A total of 10 converted 747 @-@ 200s were operated by KLM . Union des Transports Aériens ( UTA ) also had two of these aircraft converted . After launching the -200 with Pratt & Whitney JT9D @-@ 7 engines , on August 1 , 1972 Boeing announced that it had reached an agreement with General Electric to certify the 747 with CF6 @-@ 50 series engines to increase the aircraft 's market potential . Rolls @-@ Royce followed 747 engine production with a launch order from British Airways for four aircraft . The option of RB211 @-@ 524B engines was announced on June 17 , 1975 . The -200 was the first 747 to provide a choice of powerplant from the three major engine manufacturers . A total of 393 of the 747 @-@ 200 versions had been built when production ended in 1991 . Of these , 225 were -200B , 73 were -200F , 13 were -200C , 78 were -200M , and 4 were military . Many 747 @-@ 200s remain in operation , although most large carriers have retired them from their fleets and sold them to smaller operators . Large carriers have sped up fleet retirement following the September 11 attacks and the subsequent drop in demand for air travel , scrapping some or turning others into freighters . = = = 747 @-@ 300 = = = The 747 @-@ 300 features a 23 @-@ foot @-@ 4 @-@ inch @-@ longer ( 7 @.@ 11 m ) upper deck than the -200 . The stretched upper deck has two emergency exit doors and is the most visible difference between the -300 and previous models . Before being made standard on the 747 @-@ 300 , the stretched upper deck was previously offered as a retrofit , and appeared on two Japanese 747 @-@ 100SR aircraft . The 747 @-@ 300 introduced a new straight stairway to the upper deck , instead of a spiral staircase on earlier variants , which creates room above and below for more seats . Minor aerodynamic changes allowed the -300 's cruise speed to reach Mach 0 @.@ 85 compared with Mach 0 @.@ 84 on the -200 and -100 models , while retaining the same takeoff weight . The -300 could be equipped with the same Pratt & Whitney and Rolls @-@ Royce powerplants as on the -200 , as well as updated General Electric CF6 @-@ 80C2B1 engines . Swissair placed the first order for the 747 @-@ 300 on June 11 , 1980 . The variant revived the 747 @-@ 300 designation , which had been previously used on a design study that did not reach production . The 747 @-@ 300 first flew on October 5 , 1982 , and the type 's first delivery went to Swissair on March 23 , 1983 . Besides the passenger model , two other versions ( -300M , -300SR ) were produced . The 747 @-@ 300M features cargo capacity on the rear portion of the main deck , similar to the -200M , but with the stretched upper deck it can carry more passengers . The 747 @-@ 300SR , a short range , high @-@ capacity domestic model , was produced for Japanese markets with a maximum seating for 584 . No production freighter version of the 747 @-@ 300 was built , but Boeing began modifications of used passenger -300 models into freighters in 2000 . A total of 81 747 @-@ 300 series aircraft were delivered , 56 for passenger use , 21 -300M and 4 -300SR versions . In 1985 , just two years after the -300 entered service , the type was superseded by the announcement of the more advanced 747 @-@ 400 . The last 747 @-@ 300 was delivered in September 1990 to Sabena . While some -300 customers continued operating the type , several large carriers replaced their 747 @-@ 300s with 747 @-@ 400s . Air France , Air India , Pakistan International Airlines , and Qantas were some of the last major carriers to operate the 747 @-@ 300 . On December 29 , 2008 , Qantas flew its last scheduled 747 @-@ 300 service , operating from Melbourne to Los Angeles via Auckland . In July 2015 , Pakistan International Airlines retired their final 747 @-@ 300 after 30 years of service . = = = 747 @-@ 400 = = = The 747 @-@ 400 is an improved model with increased range . It has wingtip extensions of 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) and winglets of 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) , which improve the type 's fuel efficiency by four percent compared to previous 747 versions . The 747 @-@ 400 introduced a new glass cockpit designed for a flight crew of two instead of three , with a reduction in the number of dials , gauges and knobs from 971 to 365 through the use of electronics . The type also features tail fuel tanks , revised engines , and a new interior . The longer range has been used by some airlines to bypass traditional fuel stops , such as Anchorage . Powerplants include the Pratt & Whitney PW4062 , General Electric CF6 @-@ 80C2 , and Rolls @-@ Royce RB211 @-@ 524 . The -400 was offered in passenger ( -400 ) , freighter ( -400F ) , combi ( -400M ) , domestic ( -400D ) , extended range passenger ( -400ER ) , and extended range freighter ( -400ERF ) versions . Passenger versions retain the same upper deck as the -300 , while the freighter version does not have an extended upper deck . The 747 @-@ 400D was built for short @-@ range operations with maximum seating for 624 . Winglets were not included , but they can be retrofitted . Cruising speed is up to Mach 0 @.@ 855 on different versions of the 747 @-@ 400 . The passenger version first entered service in February 1989 with launch customer Northwest Airlines on the Minneapolis to Phoenix route . The combi version entered service in September 1989 with KLM , while the freighter version entered service in November 1993 with Cargolux . The 747 @-@ 400ERF entered service with Air France in October 2002 , while the 747 @-@ 400ER entered service with Qantas , its sole customer , in November 2002 . In January 2004 , Boeing and Cathay Pacific launched the Boeing 747 @-@ 400 Special Freighter program , later referred to as the Boeing Converted Freighter ( BCF ) , to modify passenger 747 @-@ 400s for cargo use . The first 747 @-@ 400BCF was redelivered in December 2005 . In March 2007 , Boeing announced that it had no plans to produce further passenger versions of the -400 . However , orders for 36 -400F and -400ERF freighters were already in place at the time of the announcement . The last passenger version of the 747 @-@ 400 was delivered in April 2005 to China Airlines . Some of the last built 747 @-@ 400s were delivered with Dreamliner livery along with the modern Signature interior from the Boeing 777 . A total of 694 of the 747 @-@ 400 series aircraft were delivered . At various times , the largest 747 @-@ 400 operator has included Singapore Airlines , Japan Airlines , and British Airways with 57 as of June 2013 . = = = = 747 LCF Dreamlifter = = = = The 747 @-@ 400 Dreamlifter ( originally called the 747 Large Cargo Freighter or LCF ) is a Boeing @-@ designed modification of existing 747 @-@ 400s to a larger configuration to ferry 787 Dreamliner sub @-@ assemblies . Evergreen Aviation Technologies Corporation of Taiwan was contracted to complete modifications of 747 @-@ 400s into Dreamlifters in Taoyuan . The aircraft flew for the first time on September 9 , 2006 in a test flight . Modification of four aircraft was completed by February 2010 . The Dreamlifters have been placed into service transporting sub @-@ assemblies for the 787 program to the Boeing plant in Everett , Washington , for final assembly . The aircraft is certified to carry only essential crew and not passengers . = = = 747 @-@ 8 = = = Boeing announced a new 747 variant , the 747 @-@ 8 , on November 14 , 2005 . Referred to as the 747 Advanced prior to its launch , the 747 @-@ 8 uses the same engine and cockpit technology as the 787 , hence the use of the " 8 " . The variant is designed to be quieter , more economical , and more environmentally friendly . The 747 @-@ 8 's fuselage is lengthened from 232 to 251 feet ( 70 @.@ 8 to 76 @.@ 4 m ) , marking the first stretch variant of the aircraft . Power is supplied by General Electric GEnx @-@ 2B67 engines . The 747 @-@ 8 Freighter , or 747 @-@ 8F , is derived from the 747 @-@ 400ERF . The variant has 16 percent more payload capacity than its predecessor , allowing it to carry seven additional standard air cargo containers , with a maximum payload capacity of 154 tons ( 140 tonnes ) of cargo . As on previous 747 freighters , the 747 @-@ 8F features an overhead nose @-@ door and a side @-@ door on the main deck plus a side @-@ door on the lower deck ( " belly " ) to aid loading and unloading . The 747 @-@ 8F made its maiden flight on February 8 , 2010 . The variant received its amended type certificate jointly from the FAA and the European Aviation Safety Agency ( EASA ) on August 19 , 2011 . The -8F was first delivered to Cargolux on October 12 , 2011 . The passenger version , named 747 @-@ 8 Intercontinental or 747 @-@ 8I , is designed to carry up to 467 passengers in a 3 @-@ class configuration and fly more than 8 @,@ 000 nmi ( 15 @,@ 000 km ) at Mach 0 @.@ 855 . As a derivative of the already common 747 @-@ 400 , the 747 @-@ 8 has the economic benefit of similar training and interchangeable parts . The type 's first test flight occurred on March 20 , 2011 . At its introduction , the 747 @-@ 8 surpassed the Airbus A340 @-@ 600 as the world 's longest airliner . The first -8I was delivered in May 2012 to Lufthansa . The 747 @-@ 8 has received 125 total orders , including 74 for the -8F and 51 for the -8I , as of June 2016 . = = = Government , military , and other variants = = = C @-@ 19 – The U.S. Air Force gave this designation to the 747 @-@ 100s used by some U.S. airlines and modified for use in the Civil Reserve Airlift Fleet . VC @-@ 25 – This aircraft is the U.S. Air Force very important person ( VIP ) version of the 747 @-@ 200B . The U.S. Air Force operates two of them in VIP configuration as the VC @-@ 25A . Tail numbers 28000 and 29000 are popularly known as Air Force One , which is technically the air @-@ traffic call sign for any United States Air Force aircraft carrying the U.S. President . Although based on the 747 @-@ 200B design , they include several innovations introduced on the 747 @-@ 400 . Partially completed aircraft from Everett , Washington , were flown to Wichita , Kansas , for final outfitting . E @-@ 4B – Formerly known as the National Emergency Airborne Command Post ( referred to colloquially as " Kneecap " ) , this aircraft is now referred to as the National Airborne Operations Center ( NAOC ) . YAL @-@ 1 – This is the experimental Airborne Laser , a component of the National Missile Defense plan . Shuttle Carrier Aircraft ( SCA ) – Two 747s were modified to carry the Space Shuttle orbiter . The first was a 747 @-@ 100 ( N905NA ) , and the other was a 747 @-@ 100SR ( N911NA ) . The first SCA carried the prototype Enterprise during the Approach and Landing Tests in the late 1970s . The two SCA later carried all five operational Space Shuttle orbiters . C @-@ 33 – This aircraft was a proposed U.S. military version of the 747 @-@ 400 intended to augment the C @-@ 17 fleet . The plan was canceled in favor of additional C @-@ 17s . KC @-@ 33A – A proposed 747 was also adapted as an aerial refueling tanker and was bid against the DC @-@ 10 @-@ 30 during the 1970s Advanced Cargo Transport Aircraft ( ACTA ) program that produced the KC @-@ 10A Extender . Before the 1979 Iranian Revolution , Iran bought four 747 @-@ 100 aircraft with air @-@ refueling boom conversions to support its fleet of F @-@ 4 Phantoms . There is a report of using a KC @-@ 33A in H @-@ 3 airstrike during Iran – Iraq War . It is unknown whether these aircraft remain usable as tankers . Since then , other proposals have emerged for adaptation of later 747 @-@ 400 aircraft for this role . 747 CMCA – This " Cruise Missile Carrier Aircraft " variant was considered by the U.S. Air Force during the development of the B @-@ 1 Lancer strategic bomber . It would have been equipped with 50 to 100 AGM @-@ 86 ALCM cruise missiles on rotary launchers . This plan was abandoned in favor of more conventional strategic bombers . 747 AAC – a Boeing study under contract from the USAF for an " airborne aircraft carrier " for up to 10 Boeing Model 985 @-@ 121 " microfighters " with the ability to launch , retrieve , re @-@ arm , and refuel . Boeing believed that the scheme would be able to deliver a flexible and fast , carrier platform with global reach , particularly where other bases were not available . Modified versions of the 747 @-@ 200 and Lockheed C @-@ 5A were considered as the base aircraft . The concept , which included a complementary 747 AWACS version with two reconnaissance " microfighters " , was considered technically feasible in 1973 . Evergreen 747 Supertanker – A Boeing 747 @-@ 200 modified as an aerial application platform for fire fighting using 20 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 76 @,@ 000 L ) of firefighting chemicals . Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy ( SOFIA ) - A former Pan Am Boeing 747SP modified to carry a large infrared @-@ sensitive telescope , in a joint venture of NASA and DLR . High altitudes are needed for infrared astronomy , so as to rise above infrared @-@ absorbing water vapor in the atmosphere . A number of other governments also use the 747 as a VIP transport , including Bahrain , Brunei , India , Iran , Japan , Kuwait , Oman , Pakistan , Qatar , Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates . Several Boeing 747 @-@ 8s have been ordered by Boeing Business Jet for conversion to VIP transports for several unidentified customers . = = = Undeveloped variants = = = Boeing has studied a number of 747 variants that have not gone beyond the concept stage . = = = = 747 trijet = = = = During the late 1960s and early 1970s , Boeing studied the development of a shorter 747 with three engines , to compete with the smaller L @-@ 1011 TriStar and DC @-@ 10 . The 747 trijet would have had more payload , range , and passenger capacity than the L @-@ 1011 and DC @-@ 10 . The center engine would have been fitted in the tail with an S @-@ duct intake similar to the L @-@ 1011 's . However , engineering studies showed that a total redesign of the 747 wing would be necessary . Maintaining the same 747 handling characteristics would be important to minimize pilot retraining . Boeing decided instead to pursue a shortened four @-@ engine 747 , resulting in the 747SP . = = = = 747 ASB = = = = Boeing announced the 747 ASB ( Advanced Short Body ) in 1986 as a response to the Airbus A340 and the McDonnell Douglas MD @-@ 11 . This aircraft design would have combined the advanced technology used on the 747 @-@ 400 with the foreshortened 747SP fuselage . The aircraft was to carry 295 passengers a range of 8 @,@ 000 nmi ( 9 @,@ 200 mi ; 15 @,@ 000 km ) . However , airlines were not interested in the project and it was canceled in 1988 in favor of the 777 . = = = = 747 @-@ 500X , -600X , and -700X = = = = Boeing announced the 747 @-@ 500X and -600X at the 1996 Farnborough Airshow . The proposed models would have combined the 747 's fuselage with a new 251 ft ( 77 m ) span wing derived from the 777 . Other changes included adding more powerful engines and increasing the number of tires from two to four on the nose landing gear and from 16 to 20 on the main landing gear . The 747 @-@ 500X concept featured an increased fuselage length of 18 ft ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) to 250 ft ( 76 @.@ 2 m ) long , and the aircraft was to carry 462 passengers over a range up to 8 @,@ 700 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 000 mi , 16 @,@ 100 km ) , with a gross weight of over 1 @.@ 0 Mlb ( 450 tonnes ) . The 747 @-@ 600X concept featured a greater stretch to 279 ft ( 85 m ) with seating for 548 passengers , a range of up to 7 @,@ 700 nmi ( 8 @,@ 900 mi , 14 @,@ 300 km ) , and a gross weight of 1 @.@ 2 Mlb ( 540 tonnes ) . A third study concept , the 747 @-@ 700X , would have combined the wing of the 747 @-@ 600X with a widened fuselage , allowing it to carry 650 passengers over the same range as a 747 @-@ 400 . The cost of the changes from previous 747 models , in particular the new wing for the 747 @-@ 500X and -600X , was estimated to be more than US $ 5 billion . Boeing was not able to attract enough interest to launch the aircraft . = = = = 747X and 747X Stretch = = = = As Airbus progressed with its A3XX study , Boeing offered a 747 derivative as an alternative in 2000 ; a more modest proposal than the previous -500X and -600X that retained the 747 's overall wing design and add a segment at the root , increasing the span to 229 ft ( 69 @.@ 8 m ) . Power would have been supplied by either the Engine Alliance GP7172 or the Rolls @-@ Royce Trent 600 , which were also proposed for the 767 @-@ 400ERX . A new flight deck based on the 777 's would be used . The 747X aircraft was to carry 430 passengers over ranges of up to 8 @,@ 700 nmi ( 10 @,@ 000 mi , 16 @,@ 100 km ) . The 747X Stretch would be extended to 263 ft ( 80 @.@ 2 m ) long , allowing it to carry 500 passengers over ranges of up to 7 @,@ 800 nmi ( 9 @,@ 000 mi , 14 @,@ 500 km ) . Both would feature an interior based on the 777 . Freighter versions of the 747X and 747X Stretch were also studied . Like its predecessor , the 747X family was unable to garner enough interest to justify production , and it was shelved along with the 767 @-@ 400ERX in March 2001 , when Boeing announced the Sonic Cruiser concept . Though the 747X design was less costly than the 747 @-@ 500X and -600X , it was criticized for not offering a sufficient advance from the existing 747 @-@ 400 . The 747X did not make it beyond the drawing board , but the 747 @-@ 400X being developed concurrently moved into production to become the 747 @-@ 400ER . = = = = 747 @-@ 400XQLR = = = = After the end of the 747X program , Boeing continued to study improvements that could be made to the 747 . The 747 @-@ 400XQLR ( Quiet Long Range ) was meant to have an increased range of 7 @,@ 980 nmi ( 9 @,@ 200 mi , 14 @,@ 800 km ) , with improvements to boost efficiency and reduce noise . Improvements studied included raked wingtips similar to those used on the 767 @-@ 400ER and a sawtooth engine nacelle for noise reduction . Although the 747 @-@ 400XQLR did not move to production , many of its features were used for the 747 Advanced , which has now been launched as the 747 @-@ 8 . = = Operators = = = = = Orders and deliveries = = = Boeing data through end of June 2016 . = = = Model summary = = = = = Accidents and incidents = = As of May 2016 , the 747 has been involved in 132 aviation occurrences , including 60 hull @-@ loss accidents , resulting in 3 @,@ 718 fatalities . The 747 has been in 32 hijackings , which caused 24 fatalities . This includes Pan Am Flight 73 where a Boeing 747 @-@ 121 was hijacked by four terrorists and resulted in 20 deaths . Few crashes have been attributed to design flaws of the 747 . The Tenerife airport disaster resulted from pilot error and communications failure , while the Japan Airlines Flight 123 and China Airlines Flight 611 crashes stemmed from improper aircraft repair . United Airlines Flight 811 , which suffered an explosive decompression mid @-@ flight on February 24 , 1989 , led the National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) to issue a recommendation that 747 @-@ 200 cargo doors similar to those on the Flight 811 aircraft be modified . Korean Air Lines Flight 007 was shot down by a Soviet fighter aircraft in 1983 after it had strayed into Soviet territory , causing U.S. President Ronald Reagan to authorize the then @-@ strictly military global positioning system ( GPS ) for civilian use . Accidents due to design deficiencies included TWA Flight 800 , where a 747 @-@ 100 exploded in mid @-@ air on July 17 , 1996 , probably due to sparking electricity wires inside the fuel tank ; this finding led the FAA to propose a rule requiring installation of an inerting system in the center fuel tank of most large aircraft that was adopted in July 2008 , after years of research into solutions . At the time , the new safety system was expected to cost US $ 100 @,@ 000 to $ 450 @,@ 000 per aircraft and weigh approximately 200 pounds ( 91 kg ) . El Al Flight 1862 crashed after the fuse pins for an engine broke off shortly after take @-@ off due to metal fatigue . Instead of dropping away from the wing , the engine knocked off the adjacent engine and damaged the wing . = = Aircraft on display = = As increasing numbers of " classic " 747 @-@ 100 and 747 @-@ 200 series aircraft have been retired , some have found their way into museums or other uses . The City of Everett , the first 747 and prototype , is at the Museum of Flight , Seattle , Washington , USA where it is sometimes leased to Boeing for test purposes . Other 747s in museums include those at the Aviodrome , Lelystad , The Netherlands ; the Qantas Founders Outback Museum , Longreach , Queensland , Australia ; Rand Airport , Johannesburg , South Africa ; Technikmuseum Speyer , Speyer , Germany ; Musée de l 'Air et de l 'Espace , Paris , France ; Tehran Aerospace Exhibition , Tehran , Iran ; Jeongseok Aviation Center , Jeju , South Korea , Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum , McMinnville , Oregon , and the National Air and Space Museum , Washington , D.C. = = = Other uses = = = Upon its retirement from service , the 747 number two in the production line was dismantled and shipped to Hopyeong , Namyangju , Gyeonggi @-@ do , South Korea where it was re @-@ assembled , repainted in a livery similar to that of Air Force One and converted into a restaurant . Originally flown commercially by Pan Am as N747PA , Clipper Juan T. Trippe , and repaired for service following a tailstrike , it stayed with the airline until its bankruptcy . The restaurant closed by 2009 , and the aircraft was scrapped in 2010 . A former British Airways 747 @-@ 200B , G @-@ BDXJ , is parked at the Dunsfold Aerodrome in Surrey , England and has been used as a movie set for productions such as the 2006 James Bond film , Casino Royale . The plane also appears frequently in the BBC television series Top Gear , which is filmed at Dunsfold . The Jumbohostel , using a converted 747 @-@ 200 , opened at Arlanda Airport , Stockholm on January 15 , 2009 . The wings of a 747 have been recycled as roofs of a house in Malibu , California . = = Specifications = = Sources : Boeing 747 specifications , 747 airport planning report , 747 @-@ 8 airport brochure , Lufthansa 747 @-@ 8 data Being fact sheet The 747 parasitic drag , CDP , is 0 @.@ 022 , and the wing area is 5 @,@ 500 square feet ( 511 m2 ) , so that f equals about 121 sq ft ( 11 @.@ 2 m2 ) . The parasitic drag is given by ½ f ρair v ² in which f is the product of drag coefficient CDp and the wing area . = = Notable appearances in media = = Following its debut , the 747 rapidly achieved iconic status , appearing in numerous film productions such as the Airport series of disaster films , Air Force One , and Executive Decision . Appearing in over 300 film productions the 747 is one of the most widely depicted civilian aircraft and is considered by many as one of the most iconic in film history . The aircraft entered the cultural lexicon as the original Jumbo Jet , a term coined by the aviation media to describe its size , and was also nicknamed Queen of the Skies .
= Trapped in the Closet ( South Park ) = " Trapped in the Closet " is the twelfth episode in the ninth season of the animated series South Park . The 137th episode of the series overall , it originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on November 16 , 2005 . In the episode , Stan joins Scientology in an attempt to find something " fun and free " . After the discovery of his surprisingly high " thetan levels " , he is recognized as the reincarnation of L. Ron Hubbard , the founder of the church . The episode was written and directed by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker . The title is a reference to the R. Kelly serialized song of the same name and a satirized version of R. Kelly appears in the episode . " Trapped in the Closet " generated significant controversy . Tom Cruise , who is portrayed in the episode , reportedly threatened to back out of his promotional obligations for the Paramount Pictures film Mission : Impossible III if Viacom , the owner of both Comedy Central and Paramount , allowed a repeat of the episode to air . A publicist of Cruise denied this , saying " Tom had nothing to do with this matter . He 's been promoting ' Mission : Impossible III ' for the last six months . We have no clue where this came from . " Though the episode was originally scheduled for rebroadcast on March 15 , 2006 , the episode " Chef 's Chocolate Salty Balls " was shown instead . Comedy Central representatives stated this change was made as a tribute to Isaac Hayes , but South Park creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone thought otherwise ; they issued a satirical statement saying they ( Parker and Stone ) were " servants of the dark lord Xenu " . Hayes , the voice of staple character Chef , asked to be released from his contract shortly before the start of the tenth season . The reason for his departure , as reported by Stone , was due to his membership in Scientology and this episode , which Hayes — despite initially supporting the show 's satirical take on several talk shows — claimed was very offensive . The episode has since been rebroadcast on Comedy Central multiple times . " Trapped in the Closet " was nominated for an Emmy Award in July 2006 , in the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less Than One Hour ) category . The episode was featured among Comedy Central 's list of " 10 South Parks That Changed The World " , spoofed by Conan O 'Brien in the opening segment of the 58th Primetime Emmy Awards , and mentioned in the Scientology critique film The Bridge . TV Guide ranked the episode # 17 on its list of " TV 's Top 100 Episodes of All Time " . = = Plot = = Saving for a bicycle and not wanting to spend money on entertainment , Stan takes a free " personality test " being offered by Scientologists on the street . After answering a long questionnaire , Stan is informed that he is extremely depressed and therefore a perfect candidate for Scientology . They offer to help him out for $ 240 . Back home , Stan asks his parents for the money . His father suggests that he use the money he had been saving . Stan pays and is taken into an auditing room where an attendant reads his " thetan levels " using an " E @-@ meter " . Stan has such a high reading that the Scientology headquarters in Los Angeles is notified . There , the president of Scientology determines that , because his reading is so high , Stan must be a reincarnation of L. Ron Hubbard , Scientology 's founder and prophet . Later that night , a large group of Scientologists , including John Travolta , gather outside the Marsh house to celebrate Hubbard 's " second coming " . The president of Scientology arrives in a helicopter and talks with Stan 's parents . They are opposed to Stan 's participation , but the president informs them that " we 're not asking him to join us ; we 're asking him to lead us " . Randy sends Stan to his room , where he finds Tom Cruise waiting . Cruise , believing that Stan is genuinely Hubbard 's reincarnation , asks him whether he has enjoyed his acting . When " Hubbard " replies that his acting is okay but not as good as others ' such as Leonardo DiCaprio or the Napoleon Dynamite guy , Tom hears that he is " a failure in the eyes of the prophet " and locks himself in Stan 's closet . He refuses to come out , despite the entreaties of Randy , Nicole Kidman , the police , Travolta and R. Kelly to " come out of the closet " . Travolta and Kelly eventually join Cruise in the closet . Downstairs , the church president tries to convince Stan 's parents to allow their son to participate . He tells to Stan the great secret behind the church — a condensed version of the story of Xenu , based directly on the Scientology Operating Thetan III document , and accompanied by an onscreen caption reading " This is what Scientologists actually believe " . He then begs Stan to continue writing where " L. Ron " left off . Stan , impressed by the story , does so . He shows his writings to the Scientology president , who initially approves of the work , but when Stan says " to really be a church , you can 't charge money to help " , the president reveals to Stan that the church is in reality a global money @-@ making scam . He asks that Stan continue with that in mind . Stan appears to agree and keeps writing . Outside the house , the president introduces Stan to his followers , to whom he will read parts of his new doctrine . However , instead of presenting it to them , Stan states that he is not the reincarnation of L. Ron Hubbard , and that " Scientology is just a big fat global scam " . The Scientologists grow angry and threaten to sue him . The celebrities in the closet appear , threatening to sue Stan as well . The last shot is Stan daring them to do so . However , that shot is followed immediately by the closing credits naming only " John Smith " and " Jane Smith " , a reference to Tom Cruise and the Church of Scientology 's reputation for litigiousness . = = Production = = South Park had previously parodied Scientology in a spoof at the 2000 MTV Movie Awards . The MTV short was entitled " The Gauntlet " and included " John Travolta and the Church of Scientology " arriving in a spaceship to defeat Russell Crowe ( as a gladiator ) and attempt to recruit the boys into Scientology . Travolta , along with his fellow Scientologists , was depicted as a Psychlo , as he appeared in the film Battlefield Earth . They had also made fun of Scientology in an earlier episode , entitled " Super Best Friends " , in which David Blaine formed his own cult , called " Blaintology " . Parker and Stone have acknowledged that this is meant to be a reference to Scientology . Parker stated that Isaac Hayes ' membership had previously kept the show 's creators from writing a full episode which parodies Scientology . However , the decision to ultimately produce a South Park episode satirizing Scientology was partially inspired by the friendship the show 's creators have with Penn Jillette . Jillette was originally planning to do an episode of Bullshit ! based on Scientology , but Showtime prohibited him from doing so to avoid the possibility of legal action from the Church of Scientology . Parker commented , " We 're going , That 's fucked up . And hearing other people say , ' You can 't do that ' – you can only say ' You can 't do that ' so many times to Matt and me before we 're gonna do it . Finally , we just had to tell Isaac , ' Dude , we totally love working with you , and this is nothing personal , it 's just we 're South Park , and if we don 't do this , we 're belittling everything else we 've ripped on . ' " Although some questions were raised prior to the episode 's screening about whether it was wise to take swipes at Cruise and Scientology , Comedy Central declared that it supported Stone and Parker . A Comedy Central spokesman told Radar magazine in November 2005 that " they are free , and have been , to satirize anybody and anything they want to . They 've made fun of MTV , they 've made fun of Viacom , they 've made fun of Comedy Central , and we 've never interfered with them . " During production on the episode , investigative journalist Mark Ebner served as a consultant to Matt Stone and Trey Parker . Ebner had previously authored The New York Times best seller Hollywood , Interrupted , which includes an analysis of the Church of Scientology and its effects on the culture in Hollywood , and has a chapter on Tom Cruise and John Travolta 's relationship to Scientology . On the official Comedy Central website for the South Park episode , it is asserted that the section of " Trapped in the Closet " that explains Scientology 's portrayal and beliefs was not exaggerated : " Nothing about what you see here is exaggerated in the slightest . Seriously . " The title is a reference to the R. Kelly song of the same name , and a depiction of R. Kelly appears in the episode to sing a parody of it . = = Controversy = = = = = Isaac Hayes ' departure = = = On March 13 , 2006 , Hayes announced that he was quitting the show because of the series ' treatment of religion saying , " There is a place in this world for satire , but there is a time when satire ends and intolerance and bigotry towards religious beliefs of others begins . Religious beliefs are sacred to people , and at all times should be respected and honored . As a civil rights activist of the past 40 years , I cannot support a show that disrespects those beliefs and practices . " The Guardian observed that Hayes did not specifically mention Scientology in his statement . Later in an interview on CNN 's Showbiz Tonight , Hayes added he did not see the episode itself , but was told about it . In a separate interview , he reportedly said regarding Parker and Stone , " Guys , you have it all wrong . We 're not like that . I know that 's your thing , but get your information correct , because somebody might believe that shit , you know ? But I understand what they 're doing . I told them to take a couple of Scientology courses , and understand what we do . [ Laughs ] . " Responding to Hayes ' departure , Stone asserted that " This is 100 percent having to do with his faith of Scientology ... He has no problem — and he 's cashed plenty of checks — with our show making fun of Christians . " According to Stone , neither he nor Trey Parker had " heard a peep out of Isaac in any way until we did Scientology . He wants a different standard for religions other than his own , and to me , that is where intolerance and bigotry begin . " Stone commented that " In 10 years and over 150 episodes of South Park , Isaac never had a problem with the show making fun of Christians , Muslims , Mormons and Jews . He got a sudden case of religious sensitivity when it was his religion featured on the show . To bring the civil rights struggle into this is just a non sequitur . Of course we will release Isaac from his contract and we wish him well . " According to a later commentary by Stone , prior to the episode 's screening Hayes had asked the South Park creators to have Comedy Central pull the episode before it aired and not include it in the series DVD , which they refused . There were many conflicting stories as to the exact nature of Hayes ' departure . Additional reasons given by Hayes ten months after the departure include " They didn 't pay me enough " , and " They weren 't that nice " . In late 2007 , reports emerged claiming that Hayes was in no condition to stay , because of a stroke he suffered in January . According to a Fox News article , Hayes ' agent Christina Kimball , herself a practicing Scientologist , was the source of the statements that Hayes quit South Park . Stone lent support to this view in a 2007 interview with Rolling Stone , commenting that " There are reports that Isaac had a stroke and Scientology quit the show for him , and I believe it ... It was a brutal , up @-@ close , personal thing with Isaac . If you look at the timeline , something doesn 't add up . " Due to the absence of Hayes , Chef was voiced in " The Return of Chef " using pre @-@ recorded snippets of dialog from previous episodes . The character was written out of the series by being struck by lightning , burned , impaled , shot , and mauled at the end of the episode . = = = Tom Cruise parody = = = The creators used the ambiguity of " coming out of the closet " , having Tom Cruise literally refusing to come out of Stan 's closet , in a parody of rumors involving Cruise 's sexuality . Cruise has a documented history of litigation against others involving rumors as to his sexuality , and some speculated whether Cruise could sue South Park . Entertainment Weekly asked in December 2005 whether South Park was " cruisin ' for a bruisin ' " and wondered " how that sort of Cruise @-@ bashing is going to go over with Park creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone 's new bosses : Paramount Pictures just inked the dudes to a three @-@ year deal . Other people with Paramount deals ? Oh , just , you know , Tom Cruise . Should be one hell of a studio Christmas party " . Concerns over possible litigation were raised in other countries where South Park is syndicated . The episode 's planned screening on the UK 's Paramount Comedy 1 channel was canceled for fear that Cruise would sue . In Australia , SBS TV screened the episode in late February , a spokesman telling Australian The Daily Telegraph that " We haven 't received any legal threats so we 're going to publish and be damned . " = = = Closetgate = = = This episode was scheduled to rebroadcast on March 15 , 2006 on Comedy Central , but the broadcast was canceled without prior notice , and was replaced with " Chef 's Chocolate Salty Balls " . Representatives of Comedy Central insist that the episode was changed as a tribute to Isaac Hayes following his departure from the show two days earlier . The following day , the Hollywoodinterrupted.com blog alleged that Comedy Central parent Viacom canceled the rebroadcast due to threats of Cruise to boycott the publicity tour of his upcoming film Mission : Impossible III . These assertions were soon also reported by E ! News and American Morning . Fox News attributed threats from Tom Cruise , stating , " to back out of his Mission : Impossible III promotional duties if Viacom didn 't pull a repeat of the episode " , as evidence of " bad blood " between Cruise and Viacom ( which also owns Paramount Pictures , the distributor of MI : III ) . CNN 's The Situation Room with Wolf Blitzer also cited " industry sources " who believed the episode was pulled " because the network and Tom Cruise 's current movie studio are both owned by the same corporation . " The New York Post noted that Cruise had " a history of playing hardball " , alleging that he had been responsible for having a sex scene featuring his then @-@ fiancée Katie Holmes removed from the film Thank You for Smoking prior to its release . The Washington Post reported that South Park fans " struck back " , in March 2006 , and threatened to boycott Mission : Impossible III until Comedy Central put " Trapped in the Closet " back on its schedule . Melissa McNamara of CBS News later questioned whether this boycott hurt the Mission : Impossible III box office debut . The South Park creators did not comment directly on Comedy Central 's decision to pull the episode , reportedly because they had been told not to discuss the matter to avoid embarrassing Cruise . Instead , they issued a statement to Variety on March 17 , 2006 , signing the statement , " Trey Parker and Matt Stone , servants of the dark lord Xenu " . The Los Angeles Times dubbed the controversy surrounding the episode 's rebroadcast " Closetgate " . The Independent later cited the Los Angeles Times , noting that the controversy generated positive publicity for the show 's creators : " For Stone and Parker , Closetgate will be the gift that keeps on giving . " " Closetgate " has since been used to refer to the " brouhaha " surrounding Isaac Hayes ' departure and rebroadcasts of the episode , by other sources including Yahoo ! Movies , BBC , Turner Classic Movies , the Herald @-@ Sun , Thoralf Fagertun of the University of Tromsø , and the Chicago Sun @-@ Times . Cruise 's representative responded to the controversy shortly after it broke , telling the Associated Press that the allegations of Cruise 's involvement were " not true " and that " he never said that " . According to The Washington Post , Cruise 's publicist asserted that " Tom had nothing to do with this matter . He 's been promoting ' Mission : Impossible III ' for the last six months . We have no clue where this came from . " Cruise himself addressed the allegations in an interview on ABC 's Primetime in mid @-@ April . When asked about whether he had been involved with stopping the rebroadcast on Comedy Central , Cruise stated , " First of all , could you ever imagine sitting down with anyone ? I would never sit down with someone and question them on their beliefs . Here 's the thing : I 'm really not even going to dignify this . I honestly didn 't really even know about it . I 'm working , making my movie , I 've got my family . I 'm busy . I don 't spend my days going , ' What are people saying about me ? ' " A representative of Cruise had also denied any involvement of Cruise with the issue , specifically responding to allegations of Cruise 's reputed corporate power play . In April 2006 , TelevisionWeek reported that fans had posted the episode in multiple locations on the internet . At that time , the episode had been viewed over 700 @,@ 000 times on YouTube , and an online petition to re @-@ air the episode had garnered 5 @,@ 000 signatures . TelevisionWeek noted that Comedy Central " looked the other way at the online proliferation " of " Trapped in the Closet " . A spokesman for MTV Networks , owner of Comedy Central , confirmed they had not asked YouTube to pull the episode from their site . The Situation Room also noted that clips from the episode were still available on Comedy Central 's web site . In May 2006 , " Trapped in the Closet " was shown in London , at the National Film Theatre . The free screening was followed by a discussion with Parker and Stone , who said the screening was a " display of free speech " . Free copies of the episode were given out to attendees after the screening . On July 19 , 2006 , Comedy Central did air a rebroadcast of the episode at 10 : 00 Pacific Time and did so again on July 23 at 11 : 00pm Eastern Time and on September 24 at 10 : 00 PM Eastern time . Matt Stone stated " If they hadn 't put this episode back on the air , we 'd have had serious issues , and we wouldn 't be doing anything else with them . " After the episode was scheduled to be rebroadcast , Trey Parker and Matt Stone were interviewed on CNN 's Showbiz Tonight , where they stated that all of the controversy increased publicity for the episode . Parker was quoted : " But it 's really like a publicist couldn 't have orchestrated this any better for us . You know what I mean ? It 's like it 's been phenomenal . Tom Cruise has done more for South Park than anyone I think in the world . " The episode was released in several DVDs , including South Park the Hits : Volume 1 and South Park : The Complete Ninth Season , in contradiction with an alleged request by either the Church of Scientology or Cruise to never put the episode on DVD format . The full episode is also available for viewing on the web site of South Park Digital Studios , along with Parker and Stone 's ' mini @-@ commentary ' on it . A few references have been made by the show and Comedy Central to Scientology as an aftermath of the controversy . On August 1 , 2006 , Comedy Central placed an advertisement in Variety showing the South Park stars against a background of L. Ron Hubbard 's Scientology Celebrity Center , with the headline , " C 'mon Jews , show them who really runs Hollywood . " Although often misunderstood by the public to parody the Mel Gibson DUI incident , the advertisement actually congratulates South Park on gaining an Emmy nomination for " Trapped in the Closet " and satirizes the cancellation of the episode 's rebroadcast in March . The Rolling Stone cover article Still Sick , Still Wrong , celebrating the show 's anniversary , also referred to the controversy . The article depicted Stone and Parker spray painting graffiti on the church 's Los Angeles organization sign , adding " Is dum " to the Scientology logo and a " Hi Tom " message with an accompanying depiction of Cartman 's head . = = Reception = = In a review of South Park : The Complete Ninth Season , The Denver Post stated the jokes about Tom Cruise " work splendidly and reveal their depth on repeated viewings , much like the show in general . " IGN stated that " Perhaps the largest weakness of this season is that the most notorious episodes Best Friends Forever and Trapped in the Closet just don 't carry the eye @-@ popping impact that they did when they were ripped from the headlines " , giving the DVD a rating of 7 @.@ 0 . The San Francisco Chronicle wrote that Matt Stone and Trey Parker " probably hit their zenith when they made fun of Tom Cruise and Scientology " . An article in The Times wrote that South Park " infamously satirized " texts by L. Ron Hubbard " available only to Operating Thetans " . TV Guide ranked the episode # 17 on its 2009 list of " TV 's Top 100 Episodes of All Time " . = = = Analysis = = = An article in the Journal of the American Academy of Religion referred to the episode as a " scathing cartoon parody " of the Church of Scientology . University of Delaware philosophy professor Richard Hanley analyzed the mythology of Scientology , as it relates to the episode " Trapped in the Closet " , in his 2007 book South Park and Philosophy : Bigger , Longer , and More Penetrating . Hanley called the Xenu story as presented in the episode , " utterly ridiculous " . Hanley went on to delve into a philosophical analysis of the " evidential weight " of popularity and tradition in determining the " robustness " of beliefs . Southwest Minnesota State University philosophy professor Robert Arp also analyzed the philosophical and cultural aspects of the episode in his book South Park and Philosophy : You Know , I Learned Something Today . Arp analyzed Comedy Central 's reaction to the episode itself , in a section of his book entitled " 2005 – 2006 : Comedy Central Caves " . Arp mentions South Park 's usage of the onscreen caption — " This is what Scientologists actually believe " — in the episode , noting that the same device was used in the episode " All About the Mormons ? " . In referencing this similar use of the onscreen caption device , Arp seemed to point to an inconsistency in the behavior of Comedy Central relative to the episode . He explained , " By a long shot , this show was more kind to Scientology than was ' All About the Mormons ' to Mormonism . " He noted Comedy Central had suggested it would not rebroadcast the episode for the second time , though it later announced on July 12 , 2006 that it would . = = = Awards = = = The organization Fight Against Coercive Tactics Network , founded by Lawrence Wollersheim , named the South Park staff their " FACTNet Person ( s ) of the Year for 2005 " for this episode . Robert Arp cited the series winning a Peabody Award due to its willingness to criticize intolerance in April 2006 as a " special concern for criticizing and countering intolerance " , and the notion that " the Church of Scientology suffers from the widely held perceptions that it seeks to silence former members and others who criticize its beliefs and practices " , as the motivation behind the episode . Stone and Parker submitted the episode for an Emmy Award , though Stone admitted that " We did it to be jerks . A ' fuck you ' to Comedy Central . " To their surprise the episode was nominated on July 6 , 2006 in the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less Than One Hour ) category , the show 's sixth nomination ( one of which they won , for 2005 's " Best Friends Forever " ) . The Simpsons episode " The Seemingly Never @-@ Ending Story " was the eventual recipient of the award . It was also among Comedy Central 's list of " 10 South Parks That Changed The World " , which started airing at September 24 , 2006 in anticipation of the premiere of the second half of South Park 's tenth season . = = = Legacy = = = The scene where Cruise enters the closet is referenced in the South Park segment of the opening of the 58th Primetime Emmy Awards on August 27 , 2006 , in which Conan O 'Brien is trying to get to the show , but suddenly appears in Stan 's room in an animated form . Stan begins yelling at him as he runs into the nearby closet . Immediately following the entrance , he exits the closet and says , " There 's someone else in there " , referring to Cruise , and leaves the door open . Cruise then pops out and closes the door . There is a scene in the film The Bridge by Brett Hanover , where two young women looking for a laugh tell a Scientology volunteer they learned about the organization from South Park . The volunteer answers that she hasn 't seen the episode in question , and the two women later leave during the middle of an orientation video . On February 8 , 2013 , while appearing on the Opie & Anthony Show , Jenna Miscavige Hill , the niece of the Chairman of Scientology , David Miscavige , admitted that she first learned about the story of Xenu from watching this episode .
= Kenwyne Jones = Kenwyne Joel Jones CM ( born 5 October 1984 ) is a Trinidadian professional footballer who plays as a striker for Atlanta United and the Trinidad and Tobago national team , whom he captains . He began his football career with Joe Public in his native Trinidad and Tobago . He moved to W Connection in 2002 , and he was a utility player in the Trinidad and Tobago team in 2003 against Finland . In 2004 , he joined Southampton , where he was converted to a striker . He was later loaned to Sheffield Wednesday and Stoke City during the 2004 – 05 season . In 2007 he joined Sunderland for £ 6 million where he spent three seasons before he signed for Stoke City in August 2010 . In his first season at Stoke Jones scored 12 goals and played in the 2011 FA Cup Final . Following the arrival of Peter Crouch in August 2011 , Jones struggled to hold down a regular place in the side which saw him score just four more league goals in the next three seasons . In January 2014 he joined Cardiff City in a player @-@ exchange with Peter Odemwingie . = = Club career = = = = = Early career = = = Jones was born in Point Fortin , Trinidad and Tobago , to Lydia and Pamphile. and he attended St. Anthony 's College in Trinidad along with his future Sunderland team @-@ mate Carlos Edwards . His uncle , Philibert Jones was also a footballer as a prolific forward for Strike Squad that came within a point of qualifying for the 1990 World Cup and was a similar player to Kenwyne ; both in style and celebration . His athleticism and pace , which Sunderland considered attractive , was not established until he joined Sheffield Wednesday in September and began to show his potential . He had earlier had trials at Manchester United and Middlesbrough in 2002 , and further trials at West Ham United and Rangers in 2004 . Jones revealed in an interview with Simon Bird that he had to travel around Europe looking for a football club , or face a career in the Trinidad army ; he said " It was hard because I 'd just had my son and it was make it — or join the army . I had a family to support and at that time , it was either this is it ... or I go into the services . I was ready for that life . " Jones began his professional career with Joe Public in his native Trinidad and Tobago in 2002 . He soon moved to W Connection where he played for two years . = = = Southampton = = = In July 2004 , Jones signed for Southampton from W Connection for a nominal fee after a trial . W Connection 's Chairman David John Williams described Jones ' move , saying : " When Kenwyne Jones was transferred to Southampton , I told you all that he is going to be the biggest thing in Trinidad and Tobago football since beside Dwight Yorke " . In December 2004 , while on loan to the Football League One club Sheffield Wednesday , he scored seven goals in seven games , and returned to Southampton in January 2005 , where he played in games against Liverpool and local rivals Portsmouth . He joined Championship side Stoke City in February 2005 on loan where he played 13 times scoring three goals . Before the start of the 2006 – 07 season , Jones scored a hat trick against Anderlecht in Southampton 's last pre @-@ season game , Meanwhile in the Football League Championship Jones scored two goals against Birmingham City on 29 November that ended 4 – 3 to Southampton . On 26 December 2006 , he received the first red card of his career for a push on Mark Hudson in the match against Crystal Palace . He scored another two goals against Southend United in a 4 – 1 win on the last day of the season to ensure a place in the play @-@ offs for Southampton , following this , Jones was injured for the play @-@ off semi @-@ final defeat at Derby County but finished the season with 16 goals . On 11 May 2007 , Southampton manager George Burley stated that " Kenwyne is another Didier Drogba in the making , as far as physical attributes , his strength and power in the air are second to none " . This followed news that Derby County wanted to sign Jones for around £ 5 @.@ 5 million . Jones submitted a transfer request to Southampton on 24 August 2007 and went on " strike " until a move could be agreed , requesting not to be selected for the forthcoming league match against Stoke City . = = = Sunderland = = = On 29 August 2007 , it was confirmed that he had joined Sunderland in a deal valued at £ 6 million with fellow @-@ Trinidadian Stern John moving to Southampton . The Trinidadian striker made his debut for Sunderland on 1 September in a 1 – 0 defeat to Manchester United and scored his first goal for the club in a 2 – 1 home win over Reading on 15 September . Jones was linked with a £ 12 million player move to Liverpool in November 2007 , with Peter Crouch moving to Sunderland . Jones was again linked with high profile clubs on 21 December 2007 , including Chelsea and Liverpool , but Sunderland manager Roy Keane insisted that he would be going nowhere . Jones scored his fifth goal at the Stadium of Light , with a header from the near post off a corner kick , in Sunderland 's 3 – 1 win over Bolton Wanderers on 29 December.Chelsea captain John Terry praised Jones , saying : " Jones was fantastic and I have played against him twice now . He is a very good player , very hard working and probably the best in the air in the entire Premier League , he really is that good " after Chelsea had won the match 1 – 0 on 15 March 2008 . On 1 June 2008 , Jones suffered a knee ligament injury in a collision with goalkeeper David James in the seventh minute of Trinidad & Tobago 's 3 – 0 defeat against England . He made his first appearance of the 2008 – 09 season playing for 60 minutes in Sunderland reserve team 's 2 – 0 victory against Wigan Athletic . , followed by a return to Sunderland 's first team in the Tyne – Wear derby on 25 October 2008 as a second @-@ half substitute , when he helped Sunderland to secure a 2 – 1 victory over their local rivals . His first goal following his return came on 12 November in a 2 – 1 League Cup defeat against Blackburn Rovers . He continued his recovery from injury with a goal , again against Blackburn , on 15 November 2008 as Sunderland won 2 – 1 . Jones put an end to speculation linking him with a move to Tottenham Hotspur by signing a 4 and a half @-@ year contract at the Stadium of Light on 27 January 2009 . After a spell of six games without a goal , Jones scored against Manchester United in a 2 – 1 defeat . On 22 August Jones contributed to Sunderland 's 2 – 1 victory over Blackburn Rovers scoring two goals . Jones again contributed with two goals for Sunderland when they were at home to Wolves on 27 September , in a 5 – 2 win . One goal being the highlight of the game , curling the ball home from 22yards out . Jones scored his fifth goal of the season with a header against Manchester United , outjumping Ben Foster to give Sunderland a 2 – 1 lead but in the dying moments of the match at Old Trafford , Patrice Evra 's shot was deflected in for an own @-@ goal by Anton Ferdinand to level it up and end the match as a 2 – 2 draw . Jones scored his sixth goal of the season with a close @-@ range header against Manchester City which City won 4 – 3 . On 6 February , Jones scored his seventh goal of the season with another header against Wigan Athletic which ended up 1 – 1 at the Stadium of Light . Jones then scored again against Manchester City bringing his tally to eight , with a spectacular header at the Stadium of Light , which ended up 1 – 1 . He also opened the scoring against Wolves on the final day of the season , netting after a strike deflected off Jody Craddock after 8 minutes , but Wolves would go on to win 2 – 1 . = = = Stoke City = = = On 11 August 2010 , Jones signed for Stoke City on a four @-@ year @-@ deal for a club record fee of £ 8 million . Jones took a wage cut in order to join Stoke . " We need goals in our team and we also need strong competition among our strikers if we are to continue improving at this level . " Kenwyne will give us that . It 's no secret that I am one of his biggest admirers , he did a smashing job for us when he was here on loan . " He was very young back then but I believe that he has the best years ahead of him as a top striker . " Jones took over the number 9 shirt from the departing James Beattie who had joined Rangers . He made his second debut for City against Wolverhampton Wanderers on 14 August 2010 , he made a bright start hitting the crossbar with his first shot . However after falling awkwardly from a challenge from Jody Craddock on 14 minutes Jones was forced to come off . On 13 September , Jones scored his first goal for Stoke on his home debut against Aston Villa in a 2 – 1 win . Jones followed this by scoring against West Ham United , Fulham in the League Cup and Newcastle United . He scored the second goal on 13 November in a 2 – 0 win against Liverpool at the Britannia Stadium . After six games without a goal and some criticism from supporters , manager Pulis revealed that Jones has had personal problems which have affected his performances . He ended this run with a goal against Everton on New Year 's Day . However he again went on a goal drought this time for three months before scoring against Tottenham Hotspur in April . He then went on a similar scoring run he had at the start of the season scoring against Bolton Wanderers at Wembley , Aston Villa , Wolverhampton Wanderers and then had an opportunity to become the first Stoke player to score in four consecutive Premier League matches against Blackpool but he missed an open goal . He made amends the following match scoring against Arsenal in a 3 – 1 win . Jones played in the 2011 FA Cup Final as Stoke lost 1 – 0 to Manchester City , he had Stoke 's best chance in the match going through one on one with Joe Hart who saved Jones ' effort . Jones ended the 2010 – 11 as joint top goalscorer with Jonathan Walters , both scored 12 goals . Jones said that he had a ' topsy @-@ turvy ' first season at Stoke . Jones started the 2011 – 12 season well scoring against Norwich City and twice against FC Thun in the UEFA Europa League . With Stoke signing Peter Crouch at the end of August , Jones found himself out of favour and was restricted to cup and European matches . This has led to speculation that Jones could be leaving the club in the 2012 January transfer window but Pulis insists that he is still in his plans . He scored an historic goal for Stoke against Dynamo Kyiv to earn them a 1 – 1 draw which secured Stoke 's qualification to the knock @-@ out stage of the Europa League . In 2012 – 13 Jones remained behind Crouch in Pulis ' starting line @-@ up restricting him to cameo appearances off the bench . He regained his place in December 2012 after injury to Crouch and scored his first Premier League goal for sixteen months in a 1 – 1 draw with Everton . Jones continued his revival scoring against Liverpool on boxing day , and against his old club Southampton on 29 December . Jones lost his place once Crouch had returned to the side and he ended the season on a sour note as he was involved in a dressing room bust @-@ up with Glenn Whelan . At the end of the season Tony Pulis was replaced by Mark Hughes and Jones was critical of the style of football played under Pulis . Jones began the 2013 – 14 season by scoring his first professional hat @-@ trick against Walsall in the League Cup on 28 August 2013 . On 12 January 2014 , Jones failed to arrive for Stoke 's home game against Liverpool citing " personal problems " , he was then fined two weeks wages by Hughes for his non @-@ appearance . = = = Cardiff City = = = On 28 January 2014 Jones joined Cardiff City in a player @-@ exchange with Peter Odemwingie . Jones scored a debut goal for the Bluebirds on 1 February 2014 , netting the winner in a 2 – 1 triumph against Norwich City , just one minute after Craig Bellamy had equalised . He played 11 times for Cardiff in the 2013 – 14 as they suffered relegation to the Championship . Jones started the 2014 – 15 season strongly , scoring 9 in the first half of the season . However Jones tailed off in 2015 , only managing to find the net twice . Due to Cardiff cutting costs , Jones was loaned to league leaders Bournemouth for the remainder of the season , despite being Cardiff 's top goal scorer . Jones scored on his debut for the Cherries on 3 April 2015 helping them to earn a 1 – 1 draw against Ipswich Town . Jones made six substitute appearances for the Cherries as they won the Championship title , gaining promotion to the Premier League . Upon returning to Cardiff , Jones found himself on the bench following an injury picked up on international duty over the summer . Jones ' return to the first XI , resulted in him finding himself on the score sheet in a 2 – 0 win over Wolverhampton Wanderers . Initial reports that his form had inclined manager , Russell Slade to open contract talks with him and the club in the final months of 2015 turned out to be untrue . On 5 January 2016 , Jones joined UAE @-@ based club Al Jazira on loan until the end of the 2015 – 16 season . = = = Atlanta United = = = On 15 July 2016 , Jones signed for newly formed Major League Soccer side Atlanta United for their inaugural 2017 season . = = International career = = Jones has been capped at under @-@ 18 , under @-@ 20 , under @-@ 23 olympic team and the Trinidad and Tobago national team . He made his debut for the Trinidad and Tobago national team on 29 January 2003 in a match against Finland . Jones scored his first goal on 25 May 2005 in a 4 – 0 win against Bermuda . He was later selected by Trinidad and Tobago for their 2006 World Cup campaign , where he made his first appearance in the competition in a 2 – 0 defeat against England on 15 June 2006 at Frankenstadion , Nuremberg . Jones was named as Trinidad and Tobago Football Federation 's Player of the Year for 2007 . Jones said , " A lot of big names have won this before and I never really thought about something like this happening to me " . Jones was named as captain of the Soca Warriors in August 2011 by manager Otto Pfister . = = = International goals = = = Scores and results list Trinidad and Tobago 's goal tally first . = = Career statistics = = = = = Club = = = As of match played 15 May 2016 = = = International = = = As of 19 July 2015 = = Honours = = = = = Club = = = Stoke City FA Cup : Runner @-@ up 2010 – 11 Bournemouth Football League Championship : 2014 – 15 = = = Individual = = = Sunderland Player of the Season : 2007 – 08 Trinidad and Tobago Football Federation 's Player of the Year : 2007
= V. S. Srinivasa Sastri = Valangaiman Sankaranarayana Srinivasa Sastri CH PC ( 22 September 1869 – 17 April 1946 ) was an Indian politician , administrator , educator , orator and Indian independence activist . He was acclaimed for his oratory and command over the English language . Srinivasa Sastri was born to a poor temple priest in the village of Valangaiman near Kumbakonam , India . He completed his education at Kumbakonam and worked as a school teacher and later , headmaster in Triplicane , Madras . He entered politics in 1905 when he joined the Servants of India Society . Sastri served as a member of the Indian National Congress from 1908 to 1922 , but later resigned in protest against the Non @-@ Cooperation movement . Sastri was one of the founding members of the Indian Liberal Party . In his later days , he was strongly opposed to the partition of India . Srinivasa Sastri served as a member of the Madras Legislative Council from 1913 to 1916 , Imperial Legislative Council of India from 1916 to 1919 and the Council of State from 1920 to 1925 . Sastri also functioned as India 's delegate to the League of Nations , as member of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom and agent to the Union of South Africa . Sastri gained worldwide fame for his prowess in the English language . He was a close follower of Gopal Krishna Gokhale . He was also a close friend and associate of Mahatma Gandhi , who addressed Sastri as his " elder brother " in writings . Sastri was made a Companion of Honour in 1930 . In 1921 , the Freedom of the City of London was conferred on him , and in 1931 he received the Freedom of the City of Edinburgh . = = Early life and educational career = = Srinivasa Sastri was born in the town of Valangaiman , Madras Presidency , India on 22 September 1869 . His father , Vaidik Sankaranarayana Sastri , was a poor Hindu priest . He was educated at the Native High School in Kumbakonam and in 1887 , graduated from Government Arts College , Kumbakonam with a first class degree in English and Sanskrit . On graduation , he found employment as a teacher at Municipal College , Salem . Srinivasa Sastri married Parvathi in 1885 . His granddaughters are , Parvathy , married to Ramamurti ( Retd.G.M of NLC ) and Kausalya , married to the renowned Indian scientist and nephew of Sir C. V. Raman , S. Ramaseshan . In 1894 , Srinivasa Sastri was appointed headmaster of Hindu High School , Triplicane and served for a period of eight years , until 1902 . During this period , he achieved fame for his proficiency in English and his good administrative skills . In his late years , he also served as Vice @-@ Chancellor of the Annamalai University . During his tenure as Vice @-@ Chancellor , he demonstrated his scholarship in Sanskrit and Oriental Literature . He persuaded Mahavidwan R. Raghava Iyengar , then Head of the Tamil Research Department , to translate Kalidasan 's epic poem Abhignana Sakuntalam in Tamil . The poem was translated in the Sandam Metre and published in 1938 . He delivered the Kamala lectures in Calcutta University which are widely cherished and remembered . = = Politics = = Srinivasa Sastri established the Madras Teachers Guild during his term as headmaster of Triplicane High School . He was one of the pioneers of the Co @-@ operative movement and started India 's first co @-@ operative society , the Triplicane Urban Co @-@ operative Society ( TUCS ) in 1904 . Srinivasa Sastri met Indian independence activist Gopal Krishna Gokhale for the first time in 1906 . He was drawn towards Gokhale 's Servants of India Society and joined the organization becoming its President in 1915 . He joined the Indian National Congress in 1908 and became the Secretary of the Madras District Congress Committee in 1911 . As a member of the Congress , he was instrumental in bringing about a pact between the Congress and the Muslim League . Srinivasa Sastri was nominated to the Madras Legislative Council in 1913 and to the Imperial Legislative Council of India in 1916 . He opposed the Rowlatt Act which empowered the Government of India to imprison anyone without trial and delivered a well @-@ appreciated speech in the Imperial Legislative Council denouncing the bill . In 1919 , he was appointed a member of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom . In 1922 , Sastri resigned his membership of the Indian National Congress after disagreeing with its leadership on the issue of non @-@ cooperation and established the Indian Liberal Party along with Tej Bahadur Sapru . He consequently served as a President of the Indian Liberal Federation . In 1924 , he accompanied Annie Besant on a visit to England demanding Home Rule for India . He also participated in the first and second round table conferences . = = International delegations = = Srinivasa Sastri was a part of the delegation of Indian moderates who visited England in 1919 . He was also a part of the Indian delegation to the Imperial Conference ( 1921 ) and the Second session of the League of Nations in 1921 . As a member of the Viceregal council , Srinivasa Sastri was also a part of the British delegation which participated in the Washington Council of Limitation of Disarmament . During one of his speeches on " The Political Situation in India " , he was accused of being a British agent and attacked by a mob and had to be hastily escorted away by mounted police . In 1922 , the Government of India sent Sastri on delegations to Australia , New Zealand and Canada in order to investigate the conditions of Indians living in those countries . Due to his efforts , the Government of Australia passed the Commonwealth Electoral Act enlarging the franchise to include " natives of British India " . In 1919 , Srinivasa Sastri visited the Union of South Africa along with Sir Benjamin Robertson as a part of the delegation which signed the Cape Town Agreement with the Government of South Africa . As a result of this agreement , South Africa gave up its Class Area Bill intended to segregate Indians in South Africa . Initially , Jan Smuts , the Prime Minister of the Union of South Africa , refused to treat Srinivasa Sastri on par with the European delegate . However , on Srinivasa Sastri 's departure from South Africa as India 's Agent in 1928 , Smuts recognized Sastri as the " most respected man in South Africa " . Srinivasa Sastri was sent to the Federated Malay States in 1937 , to report on the conditions of the Indian labourers in the country . The delegation submitted a controversial report titled Conditions of Indian labour in Malaya which was published in Madras and Kuala Lumpur , the very same year . Srinivasa Sastri , being the author of the report , was criticized by Indian nationalists for " his reluctance to comment at length on the political and social status of Indians in Malaya " . = = Agent to South Africa = = On 27 May 1927 , at the behest of Mahatma Gandhi , Lord Irwin , the Viceroy of India , appointed Srinivasa Sastri as India 's first Agent to the Union of South Africa . Srinivasa Sastri arrived in South Africa in June 1927 and served as Agent till January 1929 . Soon after taking over , Srinivasa Sastri successfully pressurized the South African government to withdraw Section 5 of the Immigration and Indian Relief ( Further Provision ) Bill which empowered South African immigration officers and boards to cancel registration certificates . Through his efforts , the Natal Commission for Indian Education was appointed on 17 November 1927 . With Sastri 's support and encouragement , dissidents of the Transvaal British Indian Association ( TBIA ) founded the Transvaal Indian Congress ( TIC ) on 18 December 1927 . The TBIA later merged with the South African Indian Congress . Section 104 of the Liquor Bill prohibiting Indians from entering licensed premises was withdrawn . The Thornton Committee was established in 1928 to investigate the sanitary conditions of Indians in and around Durban . During the early part of Sastri 's tenure , a number of segregationary laws were passed targeting Indians and Indian immigrants in South Africa . The period also witnessed the establishment of a number of trade unions . Sastri campaigned against racial segregation of Indians and got the Class Area Bill segregating Indians withdrawn . Sastri returned to India in January 1929 and was succeeded by Kurma Venkata Reddy Naidu . = = Later life and death = = In 1930 , Sastri was appointed a member of the Royal Commission on Labour in India . During 1930 – 31 , he participated in the Round Table Conferences in London to discuss India 's future and was instrumental in bringing about the Gandhi @-@ Irwin Pact . In 1935 , Sastri was appointed Vice @-@ Chancellor of Annamalai University , in Tamil Nadu , and served from 1935 to 1940 . At the peak of the Second World War , he participated in a 15 @-@ member Indian delegation which appealed to the British Prime Minister , Winston Churchill to provide dominion status to India . He strongly opposed Muslim League demands for the partition of India . In June 1940 , the Government of Madras appointed a committee headed by Srinivasa Sastri to frame a set of general principles for coining words for scientific and technical terms in vernacular languages . The constitution of the committee was strongly condemned by the Madras Presidency Tamil Sangam and its Secretary E. M. Subramania Pillai who felt that Srinivasa Sastri was biased in favour of Sanskrit and hence , Anti @-@ Tamil . The committee submitted its report after three months recommending the retention of the existing Sanskrit loanwords in Tamil and rejecting the need for them to be replaced . The deliberations of the Sastri Committee provoked widespread agitations in Madras Presidency . The committee was eventually reshuffled by Provincial Education Minister T. S. Avinashilingam Chettiar soon after the demise of Srinivasa Sastri and balanced with the introduction of more members supporting the replacement of Sanskrit loan words . Srinivasa Sastri 's health began to deteriorate in early 1946 . In January , Srinivasa Sastri was admitted to the General Hospital , Madras . He died on 17 April 1946 at the age of 76 . = = Silver @-@ Tongued Orator of the British Empire = = Srinivasa Sastri was known for his mastery over the English language and his oratory . As a student , he once corrected a few passages in J. C. Nesfield 's English Grammar . Whenever he was on visit to the United Kingdom , Sastri was often consulted over spellings and pronunciations . His mastery over the English language was recognized by King George V , Winston Churchill , Lady Lytton and Lord Balfour who rated him amongst the five best English @-@ language orators of the century . The Master of Balliol , Arthur Lionel Smith swore that he had never realized the beauty of the English language until he heard Sastri. while Lord Balfour remarked that listening to Srinivasa Sastri made him realise the heights to which the English language could rise . Thomas Smart conferred upon Sastri the appellation " Silver Tongued Orator of the British Empire " and he was so called all over the United Kingdom . Srinivasa Sastri 's inspirations were William Shakespeare , Sir Walter Scott , George Eliot , John Stuart Mill , Thomas Harvey , Victor Hugo and Valmiki - Indian sage and the author of the Hindu epic Ramayana . = = Relation with Mahatma Gandhi = = During his tenure in the Servants of India Society , Sastri developed a close attachment with Mahatma Gandhi . Gandhi often addressed Srinivasa Sastri as his " elder brother " in all their correspondences . However , despite their friendship , during his tenure as President , Srinivasa Sastri opposed Gandhi 's presence in the Servants of India Society . When Gandhi sought Sastri 's advice before launching his non @-@ cooperation movement , he counselled him against it . In his later years , Sastri sternly advised Mahatma Gandhi against accepting the Muslim League demand for partition . Srinivasa Sastri corrected mistakes in the manuscript of The Story of My Experiments with Truth , the English translation of Gandhi 's autobiography and also successive issues of the magazine Harijan that was edited by Mahatma Gandhi . On Sastri 's death , Gandhi paid a tribute to Sastri in a condolence message in the Harijan . Death has removed not only from us but from the world one of India 's best sons . = = Honours = = Sastri was made a member of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom in 1921 . On 1 January 1930 , he was made a Companion of Honour . The then Viceroy offered to make Sastri Knight Commander of the Order of the Star of India in 1928 , but he declined the offer . In 1937 , the then Governor of Madras offered to make Sastri the Acting Chief Minister of Madras Presidency but Sastri declined the offer . He also declined an offer of membership in the council of the Secretary of State for India . In 1921 , the Freedom of the City of London was conferred on Srinivasa Sastri . This was followed by the Freedom of the City of Edinburgh on 9 January 1931 . = = Works = = V. S. Srinivasa Sastri ( 1916 ) . Self @-@ government for India under the British flag . Servants of India Society . V. S. Srinivasa Sastri ( 1917 ) . The Congress @-@ League scheme : An Exposition . Servants of India Society . V. S. Srinivasa Sastri ( 1921 ) . A conscience clause : for Indians in Indian education codes . Servants of India Society . V. S. Srinivasa Sastri ( 1923 ) . The Kenya Question . V. S. Srinivasa Sastri ( 1923 ) . Report by the Hon 'ble V. S. Srinivasa Sastri regarding his deputation to the Dominions of Canada , Australia and New Zealand . V. S. Srinivasa Sastri ( 1931 ) . The results of the Round Table Conference address at a meeting of the Committee of the Empire Parliamentary Association specially studying Indian affairs . London : Empire Parliamentary Association . V. S. Srinivasa Sastri ; E.Lucia Turnbull , H. G. D. Turnbull ( 1934 ) . Gopal Krishna Gokhale : A Brief Biography . V. Sundra Iyer . V. S. Srinivasa Sastri ( 1935 ) . The rights and duties of the Indian citizen – The Kamala lectures . University of Calcutta . V. S. Srinivasa Sastri ( 1935 ) . Valmiki Ramayana : condensed in the poet 's own words . G. A. Natesan . V. S. Srinivasa Sastri ( 1937 ) . Report on the conditions of Indian labour in Malaya . Government of India . V. S. Srinivasa Sastri ( 1937 ) . Life of Gopala Krishna Gokhale . Bangalore Print and Pub . Co . V. S. Srinivasa Sastri ( 1939 ) . Birthright . Kumbakonam Parliament . V. S. Srinivasa Sastri ( 1941 ) . என ் வாழ ் க ் கையின ் அம ் சங ் கள ் ( in Tamil ) . V. S. Srinivasa Sastri ( 1945 ) . Life and times of Sir Pherozeshah Mehta . Madras Law Journal Press . V. S. Srinivasa Sastri ( 1946 ) . My master Gokhale . Model Publications . = = Other biographies = = T. N. Jagadisan ( 1969 ) . Builders of modern India : V. S. Srinivasa Sastri . Government of India . Pandurangi Kodanda Rao ( 1963 ) . The Right Honourable V. S. Srinivasa Sastri , P.C. , C.H. , LL . D. , D. LITT . : a political biography . Asia Publishing House . The Rt. Hon. V. S. Srinivasa Sastri ( 1869 – 1946 ) centenary souvenir ( 22 @-@ 9 @-@ 1969 ) . Servants of India Society . 1969 . S. Muthiah ( 26 January 2009 ) . " Sastri of South Africa " . The Hindu . S. R. Bakshi ( 1993 ) . V. S. Srinivasa Sastri : Volume 40 of Indian freedom fighters : struggle for independence . Anmol Publishers Pvt Ltd . ISBN 8170416043 , ISBN 978 @-@ 81 @-@ 7041 @-@ 604 @-@ 3 .
= Russian Corps = The Russian Corps ( German : Russisches Schutzkorps Serbien , Russian : Русский корпус , Serbian : Руски корпус ) was an armed force composed of anti @-@ Communist Russian émigrés in the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia during World War II . Commanded by Lieutenant @-@ General Boris Shteifon , it served primarily as a guard force from the autumn of 1941 until the spring of 1944 . It was incorporated into the Wehrmacht on 1 December 1942 and later clashed with both the Yugoslav Partisans and the Chetniks . In late 1944 it fought against the Red Army during the Belgrade Offensive , later withdrawing to Bosnia and Slovenia when the Germans withdrew from the Balkans . Shteifon was killed in April 1945 and was replaced by Colonel Anatoly Rogozhin , who subsequently managed to evade the Communists by surrendering to the British instead . He and his men were eventually set free and were allowed to resettle in the West . = = Background and formation = = In the Balkans before World War II there were approximately 15 @,@ 000 White Russian émigrés who had fled there in the aftermath of the 1917 Russian Revolution . On 6 April 1941 , Axis forces invaded the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Poorly equipped and poorly trained , the Royal Yugoslav Army was quickly defeated . The country was then dismembered , with Serbia being reduced to its pre @-@ 1912 borders and placed under a government of German military occupation . Milan Nedić , a pre @-@ war politician who was known to have pro @-@ Axis leanings , was then selected by the Germans to lead the collaborationist Government of National Salvation in the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia . The Russian Corps was formed by émigré White Russians and officers of the Russian Imperial Army , which had been defeated by the Communists in the Russian Civil War twenty years earlier . Over the course of the Uprising in Serbia in the summer of 1941 , the Communist @-@ backed Yugoslav Partisans killed approximately 300 Russian emigrants and injured many more , sometimes in acts of vengeance . In response , local Russians began to organize themselves into self @-@ defense units . At the time , there were an estimated 10 @,@ 000 Russian men within the borders of Yugoslavia , the majority of whom lived in Serbia . The Russian Corps was founded in Belgrade by General Mikhail Skorodumov on 12 September 1941 and took shape under the supervision of the occupying German authorities , with the cooperation of Nedić 's regime . At first , the group was an independent force reporting to the plenipotentiary for economic affairs , Franz Neuhausen . It was composed of White Russians who sided with the Germans because of their opposition to Communism and because they believed that their only hope of a non @-@ Communist Russia lay in a German victory in World War II . Russian émigrés from Bulgaria , Croatia and Hungary subsequently came to Belgrade to join the unit . Due to illness , Skorodumov was replaced after only a month by his chief of staff , Lieutenant @-@ General Boris Shteifon , who was said to have had " warm and friendly relations with [ Milan ] Nedić . " The Russian Corps was initially designated the " Independent Russian Corps " before being renamed the " Russian Defense Corps " on 2 October . It was envisaged by the Germans as a 3 @,@ 000 @-@ strong unit organized into three regiments . By late 1941 , it had 1 @,@ 500 members . Recruitment was carried out by Major General Kreyter , a White Russian émigré in German service who was the head of the Russian Intelligence Office ( German : Vertrauensstelle ) in Serbia . The Corps initially consisted of a single regiment , organized into four battalions . Major General Egorov commanded the 1st Battalion , Colonel Shatilov the second , Colonel Endrzheevskiy the third and Colonel Nestrenko the fourth , respectively . A second regiment was set up on 18 October , commanded by Colonel Zhukov . = = Operations = = = = = Early actions = = = Although its aim was to fight Communist forces in the Soviet Union , the Russian Corps , when engaged in combat , was used almost exclusively to fight the Yugoslav Partisans in areas of occupied Yugoslavia . Composed of one cavalry regiment and four infantry regiments , it was reinforced with younger émigrés and former Soviet prisoners of war and was armed by the Germans with weapons captured from the Royal Yugoslav Army . Its command language was Russian . Between the autumn of 1941 and the spring of 1944 , members of the Corps were responsible primarily for protecting weapons factories , mines , roads , and railroads throughout occupied Serbia in accordance with priorities established by the German High Command . During this time , the Corps was referred to as the " Russian Factory Protection Group " ( German : Weissrussischer Werkschutz ) . It was initially used during anti @-@ Partisan operations to guard mines in Krupanj , and later in Bor and Trepča . In November 1941 it began actively collaborating with the Chetniks . By this time the Corps was composed of five regiments of about 7 @,@ 500 men , all of whom were Russian . An attempt was then made to expand it further by recruiting Soviet prisoners . However , this proved unsuccessful and the Corps never operated as a unified fighting force , the regiments being its largest operational units . These were later assigned to act as auxiliaries to German or Bulgarian occupying forces . On 8 December 1941 , the Corps defended the Stolice mine against the Yugoslav Partisans . The Corps grew in numbers throughout 1942 , following an influx of volunteers from Bulgaria , Croatia , Romania and Greece . During this time , it maintained good relations with the Nedić administration . While guarding facilities , members of the Corps were largely assigned to manning brick bunkers , protecting the railway in the Ibar River valley , the Bor , Trepča , Majdanpek , and Krupanj mines , as well as Serbian borders along the Danube and Drina rivers while deployed together with various Serbian collaborationist factions such as the Serbian State Guard ( SDS ) and the Serbian Volunteer Corps ( SDK ) , with whom they were most closely allied . The Corps also closely cooperated with the Croatian Ustaše and during this period its members often plundered Serbian villages . Initially , the 1st Regiment was deployed in Loznica , Ljubovija and other towns along the Drina . On the other hand , the 2nd Regiment operated in towns such as Negotin , Bor , and Majdanpek . The two regiments were operationally subordinated to the 704th German Division . The 3rd Regiment was established in Banjica on 8 January 1942 , placed under the command of Colonel Shapilov and deployed to Kosovska Mitrovica , where it was operationally subordinated to the 1st Bulgarian occupational corps . The 4th Regiment was established on 29 April with General Cherepov as commander and was deployed to the area around Kraljevo . In May , the Corps was divided into two brigades . The 1st Brigade was placed under the command of Major General Dratsenko and its headquarters was established in the town of Aranđelovac on 22 May . On 30 November , the 4th Regiment was disbanded , its 1st Battalion assigned to the 1st Regiment and the rest of its manpower assigned to the 2nd Regiment . On 1 December 1942 , the Russian Corps was incorporated into the Wehrmacht and all its members were required to swear an oath to German leader Adolf Hitler . On 9 December 1942 , the 1st Regiment started to be transformed with the arrival of Kuban Cossacks led by Major General Naumenko . By January 1943 , it was fully composed of Cossacks . On 17 March 1943 , Major General Gontarev replaced Shapilov as commander of the 3rd Regiment . The 1st Regiment fought in Loznica in April and participated in a large operation in Zapolje on 11 – 15 May , where it engaged in heavy combat with Communist forces . From 1 – 8 July , the regiment was again stationed in Loznica and Ljubovija , participating in the defence of the Drina Bridge at Zvornik against the Partisans . During this time the regiment allowed the passage of 379 wounded Croatian soldiers and civilians , 1 @,@ 000 healthy soldiers and as many refugees , sustaining casualties of two killed and seventeen wounded . It clashed with the Partisans over the village of Nedelica on 19 July . Meanwhile , the 2nd Regiment clashed with the Partisans around the town of Negotin . The 4th Regiment was re @-@ established on 15 December , and was based in Jagodina , Paraćin and Ćuprija . Its regimental headquarters were moved to Aleksinac on 30 April and to Čačak on 15 October . = = = Retreat and surrender = = = Despite numerous clashes with the Chetniks , the Corps focused increasingly on fighting the Partisans penetrating Serbia from Bosnia and the Sandžak . On 5 January , combat with the Partisans in Klenak resulted in the deaths of three Cossacks of the 1st Regiment . On 18 January , the 5th Regiment was formed in Obrenovac . The 3rd Regiment outfought a 2 @,@ 400 @-@ strong Partisan force advancing towards Jošanička Banja on 31 March . On 28 April , the 1st Regiment prepared defences along the Drina in Zvornik , Bajina Bašta and Loznica areas expecting the 16th and 17th Partisan Divisions to attempt a crossing there . On 1 – 2 May , the 5th Regiment fought the Partisans in the village of Mravinci , sustaining casualties of 11 killed and 25 wounded . That summer , the Corps mediated an agreement between the Chetniks and the Germans in which the two parties agreed to fight the Partisans in Serbia . On 18 July , the 5th Regiment fought in Jošanička Banja and its regimental headquarters was moved there from Obrenovac , with battalion headquarters being established in Zvečan , Jošanička Banja , Ušće and Vučitrn . Elements of the 3rd and 5th regiments fought the Partisans on 4 – 5 August near the village of Rudnik . The Partisans attacked the positions of the 5th Regiment in Leposavić on 24 August . In September , the Corps reached its peak of 11 @,@ 197 members . Several skirmishes occurred between the 1st Regiment and the Partisans in the Zvornik and Valjevo areas that month . On 7 / 8 September , the 2nd Regiment fought Partisans at the Ibar River , trying to deny them crossing . On 9 September , elements of the 3rd Regiment moved to Požega and on 11 September to Čačak . On 20 September , the 1st Regiment fought a group of Partisans south of Loznica . Major combat between the 1st Regiment and Partisans erupted in Loznica itself on 23 September , causing the regiment to fall back to Šabac with losses of 7 killed and 23 wounded . Combat continued daily throughout September with the 1st Regiment suffering up to 53 casualties per day . On 8 October , the 2nd Regiment headquarters in Požarevac were evacuated as Soviet armour approached the town . As parts of the regiment moved towards Belgrade and Grocka , the force came into contact with Soviet troops and armour in the Ripanj area south of Belgrade , sustaining heavy casualties . On 10 October the Russian Corps was renamed the " Russian Corps in Serbia " . Elements of the 2nd Regiment arrived in Šabac on 22 October , then moved to Sremska Mitrovica on 23 October , Vukovar on 25 October , Osijek on 26 October and then to Vinkovci and Stari Jankovci on 28 October . Further parts of the regiment moved to Zemun on 13 October , Ruma on 14 October , Vinkovci on 16 October , and Stari Jankovci on 24 October . On 19 – 22 October , the 4th Regiment fought advancing Soviet troops and Partisans and defended the Čačak @-@ Kraljevo road . On 23 October , the 1st Regiment abandoned Šabac and Klenak and moved to Laćarak , and then to Tovarnik on 24 October where they were ordered to hold their ground . The 4th Regiment fought in the Čačak area from 27 October to 2 November . It faced the Red Army and the Chetnik 2nd Ravna Gora Corps before being overpowered and forced to abandon the city . The Chetniks captured 339 of its soldiers and turned them over to the Soviets . On 12 November , the 1st Regiment moved via railway through Vinkovci to Brčko , with elements deployed in Gunja . On 8 December it regrouped north of the Sava and on 11 – 13 December it fought the Partisans in and near the village of Vrbanja , killing forty @-@ three . The 4th Regiment arrived in Sarajevo on 13 – 18 December . Elements subsequently moved to Kiseljak on 18 December , fighting Partisans in the Kiseljak @-@ Busovača area on 26 – 27 December . During this time , the 1st Regiment and a battalion of the 2nd Regiment guarded a bridgehead north of Brčko in order to allow German forces that were stationed in Greece to withdraw through the town . In January 1945 , elements of the Corps participated in the German capture of Travnik , part of Operation Lawine . Afterwards , they withdrew to Slovenia . On 30 April , Shteifon was killed while passing through Zagreb . Colonel Anatoly Rogozhin then took over as commander . On 12 May , Rogozhin surrendered to British forces near Klagenfurt . Members of the Corps were then allowed to resettle in the West after hostilities ceased . At the time of surrender , the Corps consisted of 3 @,@ 500 to 5 @,@ 584 men . It had suffered 6 @,@ 709 members killed , wounded or missing from 1941 to 1945 . Overall , 17 @,@ 090 men served in its ranks over the course of the war . = = Order of battle = = Throughout its existence , the Russians Corps was composed of : 1st Cossack Regiment Generala Zborovskogo Infantry Regiments II , III , IV , V In May 1942 , the Corps was divided into two brigades . The 4th Regiment was disbanded on 30 November 1942 , and re @-@ established on 15 December 1943 . The 5th Regiment was created on 18 January 1944 . = = Commanders = = The Russian Corps had three commanders during its existence : General Mikhail Skorodumov ( September 1941 ) Lieutenant @-@ General Boris Shteifon ( October 1941 – April 1945 ) Colonel Anatoly Rogozhin ( April – May 1945 ) = = Uniform = = Members of the Corps wore the uniform of the Russian Imperial Army from 12 September 1941 to 30 November 1942 . The uniform was sometimes worn with pips of the Royal Yugoslav Army , alongside special rank insignia on the collar . Wehrmacht uniforms and insignia were adopted on 1 December 1942 , but the old uniforms continued to be worn for some time .
= Louise Bryant = Louise Bryant ( December 5 , 1885 – January 6 , 1936 ) was an American journalist known for her sympathetic coverage of Russia and the Bolsheviks during the Russian Revolution . Bryant , a feminist , married in 1916 to the more famous writer John Reed , wrote about leading Russian women such as Katherine Breshkovsky and Maria Spiridonova as well as men including Alexander Kerensky , Vladimir Lenin , and Leon Trotsky . Her news stories , distributed by Hearst during and after her trips to Petrograd and Moscow , appeared in newspapers across the U.S. and Canada in the years immediately following World War I. A collection of articles from her first trip was published in book form as Six Red Months in Russia in 1918 . In 1919 , she defended the revolution in testimony before the Overman Committee , a Senate subcommittee established to investigate Bolshevik influence in the United States . Later that year , she undertook a nationwide speaking tour to encourage public support of the Bolsheviks and to discourage armed U.S. intervention in Russia . Bryant grew up in rural Nevada and attended the University of Nevada in Reno and the University of Oregon , graduating with a degree in history in 1909 . Pursuing a career in journalism , she became society editor of the Portland , Oregon , Spectator and freelanced for The Oregonian . During her years in Portland ( 1909 – 15 ) , she became active in the women 's suffrage movement . Leaving her first husband in 1915 to follow Reed to Greenwich Village , she formed friendships with leading feminists of the day , some of whom she met through Reed 's associates at publications such as The Masses , or at meetings of a women 's group , Heterodoxy , or through work with the Provincetown Players . During a National Woman 's Party suffrage rally in Washington , D.C. , in 1919 , she was arrested and spent three days in jail . Like Reed , she had lovers outside of marriage ; during her Greenwich Village years ( 1916 – 20 ) these included playwright Eugene O 'Neill and painter Andrew Dasburg . The 1981 film , Reds , tells the story of Bryant 's time with Reed . After his death from typhus in 1920 , Bryant continued to write for Hearst about Russia as well as Turkey , Hungary , Greece , Italy , and other countries in Europe and the Middle East . Some of these articles were republished in book form in Mirrors of Moscow in 1923 . Later that year she married William Christian Bullitt , Jr . , with whom she had her only child , Anne , born in 1924 . Suffering from a rare and painful disorder , Bryant wrote and published little in her last 10 years and drank heavily . Bullitt , winning sole custody of Anne , divorced her in 1930 . Bryant died in Paris in 1936 and was buried in Versailles . A group from Portland visited her neglected grave in 1998 and worked to restore it . = = Early life = = Bryant was born Anna Louise Mohan in San Francisco , California , in 1885 . Her father , Hugh Mohan , born in Pennsylvania , became a journalist and stump speaker involved in labor issues and Democratic Party politics . Moving to San Francisco , he continued to write for newspapers , and in 1880 he married Louisa Flick , who grew up on the ranch of her stepfather , James Say , near Humboldt Lake in Nevada . The Mohans had two children , Barbara ( 1880 ) and Louis ( 1882 ) , before the birth of Anna Louise . Later in 1885 , the family moved to Reno , where Mohan continued his journalistic career but also drank heavily . One day he went away and never returned . Louise 's mother divorced him in 1889 and married Sheridan Bryant , a freight conductor on the Southern Pacific railway . The family , which eventually added two more children , Floyd ( 1894 ) and William ( 1896 ) lived in Wadsworth . However , Louise soon accepted an invitation from her stepgrandfather , James Say , to live at his ranch . She remained there for three or four years , returning to Wadsworth only at her mother 's insistence at the age of 12 . Attending high school in Wadsworth and Reno , then Nevada State University ( which became the University of Nevada , Reno ) , Bryant developed interests in journalism , debate , illustration , social life , dancing , and basketball . She edited the " Young Ladies Edition " of the Student Record in 1905 , wrote a short story , " The Way of a Flirt " , for a literary magazine , Chuckwalla , and contributed sketches to it and another publication , Artemisia . Depressed after the death of Say in 1906 , Bryant left school for a job in Jolon , California , where for a few months she boarded at a cattle ranch and taught children , mostly young Mexicans . That summer she moved , this time to Eugene , Oregon , where her brother Louis worked for the Southern Pacific . After learning that she could transfer her college credits from Nevada , she enrolled at the University of Oregon , in Eugene . Socially popular at the school , which then had a total student enrollment of less than 500 , she helped start a small sorority , Zeta Iota Phi ( a chapter of Chi Omega ) , of which she was the first president . During her time in Eugene , she produced poems and pen @-@ and @-@ ink sketches for publication in the Oregon Monthly . In a small city steeped in " puritan moralism " , she was the first to wear rouge on campus ; she acquired boyfriends and wore clothes considered by some to be " flashy " . Taking off the spring semester of 1908 to teach in a one @-@ room schoolhouse on Stuart Island , one of the San Juan Islands near the U.S. border with Canada , she returned to Eugene to finish her bachelor 's degree in history , graduating in early 1909 . Her senior thesis was on the Modoc Indian Wars . = = Portland = = That spring , Bryant moved to Portland , first sharing a downtown apartment with one of her college friends , Clara Wold , then renting her own apartment in the same building . Seeking employment , she landed a temporary job designing a stained @-@ glass window for the Povey Brothers , did some freelance reporting for The Oregonian , and found work as an illustrator and society editor for the Portland Spectator . Meanwhile , she formed friendships with people such as Cas Baer , drama editor for The Oregonian , who were interested in journalism and the arts . In late 1909 , she met and married Paul Trullinger , a handsome dentist who lived on a houseboat on the Willamette River , collected art , and enjoyed uninhibited parties . Bryant , who retained her maiden name and her downtown apartment after her marriage to Trullinger , bridled at doing housework and yearned for professional advancement . Drawn toward politics by a new friend , Sara Bard Field , she became involved in the women 's suffrage movement . In 1912 , she joined the Oregon branch of the College Equal Suffrage League . She and Field gave pro @-@ suffrage speeches in smaller Oregon cities , and Bryant rode on the suffrage float in Portland 's annual Flag Day parade . Led by Abigail Scott Duniway , women achieved suffrage in Oregon later that year . Bryant became familiar with the socialist journal The Masses through Portland resident and lawyer C. E. S. Wood , who eventually married Field and who often contributed to the magazine . Enthusiastic about its contents , particularly articles by Portland native John Reed , Bryant began raising subscriptions for it . Emma Goldman , a well @-@ known anarchist whom Wood had defended in court , gave a speech in Reed 's honor at the Industrial Workers of the World ( IWW ) hall in Portland . She and other political activists , such as Alexander Berkman , were among guests entertained by Bryant and her husband . In 1914 , Reed , a Harvard graduate and established writer who by then lived in Greenwich Village , came home for a visit , during which he spoke at the University Club of Portland against the class system . Exactly how or when or how often Bryant and Reed met is uncertain , but near Christmas 1915 when Reed again came home to visit his widowed mother , the young couple announced their love at a dinner party . Reed returned to Greenwich Village on December 28 , and Bryant , abandoning her marriage , followed him three days later . Trullinger filed for divorce , which was granted in July 1916 , on grounds of desertion . = = Greenwich Village and Cape Cod = = Reed had rented a room for Bryant near his apartment at 43 Washington Square , but instead she moved in with him as part of what Max Eastman , editor of The Masses , called a " gypsy compact " . Their unmarried co @-@ habitation caused little curiosity among Reed 's friends in the Village , many of whom rejected marriage and other middle @-@ class norms out of principle . Unified by an " air of intellectual freedom , moral laissez @-@ faire and comaraderie " , most were involved in literary , artistic , or political pursuits in a bohemian neighborhood that in some ways resembled the Left Bank of Paris . While visiting New York , Field took Bryant to a meeting of Heterodoxy , a women 's group that included feminist Charlotte Perkins Gilman , journalist Mary Heaton Vorse , political activist Crystal Eastman ( Max 's sister ) , actress Ida Rauh , writers Zona Gale and Mary Austin , and many others . Among Bryant 's new friends were feminists Inez Milholland , Inez Gillmore , and Doris Stevens . Other notables circulating in the Village included Goldman , playwright Eugene O 'Neill , and one of Reed 's former lovers , arts patron Mabel Dodge . At Number 43 , Bryant and Reed pursued their journalistic endeavors in separate work rooms . Four months after leaving Oregon , Bryant broke into print in New York with an article about two Portland judges , one of whom had dismissed a case brought against Goldman for distributing birth @-@ control information . It was published as " Two Judges " in the April 1916 issue of The Masses . Meanwhile , Reed , who had reported on the 1913 Paterson silk strike , Pancho Villa , and the ongoing war ( World War I ) in Europe , went on assignment for Collier 's to interview William Jennings Bryant in Florida . Later that spring Bryant and Reed heeded Vorse 's call to spend the warm season in Provincetown , Massachusetts , at the tip of Cape Cod , and to take part in the communal theater productions of the Provincetown Players . Others from the Village went as well and joined the group , organized in 1915 by George Cram Cook and his wife , Susan Glaspell , who hoped to produce plays that were both political and artistic . Among the works the group staged in 1916 were Bryant 's " The Game " , in which characters named Life and Death play dice for the lives of Youth ( a poet ) and Girl ( a dancer ) . It appeared on the same bill as " Not Smart " by Wilbur Steele and " Bound East for Cardiff " by Eugene O 'Neill . During the summer , Reed left Cape Cod to cover the Progressive Party convention in Chicago , and at other times he retreated from the players to work on articles for Collier 's and Metropolitan Magazine . During these absences , Bryant and O 'Neill became lovers , not surprising in a group that professed and practiced free love . Reed , made aware of this new development , responded by inviting O 'Neill to begin taking his meals with them . In a note to Field , Bryant said that her relationship with Reed was " so beautiful and so free ! ... We don 't interfere with each other at all ... we feel like children who will never grow up . " = = Croton @-@ on @-@ Hudson = = After spending the month of September in a cottage they bought in Truro , Bryant and Reed returned to Greenwich Village , where the Provincetown Players planned to establish an alternative to Broadway theater . On weekends , they sojourned to Croton @-@ on @-@ Hudson , upriver from New York City , where Villagers including Eastman , Dodge , and illustrator Boardman Robinson and his wife had cottages . In October , Bryant and Reed bought their own place in Croton @-@ on @-@ Hudson . Meanwhile , Reed , who had suffered from kidney ailments since childhood , was told by his doctors that he would need to have a kidney removed . The surgery , considered " gravely serious " , was scheduled for mid @-@ November . To protect Bryant by making her his legal heir , Reed married her before leaving for surgery at Johns Hopkins Hospital , in Baltimore . Compounding their difficulties were Bryant 's ongoing relationship with O 'Neill and gynecological problems she was treated for while Reed was in the hospital . When he returned from Baltimore in mid @-@ December , the couple retreated full @-@ time to Croton @-@ on @-@ Hudson to recuperate and to focus on writing . They made plans to travel to China in 1917 to cover events for American publications , but in January the plans fell through when U.S. entry into the war against Germany became highly likely . ( The U.S. entered the war on April 6 . ) To boost their finances , they sold the cottage in Truro to Margaret Sanger , and Reed pawned his father 's gold watch . At the same time , his strong anti @-@ war positions , enunciated in The Masses and elsewhere , alienated most of his employers , further reducing his income . Adding to these stresses was Reed 's confession to Bryant that he had had multiple love affairs that he had not told her about , and the subsequent unhappiness between Bryant and Reed led to a temporary separation . After securing press credentials for Bryant , Reed moved to the Harvard Club , and Bryant , setting sail in June , went to France to cover the war for the Bell Syndicate . Regrets quickly followed : No sooner had they parted on board the ship than both Reed and Bryant were assailed by misgivings . An outpouring of letters from either side of the Atlantic followed . Both were suffering , both were confused , lonely , and miserable ... [ The letters were ] proof of the basically strong bond that held the two , the poet @-@ reporter and social critic and the erratic , appealing woman he had rescued from the banality of middle @-@ class existence in Portland . = = Petrograd = = In mid @-@ August , when Bryant returned from France , Reed met her at the dock and told her to prepare to go to Petrograd ( the historic names of which also include Saint Petersburg and Leningrad ) four days later to cover the Russian Revolution . Eastman of The Masses had raised funds to pay Reed 's travel expenses , and the Bell Syndicate assigned Bryant to report on the war " from a woman 's point of view " . Leaving New York on August 17 , they arrived in the Russian capital city ( then Petrograd , later Moscow ) about six months after the forced abdication of the last Russian czar , Nicholas II . Headed by Alexander Kerensky , the provisional government that had succeeded the czar had already survived an attempted putsch by General Kornilov . Bryant and Reed entered the city after the Kornilov Affair and before the Bolsheviks overthrew the Kerensky government in the October Revolution . Reconciled as a couple , and working from their room at the Angleterre Hotel , Bryant and Reed attended gatherings at the Smolny Institute and elsewhere in Petrograd and interviewed many leading political figures , including Lenin , Trotsky , and Kerensky , and both eventually compiled books — Six Red Months in Russia by Bryant and Reed 's Ten Days That Shook the World — from their articles . Bryant circulated widely , covering Duma meetings , dining in public mess halls with soldiers and workers , and interviewing women revolutionaries . Among those were Katherine Breshkovsky , known as the " grandmother of the revolution " , Maria Spiridonova , whom Bryant considered the most powerful woman in Russia , and Aleksandra Kollontai , who became People 's Commissar of Social Welfare and the only woman in the Bolshevik cabinet . In the process , Bryant , who had often been overshadowed by her more famous husband , gained confidence in her professional reporting skills . By the time she returned to New York , her work was being read across North America : [ The ] springtime of 1918 in the United States was a time of heightened contradictions . Openmindedness about the new Russian experiment in cities and the hinterland coexisted with the intensified patriotism of wartime ... No matter what appeared in their editorial pages , newspaper editors knew that feature stories with first @-@ hand knowledge of the Revolution sold papers . The conservative and Republican Philadelphia Public Ledger syndicate bought Bryant 's thirty @-@ two stories and sold them to Hearst 's New York American and to more than one hundred newspapers over the United States and Canada . = = New York = = Leaving Russia before Reed , who wanted to report on the Bolshevik debate about Russian participation in the war with Germany , Bryant returned to New York , arriving on February 18 , 1918 . She found Greenwich Village much changed by the war ; old friends had moved , rents had gone up , and tourists were replacing bohemians . Under government pressure , The Masses had shut down . Working out of a room at the Brevoort Hotel , Bryant wrote articles about the October Revolution and speeches or cables urging support of the workers ' government in Russia . Meanwhile , Reed , who was trying to get home , was unable to get State Department clearance for a visa and was detained in Oslo ( then called Christiana ) , Norway , for more than a month . His letters were censored , and Bryant did not hear from him directly until April . On orders from Edgar Sisson of the U.S. Commission on Public Information , all of Reed 's papers were confiscated when he arrived in New York on April 28 . Unable to write about the October Revolution without his notes , Reed instead gave speeches advocating U.S. recognition of the new Russian government . That summer , the couple retreated to Croton @-@ on @-@ Hudson . In August , Bryant spent a long weekend in the arts colony at Woodstock , where she and painter Andrew Dasburg , with whom Bryant had been close for a couple of years , began a long @-@ term , intermittent love affair . Returning to the Village in September , Bryant and Reed rented a small house at 1 Patchin Place and settled in . Later in the month , Reed was arrested for giving a speech in which he denounced the use of Allied troops in Russia . In a separate case , Reed stood trial with Eastman , Floyd Dell , and others from the former staff of The Masses for conspiracy to obstruct the draft . Bryant was questioned but not charged . Both this and an earlier trial against The Masses ended in hung juries , and the defendants were set free . Also in October 1918 , Bryant 's first book , Six Red Months in Russia , was published to " mostly favorable reviews , " and Reed resumed work on Ten Days That Shook the World after the government returned his notes . It would not be published until April 1919 . In February 1919 , while still based in New York , Bryant went to Washington , D.C. , to speak , along with Albert Rhys Williams , about the situation in Russia . She stayed in Washington long enough to participate in a National Woman 's Party suffrage rally , during which she was arrested and spent three days in jail . Upon her release , she insisted on testifying as an unfriendly witness before the Overman Committee , which had been set up to investigate Bolshevik activity in the United States . Deflecting questions about her religious beliefs , marriages , and other personal matters during her two days of testimony , she tried to convince the subcommittee , led by Senator Lee S. Overman , that Russia had a right to self @-@ determination . Soon thereafter , she began a cross @-@ country speaking tour , " The Truth About Russia " , arranged by Anna Louise Strong , during which she addressed large audiences in Detroit , Chicago , Spokane , Seattle , San Francisco , Los Angeles , and other American cities . According to biographer Virginia Gardner , Bryant was " ... the first woman to go among the huskings to defend Lenin and Trotsky . Her message was simple : ' Hands off Russia ! ' ' Bring the boys home ! ' " After Bryant returned from her lecture tour in May , she and Reed spent the next few months mainly in Croton @-@ on @-@ Hudson writing , gardening , and in Reed 's case , recuperating from influenza . In late August , Reed , who had joined the Socialist Party of America , was chosen by one of its factions , the Communist Labor Party of America ( CLP ) , to visit Moscow to seek recognition for the CLP as the sole representative of the Communist International ( Comintern ) in the U.S. The U.S. government quickly outlawed the CLP and its competitor , the American Communist Party , headed by Louis Fraina . In danger of being arrested and unable to get a passport to go to Russia , Reed , disguised as a stoker , left the U.S. in late September 1919 on a Scandinavian ship headed for Europe . During the Palmer Raids and Red Scare days beginning in November 1919 , he would be charged with conspiring to overthrow the government by force . Succeeding in reaching Moscow , he was arrested and incarcerated in Finland in March 1920 on his way home . Three months later , he was returned to Moscow in a prisoner exchange between the White ( anti @-@ Bolshevik ) Finns of the Finnish Civil War and the Bolsheviks . From Reval ( Tallinn ) , Estonia , he cabled Bryant , " Passport home refused . Temporarily returning headquarters . Come if possible . " Traveling without passport , Bryant , disguised as the wife of a Swedish businessman , arrived in Petrograd in late August 1920 . = = Reed 's death = = When Bryant reached Petrograd , Reed was in Baku , attending the " first congress of peoples of the east " ( Oriental Congress ) with the Comintern executive committee . He had left a letter for her with several possibilities for lodging , one of which was a room he had arranged for her at the Dielovoy Hotel in Moscow . This is where , on September 15 , they finally reconnected , spending the next few days together and visiting Lenin , Trotsky , Hungarian revolutionary Béla Kun , and Enver Pasha , a former minister of war in the Ottoman Empire . Bryant began filing Moscow news stories with the International News Service , which had hired her before she left New York . A week after Reed 's return from Baku , he began to experience dizziness and headaches , thought at first to be symptoms of influenza . Five days later , when he became delirious , doctors diagnosed typhus and sent him to the hospital . There , with Bryant by his side , he died on October 17 , 1920 , a few days shy of his 33rd birthday . On the day of Reed 's funeral , in keeping with Russian custom , Bryant walked alone behind the hearse , at the head of the funeral procession . Fainting during the burial , she awoke in her hotel room . Among those at her bedside were Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman , who had been arrested in the U.S. and deported to Russia in late 1919 . = = Further reporting = = After Reed 's death , Bryant obtained Lenin 's approval for a trip to the southern Russian border and neighboring countries . She went by train over the Kazakh Steppe , through areas hard hit by famine , to Tashkent and Bukhara and to the borders of Iran and Afghanistan , interviewing and taking notes . She returned to the U.S. in mid @-@ summer 1921 , and stayed for about a year . In August , the New York American , a Hearst newspaper , began publishing a series of 16 of her articles describing famine in Russia , Lenin 's New Economic Policy , the end of the Russian civil war , and related topics . In general , the tone of these articles was " sober and at times unsparing , in contrast to her often rapturous reporting in her 1918 stories . " In October , she was the main speaker at a memorial for Reed in New York City , and she spent some of her time collecting Reed 's papers together for possible publication . In addition , she arranged with King Features Syndicate , another Hearst agency , to return to Russia to write portraits of Russians . The first of these appeared in print in June 1922 and led to her second book , Mirrors of Moscow , in 1923 . Bryant 's travels in Europe this time included Moscow , Berlin , London , Paris , and other cities . By late October , she was in Rome , accompanied by William Christian Bullitt , Jr . , who would become her third husband . Here in late 1922 , she wrote about Benito Mussolini , the Fascist leader who had just come to power and with whom she obtained an interview . Gathering material from a variety of sources , including Madame Mussolini , Bryant wrote a feature article , " Mussolini Relies Upon Efficiency to Restore Italy " , published in the New York American in early 1923 . She described the future dictator this way : I will always think of Mussolini as one of the oddest characters in history , and I will remember him as I last saw him in the great white and gold foyer of the Grand Hotel , under a huge crystal candelabra slouching wearily into a graceful Louis XV ivory and enameled chair . His pale , heavy @-@ boned face showed signs of sleeplessness . His strong body was bulging over the sides of the seat ; his legs were spread wide over the pale , rose @-@ colored velvet carpet . There was a little cup of black coffee , absurdly delicate , beside his gnarled work @-@ warped hand . ( As quoted from the New York American , January 28 , 1923 , section 52 , p . 1 ) Leaving Rome to cover the Turkish War of Independence for the International News Service , Bryant lived with Bullitt in a villa in Constantinople in early 1923 . Bullitt was a wealthy Philadelphian who would later become the first U.S. ambassador to the Soviet Union . While he worked on a novel , It 's Not Done , published in 1926 and dedicated to Bryant , she covered events related to the rise of Turkish strongman Mustafa Kemal Atatürk . From her base in Turkey , she ventured to Palermo to interview the deposed king of Greece , Constantine I , and to Athens to interview his son , George II . Shortly thereafter , Bryant suspended her journalistic career to focus on family matters . = = Paris = = Later in 1923 , Bryant and Bullitt moved to Paris , where they married in December . Bryant gave birth to her only child , Anne , in February 1924 , and in 1925 she and Bullitt added to their family an 8 @-@ year @-@ old boy , Refik Ismaili Bey , whom they had met in Turkey . As the wife of a rich man , Bryant had duties related to the running of an upper @-@ class household : " ... the management of servants , the ordering of food and planning of menus , house decoration , flower arrangement , keeping a social calendar . " She told one visitor to her home that she considered her new life " useless " , and the Bryant – Bullitt marriage began to unravel . In " Louise Bryant Grows Old " , historian Christine Stansell examines the great changes in Bryant 's life after her marriage to Bullitt : The entrance of William Bullitt into Louise Bryant 's life confounds the intertwined stories of the grief @-@ stricken war widow , the radical heroine , and the champion of the oppressed . The marriage is a puzzle , both biographically and historically . Biographically , it proved to be a disaster , in contrast to Bryant 's earlier romantic choices , which had been smart and fulfilling . Although Bryant continued to write , little of her work toward the end of her life was published . Her last piece of journalism , " A Turkish Divorce " , about Atatürk 's treatment of women , appeared in The Nation in August 1925 . By 1926 , Bryant , who had generally abstained from alcohol earlier in life , was suffering from painful and incurable adiposis dolorosa ( Dercum 's disease ) and had begun drinking heavily . In 1930 , Bullitt , citing his wife 's drinking and alleging that she was involved in a lesbian relationship with Gwen Le Gallienne , a daughter of writer Richard Le Gallienne , divorced Bryant and won sole custody of Anne . Bryant continued to live in Paris , occasionally advising writer Claude McKay , and briefly assisting researchers from Harvard University in preserving John Reed 's papers . = = Death = = Bryant died on January 6 , 1936 , of a brain hemorrhage in Sèvres , in the suburbs of Paris , and is buried in Cimetière des Gonards in Versailles . In 1998 , three volunteers from the Oregon Cultural Heritage Commission went to Paris to find the grave , which they discovered was crumbling , undated , and scheduled for removal . Through the commission 's efforts as well as donations , including some from relatives of Bryant and Bullitt , the grave was restored . = = Papers = = Bryant 's personal papers were transferred to Bullitt , where they remained until their daughter , Anne , donated the collection to Yale University in 2004 . They exist as separate collections , the Louise Bryant Papers ( MS 1840 ) and the William C. Bullitt Papers ( MS 112 ) in the Sterling Memorial Library at Yale . The Bryant collection consists , linearly , of 19 @.@ 43 feet ( 5 @.@ 92 m ) of " correspondence , writings , books , visual artwork , photographs , printed matter , and other material created and collected by Bryant during the last twenty years of her life from 1916 to 1936 . " = = In popular culture = = The Bryant – Reed story is told in the 1981 film Reds , starring Diane Keaton as Bryant and Warren Beatty as Reed . Supporting actors include Jack Nicholson as Eugene O 'Neill , Maureen Stapleton as Emma Goldman ; Jerzy Kosiński as Grigory Zinoviev ( one of the Bolshevik leaders ) , and Edward Herrmann as Max Eastman . = = Works = = Bryant 's early journalistic work appeared in college publications and in newspapers — The Spectator , where Bryant was society editor , and The Oregonian , for whom she freelanced — in Portland . Much of her later work appeared in newspapers such as the Philadelphia Public Ledger and in the New York American and other Hearst publications , and were syndicated to newspapers across North America . Some of these articles also appeared as collections in book form in 1918 and 1923 . Her work also appeared in independent magazines , including The Masses , The Liberator , and The Nation . Below is a partial list of her published work . = = = Books = = = Mirrors of Moscow . New York : Thomas Seltzer . 1923 . OCLC 1012771 . Six Red Months in Russia : An Observer 's Account of Russia Before and During the Proletarian Dictatorship . New York : George H. Doran Company . 1918 . OCLC 464606065 . = = = Plays = = = The Game : A Morality Play in One Act . The Provincetown Plays ( New York : Frank Shay ) . 1916 . OCLC 33854096 . Retrieved January 22 , 2014 – via One @-@ Act @-@ Plays.com. = = = Other = = = " Fables for Proletarian Children " . The Revolutionary Age . January 25 , 1919 . Retrieved January 22 , 2014 – via Marxists Internet Archive . " The Last Days With John Reed : A Letter from Louise Bryant " . The Liberator . February 1921 . Retrieved January 22 , 2014 – via Marxists Internet Archive . " Two Judges " . The Masses ( New York : The Masses Publishing Company ) 8 ( 6 ) : 18 . April 1916 . Retrieved January 24 , 2013 – via New York University .
= Eddy Merckx = Édouard Louis Joseph , Baron Merckx ( Dutch pronunciation : [ ˈmɛrks ] ) ( born 17 June 1945 ) , better known as Eddy Merckx , is a Belgian former professional road and track bicycle racer . He was born in Meensel @-@ Kiezegem , Brabant , Belgium . He grew up in Woluwe @-@ Saint @-@ Pierre where his parents ran a grocery store . He played several sports , but found his true passion in cycling . Merckx got his first bicycle at the age of three or four and competed in his first race in 1961 . His first victory came at Petit @-@ Enghien in October 1961 . After winning eighty races as an amateur racer , he turned professional on 29 April 1965 when he signed with Solo @-@ Superia . His first major victory came in the Milan – San Remo a year later , after switching to Peugeot @-@ BP @-@ Michelin . After the 1967 season , Merckx moved to Faema , and won the Giro d 'Italia , his first of eleven Grand Tour victories – a record that still stands today . Four times between 1970 and 1974 , Merckx completed a Grand Tour double . His final double also coincided with winning the men 's road race at the UCI Road World Championships to make him the first rider to accomplish cycling 's Triple Crown . Merckx broke the hour record in October 1972 , extending the record by almost 800 meters . He acquired the nickname " The Cannibal " after a teammate told his daughter of how Merckx would not let anyone else win , and the daughter referred to him as a cannibal . Merckx achieved 525 victories over his eighteen @-@ year career . He is one of only three riders to have won all five ' Monuments of Cycling ' ( Milan – San Remo , Tour of Flanders , Paris – Roubaix , Liège – Bastogne – Liège , and the Giro di Lombardia ) . The other two are fellow Belgians Roger De Vlaeminck and Rik Van Looy . He won the Tour de France in 1969 , 1970 , 1971 , 1972 and 1974.The only major one @-@ day race he did not win was Paris – Tours : his best performance was sixth in 1973 . Merckx was successful on the road and also on the track , as well as in the large stage races and one @-@ day races . He is widely thought to be the greatest and most successful rider in the history of cycling . However , Merckx was caught in three separate doping incidents during his career . Since Merckx 's retirement from the sport on 18 May 1978 , he has remained active in the cycling world . He began his own bicycle chain , Eddy Merckx Cycles , in 1980 and its bicycles were used by several professional teams in the 1980s and 1990s . Merckx coached the Belgian national cycling team for eleven years , stopping in 1996 . In 2001 , he played a large role in getting the Tour of Qatar organized to start in 2002 . He co @-@ owns the tour and also the Tour of Oman , both of which he still organizes . = = Early life and amateur career = = Edouard Louis Joseph Merckx was born in Meensel @-@ Kiezegem , Brabant , Belgium on 17 June 1945 to Jules Merckx and Jenny Pittomvils . Merckx was the first @-@ born of the family . In September 1946 , the family moved to Sint @-@ Pieters @-@ Woluwe , in Brussels , Belgium in order to take over a grocery store that had been up for lease . In May 1948 , Jenny gave birth to twins : a boy , Michel , and a girl , Micheline . As a child Eddy was hyperactive and was always playing outside . Eddy was a competitive child and played several sports , including basketball , boxing , football , and table tennis . He even played lawn tennis for the local junior team . However , Merckx claimed he knew he wanted to be a cyclist at the age of four and that his first memory was a crash on his bike when he was the same age . Merckx began riding a bike at the age of three or four and would ride to school every day , beginning at age eight . Merckx would imitate his cycling idol Stan Ockers with his friends when they rode bikes together . In summer 1961 , Merckx bought his first racing license and competed in his first official race a month after he turned sixteen , coming in sixth place . He rode in twelve more races before winning his first , at Petit @-@ Enghien , on 1 October 1961 . In the winter following his first victory , he trained with former racer Félicien Vervaecke at the local velodrome . Merckx won his second victory on 11 March 1962 in a kermis race . Merckx competed in 55 races during the 1962 calendar year ; as he devoted more time to cycling , his grades at school began to decline . After winning the Belgian amateur road race title , Merckx declined an offer from his school 's headmaster to have his exams postponed , and dropped out of school . He finished the season with 23 victories to his name . Merckx was selected for the men 's road race at the 1964 Summer Olympics , where he finished in twelfth position . Later in the season , he won the amateur road race at the UCI Road World Championships in Sallanches , France . Merckx remained an amateur until April 1965 , and finished his amateur career with eighty wins to his credit . = = Professional career = = = = = 1965 – 1967 : Solo @-@ Superia & Peugeot @-@ BP @-@ Michelin = = = = = = = 1965 : First professional season = = = = Merckx turned professional on 29 April 1965 when he signed with Rik van Looy 's Belgian team , Solo @-@ Superia . He won his first race in Vilvoorde , beating Emile Daems . On August 1 , Merckx finished second in the Belgian national championships , which qualified him for the men 's road race at the UCI Road World Championships . Raphaël Géminiani , the manager of the Bic cycling team , approached Merckx at the event and offered him 2 @,@ 500 francs a month to join the team the following season . Merckx chose to sign ; however , since he was a minor the contract was invalid . After finishing the road race in 29th position , Merckx returned to Belgium and discussed his plans for the next season with his manager Jean Van Buggenhout . Van Buggenhout helped orchestrate a move that sent Merckx to the French @-@ based Peugeot @-@ BP @-@ Michelin for 20 @,@ 000 francs a month . Merckx elected to leave Solo @-@ Superia due to the way he was treated by his teammates , in particular Van Looy . Van Looy and other teammates mocked Merckx for his various habits such as his eating , or called him names . In addition , Merckx later stated that during his time with Van Looy 's team he had not been taught anything . While with Solo @-@ Superia , he won nine races out of the nearly 70 races he entered . = = = = 1966 : First Monument victory = = = = In March 1966 , Merckx entered his first major stage race as a professional rider , the Paris – Nice . He took the race lead for a single stage before losing it to Jacques Anquetil and eventually coming in fourth overall . Milan – San Remo , his first participation in one of cycling 's Monuments , was the next event on the calendar for Merckx . There , he succeeded in staying with the main field as the race entered the final climb of the Poggio . He attacked on the climb and reduced the field to a group of eleven , himself included . Merckx was advised by his manager to hold off on sprinting full @-@ out to the finish line until as late as possible . Three other riders reached the line with him ; Merckx , however , beat them in the sprint . In the following weeks , he raced the Tour of Flanders and Paris – Roubaix , the most important cobbled classics ; in the former he crashed and in the latter he had a punctured tire . At the 1966 UCI Road World Championships he finished twelfth in the road race after suffering a cramp in the closing kilometers . He finished 1966 season with a total of 20 wins , including his first stage race win at the Tour of Morbihan . = = = = 1967 : Second straight Milan – San Remo and world champion = = = = Merckx opened the 1967 campaign with two stage victories at the Tour of Sardinia . He followed these successes by entering Paris – Nice where he won the second stage and took the race lead . Two stages later , a teammate , Tom Simpson , attacked with several other riders on a climb and was nearly 20 minutes ahead of Merckx , who remained in a group behind . Merckx attacked two days later on a climb 70 km into the stage . He was able to establish a firm advantage , but obeyed orders from his manager to wait for the chasing Simpson . Merckx won the stage , while Simpson secured his overall victory . On 18 March , Merckx started the Milan – San Remo and was seen as a 120 – 1 favorite to win the race . He attacked on the Capo Berta and again on the Poggio , leaving only Gianni Motta with him . The two slowed their pace and were joined by two more riders . Merckx won the four @-@ man sprint to the finish . His next victory came in La Flèche Wallonne after he missed out on an early break , caught up to it , and attacked from it to win the race . On 20 May , he started the Giro d 'Italia , his first Grand Tour . He won the twelfth and fourteenth stages en route to finishing ninth in the general classification . He signed with Faema on 2 September for ten years worth 400 @,@ 000 Belgian francs . He chose to switch over in order to be in complete control over the team he was racing for . In addition , he would not have to pay for various expenses that came with racing such as wheels and tires . The next day , Merckx started the men 's road race at the 1967 UCI Road World Championships in Heerlen , Netherlands . The course consisted of ten laps of a circuit . Motta attacked on the first lap and was joined by Merckx and five other riders . The group thinned to five as they reached the finish line where Merckx was able to out @-@ sprint Jan Janssen for first place . In doing so , he became the third rider to win the world road race amateur and professional titles . By winning the race he earned the right to wear the rainbow jersey as world champion . = = = 1968 – 1970 : Faema = = = = = = = 1968 : First Grand Tour victory = = = = Merckx 's first victory with his new team came in a stage win at the Tour of Sardinia . At Paris – Nice , he was forced to quit the race due to a knee injury he sustained during the event . He failed to win his third consecutive Milan – San Remo and missed out at the Tour of Flanders the following weekend . His next victory came at Paris – Roubaix when he bested Herman Van Springel in a race that was plagued by poor weather and several punctures to the competing riders . At the behest of his team , Merckx raced the Giro d 'Italia instead of the Tour de France . He won the race 's second stage after he attacked with one kilometer to go . The twelfth stage was marred by rainy weather and featured the climbs of the Tre Cime di Lavaredo for the stage finish . By the time Merckx had reached the penultimate climb , there was a six @-@ man group at the front of the race with a nine @-@ minute advantage . Merckx attacked and was able to get a sizable distance between himself and the group he left before he stopped to change his wheel in order to slow down due to orders from his team manager . Merckx got back on his bike and caught the leading breakaway and rode past it to the finish , where he won the stage and took the race lead . Merckx went on to win the race , along with the points classification and mountains classification . In the Volta a Catalunya , Merckx took the race lead from Gimondi in the race 's time trial stage and won the event as a whole . He finished the season with 32 wins in the 129 races he entered . = = = = 1969 : A Victory in Paris and injury in Blois = = = = Merckx opened the 1969 season with victories at the Vuelta a Levante and the Paris – Nice overall , as well as stages in each of the races . On 30 March 1969 Merckx earned his first major victory of the 1969 calendar with his win at the Tour of Flanders . On a rainy day that featured strong winds , he attacked first on the Oude Kwaremont , but a puncture nullified any gains he was able to establish . He made a move on the Kapelmuur and was followed by a few riders . As the wind shifted from a crosswind to a headwind with close to seventy kilometers left to go , Merckx increased the pace and rode solo to victory . The seventeen days after the Tour of Flanders saw Merckx win nine times . He won Milan @-@ San Remo by descending the Poggio at high speeds . Merckx saw victory again in mid @-@ April at the Liège – Bastogne – Liège when he attacked with seventy kilometers remaining in the pouring rain . He began the Giro d 'Italia on 16 May , stating that he wished to ride less aggressively than the year before in order to save energy for the Tour de France . Merckx had won four of the race 's stages and held the race lead going into the sixteenth day of racing . However , before the start of the stage race director Vincenzo Torriani , along with a television camera and two writers , entered Merckx 's hotel room and informed him that he had failed a doping control and was disqualified from the race , in addition to being suspended for a month . On 14 June , the cycling governing body , the FICP , overturned the month long suspension and cleared him due to the " benefit of the doubt . " Before starting the Tour , Merckx had spent a large amount of his time resting and training , racing only five times . Merckx won the race 's sixth stage through attacking before the leg 's final major climb , the Ballon d 'Alsace , and then outlasting his competitors who were able to follow him initially . During the seventeenth stage , Merckx was riding at the head of the race with several general classification contenders on the Col du Tourmalet . Merckx shifted into a large gear , attacked , and went on to cross the summit with a 45 @-@ second advantage . Despite orders to wait for the chasing riders , Merckx increased his efforts . He rode over the Col du Soulor and Col d 'Aubisque , increasing the gap to eight minutes . With close to fifty kilometers to go , Merckx began to suffer hypoglycemia and rode the rest of the stage in severe pain . At the end of the stage , Merckx told the journalists " I hope I have done enough now for you to consider me a worthy winner . " Merckx finished the race with six stage victories to his credit , along with the general , points , mountains , and combination classifications , and the award for most aggressive rider . His next major race was the two @-@ day race , Paris @-@ Luxembourg . Merckx was down fifty @-@ four seconds going into the second day and attacked eight kilometers from the finish , on the slopes of the Bereldange . Merckx rode solo to catch the leading rider Jacques Anquetil , whom he dropped with a kilometer remaining . Merckx won the stage and gained enough time on the race leader Gimondi to win the race . On 9 September , Merckx participated in a three @-@ round omnium event at the cement velodrome in Blois where each rider was to be paced by a derny . Fernand Wambst was Merckx 's pacer for the contest . After winning the first intermediate sprint of the first round , Wambst chose to slow their pace and move to the back of the race despite Merckx wanting to stay out in front for fear of an accident . Wambst wanted to pass everyone to provide a show for the crowd . The duo then increased their pace and began to pass each other contestant ; however , as they passed the riders in first position , the leading derny lost control and crashed into the wall . Wambst chose to avoid the derny by going below it , but the leader 's derny came back down and collided with Wambst , while Merckx 's pedal caught one of the dernies . The two riders landed head first onto the track . Wambst died of a fractured skull as he was being transported to a hospital . Merckx remained unconscious for 45 minutes and awoke in the operating room . He sustained a concussion , whiplash , trapped nerves in his back , a displaced pelvis , and several other cuts and bruises . He remained at the hospital for a week before returning to Belgium . He spent six weeks in bed before beginning to race again in October . Merckx later stated that he " was never the same again " after the crash . He would constantly adjust his seat during races to help ease the pain . Merckx stopped racing on 26 October to recuperate . = = = = 1970 : A Giro – Tour double = = = = Merckx entered the 1970 campaign nursing a case of mild tendonitis in his knee . His first major victory came in the Paris – Nice where he won the general classification , along with three stages . On 1 April , Merckx won the Gent – Wevelgem , followed by the Tour of Belgium – where he braved a snowy stage and followed the day up with a victory in the final time trial to secure the title – and the Paris – Roubaix . In the Paris – Roubaix , Merckx was battling a cold as the race began in heavy rain . He attacked thirty @-@ one kilometers from the finish and went on to win by five minutes and twenty @-@ one seconds , the largest margin of victory in the history of the race . The next weekend , Merckx attempted to race for teammate Joseph Bruyère in the La Flèche Wallonne ; however , Bruyère was unable to keep pace with the leading riders , leaving Merckx to take the victory . After the scandal at the previous year 's Giro d 'Italia , Merckx was unwilling to returning to the race in 1970 . His entry to the race was contingent upon all doping controls be sent to a lab in Rome to be tested , rather than being tested at the finish like the year before . He started the race and won the second leg , but four days later showed signs of weakness with his knee as he was dropped twice while in the mountains . However the next day , Merckx attacked on the final climb into the city of Brentonico to win the stage and take the lead . He won the stage nine individual time trial by almost two minutes over the second @-@ place finisher , expanding his lead significantly . Merckx didn 't win another stage , but managed to expand his lead a little more before the race 's conclusion . Before beginning the Tour , Merckx won the men 's road race at the Belgian National Road Race Championships . Merckx won the Tour 's opening prologue to take the race 's first race leader 's yellow jersey . After losing the lead following the second stage , he won the sixth stage after forming a breakaway with Lucien Van Impe and regained the lead . After expanding his lead in the stage nine individual time trial , Merckx won the race 's first true mountain stage , stage 10 , and expanded his lead to five minutes in the general classification . Merckx won three of the five stages contested within the next four days , including a summit finish to Mont Ventoux , where upon finishing he was given oxygen . Merckx won two more stages , both individual time trials , and won the Tour by over twelve minutes . He finished the Tour with eight stage victories and won the mountains and combination classifications . The eight stage wins equaled the previous record for stage wins in a single Tour de France . Merckx also became the third to accomplish the feat of winning the Giro and Tour in the same calendar year . = = = 1971 – 1976 : Molteni = = = = = = = 1971 : A Third Consecutive Tour and Second World Championship = = = = Faema folded at the end of the 1970 season causing Merckx and several of his teammates to move to another Italian team , Molteni . The first major victory for Merckx came in the Giro di Sardegna , which he secured after attacking on his own and riding solo through the rain to win the race 's final stage . He followed that with his third consecutive Paris – Nice victory , a race he led from start to finish . In the Milan @-@ San Remo , Merckx worked with his teammates in a seven @-@ man breakaway to set up a final attack on the Poggio . Merckx 's attack succeeded and he won his fourth edition of the race . Six days later , he won the Omloop Het Volk . After winning the Tour of Belgium again , Merckx headed into the major spring classics . During the Tour of Flanders , Merckx 's rivals worked against him to prevent him from winning . A week later , he suffered five flat tires during the Paris – Roubaix . The Liège – Bastogne – Liège was held in cold and rain conditions . After attacking ninety kilometers from the finish , Merckx caught the leaders on the road and passed them . He rode solo until around three kilometers to go when Georges Pintens caught him . Merckx and Pintens rode to the finish together , where Merckx won the two @-@ man sprint . Instead of racing the Giro d 'Italia , Merckx elected to enter two shorter stages races in France , the Grand Prix du Midi Libre and the Critérium du Dauphiné , both of which he won . The Tour de France began with a team time trial that Merckx 's team won , giving him the lead . The next day 's racing was split into three parts . Merckx lost the lead after stage 1b , but regained it after stage 1c due to a time bonus that he earned from winning an intermediate sprint . During the second stage , a major break with the major race contenders , including Merckx , formed with over a hundred kilometers to go . The group finished nine minutes ahead of the peloton as Merckx came around Roger De Vlaeminck during the sprint to win the day . After a week of racing , Merckx held a lead of around a minute over the main contenders . The eighth stage saw a mountain top finish to Puy de Dome . Bernard Thévenet attacked on the lower slopes and Merckx was unable to counter . Joop Zoetemelk and Luis Ocaña went with Thévenet and wound up gaining fifteen seconds on Merckx . On the descent of the Col du Cucheron during the race 's ninth leg , Merckx 's tire punctured , prompting Ocaña to attack with Zoetemelk , Thévenet , and Gösta Pettersson . The group of four finished a minute and a half ahead of Merckx , giving Zoetemelk the lead . The following day Merckx lost eight minutes to Ocaña after a poor showing due to stomach pains and indigestion . At the start of the eleventh stage , Merckx , three teammates , and couple others formed a breakaway . Merckx 's group finished two minutes in front of the peloton that was led by Ocaña 's Bic team . After winning the ensuing time trial , Merckx took back eleven more seconds on Ocaña . The race entered the Pyrenees with the first stage , into Luchon , being plagued by heavy thunderstorms that severely handicapped vision . On the descent of the Col de Menté , Merckx crashed on a left bend . Ocaña , who was trailing , crashed into the same bend and Zoetemelk collided with him . Merckx fell again on the descent and took the race lead as Ocaña was forced to retire from the race due to injuries from the crash . Merckx declined to wear the yellow jersey the following day out of respect for Ocaña . He won two more stages and the general , points , and combination classifications when the race finished in Paris . Seven weeks following the Tour , Merckx entered the men 's road race at the UCI Road World Championships that were held in Mendrisio , Switzerland . The route for the day was rather hilly and consisted of several circuits . Merckx managed to be a part of a five @-@ man breakaway as the race reached five laps to go . After attacking on the second to last stage , Merckx and Gimondi reached the finish , where Merckx managed to win the race by four bike lengths . This earned him his second rainbow jersey . He closed out the 1971 calendar with his first victory in the Giro di Lombardia . This victory meant that Merckx had won all of cycling 's Monuments . Merckx made the winning move when he attacked on the descent of the Intelvi Pass . During the off @-@ season , Merckx had his displaced pelvis tended to by a doctor . = = = = 1972 : Breaking the hour record alongside a Giro – Tour double = = = = Due to his non @-@ participation in track racing over the winter , Merckx entered the 1972 campaign in poorer form than in previous years . In the Paris – Nice , Merckx broke a vertebra in a crash that occurred as the peloton was in the midst of a bunch sprint . Against the advice of a physician , he started the next day being barely able to ride out of the saddle , leading Ocaña to attack him several times throughout the stage . In the race 's fifth leg , Merckx sprinted away from Ocaña with 150 meters to go to win the day . Merckx lost the race lead in the final stage to Raymond Poulidor and finished in second place overall . Two days removed from Paris – Nice , Merckx was victorious for the fifth time at the Milan – San Remo after he managed to establish a gap on the descent of the Poggio . In Paris – Roubaix , he crashed again , further aggravating the injury he sustained from Paris – Nice . He won Liège – Bastogne – Liège by making a solo move forty @-@ six kilometers from the finish . Three days later , in La Flèche Wallonne , Merckx was a part of a six @-@ man leading group as the race neared its conclusion . Merckx won the uphill sprint to the finish despite his derailleur shifting him to the wrong gear , forcing him to ride in a larger gear than anticipated . He became the third rider to win La Flèche Wallonne and Liège – Bastogne – Liège in the same weekend . Despite a monetary offer from race organizers for Merckx to participate in the Vuelta a España , he chose to take part in the Giro d 'Italia . Merckx lost four minutes over two and a half minutes to Spanish climber José Manuel Fuente after the Giro 's fourth stage that contained a summit finish to Blockhaus . In the seventh stage , Fuente had attacked on the first climb of the day , the Valico di Monte Scuro . However , Fuente cracked near the top of the climb , allowing for Merckx and Pettersson to catch and pass him . Merckx gained over four minutes on Fuente and became the new race leader . He expanded his lead by two minutes through the stage 12a and 12b time trials , winning the former . Fuente managed to get Merckx on his own as the two climbed together during the fourteenth stage . He and teammate Francisco Galdós attacked , leaving Merckx behind . Merckx eventually reconnected with the two on the stage 's final climb . He proceeded to attack and went on to win the stage by forty @-@ seven seconds . He lost two minutes to Fuente due to stomach trouble during the seventeenth leg that finished atop the Passo dello Stelvio , but went on to win one more stage en route to his third victory at the Giro d 'Italia . Merckx entered the Tour de France in July where a battle between him and Ocaña was expected by many . He took the opening prologue and expanded his advantage over all the other general classification contenders , except Ocaña , by at least three minutes . Going into the Pyrenees , Merckx led Ocaña by fifty @-@ one seconds . The general classification favorites were riding together as the race hit the Col d 'Aubisque in the seventh leg . Ocaña punctured on the climb , allowing for the other riders to attack . Ocaña chased after the group but crashed into a wall on the descent and went on to lose almost two minutes to Merckx . Merckx was criticized for attacking while Ocaña had a flat , but Merckx responded that the year before Ocaña had done the same thing while the race was in the Alps . Merckx won the following stage , regaining the lead which he had lost after the fourth leg . During the next two major mountain stages , one to Mont Ventoux and the other to Orcières , he merely followed Ocaña 's wheel . He won three more stages before crossing the finish line in Paris as the race 's winner , thus completing his second Giro @-@ Tour double in the process . After initially planning to attempt to break the hour record in August , Merckx decided to make the attempt in October after taking a ten @-@ day hiatus from criterium racing to heal and prepare . The attempt took place on 25 October in Mexico City , Mexico at the outdoor track Agustin Melgar . Mexico was chosen due to the higher altitude as this led to less air resistance . He arrived in Mexico on the 21st to prepare for his attempt , but two days were lost due to rain . His attempt started at 8 : 46 am local time and saw him finish the first ten kilometers twenty @-@ eight seconds faster than the record pace . However , Merckx started off too fast and began to fade as the attempt wore on . He eventually was able to recover and managed to post a distance of 49 @.@ 431 km ( 31 mi ) , breaking the world record . After finishing he was carried off and was quoted saying the pain was " very , very , very significant . " = = = = 1973 : A Giro – Vuelta double = = = = An illness prevented Merckx from taking part in the Milan – San Remo at the start of the 1973 calendar . During a span of nineteen days , Merckx won four classics including Omloop Het Volk , Liège – Bastogne – Liège , and Paris – Roubaix . He decided to race the Vuelta a España and the Giro d 'Italia , instead of racing the Tour de France . He won the opening prologue of the Vuelta to take an early lead . Despite Ocaña 's best efforts , Merckx won a total of six stages on his way to his only Vuelta a España title . In addition to the general classification , Merckx won the race 's points classification and combination classifications . Four days after the conclusion of the Vuelta , Merckx lined up to start the Giro d 'Italia . He won the opening two @-@ man time trial with Roger Swerts and the next day 's leg as well . Merckx 's primary competitor , Fuente , lost a significant amount of time during the second stage . He won eighth stage that featured a summit finish to Monte Carpegna despite Fuente attacking several times on the ascent . Fuente tried attacking throughout the race of the race , but was only able to make time gains on the race 's penultimate stage . Merckx won the race after leading from start to finish , a feat only previously done by Alfredo Binda and Costante Girardengo . He also became the first rider to win the Giro and Vuelta in the same calendar year . The UCI Road World Championships were held in Barcelona , Spain in 1973 and contested on the Montjuich circuit . During the road race , Merckx attacked with around one hundred kilometers left . His move was marked by Freddy Maertens , Gimondi , and Ocaña . Merckx attacked on the final lap , but was reeled in by the three riders . It came down to a sprint between the four , of which Merckx came in last and Gimondi in first . Following the road race , Merckx won his first Paris – Brussels and Grand Prix des Nations . He won both legs of À travers Lausanne , as well as the Giro di Lombardia , but a doping positive disqualified him . He closed the season with over fifty victories to his credit . = = = = 1974 : Completion of cycling 's Triple Crown = = = = The 1974 season saw Merckx fail to win a spring classic for the first time in his career , in part due to him suffering from various illnesses during the early months . Pneumonia forced him to quit racing for a month and forced him to enter the Giro d 'Italia in poor form . He lost time early in the race to Fuente , who managed to the race 's first mountainous stage . Merckx gained time on Fuente in the race 's only time trial . Merckx attacked from two hundred kilometers out two days later in a stage that was plagued by horrendous weather . Fuente lost ten minutes to Merckx , who became the race leader . The twentieth stage had a summit finish to Tre Cime di Lavaredo . Fuente and Gianbattista Baronchelli attacked on the climb , while Merckx was unable to match their accelerations . He managed to finish the stage only to see his lead shrink to twelve seconds over Baronchelli . He held on to that lead until the race 's conclusion , winning his fifth Giro d 'Italia . Three days following his victory at the Giro , Merckx started the Tour de Suisse . He won the race 's prologue and rode conservatively for the rest of the race . He took the final leg , an individual time trial , to seal his overall victory . After finishing the race , Merckx had a sebaceous cyst removed on 22 June . Five days following the surgery , he was scheduled to begin the Tour de France . The wound was still slightly open when he began the Grand Tour and it bled throughout the race . At the Tour , Merckx won the race 's prologue , giving him the first race leader 's maillot jaune ( English : yellow jersey ) , which he lost the next day to teammate Joseph Bruyère . He won the seventh stage of the race , and regained the lead , through attacking in the closing kilometers and holding off the chasing peloton . He put five minutes into Poulidor , his main rival , after dropping him on the Col du Galibier . The next day , on the slopes of Mont Ventoux , Merckx rode to limit his losses after suffering several attacks from other general classification riders , including Poulidor , Vicente López Carril and Gonzalo Aja . He managed to expand his lead through several stage victories afterwards , including one where he attacked with ten kilometers to go in a flat stage and held off the peloton to reach the finish in Orléans almost a minute and a half before the chasing group . Merckx finished the Tour with eight stage wins and his fifth Tour de France victory , equaling the record of Anquetil . Going into the men 's road race at the UCI Road World Championships , Merckx anchored a squad that included Van Springel , Maertens , and De Vlaeminck . The route featured twenty @-@ one laps of a circuit that contained two climbs . Merckx and Poulidor attacked with around seven kilometers to go , after catching the leading breakaway . The two rode to the finish together where Merckx won the sprint to the line , establishing a two @-@ second gap between himself and Poulidor . By winning the road race , Merckx became the first rider to win the Triple Crown of Cycling , which consists of winning the Tour de France , Giro d 'Italia , and men 's road race at the World Championships in one calendar year . It was also his third world title , becoming the third rider to ever be world champion three times , after Binda and Rik Van Steenbergen . = = = = 1975 : Second place at the Tour = = = = With victories at Milan – San Remo and Amstel Gold Race , Merckx opened the 1975 season in good form , also winning the Setmana Catalana de Ciclisme . In the Catalan Week , Merckx lost his super domestique Bruyère , who had helped Merckx to victory in years past many times , to a broken leg . Two days following the Catalan Week , Merckx participated in the Tour of Flanders . He launched an attacked with eighty kilometers to go , with only Frans Verbeeck being able to match his acceleration . Verbeeck was dropped as the race reached five kilometers remaining , allowing Merckx to take his third Tour of Flanders victory . In Paris – Roubaix , Merckx suffered a flat tire with around eighty kilometers left when a part of a leading group of four . After chasing for three kilometers , he managed to catch the three other riders and the group rode into the finish together ; De Vlaeminck won the day . Merckx won his fifth Liège – Bastogne – Liège by attacking several times in the closing portions of the race . Merckx 's attitude while racing had changed : riders expected him to chase down attacks , which angered him . Notably , in the Tour de Romandie he was riding with race leader Zoetemelk as an attack occurred . Merckx refused to chase the break down , and the two lost fourteen minutes . Merckx contracted a cold and , later , tonsilitis while racing in the spring campaign . This caused him to be in poor form , forcing him to not participate in the Giro d 'Italia . He then rode in the Dauphiné Libéré and was not on par with Thevenet , who won the race . At the Tour de Suisse , De Vlaeminck won the race as a whole , while Merckx finished second . He placed second in the Tour de France 's prologue . The following morning 's split stage saw Merckx put time on Thevenet by attacking with Francesco Moser , Van Impe , and Zoetemelk . In day 's second leg , Merckx managed to gain time on Zoetemelk . He won the stage six individual time trial and gaining more time on Thevenet and Zoetemelk . He won the next time trial into Auch as well . During the race 's eleventh stage , Merckx sent his team to set the pace early on in the stage . Reaching the final climb of the day , Merckx was on his own as his team had been used to set the pace throughout the day . On the day 's final climb to Pla d 'Adet , he matched an acceleration by Zoetemelk . Thevenet then launched an attack , to which Merckx could not follow and saw him lose over two minutes . After the stage Merckx switched decided to mark Thevenet for the rest of the race and make an attack on the Puy de Dome . While climbing the Puy de Dome , Thevenet and Van Impe attacked . Merckx followed at his own pace and kept the two riders within a hundred meters . With about 150 m remaining , Merckx was prepared to sprint to the line , but was punched in the back by a spectator , Nello Breton . He crossed the line thirty @-@ four seconds behind Thevenet and proceeded to vomit after catching his breath . The punch left him with a large bruise . During the rest day he was found to have an inflamed liver for which he was prescribed blood thinners . The stage following the rest day featured five climbs , Merckx felt a pain on the third climb in the area of the punch and had a teammate get him an analgesic . Thevenet attacked several times on the climb of the Col des Champs , all of which Merckx countered . Merckx retaliated by speeding away on the descent . On the start of the next climb , Merckx had his Molteni teammates set the pace and he distanced himself from his competitors before the start of the final climb . However , as Merckx began the final climb he cracked . Thevenet caught and passed him with four kilometers left . Gimondi , Van Impe , and Zoetemelk passed Merckx , who finished fifth and one minute and twenty @-@ six seconds down . The following day , Merckx caught up with the leading breakaway and wanted to push ahead , but the riders chose not to participate in the pace making , leading Merckx to sit up and get caught . He lost two more minutes to Thevenet , who attacked on the Col du Izoard . He crashed in the next leg , breaking a cheekbone , and managed to gain some time on Thevenet before the finish in Paris . He finished in second place , the first time he had lost a Tour in his six starts . = = = = 1976 : A record seventh Milan – San Remo = = = = He opened his 1976 season with his record seventh victory in Milan – San Remo . He followed with a victory in the Catalan Week , but suffered a crash in the final stage when a spectator 's bag caught his handlebars , injuring his elbow . This injury plagued his performance throughout the spring classic season . He entered the Giro d 'Italia but failed to win a stage for the first time in his career . He finished the race in eighth overall while battling a saddle boil throughout the race . Following the Giro 's conclusion Merckx announced that he and his team Molteni would not take part in the Tour de France . He took part in the men 's road race at the UCI Road World Championships and finished in fifth position . He ended his season in October after racing for most of August . He failed to win the Super Prestige Pernod International , a competition where riders were awarded points for their placements in certain professional races , for the first time since 1968 . In the first two months of his off @-@ season , Merckx spent the majority of his time lying down . Molteni ended their sponsorship at the end of the season . = = = 1977 – 1978 : FIAT & C & A = = = FIAT became the new sponsor for Merckx 's team and Raphaël Géminiani the new manager . He got his season 's first victories in the Grand Prix d 'Aix and Tour Méditerranéen . Merckx agreed to ride a light spring season in order to save himself for a chance at a sixth Tour victory . He took one stage at the Paris – Nice but had to withdraw from the race 's final stage due to sinusitis . In the spring classics , Merckx did not win any races , with his best finish being a sixth place in the Liège – Bastogne – Liège . Before the Tour , Merckx raced both the Dauphiné Libéré and Tour de Suisse , winning one stage of the latter . He admitted his poor form and anxiety about aggravating previous injuries going into the Tour de France . He managed to hold on to second place overall for two weeks . As the race entered the Alps , Merckx began to lose more time ; he lost thirteen minutes on the stage to Alpe d 'Huez alone . On the stage into Saint @-@ Étienne , Merckx attacked and managed to gain enough time to move into sixth overall ; he finished the Tour in same position . In the time following the Tour , Merckx raced twenty @-@ two races in a span of forty days before coming in thirty @-@ third at the UCI Road World Championships 's men 's road race . Merckx earned his final victory on the road on 17 September in a kermis race . In late December , FIAT chose to end their sponsorship of Merckx in favor of building a more French centered squad . In January , the department store C & A announced that they would sponsor Merckx after their owner met Merckx at a football game . His plan for the season was to race one last Tour de France and then ride several smaller races for appearances . He raced a total of five races in the 1978 calendar . His last victory was in a track event , an omnium in Zürich , on 10 February 1978 with Patrick Sercu . His first road race came in the Grand Prix de Montauroux on 19 February . Merckx came to the front of the race and put in a large effort before swinging off and quitting the race . His best finish came in the Tour de Haut , where he managed fifth . He dropped out of Omloop Het Volt due to colitis and completed his final race on 19 March , a kermis in Kemzeke . Following the race , Merckx went on a vacation to go skiing . He returned from travel to train more , but by this point the team sponsor knew he was going to quit . Merckx announced his retirement from the sport on 18 May . He stated that the doctors advised him against racing . = = Retirement = = Following his exit from racing , Merckx opened up Eddy Merckx Cycles on 28 March 1980 in Brussels , Belgium . The initial workers that were hired for the factory were trained by Ugo De Rosa , a notable bike maker , before starting . The company almost went bankrupt at one point and was also caught up in a tax repayment controversy . Merckx would spend time giving input on the models as they were being produced . Despite the financial problems the brand became highly regarded and successful , being used by several top @-@ level cycling teams in the 1980s and 1990s . Merckx stepped down as CEO in 2008 and sold most of his shares , but still tests the bikes that are created and has some input . Cycling journalist Sam Dansie believed that the fact that Eddy Merckx Cycles has maintained a presence as an elite bicycle due to its adoption of new methods over time . As of January 2015 , the business is still based in Belgium and distributes to over twenty @-@ five countries . Merckx managed the Belgian national team world championships for eleven years , between 1986 and 1996 . He acted as the race director for the Tour of Flanders for a brief period of time . He temporarily sponsored a youth developmental team with CGER Bank , a team that featured his son Axel . He helped organize the Grand Prix Eddy Merckx , which started out as an invitation only individual time trial event , later becoming a two @-@ man time trial event . The event folded after 2004 due to riders ' lack of interest . He played a pivotal role in getting the Tour of Qatar started in 2002 . In 2001 Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani , the former Emir of Qatar , reached out to Merckx and told him of his interest in starting a bicycle race to show off his country . Merckx then contacted then Union Cycliste Internationale president Hein Verbruggen , who checked out Qatar 's roads . Following a successful inspection , Merckx contacted the Amaury Sport Organisation about working with him planning the race ; they agreed in 2001 . Merckx officially co @-@ owns the race with Dirk De Pauw and still helps to organize the race . In addition , Merckx also helped Qatar secure the right to host the 2016 UCI Road World Championships , as well as designing the race route for the road race . Merckx also co @-@ owns and helps organize the Tour of Oman . In 2015 , Merckx said later that although he wasn 't racing , he knew would still be involved with the sport as " as a bike builder , first in the factory and now as an ambassador . " = = Personal life = = Merckx officially began dating Claudine Acou in April 1965 . Acou was a 21 @-@ year @-@ old teacher and daughter of the trainer of the national amateur team . Merckx asked her father for permission to marry her between track races . On December 5 , 1967 Merckx married Acou after four years of courtship . She would often handle the press over her husband , who was a shy person by nature . Claudine gave birth to their first child , Sabrina , on 14 February 1970 . Merckx skipped a team training camp to be with Claudine for Sabrina 's birth . Claudine later gave birth to a son , Axel , who also became a professional cyclist . Merckx was brought up speaking in Flemish , but was taught French in school . In 1996 Albert II of Belgium King of the Belgians , gave him the title of baron . In Italy , Merckx was given the title of Cavaliere . In 2011 , he was named Commandeur de la Légion d 'honneur by then French President Nicolas Sarkozy in Paris . Merckx has become an ambassador for the Damien The Leper Society , a foundation named after a Catholic priest , which battles leprosy and other diseases in developing countries . He was blessed by Pope John Paul II in Brussels in the 1990s . Merckx is an art lover and stated that his favorite artist is Rene Magritte , a surrealist . Salvador Dali is another of his favorites . Before starting the third stage of the 1968 Giro d 'Italia , Merckx was found to have a heart condition . A cardiologist , Giancarlo Lavezzaro , found that Merckx had non @-@ obstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy , a disease that has killed several young athletes . In 2013 , Merckx was given a pacemaker to help correct a heart rhythm issue . The surgery was performed in Genk on 21 March and done as a preventative procedure . Merckx stated that he never had any heart issues while racing , despite the fact that several males in his family died young of heart related problems . In May 2004 , he had an esophagus operation to cure stomach ache suffered since he was young . In August he reported that he lost nearly 30 kg after the procedure . = = Legacy = = Merckx has been regarded by many as the greatest and most successful cyclist of all @-@ time . He rode well in the Grand Tours and in the one @-@ day classics . He was a very good time trialist and climber . In addition , Merckx showed great ability to race on the track . He was known for racing style that consisted of attacking constantly , which came to be known as " la course en tête " . Attacking for Merckx was the best form of defence . He would spend a day in a breakaway and then make another significant attack the following day . Despite his constant attacking , he would occasionally ride in a defensive mindset , particularly when racing the Giro and facing Fuente . Merckx entered over 1 @,@ 800 races during his career and won a total of 525 . Due to his dominance in the sport some cycling historians refer to the period in which he raced as the " Merckx Era . " During his professional career , he won 445 of the 1585 races he entered . Between the years of 1967 and 1977 Merckx raced between 111 and 151 races each season . In 1971 he raced 120 times and won 54 of the events , the most races any cyclist has won in a season . Merckx admits that he was the best of his generation , but insists it 's not practical to compare across generations . He is one of the three riders to win all five ' Monuments of Cycling ' ( i.e. , Milan – San Remo , Tour of Flanders , Paris – Roubaix , Liège – Bastogne – Liège , and the Giro di Lombardia ) , the other two being Rik Van Looy and Roger De Vlaeminck . He finished his career with nineteen victories across the monuments , more than any other rider and eight more than the rider with the second most . He won twenty @-@ eight classic races , with Paris – Tours being the only race he did not win . The closest he came to victory in the race was sixth in the 1973 race . A lesser Belgian rider , Noël van Tyghem , won Paris – Tours in 1972 and said : " Between us , I and Eddy Merckx have won every classic that can be won . I won Paris – Tours , Merckx won all the rest . " While racing , he became the third rider to win all three Grand Tours in his career , a feat that has since been accomplished by more riders . He holds the record for most Grand Tour victories with 11 , along with the record for most stage wins across all three Grand Tours with 64 . He has completed the most Giro @-@ Tour doubles in history with three . He was the first rider to win cycling 's Triple Crown which has only been accomplished one other time , by Stephen Roche in 1987 . He was also the first rider to win all three major classifications – the general , points , and mountains classifications – in one Grand Tour at the 1968 Giro d 'Italia , and again at the 1969 Tour de France . This has only been done twice since by Tony Rominger and Laurent Jalabert . He shares the record for most victories at both the Giro d 'Italia and Tour de France , with five wins at each . In those races he also holds the records for days spent in the race leader 's jersey at 78 and 96 respectively . For his career successes in the Giro d 'Italia , Merckx became the first rider inducted into the race 's Hall of Fame in 2012 . When being inducted , Merckx was given the modern @-@ day trophy with the winners engraved until 1974 , the last year he won the race . At the Tour , he holds the record for most stage wins in its history , with thirty @-@ four . He was given the nickname " The Cannibal " by the daughter of Christian Raymond , a teammate of Merckx 's . Raymond had commented on Merckx not allowing anyone else to win , to which his daughter referred to Merckx as a cannibal . Raymond liked the nickname and then mentioned it to the press . In Italy , he was known as " il mostro " ( English : the monster ) . Dutch cycling great Joop Zoetemelk said " First there was Merckx , and then another classification began behind him . " Cycling journalist and commentator Phil Liggett wrote that if Merckx started a race , many riders acknowledged that they likely would be competing for second place . Ted Costantino wrote that Merckx was undoubtedly the number one cyclist of all time , whereas in other sports there are debates that go on about who is actually the greatest of all time . Gianni Motta told of how Merckx would ride without a racing cape when it was snowing or raining in order to go faster than other riders . Even after his retirement , many subsequent stars still feel overshadowed by his fame and race results . Merckx befriended Fiorenzo Magni when he began racing for an Italian team . He was criticized by opposing riders for his relentless pursuit of victory that prevented even lesser known riders from collecting a few victories . When told that he won too much , Merckx stated that " The day when I start a race without intending to win it , I won 't be able to look at myself in the mirror . " = = Doping = = Merckx was leading the 1969 Giro d 'Italia upon the conclusion of the sixteenth stage in Savona . After the stage , Merckx traveled to the mobile lab that traveled with the race and conducted the drug tests . Merckx ’ s first test came up positive for fencamfamine , an amphetamine . A second test was conducted and also came up positive . The word spread about Merckx 's positive test while Merckx himself was still asleep . The positive test meant Merckx was to be suspended for a month . Race director Vincenzo Torriani delayed the start of the seventeenth stage in an attempt to persuade the president of the Italian Cycling Federation to allow Merckx to begin the stage . However , the president was not in his office and Torriani was forced to start the stage , disqualifying Merckx in the process . In the succeeding days , the Union Cycliste Internationale removed the suspension put in place . From the start , Merckx claimed his innocence saying that " I am a clean rider , I do not need to take anything to win . " He maintains that his samples were mishandled . After the incident , several conspiracy theories emerged including : the urine that tested positive wasn 't Merckx 's , a move to give Italian Felice Gimondi a better chance at victory , and Merckx had been given a water bottle with the stimulant in it . On 8 November 1973 , it was announced that Merckx had tested positive for norephedrine after winning the Giro di Lombardia a month earlier . Upon learning of the first test being positive in later October , he had a counter @-@ analysis performed which also turned up positive . The drug was present in a cough medicine that the Molteni doctor , Dr. Cavalli , prescribed to him . Merckx was disqualified from the race and the victory was awarded to second @-@ place finisher Gimondi . In addition , Merckx was given a month suspension and fined 150 @,@ 000 lira . Merckx admitted his fault in taking the medicine but said that the name norephedrine was not on the bottle of cough syrup he used . On 8 May 1977 , Merckx , along with several other riders , tested positive for pemoline , a stimulant in Stimul , at La Flèche Wallonne . The group of riders was charged by the Belgian cycling federation , and the riders were each given a 24 @,@ 000 pestas fine and a one @-@ month suspension . Initially Merckx , announced his intention to appeal the penalty , saying he only took substances that were not on the banned list . Merckx 's eighth @-@ place finish in the race was voided . Years later , Merckx admitted he did take a banned substance , citing that he was wrong to have trusted a doctor . Due to Merckx 's positive tests during his career , he was asked by the event organizers to stay away from the 2007 UCI Road World Championships in Stuttgart , Germany . The organizers stated that " [ they ] had to be role models " , while Merckx wrote them off claiming them to be crazy . Merckx was not alone , as several other riders were asked to keep their distance from the event .
= Steve Zakuani = Steve Zakuani ( born February 9 , 1988 ) is a Congolese former association football player . He was born in Zaire — now the Democratic Republic of the Congo — and grew up in London . He had a successful college career before playing for Seattle Sounders FC and the Portland Timbers . Zakuani played for the Arsenal youth academy but as a teenager he struggled finding a team . He attended the University of Akron on a soccer scholarship and excelled as a forward . In 2009 , Seattle selected Zakuani first overall in the MLS SuperDraft . He quickly became a fan favorite as a winger who had the speed and ability to take on opposing defenders . He had success in 2010 , scoring ten goals and debuting for the Congo DR national football team in a friendly . However , in 2011 , he suffered a leg injury that almost ended his career . He returned in 2012 but failed to recapture his early success , and retired after playing the 2014 MLS season with the Portland Timbers . After soccer , Zakuani has pursued helping young athletes through charity . = = Career = = = = = Youth and college = = = Zakuani was born in Kinshasa , Zaire — now the Democratic Republic of the Congo . When he was four , his father , Mao Zakuani , moved his family to London for political and professional reasons after receiving a job offer as a translator . The family switched homes often and lived with extended family for long periods . They later settled in a north London neighborhood with other African families , where Zakuani attended White Hart Lane School . At the age of nine , Zakuani attracted interest from West Ham United 's youth program . He later tried out for the youth team of Queens Park Rangers , and in 1997 , he joined the Arsenal Academy . Zakuani became cocky and brash while not focusing on schoolwork and was released . His off @-@ the @-@ field issues culminated in serious injuries when he was involved in a crash while riding on a moped that one of his friends had stolen . Zakuani was unable to play for 18 months . After losing interest in soccer and renewing his efforts in school , his teacher and mentor Paul Goodison took him to watch motivational speaker and evangelist Myles Munroe . This inspired Zakuani to renew his commitment to becoming a professional player and , although unsuccessful , he tried out for the senior teams of Queens Park Rangers , Wigan Athletic , AZ Alkmaar , and Real Valladolid . Zakuani attended the University of Akron after he was noticed while playing at north London 's Independent Football Academy . In his freshman season , he scored six goals with the Zips and received a professional offer from Preston North End . He was already committed to the university and declined the opportunity . In 2008 , Zakuani scored 20 goals and 7 assists over 23 games to become a finalist for the Hermann Trophy ; an award given yearly by the Missouri Athletic Club to the country 's top college soccer player . He also became the second sophomore to be named Soccer America 's men 's collegiate player of the year . He played a portion of the 2008 USL Premier Development League season with the Cleveland Internationals , with whom he scored nine goals and made four assists in 11 matches . = = = Professional = = = = = = = Seattle Sounders FC = = = = Zakuani was selected by expansion side Seattle Sounders FC as the number @-@ one pick in the 2009 MLS SuperDraft on a Generation Adidas program contract . He declined offers from two English clubs so he could sign with Major League Soccer ; the deal allowed him to set money aside for future college tuition . He started 24 of 30 regular season games in 2009 and played in the Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup final , when the Sounders became the second MLS team to win the tournament in their inaugural season . Zakuani provided a much @-@ needed attacking presence from the wing ; he was the third @-@ best scorer with four goals throughout the regular season . The press considered him a candidate for Rookie of the Year because he had the highest number of goals and assists of all new players . The award eventually went to Omar Gonzalez . A local reporter praised him for improving his assistance to the defence and making better offensive runs as the season progressed . Although Zakuani was already known as a top young player , coach Sigi Schmid wanted him to improve his on @-@ field decision making and increase his fitness before the next year . In 2009 , a shoulder injury that had limited Zakuani 's ability to play the full 90 minutes per game forced him to undergo surgery during the off @-@ season . In his second professional year , Zakuani scored ten goals , equalling the score of striker Fredy Montero for the team lead . He also made six assists . Zakuani was named MLS Player of the Week twice ; the first was after recording both goals in a 2 – 1 win over Colorado , and the second was awarded for both a goal and an assist in a 2 – 1 victory over Chivas USA . Fans around the league voted the strike against Chivas as the Goal of the Week . Zakuani also won the award for his perfectly timed break past the defensive back line for a one @-@ on @-@ one situation with the goalkeeper while scoring a goal against Toronto FC . He also recorded the fastest @-@ scored goal in club history with a fourth @-@ minute tally against Columbus Crew , beating the previous record he had set the season before . Zakuani was again in the starting line @-@ up for the 2010 U.S. Open Cup final , which Seattle won to become the first team since 1983 to repeat as Open Cup champions . On November 7 , 2010 , he scored the Sounders ' first ever playoff goal in a 2 – 1 loss to the Los Angeles Galaxy . He received his green card after the season ; this helped the team because MLS limits the number of international players available to each team and receiving permanent resident status exempted him from the cap . Zakuani scored two goals and had two assists in his first six appearances of the 2011 season . On April 22 , 2011 , a harsh challenge by Brian Mullan led to Zakuani fracturing his tibia and fibula three minutes into a game against the Colorado Rapids . He was airlifted to hospital and underwent surgery the same day . During recovery , doctors feared that his leg would require amputation because of compartment syndrome . The concern was caused by a lack of blood flow that hurt the nerves connecting the area to his foot . Mullan initially defended the tackle , saying he would make the challenge again . He later apologized in the face of increasing scrutiny and received a 10 @-@ game suspension and a $ 5 @,@ 000 fine . Zakuani missed the remainder of the season . Zakuani 's injury was one of several to key players throughout the league that year , leading to criticism that MLS play was aggressive to the point of " thuggery " . On July 7 , 2012 , after 15 months away , Zakuani returned in a match against Mullan and the Rapids . His return as a substitute with five minutes left in the game met provoked emotional cheers from the fans . Having already publicly forgiven Mullan , the two hugged and exchanged shirts after the whistle . Within two months , he appeared to further his recovery with an assist against FC Dallas and then scored a goal against San Jose Earthquakes . He finished the 2012 season with one goal in 320 minutes over eight matches and went on to play in three playoff games before the team was eliminated . During the 2013 season , Zakuani made only nine appearances across all competitions before being sidelined with a sports hernia . In that time , he recorded one assist in league play , and assisting in the game @-@ winning goal against Mexico 's Tigres UANL in the CONCACAF Champions League quarterfinals . He was later placed on injured reserve and twice underwent surgery on each side of his groin . Zakuani 's contract was allowed to expire , effectively ending his five @-@ year career with the Sounders , during which he started in 67 of 78 appearances in league play . At the time , he was the club ’ s third @-@ leading scorer with 17 goals . = = = = Portland Timbers = = = = On December 12 , 2013 , Zakuani was selected by Portland Timbers as the number two pick in the MLS Re @-@ Entry Draft ; a yearly draft that allows teams to select players who are out @-@ of @-@ contract or have had their options declined by their current teams . The Timbers traded up for the opportunity . Zakuani was reunited with Porter , his former Akron coach , who had become the Portland manager . His pay was cut by $ 60 @,@ 000 to $ 120 @,@ 000 a year . Zakuani was expected to receive additional minutes immediately because first @-@ choice winger Rodney Wallace was recovering from injury . Zakuani appeared in the Timbers ' opening match of 2014 against Philadelphia Union as a substitute in the 85th minute . The Sounders and Timbers are fierce rivals ; when the teams met in the 2014 Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup . Zakuani assisted former college team @-@ mate Darlington Nagbe in the Timbers ' only goal during the 3 – 1 loss to his previous club . Zakuani scored his first goal for Timbers on August 19 , 2014 , scoring the opening goal in a 4 – 1 win over Alpha United in the 2014 – 15 CONCACAF Champions League . After the match , Porter spoke to the media about the need to bench Zakuani because of his persistent muscle strains . 2014 was disappointing for Zakuani ; he scored no goals and only three assists . On October 29 , 2014 , Zakuani announced his retirement in a blog post . Having scored only one goal and five assists in the previous three seasons , he cited his difficulty recovering from numerous injuries . He had lost much of his precision , pace , and confidence since being hurt . He retired at the relatively early age of 26 ; his retirement after his initial promise led Sports Illustrated to describe his career as a " roller coaster " . = = = International = = = Zakuani was eligible to play for both Congo and England . He considers London his hometown but still sees himself as Congolese . Of his five siblings , as of April 2015 , his older brother Gabriel Zakuani plays for English club Peterborough United and is a member of the Congolese national team . He might have been able to play for the United States if granted citizenship . He expressed interest in representing the Congolese national team early in his professional career , but considered his chances of playing for England " a long shot " . Later in his career , he expressed interest in playing for the United States , saying , " of the three , I prefer the States as this is where I made my name as a player " . In 2010 , Zakuani accepted a call up from Congo for a friendly match against Mali . In a press release , Zakuani called it the highest honor of his young career . It was a challenging decision for him but the wait to become eligible to play for the United States was too long . The game was played in Dieppe , France , in November 2010 . Zakuani started the match and came off at half @-@ time with Congo in the lead . Mali rallied in the second half , beating Congo in a 3 – 1 loss . = = Playing style = = Zakuani was a right @-@ footed player who preferred being on the left of the field . He played on the left wing in a 4 – 4 – 2 formation with Arsenal ; later he was a forward in college before converting to a winger professionally . Zakuani said he played with a style he learned at Arsenal 's youth academy and that he tried to emulate the style of former winger Robert Pirès . Zakuani often sought advice from former Arsenal star Fredrik Ljungberg when they played together in Seattle . Zakuani was a quick , agile player who liked to take defenders one @-@ on @-@ one . While coaching him at Akron , Porter said many of Zakuani 's goals came after long runs that beat multiple players . = = Kingdom Hope = = As a teenager in London , Zakuani began " mixing with the wrong crowd " . He was distracted from soccer by girls and parties . He said in an interview , " A lot of the people I grew up with ended up in prison , taking drugs , and never made it to university " . He has strong feelings about the increase of knife crime in London since one of his friends was killed . In 2010 , he founded the non @-@ profit organization Kingdom Hope to run youth soccer camps in the greater Seattle area . He remembers being focused on soccer instead of education in Europe ; the organization is focused on providing collegiate scholarships to young athletes . Zakuani has said his ultimate goal is to open an academy to teach life @-@ coaching and soccer to teenagers to provide a " bridge between talent and actually making it " . = = Career statistics = = As of November 3 , 2014 . = = Honors = = = = = Club = = = Seattle Sounders FC Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup ( 2 ) : 2009 , 2010
= 1890 Atlantic hurricane season = The 1890 Atlantic hurricane season is tied for the third least active hurricane season on record , behind 1914 and 1930 . The first system was initially observed on May 27 and the last storm , Hurricane Four , dissipated over Central America on November 1 . These dates fall within the period with the most tropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic . The first storm moved slowly north @-@ northwestward , bringing heavy rains and extensive flooding to Cuba , which caused at least three fatalities and at least $ 1 million ( 1890 USD ) in damage . It dissipated in the Gulf of Mexico on May 29 . Tropical cyclogenesis went dormant for nearly two and a half months , until another system was observed near the Windward Islands on August 18 . It traversed the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico , grazing the Yucatan Peninsula and making landfall in Louisiana before dissipating on August 28 . Impact from the storm was minimal . Of the season 's four tropical cyclones , two reached hurricane status . One of these two strengthened into a major hurricanes , which are Category 3 or higher on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . The strongest cyclone of the season , the third hurricane , peaked at Category 3 strength , with maximum sustained winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . Rough seas produced by this storm sunk a ship in the vicinity of the Lesser Antilles , drowning 10 people . The final tropical cyclone was first observed in the southwestern Caribbean Sea on October 31 . Peaking as a strong Category 1 hurricane , it headed westward and made landfall in Nicaragua , before being last noted over Central America on November 1 . The storm produced only minor damage in Nicaragua . Collectively , the tropical cyclones of this season resulted in at least $ 1 million in damage and 14 confirmed fatalities . = = Storms = = = = = Tropical Storm One = = = According to HURDAT – North Atlantic hurricane database – a tropical depression developed on May 27 , while located about 65 miles ( 105 km ) south of Isla de la Juventud , Cuba . The depression moved north @-@ northwestward and did not strengthen before making landfall near Pinar del Río , Cuba , early the following day . It crossed Cuba without weakening and emerged into the southeastern Gulf of Mexico on May 28 . Later that day , the depression intensified into a tropical storm . The cyclone continued to strengthen and peaked with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) early on May 29 . It was last noted about 125 miles ( 200 km ) west @-@ northwest of Dry Tortugas , Florida at around 1800 UTC . The storm brought heavy rains to Cuba , with 13 @.@ 58 inches ( 345 mm ) observed in Havana in a 36 @-@ hour period . Flooding and mudslides caused extensive damage to several cities , including Calabazar , Chorrera , Havana , Puentes Grandes , San Antonio de los Baños , and Rincon . Several people had to be rescued . Nearly all telegraphic and railroad services were interrupted by flooding . With damage estimates in the millions of dollars , the event was described as " the most disastrous rains that had ever visited Cuba . " At least 4 fatalities were confirmed after a ship capsized , while a " good number " of other persons drowned . = = = Tropical Storm Two = = = After no activity for over two months , the barque Aspatogan encountered " very heavy weather " associated with a tropical storm in the eastern Caribbean Sea on August 18 . The system moved west @-@ northwestward across the Caribbean Sea and strengthened slowly . Early on August 24 , the storm attained its maximum sustained winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) , while situated about 80 miles ( 130 km ) south @-@ southwest of Grand Cayman . Re @-@ curving northwestward , it brushed the Yucatan Peninsula on August 25 , shortly before entering the Gulf of Mexico . The storm again re @-@ curved northward while located in the central Gulf of Mexico . At 1600 UTC , it made landfall near Dulac , Louisiana with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . The system quickly weakened to a tropical depression and dissipated over northern Mississippi on August 28 . = = = Hurricane Three = = = The steamship Haytian encountered a storm equivalent in intensity to a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale , while located about 470 miles ( 760 km ) east @-@ northeast of Dominica on August 26 . The cyclone headed northwestward and strengthened into a Category 3 hurricane early on the following day , becoming the only major hurricane of the season . Later on August 27 , the storm attained its maximum sustained wind speed of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . The ship Portuense recorded a minimum barometric pressure of 965 mbar ( 28 @.@ 5 inHg ) at 0700 UTC on August 28 . However , the ship sunk in the rough seas later that day while situated about 250 miles ( 400 km ) northeast of Anegada , British Virgin Islands , drowning ten people , including the ship 's captain and nine crew members . After peak intensity , the storm began to weaken and fell to Category 2 strength on August 29 . Later that day , the hurricane began re @-@ curving northward and then accelerated northeastward on August 30 . Although the storm passed well offshore the East Coast of the United States , rough seas caused " great damage " at beaches in New Jersey . While approaching Newfoundland on September 1 , the system weakened to a Category 1 hurricane . Late on September 1 , it weakened to a tropical storm , shortly before becoming extratropical about 465 miles ( 750 km ) east @-@ northeast of St. Lunaire @-@ Griquet , Newfoundland and Labrador . = = = Hurricane Four = = = The steamship Gussie first encountered a hurricane with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) early on October 31 , while located about 95 miles ( 153 km ) northeast of Providencia Island , Colombia . The cyclone tracked westward and maintained its intensity as a strong Category 1 hurricane . Late on October 31 , it made landfall in Nicaragua just south of Cabo Gracias a Dios . At 0000 UTC on November 1 , the system weakened to a tropical storm . Six hours later , it was last noted over the Olancho Department of Honduras . Impact from this system in Central America is unknown .
= Pedro I of Brazil = Dom Pedro I ( English : Peter I ; 12 October 1798 – 24 September 1834 ) , nicknamed " the Liberator " , was the founder and first ruler of the Empire of Brazil . As King Dom Pedro IV , he reigned briefly over Portugal , where he also became known as " the Liberator " as well as " the Soldier King " . Born in Lisbon , Pedro I was the fourth child of King Dom João VI of Portugal and Queen Carlota Joaquina , and thus a member of the House of Braganza . When their country was invaded by French troops in 1807 , he and his family fled to Portugal 's largest and wealthiest colony , Brazil . The outbreak of the Liberal Revolution of 1820 in Lisbon compelled Pedro I 's father to return to Portugal in April 1821 , leaving him to rule Brazil as regent . He had to deal with threats from revolutionaries and insubordination by Portuguese troops , all of which he subdued . The Portuguese government 's threat to revoke the political autonomy that Brazil had enjoyed since 1808 was met with widespread discontent in Brazil . Pedro I chose the Brazilian side and declared Brazil 's independence from Portugal on 7 September 1822 . On 12 October , he was acclaimed Brazilian emperor and by March 1824 had defeated all armies loyal to Portugal . A few months later , Pedro I crushed the short @-@ lived Confederation of the Equator , a failed secession attempt by provincial rebels in Brazil 's northeast . A secessionist rebellion in the southern province of Cisplatina in early 1825 , and the subsequent attempt by the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata to annex it , led the Empire into the Cisplatine War . In March 1826 , Pedro I briefly became king of Portugal before abdicating in favor of his eldest daughter , Dona Maria II . The situation worsened in 1828 when the war in the south resulted in Brazil 's loss of Cisplatina . During the same year in Lisbon , Maria II 's throne was usurped by Prince Dom Miguel , Pedro I 's younger brother . The Emperor 's concurrent and scandalous sexual affair with a female courtier tarnished his reputation . Other difficulties arose in the Brazilian parliament , where a struggle over whether the government would be chosen by the monarch or by the legislature dominated political debates from 1826 to 1831 . Unable to deal with problems in both Brazil and Portugal simultaneously , on 7 April 1831 Pedro I abdicated in favor of his son Dom Pedro II , and sailed for Europe . Pedro I invaded Portugal at the head of an army in July 1832 . Faced at first with what seemed a national civil war , he soon became involved in a wider conflict that enveloped the Iberian Peninsula in a struggle between proponents of Liberalism and those seeking a return to Absolutism . Pedro I died of tuberculosis on 24 September 1834 , just a few months after he and the liberals had emerged victorious . He was hailed by both contemporaries and posterity as a key figure who helped spread the liberal ideals that allowed Brazil and Portugal to move from Absolutist regimes to representative forms of government . = = Early years = = = = = Birth = = = Pedro was born at 08 : 00 on 12 October 1798 in the Queluz Royal Palace near Lisbon , Portugal . He was named after St. Peter of Alcantara , and his full name was Pedro de Alcântara Francisco António João Carlos Xavier de Paula Miguel Rafael Joaquim José Gonzaga Pascoal Cipriano Serafim . He was referred to using the honorific " Dom " ( Lord ) from birth . Through his father , Prince Dom João ( later King Dom João VI ) , Pedro was a member of the House of Braganza ( Portuguese : Bragança ) and a grandson of King Dom Pedro III and Queen Dona ( Lady ) Maria I of Portugal , who were uncle and niece as well as husband and wife . His mother , Doña Carlota Joaquina , was the daughter of King Don Carlos IV of Spain . Pedro 's parents had an unhappy marriage . Carlota Joaquina was an ambitious woman , who always sought to advance Spain 's interests , even to the detriment of Portugal 's . Reputedly unfaithful to her husband , she went as far as to plot his overthrow in league with dissatisfied Portuguese nobles . As the second eldest son ( though the fourth child ) , Pedro became his father 's heir apparent and Prince of Beira upon the death of his elder brother Francisco António in 1801 . Prince Dom João had been acting as regent on behalf of his mother , Queen Maria I , after she was declared incurably insane in 1792 . By 1802 , Pedro 's parents were estranged ; João lived in the Mafra National Palace and Carlota Joaquina in Ramalhão Palace . Pedro and his siblings resided in the Queluz Palace with their grandmother Maria I , far from their parents , whom they saw only during state occasions at Queluz . = = = Education = = = In late November 1807 , when Pedro was nine , the royal family escaped from Portugal as an invading French army sent by Napoleon approached Lisbon . Pedro and his family arrived in Rio de Janeiro , capital of Brazil , then Portugal 's largest and wealthiest colony , in March 1808 . During the voyage , Pedro read Virgil 's Aeneid and conversed with the ship 's crew , picking up navigational skills . In Brazil , after a brief stay in the City Palace , Pedro settled with his younger brother Miguel and their father in the Palace of São Cristóvão ( Saint Christopher ) . Although never on intimate terms with his father , Pedro loved him and resented the constant humiliation his father suffered at the hands of Carlota Joaquina due to her extramarital affairs . As an adult , Pedro would openly call his mother , for whom he held only feelings of contempt , a " bitch " . The early experiences of betrayal , coldness and neglect had a great impact on the formation of Pedro 's character . A modicum of stability during his childhood was provided by his aia ( governess ) , Maria Genoveva do Rêgo e Matos , whom he loved as a mother , and by his aio ( supervisor ) friar António de Arrábida , who became his mentor . Both were in charge of Pedro 's upbringing and attempted to furnish him with a suitable education . His instruction encompassed a broad array of subjects that included mathematics , political economy , logic , history and geography . He learned to speak and write not only in Portuguese , but also Latin and French . He could translate from English and understood German . Even later on , as an emperor , Pedro would devote at least two hours of each day to study and reading . Despite the breadth of Pedro 's instruction , his education proved lacking . Historian Otávio Tarquínio de Sousa said that Pedro " was without a shadow of doubt intelligent , quick @-@ witted , [ and ] perspicacious . " However , historian Roderick J. Barman relates that he was by nature " too ebullient , too erratic , and too emotional " . He remained impulsive and never learned to exercise self @-@ control or to assess the consequences of his decisions and adapt his outlook to changes in situations . His father never allowed anyone to discipline him . While Pedro 's schedule dictated two hours of study each day , he sometimes circumvented the routine by dismissing his instructors in favor of activities that he found more interesting . = = = First marriage = = = The prince found fulfillment in activities that required physical skills , rather than in the classroom . At his father 's Santa Cruz farm , Pedro trained unbroken horses , and became a fine horseman and an excellent farrier . He and his brother Miguel enjoyed mounted hunts over unfamiliar ground , through forests , and even at night or in inclement weather . He displayed a talent for drawing and handicrafts , applying himself to wood carving and furniture making . In addition , he had a taste for music , and under the guidance of Marcos Portugal the prince became an able composer . He had a good singing voice , and was proficient with several musical instruments ( including piano , flute and guitar ) , playing popular songs and dances . Pedro was a simple man , both in habits and in dealing with others . Except on solemn occasions when he donned court dress , his daily attire consisted of white cotton trousers , striped cotton jacket and a broad @-@ brimmed straw hat , or a frock coat and a top hat in more formal situations . He would frequently take time to engage in conversation with people on the street , noting their concerns . Pedro 's character was marked by an energetic drive that bordered on hyperactivity . He was impetuous with a tendency to be domineering and short @-@ tempered . Easily bored or distracted , in his personal life he entertained himself with dalliances with women in addition to his hunting and equestrian activities . His restless spirit compelled him to search for adventure , and , sometimes in disguise as a traveler , he frequented taverns in Rio de Janeiro 's disreputable districts . He rarely drank alcohol , but was an incorrigible womanizer . His earliest known lasting affair was with a French dancer called Noémi Thierry , who had a stillborn child by him . Pedro 's father , who had ascended the throne as João VI , sent Thierry away to avoid jeopardizing the prince 's betrothal to Archduchess Maria Leopoldina , daughter of Emperor Franz I of Austria ( formerly Franz II , Holy Roman Emperor ) . On 13 May 1817 , Pedro was married by proxy to Maria Leopoldina . When she arrived in Rio de Janeiro on 5 November , she immediately fell in love with Pedro , who was far more charming and attractive than she had been led to expect . After " years under a tropical sun , his complexion was still light , his cheeks rosy . " The 19 @-@ year @-@ old prince was handsome and a little above average in height , with bright dark eyes and dark brown hair . " His good appearance " , said historian Neill Macaulay , " owed much to his bearing , proud and erect even at an awkward age , and his grooming , which was impeccable . Habitually neat and clean , he had taken to the Brazilian custom of bathing often . " The Nuptial Mass , with the ratification of the vows previously taken by proxy , occurred the following day . Seven children resulted from this marriage : Maria ( later Queen Dona Maria II of Portugal ) , Miguel , João , Januária , Paula , Francisca and Pedro ( later Emperor Dom Pedro II of Brazil ) . = = Independence of Brazil = = = = = Liberal Revolution of 1820 = = = On 17 October 1820 , news arrived that the military garrisons in Portugal had mutinied , leading to what became known as the Liberal Revolution of 1820 . The military formed a provisional government , supplanting the regency appointed by João VI , and summoned the Cortes — the centuries @-@ old Portuguese parliament , this time democratically elected with the aim of creating a national Constitution . Pedro was surprised when his father not only asked for his advice , but also decided to send him to Portugal to rule as regent on his behalf and to placate the revolutionaries . The prince was never educated to rule and had previously been allowed no participation in state affairs . The role that was his by birthright was instead filled by his elder sister Dona Maria Teresa : João VI had relied on her for advice , and it was she who had been given membership in the Council of State . Pedro was regarded with suspicion by his father and by the king 's close advisers , all of whom clung to the principles of absolute monarchy . By contrast , the prince was a well @-@ known , staunch supporter of liberalism and of constitutional representative monarchy . He had read the works of Voltaire , Benjamin Constant , Gaetano Filangieri and Edmund Burke . Even his wife Maria Leopoldina remarked , " My husband , God help us , loves the new ideas . " João VI postponed Pedro 's departure for as long as possible , fearing that once he was in Portugal , he would be acclaimed king by the revolutionaries . On 26 February 1821 , Portuguese troops stationed in Rio de Janeiro mutinied . Neither João VI nor his government made any move against the mutinous units . Pedro decided to act on his own and rode to meet the rebels . He negotiated with them and convinced his father to accept their demands , which included naming a new cabinet and making an oath of obedience to the forthcoming Portuguese Constitution . On 21 April , the parish electors of Rio de Janeiro met at the Merchants ' Exchange to elect their representatives to the Cortes . A small group of agitators seized the meeting and formed a revolutionary government . Again , João VI and his ministers remained passive , and the monarch was about to accept the revolutionaries ' demands when Pedro took the initiative and sent army troops to re @-@ establish order . Under pressure from the Cortes , João VI and his family departed for Portugal on 26 April , leaving behind Pedro and Maria Leopoldina . Two days before he embarked , the King warned his son : " Pedro , if Brazil breaks away , let it rather do so for you , who will respect me , than for one of those adventurers . " = = = Independence or Death = = = At the outset of his regency , Pedro promulgated decrees that guaranteed personal and property rights . He also reduced government expenditure and taxes . Even the revolutionaries arrested in the Merchants ' Exchange incident were set free . On 5 June 1821 , army troops under Portuguese lieutenant general Jorge Avilez ( later Count of Avilez ) mutinied , demanding that Pedro should take an oath to uphold the Portuguese Constitution after it was enacted . The prince rode out alone to intervene with the mutineers . He calmly and resourcefully negotiated , winning the respect of the troops and succeeding in reducing the impact of their more unacceptable demands . The mutiny was a thinly veiled military coup d 'état that sought to turn Pedro into a mere figurehead and transfer power to Avilez . The prince accepted the unsatisfactory outcome , but he also warned that it was the last time he would yield under pressure . The continuing crisis reached a point of no return when the Cortes dissolved the central government in Rio de Janeiro and ordered Pedro 's return . This was perceived by Brazilians as an attempt to subordinate their country again to Portugal — Brazil had not been a colony since 1815 and had the status of a kingdom . On 9 January 1822 , Pedro was presented with a petition containing 8 @,@ 000 signatures that begged him not to leave . He replied , " Since it is for the good of all and the general happiness of the Nation , I am willing . Tell the people that I am staying . " Avilez again mutinied and tried to force Pedro 's return to Portugal . This time the prince fought back , rallying the Brazilian troops ( which had not joined the Portuguese in previous mutinies ) , militia units and armed civilians . Outnumbered , Avilez surrendered and was expelled from Brazil along with his troops . During the next few months , Pedro attempted to maintain a semblance of unity with Portugal , but the final rupture was impending . Aided by an able minister , José Bonifácio de Andrada , he searched for support outside Rio de Janeiro . The prince traveled to Minas Gerais in April and on to São Paulo in August . He was welcomed warmly in both Brazilian provinces , and the visits reinforced his authority . While returning from São Paulo , he received news sent on 7 September that the Cortes would not accept self @-@ governance in Brazil and would punish all who disobeyed its orders . " Never one to eschew the most dramatic action on the immediate impulse " , said Barman about the prince , he " required no more time for decision than the reading of the letters demanded . " Pedro mounted his bay mare and , in front of his entourage and his Guard of Honor , said : " Friends , the Portuguese Cortes wished to enslave and persecute us . As of today our bonds are ended . By my blood , by my honor , by my God , I swear to bring about the independence of Brazil . Brazilians , let our watchword from this day forth be ' Independence or Death ! ' " = = = Constitutional Emperor = = = The prince was acclaimed Emperor Dom Pedro I on his 24th birthday , which coincided with the inauguration of the Empire of Brazil on 12 October . He was crowned on 1 December . His ascendancy did not immediately extend throughout Brazil 's territories . He had to force the submission of several provinces in the northern , northeastern and southern regions , and the last Portuguese holdout units only surrendered in early 1824 . Meanwhile , Pedro I 's relationship with Bonifácio deteriorated . The situation came to a head when Pedro I , on the grounds of inappropriate conduct , dismissed Bonifácio . Bonifácio had used his position to harass , prosecute , arrest and even exile his political enemies . For months Bonifácio 's enemies had worked to win over the Emperor . While Pedro I was still Prince Regent , they had given him the title " Perpetual Defender of Brazil " on 13 May 1822 . They also inducted him into Freemasonry on 2 August and later made him grand master on 7 October , replacing Bonifácio in that position . The crisis between the monarch and his former minister was felt immediately within the Constituent and Legislative General Assembly , which had been elected for the purpose of drafting a Constitution . A member of the Constituent Assembly , Bonifácio resorted to demagoguery , alleging the existence of a major Portuguese conspiracy against Brazilian interests — insinuating that Pedro I , who had been born in Portugal , was implicated . The Emperor became outraged by the invective directed at the loyalty of citizens who were of Portuguese birth and the hints that he was himself conflicted in his allegiance to Brazil . On 12 November 1823 , Pedro I ordered the dissolution of the Constituent Assembly and called for new elections . On the following day , he placed a newly established native Council of State in charge of composing a constitutional draft . Copies of the draft were sent to all town councils , and the vast majority voted in favor of its instant adoption as the Constitution of the Empire . As a result of the highly centralized State created by the Constitution , rebellious elements in Ceará , Paraíba and Pernambuco attempted to secede from Brazil and unite in what became known as the Confederation of the Equator . Pedro I unsuccessfully sought to avoid bloodshed by offering to placate the rebels . Angry , he said : " What did the insults from Pernambuco require ? Surely a punishment , and such a punishment that it will serve as an example for the future . " The rebels were never able to secure control over their provinces , and were easily suppressed . By late 1824 , the rebellion was over . Sixteen rebels were tried and executed , while all others were pardoned by the Emperor . = = Crises within and without = = = = = Portuguese dynastic affair = = = After long negotiations , Portugal signed a treaty with Brazil on 29 August 1825 in which it recognized Brazilian independence . Except for the recognition of independence , the treaty provisions were at Brazil 's expense , including a demand for reparations to be paid to Portugal , with no other requirements of Portugal . Compensation was to be paid to all Portuguese citizens residing in Brazil for the losses they had experienced , such as properties which had been confiscated . João VI was also given the right to style himself emperor of Brazil . More humiliating was that the treaty implied that independence had been granted as a beneficent act of João VI , rather than having been compelled by the Brazilians through force of arms . Even worse , Great Britain was rewarded for its role in advancing the negotiations by the signing of a separate treaty in which its favorable commercial rights were renewed and by the signing of a convention in which Brazil agreed to abolish slave trade with Africa within four years . Both accords were severely harmful to Brazilian economic interests . A few months later , the Emperor received word that his father had died on 10 March 1826 , and that he had succeeded his father on the Portuguese throne as King Dom Pedro IV . Aware that a reunion of Brazil and Portugal would be unacceptable to the people of both nations , he hastily abdicated the crown of Portugal on 2 May in favor of his eldest daughter , who became Queen Dona Maria II . His abdication was conditional : Portugal was required to accept the Constitution which he had drafted and Maria II was to marry his brother Miguel . Regardless of the abdication , Pedro I continued to act as an absentee king of Portugal and interceded in its diplomatic matters , as well as in internal affairs , such as making appointments . He found it difficult , at the very least , to keep his position as Brazilian emperor separate from his obligations to protect his daughter 's interests in Portugal . Miguel feigned compliance with Pedro I 's plans . As soon as he was declared regent in early 1828 , and backed by Carlota Joaquina , he abrogated the Constitution and , supported by those Portuguese in favor of absolutism , was acclaimed King Dom Miguel I. As painful as was his beloved brother 's betrayal , Pedro I also endured the defection of his surviving sisters , Maria Teresa , Maria Francisca , Isabel Maria and Maria da Assunção , to Miguel I 's faction . Only his youngest sister , Ana de Jesus , remained faithful to him , and she later traveled to Rio de Janeiro to be close to him . Consumed by hatred and beginning to believe rumors that Miguel I had murdered their father , Pedro I turned his focus on Portugal and tried in vain to garner international support for Maria II 's rights . = = = War and widowhood = = = Backed by the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata ( present @-@ day Argentina ) , a small band declared Brazil 's southernmost province of Cisplatina to be independent in April 1825 . The Brazilian government at first perceived the secession attempt as a minor uprising . It took months before a greater threat posed by the involvement of the United Provinces , which expected to annex Cisplatina , caused serious concern . In retaliation , the Empire declared war in December , triggering the Cisplatine War . The Emperor traveled to Bahia province ( located in northeastern Brazil ) in February 1826 , taking along his wife and daughter Maria . The Emperor was warmly welcomed by the inhabitants of Bahia . The trip was planned to generate support for the war @-@ effort . The imperial entourage included Domitila de Castro ( then @-@ Viscountess and later Marchioness of Santos ) , who had been Pedro I 's mistress since their first meeting in 1822 . Although he had never been faithful to Maria Leopoldina , he had previously been careful to conceal his sexual escapades with other women . However , his infatuation for his new lover " had become both blatant and limitless " , while his wife endured slights and became the object of gossip . Pedro I was increasingly rude and mean toward Maria Leopoldina , left her short of funds , prohibited her from leaving the palace and forced her to endure Domitila 's presence as her lady @-@ in @-@ waiting . In the meantime , his lover took advantage by advancing her interests , as well as those of her family and friends . Those seeking favors or to promote projects increasingly sought her help , bypassing the normal , legal channels . On 24 November 1826 , Pedro I sailed from Rio de Janeiro to São José in the province of Santa Catarina . From there he rode to Porto Alegre , capital of the province of Rio Grande do Sul , where the main army was stationed . Upon his arrival on 7 December , the Emperor found the military conditions to be much worse than previous reports had led him to expect . He " reacted with his customary energy : he passed a flurry of orders , fired reputed grafters and incompetents , fraternized with the troops , and generally shook up military and civilian administration . " He was already on his way back to Rio de Janeiro when he was told that Maria Leopoldina had died following a miscarriage . Unfounded rumors soon spread that purported that she had died after being physically assaulted by Pedro I. Meanwhile , the war continued on with no conclusion in sight . Pedro I relinquished Cisplatina in August 1828 , and the province became the independent nation of Uruguay . = = = Second marriage = = = After his wife 's death , Pedro I realized how miserably he had treated her , and his relationship with Domitila began to crumble . Maria Leopoldina , unlike his mistress , was popular , honest and loved him without expecting anything in return . The Emperor greatly missed her , and even his obsession with Domitila failed to overcome his sense of loss and regret . One day Domitila found him weeping on the floor and embracing a portrait of his deceased wife , whose sad @-@ looking ghost Pedro I claimed to have seen . Later on , the Emperor left the bed he shared with Domitila and shouted : " Get off of me ! I know I live an unworthy life of a sovereign . The thought of the Empress does not leave me . " He did not forget his children , orphaned of their mother , and was observed on more than one occasion holding his son , the young Pedro , in his arms and saying : " Poor boy , you are the most unhappy prince in the world . " At the insistence of Pedro I , Domitila departed from Rio de Janeiro on 27 June 1828 . He had resolved to marry again and to become a better person . He even tried to persuade his father @-@ in @-@ law of his sincerity , by claiming in a letter " that all my wickedness is over , that I shall not again fall into those errors into which I have fallen , which I regret and have asked God for forgiveness " . Franz I was less than convinced . The Austrian emperor , deeply offended by the conduct his daughter endured , withdrew his support for Brazilian concerns and frustrated Pedro I 's Portuguese interests . Because of Pedro I 's bad reputation in Europe , owing to his past behavior , princesses from several nations declined his proposals of marriage one after another . His pride thus wounded , he allowed his mistress to return , which she did on 29 April 1829 after having been away nearly a year . However , once he learned that a betrothal had finally been arranged , the Emperor ended his relationship to Domitila . She returned to her native province of São Paulo on 27 August , where she remained . Days earlier , on 2 August , the Emperor had been married by proxy to Amélie of Leuchtenberg . He was stunned by her beauty after meeting her in person . The vows previously made by proxy were ratified in a Nuptial Mass on 17 October . Amélie was kind and loving to his children and provided a much needed sense of normalcy to both his family and the general public . After Domitila 's banishment from court , the vow the Emperor made to alter his behavior proved to be sincere . He had no more affairs and remained faithful to his spouse . In an attempt to mitigate and move beyond other past misdeeds , he made peace with José Bonifácio , his former minister and mentor . = = Between Portugal and Brazil = = = = = Endless crises = = = Since the days of the Constituent Assembly in 1823 , and with renewed vigor in 1826 with the opening of the General Assembly ( the Brazilian parliament ) , there had been an ideological struggle over the balance of powers wielded by the emperor and legislature in governance . On one side were those who shared Pedro I 's views , politicians who believed that the monarch should be free to choose ministers , national policies and the direction of government . In opposition were those , then known as the Liberal Party , who believed that cabinets should have the power to set the government 's course and should consist of deputies drawn from the majority party who were accountable to the parliament . Strictly speaking , both the party that supported Pedro I 's government and the Liberal Party advocated Liberalism , and thus constitutional monarchy . Regardless of Pedro I 's failures as a ruler , he respected the Constitution : he did not tamper with elections or countenance vote rigging , refuse to sign acts ratified by the government , or impose any restrictions on freedom of speech . Although within his prerogative , he did not dissolve the Chamber of Deputies and call for new elections when it disagreed with his aims or postpone seating the legislature . Liberal newspapers and pamphlets seized on Pedro I 's Portuguese birth in support of both valid accusations ( e.g. , that much of his energy was directed toward affairs concerning Portugal ) and false charges ( e.g. , that he was involved in plots to suppress the Constitution and to reunite Brazil and Portugal ) . To the Liberals , the Emperor 's Portuguese @-@ born friends who were part of the Imperial court , including Francisco Gomes da Silva who was nicknamed " the Buffoon " , were part of these conspiracies and formed a " secret cabinet " . None of these figures exhibited interest in such issues , and whatever interests they may have shared , there was no palace cabal plotting to abrogate the Constitution or to bring Brazil back under Portugal 's control . Another source of criticism by the Liberals involved Pedro I 's abolitionist views . The Emperor had indeed conceived a gradual process for eliminating slavery . However , the constitutional power to enact legislation was in the hands of the Assembly , which was dominated by slave @-@ owning landholders who could thus thwart any attempt at abolition . The Emperor opted to try persuasion by moral example , setting up his estate at Santa Cruz as a model by granting land to his freed slaves there . Pedro I also professed other advanced ideas . When he declared his intention to remain in Brazil on 9 January 1822 and the populace sought to accord him the honor of unhitching the horses and pulling his carriage themselves , the then @-@ Prince Regent refused . His reply was a simultaneous denunciation of the divine right of kings , of nobility 's supposedly superior blood and of racism : " It grieves me to see my fellow humans giving a man tributes appropriate for the divinity , I know that my blood is the same color as that of the Negroes . " = = = Abdication = = = The Emperor 's efforts to appease the Liberal Party resulted in very important changes . He supported an 1827 law that established ministerial responsibility . On 19 March 1831 , he named a cabinet formed by politicians drawn from the opposition , allowing a greater role for the parliament in the government . Lastly , he offered positions in Europe to Francisco Gomes and another Portuguese @-@ born friend to extinguish rumors of a " secret cabinet " . To his dismay , his palliative measures did not stop the continuous attacks from the Liberal side upon his government and his foreign birth . Frustrated by their intransigence , he became unwilling to deal with his deteriorating political situation . Meanwhile , Portuguese exiles campaigned to convince him to give up on Brazil and instead devote his energies to the fight for his daughter 's claim to Portugal 's crown . According to Roderick J. Barman , " [ in ] an emergency the Emperor 's abilities shone forth — he became cool in nerve , resourceful and steadfast in action . Life as a constitutional monarch , full of tedium , caution , and conciliation , ran against the essence of his character . " On the other hand , the historian remarked , he " found in his daughter 's case everything that appealed most to his character . By going to Portugal he could champion the oppressed , display his chivalry and self @-@ denial , uphold constitutional rule , and enjoy the freedom of action he craved . " The idea of abdicating and returning to Portugal took root in his mind , and , beginning in early 1829 , he talked about it frequently . An opportunity soon appeared to act upon the notion . Radicals within the Liberal Party rallied street gangs to harass the Portuguese community in Rio de Janeiro . On 11 March 1831 , in what became known as the " noite das garrafadas " ( night of the broken bottles ) , the Portuguese retaliated and turmoil gripped the streets of the national capital . On 5 April , Pedro I fired the Liberal cabinet , which had only been in power since 19 March , for its incompetence in restoring order . A large crowd , incited by the radicals , gathered in Rio de Janeiro downtown on the afternoon of 6 April and demanded the immediate restoration of the fallen cabinet . The Emperor 's reply was : " I will do everything for the people and nothing [ compelled ] by the people . " Sometime after nightfall , army troops , including his guard , deserted him and joined the protests . Only then did he realize how isolated and detached from Brazilian affairs he had become , and to everyone 's surprise , he abdicated at approximately 03 : 00 on 7 April . Upon delivering the abdication document to a messenger , he said : " Here you have my act of abdication , I 'm returning to Europe and leaving a country that I loved very much , and still love . " = = Return to Europe = = = = = War of restoration = = = At dawn on the morning of 7 April , Pedro , his wife , and others , including his daughter Maria II and his sister Ana de Jesus , were taken on board the British warship HMS Warspite . The vessel remained at anchor off Rio de Janeiro , and , on 13 April , the former emperor transferred to and departed for Europe aboard HMS Volage . He arrived in Cherbourg @-@ Octeville , France , on 10 June . During the next few months , he shuttled between France and Great Britain . He was warmly welcomed by , but received no actual support from , either government . Finding himself in an awkward situation because he held no official status in either the Brazilian Imperial House or in the Portuguese Royal House , Pedro assumed the title of Duke of Braganza on 15 June , a position that once had been his as heir to Portugal 's crown . Although the title should have belonged to Maria II 's heir , which he certainly was not , his claim was met with general recognition . On 1 December , his only daughter by Amélie , Maria Amélia , was born in Paris . He did not forget his children left in Brazil . He wrote poignant letters to each of them , conveying how greatly he missed them and repeatedly asking them to seriously attend to their educations . Shortly before his abdication , Pedro had told his son and successor : " I intend that my brother Miguel and I will be the last badly educated of the Braganza family " . Charles Napier , a naval commander who fought under Pedro 's banner in the 1830s , remarked that " his good qualities were his own ; his bad owing to want of education ; and no man was more sensible of that defect than himself . " His letters to Pedro II were often couched in language beyond the boy 's reading level , and historians have assumed such passages were chiefly intended as advice that the young monarch might eventually consult upon reaching adulthood . While in Paris , the Duke of Braganza met and befriended Gilbert du Motier , Marquis of Lafayette , a veteran of the American Revolutionary War who became one of his staunchest supporters . Pedro bade farewell to his family , Lafayette and around two hundred well @-@ wishers on 25 January 1832 . He knelt before Maria II and said : " My lady , here is a Portuguese general who will uphold your rights and restore your crown . " In tears , his daughter embraced him . Pedro sailed to the Atlantic archipelago of the Azores , the only Portuguese territory that had remained loyal to his daughter . After a few months of final preparations he embarked for mainland Portugal , entering the city of Porto unopposed on 9 July . He came at the head of a small army composed of Portuguese liberals , such as Almeida Garrett and Alexandre Herculano , as well as foreign mercenaries and volunteers such as Lafayette 's grandson , Adrien Jules de Lasteyrie . = = = Death = = = Severely outnumbered , Pedro 's army of liberals was besieged in Porto for more than a year . There , in early 1833 , he received news from Brazil of his daughter Paula 's impending death . Months later , in September , he met with Antônio Carlos de Andrada , a brother of Bonifácio who had come from Brazil . As a representative of the Restorationist Party , Antônio Carlos asked the Duke of Braganza to return to Brazil and rule his former empire as regent during his son 's minority . Pedro realized that the Restorationists wanted to use him as a tool to facilitate their own rise to power , and frustrated Antônio Carlos by making almost impossible demands , to ascertain whether the Brazilian people , and not merely a faction , truly wanted him back . He insisted that any request to return as regent be constitutionally valid . The people 's will would have to be conveyed through their local representatives and his appointment approved by the General Assembly . Only then , and " upon the presentation of a petition to him in Portugal by an official delegation of the Brazilian parliament " would he consider accepting . During the war , the Duke of Braganza mounted cannons , dug trenches , tended the wounded , ate among the rank and file and fought under heavy fire as men next to him were shot or blown to pieces . His cause was nearly lost until he took the risky step of dividing his forces and sending a portion to launch an amphibious attack on southern Portugal . The Algarve region fell to the expedition , which then marched north straight for Lisbon , which capitulated on 24 July . Pedro proceeded to subdue the remainder of the country , but just when the conflict looked to be winding down to a conclusion , his Spanish uncle Don Carlos , who was attempting to seize the crown of his niece Doña Isabel II , intervened . In this wider conflict that engulfed the entire Iberian Peninsula , the First Carlist War , the Duke of Braganza allied with liberal Spanish armies loyal to Isabel II and defeated both Miguel I and Carlos . A peace accord was reached on 26 May 1834 . Except for bouts of epilepsy that manifested in seizures every few years , Pedro had always enjoyed robust health . The war , however , undermined his constitution and by 1834 he was dying of tuberculosis . He was confined to his bed in Queluz Royal Palace from 10 September . Pedro dictated an open letter to the Brazilians , in which he begged that a gradual abolition of slavery be adopted . He warned them : " Slavery is an evil , and an attack against the rights and dignity of the human species , but its consequences are less harmful to those who suffer in captivity than to the Nation whose laws allow slavery . It is a cancer that devours its morality . " After a long and painful illness , Pedro died at 14 : 30 on 24 September 1834 . As he had requested , his heart was placed in Porto 's Lapa Church and his body was interred in the Royal Pantheon of the House of Braganza . The news of his death arrived in Rio de Janeiro on 20 November , but his children were informed only after 2 December . Bonifácio , who had been removed from his position as their guardian , wrote to Pedro II and his sisters : " Dom Pedro did not die . Only ordinary men die , not heroes . " = = = Legacy = = = Upon the death of Pedro I , the then @-@ powerful Restorationist Party vanished overnight . A fair assessment of the former monarch became possible once the threat of his return to power was removed . Evaristo da Veiga , one of his worst critics as well as a leader in the Liberal Party , left a statement which , according to historian Otávio Tarquínio de Sousa , became the prevailing view thereafter : " the former emperor of Brazil was not a prince of ordinary measure ... and Providence has made him a powerful instrument of liberation , both in Brazil and in Portugal . If we [ Brazilians ] exist as a body in a free Nation , if our land was not ripped apart into small enemy republics , where only anarchy and military spirit predominated , we owe much to the resolution he took in remaining among us , in making the first shout for our Independence . " He continued : " Portugal , if it was freed from the darkest and demeaning tyranny ... if it enjoys the benefits brought by representative government to learned peoples , it owes it to D [ om ] . Pedro de Alcântara , whose fatigues , sufferings and sacrifices for the Portuguese cause has earned him in high degree the tribute of national gratitude . " John Armitage , who lived in Brazil during the latter half of Pedro I 's reign , remarked that " even the errors of the Monarch have been attended with great benefit through their influence on the affairs of the mother country . Had he governed with more wisdom it would have been well for the land of his adoption , yet , perhaps , unfortunate for humanity . " Armitage added that like " the late Emperor of the French , he was also a child of destiny , or rather , an instrument in the hands of an all @-@ seeing and beneficent Providence for the furtherance of great and inscrutable ends . In the old as in the new world he was henceforth fated to become the instrument of further revolutions , and ere the close of his brilliant but ephemeral career in the land of his fathers , to atone amply for the errors and follies of his former life , by his chivalrous and heroic devotion in the cause of civil and religious freedom . " In 1972 , on the 150th anniversary of Brazilian independence , Pedro I 's remains ( though not his heart ) were brought to Brazil — as he had requested in his will — accompanied by much fanfare and with honors due to a head of state . His remains were reinterred in the Monument to the Independence of Brazil , along with those of Maria Leopoldina and Amélie , in the city of São Paulo . Years later , Neill Macaulay said that " [ c ] riticism of Dom Pedro was freely expressed and often vehement ; it prompted him to abdicate two thrones . His tolerance of public criticism and his willingness to relinquish power set Dom Pedro apart from his absolutist predecessors and from the rulers of today 's coercive states , whose lifetime tenure is as secure as that of the kings of old . " Macaulay affirmed that " [ s ] uccessful liberal leaders like Dom Pedro may be honored with an occasional stone or bronze monument , but their portraits , four stories high , do not shape public buildings ; their pictures are not borne in parades of hundreds of thousands of uniformed marchers ; no ' -isms ' attach to their names . " = = Titles and honors = = = = = Titles and styles = = = 12 October 1798 – 11 June 1801 : His Highness The Most Serene Infante Dom Pedro , Grand Prior of Crato 11 June 1801 – 20 March 1816 : His Royal Highness The Prince of Beira 20 March 1816 – 9 January 1817 : His Royal Highness The Prince of Brazil 9 January 1817 – 10 March 1826 : His Royal Highness The Prince Royal 12 October 1822 – 7 April 1831 : His Imperial Majesty The Emperor 10 March 1826 – 2 May 1826 : His Most Faithful Majesty The King 15 June 1831 – 24 September 1834 : His Imperial Majesty The Duke of Braganza As Brazilian emperor his full style and title were : " His Imperial Majesty Dom Pedro I , Constitutional Emperor and Perpetual Defender of Brazil " . As Portuguese king his full style and title were : " His Most Faithful Majesty Dom Pedro IV , King of Portugal and the Algarves , of either side of the sea in Africa , Lord of Guinea and of Conquest , Navigation and Commerce of Ethiopia , Arabia , Persia and India , etc . " = = = Nobility = = = As heir to the Portuguese crown : Duke of Braganza Duke of Barcelos Duke of Guimarães Marquis of Vila Viçosa Count of Ourém Count of Barcelos Count of Faria and Neiva Count of Arraiolos Count of Guimarães = = = Honors = = = Emperor Pedro I was Grand Master of the following Brazilian Orders : Order of Christ Order of Aviz Order of Saint James of the Sword Order of the Southern Cross Order of Pedro I Order of the Rose As King Pedro IV , he was Grand Master of the following Portuguese Orders : Order of Christ Order of Saint Benedict of Aviz Order of Saint James of the Sword Order of the Tower and Sword Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila Viçosa After having abdicated the Portuguese crown : Grand Cross of the Portuguese Order of the Tower and of the Sword , of Valor , Loyalty and Merit on 20 September 1834 He was a recipient of the following foreign honors : Knight of the Spanish Order of the Golden Fleece Grand Cross of the Spanish Order of Charles III Grand Cross of the Spanish Order of Isabella the Catholic Grand Cross of the French Order of Saint Louis Knight of the French Order of the Holy Spirit Knight of the French Order of Saint Michael Grand Cross of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Order of Saint Stephen = = Genealogy = = = = = Ancestry = = = The ancestry of Emperor Pedro I : = = = Issue = = = = = Endnotes = =
= Parasite Eve ( video game ) = Parasite Eve is a 1998 survival horror action role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Square . The game is a sequel to the novel Parasite Eve written by Hideaki Sena ; it is also the first game in the Parasite Eve video game series . The story follows New York City police officer Aya Brea over a six @-@ day span in 1997 as she attempts to stop the monster that is sparking the creation of a creature that will destroy the human race through spontaneous human combustion . Players are allowed to move freely around several open environments while utilizing a pausable real @-@ time combat system along with several role @-@ playing game elements . Parasite Eve was Square Enix 's first M @-@ rated game , and the first major American and Japanese game development collaboration for the company . It was produced by Hironobu Sakaguchi and directed by Takashi Tokita . Music for the title was composed by Yoko Shimomura who was widely acclaimed for her work to create an " inorganic " and " emotionless " soundtrack that saw two album releases . Parasite Eve received positive reviews ; critics praised the graphics and gameplay , but found the overall game too linear and with little replay potential . The video game adaptation was part of a resurgence of popularity in Japanese horror sparked by the original book , and was released alongside a film adaptation and two manga comics ; one based on the book , the other on the video game . The original title was also followed by two video game sequels : Parasite Eve II in 1999 and The 3rd Birthday in 2010 , and was re @-@ released on the PlayStation Network in 2010 . = = Gameplay = = Parasite Eve is an action role @-@ playing video game . Movement in the " world map " ( which is a map of Manhattan ) is limited to specific destinations . " Upon the player walking over a " hot spot " , there 's a chance of a random encounter . Enemies materialize and attack players on the same screen that they move Aya around on , with no battle mode or screen being used . In battle , the game uses a pausable real @-@ time combat system with an Active Time Bar ( ATB ) that sets the time that must be waited till the player can take their next action . While waiting for her turn , the player character Aya can be moved around to dodge enemy attacks . Upon each turn , the player may choose between attacking with their equipped weapon by pressing the attack button , using PE ( Parasite Energy ) for defense , assistance , or attack , using items , changing weapon or armor , or escaping the battle . If the player chooses to attack , the battle briefly pauses and a dome / sphere symbolizing the range of the weapon appears , allowing the player to target an enemy within range . Parasite Energy recharges during battle but the more players use it , the slower it refills . When not in battle , the player has the option of altering the weapon and armor attributes and effects with tools and super @-@ tools . The player selects the " tune @-@ up " option , choosing the weapon that will be altered and the weapon from which the attributes or effect will be taken . Weapons have many different properties , including special effects like " acid " , which causes enemies to continuously take damage . One of the principal RPG elements of the game is that experience @-@ based levels are present . Each time the player 's level increases , his / her attributes go up and BP ( Bonus Points ) are given . These points can be distributed to the ATB , item capacity , or attributes of a weapon or armor . Once the game is completed , a new game plus mode is available called " EX game " . It is different from the normal game in various aspects ; the player has access to every item stored in the police station , the game begins with the final weapon and armor the player chose before ending the first game but returns to level one experience , and the bonus points ( BP ) given to the player at the end of the game are now available to use . The items , weapons , power @-@ ups and enemies are of more powerful , and so are the enemies players encounter . However , the biggest difference from the normal game is the new Chrysler Building location with 77 floors , mostly randomized , leading to a final boss battle with Aya 's older sister Maya . = = Plot = = The story begins with Aya Brea , an NYPD rookie , attending an opera at Carnegie Hall with an unnamed date in New York City on Christmas Eve 1997 . During the opera , everyone in the building spontaneously combusts , except for Aya , and an actress on stage named Melissa Pearce . Aya confronts Melissa onstage , and Melissa says that Aya ’ s mitochondria need more time to develop . She flees backstage , with Aya giving chase . Backstage , Melissa then mutates into a beast and flees into the sewers , declaring that her name is now Eve . The next day , on Christmas , Aya and her partner , Daniel , go to see a scientist at the Museum of Natural History named Dr. Klamp . He teaches the protagonists about mitochondria , but they do not find his information useful since it does not explain the previous night 's events . Later that day , they hear that Eve is in Central Park , and to make matters worse , an audience has gathered at the park 's theater intending to see a performance that Melissa Pearce was to give . Aya enters Central Park alone as Daniel is unable to pass through the entrance without spontaneously combusting . She makes it to the theater , but is too late to stop Eve , who causes the theater audience 's mitochondria to rebel against their hosts and turns the crowd into a slimy orange mass . Aya chases after Eve and is knocked unconscious after a fight with her aboard a horse @-@ drawn carriage . Daniel discovers that his son , Ben , was at the park , but had left the audience at the Central Park theater when he began to feel ill and when his mother began to act strange . He also learns that Manhattan is being evacuated due to the threat that Eve poses . While Manhattan is being evacuated , a Japanese man named Kunihiko Maeda manages to sneak into the city , witnessing a police officer combust into flames in the process . Aya awakens in an apartment in SoHo , with Daniel and Maeda at her side . Maeda reveals the origins of Eve : A scientist tried to culture the cells of his wife after she was involved in a car accident , and the mitochondria in her cells took over her body . Maeda believes that Eve may be trying to give birth to an “ Ultimate Being ” . The next day , the three go to see Dr. Klamp again . After examining cell samples from that of Eve and Aya 's , Maeda concludes that based on selfish gene theory , Aya and Eve 's mitochondria are in an evolutionary race for survival . Dr. Klamp suddenly appears and asks a few questions of Aya in a hostile manner . The three leave and head for the St. Francis Hospital , where Maeda thinks Eve may try to get sperm for the Ultimate Being . When they arrive , they find that Eve is already there . Eve takes the sperm and escapes . The next day , Aya sees the orange mass of people from the park enter the city water supply . She goes to Dr. Klamp one more time , and discovers that Dr. Klamp has engineered special sperm for Eve so that she can create the Ultimate Being . He then spontaneously combusts . Aya finds Eve in another part of the museum , where the orange mass has surrounded her , forming an impermeable shield to protect her while the Ultimate Being gestates within her . After several failed attempts to attack Eve , the military asks Aya to attack her from a chopper , as she is the only one who can get close without combusting . The plan works , but Aya has to personally finish the fight on a now @-@ wrecked Statue of Liberty , where Eve finally succumbs to necrosis due to her unstable cells . As Aya rests on a naval vessel , the Ultimate Being is born and attacks the surrounding ships . Aya does battle with the Ultimate Being , but its mitochondria causes it to evolve at an alarming rate . Aya sets the vessel 's boiler pressure dangerously high , so as to destroy it with the Ultimate Being on board . After completing the game once , the player can access the Chrysler Building and have access to the final boss , who takes the form of Aya 's sister , Maya . She explains to Aya that Klamp cultivated the liver cells of the original Eve to analyze . When Melissa was giving birth to the Ultimate Being , she created a nest there . In case Melissa and the Ultimate Being failed , the purebred would remain . Aya speaks with her sister , and they engage in battle against the purebred . After the purebred is defeated , the mitochondria inside Aya 's body begin to rebel against her . It is explained that Aya 's mitochondria have now reached a higher evolutionary stage than Maya ’ s , but Maya 's personality has suddenly become dominant and begun to fight off the Eve persona . Maya eventually wins , purging the Eve persona from herself . Somehow , Maya protects Aya by preventing the original Eve from taking over her . Aya leaves the building by herself , although she apparently has gained some sort of connection with her dead sister . = = Development and release = = The video game Parasite Eve is based on the acclaimed Japanese novel Parasite Eve released in 1991 . Plot @-@ wise , the video game serves as a sequel to the book . The game was produced by Hironobu Sakaguchi and directed by Takashi Tokita of Square . During development of the game , Square decided to use New York City as the setting after having been previously considered for use in Final Fantasy VII . The game is notable for being Square 's first game to be rated Mature by the ESRB . In contrast to previous Square titles , the development team for Parasite Eve consisted of both Japanese and American staff members , with a large part of the production taking place in the United States . Different concepts for the games opening were considered , including different designs for Aya and Melissa transforming into Eve on stage during the opera . Book author Hideaki Sena did not know the titles ' plot until it was completed , since the game was a collaboration between Square and his publisher . Aya Brea was created by Hironobu Sakaguchi and designed by Tetsuya Nomura . Aya was originally being designed by someone else , but the original sketches did not satisfy Sakaguchi , who had wanted a long @-@ haired character like Aerith Gainsborough , a central character from Final Fantasy VII . At the time , he was creating another unspecified character for a different project who sported short hair : he got confused while designing them and accidentally combined the two designs , creating the then @-@ current Aya . The original concept for her was to have her as strong , sexy and " bewitching " . Television ads featuring the full motion video present in the game were aired in the United States in the run up to the games 1998 release . In a shipping mixup , over two hundred copies of the game were shipped to Best Buy retailers a week before the official release . Before The 3rd Birthday 's release in 2010 , both Yoshinori Kitase and Tetsuya Nomura discussed the re @-@ release of Parasite Eve and Parasite Eve II . The release was being held up partly due to the series rights being co @-@ owned with Hideaki Sena . = = Music = = Yoko Shimomura composed the game 's soundtrack including the main theme , " Primal Eyes " . The ending vocal song , " Somnia Memorias " , is performed by Shani Rigsbee . The score met with great critical acclaim , using influences from both opera and electronica . Shimomura stated that she tried to compose " inorganic " music for the game , what she described as " something unique " for the game . A separate Parasite Eve Remixes album was also released , containing 10 tracks remixed from the original game by various artists . The idea for the work came from a simple suggestion to Shimomura that the game 's music be remixed rather than rearranged . " Somnia Memorias " was also included on the Square Vocal Collection in 2001 . Yoko Shimomura would later become a well @-@ established video game composer through her work on the Kingdom Hearts series . Additional arrangements were done by Shigeo Tamaru . Despite her previous work as lead composer on Super Mario RPG , Parasite Eve became her breakout project and garnered her international fame . During her work on Parasite Eve , Shimomura spent time in America , which was where much of the game 's staff came from . Because of this , Shimomura remembered the game as her most challenging project . She wanted the music to be experimental , not falling into ambient or techno classifications . One of her main goals was to create something " inorganic " and recognizable as a product of Square . Until Parasite Eve , Shimomura had written music in a straightforward manner that reflected her then @-@ current state of mind , but this time she restrained herself and took a more " emotionless " approach . She felt that this would best represent the game 's atmosphere and Aya 's stoic attitude . Ultimately , she felt that Parasite Eve was an experimental work in many ways . Due to its prevalence in the story , Shimomura used opera music , but as typical opera music did not translate well into battle themes , Shimomura added different rhythms : these rhythms were inspired when some of the game 's American staff took her to a nightclub and she heard the background music there . The music recording took place at the Andora Studios in Los Angeles . Parasite Eve was the first of her projects to include a vocal theme , the ending theme " Somnia Memorias " . This was because the PlayStation system was the first to have sufficient processing power for this to be possible . For the vocalist , Shimomura avoided using someone well known . " Somnia Memorias " was sung by Shani Rigsbee , while the vocals for the orchestrated versions of " Influence of Deep " and " Se il Mio Amore Sta Vincino " were provided by Judith Siirila . " Somnia Memorias " was translated and adapted from Japanese into Latin by Raul Ferrando , while " Se il Mio Amore Sta Vincino " was translated by Daniella Spagnolo . The lyrics for all vocal pieces were written by Shimomura . The track " I Hear a Voice Asking Me to Awaken " was an arrangement of Wachet auf , ruft uns die Stimme , BWV 140 by Johann Sebastian Bach . The two @-@ disc album Parasite Eve Original Soundtrack was released through DigiCube on May 21 , 1998 under the catalog number SSCX @-@ 10020 . Later , due to popular demand from fans , a reprint was issued through the Square Enix label on January 26 , 2011 under the catalog number SQEX @-@ 10222 / 3 . The music received generally positive reviews from music critics , and helped establish Shimomura as a popular composer with western video game fans . Parasite Eve Remixes is a ten @-@ track album , featuring remixed versions of themes from Parasite Eve . The remixes were done by Shimomura , Tamaru , Hidenori Iwasaki and Keichi Takahashi . Multiple DJs also contributed , including Tomo , QUADRA , Dan K , Tribal Masters , Kay Nakayama , and Dummy Run . According to Shimomura , the album came about when someone suggested to her creating full remixes of themes rather than making simple rearrangements . Shimomura was in charge of extending and remixing " Aya 's Theme " , which was the main theme for Parasite Eve . The album was released through DigiCube on July 30 , 1998 under the catalog number SSCX @-@ 10023 . Reviews of the album were mixed , with critics saying that it would not appeal to many and finding some of the remixes odd , repetitive or overly chaotic . = = Reception = = Parasite Eve received positive reviews from critics . IGN praised the game for its beautiful graphics and cinematic sequences , as well as its mature tone , but noted , along with other reviewers , the games linear plot structure . Game Informer cited the games " exquisite " backdrops but bemoaned its long load times each time players enter a new environment or engage an enemy . GameSpot said the game had a cinematic look , and had an " astounding " level of detail for real life locations in New York City . The lack of any voice acting or singing , however , hindered dramatic scenes such as the opera and subsequent mass combustion of the entire audience at the games start . The game was sometimes compared to the Resident Evil series , though GamePro said that Parasite Eve had deeper gameplay with multiple weapon upgrades and hidden areas to discover . Reviewers also cited that though the game broke many RPG gaming conventions , it suffered from having little replay value and being a relatively short game . The combat was compared unfavorably to Final Fantasy VII by Game Revolution , which featured a dynamic camera instead of fixed one . The novel 's original author Hideaki Sena approved of the game , stating that he was " actually impressed how well the game makers translated the novel . " The game has sold over 1 @.@ 9 million copies as of February 2004 , with 1 @.@ 05 million sold in Japan and 0 @.@ 89 million sold in North America . In Japan , it was the number 6 top @-@ selling game of 1998 with 994 @,@ 000 copies sold . The game was re @-@ released in North America under Sony 's Greatest Hits label . In 2000 , the game was ranked number 16 by the readers of Famitsu magazine in its top 100 PlayStation games of all time . In 2010 , GamesRadar chose it as one of the " Top 7 ... ' 90s games that need HD remakes " . In February 2011 , Parasite Eve was announced to arrive on the North American PlayStation Network . It was released on March 15 , 2011 . = = = Legacy = = = The Parasite Eve video game that was inspired by the original book was popular in Japan , and was a part of the " J @-@ horror " phenomena along with other fiction such as " The Ring " , and lead to two video game sequels and a manga adaptation based upon the video game universe called Parasite Eve DIVA .
= Guitar Hero Encore : Rocks the 80s = Guitar Hero Encore : Rocks the 80s ( titled Guitar Hero : Rocks the 80s in Europe ) is a music rhythm game and the third installment in the popular Guitar Hero series . It was released in July 2007 in North America and Europe , and in August 2007 in Australia . Players use a guitar @-@ shaped controller ( purchased separately ) to simulate playing rock music by hitting notes as they scroll towards the player . Rocks the 80s is an incremental title in the Guitar Hero series , rather than a full sequel . No changes in gameplay from Guitar Hero II have been introduced to this game . As implied by the game 's title , the game features a 1980s theme , consisting of songs from the decade and playable characters , fashions , and artwork that reflect the time period . The game was not as well @-@ received as the prior two Guitar Hero games , due to the lack of new gameplay features and reduced soundtrack . Rocks the 80s is the third and final title in the Guitar Hero series to be developed by Harmonix before they moved on to create Rock Band . The next major installment of the series , Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock , was developed by Activision 's Neversoft division . = = History = = After the successful release of Guitar Hero II , RedOctane announced they were looking into genre @-@ specific expansions to the series . Guitar Hero Encore : Rocks the 80s is the first of these genre @-@ specific titles ; Guitar Hero : Aerosmith , Guitar Hero : Metallica , Guitar Hero : Van Halen and Guitar Hero Smash Hits have since been released . Guitar Hero Encore : Rocks the 80s was initially announced by EGM in January 2007 as Guitar Hero : 1980s Edition . Orange Lounge Radio claimed that the game would be released in June 2007 , based on an Activision announcement , though no other source has cited this announcement . Activision officially revealed the first details of the game May 11 , 2007 , in addition to changing the game 's title to Guitar Hero : Rocks the 80s . Only a few weeks later , the game name was revised again as Guitar Hero Encore : Rocks the 80s , as official artwork for the game was first released . Nevertheless , the word ' Encore ' has been dropped from the title of the European releases . = = Gameplay and design = = The mechanics of the game are nearly identical to that of its predecessor , Guitar Hero II ; an early preview of the game described it as " more like an expansion pack for Guitar Hero II than a new game in its own right " . Major differences to Guitar Hero II are mostly aesthetic . Six characters from previous Guitar Hero games ( Johnny Napalm , Judy Nails , Izzy Sparks , Pandora , Axel Steel , and Grim Ripper ) return with character designs influenced by styles of the 1980s . Venues from Guitar Hero II ( with the exception of RedOctane Club and Stonehenge , which do not appear , and the Vans Warped Tour , which has been rebranded as the Rock For Safety Tour ) have been redesigned with an 80s influence , and the interface mimics Guitar Hero II 's , only with color changes ( no " new " graphics were developed as far as the interface ) . = = Soundtrack = = All of the tracks , excluding " Because , It 's Midnite " , were released during the 1980s , as the game 's title suggests ; " Because , It 's Midnite " is performed by the fictional " 80s hair metal " band Limozeen from the Internet cartoon Homestar Runner ( Harmonix co @-@ founder / CEO Alex Rigopulos is a professed fan of Homestar Runner ) . Two songs were originally written in the 1970s , but were covered by bands in the 1980s . These songs are " Radar Love " by Golden Earring , but covered by White Lion and " Ballroom Blitz " by Sweet and covered by Krokus . The song list includes tracks such as " Round and Round " by Ratt , " Metal Health " by Quiet Riot , " Holy Diver " by Dio , " Heat of the Moment " by Asia and " Nothin ' But a Good Time " by Poison . Five of the songs are master tracks : " Because It 's Midnite " , " I Ran ( So Far Away ) " by A Flock of Seagulls , Scandal 's " The Warrior " , Twisted Sister 's " I Wanna Rock " , and Judas Priest 's " Electric Eye " , while the rest are covers . The final setlist was revealed by GameSpy on June 28 , 2007 as listed here . Unlike previous Guitar Hero games , there are no bonus tracks in Guitar Hero Encore : Rocks the 80s . Bow Wow Wow 's " I Want Candy " was originally announced for the game and appeared in many preview builds . However , RedOctane announced that it would no longer appear in the final version . No official comment in regards to the song 's removal has been given . ^ a Limozeen is a fictional 80s glam metal band featured in the Homestar Runner series of web cartoons ; while the song was created in 2003 , it parodies the style of these bands . ^ b Judas Priest 's " Electric Eye " includes " The Hellion " , the preceding track on the Screaming for Vengeance album that segues right into " Electric Eye " . ^ c Poison 's " Nothin ' But a Good Time " is labeled in game as " Ain 't Nothin ' But a Good Time " . ^ d Twisted Sister 's " I Wanna Rock " is featured as a re @-@ recorded master track of the song , not the original album version . = = Reception = = Guitar Hero Encore : Rocks the 80s was released to generally lukewarm reviews and has received overall less praise than the first two games in the series . Most critics agreed that the game 's $ 49 @.@ 99 price point was too high , considering the reduced soundtrack . GameSpot criticized the amount of songs with regard to the game 's price . The reviewer commented that " thirty songs for $ 50 is a lousy value any way you slice it " and the game " feels like a quick and dirty cash @-@ in . " The reviewer also commented that the soundtrack was " eclectic , " but " solid . " Other reviewers , including 1UP.com , IGN , and Electronic Gaming Monthly criticized the game for its musical selection . GameSetWatch compared the game to Lou Reed 's Metal Machine Music , saying that the game is " totally Harmonix 's contractual obligation game " due to the bare minimum of changes made from Guitar Hero II . = = = Lawsuit = = = On November 21 , 2007 , the rock group The Romantics filed a lawsuit against Activision , RedOctane , Harmonix , and Wavegroup Sound over the cover of the song " What I Like About You " used in Rocks the 80s . While the game developers did secure appropriate rights to cover the song in the game , The Romantics claim that the cover is " virtually indistinguishable from the authentic version " and thus would " [ confuse ] consumers into believing that the band actually recorded the music and endorsed the product " . The lawsuit requested the cessation of sales of the game and monetary damage . On December 20 , 2007 , Activision was awarded a preliminary injunction to prevent blockage of sales of the game . A summary judgment hearing was held on July 9 , 2008 , and the case was dismissed the next month , with a U.S. District Court judge stating that Activision had obtained the proper licensing for the works and that the band itself no longer held the copyright on the work .
= James Brudenell , 7th Earl of Cardigan = Lieutenant General James Thomas Brudenell , 7th Earl of Cardigan KCB ( 16 October 1797 – 28 March 1868 ) was an officer in the British Army who commanded the Light Brigade during the Crimean War . He led the Charge of the Light Brigade at the Battle of Balaclava . Throughout his life in politics and his long military career he characterised the arrogant and extravagant aristocrat of the period . His progression through the Army was marked by many episodes of extraordinary incompetence , but this can be measured against his generosity to the men under his command and genuine bravery . As a member of the landed aristocracy he had actively and steadfastly opposed any political reform in Britain , but in the last year of his life he relented and came to acknowledge that such reform would bring benefit to all classes of society . = = Early life = = James Brudenell was born in a modest , by the standards of the Brudenell family , manor house at Hambleden , Buckinghamshire . In February 1811 his father inherited the Cardigan earldom , along with the immense estates and revenues that went with it , and the family seat of Deene Park , Northamptonshire . James accordingly became " Lord Brudenell " , and took up residence in the most grand of households , at the age of fourteen . He was educated at Harrow where , notwithstanding the fears of his family that a childhood head injury caused by a dangerous fall from a horse had seriously damaged his intellect , he showed aptitude in Greek and Latin . He made good academic progress , but after he had settled a quarrel with another pupil by an organised fist @-@ fight , his father removed him from the school . ( Fist fights were tolerated at Harrow : it was the fact of Brudenell 's receiving punishment for unauthorised absence while having a broken bone in his hand attended to by a London surgeon that had annoyed the earl . ) He was subsequently educated at home . Here , as the only son among seven sisters , he developed into something of a spoilt child , accustomed to getting his own way . This is seen as a cause of his arrogance and stubbornness in later life . Brudenell was a fine rider and , inspired by the decisive role of cavalry at the battle of Waterloo , his wish was to purchase a commission in a fashionable regiment and serve as an army officer . His father , however , mindful of preserving the family pedigree from risk of battle , would not allow this . Instead in November 1815 he was sent up to Christ Church , Oxford ; as an aristocrat he was automatically granted admission without examination . He left in his third year — aristocrats with no academic bent were released after only two years — but notwithstanding his showing some aptitude , he did not take a degree . = = Parliament = = In February 1818 , during his last term at Oxford , and again following his father 's wishes , he became Member of Parliament ( MP ) for Marlborough , a pocket borough owned by his cousin Charles , Earl of Ailesbury . The intention was to give Brudenell a grounding in parliamentary affairs before , eventually , he would take his place in the House of Lords . Brudenell 's first action on leaving Oxford was not to take his parliamentary seat but , as was traditional for wealthy young men of the time , to take the Grand Tour . His itinerary , with Russia and Sweden included , was more extensive than the traditional destinations of France and Italy . The trip allowed Brudenell to enjoy the full pleasures of both cultural and social opportunities afforded by the countries he visited . On his return Brudenell took his seat in the House of Commons , naturally on the ruling , Tory , side of the House . His contribution to government was minimal : he served with parliamentarians , such as Canning , Peel and Castlereagh , of great commitment and intellect and he could offer nothing to compete . On one issue , however , he made a stand . In 1829 his party introduced a bill allowing limited Catholic emancipation but his patron , cousin Charles , instructed him to oppose it . In three crucial votes Brudenell abstained , because of his admiration for Wellington , the bill 's sponsor , and in consequence he was thrown out of his seat . His return to parliament in 1830 cost him dearly . After his earlier disobedience he could not expect to be handed a pocket borough so , instead , he had to buy his own . He was elected member for Fowey , Cornwall , at a cost of at least £ 5 @,@ 000 ( about £ 400 @,@ 000 in today 's money ) . This sum , however , was not well spent : in 1832 , the seat was one of those identified in the Reform Act for correction of such malpractices and he was thrown out again . He fought the family 's local constituency of Northamptonshire North , newly created in the reforms , in 1832 but despite holding the advantage that many of the electors were dependent on family 's patronage and goodwill , the campaign did not go smoothly . On 12 September in Wellingborough he was beaten up and " considerabl [ y ] " injured while campaigning . As a precaution he distributed about £ 20 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to some £ 1 @,@ 680 @,@ 000 today ) among the electorate and the seat was won , albeit as " junior member " to his Whig rival . In 1837 he inherited the earldom from his father . = = Marriages = = Early in the 1820s Brudenell met Mrs. Elizabeth Tollemache Johnstone ( 8 December 1797 – 15 July 1858 ) . Her husband , Lt.-Col. Christian Johnstone , had been a friend of Brudenell 's since childhood but , according to the account of Johnstone 's mother , the wooing of his friend 's new wife started soon after the wedding . Johnstone started divorce proceedings in June 1824 and the suit was finalised early in 1826 . Johnstone , who had received damages of £ 1 @,@ 000 from Brudenell , was apparently happy to be rid of her , calling her " the most damned bad @-@ tempered and extravagant bitch in the kingdom " . She and Brudenell married on 19 June 1826 . It was not a happy marriage ; by 1837 they had separated , and they had no children . After leaving his first wife , Elizabeth , he married for the second time , on 20 September 1858 , to Adeline de Horsey , achieving still greater notoriety as he had been conducting an affair with her as his wife was dying . This , however , was a happy union , notwithstanding the disparity in their ages and Cardigan 's disappointment that there were , again , no children . Adeline , excluded from fashionable society for the rest of her days , accustomed herself to life in the country , happily forsaking her previous interests of books , painting and music , while Brudenell spent large sums of money making their home together comfortable . Adeline even remained on good terms with Brudenell 's principal mistress , Maria Marchioness of Ailesbury , and tolerated his other affairs . = = Military = = = = = Early career = = = Beyond all other interests , which included politics and the preservation of the ancient privileges of the aristocracy against the reformist climate of the period , Brudenell committed himself to a career in the army . At the age of 22 he formed his own troop of horse , armed from official stocks , to guard against possible reformist demonstrations in Northamptonshire . On 6 May 1824 , at the age of 27 , he joined the 8th King 's Royal Irish Hussars . Making extensive use of the purchase of commissions system then in use he became a Lieutenant in January 1825 , a Captain in June 1826 , a Major in August 1830 and a Lieutenant @-@ Colonel , albeit on half @-@ pay , only three months later , on 3 December 1830 . He obtained command of the 15th The King 's Hussars — at a reported premium of £ 35 @,@ 000 — on 16 March 1832 . Parliamentary business , in the form of the hotly contested Reform Bill campaign , delayed his taking command until May . His youth and inexperience , compared with that of the battle @-@ tested officers whom he led ( some were veterans of the battle of Waterloo ) drew his naturally punctilious nature to manifest itself in petty @-@ minded bullying . In 1833 he was publicly censured for " reprehensible ... conduct " in a court martial held to determine charges he had laid against Captain Augustus Wathen , a subordinate . Brudenell was dismissed , by order of King William , early in 1834 . However he had influence at court and he asked his sister Harriet , married to Queen Adelaide 's chamberlain , Lord Howe , to get the decision reversed . He pestered senior officers and politicians until in March 1836 he was allowed command of the 11th Light Dragoons ( later restyled the 11th Hussars ) , notwithstanding the view of his commander @-@ in @-@ chief , Lord Hill , that he was " constitutionally unfit for command " . After a leisurely passage with his wife , he joined his new command in India in October of the following year , just in time to enjoy some tiger @-@ shooting before seeing the regiment off for Britain at the end of its long posting . He travelled separately in a hired vessel , disdaining to share the discomforts of the warship carrying his troops . Of the two years following his appointment , only four weeks were spent with his regiment . In a genuine desire to lead a smart and efficient unit , Brudenell set about using his own fortune to improve his regiment 's reputation and performance . In purchasing brilliant new uniforms for his men Brudenell also caused resentment among his professional officers ; they had to match the men 's attire with even more costly uniforms , and they had to buy their own . ( It was in this role that he was portrayed in the historical fiction novels Flashman and Flashman at the Charge by George MacDonald Fraser . ) He wished his officers to be as aristocratic , flamboyant and stylish as he was himself and as a consequence he had no time for those men — " Indian officers " — who had learnt their profession over many years of service with the 11th during its long posting to India . This attitude was particularly in evidence in the mess : Brudenell had forbidden the serving of porter , the beverage of choice among the professional officers , and when at a formal mess dinner a visitor had requested moselle wine , which was served in a " black bottle " similar to that of porter , he decided that the " Indian " Captain John Reynolds , who had ordered it for the guest , was defying him . Reynolds was arrested and in due course received a strongly worded reprimand from Lord Hill , who although privately believing that his misgivings about Brudenell had been well founded , felt that in the interests of good order and discipline a public demonstration of support was necessary . Reynolds 's guardian sent the details of the case to all the London papers and for many months thereafter Brudenell , his regiment and the commander @-@ in @-@ chief were subject to ridicule , hissing and cat @-@ calls of " black bottle " whenever they appeared in public . A more serious punishment was administered to Richard Reynolds , cousin to John Reynolds and another long @-@ serving captain , who was court @-@ martialled for sending Cardigan an " insubordinate " letter in response to being barred from his commanding officer 's quarters . Hill drafted a strong memorandum urging Cardigan to employ " temper and discretion " in dealings with his officers , but Reynolds was cashiered . Not all of the " Indian " officers of the 11th found themselves the object of Brudenell 's disfavour : when in October 1840 Major Jenkins , a long @-@ serving veteran , fell seriously ill Brudenell attended his bedside for two nights and , when he died , made a substantial payment to the family and secured a suitable position for his younger son . George Ryan , a writer highly critical of Brudenell , acknowledged his generosity towards his officers and men when in hardship and noted him to be a regular , anonymous subscriber to many civic charities . Brudenell was prosecuted in 1841 for a duel with one of his former officers , another long @-@ serving professional . He was acquitted on a legal technicality , notwithstanding his boast on arrest that " I have hit my man " . The prosecution had demonstrated that Cardigan ( using a duelling pistol with concealed rifling and a hair trigger , which was thought unsporting according to the usages of duelling ) had fired upon Captain Harvey Tuckett . The indictment , however , was that the victim had been " Harvey Garnet Phipps Tuckett " . The discrepancy in the name allowed the jury of his peers , 120 in number , unanimously to acquit him ; as a nobleman the law of the time allowed him to be tried for a capital crime before the House of Lords sitting as a jury , with the Lord High Steward as judge . This added to his unpopularity , with The Times alleging that there was deliberate , high level complicity to leave the loop @-@ hole in the prosecution case and reporting the view that " in England there is one law for the rich and another for the poor " and The Examiner describing the verdict as " a defeat of justice " . Even his obituary described this evasion of justice as " an absurd technical deficiency " . = = = Crimean War = = = His most notorious exploit took place during the Crimean War on 25 October 1854 when , in command of the Light Cavalry Brigade at the battle of Balaclava , he led the charge of the Light Brigade , reaching the Russian guns before returning , personally unscathed , in a manoeuvre that cost the lives of about 107 out of the 674 men under his command who took part in the charge ( although others may have died of wounds later on ) . The extent to which Lord Cardigan was to blame is unproven , since he attacked only after expressing his doubts and receiving a direct order in front of the troops from his immediate superior Lord Lucan , Commander of the Cavalry Division . The two men were barely on speaking terms as Lucan was married to one of Cardigan 's sisters and , as Cardigan believed , did not treat her well . The order had been conveyed by Captain Louis Nolan , who died in the charge , and both Lucan and Cardigan blamed him for passing on the order incorrectly . Cardigan 's first action on his return from the charge was to report the undisciplined behaviour of Captain Nolan ( whom he did not know to be dead ) in riding ahead of him at the start of the attack . A staff officer to army commander Lord Raglan , Colonel the Hon. Somerset John Gough Calthorpe , alleged in his book Letters from a Staff Officer in the Crimea that Cardigan had only survived because he had fled the scene before the charge made contact with the enemy . In his first edition , Calthorpe allowed that Cardigan 's horse may have bolted , but later editions pointedly stated the earl was too fine a horseman for this to be a satisfactory explanation . The horse , " Ronald " , a famous charger bred on Cardigan 's Deene Park estate , survived the war and returned safely to England . After some preliminary legal skirmishing , Cardigan sought an indictment for criminal libel in 1863 , but his action failed , although the bench made plain that it was only his competence , and not his courage , that was in doubt . They found that he had led his men onto the enemy 's guns with " valour ... conspicuously displayed " but thereafter " his conduct as a General was open to criticism " . This conclusion is shared by historian Alexander Kinglake , who concludes that although Cardigan displayed a " want ... of competence " after the charge , he had only lost contact with his men through his brave persistence in galloping too far ahead of them . There is no doubt that Cardigan had reached and overrun the enemy battery : he was recognised beyond the guns by Prince Radziwill , an enemy officer with whom he was acquainted before the war . Considering his duty then done and disdaining , as he later explained , to " fight the enemy among private soldiers " Cardigan turned about and made his way steadily — he himself said that his return was at the walk to avoid any unseemly appearance of haste — for his own lines . Lucan recalled things differently , later giving evidence that Cardigan had been galloping back , only slowing to walk when he realised he was being watched . This hurried retreat was also noticed by General Liprandi , Russian commander , who made enquiries to identify the English officer whom he saw galloping away after the attack . Officers and men of the second and third lines — men for whom as brigade commander Cardigan remained responsible — were still advancing at the charge when they saw their commander riding in retreat . Other officers too had noticed his absence and when Lord George Paget of the 4th Hussars , one of the last to return after some intense , hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting , encountered a " composed " Cardigan , he challenged him to account for himself . Unsatisfied with the response , Paget wrote an official complaint to the new Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , the Duke of Cambridge . Cambridge forwarded the letter to Cardigan for comment and Cardigan 's reply in turn complained that Paget had not in fact taken his regiments into the attack that day . Inconclusive claim and counter @-@ claim followed , until Cardigan 's attentions were diverted to the allegations made public when Calthorpe 's book Letters went on sale . In the week following the battle of Balaclava , the remnants of the Light Brigade were posted inland , to high ground overseeing the British lines surrounding Inkerman . Cardigan , who had spent most nights of the campaign aboard his luxury yacht Dryad in Balaclava harbour , found this move a great inconvenience and his leadership of the brigade suffered as a result . He missed the Battle of Inkerman ( 4 and 5 November 1854 ) , casually asking journalist William Russell ( who was returning from the conflict ) " What are they doing , what was the firing for ... ? " as he rode up from the harbour at noon on the first day . The decisive stages of the battle were on the second day and again Cardigan was absent , although he managed to arrive at a more creditable 10 @.@ 15 am . The part played by the brigade was not great and , to avoid embarrassing the earl , it was not mentioned in the official account of the battle forwarded to London . Whatever Cardigan 's faults , he had always tried to ensure that the troops under his command were well equipped . However , as the Crimean winter fell over the Light Brigade 's exposed position , food , fodder , clothing and shelter were all in short supply . Beyond writing letters pointing out the deficiencies , Cardigan did nothing . Food and fodder were available at the coast , but he refused to release any men and horses to carry up stores , as his officers pleaded , in case of a surprise attack by the enemy and because " I had no orders to do so " . Colonel Alexander Tulloch , who gave evidence to a board of enquiry into the failure , noted that in fact Cardigan had more horses than he had needed : indeed more horses than men to ride them , and wrote privately after his evidence was excluded from the final report : " Because Lord Cardigan might have had some difficulty in carrying up all the barley to which his corps was entitled he [ resolved himself ] therefore justified in bringing up none . " There was great hardship and many horses died . On 5 December 1854 , citing ill @-@ health , Cardigan set off for England . In these circumstances the word of an officer regarding his fitness to serve would normally be accepted , but Raglan permitted his departure only after a medical board had confirmed his claimed disability . = = = The Hero of Balaclava = = = Newspaper accounts of the gallant charge had been given wide circulation in England by the time Cardigan 's ship berthed at the port of Folkestone on 13 January 1855 and the town offered him a rapturous welcome . In London he was mobbed by an enthusiastic crowd and on 16 January at Queen Victoria 's invitation he was received at Windsor to explain to her and Prince Albert the details of the battle . Victoria noted how " modestly " he presented his story , but this reticence was absent in his public appearances : on 5 February , he gave a highly exaggerated account of his participation in the charge at a banquet held in his honour at the Mansion House , London . On 8 February , at a speech in his home town of Northampton , he went even further , describing how he had shared the privations of his men by living the " whole time in a common tent " and how , after the charge , he had rallied his troops and pursued the fleeing enemy artillerymen as far as the Tchernaya river . As his biographer Saul David points out , " a more misleading account of his own exploits could hardly have been given " . Cardigan was able to enjoy many months of adulation before doubts about his conduct emerged : He was made Inspector @-@ General of Cavalry , the government recommended him for the Order of the Garter , although the Queen denied him this honour because of the previous unseemly incidents in his private life ; he was instead invested as a knight in the Order of the Bath . Merchants , eager to profit from his fame , sold pictures depicting his role in the charge and written chronicles , based on his own accounts , were rushed into print . The " cardigan " , a knitted waistcoat supposedly as worn by the earl on campaign , became fashionable and many were sold . Cardigan 's commanding officer and brother @-@ in @-@ law , Lord Lucan , had been recalled in disgrace — largely brought about by the determination of the commander @-@ in @-@ chief , Lord Raglan , to displace blame from himself — and arrived in England only two weeks after his subordinate but , as the officer who had " looked on " ( a pun on his name much exploited by Cardigan ) while the charge had taken place , little regard was given to his version of events . ( Lucan had earned the unfortunate nickname of " Lord Look @-@ on " while held in reserve during an action before the earlier Battle of Alma . ) In July 1855 The Times hinted that the public had been misled over " the real nature of [ Cardigan 's ] services in the East " but , in the absence of anything definitive , his popularity remained . However , officers who had taken command in the aftermath of the charge , the role that Cardigan was claiming for himself , had heard of his reception in England and were anxious to put the record straight . The writer George Ryan , who had rushed out a hasty pamphlet praising Cardigan , retracted his words , and was the first to report Cardigan 's fellow officers ' reservations about the earl 's conduct on the day . As the soldiers themselves began to return to England , the doubts hardened . It was not until the following year , however , with the official enquiries of Colonel Tulloch and the publication of Calthorpe 's Letters , was there proof that Cardigan had not been telling the truth . Nonetheless he continued , with characteristic arrogance and self @-@ delusion , as if nothing was amiss and he remained in his cavalry post for the next five years . Eight months on active service , or , A diary of a general officer of cavalry , in 1854 , published in 1855 , was Cardigan 's own account of his time in the Crimea . Cardigan 's overwhelming enthusiasm for the army remained and the meticulous standards of dress and parade that he had required of his earlier commands he now applied to the whole cavalry . He was made Colonel of the Regiment of the 5th Dragoon Guards in 1859 , but he derived more satisfaction when , after his formal retirement in 1860 , and its accompanying promotion to Lieutenant @-@ General , he became colonel of his favourite regiment , the 11th Hussars , which he had first commanded in 1836 . He remained in royal favour and early in 1861 he was selected to accompany the Prince of Wales , heir to the throne , to inspect Prussian cavalry manoeuvres . He was possibly an unwise choice as his arrogant behaviour towards his hosts , themselves no strangers to high self @-@ esteem among military officers , resulted in numerous challenges to duel ; he was quickly sent home . The Queen , however , blocked his colonelcy of one of the Household regiments because of his dalliance with Adeline while still married to Elizabeth . His last military function was a mounted review of the 11th Hussars before their embarkation for India in May 1866 . He was joined by Colonel John Reynolds , who had been Cardigan 's adversary in the " black bottle affair " , but the men had at last settled their differences in the previous year . = = Retirement = = After his retirement in 1866 he lived happily at Deene , passing his time with horse @-@ racing , hunting and shooting . He remained a member of the Royal Yacht Squadron and was Commodore of the Royal Southern Yacht Club . His parliamentary life continued , with the occasional foray to London to speak in the House of Lords on military matters and to continue to press for further official recognition of his glorious career . He surprised some commentators when , in 1867 , he spoke in favour of the second Reform Bill . In acknowledging his change of heart he said that the time for trying to stem the tide of reform , an endeavour in which he had long strived , had passed and given " good luck " the extension of the vote would " confer ... a great benefit upon every class of the community " . In 1868 he presented to the House a petition calling for additional recognition of the late General Henry Shrapnel , inventor of the explosive artillery shell , in recognition of its effectiveness at Waterloo . He died from injuries caused by a fall from his horse on 28 March 1868 , possibly following a stroke , and was buried in the family vaults at St Peter 's Church , Deene . = = Modern assessments = = The historian Cecil Woodham @-@ Smith 's The Reason Why ( 1953 ) did serious harm to the Earl 's posthumous reputation . Another critical assessment of Cardigan and his career is The Homicidal Earl , by Saul David , a military historian . Colonel Calthorpe 's Letters from a Staff Officer in the Crimea has a modern reprint as Cadogan 's Crimea , ISBN 0 @-@ 689 @-@ 11022 @-@ 7 . Donald Thomas 's 1975 biography Cardigan : The Hero of Balaclava provides a more sympathetic portrayal . Terry Brighton in Hell Riders : the Truth about the Charge of the Light Brigade ( London : Penguin 2004 ) gives a critical account of Cardigan as Brigade Commander , but finds him in no way to blame for the Charge . = = Cultural depictions = = The Charge of the Light Brigade , a 1968 film based on Woodham @-@ Smith 's research , made Cardigan ( played by Trevor Howard ) its primary antagonist . The movie depicts Cardigan as a harsh disciplinarian , womaniser and military incompetent . It shows the " black bottle " affair , though it incorrectly makes Louis Nolan Cardigan 's antagonist , and heavily features his rivalry with Lord Lucan . It also fictitiously shows Cardigan pursuing an affair with Fanny Duberly . George Macdonald Fraser 's The Flashman Papers novels feature Cardigan as a recurring villain . In the first instalment , he commands Flashman in the 11th Hussars and transfers him to India after he marries Elspeth on the grounds that she is the daughter of a tradesman . Cardigan reappears in Flashman at the Charge , where Flashman catches Cardigan trying to seduce Elspeth . Flashman later reluctantly joins Cardigan for the Charge of the Light Brigade . He appears briefly in Flashman in the Great Game , where Cardigan demands Flashman defend Cardigan 's reputation against hostile journalists . Flashman not only refuses but pointedly insults Cardigan . His last mention comes in Flashman and the Angel of the Lord , where Flashman observes Cardigan 's liaison with Fanny Paget . Cardigan appears as an antagonist in the 2015 video game Assassin 's Creed Syndicate by Ubisoft , set in 1868 . In the game , Cardigan is a member of the Templar Order who headed a plot to assassinate the Prime @-@ Minister Benjamin Disraeli . The lead character Jacob Frye discovers the plot , prevents Disraeli 's death and finally tracks down and kills Cardigan .
= Eddie Illingworth = Edward " Eddie " Philip Illingworth ( born 27 November 1938 ) is a former Australian cricketer who played five first @-@ class matches for Victoria between 1962 and 1964 . A right @-@ arm medium pace bowler , Illingworth was best remembered for being no @-@ balled for throwing in a Sheffield Shield match against South Australia in November 1964 by umpires Col Egar and Jack Ryan . His selection for Victoria was made more controversial by the fact that he had been called at district level for throwing prior to his first @-@ class debut . Away from first @-@ class cricket , Illingworth had a successful career for Fitzroy in Victorian Premier Cricket , where he remains the eighth highest wicket @-@ taker of all time , with 599 . He was named the club champion three times , and later served for seven years as a board member of the Victorian Cricket Association . = = Early career = = During his career in local cricket , Illingworth played for Fitzroy in Victorian Premier Cricket . He made his debut in the first @-@ grade team in the 1957 – 58 season . He was to represent them for 20 years , playing a total of 233 matches . In December 1959 , Illingworth was selected for the Victoria Colts , a youth team , to play against the New South Wales Colts . Illingworth scored a pair and opened the bowling , taking 1 / 51 as New South Wales made 278 in their only innings of a drawn match . Two years later , in November 1961 , Illingworth was selected for Jack Potter 's XI in an invitational one @-@ day single innings match against Bill Lawry 's XI at Junction Oval . Both sides featured current Test players , including Lawry , Ian Meckiff and Lindsay Kline . Illingworth made 17 as Potter 's men were bowled out for 125 , before bowling nine wicketless overs for 34 runs as Lawry 's side made 9 / 279 , having reached the target with eight wickets intact . = = First @-@ class debut = = Illingworth was selected to make his first @-@ class début for Victoria against Tasmania at Kardinia Park in Geelong in February 1962 . His selection had generated controversy since he had twice been no @-@ balled for throwing by two different umpires in Melbourne district cricket in the two seasons prior to his selection . One of the occasions in district cricket , he had been no @-@ balled three times in one over . At the time , Tasmania were not in the Sheffield Shield competition , so it was a one @-@ off match . Victoria won the toss and elected to bat . Illingworth came to the crease at 7 / 109 and scored 22 before being dismissed at 8 / 154 his team were bowled out for 214 . He then took 3 / 43 , all of his victims being top seven batsmen , as the hosts bowled Tasmania out for 119 to take a 95 @-@ run lead . He then made four as Victoria made 8 / 286 declared , leaving Tasmania with a target of 392 . Illingworth took his career best figures of 4 / 28 , removing Tasmania 's first four batsmen , as his team took a 190 @-@ run win . Despite this performance , Illingworth was overlooked for further state selection for over two years . Returning to play for Fitzroy in district cricket , he took 63 wickets at 13 @.@ 76 in the 1963 – 64 season , making him the leading wicket @-@ taker for the season across the entire competition . He finally returned to the state team in late @-@ 1964 , during the 1964 – 65 season . In a trial match at the start of the season against Sunraysia Cricket Association in the regional town of Mildura , Illingworth opened the bowling and took 1 / 15 from eight overs as Victoria took a 117 @-@ run win in the one @-@ day match . He was then selected to make his Sheffield Shield debut a week later , against Western Australia at the WACA Ground in Perth . Illingworth came in at 6 / 168 and made 25 before being run out in his team 's 208 . Bowling first change , he dismissed both openers to leave the hosts at 2 / 60 , before they recovered to take a 183 @-@ run lead . Illingworth ended with 2 / 53 . He then scored 14 as Victoria set a target of 180 . Illingworth then took 0 / 20 from ten overs before time ran out with Western Australia on 1 / 50 . = = No ball for throwing = = Illingworth 's best performance in a Sheffield Shield match was against South Australia at the Adelaide Oval in the following week of November 1964 , which was the same match in which he was called . The home side won the toss and elected to bat first . Illingworth took 4 / 92 in South Australia 's first innings but was no @-@ balled a total of three times by Egar and Ryan . Illingworth was called on each of the occasions by the umpire standing at square leg . He was called twice by Egar on the second and fourth deliveries of his eleventh over , and once by Ryan on the sixth ball of his fourteenth over . In the same fourteenth over , Illingworth had dismissed former Pakistani Test batsman Duncan Sharpe and Australian Test wicket @-@ keeper Barry Jarman from the first and fourth deliveries respectively . This broke a 97 @-@ run stand between Sharpe and Ian Chappell , before Jarman was removed for a duck . After 17 more runs were added , Illingworth had Chappell caught behind for 127 . South Australia eventually finished at 392 . Victoria then batted . Illingworth made 22 of his team 's 144 after they fell to 6 / 100 . They were forced to follow on , having conceded a 248 @-@ run lead in their first innings . Victoria had to try to stave off defeat and they were in trouble when Illingworth came in to bat , partnering captain Bill Lawry after wicket @-@ keeper Ray Jordon was out with the score at 6 / 193 . Illingworth scored his highest first @-@ class score of 47 , putting on a partnership of 87 runs with Lawry before he was dismissed with the score at 7 / 280 . Victoria were 8 / 286 at the end of play , just 38 runs ahead , as the match ended in a draw . = = Career end = = Illingworth played in two further matches , but only took two wickets . In the following match against Western Australia at the Melbourne Cricket Ground , he took 1 / 56 , taking the wicket of Test player Keith Slater as Western Australia made 455 . He made 10 as Victoris responded with 318 , before bowling two overs for the concession of two runs as Western Australia reached 3 / 72 when time ran out . Illingworth 's final match was against Queensland in December 1964 . He took 0 / 34 as Queensland batted first and made 270 . After scoring seven of his team 's 341 , he took 1 / 86 as Queensland declared at 5 / 332 . Chasing 261 for victory , Illingworth made four as his team lost by 40 runs . Illingworth ended his career with 15 wickets at an average of 27 @.@ 60 , and 155 runs at 17 @.@ 22 . The state selectors were reluctant to pick him for Victoria because of the throwing allegations that surrounded him . Illingworth returned to district cricket and played another 13 seasons with Fitzroy until finishing his career after the 1977 – 78 season , having played 233 matches . He took 599 wickets at 18 @.@ 60 for Fitzroy , placing him eighth on the all @-@ time wicket @-@ takers list in Victorian Premier Cricket . His best bowling figures in an innings was 8 / 18 and he took five wickets in an innings 26 times , and ten wickets in a match three times . He also amassed 2666 runs at 14 @.@ 03 and took 91 catches . He was part of two premierships in his career , with Fitzroy winning in 1960 – 61 and 1966 – 67 . Illingworth was voted the club champion three times , winning the Arthur Liddicut Medal in 1972 – 73 , 1973 – 74 and 1976 – 77 . He is an honorary life member of the club . From 1970 – 71 to 1977 – 78 , Illingworth served as Fitzroy 's delegate on the Victorian Cricket Association 's board of directors .
= Runaway Daydreamer = " Runaway Daydreamer " is a song by the English recording artist Sophie Ellis @-@ Bextor for her fifth studio album Wanderlust ( 2014 ) . The song was released on 31 March 2014 as the second single of the album . Composed by Ed Harcourt with additional writing by Ellis @-@ Bextor , it is a chamber pop track which features percussion and string instruments . Its lyrics , written in a way resemblant of nursery rhymes , expound on escapism and " self discovery " . " Runaway Daydreamer " received mostly positive reviews from music critics , who praised Ellis @-@ Bextor 's vocals and its sound ; some denoted it as a highlight of Wanderlust . The song was promoted with a music video directed by Sophie Muller , which largely shows Ellis @-@ Bextor in a lounge room and walking through an abandoned pier . It was also performed on programmes including ITV 's Loose Women , and peaked at number 29 on the UK Indie chart . The song was featured on the regular and OW Version of the Theme Park Playlist . = = Composition and reception = = " Runaway Daydreamer " , as with the rest of Wanderlust , was co @-@ written by its producer Ed Harcourt along with Ellis @-@ Bextor . It was recorded at the State of the Ark studios , mixed and engineered by Richard Woodcruft , and mastered by Miles Showell . It is a chamber pop track which includes string arrangements and " shuffled percussion " . Clare Considine of Time Out compared its sonority to that of a Humphrey Bogart movie soundtrack . AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine described the track as a " girl group homage " . Davidf Farrell of PopMatters opined that the song and " Until the Stars Collide " set a " soaring , dreamy " atmosphere for Wanderlust . According to the sheet music published by Music Sales Group , the song contains 116 beats per minute in crotchet . Its introduction follows a chord progression of C — F / C — C — F / C — C — F / C — C — F , and transitions into the verse section in which the notes C – F – C are followed . The track is composed in the traditional verse – chorus form . Ellis @-@ Bextor 's vocals during the song incorporate the melisma technique and span from G3 to E5 . The song 's lyrics , which discuss escapism , are constructed in a way resemblant of nursery rhymes . During the chorus , Ellis @-@ Bextor sings " It 's just my imagination / Running away / Girl 's gotta have a little daydream / It 's a secret escape / It 's just my imagination / Running away / Don 't worry baby , I 'm here to stay " . Considine highlighted " I could tie up the bed sheets and slide down the house / Be gone before the morning comes " as lyrics exemplificative of Ellis @-@ Bextor 's " artistic freedom " in Wanderlust . Reviewing the song for Loud and Quiet , Stuart Stubbs wrote that it " sees our protagonist pull herself out of squalor and onto a road of self discovery . " The song concludes with a short outro where Ellis @-@ Bextor repeats the line " Don 't worry baby , I 'm here to stay " twice . On behalf of Virgin Media , Matthew Horton opined that " Runaway Daydreamer " was the standout of Wanderlust , describing Ellis @-@ Bextor 's vocals in it as " prim and gorgeous " . James Fyfe of The 405 echoed his view , praising Ellis @-@ Bextor 's vocal performance , as well as highlighting its sonority , despite observing it was not " musically adventurous " . Writing for Digital Spy , Robert Copsey billed the song as beautiful and " shimmering " . Thomas Erlewine highlighted the song as a standout , commenting that the album was " at its best when it 's slightly dexterous " , citing the song as an example . The Irish Times ' Louise Bruton wrote that the song explores " twee danger zones " and called it a " blunder " . = = Release and promotion = = A promotional CD single including " Runaway Daydreamer " ' s radio edit , with a length of 3 minutes and 27 seconds , was sent to radio stations in March 2014 . The song was released in the United Kingdom on 23 March 2014 . The music video for " Runaway Daydreamer " was directed by Sophie Muller , and released on 8 March 2014 ; it was mostly filmed during the taping of the video for " Young Blood " — Wanderlust 's previous single . Ellis @-@ Bextor lip @-@ synchs the song 's lyrics inside a lounge room , wearing a white lace dress , with her hair gathered into a ponytail ; she is also seen walking through an abandoned pier , dining at a restaurant and posing in front of a small white house . The visual 's aspect ratio is changed throughout , ranging from windowbox to letterbox . Ellis @-@ Bextor performed the song in an acoustic setting , on the morning programme ZDF Morgenmagazin , aired on 23 January 2014 on German channel ZDF . On 17 March of that year , she sang it on ITV 's Loose Women . The song charted on the UK Indie Singles at number 29 . = = Track listing = = Promotional CD single Details adapted from the credits of the CD single of " Runaway Daydeamer " . " Runaway Daydreamer " ( Radio edit ) – 3 : 27 = = Credits and personnel = = Credits adapted from the liner notes of Wanderlust . Sophie Ellis @-@ Bextor – lead vocals , songwriting Ed Harcourt – songwriting , production , background vocals , samples , synth , keyboards , piano Gita Langley – violin Richard Woodcraft – engineering , mixing Miles Showell – mastering = = Weekly charts = = = = Release history = =
= Bog turtle = The bog turtle ( Glyptemys muhlenbergii ) is a semiaquatic turtle endemic to the eastern United States . It was first scientifically described in 1801 after an 18th @-@ century survey of Pennsylvania . The smallest North American turtle , it measures about 10 centimeters ( 4 in ) long when fully grown . Although the bog turtle is similar in appearance to the painted or spotted turtles , its closest relative is actually the somewhat larger wood turtle . The bog turtle can be found from Vermont in the north , south to Georgia , and west to Ohio . Diurnal and secretive , it spends most of its time buried in mud and – during the winter months – in hibernation . The bog turtle is omnivorous , feeding mainly on small invertebrates . Adult bog turtles weigh 110 grams ( 3 @.@ 9 oz ) on average . Their skins and shells are typically dark brown , with a distinctive orange spot on each side of the neck . Considered threatened at the federal level , the bog turtle is protected under the United States ' Endangered Species Act . Invasive plants and urban development have eradicated much of the bog turtle 's habitat , substantially reducing its numbers . Demand for the bog turtle is high in the black market pet trade , partly because of its small size and unique characteristics . Various private projects have been undertaken in an attempt to reverse the decline in the turtle 's population . The turtle has a low reproduction rate ; females lay one clutch per year , with an average of three eggs each . The young tend to grow rapidly , reaching sexual maturity between the ages of 4 and 10 years old . Bog turtles live for an average of 20 to 30 years in the wild . Since 1973 , the Bronx Zoo has successfully bred bog turtles in captivity . = = Taxonomy = = The bog turtle was noted in the 18th century by Gotthilf Heinrich Ernst Muhlenberg , a self @-@ taught botanist and clergyman . Muhlenberg , who named more than 150 North American plant species , was conducting a survey of the flora of Lancaster County , Pennsylvania , when he discovered the small turtle . In 1801 , Johann David Schoepff named Muhlenberg 's discovery as Testudo muhlenbergii in Muhlenberg 's honor . In 1829 , Richard Harlan renamed the turtle Emys muhlenbergii . The species was subsequently renamed to Calemys muhlenbergii by Louis Agassiz in 1857 , and to Clemmys muhlenbergii by Henry Watson Fowler in 1906 . Synonyms include Emys biguttata , named in 1824 by Thomas Say on the basis of a turtle from the vicinity of Philadelphia , and Clemmys nuchalis , described by Dunn in 1917 from near Linville , North Carolina . Today , there are various names for the bog turtle , including mud turtle , marsh turtle , yellowhead , and snapper . The genus name was changed to Glyptemys in 2001 . The bog turtle and the wood turtle , Glyptemys insculpta , had until then been included in the genus Clemmys , which also included spotted turtles ( C. guttata ) and western pond turtles ( C. marmorata ) . Nucleotide sequencing and ribosomal DNA analyses suggested that bog turtles and wood turtles are closely related , but neither is directly related to spotted turtles , hence the separation of the genus Glyptemys . = = Description = = The bog turtle is the smallest species of turtle in North America . The adults weigh approximately 110 grams ( 3 @.@ 9 oz ) when fully grown . It does not have a prominent snout . Its head is dark brown to black ; however , it has a bright yellow , orange , or red spot on each side of its neck . The spot is often forked , facing posteriorly . The bog turtle has a dark skin color with an orange @-@ red wash on the inside of the legs of some individuals . The carapace is domed and rectangular in shape , and it tends to be narrower toward the head and wider toward the tail . The carapace often has easily identifiable rings on the rough scales or scutes . The scutes may also have a radiating arrangement of lines . In some older individuals , and those that burrow frequently in coarse substrates , the shell may be smooth . Although generally black , a chestnut sunburst pattern in each scute is sometimes present on the carapace . The belly of the shell , the plastron , is also a dark brown to black color with light marks present . The spotted turtle and painted turtle are similar in appearance to the bog turtle . The bog turtle is distinguishable from any other species of turtle by the distinctively colored blotch on its neck . A major difference between it and the spotted turtle is that the bog turtle has no coloration on the upper shell , unlike the latter species . Mature male bog turtles have an average length of 9 @.@ 4 centimeters ( 3 @.@ 7 in ) while the average female length is 8 @.@ 9 centimeters ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) ( straight carapace measurement ) . The males have a larger average body size than females , likely to facilitate males during male – male interactions during mate selection . The female has a wider and higher shell than the male , but the male 's head is squared and larger than a female 's of the same age . The plastron of the male looks slightly concave while the female 's is flat . The male 's tail is longer and thicker than the female 's . The cloaca is further towards the end of the tail of the male bog turtle , while the female 's cloaca is positioned inside the plastron . Juveniles are very difficult to sex . = = Distribution and habitat = = The bog turtle is native only to the eastern United States , congregating in colonies that often consist of fewer than 20 individuals . They prefer calcareous wetlands ( areas containing lime ) , including meadows , bogs , marshes , and spring seeps , that have both wet and dry regions . Their habitat is often on the edge of woods . Bog turtles have sometimes been seen in cow pastures and near beaver dams . The bog turtle 's preferred habitat , sometimes called a fen , is slightly acidic with a high water table year @-@ round . The constant saturation leads to the depletion of oxygen , subsequently resulting in anaerobic conditions . The bog turtle uses soft , deep mud to shelter from predators and the weather . Spring seeps and groundwater springs provide optimum locations for hibernation during winter . Home range size is gender dependent , averaging about 0 @.@ 17 to 1 @.@ 33 hectares ( 0 @.@ 42 to 3 @.@ 29 acres ) for males and 0 @.@ 065 to 1 @.@ 26 hectares ( 0 @.@ 16 to 3 @.@ 11 acres ) for females . However , research has shown that densities can range from 5 to 125 individuals per 0 @.@ 81 hectares ( 2 @.@ 0 acres ) . The range of the bog turtle extensively overlaps that of its relative , the wood turtle . Rushes , tussock sedge , cattails , jewelweed , sphagnum , and various native true grasses are found in the bog turtle 's habitat , as well as some shrubs and trees such as willows , red maples , and alders . It is important for their habitat to have an open canopy , because bog turtles spend a considerable amount of time basking in the sunlight . An open canopy allows sufficient sunlight to reach the ground so that the bog turtles can manage their metabolic processes through thermoregulation . The incubation of eggs also requires levels of sunlight and humidity that shaded areas typically lack . The ideal bog turtle habitat is early successional . Late successional habitats contain taller trees that block the necessary sunlight . Erosion and runoff of nutrients into the wetlands accelerate succession . Changes caused by humans have begun to eliminate bog turtles from areas where they would normally survive . = = = Northern and southern populations = = = The northern and southern bog turtle populations are separated by a 400 @-@ kilometer ( 250 mi ) gap over much of Virginia , which lacks bog turtle colonies . In both areas , the bog turtle colonies tend to occupy widely scattered ranges . The northern population is the larger of the two . These individuals make their home in states as far north as Connecticut and Massachusetts , and as far south as Maryland . These turtles are known to have fewer than 200 habitable sites left , a number that is decreasing . The southern population is much smaller in number ( only about 96 colonies have been located ) , living in the states of North Carolina , South Carolina , Georgia , Virginia , and Tennessee . This area in particular has seen about 90 percent of its mountainous wetlands dry up . The turtles in this population are even more scattered than in the northern population and live at higher elevations , up to 1 @,@ 373 meters ( 4 @,@ 505 ft ) . = = = Evolutionary history = = = There have been only two recorded discoveries of bog turtle fossils . The late J. Alan Holman , a paleontologist and herpetologist , first identified bog turtle plastral remains in Cumberland Cave , Maryland ( near Corriganville ) , which are of Irvingtonian age ( from 1 @.@ 8 million to 300 @,@ 000 years ago ) . The second discovery was of Rancholabrean ( between 300 @,@ 000 and 11 @,@ 000 years ago ) shell pieces in the Giant Cement Quarry in South Carolina ( near Harleyville ) , by Bentely and Knight in 1998 . The bog turtle 's karyotype is composed of 50 chromosomes . Studies of variations in mitochondrial DNA indicate low levels of genetic divergence among bog turtle colonies . This is unusual in species such as the bog turtle , which have fragmented distributions and exist in small isolated groups ( fewer than 50 individuals in bog turtle colonies ) . These conditions limit gene flow , typically leading to divergence between isolated groups . Data indicate that the bog turtle suffered dramatic reductions in numbers – a population bottleneck – as colonies were forced south in the face of glaciation . Receding glaciers led to the relatively recent post @-@ Pleistocene expansion , as the bog turtles moved back into their former northern range . This recent colonization from a relatively limited southern population may account for the reduction of genetic diversity . The northern and southern populations are at present genetically isolated , likely as a consequence of farming and habitat destruction in Virginia 's Shenandoah Valley during the American Civil War . = = Ecology and behavior = = = = = Behavior = = = The bog turtle is primarily diurnal , active during the day and sleeping at night . It wakes in the early morning , basks until fully warm , then begins its search for food . It is a seclusive species , making it challenging to observe in its natural habitat . During colder days , the bog turtle will spend much of its time in dense underbrush , underwater , or buried in mud . Such behavior is indicative of the bog turtle 's ability to survive without oxygen . On warmer days , the bog turtle 's activities include scavenging , mating ( during early spring ) , and basking in sunlight , the last of which it spends a great deal of the day doing . However , the bog turtle usually takes shelter from the sun during the hottest part of the day . Occasionally , during times of extreme heat , the turtle will either estivate , or become subterranean , sometimes occupying networks of tunnels filled with water . At night , the bog turtle buries itself in soft tunnels . Late September to March or April is usually spent in hibernation , either alone or in small groups in spring seeps . These groups can contain up to 12 individuals , and sometimes can include other species of turtles . Bog turtles try to find an area of dense soil , such as a strong root system , for protection during the dormant period . However , they may hibernate in other places such as the bottom of a tree , animal burrows , or empty spaces in mud . The bog turtle emerges from hibernation when the air temperature is between 16 and 31 ° C ( 61 and 88 ° F ) . The male bog turtle is territorial and will attack other males if they venture within 15 centimeters ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) of his position . An aggressive male will crawl toward an intruder with his neck extended . As he approaches his foe , he tilts his carapace by withdrawing his head and raising his hind limbs . If the other male does not retreat , a fight of pushing and biting can follow . The bouts typically last just a few minutes , with the larger and older male usually winning . The female is also aggressive when threatened . She will defend the area around her nest , usually up to a radius of 1 @.@ 2 meters ( 3 @.@ 9 ft ) , from encroaching females , but when a juvenile approaches , she ignores it , and when a male appears she surrenders her area ( except during mating season ) . = = = Diet = = = Bog turtles are omnivorous and eat aquatic plants ( such as duckweed ) , seeds , berries , earthworms , snails , slugs , insects , other invertebrates , frogs , and other small vertebrates . They also occasionally eat carrion . Invertebrates such as insects are generally the most important food item . In captivity , a bog turtle can be fed a variety of fruits and vegetables , as well as meat such as liver , chicken hearts , and tinned dog food . Bog turtles feed only during the day , but rarely during the hottest hours , consuming their food on land or in the water . = = = Predators , parasites , and diseases = = = A host of different animals , including snapping turtles , snake species such as Nerodia sipedon and Thamnophis sirtalis , muskrats , striped skunks , foxes , dogs , and raccoons prey upon the bog turtle . In addition , leeches ( Placobdella multilineata and P. parasitica ) and parasitic flies ( Cistudinomyia cistudinis ) plague some individuals , causing blood loss and weakness . Their shells offer little protection from predators . The bog turtle 's main defense when threatened by an animal is to bury itself in soft mud . It rarely defends its territory or bites when approached . Bog turtles may suffer from bacterial infections . Aeromonas and Pseudomonas are two genera of bacteria that cause pneumonia in individuals . Bacterial aggregates ( sometimes known as biofilms ) have also been found in the lungs of two deceased specimens discovered in 1982 and 1995 from colonies in the southern population . = = = Movement = = = Day @-@ to @-@ day , the bog turtle moves very little , typically basking in the sun and waiting for prey . Though it is not especially lively on sunny days , the bog turtle is usually active after rainfall . Various studies have found different rates of daily movement in bog turtles , varying from 2 @.@ 1 to 23 meters ( 6 @.@ 9 to 75 @.@ 5 ft ) in males and 1 @.@ 1 to 18 meters ( 3 @.@ 6 to 59 @.@ 1 ft ) in females . Both sexes are capable of homing when released at distances up to 0 @.@ 8 kilometers ( 0 @.@ 50 mi ) from their site of capture . The bog turtle will travel long distances to find a new habitat if its home becomes unsuitable . The species is most active during the spring , and males generally exhibit greater migration distance and seasonal activity than females as they defend their territory . Home @-@ range migration distances have been recorded at 87 meters ( 285 ft ) for males and 260 meters ( 850 ft ) for females . Home @-@ range sizes in Maryland vary from 0 @.@ 0030 hectares ( 0 @.@ 0074 acres ) to 3 @.@ 1 hectares ( 7 @.@ 7 acres ) with considerable amounts of variation between sites and years . The bog turtle is semiaquatic and can move both on land and in the water . The distance and frequency of movements on land help herpetologists understand the behavior , ecology , gene flow , and the level of success of different bog turtle colonies . The vast majority of bog turtle movements are less than 21 meters ( 69 ft ) , and only 2 percent are of distances over 100 meters ( 330 ft ) ; large , expansive trips ( i.e. , between neighboring wetlands ) , are rare . The movement of bog turtles between colonies facilitates genetic diversity . If this movement were to be prevented , or limited in any significant way , the species would have a higher likelihood of becoming extinct because genetic diversity would fall . Some aspects of a bog turtle 's movement that remain unresolved include : phenomena that motivate bog turtles to move outside their natural habitat ; the distances an individual can be expected to travel each day , week , and year ; and how separation of small groups affects the genetics of the species . = = = Life cycle = = = Bog turtles are sexually mature when they reach between 8 and 11 years of age ( both sexes ) . They mate in the spring after emerging from hibernation , in a copulation session that usually lasts for 5 – 20 minutes , typically during the afternoon , and may occur on land or in the water . It begins with the male recognizing the female 's sex . During the courtship ritual , the male gently bites and nudges the female 's head . Younger males tend to be more aggressive during copulation , and females sometimes try to avoid an over @-@ aggressive male . However , as the female ages , she is more likely to accept the aggressiveness of a male , and may even take the role of initiator . If the female yields , she may withdraw her front limbs and head . After the entire process is over , which usually takes about 35 minutes , male and female go separate ways . In a single season , females may mate once , twice , or not at all , and males try to mate as many times as possible . It has been suggested that it is possible for the bog turtle to hybridize with Clemmys guttata during the mating season . However , it has not been genetically verified in wild populations . Nesting takes place between April and July . The female digs a cavity in a dry , sunny area of a bog , and lays her eggs in a grass tussock or on sphagnum moss . The nest is typically 3 @.@ 8 to 5 @.@ 1 centimeters ( 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) deep and 5 centimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) around . Like most species of turtle , the bog turtle constructs its nest using its hind feet and claws . Most bog turtle eggs are laid in June . Pregnant females lay one to six eggs per clutch ( mean of 3 ) , and produce one clutch per year . A healthy female bog turtle can lay between 30 and 45 eggs in her lifetime , but many of the offspring do not survive to reach sexual maturity . Typically , older females lay more eggs than younger ones . The eggs are white , elliptical , and on average 3 @.@ 4 centimeters ( 1 @.@ 3 in ) long and 1 @.@ 5 centimeters ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) wide . After the eggs are laid , they are left to undergo an incubation period that lasts for 42 to 80 days . In colder climates , the eggs are incubated through the winter and hatch in the spring . The eggs are vulnerable during the incubation period , and often fall prey to mammals and birds . In addition , eggs may be jeopardized by flooding , frost , or various developmental problems . It is unknown how gender is determined in bog turtles . Baby bog turtles are about 2 @.@ 5 centimeters ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) long when they emerge from their eggs , usually in late August or September . Females are slightly smaller at birth , and tend to grow more slowly than males . Both genders grow rapidly until they reach maturity . Juveniles almost double in size in their first four years , but do not become fully grown until five or six years old . The bog turtle spends its life almost exclusively in the wetland where it hatched . In its natural environment , it has a maximum lifespan of perhaps 50 years or more , and the average lifespan is 20 – 30 years . The Bronx Zoo houses several turtles 35 years old or more , the oldest known bog turtles . The zoo 's collection has successfully sustained itself for more than 35 years . The age of a bog turtle is determined by counting the number of rings in a scute , minus the first one ( which develops before birth ) . = = Conservation = = Protected under the United States Federal Endangered Species Act , the bog turtle is considered threatened in Connecticut , Delaware , Maryland , Massachusetts , New Jersey , New York and Pennsylvania as of November 4 , 1997 . Due to a " similarity of appearance " to the northern population , the bog turtle is also threatened in Georgia , North Carolina , South Carolina , Tennessee and Virginia ( considered to be the southern population ) . In addition to the federal listing of threatened , states in the southern range list the bog turtle as either endangered or threatened . Changes to the bog turtle 's habitat have resulted in the disappearance of 80 percent of the colonies that existed 30 years ago . Because of the turtle 's rarity , it is also in danger of illegal collection , often for the worldwide pet trade . Despite regulations prohibiting their collection , barter , or export , bog turtles are commonly taken by poachers . Road traffic has also led to declines . The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has a plan for the recovery of the northern population . The bog turtle was listed as critically endangered in the 2011 IUCN Red List . The invasion of non @-@ native plants into its habitat is a large threat to the bog turtles ' survival . Although several plants disrupt its ecosystem , the three primary culprits are purple loosestrife , reed canary grass , and reeds , which grow thick and tall and are believed to hinder the movement of the turtles . Such plants also out @-@ compete the native species in the bog turtle 's habitat , thus reducing the amount of food and protection available to the turtles . The development of new neighborhoods and roadways obstructs the bog turtle 's movement between wetlands , thus inhibiting the establishment of new bog turtle colonies . Pesticides , runoff , and industrial discharge are all harmful to the bog turtles ' habitat and food supply . The bog turtle has been designated as a threatened species to " conserve the northern population of the bog turtle , which has seriously declined in the northeast United States . " Today , the rebounding of bog turtle colonies depends on private intervention . Population monitoring involves meticulous land surveys over vast countrysides . In addition to surveying land visually , remote sensing has been used to biologically classify a wetland as either suitable or unsuitable for a bog turtle colony . This allows for comparisons to be made between known areas of bog turtle success and potential areas of future habitation . To help the existing colonies rebound , several private projects have been initiated in an attempt to limit the encroachment of overshadowing trees and bushes , the construction of new highways and neighborhoods , and other natural and man @-@ made threats . Methods used to recreate the bog turtle 's habitat include : controlled burns to limit the growth of overshadowing trees and underbrush ( thus bringing the habitat back to early successional ) ; grazing livestock such as cows and goats in the desired habitat area ( creating pockets of water and freshly churned mud ) ; and promoting beaver activity , including dam construction in and around wetlands . Captive breeding is another method of stabilizing the bog turtles ' numbers . The technique involves mating bog turtles indoors in controlled environments , where nutrition and mates are provided . Fred Wustholz and Richard J. Holub were the first to do this independently , during the 1960s and 1970s . They were interested in educating others about the bog turtle and in increasing its population , and over several years they released many healthy bog turtles into the wild . Various organizations , such as the Association of Zoos and Aquariums , have been permitted to breed bog turtles in captivity . The study of bog turtles in the wild is a significant aid to the development of a conservation strategy . Radio telemetry has been used to track the turtles ' movements in their natural habitat . Blood samples , fecal samples , and cloacal swabs are also commonly collected from wild populations and tested for signs of disease .
= Wellington , Somerset = Wellington is a small industrial town in rural Somerset , England , situated 7 miles ( 11 km ) south west of Taunton in the Taunton Deane district , near the border with Devon , which runs along the Blackdown Hills to the south of the town . The town has a population of 14 @,@ 549 , which includes the residents of the parish of Wellington Without , and the villages of Tone and Tonedale . Known as Weolingtun in the Anglo @-@ Saxon period , its name had changed to Walintone by the time of the Domesday Book of 1086 . Wellington became a town under a royal charter of 1215 and during the Middle Ages it grew as a centre for trade on the road from Bristol to Exeter . Major rebuilding took place following a fire in the town in 1731 , after which it became a centre for cloth @-@ making . Wellington gave its name to the first Duke of Wellington , Arthur Wellesley , who is commemorated by the nearby Wellington Monument . The Grand Western Canal reached the town in 1835 and then the Bristol and Exeter Railway in 1843 . The town 's own railway station survived until 1964 . Wellington was home of Fox , Fowler and Company , which was the last commercial bank permitted to print their own sterling banknotes in England and Wales . In the 20th century closer links with Taunton meant that many of the residents of Wellington commuted there for work , and the M5 motorway enabled car journeys to be made more easily . Local industries , which now include an aerosol factory and bed manufacturers , are celebrated at the Wellington Museum in Fore street . Wellington is home to the independent Wellington School , and state @-@ funded Court Fields School . It is also home to a range of cultural , sporting and religious sites including the 15th century Church of St John the Baptist . The capital city of New Zealand is named after Arthur Wellesley , 1st Duke of Wellington , thus his title comes from the town of Wellington , Somerset , England . = = History = = In a grant of between 899 and 909 , Edward the Elder , gave the land then known as Weolingtun , which means " from the wealthy estate " , along with West Buckland and Bishops Lydeard to Bishop Asser . This was in exchange for the monastery of Plympton in Devon . An alternative explanation for the origin of the name is “ the settlement in the temple clearing ” . By the time of the Domesday Book of 1086 , the name had changed to Walintone , and the estate was owned by Gisa ( Bishop of Wells ) . The parish of Wellington was part of the Kilmersdon Hundred , A site at Longforth Farm near Tonedale has been identified as having Bronze Age occupation and , during excavations prior to the building of new homes , found to have been occupied by a 12th @-@ 14th century building with decorated floor tiles covering 0 @.@ 4 hectares ( 0 @.@ 99 acres ) . A royal charter of 1215 gave Wellington its status as a town , and during the medieval period it grew as a centre for trade on the road from Bristol to Exeter , being laid out , with the church at the east end of town , in a similar manner to other towns of this era . In 1548 , the manor was sold to Edward Seymour , 1st Duke of Somerset , but reverted to the control of the bishops after his execution . By the end of the 16th century it had come under the protection of John Popham ( Lord Chief Justice ) and his descendants who built a manor house which was destroyed during the English Civil War . Major rebuilding took place in the town following a fire in 1731 . After this the town 's importance grew as it became a centre for clothmaking across Somerset and Devon , its importance as trade centre enhanced by fires in Taunton and Tiverton . By the 1831 census , 258 people were recorded as cloth workers in Wellington . Wellington gave its name to the first Duke of Wellington , Arthur Wellesley . Nearby Wellington Hill boasts a large , spotlit obelisk to his honour , the Wellington Monument . The Wellington Monument is a floodlit 175 feet ( 53 m ) high triangular tower designated by English Heritage as a grade II * listed building . It was erected to celebrate the Duke of Wellington 's victory at the Battle of Waterloo . The foundation stone was laid in 1817 , on land belonging to the Duke , but the monument was not completed until 1854 . It is now owned by the National Trust , who announced plans to reclad the monument at a cost of £ 4 million in 2009 . In the 18th century turnpikes arrived in the area and then in the 19th communications improved with the building of the Grand Western Canal , which reached the town in 1835 , and then the Bristol and Exeter Railway . Wellington station was opened when the line reached the town on 1 May 1843 . It was a typical Brunel design but was rebuilt in 1932 when two loop lines were put in . This entailed the platforms being moved back to accommodate the widened lines . These platforms are clearly visible and a goods shed still stands on the east side of the line at the Taunton end of the station , although the station closed on 5 October 1964 . Wellington was an important station as it stood at the foot of a steep incline . Banking locomotives were kept here , ready to assist heavy westbound trains up to Whiteball Tunnel . In the 20th century closer links with Taunton meant that many of the residents of Wellington commuted there for work , and the M5 motorway , which opened in sections in the 1960s and 1970s , enabled car journeys to be made more easily . = = Fox Fowler & Co . Bank = = Thomas Fox started the Fox , Fowler and Company bank in Wellington which rapidly expanded and ran successfully , until it merged with Lloyds Bank in 1927 . It was the last private bank in England to issue its own notes and they were legal tender until 1964 . There are nine notes left in circulation . The British Museum have another example on display . The bank established its Head Office at the old family house in Fore Street , Wellington ( today the Lloyds Bank branch ) - they opened branches at Taunton , Bridgwater , Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , Torrington , Bideford , Barnstaple , Ilfracombe and South Molton . The original £ 5 Note is on display at Tone Dale House - one of the last nine and possible the only one left uncancelled . = = Governance = = Wellington has three tiers of local government at parish , district and county level . The present system dates from 1 April 1974 when the Local Government Act 1972 came into effect . The lowest tier is Wellington Town Council , formed as a successor parish to Wellington Urban District Council in 1974 . The town council has 15 councillors , and is headed by a town mayor . For elections of town councillors , the town is divided into four wards : Wellington East ( returning 4 councillors ) , Wellington North ( 4 ) , Rockwell Green ( 3 ) and Wellington West ( 4 ) . The political composition of the council in November 2009 was Liberal Democrats 7 , Conservative Party 5 and Labour Party 3 . The town council provides purely local services . An area to the south of the town falls within the civil parish of Wellington Without . The middle , or district , tier of administration is the borough of Taunton Deane . The borough council is based in Taunton , and consists of 56 councillors . Seven borough councillors are elected from wards in Wellington : 5 are Liberal Democrats and one each belong to the Conservative and Labour parties . There are three electoral wards in Wellington ( North , South and West ) . The upper tier is Somerset County Council . Also based in Taunton , the council has 58 councillors , each elected for a single @-@ member electoral division . Most of the town comprises the Wellington electoral division , with part falling in the mainly rural division of Blackdown & Wellington East . They are represented by one Labour and one Liberal Democrat councillor . Somerset County Council is responsible for running the largest and most expensive local services such as education , social services , the library , roads , public transport , trading standards , waste disposal and strategic planning , although fire , police and ambulance services are provided jointly with other authorities through the Devon and Somerset Fire and Rescue Service , Avon and Somerset Constabulary and the South Western Ambulance Service . For elections to the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom , Wellington forms part of the Taunton Deane constituency . The constituency elects one Member of Parliament ( MP ) by the first past the post system of election . Following the review of parliamentary representation in Somerset , the Boundary Commission for England has created a modified Taunton constituency with the name change Taunton Deane , to reflect the district name For European Parliament elections , the town is included in the South West England constituency which elects six MEPs using the d 'Hondt method of party @-@ list proportional representation . = = Geography = = The town has many dependent villages including West Buckland , Langford Budville , Nynehead , Sampford Arundel and Sampford Moor . The formerly independent village of Rockwell Green , to the west of the town , has been incorporated into the town however there is still a green wedge of land in between them . Wellington Park was a gift from the Quaker Fox family to the town in 1903 as a memorial to the coronation of King Edward VII . The 4 @.@ 9 acres ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) gardens were laid out by F.W. Meyer , who included a rock garden which used 80 tons of limestone from Westleigh quarry near Burlescombe . It is Grade II listed on the English Heritage Register of Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in England . It was restored at a cost of £ 412 @,@ 827 which included a grant of £ 296 @,@ 500 from the Heritage Lottery Fund Public Parks Initiative . There are Local Nature Reserves at Wellington Basins on the western fringe of the town . It includes a small pond and boardwalk with a variety of wildlife habitats . The grassland , hedges and woodland are home to a varied flora and fauna including birds such as the grey wagtail , dipper and reed bunting . Five separate bat species have been recorded at the site . Swains Pond in the south of Wellington is another Local Nature Reserve , which used to be the site of orchards . It now includes a pond which provides a home for amphibians including the great crested newt , palmate newt and toads . = = = Climate = = = Wellington has an oceanic climate ( Köppen climate classification Cfb ) . Along with the rest of South West England , Wellington has a temperate climate which is generally wetter and milder than the rest of the country . The annual mean temperature is approximately 10 ° C ( 50 @.@ 0 ° F ) . Seasonal temperature variation is less extreme than most of the United Kingdom because of the adjacent sea temperatures . The summer months of July and August are the warmest with mean daily maxima of approximately 21 ° C ( 69 @.@ 8 ° F ) . In winter mean minimum temperatures of 1 ° C ( 33 @.@ 8 ° F ) or 2 ° C ( 35 @.@ 6 ° F ) are common . In the summer the Azores high pressure affects the south @-@ west of England , however convective cloud sometimes forms inland , reducing the number of hours of sunshine . Annual sunshine rates are slightly less than the regional average of 1 @,@ 600 hours . In December 1998 there were 20 days without sun recorded at Yeovilton . Most the rainfall in the south @-@ west is caused by Atlantic depressions or by convection . Most of the rainfall in autumn and winter is caused by the Atlantic depressions , which is when they are most active . In summer , a large proportion of the rainfall is caused by sun heating the ground leading to convection and to showers and thunderstorms . Average rainfall is around 700 mm ( 28 in ) . About 8 – 15 days of snowfall is typical . November to March have the highest mean wind speeds , and June to August have the lightest winds . The predominant wind direction is from the south @-@ west . = = Demography = = The town has a population of 13 @,@ 696 . Large growth occurred during the 1970s when housing developments were built on the south side of the town . These were largely prompted by Wellington 's proximity to Junction 26 of the M5 motorway . = = Economy = = Wellington 's main industry was wool @-@ making and in November 2009 , Deborah Meaden , best known from Dragons ' Den a BBC television programme , invested in the Fox Brothers ' Mill which produces wool cloth for Savile Row , designers and clients around the world . The Fox family established the mill in 1772 . The Tonedale mill complex includes two listed buildings , some of which were still being used until 2000 . The Prince 's Regeneration Trust have been supporting the Tone Mill Regeneration Partnership in attempting to preserve and regenerate the area with a mixed development for commercial and residential use . It is included in the Heritage at Risk Register produced by English Heritage . The last Fox family house in Wellington Tone Dale House is still owned by Ben and Victoria Fox , Ben is the Great @-@ Great @-@ Great @-@ Great @-@ Grandson of Thomas Fox . Tone Dale House ( since 1996 ) is also now run as a thriving events and hire venue , for house parties , anniversaries , weddings and corporate events , through their company The Big House Co . Local industries are celebrated at the Wellington Museum in Fore Street . Wellington was home of Fox , Fowler and Company , which was the last commercial bank permitted to print their own sterling banknotes in England and Wales . The town is still largely dependent on industry , notably its aerosol factory . Swallowfield plc benefited from the growth of own @-@ brand products during the 1970s and now produces aerosol , cosmetic and toiletry products . It was founded in 1876 as Walter Gregory & Co Ltd who manufactured animal husbandry products . The company diversified and in 1950 produced the first commercial aerosols in the UK which were basically farm products , air fresheners and insecticides . Bed manufacturers Relyon employ some 400 people . The company started in 1858 as a wool merchant , Price Brothers and Co . , but the business soon moved into manufacturing beds and in 1935 changed its name to Relyon Ltd . In 2001 it was acquired by Steinhoff International Holdings Ltd . , a quoted South African group . = = Transport = = The town was served by Wellington railway station on the Bristol and Exeter Railway from 1 May 1843 until 5 October 1964 . It was here that extra locomotives were attached to heavy trains to help them up the incline to Whiteball Tunnel on their way south . The railway from Penzance to London , and also to Bristol and the North , continue to pass through the town , but no trains stop . The nearest railway stations are Taunton and Tiverton Parkway . A campaign was started to reopen the railway station in 2009 . The town is close to junction 26 of the M5 motorway , which spent a year in the 1970s as a temporary terminal junction , whilst the motorway between junctions 26 and 27 was finished . The A38 is also still a very important link to Taunton . = = Education = = Wellington is home to a public school , Wellington School . It was founded in 1837 as an all @-@ boys school . A solitary day girl was allowed to join the Sixth Form in 1972 and the following year Wellington became co @-@ educational . The school opened a new junior school in 2000 , having previously only catered for pupils aged 10 and over . In December 2007 , the school commissioned its new multi @-@ purpose examination hall and English Department adjacent to its Sports Centre . Notable alumni of Wellington School include actor David Suchet , chef Keith Floyd and peer Lord Archer . The main secondary school in the town is Court Fields School . The 11 – 16 school includes a sports complex , completed in early 2008 . = = Religious sites = = Despite its small size , Wellington has historically been notable for its profusion of churches of many different denominations , including a Quaker meeting house , the Grade I listed , 15th century Church of St John the Baptist , which includes a monument to John Popham , and the Roman Catholic Church of St John Fisher which was built in 1606 as Popham 's Almshouses and converted into a Roman Catholic church 1936 . Also there was a Presbyterian Independent Church . = = Culture = = Wellington has its own amateur dramatic group , formed in the 1960s , called Wellington Arts Association , which holds productions both at Wellington Arts Centre and at the Wellesley Theatre . It includes the Genesis Youth Theatre Group , Operatic Society , Pantomime Group , Civic Players , Arcadians and the Spectrum Arts And Crafts . The Wellesley Cinema was built in 1937 , in the traditional Art Deco style of that period . The auditorium seats 400 people on two levels and is run as an independent cinema . Wellington and District Camera Club meets in the New Science Block , Wellington School . The club is affiliated to the Western Counties Photographic Federation ( W.C.P.F. ) and also to Wellington Arts Association , ( W.A.A. ) . The town also has its own weekly newspaper , the Wellington Weekly News , which was first published in 1860 . There is also a community website providing news and views about the town , Around Wellington . Wellington is twinned to the town of Immenstadt in Germany , the town of Lillebonne in France and Torres Vedras in Portugal . The town is home to Wellington Silver Band , a fourth section brass band . The band can trace its origins to 1887 , when it was formed from the volunteer band of the 2nd Battalion , Prince Albert 's Somersetshire Light Infantry . = = Sport = = Wellington Cricket Club have a ground off Courtland Road , and have two teams in the Somerset Cricket League . Wellington A.F.C. football Club was formed in 1892 and now play in the Western Football League . Wellington Bowmen is an archery club formed in 2001 . It uses facilities at the rugby club and at Court Fields Community School . The Rugby club itself was founded in 1874 . The first team plays in the Cornwall and Devon League . The Grand National winning horse , Miinnehoma was prepared for his victory in the 1994 race by Martin Pipe at his Pond House Stables in the town .
= Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2014 = The Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2014 was the 12th annual Junior Eurovision Song Contest , and took place , for the first time , in Malta . This was the third time that the contest was hosted by the previous year 's winning country . Maltese national broadcaster PBS was the host broadcaster for the event . The final took place on 15 November 2014 and was in the Malta Shipbuilding in Marsa , near Valletta . Moira Delia , a Maltese television personality , hosted the show , marking the first time in Junior Eurovision history that there was only one presenter of the show . A total of sixteen countries participated , with Italy , Montenegro and Slovenia making their débuts . The winner of the contest was Vincenzo Cantiello , who represented Italy with the song " Tu primo grande amore " . Bulgaria and Armenia finished in second and third place , respectively . This was Italy 's first victory in a Eurovision competition since the last edition of Jeux Sans Frontières in 1999 , and also marked the first time since the inaugural 2003 contest that a country had won in its débutante year . = = Location = = On 18 December 2013 , the Maltese national broadcaster Public Broadcasting Services ( PBS ) and the European Broadcasting Union ( EBU ) announced that the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2014 would take place in Malta . During the winner 's press conference , representatives of the Maltese broadcaster showed their desire to host the event , following the Maltese victory at the 2013 contest . Vladislav Yakovlev , the executive supervisor for the Junior Eurovision Song Contest , announced that there would be no host city for the contest , but that the island of Malta would be a host island instead . This was the first time Malta had hosted any of the Eurovision @-@ related events . On 16 June 2014 , the EBU confirmed that the 2014 contest would be held at three large former shipbuilding sheds of Malta Shipbuilding . The middle shed would be the main audience area and stage , while the two side sheds would be used as audience entrances and exits , restrooms , and refreshment stalls . In total , there was capacity for 4 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 500 people inside the buildings . = = Format = = = = = Graphic design = = = On 9 May 2014 , Anton Attard , CEO of the host broadcaster , revealed the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2014 logo and slogan . The slogan was " # together " , while the logo was inspired by the Maltese cross . Each of its coloured segments represented a feature of Malta : Sand , Sea , Stone , Grass , Sky , Dusk and Sunset . The postcards included a theme of " extreme sports " , and were partially filmed at the SmartCity Malta complex . The stage design was presented during the Heads of Delegations meeting held on 30 September 2014 . Gio 'Forma , a Milan @-@ based design company , was given the task of designing the stage for the 2014 contest . The stage used an origami @-@ like appearance , inspired by the triangle @-@ shaped 2014 Junior Eurovision logo . The venue itself was approximately 30 @,@ 000 m2 ( 320 @,@ 000 sq ft ) in size , and the production team moved in to the venue on 21 October . = = = Host = = = On 10 September 2014 , it was announced that Moira Delia would host the 2014 Contest . She is known in Malta for presenting editions of Malta Eurovision Song Contest , Malta 's national selection for the Eurovision Song Contest . She will be the first person to host the contest single @-@ handedly . = = = Running order = = = During the Heads of Delegations meeting in Malta on 30 September 2014 , the broadcaster PBS along with the production team sought permission to change the running order rule , which was to allow the artists to randomly select their position number ( a system used in 2013 ) . The agreed change was for the host country , Malta , to pick their position at random , followed by countries that were to open and close the show to be picked randomly . The remaining countries would then select at random whether they were to perform in the first or second half of the show . This draw took place during the opening ceremony , at the Verdala Palace on 9 November 2013 . A pre @-@ draw to decide the order in which countries would select their running order halves , took place on 7 November 2014 , hosted by Moira Delia , Vladislav Yakovlev , and Gaia Cauchi . PBS and the production team then decided the running order so that they could avoid similar entries performing consecutively . This method has been used in the senior contests since 2013 . The Executive Supervisor along with the Steering Group presented the finalised running order shortly after the opening ceremony . = = = Rehearsals = = = The national broadcaster , PBS , decided at the Heads of Delegations meeting on 30 September 2014 , that all participating countries would not have their rehearsals in running order ; allowing for school visits and personal trips of the participants to be carried out uninterruptedly , something which had not been done in previous years . = = = Voting = = = The voting system for 2014 was reverted to a system previously used in both the Junior and Senior contests prior to 2013 . Both the national juries and televoting awarded 1 to 8 points , 10 and then the maximum 12 points to their ten favourite songs . The way the votes were to be announced remained unchanged , the first seven points appeared on screen ; whilst spokespersons from each of the participating countries read out their top three points ( 8 , 10 , and 12 ) . On 30 October 2014 , the EBU announced that a new online voting system would be introduced for the 2014 contest , to allow countries from around the world to vote for their favourite entry . The votes were not used in the official voting results , but the country who received the most online votes was presented with the new " Online Voting Winner " award , during the winners presentation conference after the show . In order to prevent vote @-@ rigging , the online results were published via the Junior Eurovision website , after the show has concluded . Due to the website crashing the online voting award was not awarded . = = Participating countries = = On 30 September 2014 , it was confirmed that sixteen countries would be taking part in the contest . Débutante countries included , Italy , Montenegro , and Slovenia . Four countries returned to the Junior Contest , including Croatia after a seven @-@ year absence , Cyprus who last took part in 2009 , Serbia and Bulgaria after a three and two year absences respectively . = = = Results = = = = = Scoreboard = = Vincenzo Cantiello who represented Italy with the song " Tu primo grande amore " , was declared the winner after all the votes had been cast from all of the sixteen participating countries and the kids jury . Below is a full breakdown of how the votes were cast . = = = 12 points = = = All countries were given 12 points at the start of voting . This was so no country got nul points . Below is a summary of the split number one selection , by respectively each country 's jury and televoters in the Grand Final : San Marino and Slovenia voted only through juries . = = Other awards = = = = = Press vote = = = At the press center during the contest , members of the press were allowed to vote for their favourite acts . Below is the top five overall results , after all the votes had been cast . = = Other countries = = For a country to be eligible for potential participation in the Junior Eurovision Song Contest , it needs to be an active member of the European Broadcasting Union . It is unknown whether the EBU issue invitations of participation to all 56 active members like they do for the Eurovision Song Contest . Sixteen countries confirmed their participation in the 2014 contest . The following EBU active members announced their decisions as shown below . = = = Active EBU Members = = = Austria – On 17 July 2014 , the Austrian broadcaster Österreichischer Rundfunk ( ORF ) revealed that they would not be making their début at the 2014 Contest . Azerbaijan – On 30 September 2014 , it was revealed by the official list of participating countries that Azerbaijan were not participating at the contest in Malta . Belgium – The Flemish @-@ language children 's television channel , Ketnet ( owned and operated by the Vlaamse Radio- en Televisieomroep ( VRT ) ) has said that they are no longer interested in the Junior Eurovision Song Contest . Czech Republic – Česká televize ( ČT ) had said that they had not ruled out a participation in the contest . However , on 17 July 2014 they revealed they would not be making their début at the 2014 Contest . Denmark – Danish national broadcaster DR and commercial broadcaster TV 2 said that they had no plans to return to Junior Eurovision . Finland – A representative from the Swedish language broadcaster Yle Fem stated on 26 May 2014 that they would not be making a début at the 2014 contest . On 10 July , the Finnish language broadcaster Yleisradio ( Yle ) said that they wouldn 't participate either . Germany – The German broadcaster Norddeutscher Rundfunk ( NDR ) announced they would not début at the 2014 Contest as they believed the contest would not be a success under the German television marketing standards . However , they observed the 2014 Contest and may possibly début in the 2015 Contest . Greece – It was previously reported by Esc + Plus that Greece were going to participate in the 2014 Contest . However , on 7 July 2014 , the Greek broadcaster New Hellenic Radio , Internet and Television ( NERIT ) confirmed to the same web site that they would not be participating . Hungary – Despite being heavily rumoured to be planning a début for the 2014 Contest , on 9 July 2014 , the Hungarian broadcaster MTVA announced they would not be taking part in the contest . Iceland – Ríkisútvarpið ( RÚV ) , the Icelandic broadcaster , confirmed on 1 July 2014 , that they were not going to début in Junior Eurovision 2014 . Ireland – One of the Irish broadcasters , Raidió Teilifís Éireann ( RTÉ ) , announced in December 2013 that they do not have any interest in participating in the Junior Eurovision Song Contest , despite attending a steering group meeting . Another Irish broadcaster , TG4 , had shown interested in the contest but would require funding from the Broadcasting Authority of Ireland ( BAI ) . However , the BAI rejected such funding requests from TG4 in May 2014 , so the network stated that they would not be making their début in Malta . However , they would be working harder to ascertain such funding with high hopes to participate in the 2015 Contest . Latvia – On 17 July 2014 , the Latvian broadcaster Latvijas Televīzija ( LTV ) revealed they were not be returning to the contest in 2014 . Lithuania – On 18 June 2014 , Lithuanian National Radio and Television ( LRT ) announced that they would not take part in the 2014 Contest in Malta . Macedonia – On 4 September 2014 , it was confirmed that Macedonia had withdrawn from the 2014 contest . Moldova – On 30 September 2014 , it was revealed by the official list of participating countries that Moldova were not participating at the contest in Malta . Norway – The Norwegian broadcaster , Norsk Rikskringkasting ( NRK ) , stated on 18 December 2013 that Norway won 't return in 2014 . Poland – The Polish broadcaster , Telewizja Polska ( TVP ) , had announced on 5 August 2014 that Poland won 't return to the contest in 2014 . Portugal – Despite initially confirming their participation in the contest on 28 July 2014 , the Portuguese broadcaster , Rádio e Televisão de Portugal ( RTP ) , announced on 4 September 2014 that Portugal would not return to the contest in 2014 . Romania – Bianca Dinescu , a representative of the Romanian broadcaster Romanian Television ( TVR ) , had stated in an interview that Romania were considering a return to the contest , after being absent since 2009 . However , on 2 August 2014 , it was confirmed that Romania were not returning in 2014 , but TVR said that they have high hopes to return in 2015 . Spain – During the Eurovision Song Contest 2014 in Copenhagen , the head of the Spanish delegation , Federico Llano said that Televisión Española ( TVE ) was not planning to participate in the 2014 Contest . If Spain were to return in the future , open castings and auditions would be held across the country . Switzerland – Radiotelevisione svizzera ( RSI ) the Swiss broadcaster have confirmed to Eurovoix that they were not returning in 2014 . United Kingdom – ITV ( Independent Television ) and the British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC ) had announced that they would not bring back the United Kingdom in 2014 . Also both Channel 4 and the Welsh language broadcaster Sianel Pedwar Cymru ( S4C ) confirmed that they too would not bring the United Kingdom back to Junior Eurovision . = = = Non @-@ active EBU Members = = = In August 2014 , executive supervisor Yakolev said that he was investigating the possibility of allowing commercial networks , who are not members of the EBU , to field contestants . Spain – According to the Junior Eurovision official Twitter account , the European Broadcasting Union were negotiating with Spanish private TV channels to manage the return of Spain to the contest . On 28 September 2014 , it was announced that a decision about allowing private TV channels to take part hasn 't been taken in time for this edition . = = International broadcasts and voting = = The order in which each country announces their votes was in the order of performance . Details of the running order were published by the EBU after the ' Welcome Reception ' on 9 November 2014 . The spokespersons are shown below alongside each participating country . Gaia Cauchi announced the points from the ' Kids Jury.' = = = Voting and spokespersons = = = = = = Commentators = = = Most countries sent commentators to Malta , while others commentated from their own country , in order to add insight to the participants and , were necessary , provision of voting information . Participating countries Non @-@ participating countries The following non @-@ participating countries also sent commentators to Malta for radio and television broadcasts of the contest . United States – Ewan Spence ( KCGW ( Williams Life Radio ) ; and WXDR ( Delgado ’ s Dolphin Radio ) ) = = Official album = = Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2014 : Malta , is a compilation album put together by the European Broadcasting Union , and was released by Universal Music Group on 3 November 2014 . The album features all the songs from the 2014 contest , along with karaoke versions .
= 2010 PapaJohns.com Bowl = The 2010 PapaJohns.com Bowl was a postseason college football bowl game between the Connecticut Huskies ( UConn ) of the Big East Conference and the South Carolina Gamecocks of the Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) , on January 2 , 2010 at Legion Field in Birmingham , Alabama . The game was the final contest of the 2009 NCAA Division I @-@ Football Bowl Subdivision ( Division I @-@ FBS ) football season for both teams , and it ended in a 20 – 7 victory for Connecticut . Connecticut was selected to play in the 2010 PapaJohns.com Bowl following a tumultuous 7 – 5 regular season that included five losses by a total of just fifteen points , a double @-@ overtime victory at Notre Dame , and the murder of cornerback Jasper Howard . The Huskies faced South Carolina , who also had 7 – 5 regular @-@ season , highlighted by wins over then @-@ No. 4 Mississippi and then @-@ No. 15 Clemson . Pregame coverage focused on the tragedy that marked the Huskies ' season , as well as on head coaches Randy Edsall of Connecticut and Steve Spurrier of South Carolina . Connecticut scored twice in the first quarter : on a one @-@ handed 37 @-@ yard touchdown reception by wide receiver Kashif Moore and then on a 33 @-@ yard field goal after South Carolina failed to convert a fourth @-@ down play at its 32 @-@ yard line . Running back Andre Dixon scored for UConn on a 10 @-@ yard rush early in the fourth quarter . South Carolina scored its sole touchdown after the game had effectively been decided , on a two @-@ yard run by Brian Maddox . Dixon was named player of the game , and finished with 126 rushing yards and one touchdown . Connecticut wide receiver Marcus Easley and South Carolina linebacker Eric Norwood were among four players from the teams to be selected in the subsequent 2010 National Football League ( NFL ) Draft . = = Team selection = = In 2010 , the PapaJohns.com Bowl selection committee had a contractual arrangement with the Big East and the SEC that allowed the committee to pick one team from each conference . The Big East had had a contractual bowl bid to the game since its inception in 2006 . The SEC agreed to send its ninth bowl @-@ eligible team to the bowl starting in 2008 , but did not have enough bowl @-@ eligible teams in either 2008 or 2009 to take advantage of the bid . In 2010 , the SEC received $ 900 @,@ 000 for sending a team to the game , while the Big East received $ 600 @,@ 000 . The Big East 's contract with the bowl committee stated that the group would make its selection in coordination with the International Bowl and the St. Petersburg Bowl after other Big East @-@ affiliated bowl games made their selections . Conference champion Cincinnati was awarded an automatic Bowl Championship Series ( BCS ) berth in the 2010 Sugar Bowl . The Gator Bowl had the first pick after the BCS , and selected West Virginia . The Meineke Car Care Bowl , which had the next selection , considered both Pittsburgh , which had the better regular @-@ season record , and Rutgers , whose fans had a better traveling reputation ; it selected Pittsburgh . Three bowl @-@ eligible Big East teams remained : Connecticut , Rutgers , and South Florida . The previous two years , Rutgers had played in the 2008 International Bowl and the 2008 PapaJohns.com Bowl . In the same period , South Florida played in the 2007 PapaJohns.com Bowl and the 2008 St. Petersburg Bowl . Connecticut had played in the 2009 International Bowl the previous year . In general , bowl games and conferences prefer to have different teams play in each game each year . Partly because of this , Rutgers went to the 2009 St. Petersburg Bowl , South Florida to the 2010 International Bowl , and Connecticut to the 2010 PapaJohns.com Bowl . For Connecticut 's opponent , the PapaJohns.com Bowl had the right to select a SEC team , but only after all other bowls with contracts with the SEC made their selections . Conference champion Alabama finished No. 1 in the BCS standings and earned a berth to the 2010 BCS National Championship Game . Conference championship game loser Florida took the SEC champion 's automatic slot in the 2010 Sugar Bowl , vacant since Alabama was selected to appear in the national championship game . The Capital One Bowl had the next selection and opted for Louisiana State University ( LSU ) . The Cotton Bowl and Outback Bowl selected Ole Miss and Auburn respectively . The Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl , which had the next pick , selected Tennessee . The next selections were shared by the Liberty Bowl and Music City Bowl , which opted for Arkansas and Kentucky , respectively . The Independence Bowl , with the next @-@ to @-@ last selection , picked Georgia , leaving the PapaJohns.com Bowl with the last available bowl @-@ eligible SEC team , South Carolina . The game was the first meeting between the two schools and the first PapaJohns.com Bowl appearance for each . The game was the 30th anniversary of South Carolina 's last postseason game at Legion Field , in the December 1979 Hall of Fame Bowl , and it was the 20th anniversary of head coach Steve Spurrier 's last Legion Field bowl game , with Duke in the December 1989 All @-@ American Bowl . = = = Connecticut = = = The Connecticut Huskies finished 8 – 5 in 2008 , ending the season with a victory in the 2009 International Bowl . The departure of running back Donald Brown — the NCAA rushing leader in 2008 — as well as three other Huskies selected in the first two rounds of the 2009 NFL Draft , was expected to hurt the team . In the Big East preseason media poll , the Huskies were picked to finish sixth in the conference . = = = = Early season = = = = The Huskies opened the 2009 season at Ohio University , and never trailed in the game , winning 23 – 16 . UConn 's next game was its home opener , versus No. 19 North Carolina . Connecticut led 10 – 0 through three quarters , but North Carolina tied the game with 2 : 36 left and took the lead when UConn was called for a holding penalty in its end zone , which by rule resulted in a safety . North Carolina won the game 12 – 10 . Connecticut rebounded in its next game at Baylor , winning 30 – 22 ; they then faced Division I @-@ Football Championship Subdivision ( Division I @-@ FCS ) opponent Rhode Island , an historic rival of the team , and defeated them 52 – 10 . The Huskies opened Big East conference play at the Pittsburgh Panthers . UConn held a 21 – 6 lead with less than four minutes left in the third quarter , but Pittsburgh rallied to win with a field goal as time expired . Connecticut closed the first half of its season versus Big East opponent Louisville on homecoming weekend . In the third quarter , with UConn leading 21 – 13 , Louisville running back Bilal Powell ran off left tackle near the end zone . He was caught by cornerback Jasper Howard , who forced a fumble . Connecticut kicked a field goal on the ensuing drive and won the game 38 – 25 , giving the Huskies a 4 – 2 overall record , 1 – 1 within the Big East conference . = = = = Jasper Howard murder = = = = Later that night , Howard and several other UConn football players were at a dance at the Student Union Center on the Connecticut campus . At 12 : 26 am a fire alarm sounded , forcing the evacuation of the building . As the students exited , an altercation broke out between a group of UConn football players and a group of non @-@ students . The attackers brandished knives and stabbed Howard before fleeing . Howard was taken by ambulance to Windham Community Memorial Hospital , and then evacuated by helicopter to St. Francis Hospital in Hartford , where he was pronounced dead . Coach Randy Edsall was summoned to identify the body . Howard 's murder was the first homicide on UConn 's campus in more than thirty years . Connecticut 's next game , one week after Howard 's death , was at West Virginia . In a close @-@ run game , Connecticut lost 28 – 24 after West Virginia responded to the Huskies ' late go @-@ ahead score with one of its own . Two days after the game , the entire UConn team traveled to Howard 's hometown of Miami , Florida , for his funeral . The next game , the first at Rentschler Field since Howard 's death , was against Rutgers . Connecticut came back in the fourth quarter to take a 24 – 21 lead with 38 seconds remaining ; Rutgers completed an 81 @-@ yard touchdown pass one play later to win 28 – 24 . UConn also lost the game that followed , 47 – 45 , at undefeated No. 5 Cincinnati . After three straight losses , the Huskies ' record dropped to 4 – 5 overall ; 1 – 4 in the Big East . The losses to this point were by a combined total of 15 points . = = = = Late season = = = = Connecticut 's next game was a nationally @-@ televised appearance at the Notre Dame Fighting Irish . The Irish scored two touchdowns early but the Huskies responded with a touchdown and a field goal . Notre Dame expanded its lead to 17 – 10 in the third quarter , but Todman ran back the ensuing kickoff 96 yards for a game @-@ tying touchdown . In the fourth quarter , Notre Dame once again took the lead on a 23 @-@ yard field goal ; after two touchdown @-@ scoring running plays were negated by holding penalties , Connecticut tied the score on a 29 @-@ yard field goal with 1 : 10 left , sending the game into overtime . The teams traded touchdowns in the first overtime , and the Huskies won the game with a touchdown in the second overtime . Edsall stated that the game was the " best win " in UConn football history . Connecticut finished the regular season by beating Syracuse and South Florida at home . The South Florida game , played as snow fell on Rentschler Field , was won on a last @-@ second 42 @-@ yard field goal by kicker Dave Teggart . The two wins gave UConn a final regular season record of 7 – 5 overall , 3 – 4 in the Big East . They finished in a three @-@ way tie with Rutgers and South Florida for fourth place in the conference . = = = South Carolina = = = The South Carolina Gamecocks went 7 – 6 in 2008 , losing their final three games , including the 2009 Outback Bowl against Iowa , by a combined score of 118 – 30 . Steve Spurrier was named head coach of the Gamecocks in 2005 ; in his four seasons in charge of the program , the team had a combined record of 28 – 21 and was bowl @-@ eligible every year . = = = = Early season = = = = South Carolina opened its 2009 season with a win against North Carolina State . Their next game , against No. 21 Georgia , featured a kickoff returned for a touchdown , an interception returned for a touchdown , a safety , a blocked extra point attempt , and 24 penalties . In the end , quarterback Stephen Garcia 's pass on 4th @-@ and @-@ 4 from the 7 @-@ yard line with 22 seconds remaining was batted down by the defense and fell incomplete , preserving a 41 – 37 win for Georgia . South Carolina proceeded to beat Florida Atlantic 38 – 16 . In their next contest , South Carolina faced No. 4 Mississippi , and came away with a 16 – 10 upset ; the Gamecocks had lost their previous 22 games against AP top 5 teams . Next up was a win against in @-@ state Division I @-@ FCS opponent South Carolina State With the victory , the Gamecocks earned their first Top 25 ranking of the 2009 season , appearing in the AP Poll at No. 25 . South Carolina finished the first half of their season against SEC opponent Kentucky . Defensive end Cliff Matthews knocked down Kentucky 's pass attempt on what would have been a game @-@ tying two @-@ point conversion to preserve the 28 – 26 win . After six games , the Gamecocks had a record of 5 – 1 overall , 2 – 1 in the SEC , and were a consensus No. 22 in the AP , Coaches ' , and Harris polls . = = = = Late season = = = = After winning five of their first six games , the Gamecocks proceeded to lose four of their next five . Against No. 2 Alabama , eventual Heisman Trophy @-@ winning running back Mark Ingram ran for a then @-@ career record 246 yards and a touchdown ; South Carolina lost 20 – 6 . The defeat dropped the Gamecocks to No. 23 in the AP and Coaches ' polls , and out of the Harris poll altogether ; in the first BCS standings released that week , the Gamecocks were ranked 24th . South Carolina came back to beat Vanderbilt 14 – 10 ; the Gamecocks rose to No. 21 in all three polls , and No. 22 in the following week 's BCS standings . The next game , against Tennessee , was never close ; South Carolina fell behind 21 – 0 early in the second quarter and lost 31 – 13 . The loss caused the Gamecocks to fall out of all three polls as well as the BCS standings . South Carolina then faced Arkansas , who scored 23 unanswered points on their way to delivering the Gamecocks a 33 – 16 loss . The following game was against No. 1 Florida , who was undefeated . South Carolina was within three points of Florida as the fourth quarter began , but Garcia was subsequently sacked four times and intercepted twice ; Florida won 24 – 14 . The Gamecocks ' record fell to 6 – 5 overall , 3 – 5 within the SEC . After a bye week , South Carolina closed out their regular season with a game against their fierce in @-@ state rivals , the No. 15 Clemson Tigers , who had already clinched a berth in the 2009 ACC Championship Game that would be played the next week . Clemson star running back C. J. Spiller returned the opening kickoff for a touchdown ; he was held to 18 yards rushing the rest of the game . The Gamecocks scored 24 unanswered points to take a 24 – 7 lead through three quarters , and matched the Tigers the rest of the way to win 34 – 17 . This win gave South Carolina a final regular season record of 7 – 5 overall , 3 – 5 in the SEC . = = Pregame buildup = = In the weeks preceding the game , media coverage focused on the tragic circumstances surrounding the Huskies ' season . On December 21 , 2010 , the team was declared the winner of the 2009 FedEx Orange Bowl / FWAA Courage Award , given to a person or team who displayed courage on or off the field , overcame injury or physical handicap , prevented a disaster , or lived through hardship . The award was presented at the 2010 Orange Bowl on January 5 , 2011 , following the PapaJohns.com Bowl . Edsall was praised for coaching the Huskies to a successful season despite the off @-@ field distractions . By appearing in the 2010 PapaJohns.com Bowl , UConn made its third straight bowl appearance and fourth since joining the Big East for the 2004 season . There were rumors that Edsall was a candidate for the Notre Dame head coaching position , vacated by the firing of Charlie Weis . On December 11 , Cincinnati coach Brian Kelly was given the Notre Dame job ; Edsall remained with Connecticut . Pregame coverage also discussed the performance of Steve Spurrier as head coach of South Carolina . His Gamecock teams had been competitive in the SEC , but were unable to win championships ; during his tenure to that point , they had finished no higher than second in the SEC East division . Nevertheless , analysts described him as one of " the game 's better minds and motivators " and " still one of the craftiest coaches around " . The 2010 PapaJohns.com Bowl marked Spurrier 's return to Birmingham ; in the United States Football League he competed against the local Birmingham Stallions as head coach of the Tampa Bay Bandits from 1983 to 1985 . Legion Field was also the home of the 1992 and 1993 SEC Championship Games ; teams coached by Spurrier participated in both contests . = = = Offensive matchups = = = = = = = Connecticut offense = = = = The Connecticut offense was led by the rushing attack of running backs Jordan Todman and Andre Dixon , who were described as " one of the best running @-@ back tandems in the nation " . The two combined for 27 touchdowns and more than 2 @,@ 100 rushing yards during the regular season . South Carolina linebacker Eric Norwood described Todman as a speedy back , with " that burst and that breakaway speed to go with it " , and compared him to Clemson running back C. J. Spiller . In contrast , Norwood described Dixon as a " taller , more downhill back , vertical guy " . In previous seasons , UConn had been largely dependent on running the ball ; the team developed more balance in 2009 , ranking 41st of 120 Division I FBS teams nationally in rushing offense and 46th in passing . Marcus Easley 's emergence as a productive wide receiver was key to the development of the Huskies ' passing attack . A former walk @-@ on who entered the season with only five career receptions , he led Connecticut in receiving in 2009 with 44 catches for 853 yards and eight touchdowns . Quarterback Zach Frazer was inconsistent in the early season . He was injured in the game against North Carolina , but regained his starting role after backup Cody Endres was hurt in the Rutgers game later in the season . In UConn 's four games before the bowl , Frazer performed well ; he threw six touchdown passes against only two interceptions and helped the Huskies score an average of 41 points per game . Experts felt Frazer would need to have a good performance for Connecticut to have a chance to win . = = = = South Carolina offense = = = = The Gamecocks struggled offensively for most of 2009 , ranking only 76th in total offense and 96th in scoring . Their offense was quarterbacked by Stephen Garcia . A highly touted prospect coming out of high school , Garcia had a breakout season in 2009 , finishing second in the SEC with 2 @,@ 733 passing yards — more than former Heisman Trophy @-@ winning Florida quarterback Tim Tebow — and 17 touchdowns against nine interceptions . Freshman wide receiver Alshon Jeffery was Garcia 's most frequent passing target ; he caught 43 passes for 735 yards and six touchdowns . Although South Carolina 's passing attack had success , its running game was the worst in the SEC and 91st nationally . The Gamecocks ' offensive line struggled , ranking 104th in sacks allowed . It did not help matters that Eric Wolford , the running game coordinator and offensive line coach , left the team before the bowl game to become head coach at Youngstown State . = = = Defensive matchups = = = = = = = Connecticut defense = = = = Connecticut had a weaker defense in 2010 than in previous seasons . The Huskies were 72nd in total defense , 60th in scoring defense , 48th against the run , and 94th against the pass . UConn 's pass defense was hurt by the loss of Jasper Howard ; following his death , freshman cornerback Blidi @-@ Wreh Wilson was forced into the starting lineup alongside senior Robert McClain . Top performers for the Connecticut defense included defensive end Lindsey Witten , who led the Big East with 11 @.@ 5 sacks , and linebacker Lawrence Wilson , who led the Big East and was fourth in the nation with 136 tackles , averaging over 11 per game . = = = = South Carolina defense = = = = South Carolina had a strong defense , especially against the pass ; the Gamecocks were 15th in the nation in total defense , 22nd in scoring defense , 46th in run defense , and 12th in passing defense . The Gamecock defense was led by linebacker Eric Norwood . Described as " one of the most disruptive defenders in the country " , Norwood was a three @-@ time All @-@ SEC selection and had compiled seven sacks on the season , tied for third @-@ best in the conference . He was South Carolina 's all @-@ time leader in both sacks and tackles for loss . = = Game summary = = The game started at 1 : 04 pm CST on Saturday , January 2 , 2010 , at Legion Field in Birmingham , Alabama . Official attendance for the game was 45 @,@ 254 . The Gamecocks sold 8 @,@ 593 tickets of their 10 @,@ 000 @-@ ticket allotment ; South Carolina coach Steve Spurrier estimated about 30 @,@ 000 of the fans in attendance supported the Gamecocks . UConn sold or distributed only 4 @,@ 500 of its 10 @,@ 000 tickets for the game . The game was telecast on ESPN , with Dave Neal and Andre Ware in the broadcasting booth and Cara Capuano reporting from the sidelines . The temperature at kickoff was around 35 ° F ( 2 ° C ) , abnormally cold for Birmingham at that time of year . Game officials were : = = = First quarter = = = Connecticut kicked off to South Carolina to begin the game . The Gamecocks gained only a single yard in three plays on their first possession , forcing them to punt the ball back to the Huskies . UConn proceeded to also gain only one yard ; they punted the ball back to South Carolina . After another Gamecock punt , the Huskies took over at their 34 @-@ yard line and earned a first down — the first of the game — after three consecutive Dixon rushing plays . Two completed passes to Marcus Easley earned Connecticut a second first down , moving them to the South Carolina 39 @-@ yard line . After a two @-@ yard Jordan Todman run and an incomplete pass , Zach Frazer threw a pass down the right sideline ahead of Kashif Moore . Reaching out , Moore made a one @-@ handed running catch into the end zone for the first touchdown of the game . After the extra point conversion , Connecticut led 7 – 0 with 6 : 37 left in the quarter . South Carolina regained possession on their 26 @-@ yard line following the kickoff , but was only able to advance the ball nine yards in three plays . Rather than punt the ball , the Gamecocks attempted to gain a first down on 4th @-@ and @-@ 1 at the 32 @-@ yard line . Steven Garcia 's quarterback sneak attempt was stopped for no gain by the UConn defense , returning the ball to Connecticut on loss of downs . The Huskies began their next drive in a favorable position due to the Gamecocks ' turnover on downs . A 16 @-@ yard run by Todman advanced the ball to the South Carolina 16 @-@ yard line , where Connecticut 's offense was stymied by South Carolina 's defense . Dave Teggart made a 33 @-@ yard field goal , giving the Huskies a 10 – 0 lead with 3 : 35 left in the quarter . On the ensuing possession , South Carolina again went three @-@ and @-@ out , punting the ball to Connecticut . The Huskies began driving down the field , collecting two first downs before the first quarter ended . At the end of the first quarter , UConn held a 10 – 0 lead . = = = Second quarter = = = Beginning the second quarter with a 1st @-@ and @-@ 10 at their 44 @-@ yard line , Connecticut failed to make progress and punted . After the Gamecocks again went three @-@ and @-@ out and punted , the Huskies tried a trick pass from Todman to Easley that fell incomplete . After that , the Huskies advanced the ball off short runs by Dixon and Todman , and passes from Frazer to Easley and Moore . South Carolina stopped UConn 's drive at the 27 @-@ yard line ; Connecticut settled for a 44 @-@ yard field goal that extended its lead to 13 – 0 . Garcia led the Gamecocks on their next drive , either passing or rushing himself on every play except the last . After a first @-@ down sack by Kendall Reyes pushed South Carolina back to its 18 @-@ yard line , the Gamecocks advanced the ball to the Connecticut 35 @-@ yard line . On 4th @-@ and @-@ 10 , Stephen Flint was tackled nine yards behind the line of scrimmage , returning the ball to UConn on loss of downs . The two teams traded punts until halftime ; Connecticut still held a 13 – 0 lead . = = = Third quarter = = = The Huskies received the ball to start the half , but were unable to obtain a first down after three straight running plays . UConn punted ; South Carolina was called for roughing the kicker , giving Connecticut a first down after the penalty . After two plays netted no yardage , UConn threw a pass on 3rd @-@ and @-@ 10 that fell incomplete . The Gamecocks were called for a personal foul , again giving the Huskies a first down . Connecticut advanced the ball to the South Carolina 26 @-@ yard line , but Frazer fumbled ; the ball was recovered by South Carolina . The Gamecocks responded with a drive that earned two first downs . After a sack on third down by Lawrence Wilson , South Carolina punted . The Gamecocks got the ball back on their 8 @-@ yard line after the Huskies went three @-@ and @-@ out . After two first downs and a 15 @-@ yard personal foul penalty against it , South Carolina faced a 1st @-@ and @-@ 10 on its 26 @-@ yard line . Garcia fumbled , and the ball was recovered by Scott Lutrus of UConn at the 35 @-@ yard line . Four Dixon rushing plays advanced the ball to the 24 @-@ yard line ; the quarter expired with the Huskies leading 13 – 0 and in good position to expand their margin . = = = Fourth quarter = = = Less than two minutes into the fourth quarter , UConn struck again . On his fifth run of the quarter , Dixon rushed into the end zone from ten yards out , giving Connecticut a 20 – 0 lead and effectively putting the game away as South Carolina would need three scores to take the lead . The two teams exchanged three @-@ and @-@ outs before South Carolina began a drive that penetrated Connecticut territory ; however , South Carolina was soon pushed back to its 47 @-@ yard @-@ line . On 4th @-@ and @-@ 19 , Garcia threw a deep pass that was intercepted by safety Robert Vaughn on the UConn 7 @-@ yard line . After three Dixon runs failed to get a first down , Connecticut punted ; the kick by Desi Cullen was partially blocked , and South Carolina recovered the ball at the UConn 40 @-@ yard line . Garcia promptly completed his deepest pass of the game , a 38 @-@ yard connection to wide receiver D.L. Moore . The Gamecocks scored on the next play , a two @-@ yard run by Brian Maddox , which ended the Huskies ' bid for a shutout . South Carolina attempted an onside kick to retain possession , but Connecticut recovered the ball . Dixon drove UConn to within the Gamecock 2 @-@ yard line ; rather than running up the score , the Huskies were content to run out the clock . Connecticut won the game 20 – 7 . = = = Scoring summary = = = = = Final statistics = = For his performance in the 2010 PapaJohns.com Bowl , Connecticut running back Andre Dixon was named the player of the game . Dixon rushed for 126 yards and a touchdown on 33 carries , giving him 1 @,@ 093 rushing yards on the year ; he became the 12th UConn player to rush for 1 @,@ 000 yards in a single season . Jordan Todman carried the ball nine times for 36 yards ; his 1 @,@ 118 rushing yards on the season made Connecticut one of three teams in Division I @-@ FBS to have at least two players rush for over 1 @,@ 000 yards in 2009 . Wide receiver Kashif Moore was credited with one rushing attempt for one yard , while quarterback Zach Frazer carried the ball twice for a loss of 13 yards . In the UConn passing game , Frazer completed 9 of 21 passes for 107 yards and a touchdown , with no interceptions . Todman attempted one pass that fell incomplete . Marcus Easley caught four passes for 40 yards ; Moore caught two passes for 40 yards and a touchdown . Moore had two pass receptions for 26 yards , while Todman caught one pass for a single yard . For South Carolina , quarterback Stephen Garcia completed 16 of 38 passes for 129 yards and no touchdowns . He threw one interception , to Connecticut safety Robert Vaughn ; this was the fifth consecutive game in which Garcia had thrown an interception . He turned over the ball a second time on a fumble recovered by UConn . Garcia was also the Gamecocks ' leading rusher ; he ran the ball 15 times for 56 yards . The South Carolina rushing attack was supplemented by running backs Kenny Miles , who had six carries for 24 yards ; Bryce Sherman , who had two carries for three yards ; and Brian Maddox , who had two carries for two yards and scored the Gamecocks ' only touchdown . Wide receiver Stephen Flint lost nine yards on one rushing attempt . In the receiving game , wide receiver D. L. Moore led the team in yardage , with 38 yards on one reception . The leading Gamecock receiver of the season , Alshon Jeffery , had three catches for 28 yards , all in the first half . Running back Kenny Miles had four receptions for 23 yards , while wide receiver Jason Barnes had two catches for 21 yards . Garcia 's remaining passes were caught by wide receiver Tori Gurley , who had three catches for 14 yards ; Moe Brown , who caught one pass for 12 yards ; and tight end Weslye Saunders , who lost seven yards on two receptions . South Carolina did not gain a first down until its second drive of the second quarter , when Garcia completed a 19 @-@ yard pass to Alshon Jeffrey on 3rd @-@ and @-@ 16 . Maddox 's late touchdown allowed the Gamecocks to avoid their first shutout in three seasons . UConn did not commit a single penalty . = = Aftermath = = With the win , Connecticut finished the season with a final record of 8 – 5 ; South Carolina fell to 7 – 6 . Financially , both teams roughly broke even on the game : the Huskies were given an expense allowance of about $ 1 @.@ 2 million from the Big East and spent just over $ 1 million , while the Gamecocks received just under $ 1 million from the SEC and spent about $ 900 @,@ 000 . In the postgame press conference , South Carolina coach Steve Spurrier said : " The first thing I want to do , and hopefully half the team does , is apologize to about 30 @,@ 000 Gamecocks that came down here to see a football game , and we couldn 't put one on . I thought we were ready to play . I thought we practiced pretty well . But obviously our offense was very sad , our defense not as good as it 's been most of the time . We thoroughly got beat by a better team , a better @-@ disciplined team . " Throughout the offseason , Spurrier apologized for his team 's performance , held himself accountable for the loss , and promised the team would perform significantly better the next season . Acknowledging that the team had underperformed expectations , he promised he would resign or retire rather than let the program degenerate to the point where he might be fired or forced out . Both teams made assistant coaching changes in the offseason . Less than 24 hours after the conclusion of the PapaJohns.com Bowl , South Carolina announced new offensive line coach Shawn Elliott , who previously worked at Appalachian State . Two Connecticut assistants left for other jobs : defensive backs coach Scott Lakatos went to Georgia , while tight ends coach Dave McMichael departed for West Virginia . They were replaced with new defensive backs coach Darrell Perkins , who previously coached at Louisiana @-@ Monroe , and new tight ends coach Jonathan Wholley , a member of the UConn football team between 2001 – 04 who most recently coached at Fordham . The Gamecocks performed better in 2010 . With a 36 – 14 win over Florida , South Carolina won the SEC East division and clinched a spot in the SEC Championship Game for the first time in school history . South Carolina finished 2010 on a down note , however , as they lost the championship game 56 – 17 to eventual 2011 BCS National Championship Game winner Auburn and then lost the 2010 Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl 26 – 17 to Florida State . Connecticut began the 2010 season with a 30 – 10 loss at Michigan . They dropped to 3 – 4 after seven games with losses to Temple , Rutgers , and Louisville as Zach Frazer was benched and Cody Endres was dismissed from the team . Frazer returned as the starter and the Huskies turned their season around by winning five straight games , good enough to win a share of the Big East conference championship and the right to play in a BCS bowl , even though they were not ranked in the final BCS standings . UConn played in the 2011 Fiesta Bowl , losing 48 – 20 to Oklahoma . Following the game , coach Randy Edsall left the Huskies to take the head coaching position at Maryland . Multiple players from the 2010 PapaJohns.com Bowl went on to play professional football ; both teams had two players selected in the 2010 National Football League ( NFL ) Draft . For UConn , wide receiver Marcus Easley was selected in the fourth round by the Buffalo Bills , and cornerback Robert McClain was selected in the seventh round by the Carolina Panthers . Gamecock linebacker Eric Norwood was selected in the fourth round by the Panthers . Defensive end Clifton Geathers , selected in the sixth round by the Cleveland Browns , was the other South Carolina player drafted . The 2010 PapaJohns.com Bowl was the final game by that name . Although Papa John 's had an option to renew its sponsorship for two years , it decided not to because of rising costs . The company instead opted to refocus its marketing dollars on the NFL and its sponsorship of Louisville 's home field , Papa John 's Cardinal Stadium . The game 's name changed to the BBVA Compass Bowl starting with the 2011 contest . Per the bowl 's website , the 2010 PapaJohns.com Bowl remains the game in the bowl series with the greatest economic impact , at $ 18 @.@ 4 million .
= Batman : Mask of the Phantasm = Batman : Mask of the Phantasm ( also known as Batman : The Animated Movie ) is a 1993 American animated neo @-@ noir superhero mystery film featuring the DC Comics character Batman , and is based on the 1990s Batman : The Animated Series . Released by Warner Bros. , the film was directed by Eric Radomski and Bruce Timm , produced by Alan Burnett , Michael Uslan , Benjamin Melniker and Timm , and has a screenplay credited to Burnett , Paul Dini , Martin Pasko and Michael Reaves . Phantasm features the vocal talents of Kevin Conroy , Mark Hamill and Efrem Zimbalist , Jr . ( all reprising their roles from The Animated Series ) , in addition to the voices of Dana Delany , Hart Bochner , Stacy Keach and Abe Vigoda . The film 's storyline introduces Andrea Beaumont , Bruce Wayne 's former girlfriend , who returns to Gotham City , restarting their romance . Two weeks prior to her return , a new mysterious vigilante begins systematically murdering Gotham 's crime bosses . Due to the person 's dark appearance , he is mistaken for Batman . Now on the run from the police , the Dark Knight must apprehend the killer , clear his name , and deal with the romance between himself and Andrea . The original idea was to release the film as direct @-@ to @-@ video , but Warner Bros. ultimately decided for a theatrical release , giving the filmmakers a strenuous eight @-@ month schedule . Mask of the Phantasm was released on December 25 , 1993 to widespread acclaim from critics , who praised the film for its animation style , dialogue and acting . However , due to the decision to release the film in theaters on such short notice , it failed at the box office . After its release on home video the film has found cult success and developed a cult following . In 2010 , IGN said Mask of the Phantasm was " the Dark Knight 's best big screen story " until Batman Begins ( 2005 ) and ranked it as one of the best animated movies of all time . Time ranked it as one of the 10 best superhero movies ever , and Wired magazine named Kevin Conroy " the best Batman of all time " . The film 's success led to two direct @-@ to @-@ video standalone sequels , Batman & Mr. Freeze : SubZero and Batman : Mystery of the Batwoman . = = Plot = = During a conference of crime bosses held in a Gotham City skyscraper , gangster Chuckie Sol is killed by a mysterious cloaked figure , shortly after Batman bursts in on the meeting . Due to the killer 's resemblance to Batman , the Dark Knight is blamed for Sol 's death . Councilman Arthur Reeves tells the media that Batman is a public menace ( despite Commissioner Gordon 's protests ) , then later attends a party at the mansion of billionaire Bruce Wayne , Batman 's secret identity . Reeves teases Bruce about his bad luck with women and for having allowed an old girlfriend , Andrea Beaumont , to get away . In a flashback to 10 years before , Bruce meets Andrea in a cemetery while visiting his parents ' grave . That night , in one of his first crime @-@ fighting attempts , Bruce foils an armored car robbery while disguised in a black ski @-@ mask and leather jacket . Though he succeeds , he is discouraged that the criminals did not fear him . Around the same time , he begins a romance with Andrea . Eventually , Bruce decides to abandon his plan to become a crime @-@ fighting vigilante and proposes marriage to Andrea . Soon afterward , however , Andrea mysteriously leaves Gotham with her father , Carl Beaumont , ending her engagement to Bruce in a Dear John letter . Believing that he has lost his last chance of having a normal life , Bruce dons the mask of Batman for the first time . The mysterious killer finds and murders another gangster , Buzz Bronski . Around the same time , Batman discovers that Andrea has returned to Gotham for the first time in 10 years , and she ends up finding out that Bruce is Batman . Batman soon finds evidence linking Andrea 's father with gangster Salvatore Valestra , for whom both Sol and Bronski once worked as enforcers . When he visits Andrea to try to get more answers , she rebuffs him over the choices that he made while she was away . The killer later targets Valestra , who turns to the Joker for help . The killer arrives at Valestra 's house , and finds the gangster already dead at the Joker 's hands ; the house explodes , with the killer barely escaping . Batman pursues the killer , but is interrupted by the police , who try to arrest Batman . Andrea rescues Batman in her car , and they spend the night together at Wayne Manor . Andrea explains to Bruce that she and her father had left Gotham and had been hiding in Europe from the Valestra mob , to whom he owed a lot of money . Batman comes to suspect that Andrea 's father may be the killer , but later gets Reeves ( who was told of Batman 's innocence by the Joker before being poisoned by him , as he believed the Councilman to be the killer ) to confess that he told the Valestra mob where Beaumont was hiding in return for campaign contributions , and that the mob ordered Beaumont 's death . The killer tracks the Joker to his hideout — an abandoned world 's fair amusement park — and removes its ominous costume : the killer is Andrea , intent on avenging her father 's death at the hands of the Joker , who is revealed to be the last surviving member and professional hitman of the Valestra mob . Having already deduced her identity , and ready for her attack , the Joker fights her . Just before he can kill Andrea , Batman arrives and saves her from the Joker , and begs Andrea to give up her quest for revenge . She refuses , stating that the mob ruined her life by taking away her future with him ; she tells Batman that he himself is driven by revenge before disappearing . Batman battles with the Joker , a struggle that ends in a stalemate . Moments later , Andrea returns and seizes the Joker , bidding Batman goodbye before vanishing with the maniacally laughing clown in a cloud of smoke as the entire amusement park erupts in a series of rigged explosions . Batman barely escapes by falling into a waterway and being swept away to safety by the current . Alfred later consoles a heartbroken Bruce , telling him that no one could have helped Andrea . Bruce finds a locket containing a picture of himself and Andrea left behind in the Batcave . Meanwhile , Andrea is shown standing alone on the deck of a departing ocean liner . In the final scene , Batman stands alone on the top of a Gotham building ; when the Bat @-@ Signal appears in the sky , he swings off into the night to continue his war on crime . = = Cast = = Kevin Conroy as Bruce Wayne / Batman ; a billionaire industrialist whose parents were killed by a mugger when he was eight years old . After traveling the world for several years to seek the means to fight injustice , he returns to Gotham . At night , Bruce becomes Batman , Gotham City 's secret vigilante protector . Mark Hamill as Joker ; Batman 's most famous nemesis , who was once an assassin for Valestra , thus , he is implied to be responsible for the murder of Carl Beaumont . Valestra hires him to kill Batman , but the Joker kills Valestra instead . Hamill claims he took the opportunity of reprising his role from Batman : The Animated Series by way of creating new " laughing vocabularies . " Dana Delany as Andrea Beaumont ; a woman Bruce meets in the early years of his return to Gotham after traveling the world . The decision to propose to her in marriage leads to him abandoning his plans for becoming a vigilante . However , after she unexpectedly and mysteriously leaves Gotham , Bruce 's frustration leads him to becoming Batman . Delany 's voice performance in the film impressed the filmmakers , leading to her casting as Lois Lane in Superman : The Animated Series . Hart Bochner as City Councilman Arthur Reeves ; a corrupt city official who was once an intern for Carl Beaumont . He later becomes involved with Valestra 's gang in order to gain the influence to enter City Council , and told them where his former boss was hiding in return for campaign funds . Years later , Joker tracks him down and poisons him with his laughing gas . He last appears in the Gotham City Mental Hospital , having been driven insane by the Joker 's chemicals and possibly died as a result . Bochner 's father was the voice of Mayor Hamilton Hill in Batman : The Animated Series . Stacy Keach as Carl Beaumont ; Andrea 's father , who was secretly in business with the Valestra gang . He goes in debt to Valestra and flees to Europe with Andrea , but is later murdered by Valestra 's personal hitman , who would become the Joker . Keach also provided the voice for the " Phantasm " vigilante . Abe Vigoda as Salvatore Valestra ; a powerful crime boss who goes into business with Carl Beaumont , and threatens to kill him for embezzling money . Once Andrea returns , he is an old , decrepit man , dependent on an oxygen tank to live due to years of smoking . He hires the Joker to kill Batman , but the Joker double @-@ crosses him and kills him with Joker venom . Efrem Zimbalist , Jr. as Alfred Pennyworth ; once the trusted butler to Bruce Wayne 's parents , he continues his loyal service to their son after their deaths . He is Batman 's closest confidante . Robert Costanzo as Detective Harvey Bullock ; a detective with the Gotham City Police Department who distrusts Batman and is put in charge of the police task force assigned to hunt down the Dark Knight after he is framed for the gangster murders . Bob Hastings as Commissioner James Gordon ; the police commissioner of Gotham City and Batman 's closest ally . He refuses to capture Batman , believing the Dark Knight is not responsible for any of the gangster murders . Dick Miller as Charles " Chuckie " Sol ; a crime boss and the Phantasm 's first victim . John P. Ryan as Buzz Bronski ; a crime boss who seems to have had a brief partnership with Chuckie Sol . He is later killed by the Phantasm at the cemetery while visiting Sol 's grave . Arleen Sorkin as Mrs. Bambi . Additional voices : Jeff Bennett , Ed Gilbert , Marilu Henner , Pat Musick , Thom Pinto , Neil Ross , and Vernee Watson @-@ Johnson = = Production = = Impressed by the success of the first season of Batman : The Animated Series on the Fox Network , Warner Bros. assigned Alan Burnett to write a story for a full @-@ length animated film . Although the Joker does play a pivotal role in the film , it was Burnett 's intention to tell a story far removed from the television show 's regular rogues gallery . Burnett also cited he " wanted to do a love story with Bruce because no one had really done it on the TV show . I wanted a story that got into his head . " The writers were highly cautious of placing the Joker in the film as they did not want any connection to Tim Burton 's 1989 film Batman , but writer Michael Reaves said , " We then realized that we could make his appearance serve the story in a way that we never could in live @-@ action . " Aiding Burnett in writing the script were : Martin Pasko , who handled most of the flashback segments ; Michael Reaves , who wrote the climax ; and Paul Dini , who claims he " filled in holes here and there . " Orson Welles ' 1941 classic Citizen Kane served as an influence for the flashbacks , a story about loss and the passage of time . Early in production , Warner Bros. decided to release Phantasm with a theatrical release , rather than straight to video . That left less than a year for production time ( most animated features take well over two years from finished story to final release ) . Due to this decision , the animators went over the scenes once more in order to accommodate widescreen theatrical aspect ratio . The studio cooperated well , granting the filmmakers a large amount of creative control . In addition to the creative control , the studio also increased the production budget to $ 6 million , which gave the filmmakers opportunities for more elaborate set pieces . The opening title sequence featured a flight through an entirely computer @-@ generated Gotham City . As a visual joke , sequence director Kevin Altieri set the climax of the film inside a miniature automated model of Gotham City , where Batman and the Joker were giants . This was an homage to a mainstay of Batman comic books of the Dick Sprang era , often featuring the hero fighting against a backdrop of gigantic props ( they would later do another homage to Sprang 's works in The New Batman Adventures episode " Legends of the Dark Knight " ) . From start to finish , the film was completed within eight months . Composer Shirley Walker cited the score of Phantasm as a favorite among her own compositions . In an interview with Cinemusic.com , Walker explained that the " latin " lyrics used in the Main Title of Mask of The Phantasm were actually names of key Warner Bros staff read backwards . The lyrics are deciphered as follow : = = Themes = = Paul Dini intended each of the flashbacks into Batman 's love life to " have a tendency to get worse , when you hope things will get better . " Bruce 's relationship with Andrea , which at first shows promise , eventually turns into turmoil . At first , Bruce and Andrea are set for marriage , but then Bruce is given a farewell note from Andrea cutting off their relationship . This eventually leads into Bruce 's decision to become Batman . Richard Corliss of Time felt this scene paralleled Andrea 's decision to avenge her own parents and reject love , when she finds her own father murdered . Both events transform the two people ( Bruce becomes Batman , Andrea becomes the Phantasm ) . One scene depicts Bruce Wayne at his parents ' tombstone saying " I didn 't count on being happy . " According to writer Michael Reaves , this scene was to be a pivotal moment in Bruce 's tragic life , as he denies himself the opportunity to live a normal life . Reaves also stated : " When Bruce puts on the mask for the first time , [ after Andrea breaks their engagement ] , and Alfred says ' My God ! ' he 's reacting in horror , because he 's watching this man he 's helped raise from childhood , this man who has let the desire for vengeance and retribution consume his life , at last embrace the unspeakable . " = = Comic books and novelizations = = In December 1993 , two novelizations were released . One was written by Alan Burnett , Paul Dini , and Andrew Helfer with the other authored by Geary Gravel . DC Comics released a comic book adaptation written by Kelley Puckett and drawn by Mike Parobeck . The comic book adaptation was later included with the VHS release . Kenner who had already released toys for the regular Batman cartoon series , produced several tie in figures for the film , including the Joker and the Phantasm ( packaged unmasked , spoiling a pivotal plot point in the film ) Batman & Robin Adventures Annual # 1 : Shadow of the Phantasm is a comic book sequel to the film , written by Paul Dini , and was released in 1996 . = = Home media = = The film was released on laserdisc in April 1994 and on VHS in May of the same year . The VHS was reissued in April 2003 , though this time , part of a three @-@ tape pack with Batman & Mr. Freeze : SubZero and Batman Beyond : Return of the Joker . Mask of the Phantasm was first released on DVD in December 1999 as a snap case and in October 2005 as a keep case with the insert . The film was released in April 2004 as a three disc DVD box set that included SubZero and Return of the Joker but it is currently out of print . Warner Home Video released the film once more in February 2008 , but as a double feature DVD with SubZero . = = Soundtrack = = The soundtrack score to Batman : Mask of the Phantasm , composed by Shirley Walker , was originally released on December 14 , 1993 under the label of Reprise Records . The song " I Never Even Told You " was written by Siedah Garrett and Glen Ballard . " Main Title " ( 1 : 35 ) " The Promise " ( 0 : 46 ) " Ski Mask Vigilante " ( 3 : 06 ) " Phantasm 's Graveyard Murder " ( 3 : 43 ) " First Love " ( 1 : 35 ) " The Big Chase " ( 5 : 32 ) " A Plea for Help " ( 1 : 55 ) " The Birth of Batman " ( 4 : 17 ) " Phantasm and Joker Fight " ( 4 : 05 ) " Batman 's Destiny " ( 3 : 50 ) " I Never Even Told You " – Performed by Tia Carrere ( 4 : 20 ) Remastered version : On March 24 , 2009 , La @-@ La Land Records released a limited edition remastered version of Shirley Walker 's soundtrack score through their " Expanded Archival Collection " . The new release included bonus tracks that extended the score 27 minutes longer than the original release . Bolded tracks are previously unreleased . " Main Title : Batman : Mask of the Phantasm " ( Expanded ) ( 5 : 01 ) " The Promise " ( Expanded ) ( 1 : 25 ) " Ski Mask Vigilante " ( Expanded ) ( 4 : 28 ) " Fancy Footwork " ( 0 : 40 ) " Phantasm 's Graveyard Murder " ( 3 : 52 ) " Bad News / Set Trap / May They Rest in Peace " ( 1 : 51 ) " First Love " ( 1 : 59 ) " City Street Drive / Sal Velestra / Good Samaritan " ( 2 : 16 ) " Birth of Batman " ( Expanded ) ( 6 : 01 ) " The Joker 's Big Entrance " ( 3 : 02 ) " The Big Chase " ( 5 : 40 ) " Nowhere to Run " ( 2 : 01 ) " A Plea for Help " ( 1 : 01 ) " A Tall Man / Arturo and his Pal / Makes You Want to Laugh / What 's So Funny ? " ( 4 : 04 ) " Andrea Remembers / True Identity " ( 3 : 18 ) " Phantasm and Joker Fight " ( 6 : 01 ) " Batman 's Destiny " ( 1 : 46 ) " I Never Even Told You " ( 4 : 23 ) – Performed by Tia Carrere " Theme from Batman : Mask of the Phantasm " ( 2 : 06 ) ( Bonus Track ) " Welcome to the Future ! " ( 1 : 01 ) ( Bonus Track ) = = Reception = = = = = Box office = = = Batman : Mask of the Phantasm opened on December 25 , 1993 in the United States in 1 @,@ 506 theaters , accumulating $ 1 @,@ 189 @,@ 975 over its first 2 days . The film went on to gross $ 5 @,@ 617 @,@ 391 in the domestic total box office intake . The filmmakers blamed Warner Bros. for the unsuccessful marketing campaign . Mask of the Phantasm did eventually pass its $ 6 million budget with its various home video releases . = = = Critical response = = = Based on 27 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes , Batman : Mask of the Phantasm received an average 81 % overall approval rating with the consensus stating , " Stylish and admirably respectful of the source material , Batman : Mask of the Phantasm succeeds where many of the live @-@ action Batman adaptations have failed . " Empire cited it as the best animated film of 1993 , and felt it contained better storylines than Tim Burton 's Batman and Batman Returns . TV Guide was impressed with the art deco noir design that was presented . In addition the film 's climax and Batman 's escape from the Gotham City Police Department were considered to be elaborate action sequences . Richard Harrington of The Washington Post agreed with overall aspects that included the animation , design , dialogue. and storyline , as well as Shirley Walker 's film score . Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert regretted not having viewed the film in its theatrical release and gave the film a positive reaction , with Siskel feeling that Phantasm was better than Batman Returns and Joel Schumacher 's Batman Forever , and only slightly below Batman . Stephen Holden of The New York Times thought the voice performances were " flat and one @-@ dimensional " . Chris Hicks of the Deseret News felt " the picture didn 't come alive until the third act " feeling that the animators sacrificed the visuals for the storyline . In addition , he felt Mark Hamill " stole the show . " Leonard Klady of Variety had mixed reactions towards the film , but his review was negative overall . He felt the overall themes and morals were clichéd and cited the animation to be to the " point of self @-@ parody " . More recently , IGN ranked Mask of the Phantasm as the 25th best animated film of all time in a list published in 2010 . Total Film named Mask of the Phantasm the 47th greatest animated film out of 50 in 2011 . In 2011 , Time Magazine ranked Phantasm as one of the 10 best superhero movies . Mask of the Phantasm has been largely cited by Batman fans and critics alike as one of the best Batman films ever made , and has appeared on numerous " best @-@ of " lists for both animated films and superhero films . In 2010 , IGN said it was " the Dark Knight 's best big screen story " until Batman Begins ( 2005 ) . Wired magazine 's Scott Thill said Kevin Conroy is " the finest Batman on record " . In 2016 , the Nostalgia Critic reviewed the film and called it the best ever cinematic representation of Batman . = = = Accolades = = = Alongside The Lion King and The Nightmare Before Christmas , Mask of the Phantasm was nominated for an Annie Award in the category of Best Animated Feature , but lost out to The Lion King .
= Batman : The Killing Joke = Batman : The Killing Joke is a 1988 one @-@ shot graphic novel featuring the characters Batman and the Joker written by Alan Moore , illustrated by Brian Bolland , and published by DC Comics . Set in the fictional U.S. city of Gotham , Batman : The Killing Joke provides an origin story for the supervillain the Joker , loosely adapted from the 1951 story arc " The Man Behind the Red Hood ! " . Taking place over two timelines , The Killing Joke depicts the Joker attempting to drive Jim Gordon insane and Batman 's desperate attempt to stop him . Created by Moore as his own take on Joker 's source and psychology , the story became famous for its origin of the Joker as a tragic character ; a family man and failed comedian who suffered " one bad day " that finally drove him insane . Moore stated that he attempted to show the similarities between the two characters . The story 's effects on the mainstream Batman continuity also included the shooting and paralysis of Barbara Gordon ( a.k.a. Batgirl ) , an event that laid the groundwork for her to develop the identity of Oracle . Many critics consider the graphic novel to be the definitive Joker story and one of the best Batman stories ever published . The comic won the Eisner Award for ' Best Graphic Album ' in 1989 and appeared on The New York Times Best Seller List in May 2009 . In 2006 , The Killing Joke was reprinted as part of the trade paperback DC Universe : The Stories of Alan Moore . In 2008 , DC Comics reprinted the story in a deluxe hardcover edition , which features new coloring by Bolland , with a more somber , realistic , and subdued palette than the original . Elements of The Killing Joke have inspired or been incorporated into other aspects of Batman media , such as films and video games . = = Background and creation = = Artist Brian Bolland 's version of the Joker stemmed in part from his having recently seen the film The Man Who Laughs . Giordano 's invitation led directly to Bolland working with writer Alan Moore to create a plausible background story for the Joker . He recounted , " I thought about it in terms of who 's my favorite writer at the moment , what hero I would really love to do , and which villain ? I basically came up with Alan , Batman and the Joker . " Although the story takes pains to stress that it is merely one possible ' origin story , ' it has been widely accepted and adopted into DC continuity , and a central mutilation of a long @-@ running character had to be specially approved by editor Wein . Bolland said that he saw " Judge Death [ as ] almost a dry run for drawing the Joker . " He also recounted that " by the time Alan had finished Watchmen he had fallen out with DC to a certain extent ... in the end , he only continued to do Killing Joke as a favour to me . " The 48 @-@ page prestige format one @-@ shot comic took a considerable amount of time to produce . Both Moore and Bolland are well known for their meticulous and time @-@ consuming work ; both creators ' then @-@ recently finished 12 @-@ issue maxiseries titles — Moore 's Watchmen and Bolland 's Camelot 3000 — had seen delays . He was aided by the laid back attitude taken by DC , who he says " seemed prepared to let me do it at my own pace . " The original editor , Len Wein , left the company , and was replaced by Dennis O 'Neil , a " very hands @-@ off sort of guy , " with whom Bolland only recalls having one conversation about the book . Bolland envisaged the flashback sequences in black and white , and instructed Watchmen @-@ colorist John Higgins to use " muted November colors " . He was upset when he saw the finished comic had " garish ... hideous glowing purples and pinks ... and my precious Eraserhead @-@ esque flashback sequences swamped in orange . " The 2008 @-@ published 20th anniversary edition of the book featured new colouring by Bolland , restoring his artistic intentions to the palette . = = Plot summary = = The man who will become the Joker is an unnamed engineer who quits his job at a chemical company to become a stand @-@ up comedian , only to fail miserably . Desperate to support his pregnant wife Jeannie , he agrees to guide two criminals through the chemical plant he previously worked at so that they can rob the card company next door . During the planning , the police inform him that his wife has died in a household accident . Grief @-@ stricken , the engineer tries to withdraw from the plan , but the criminals strong @-@ arm him into keeping his commitment to them . At the plant , the criminals make him don a special mask to become the infamous Red Hood . Unknown to the engineer , the criminals plan to use this disguise to implicate any accomplice as the mastermind and to divert attention away from themselves . Once inside , they run into security personnel , and a shootout ensues . The criminals are gunned down and the engineer finds himself confronted by Batman , who is investigating the disturbance . Terrified , the engineer jumps into the chemical plant 's waste pound lock to escape Batman and is swept through a pipe leading to the outside . Once outside , he discovers , to his horror , that the chemicals have permanently bleached his skin chalk @-@ white , stained his lips ruby @-@ red and dyed his hair bright green . This disfigurement , compounded with the man 's misfortunes of that one bad day , drives him completely insane and marks the birth of the Joker . In the present day , the Joker kidnaps Commissioner Gordon and imprisons him in a run @-@ down amusement park , whose owner he has killed , and shoots and paralyzes his daughter Barbara ( alias Batgirl ) . His henchmen then strip Gordon naked and cage him in the park 's freak show . He chains Gordon to one of the park 's rides and forces him to view giant pictures of his wounded daughter , naked , hoping to drive Gordon insane in order to prove that the most upstanding citizen can go mad after having " one bad day . " Once Gordon has run the horrifying gauntlet , the Joker puts him on display in the freak show , ridiculing him as " the average man , " a naïve weakling doomed to insanity . Batman 's attempts to locate Commissioner Gordon are unsuccessful until the Joker sends him a clue that leads him to the amusement park . Batman arrives to save Gordon , and the Joker retreats into the funhouse . Though traumatized by the ordeal , Gordon retains his sanity and moral code , and he insists that Batman capture the Joker " by the book " in order to show him that adhering to the legal process works . Batman enters the funhouse and faces the Joker 's traps , while the Joker tries to persuade his old foe that the world is " a black , awful joke " and thus not worth fighting for . He also states that it takes only " one bad day " to turn an ordinary man insane , and taunts Batman by correctly speculating that it was one bad day where he lost a loved one at the hands of a criminal that drove Batman into becoming a vigilante . Batman tracks down and subdues the Joker , tells him that Gordon survived everything he suffered at the Joker 's hands , and suggests that the Joker is alone in his madness . Batman then attempts to reach out to the Joker and offers to help his old foe recover and put an end to their everlasting war , which Batman fears may one day result in a fight to the death . The Joker declines , saying it is too late for that . He then says that this situation reminds him of a joke , and proceeds to tell the joke . Batman chuckles at the punch line , accompanying the Joker 's maniacal cackling as the police arrive . The laughter then stops as Batman and Joker disappear as the rain continues to fall . From the text itself , the ending is ambiguous : according to one view , the similar yet different adversaries , whom have been fighting for years , end all of their disputes by having a good laugh ; according to another view , Batman agrees with the Joker , breaking his neck out of panel , causing the laughter to stop abruptly . The ending was purposely left uncertain to allow the reader to decide what happened . = = Themes and analysis = = The book explores Moore 's assertion that , psychologically , " Batman and the Joker are mirror images of each other " by delving into the relationship between the two . The story itself shows how the Joker and Batman came to terms with their respective tragic days , both eventually leading to their present lives and confrontation . Critic Geoff Klock further explained that " both Batman and the Joker are creations of a random and tragic ' one bad day . ' Batman spends his life forging meaning from the random tragedy , whereas the Joker reflects the absurdity of " life , and all its random injustice . " The trials the Joker put Commissioner Gordon through were meant to serve as " proof that there is something buried deep within each lunatic , a nugget of insanity , that is simply waiting for the right moment to spring forth . " Unlike the Joker , Gordon kept his wits and moral code . The story is also famous for changing how the Modern Age of Comics perceived Batman comics by bringing it back to its darker roots . The comic book , however , delves deeper in order to present Batman 's own psychology , how he was just as insane as the clown , and how he and the Joker perceived the world according to differing points of view , with the Joker 's interpreted through a joke . The Joker serves as an unreliable narrator . He admits to his own uncertainty , as he has disparate memories of the single event ( " Sometimes I remember it one way , sometimes another ... If I 'm going to have a past , I prefer it to be multiple choice ! " ) , accentuating the comic 's depiction of " a world unraveling toward relentless urban violence and moral nihilism ... " = = Critical reception and legacy = = Although a one @-@ shot , The Killing Joke had an extraordinary impact on the DC Universe — most significantly , Barbara Gordon 's paralysis . DC officially retired the hero in the one @-@ shot comic Batgirl Special # 1 ( July 1988 ) . This eventually led to her identity as Oracle in the Birds of Prey series ( which was later adapted into a TV series of the same title that incorporated Killing Joke elements into its continuity ) and other DC Universe appearances . This event , along with a Batman storyline that takes place shortly after The Killing Joke involving the Joker murdering Robin ( Jason Todd ) , Batman : A Death in the Family , leads Batman 's obsession with the Clown Prince of Crime to a personal level . The mantle of Batgirl would eventually be passed to successor Cassandra Cain and later , Stephanie Brown . Gordon 's paralysis was later retconned into a temporary event that lasted only three years in DC Comics ' 2011 line @-@ wide title relaunch , The New 52 , which saw her restored as the first and only Batgirl . The graphic novel won the Eisner Award for Best Graphic Album and garnered Alan Moore the Best Writer award in 1989 . Hilary Goldstein of IGN Comics praised The Killing Joke , calling it " easily the greatest Joker story ever told , " and adding that " Moore 's rhythmic dialogue and Bolland 's organic art create a unique story often mimicked but never matched . " IGN declared The Killing Joke the third @-@ greatest Batman graphic novel , after The Dark Knight Returns and Batman : Year One . James Donnelly of Pop Syndicate called The Killing Joke " one of the greatest comics of the 20th century , period . " Van Jensen of ComicMix said , " Each time [ I read The Killing Joke ] I 'm amazed all over again at how Alan Moore and Brian Bolland teamed to pack such intensity , ferocity and humanity into those pages . B.L. Wooldridge of Batman in Comics called the graphic novel " an incredible story , with Moore at his best and awe @-@ inspiring art by painter Brian Bolland . " Comics historians Robert Greenberger and Matthew K. Manning describe it as " the definitive Joker story of all time . " Manning additionally called it " one of the most powerful and disturbing stories in the history of Gotham City . " Andy Shaw of Grovel had a more lukewarm response to The Killing Joke , saying that though " wonderfully executed , " it " suffer [ s ] from its reliance on the rules of the superhero story . " Seb Patrick of Den of Geek also had a mixed response , calling The Killing Joke " one of the most revered and influential ' Batman ' stories ever written and arguably the definitive Joker story , " but adding that it 's " not at the level of [ Alan Moore 's ] true masterpieces [ such as ] Watchmen , V for Vendetta , [ and ] The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen . " = = = Creator 's response = = = In a 2000 interview , Moore said : " I don 't think it 's a very good book . It 's not saying anything very interesting . " In 2003 , he elaborated : The Killing Joke is a story about Batman and the Joker ; it isn 't about anything that you 're ever going to encounter in real life , because Batman and the Joker are not like any human beings that have ever lived . So there 's no important human information being imparted ... Yeah , it was something that I thought was clumsy , misjudged and had no real human importance . It was just about a couple of licensed DC characters that didn 't really relate to the real world in any way . In a 2006 interview with Wizard magazine , Moore was also critical about his decision to cripple Barbara Gordon : " I asked DC if they had any problem with me crippling Barbara Gordon - who was Batgirl at the time - and if I remember , I spoke to Len Wein , who was our editor on the project ... [ He ] said , ' Yeah , okay , cripple the bitch . ' It was probably one of the areas where they should 've reined me in , but they didn 't . " In the introduction to the story as it appears in the DC Universe : The Stories of Alan Moore trade paperback , Brian Bolland disputes the widely held belief that the story started as a Batman annual story and ended up as a prestige @-@ format book . Bolland recalls that the idea for a one @-@ off Batman story focusing on the Joker — with Batman more of an incidental character — was his . Bolland says that in 1984 , DC editor Dick Giordano told him he could do any project for DC he wanted , and Bolland requested to do a Batman / Joker prestige book with Moore as writer . Bolland has also expressed dissatisfaction with the final book , and regrets that its impending schedule for release meant he could not color the book himself ( John Higgins was the colorist ) . Bolland says that " the end result wasn 't quite what I 'd hoped . I don 't think it rates with some of the highlights of Alan 's career . " March 2008 saw the release of the artwork as Bolland intended it : the twentieth anniversary hardcover edition of The Killing Joke is completely recolored by Bolland himself . The book made The New York Times Best Seller list in May 2009 . = = = Influence on Joker stories = = = Critic Mark Vogler wrote that The Killing Joke provided the Joker " with a sympathetic back story as it presented some of the villain 's most vile offenses . " Moore 's rendition of the Joker 's origin employs elements of the 1951 story " The Man Behind the Red Hood " ( Detective Comics # 168 ) , which established the concept of the Joker originally having been a thief known only as the Red Hood . The tragic and human elements of the character 's story , coupled with his barbaric crimes as the Joker , portray the character as more of a three @-@ dimensional human being . During an interview with Salon , Moore explained that Joker 's psychotic nature could have been caused by a " bad decision " in his life . Much of the Joker 's backstory from The Killing Joke is also referenced in 2004 's " Pushback " ( Batman : Gotham Knights # 50 @-@ 55 ; reprinted with # 66 as Batman : Hush Returns ) , in which the events are observed and reported by the Riddler , who recounts that the pregnant wife of the pre @-@ accident Joker , who is called " Jack " prior to his accident , was kidnapped and murdered by the criminals in order to force his compliance . = = = Feminist interpretations = = = The book has been the subject of feminist critique , criticizing the treatment of Barbara Gordon . Author Brian Cronin notes that " [ many ] readers felt the violence towards Barbara Gordon was too much , and even Moore , in retrospect , has expressed his displeasure with how the story turned out . " Author Sharon Packer wrote : " Anyone who feels that feminist critics overreacted to [ Gordon 's ] accident is advised to consult the source material ... Moore 's The Killing Joke is sadistic to the core . It shows Gordon stripped and mutilated , with before , during , and after photos of the attack displayed before her bound and gagged father , the police commissioner . She is more than merely disabled . " Gail Simone included the character 's paralysis in a list of " major female characters that had been killed , mutilated , and depowered " , dubbing the phenomenon " Women in Refrigerators " in reference to a 1994 Green Lantern story where the title character discovers his girlfriend 's mutilated body in his refrigerator . Author Jeffrey A. Brown , noted The Killing Joke as an example of the " relatively unequal violence [ female characters ] are subjected to . " in the major DC / Marvel comics industry . While male characters may be critically injured or killed , they are more than likely to be returned to their original conception , while " women on the other hand , are more likely to be casually , but irreparably , wounded such as when Barbara Gordon 's ( the original Batgirl ) spine was shattered by the Joker just for fun and has been restricted to a wheelchair for over a decade now . " = = = " No Joke " = = = In 2007 , Geoff Johns wrote a companion story to The Killing Joke entitled " No Joke " that appeared in the series Booster Gold . In the story , Booster Gold is charged by Rip Hunter to go back in time and save Barbara from being shot by the Joker . Booster arrives at the carnival shortly after the Joker has rounded up the freaks , only to be attacked by them . He manages to escape ( after the Joker torments him ) , but arrives too late to save Barbara . Catching the Joker in the middle of taking photos of the wounded Barbara ( after having struck down Commissioner Gordon ) , Booster attacks the Joker in a rage ; the Joker nevertheless gains the upper hand , snapping several photos of Booster as well . Rip removes Booster moments before he is killed , but Booster demands to be sent back again . Booster fails several times until Rip reveals that the Joker is destined to paralyze her , as it would ensure that she would become Oracle . The story also reveals that Batman kept the photos of Barbara and Booster , and had been waiting until Booster came of age before confronting him . Batman thanks Booster for trying to stop the Joker and offers him his friendship . Eventually , Dick Grayson , who becomes his mentor 's temporary successor as Batman , would also learn about this and offer his thanks as well . = = = " Ladies ' Night " = = = In 2010 , writer J. Michael Straczynski and artist Cliff Chiang collaborated on a one @-@ shot story called " Ladies ' Night " , which was published in the anthology series The Brave and the Bold . The story is set shortly before The Killing Joke , and deals with Zatanna and Wonder Woman struggling to come to terms with the impending attack on Barbara after Zatanna has a precognitive dream about it . Like " No Joke , " the story heavily implies that the heroines cannot alter Barbara 's fate , despite their desire to do so , instead giving her a final night on the town before she loses the use of her legs . The story also implies that Wonder Woman served as the inspiration for Barbara Gordon 's eventual codename of Oracle . = = = The New 52 = = = When DC comics relaunched its universe in 2011 , many of Batman 's stories were erased or altered , but The Killing Joke story was still intact . In the new continuity , Barbara Gordon recovered from the paralysis inflicted upon her by the Joker 's bullet , which lasted for four years . Although she resumes her work as Batgirl one year after recovering her mobility , she continues to suffer from posttraumatic stress disorder when exposed to gunfire that could result in receiving new spinal damage . During Batman Eternal , Batgirl refers to her paralysis when she tracks a villain to the carnival where the Joker took Gordon after he had shot her , although she only confronts the Joker 's Daughter rather than the Joker himself as Joker is currently presumed dead . On March 13 , 2015 DC Comics released 25 Joker @-@ themed variant covers for its various monthly series for release that June , in celebration of the character 's 75th anniversary . Among them was a cover to Batgirl # 41 by artist Rafael Albuquerque that took its inspiration from The Killing Joke . The cover depicts the Joker standing next to a tearful Batgirl , who has a red smile painted across her mouth . The Joker has one hand holding a revolver draped over Batgirl 's shoulder and is pointing to her cheek with the other hand , as if gesturing to shoot her . The cover quickly drew criticism for highlighting a dark period in the character 's history , especially when juxtaposed with the youthful , more optimistic direction of the series at the time . The hashtag # changethecover drew dozens of posts on Twitter and Tumblr asking DC to not release the variant . DC ultimately withdrew the cover from publication at the request of Albuquerque , who stated , " My intention was never to hurt or upset anyone through my art ... For that reason , I have recommended to DC that the variant cover be pulled . " = = In other media = = = = = Film = = = In 2011 , during Comic @-@ Con , actor Mark Hamill stated that he would be willing to voice the Joker for an adaption of The Killing Joke , encouraging fans to campaign for said adaptation , most notably in a tweet made on October 24 , 2011 . Since then , a Facebook page titled " Petition to get Mark Hamill to play the Joker in animated Killing Joke " has been set up by his fans . In 2013 , Bruce Timm also expressed a desire to create the project , saying it was only a possibility . On July 10 , 2015 , during the Justice League : Gods and Monsters panel at San Diego Comic @-@ Con , Bruce Timm announced that an animated film based on the novel is in development and slated to be released in 2016 . Sam Liu will direct and Timm will executive produce the film . The film will feature a 15 @-@ minute prologue that sets up the story . On July 17 , Hamill tweeted that he hoped that he would be contacted to reprise his role as the Joker . On July 27 , Collider reported that Hamill will voice The Joker in the film . Warner Bros. has reportedly given the filmmakers the go @-@ ahead to make the film rated R. On March 14 , 2016 , Hamill 's Batman : The Animated Series castmates , Kevin Conroy and Tara Strong , were confirmed to play Batman and Barbara Gordon respectively , alongside Ray Wise as Commissioner Gordon . It has been confirmed to release on Blu Ray and DVD on August 2 , 2016 . It will also play in select theatres in a one night only event on July 25 , complete with an introduction from Hamill . Influence on other films Along with The Dark Knight Returns , Tim Burton has mentioned that The Killing Joke influenced his film adaptation of Batman : " I was never a giant comic book fan , but I 've always loved the image of Batman and the Joker . The reason I 've never been a comic book fan — and I think it started when I was a child — is because I could never tell which box I was supposed to read . I don 't know if it was dyslexia or whatever , but that 's why I loved The Killing Joke , because for the first time I could tell which one to read . It 's my favorite . It 's the first comic I 've ever loved . And the success of those graphic novels made our ideas more acceptable . " Director Christopher Nolan has mentioned that The Killing Joke served as an influence for the version of the Joker appearing in the 2008 feature film The Dark Knight . Heath Ledger , who played the Joker , stated in an interview that he was given a copy of The Killing Joke as reference for the role . The story is referred to in a flashback scene in the DC Universe Animated Original Movies , Batman : Under the Red Hood . In the movie , the antagonist Red Hood lured Batman to the chemical factory where the Joker 's accident took place . Batman remembered the events like in the comic , where a fleeing Joker attempted to escape while trying to claim that he was set up but accidentally fell into the toxic waste and disfigured him . Red Hood called it Batman 's greatest failure . Jason Todd also refers to Joker crippling Barbara . = = = Television = = = Birds of Prey features a slight retelling of The Killing Joke in the series prologue . In this version Barbara is shot by the Joker , who clearly knows that she is Batgirl , after she opens her front door . The Batman features some homages to The Killing Joke : In the season one two @-@ parter , " The Rubberface of Comedy / The Clayface of Tragedy " , Joker tortures Detective Ethan Bennett by breaking him in a way similar to the way he tortured Gordon in the book , and the " one bad day " is mentioned by the transformed Bennett into Clayface in the 2nd part . In the Season 4 episodes , " Artifacts , " which takes place in the future , it shows Barbara has become Oracle . = = = Video games = = = The Joker , in his Hawaiian attire , appears as an unlockable playable character in Lego Batman : The Videogame . The 2009 video game Batman : Arkham Asylum adapted a post @-@ The Killing Joke timeline , in that Barbara Gordon feeds Batman information as Oracle . Several references to the story are also made in the game . The Joker 's makeshift throne made of mannequins at the end of the game is almost identical to the one in the graphic novel . During the game , it is revealed that the Joker had been using e @-@ mail under the alias " Jack White , " which Batman identifies as " one of Joker 's oldest aliases . " The Joker even personally makes a knowing reference to the story : " There were these two guys in a lunatic asylum ... Oh hell with it , you 've heard that one before , haven 't you ? " In the 2011 video game Batman : Arkham City , which is the sequel to Batman : Arkham Asylum , when the Joker 's interview tapes are found , he retells his origin from The Killing Joke . In this version , he reveals that the two thugs worked for Carmine Falcone . He apparently blames Batman for what happened to him . Hugo Strange then accuses him of having fabricated a series of events in order to conceal the truth about his condition , as he has read twelve different accounts of his past , all different , except for one detail : Batman . He then paraphrases a line from the book : " I like to keep things interesting . A wise man once told me that if you have to have an origin story , you 're better off making it multiple choice " . In 2013 video game Injustice : Gods Among Us , a downloadable content Killing Joke pack includes three skins for the character from the story . It includes his Hawaiian attire , the Red Hood , and his hat and long coat . In Batman : Arkham Origins , there are several references to The Killing Joke . When Batman enters a carnival @-@ esque room , Joker tells him he got a great deal on an out @-@ of @-@ service amusement park , " You should have seen the look on the real estate agent 's face when we shook hands on the deal ! " , alluding to Joker 's conning a theme park entrepreneur into granting him the rights of a run @-@ down amusement park early in the graphic novel and then proceeding to murder him via Joker toxin . In a level featuring a psychiatric interview with Dr. Harleen Quinzel , Joker is playable as the Red Hood , walking through the chemical plant that will end with him becoming the Joker , as well as earlier beating up several patrons at a Comedy Club due to very poor reception towards a joke he made . The name of the achievement for defeating the Joker in the ending of the game was a reference to Batman 's talk with " Joker " in the beginning of the graphic novel . While promoting the game , Troy Baker , who voices the Joker in the game , recites a monologue from the graphic novel . In Batman : Arkham Knight , while under the influence of Scarecrow 's latest toxin , Batman hallucinates the Joker 's shooting of Barbara Gordon after she is kidnapped by the mysterious Arkham Knight , a hallucination of Joker noting that he merely got lucky when he shot Barbara as he was ignorant of her true ties to Batman , and also claimed that he had actually been aiming for Barbara 's head . In addition , the DLC side story Batgirl : A Matter of Family had various similarities to the story of The Killing Joke , including Joker kidnapping and holding Police Commissioner Gordon hostage at a run @-@ down amusement park as well as the backstory revealing that Joker had conned and murdered the original person who owned the park into granting him control . = = Reprints = = The Killing Joke is included in the 2006 trade paperback collection DC Universe : The Stories of Alan Moore . In March 2008 , a deluxe hardcover version of the book was released , featuring recoloring of the book by Brian Bolland . The new colors featured black @-@ and @-@ white flashbacks , as opposed to Higgins ' colors , along with one or two items per panel colored in pink or red , up until the helmet of the Red Hood is revealed . In addition to recoloring the pages , Bolland also removed the yellow oval around the bat symbol on Batman 's chest . Also included is a colored version of Bolland 's " An Innocent Guy " ( originally published in Batman Black and White ) , an introduction by Tim Sale and an epilogue by Bolland . Van Jensen of ComicMix said that " the new colors really do improve the book , giving it a subtlety and grimness not present in the original . " James Donnelly of Pop Syndicate said that the original version " is outdone by Bolland 's recoloring " , which he said " gives the comic a more timeless quality " . Seb Patrick of Den of Geek had a lukewarm reaction , calling the recoloring of the flashbacks " superb " , but commenting that " some of the [ other ] changes seem to have less of a point — increasing definition for the sake of it , but giving the book too much of a present @-@ day feel rather than looking like it was printed in the 1980s . "
= Lewis Nicola = Lewis Nicola ( 1717 – August 9 , 1807 ) was an Irish @-@ born American military officer , merchant , and writer who held various military and civilian positions throughout his career . Nicola is most notable for authoring the Newburgh letter , which urged George Washington to assume a royal title . Born in Dublin , Ireland , Nicola had been an officer in the British Army , serving in Europe before immigrating to the Thirteen Colonies . Establishing a residence in Philadelphia with his family , Nicola opened a library in 1767 and was active in colonial philosophical organizations . As a result of his work to establish the American Philosophical Society , he was elected as one of its curators . When the American Revolution broke out , Nicola offered his services to the colonial government , which eventually appointed him to various positions with local forces . In 1777 , Nicola proposed that the Continental Congress establish the Invalid Corps . The Congress accepted his proposal and appointed him as its commander . The Corps was stationed at various Pennsylvania locations before moving to West Point , New York . In 1782 , after the end of most hostilities but before the signing of the Treaty of Paris , Nicola wrote the Newburgh letter , which was received coldly by Washington . Returning to civilian life , Nicola nevertheless was still active in military affairs , and was recalled to service during the 1790s , despite his advanced age . During this period , he continued to research for the American Philosophical Society , writing an especially controversial document entitled The Divinity of Jesus Christ Considered , From Scripture Evidences , in which he claimed that the divinity of Jesus Christ is not supported by scripture . He died in 1807 , in the possession of only $ 55 . = = Early life and entry into the British Army = = Very little is known of Nicola 's early years . He was born in 1717 in Dublin , Ireland to a British Army officer . His grandparents were Huguenot refugees , and he was 511 / 512 French and 1 / 512 Italian by blood . His parents provided him with a strong educational background and bought him a commission in January 1740 . Later into that year , he married his first wife , Christiana Doyle , on September 19 . During the 1740s , Nicola was stationed in various Irish cities : Galway , Derry , Cork , among others . He was briefly stationed in Flanders , Belgium , in 1745 before he moved back to Charles Fort near Kinsale . = = First decade in Pennsylvania = = Doyle died in August 1759 , and Nicola married his second wife , Jane Bishop , on April 18 , 1760 . Their family decided to move to Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , and they arrived August 1766 . Upon the arrival Nicola started his own dry goods store . This did not work , and he eventually opened a library in September 1767 . It started with nearly 200 to 300 volumes before expanding to over 1 @,@ 000 . Throughout the next couple of years , Nicola moved the library to different spots before finally settling to Spruce Street and renaming it " General Circulating Library " . With the help of his friend John Morgan , Nicola was admitted into the American Society for Promoting Useful Knowledge . By the following year , he became a part of the committee to help a merger with the American Philosophical Society . The merger was completed in November 1768 , and Nicola was elected as one of the curators . At the start of the next year , Nicola decided to quit the dry food business for good and focus more on writing , stating " [ Magazines were ] the taste of the age , and found to possess many conveniences , such as gratifying the curiosity of the public , and serving as a repository for many small , though valuable pieces that would otherwise be lost to the world . " He began editing his new periodical , the American Magazine , or General Repository , and the first issue was published in January 1769 . This magazine , devoted to science , poetry , British and American news , folded in December after only nine issues . Nicola , however , continued to conduct research and write articles for the Society . = = Re @-@ entry into the Army and writing activities = = Due to financial difficulties , Nicola and his family moved between various Pennsylvanian cities throughout the 1770s . Once the American Revolutionary War broke out , however , he realized that his military skills were probably most needed in Philadelphia . In July 1775 , Nicola was hired by the Pennsylvania Council of Safety to inspect the local defenses in place along the banks of the Delaware River . Since this was the only military position offered to him , in January 1776 Nicola opened a beer @-@ selling shop . Shortly thereafter , he opened a school to help children in various disciplines of mathematics and engineering . This endeavor was short @-@ lived , however , as the Pennsylvania Council of Safety gave him a second military position , this time as a barracks master . While attaining that position ( which he was granted in February ) , Nicola composed and presented to the Council of Safety a " Plan of a Powder Magazine " and saw to the repair of the city jailhouse , for which he was reimbursed $ 226 by the Continental Congress . On December 2 , 1776 , Nicola was made Town Major of Pennsylvania . = = Tenure with the Invalid Corps = = = = = Invalid Corps under Nicola in the early years = = = In March 1777 , Nicola proposed to the Continental Congress the formation of an " Invalid Corps , " a group of men unfit for combat but still able to perform other military duties . In June , the Continental Congress accepted the proposal , appointing Nicola the commander of about 1 @,@ 000 troops divided into eight companies of soldiers . The Invalid Corps was stationed in Philadelphia for most part of the Revolutionary War , but it was forced to move once General William Howe advanced into the city in 1777 . On September 25 , 1777 , the Invalid Corps retreated to Fort Mifflin . Due to sickness , lack of clean water , and worries about British incursions , it was recommended to Nicola that he move the Corps to Trenton , New Jersey . Upon arriving at Trenton , Nicola moved to defend locals ' property , seeing " a large vessel in the river [ near Bordentown ] with a very valuable Cargo belonging to Congress which was in danger of falling into the enemies hands " , and taking thirty men to claim the cargo . Following its brief stay in Trenton , the Invalid Corps moved to Allentown , Pennsylvania , as suggested by Richard Peters on September 29 , 1777 . However , instead of Allentown , the Corps was eventually stationed at Easton and Bethlehem , Pennsylvania to assist in the management of hospitals and stores . Like the rest of the Continental Army , the Invalid Corps suffered harshly from the winter of 1777 to 1778 . After a brief period in the camp of Valley Forge in the spring of 1778 , the Invalid Corps moved back to their original quarters at Philadelphia , just after the British evacuated from it . = = = Service prior to 1782 = = = The Invalid Corps continued its many moves , including one from Pennsylvania to Boston . However , for the next three years , the Corps remained either in Philadelphia or the future Massachusetts capital . During this three @-@ year period , Nicola drew the " Plan of the English Lines near Philadelphia " , which showed the locations of important fortifications from the Delaware River to Schuylkill River as well as other locations of British military facilities . Following the drawing of " Plan " , Nicola submitted two papers where he obtained information from the British to Congress : " A Scheme for a Partisan Corps " and " Judicious remarks on a proposed reformation in the Army " . Moreover , he strengthened the Corps by recruiting soldiers around Philadelphia . On June 13 , 1781 , Nicola and the Invalid Corps was given the order by Congress to move to West Point , New York . This , however , was difficult to accomplish . On June 26 , Nicola wrote a letter to George Washington that the Corps would not move until a replacement unit could take over for them . Another reason hindering the move was pay ; the Corps did not receive a payment for nearly ten months . A compromise was later reached between Nicola and the Board of War that six months pay would be given to the Invalid Corps . After their leave to Pennsylvania , John David Woelper , a captain of the Invalid Corps , sent a letter to Washington on July 20 , 1781 claiming Nicola was treating the Corps badly . In the note , Woelper requested Nicola 's arrest . Nicola sent letters about the situation to Washington , who wanted to have it settled as soon as the Corps arrived at West Point . Washington , who did not show any favoritism to either , sent both series of letters to General Alexander McDougall and asked the court in West Point to settle the matter . Upon the arrival of the Invalid Corps at West Point , the charges were dropped , and Nicola was cleared of all charges . On August 4 , 1781 , Nicola complained to George Washington that the Corps would have great difficult during the winter time . Two months later on September 19 , Nicola complained to General Horatio Gates about McDougall 's lack of respect to the Corps . Eventually , Nicola proposed to Washington that the Invalid Corps should move back to Philadelphia ; however , for various reasons , Washington denied it . During the Corps ' tenure at West Point , Nicola faced many challenges . Firstly , his troops did not act the way he wanted . In October 1777 , Nicola sent out an arrest warrant for Sergeant Major Jonathan Guy for giving uniforms of the Continental Army to the British . The other example was in April 1778 ; Nicola stopped robberies done by members of the Corps in Easton . Secondly , Nicola was unable to fill the higher ranks because of the lack of qualifications from the men . In a letter to Washington , Nicola wrote that without men , he was unable to " keep the men under proper discipline " . During court trials , Nicola had to borrow men from other units as the jury . The third problem was the lack of enlisted men for the Corps . The final problem was the poor financial situation that Nicola was in . In a letter to the Pennsylvania Supreme Executive Council dated April 7 , 1779 , Nicola asked for a pay raise , saying he was unable to purchase food or even clothes . Some members of the Invalid Corps claimed they were unable to provide for themselves . On February 5 , 1782 , the Pennsylvania Supreme Executive Council fired Nicola from the position of Town Major ; their reasoning was that no such duty was needed at the time . During that same month and struggling for money , Nicola asked the Continental superintendent of finance Robert Morris for the money that the Congress did not pay the Corps . Even that , however , failed to give the Invalid Corps its money . = = = The Newburgh letter = = = On May 22 , 1782 , Nicola wrote the Newburgh letter to George Washington , from his army quarters in Newburgh , New York . Nicola used the first part of the letter to describe a financial hardship that both he and many of the men under his command were facing - their lack of pay . Most of the Army had been waiting for months — some even for years — for their pay from Congress . The justification for this was found in the Articles of Confederation , which allowed the Continental Congress to set up an army in time of war , but was not obligated to levy taxes . The right to collect taxes was reserved for the respective states , most of which were unable to afford the maintenance of an army . Nicola believed that this condition was the manifested weakness of a republic , writing , " When the benefits of a mixed government are pointed out and duly considered , will be examined readily adopted [ ... ] " . Alluding to the person on Nicola wrote Washington , it is well recognized that " The same abilities which have lead us , through difficulties apparently insurmountable by human power , to victory and glory , those qualities that have merited and universal esteem and veneration Obtained the of an army , would be most likely to conduct and direct us in the smoother paths of peace . After concluding his criticism of the republican form of government , Nicola suggested that Washington take the title of king . Recognizing that the terms " tyranny " and " monarchy " had too many negative connotations at the time , Nicola advised using an alternative title in the near future , " [ ... ] But if all other things were once adjusted I believe strong argument might be produced for admitting the title of king , Which I conceive would be attended with some material advantages . Washington was aware that some feared he aspired to be an " American Cromwell " . In his reply , dated the same day he gave Nicola a decidedly clear answer , Washington said , " No incident in the course of the war in me triggers painful feelings as your message , that such ideas are circulating in the army , as you expressed it " . Washington mentioned that he knew not what part of his conduct could have given rise to such a petition , which he thought a " calamity " facing the United States . David Humphreys and Jonathan Trumbull , two of Washington 's aides , certified in a rare precautionary measure that proved the document to be genuine . Nicola responded contritely to the harsh rejection of his complaints and suggestions . On May 23 he replied to Washington , expressing his sadness at displeasing Washington , and claiming that " nothing had ever affected " him so greatly as his " reproof . " Furthermore , Nicola asked Washington to evaluate every mistake that he had committed . Washington 's answer to this and two other letters of apology written by Nicola on May 24 and 28 are not known . However , the relationship between Nicola and Washington soon returned to its prior normalcy . = = Dissolution of the Invalid Corps and promotion = = In November 1782 , Nicola complained to Washington about the fact that secretary at war General Benjamin Lincoln wanted the Invalid Corps dissolved , saying its costliness affected the military more than its benefits . Nicola argued against its dissolution ; he claimed that no other regiment had done more service than the Corps . Against the recommendation of Washington , the dissolution of the Invalid Corps was ordered by the Continental Congress in May 1783 . Between June and August , Nicola was back on the road to Philadelphia . There he resided for two months after the official conclusion of peace by the Treaty of Paris ( 1783 ) , serving as a commissioner in regard to the settlement of matters concerning him and his regiment . On November 27 , 1793 he was elevated to the rank of brigadier general . In June 1784 , Congress finally charged him , for a period of four and a half months , to draw up the certificates for members of his former command . = = Final years = = In the mid @-@ 1780s , Nicola advocated the construction of a stagecoach route between Philadelphia and Reading . Failing to secure the route , he planned to temporarily operate a guest house . For financial reasons , he instead became manager of the workhouse in Philadelphia in 1788 . In 1793 , Nicola became inspector of the Philadelphia city militia brigade . During the Whiskey Rebellion of 1794 , he briefly returned to his former position as barrack master and commander of the city of Philadelphia . During this period , Nicola was maintained his affiliation with the American Philosophical Society , serving multiple terms as curator and continuing with his research . In 1791 , he wrote a controversial pamphlet entitled , The Divinity of Jesus Christ Considered , From Scripture Evidences . This pamphlet concluded that Christ 's divinity cannot be found in scripture . Due to its controversial nature , Nicola considered publishing it in various forms , but eventually decided on attaching his name to the writing . Nicola 's second wife died in 1797 , and he retired the following year . In 1798 , he moved to Alexandria , Virginia to be closer to his daughter . He died on August 8 , 1807 . Earlier in that year , because of financial troubles , he had added the words " any deficiency I presume the Cincinnati society will make good " to his will . At the time of his death , Nicola possessed only $ 55 . = = Publications = =
= Shin Megami Tensei : Persona 3 = Shin Megami Tensei : Persona 3 ( ペルソナ3 , Perusona Surī ) is a role @-@ playing video game developed by Atlus , and chronologically the fourth installment in the Persona series , a subseries of the Megami Tensei franchise . Persona 3 was originally published in 2006 on the PlayStation 2 by Atlus in Japan ; the North American release of the game was delayed due to issues with the publication of the official art book . An add @-@ on disc titled Persona 3 FES , containing a " director 's cut " of the original game , as well as a new epilogue , was released alongside Persona 3 in Japan in 2007 , and in 2008 in other territories , with a re @-@ release of FES on the PlayStation Network in 2012 . In Persona 3 , the player takes the role of a male high @-@ school student who joins the Specialized Extracurricular Execution Squad ( SEES ) , a group of students investigating the Dark Hour , a time period between one day and the next that few people are aware of . During the Dark Hour , the player enters Tartarus , a large tower containing Shadows , creatures that feed on the minds of humans . To fight the Shadows , each member of SEES is able to summon a Persona , a manifestation of a person 's inner self . The game 's most iconic feature is the method by which the members of SEES release their Personas : by firing a gun @-@ like object called an Evoker at their head . In addition to the standard elements of role @-@ playing games , Persona 3 includes elements of simulation games , as the game 's protagonist progresses day by day through a school year , making friends and forming relationships that improve the strength of his Personas in battle . There are official soundtracks for Persona 3 , Persona 3 FES , and Persona 3 Portable , as well as an arrangement album containing music from multiple games in the Persona series . Music from the game has also been performed live at two concerts dedicated to the Persona series . Persona 3 has seen a manga adaption , multiple radio dramas . Critical reception of Persona 3 was mainly positive ; reviewers enjoyed the game 's social elements , while some found its combat and environments repetitive . Persona 3 FES 's epilogue was said to give narrative closure to the original game , although it was criticized for not featuring the simulation aspect of Persona 3 . A PlayStation Portable version of Persona 3 , titled Persona 3 Portable was released in Japan on November 1 , 2009 , and in North America on July 6 , 2010 . The remake adds the ability to play as a female protagonist , new story elements and music , and a new interface designed for the PSP . In 2008 , an original non @-@ canon anime set 10 years after the events of Persona 3 , titled Persona : Trinity Soul , was released in Japan and later in North America . Two fighting games that continued the storyline of select members of S.E.E.S. , Persona 4 Arena and Persona 4 Arena Ultimax , were released in 2012 and 2013 respectively . = = Gameplay = = Persona 3 combines elements of traditional role @-@ playing games and simulation games . The game follows the protagonist character , balancing their daily life of going to school and building relationships with other people with fighting evil beings known as Shadows during the mysterious Dark Hour . Each day is divided up between various time zones , the most common of which are " After School / Daytime " and " Evening " . With the exception of scripted events , such as plot progression or special events , the player is free to choose how each day is spent , with most activities causing time to pass on . The types of activities and characters that can be interacted with vary depending on the day of the week and time of day . Additionally , some activities are limited by the protagonist 's three attributes ; Academics , Charm , and Courage , which can be built by performing various activities or making certain correct choices . During the evening , players can choose to visit Tartarus , the game 's main dungeon , where they can build their party 's experience and gain new items . On the day of the full moon , players will participate in a boss battle in order to progress the story . = = = Personas and Social Links = = = The main element of the game are the Personas , various creatures and monsters which are associated with the Major Arcana of the Tarot . Each Persona has its own set of strengths and weaknesses , and possess various abilities , ranging from offensive and support abilities , to passive abilities that support the character . Whereas each of the game 's main characters has their own Persona , some of which change form as the story progresses , the protagonist is capable of wielding multiple Personas , which can be switched between during battles . New Personas can be created by visiting the Velvet Room and fusing together multiple Personas , passing along certain moves from the Personas used . The Personas that a player can create are limited by the current level of the protagonist . Personas can also be obtained from Shuffle Time following battles , and previously obtained Personas can be summoned from the Persona Compendium for a fee . The Velvet Room additionally allows players to take on quests , such as retrieving certain items , in order to obtain a reward . New to the series are Social Links , bonds that are formed with several of the game 's characters , with each Social Link representing a specific Major Arcana . By spending time with these characters , these Social Links increase in rank . When creating a Persona of a particular Arcana , an experience bonus will be granted if that Arcana possesses a Social Link , with greater bonuses awarded depending on the rank . Performing certain activities or carrying a Persona of a respective Arcana can help bring a Social Link closer to increasing in Rank . Maxing out a Social Link gives players the ability to create specific Personas of each Arcana . Conversely , negative actions , such as incorrect dialogue choices or dating multiple characters , can result in a Reversed Social Link , which can prevent players from summoning Personas of that Arcana until fixed . In the worst @-@ case scenario , a Reversed Social Link can break , effectively removing all Personas of that Arcana from the game . = = = Tartarus and Combat = = = Tartarus is the game 's main dungeon , which can be visited during the evening , provided the conditions allow it ( e.g. the absence of some characters may prevent the player from visiting Tartarus that night ) . The player may order the other party members to split up to explore the area , or automatically attack Shadows on sight . Players will eventually come across boss floors , in which the player must defeat powerful Shadows in order to continue their progress . Additionally , certain floors halt further progress through the tower until the story progresses . Occasionally , innocent civilians will wander into Tartarus , winding up on certain floors . Rescuing these civilians safely before a full moon appears grants bonus rewards obtained from the police station . Spending too much time in Tartarus may cause characters to become " Tired " or " Sick " , which can affect their performance during battle . Additionally , if the protagonist becomes Tired or Sick , some activities , such as studying at night , may be hampered . Players can recover their status by taking certain items , visiting the infirmary , or going to bed early . Battle occurs when the player comes into contact with a Shadow roaming the floor , with the battle party consisting of whoever is in close proximity . Attacking the Shadow without being noticed will give the player an advantage , whilst the enemy gains an advantage if the player is attacked first . Battles use the " Press Turn " system , in which both allies and enemies take turns to attack using weapons , items , or Persona abilities . Using the Tactics option , the player can assign specific battle AI to each party member ( in Persona 3 Portable , they may also choose to issue direct commands ) . Offensive attacks are divided into three physical types ; Strike , Slash , and Pierce , and six elements ; Fire , Ice , Electricity , Wind , Light , and Dark , attributes of which both Personas and Shadows may possess strengths and weaknesses against . Physical abilities use up HP whilst elemental and support magic use SP . By exploiting an enemy 's weakness or performing a critical attack , characters can knock the opponent down , granting that character an extra turn , though enemies can also take advantage of an ally 's weakness to gain an additional turn . If the player manages to knock all opponents down , they may be granted the opportunity to perform an All @-@ Out Attack , in which all able party members assault the enemies for massive damage . Allies who lose all of their HP can be revived using revival items and abilities , but if the protagonist loses all of their HP , the game will end . When a battle is won , players gain experience points which are divided amongst the party members . Earning enough experience allows Personas to increase in level , granting improved stats and new abilities . Some Personas may also grant Skill Cards , which can be given to other Personas to teach them new abilities . Raising the protagonist 's level will allow higher level Personas to be summoned in the Velvet Room , as well as allow the player to carry more Personas . At the end of certain battles , a minigame known as Shuffle Time may appear , in which players select a card from a set that is shuffled around . These can grant bonuses , such as additional experience points , cash , or restored health , or give the player new Personas . However , selecting a cursed card will cause an extremely powerful monster , Death , to appear on the current floor . = = Plot = = = = = Setting = = = The story of Persona 3 takes place in a 2009 CE Japanese city called Iwatodai ( 巖戸台 ) , built and funded by the Kirijo Corporation . Experiments carried out ten years ago created the Dark Hour , a period of time that exists between one day and the next . During this time , most people are transmogrified into coffins and are not aware of the Dark Hour ; however , there is a select group of people who aren 't . The Dark Hour bends reality ; Gekkoukan High School , where most of the characters attend school during the day , becomes a huge labyrinthine tower called Tartarus , and beasts known as Shadows roam the area , preying on the minds of those still conscious . The Shadows leave their victims in near @-@ catatonic states outside of the Dark Hour . To investigate and learn about the Dark Hour , Shadows , and Tartarus , the " Specialized Extracurricular Execution Squad " , or SEES , was created . SEES is a group of high @-@ schoolers capable of summoning beings known as Personas to combat Shadows . The Persona 3 instruction manual describes Personas as being " a second soul that dwells deep within a person 's heart . It is an entirely different personality that emerges when a person is confronted with something from outside his world . " Persona @-@ users usually summon their Persona by firing a gun @-@ like object called an Evoker at their head . = = = Characters = = = The main character of Persona 3 is a silent protagonist , named by the player at the start of the game . He is a teenage boy , orphaned as a child , returning to the city he grew up in ten years prior to attend Gekkoukan High School . After learning of his ability to summon a Persona , he joins SEES , which is composed of students at his school : Yukari Takeba , a popular , cheerful girl ; Akihiko Sanada , a calm and collected senior who leads the school 's boxing team ; and Mitsuru Kirijo , the Student Council President and daughter of the head of the Kirijo Group , who provides backup during battle . As the game progresses , SEES gains several new members : Junpei Iori , a class clown and the Protagonist 's best friend ; Fuuka Yamagishi , a shy girl who replaces Mitsuru as a support character ; Aigis , a female android designed by the Kirijo Group to fight Shadows ; Ken Amada , a middle schooler whose mother was killed by a Persona @-@ user ; Shinjiro Aragaki , a former member of SEES who quit due to past events ; and Koromaru , a dog capable of summoning a Persona . = = = Story = = = Persona 3 begins with the Protagonist transferring to Gekkoukan High School , and moving into a dorm in the city . After learning of his ability to summon a Persona , he is asked to join SEES , and is eventually elected its leader in combat . Additional members join SEES over time , all students attending Gekkoukan : Junpei , who had only recently discovered his ability to summon a Persona ; Akihiko , whose arm injury prevented him from fighting ; and Fuuka , who replaces Mitsuru as the team 's support member . After awakening to his Persona ability , the Protagonist is transported to the Velvet Room , which its proprietor , Igor , says is a realm between " dream and reality " . Igor explains to him that his Persona ability is special : he is the only member of SEES capable of wielding multiple Personas in battle . In @-@ game , the Velvet Room is where the player may fuse two or more Personas to create a new one . Igor also encourages the Protagonist to meet people and form bonds with them , known as Social Links . According to Igor , the power of his Social Links will determine his potential in combat . On nights when the moon is full , the city is attacked by a Shadow more powerful than the ones found in Tartarus . After several of these incidents , Mitsuru is forced to reveal to the team the origin of Tartarus and the Dark Hour . Ten years earlier , the Kirijo Group , a research company founded by Mitsuru 's grandfather , began amassing and containing Shadows . They studied and performed experiments on them , in order to harness their power . However , the experiments went awry , allowing the Shadows to escape and assemble into twelve larger creatures . Each is affiliated with one of the twelve Major Arcana . SEES 's leader , Shuji Ikutsuki , informs them that , if they were to defeat all twelve of the greater Shadows , Tartarus and the Dark Hour would disappear forever . As the year continues , the group adds two more Persona @-@ users to their team : Ken and Koromaru . While vacationing in Yakushima , Junpei , Akihiko , and the Protagonist encounter Aigis , who had recently escaped the laboratory where she was kept , despite having been deactivated for years . For reasons she cannot explain , she has a need to be near the Protagonist , even breaking into his dorm room at night to monitor him . Aigis is also enlisted in SEES . After defeating the twelfth and final Shadow , SEES learns that they had been misled by Shuji Ikutsuki . By destroying the greater Shadows , they have freed parts of a being known as Nyx , which will bring about the end of the world if it is fully restored . Nyx , or the " maternal being " , is the creator of Shadows ; she is drawn to Earth by The Appriser , or " Death " , a Shadow of the Death arcanum . SEES encounters The Appriser disguised as Ryoji Mochizuki , a recent transfer student to Gekkoukan High School . The Shadow experiments performed ten years earlier created the Death Shadow , albeit in an incomplete state . Aigis , unable to defeat the Shadow , sealed it inside the Protagonist , who was a child at the time . By defeating the twelve greater Shadows , the Death Shadow was recreated . Its purpose is to usher Nyx into the world , who will bring about the extinction of the human race . Ryoji insists that Nyx cannot be defeated ; however , he offers SEES an alternative . If they were to kill him , their memories of the Dark Hour and Tartarus would vanish , allowing them to continue life unaware of their impending death . Aigis , who now realizes why she wanted to protect the Protagonist , begins to believe that she is useless . She urges SEES to kill Ryoji , as they cannot defeat Nyx . Through encouragement from her friends , however , she gains the resolve to join with SEES as they attempt to fight Nyx . On December 31 , New Year 's Eve , the player must decide whether to kill Ryoji . If the protagonist kills him , the game cuts to Graduation Day , with the entirety of SEES ( barring Aigis ) losing their memories of the Dark Hour and the Shadows , ending on a dark note as they prepare to celebrate in blissful ignorance until Nyx inevitably brings about the fall . If he is spared , then the game continues , and on January 31 , SEES ascends to the roof of Tartarus to face Ryoji , who has transformed into the Nyx Avatar . While they are able to defeat him , Nyx continues to descend to Earth . As this is happening , the Protagonist is summoned to the Velvet Room , where Igor reminds him that the power of his Social Links would determine his potential . The Protagonist hears the voices of his friends encouraging him . The strength of his Social Links grants him the power of the " Universe " , allowing him to seal away Nyx from humanity . The world returns to normal , though the memories of the past year related to the Dark Hour are lost to the members of SEES . However , Aigis and the Protagonist do remember . On Graduation Day , the two go to the roof of the school , where the members of SEES had promised to meet should they stop Nyx and live to see their graduation . As Mitsuru gives her graduation speech , she and the rest of SEES suddenly regain their memories , and the group rush to the roof to fulfill the promise they all made . It is here that Aigis thanks the Protagonist for giving her a purpose in life : protecting him . = = Development and design = = Persona 3 began development in 2004 , after the completion of Shin Megami Tensei : Nocturne and Digital Devil Saga . In March 2006 , the first details on Persona 3 were unveiled in the Japanese gaming magazine Famitsū . In addition to announcing the game 's Japanese release date of July 13 , the three @-@ page article detailed the game 's premise , combat systems , and the Social Link system ( known as " Community " in the Japanese version ) . It also profiled three characters — the Protagonist , Junpei , and Yukari — as well as their respective Personas : Orpheus , Hermes and Io . The main character artist and art director for Persona 3 was Shigenori Soejima . Character artist for the previous Persona titles , Kazuma Kaneko , gave the job to Soejima so he could gain more experience . Soejima felt a degree of pressure when designing the characters as he did not want to disappoint the series ' fanbase . The goal was to make players of the Megami Tensei series feel gratified that they had supported the Persona series . In an interview , Soejima compared the game 's aesthetic and style to a fantastical manga , citing its use of mecha @-@ like Persona and Mitsuru 's flamboyant styling . Soejima returned to design the character Metis for FES . The anime cutscenes for Persona 3 and FES were animated by animation production company Point Pictures . In an interview with the magazine Play , lead director for Persona 3 Katsura Hashino discussed why the decision was made to have party members be directed by an artificial intelligence : " I think it 's more fun to have the party members controlled by their AI , so each member 's characteristics and personality are on vivid display . There were no objections raised among the Persona 3 development team , either . " He also notes that the system " wasn 't well received " by players of the game . Later , the use of AI for the secondary party members was described as a stylistic choice representing the game 's theme of conquering the fear of death through " bonds " : each character was their own person , and the player could only influence things by interacting with them . Persona 3 does not include the negotiation elements of previous Persona or Megami Tensei games , which allowed players to talk to enemies during a battle to recruit them , earn money , or obtain items . However , the social elements of Persona 3 ( and its successor , Shin Megami Tensei : Persona 4 ) are considered the equivalent of the negotiation system by the development team . Maragos said in a 1UP.com interview that " negotiation isn 't gone ... And [ it ] still factors into Persona Fusion ; it 's still a big part of the game . I feel like it 's disguised , but it 's there . " = = = Localization = = = The localization of Persona 3 was handled by Yu Namba and Nich Maragos . During this process , the team worked to leave as much of the original Japanese content intact , continuing a trend started with Persona 2 : Eternal Punishment . One of the ideas had by the team for Persona 3 was to use it as a medium for introducing Japanese culture to a western audience . While localizing Persona 3 for English @-@ speaking countries , the honorifics used by the characters in the original Japanese script were retained . According to Maragos , their use " [ added ] so much more meaning to the text " . In an interview with RPGamer , project editor Yu Namba explained that during the process of translation , some of the Japanese humor , " things that made absolutely no sense in western culture … were replaced with jokes that at least somewhat parallel the originals . " One of the changes that needed to be made was to the school tests , which were based around questions on the English language . A similar change was Mitsuru 's second language : in the original version it was English , but for the localized version her second language was changed to French . This choice was influenced by her cultured appearance . In addition , in @-@ game references to the original Shin Megami Tensei were altered to references to Revelations : Persona . = = = Music = = = The soundtrack for Persona 3 was composed entirely by Shoji Meguro , with the sole exception of " Adventured Act " , which was composed by Yosuke Uda . It was released as a two disc soundtrack in Japan by Aniplex on July 19 , 2006 . A selection of tracks from the full soundtrack was bundled with the North American release of the game . An arranged album , titled Burn My Dread -Reincarnation : Persona 3- , was also released in Japan by Aniplex on April 18 , 2007 . It contains eleven arrangements of tracks from Persona 3 , as well as an extended version of the song " Burn My Dread . " Meguro stated that the development of Persona 3 was one of his first opportunities to fully realize his music in video games . The soundtrack features a high use of vocals , though Meguro did not consider this as special or exceptional . A tune from previous Persona titles he rearranged was " Aria of the Soul " , the theme of the Velvet Room . The game 's battle theme , " Mass Destruction " , was originally just a prototype , but the reception to it was so positive that it went into the final game . In the past , the hardware limitations of the original PlayStation required him to compose music in 100 @-@ 200 kilobyte samples , which he felt made the music sound " pretty cheap " . The move to the PlayStation 2 allowed for real @-@ time streaming of music . Meguro considers this " the point at which [ he ] was finally able to express [ his ] music without making any compromises " . He was also worried about the pronunciation of the English lyrics . Meguro returned to compose new music for Persona 3 : FES . Released in Japan by Aniplex on May 2 , 2007 , the soundtrack contained the original score for FES , as well as arrangements of music from earlier games in the Persona series . " The Snow Queen " , composed by Kenichi Tsuchiya , is a remix of the theme in Revelations : Persona . " Maya 's Theme " , composed by Kenichi Tsuchiya , and " Time Castle " , composed by Toshiko Tasaki , are remixes of tracks from Persona 2 : Innocent Sin . Persona 3 Portable contains new background music , which can be heard if the player chooses to control the game 's new female protagonist . The game 's official soundtrack was released in Japan by Aniplex on November 25 , 2009 . = = Remakes and Spinoff = = = = = Persona 3 FES = = = Shin Megami Tensei : Persona 3 FES ( ペルソナ3フェス , Perusona Surī Fesu ) is an add @-@ on disc for Persona 3 containing updates to the original game , as well as a new epilogue in which the player controls Aigis . FES was released in Japan on April 19 , 2007 , as both a stand @-@ alone game , and with the " director 's cut " version of Persona 3 . Overseas , the combined edition was published in North America by Atlus U.S.A. on April 22 , 2008 , and in Europe by Koei on October 17 , 2008 . According to the game 's director , Katsura Hashino , the subtitle " Fes " is derived from the word " festival " . This version of the game was re @-@ released as a PS2 Classic on PSN for the PS3 in 2012 . Players of the original Persona 3 are given the option of transferring certain data from the original version 's save file , such as the player 's compendium , social @-@ related stats , and maxed Social Link items . The expansion to Persona 3 , in addition to adding new content to the main game ( referred to as " The Journey " , or " Episode Yourself " in the Japanese version ) , includes an epilogue to the original story titled " The Answer " ( " Episode Aegis " in the Japanese version ) . The core gameplay of The Answer is similar to that of The Journey , although the Social Link system has been removed , and the player does not attend school . = = = = The Answer = = = = The events of The Answer begin on March 31 , shortly after the end of the original game . During the opening sequence , it is revealed that the Protagonist has died ; the other characters speculate that his death is related to his defeating Nyx . The school year has ended , and the dorm is to be closed down soon . Aigis reveals to the group that she will not be attending school next year . During their last dinner party , the SEES members discover that they are trapped in their dorm , and that the day March 31 is repeating itself . Later , a large door @-@ like hole opens in the floor of the dorm , and SEES is attacked by Metis , an anti @-@ shadow weapon similar to Aigis . In the midst of fighting Metis to protect her friends , Aigis 's Persona , Athena , transforms into Orpheus , the original Persona of the Protagonist . She also gains the Protagonist 's Wild Card ability . Aigis is able to subdue Metis , whose actions were an attempt to end the time skip and save Aigis , who she calls her " sister " . Underneath the dorm is the Abyss of Time , the cause of the time skip . The Abyss contains seven doors , the insides of which contain multi @-@ floor dungeons , similar in design to Tartarus ; it is in these areas that the game 's combat takes place . At the top of each dungeon , the characters witness an event from the past of a member of SEES . After seeing several of these flashbacks , the characters discern that the event shown in each door relates to how that person had awakened to their Persona . At the top of the seventh and final door , SEES fights a Shadow @-@ like version of the Protagonist . After defeating it , each of them obtain a key . By combining the keys , they would be able to end the time skip and leave the dorm . However , Metis presents SEES with an alternative : instead of unlocking the front door of the dorm , they may also use the keys to travel back in time , to before the fight against Nyx and the death of the Protagonist . Now unable to agree on how to use the keys , the characters determine that they must fight each other to decide . Aigis , Fuuka and Metis claim all eight keys , which fuse into the Final Key . After debating on what to do now , they discover a third , new door in the Abyss of Time , which the group uses ( without the Final Key ) to travel to the moment the Protagonist sealed Nyx from the world . Metis explains that the purpose of the seal created by the Protagonist was not to seal away Nyx herself ( who is not inherently evil ) , but to prevent humanity 's despair from calling out to Nyx and bringing about the Fall once more . The subconscious will of mankind to despair and wish for death constantly rebirths a monster called Erebus that summons Nyx to destroy the world ; Metis implies that Erebus 's contact with Nyx is what caused the Fall ( that was prevented by SEES ) . SEES realizes that the wishes that created Erebus also came from them , and so they fight it , and are able to defeat it . Mitsuru points out that Erebus will return , as humans will never stop wishing for death . After breaking the time skip and exiting through the front door of the dorm with the Final Key , Metis , Aigis , and the rest of SEES are summoned to the Velvet Room , much to Igor 's ( pleasant ) surprise . It is here they learn of Metis 's true origins : that she is a manifestation of a part of Aigis 's personality . Distraught over the death of the Protagonist , she no longer wanted to live like a human , and wished to return to being a machine . However , after being set free from the Abyss of Time , Aigis changes her mind , deciding to continue to attend school , something she had chosen not to do earlier . = = = Persona 3 Portable = = = Shin Megami Tensei : Persona 3 Portable ( ペルソナ3 ポータブル , Perusona Surī Pōtaburu ) , an enhanced port of Persona 3 for the PlayStation Portable , was released in Japan on November 1 , 2009 , and released in North America on July 6 , 2010 . It came to most of Europe on 29 April 2011 and the UK on 28 April 2011 . The announcement in Famitsū revealed that the player would have the option to play as a female character . This selection alters some aspects of the story : the first Persona gained by the Protagonist , Orpheus , has a different appearance ; Igor 's assistant in the Velvet Room , Elizabeth , can be replaced with a male equivalent named Theodore . The gender choice also alters some aspects of the Social Link stories . In addition to the new playable character , there are two new difficulty levels to select from alongside the original game 's three . Persona 3 Portable only includes the story of the original Persona 3 ; however , general changes have been made to the plot , regardless of character choice . The game 's revised battle system draws on elements added in Persona 3 's successor , Persona 4 . In combat , the player is able to directly control every character , as an alternative to utilizing the game 's artificial intelligence . The ability to guard has been added , and allies will take fatal attacks for the Protagonist , preventing his or her death . Outside of Tartarus , instead of navigating the game world by directly controlling the Protagonist , the player guides an on @-@ screen cursor around an area , allowing interaction with characters and objects . The game includes the voice acting of the original game , although characters are not shown in the world , instead being represented by on @-@ screen portraits . In addition , the anime cutscenes seen in the original Persona 3 were replaced to feature in @-@ game graphics . Shoji Meguro composed 10 new musical tracks for Persona 3 Portable ; with the majority of them being written for the female protagonist 's playthrough . Several cameos of characters from Persona 4 have been added to Persona 3 Portable , including Yukiko Amagi , a playable character from Persona 4 . It also features a cameo from Vincent Brooks , the protagonist of Catherine . = = = Persona Q : Shadow of the Labyrinth = = = Persona Q : Shadow of the Labyrinth is a dungeon crawler RPG developed for the Nintendo 3DS . It features both the characters from Persona 3 and the ones from Persona 4 , and also includes some gameplay elements from the Etrian Odyssey series . The Persona 3 campaign starts two weeks before October 4 , so Shinjiro is alive and available as a playable character . Just as SEES prepares to enter Tartarus that night , they are pulled into the Velvet Room and sent to a school they have never seen before . While searching the area they meet the amnesiacs Zen and Rei and the Investigation Team , the latter of whom have also been pulled into the strange school : they must now work together in order to escape . The game was released in Japan on June 5 , 2014 , North America on November 25 , 2014 and Europe on November 28 , 2014 . = = Release = = When the original PlayStation 2 version of Persona 3 was first released in Japan , it sold 127 @,@ 472 copies in its first week and 210 @,@ 319 copies overall in Japan by 2008 . The North American release of Persona 3 shipped as a collector 's edition box , containing the game , a soundtrack disc , and a 52 @-@ page art book . The game 's original release date was July 24 , 2007 . However , Atlus encountered a problem with the manufacturing of the art book several days before the intended ship date . Instead of shipping the game without the book , the company decided to push its release back three weeks , to August 14 . Atlus issued a press release explaining that they were delaying the game so as maintain the quality of the package , which would have been " irreparably compromised " if they had " revise [ d ] or abandon [ ed ] the deluxe package . " Persona 3 FES was first released alongside the original game in two forms : the " Regular Edition " — containing both the " director 's cut " version of Persona 3 , and the new epilogue — as two separate discs , and the " Append Edition " , containing only the epilogue , on a single disc . Persona 3 and its expansion were released simultaneously in Japan on April 19 , 2007 . At the time , Atlus had not announced plans to release FES outside Japan . This announcement did not come until February 2008 , when the game 's North American release date was revealed to be April 22 , 2008 . An exclusive Amazon.com limited edition bundle was released on November 28 , 2008 , containing Art of Persona 3 artbook , Persona 3 soundtrack disc and the FES edition in a cardboard sleeve . The FES edition of the game was also released on PSN on April 10 , 2012 . Persona 3 Portable was released as a stand @-@ alone game and as part of a bundle package , which includes a T @-@ shirt and desk calendar . The game on its own retails for 6 @,@ 279 yen ( US $ 68 ) , while the bundle ( known as Persona 3 Portable DX ) sells for 8 @,@ 495 yen ( US $ 92 ) . In its first month of release , Persona 3 Portable sold over 158 @,@ 000 copies in Japan . During the North American release , Atlus offered Junpei 's hat as a pre @-@ order bonus for purchasing " Persona 3 Portable " . = = = Critical reception = = = Persona 3 received positive reviews upon its release , earning a Metacritic score of 86 . Shane Bettenhausen of 1UP.com called the game a " refreshingly new take on the MegaTen [ Megami Tensei ] concept " , and " the best RPG hitting the PS2 this year . " He praised the " excellent " AI created to direct the actions of party members during battle , which he felt created " the series ' speediest and most dynamic battle system to date . " Jeff Haynes from IGN criticized the system , finding that it would occasionally result in the death of the player 's character , which causes a game over . GameTrailers gave the game a score of 9 @.@ 0 , calling it " a rare supernatural delicacy " stating it 's an RPG that fans of the genre shouldn 't miss out on . GameSpy 's Patrick Joynt praised the social elements of Persona 3 , calling the game 's Social Links " almost universally fascinating . " While he suspected the simulation elements would " probably be the biggest hurdle " for fans of role @-@ playing or Megami Tensei games , in his review he wrote that he " can 't stress enough how well @-@ done it is . " Heidi Kemps of GamesRadar found the game 's teenage themes to be " a refreshing change " from those of other games in the genre , as they touch on " the social awkwardness common at that point in life . " Game Informer 's Joe Juba found the game 's environments to be weak , as " most of the game takes place within one tower [ Tartarus ] . " He also in his review noted that the game 's roots in the Megami Tensei series would come across as foreign to new players . " If you don ’ t know anything about fusing Personas , or simply that ' bufu ' means ' ice attack , ' you have some catching up to do . " Persona 3 : FES received a score of 89 on Metacritic , slightly higher than that of Persona 3 . The plot of The Answer provides " much @-@ needed narrative closure " to the story of The Journey , according to Shane Bettenhausen . Kevin VanOrd called FES a " wonderfully enhanced version of an already @-@ great RPG " ; in his review , he recommends the game to new players and those who had already finished the original game . The gameplay of The Answer was criticized by several reviewers for not including the social elements of the original game . VanOrd found the new chapter to be " less interesting " because of this . Jeff Haynes commented that the change " harkens back to a classic , more hardcore RPG experience of fighting and grinding " , while done at the expense of what " made Persona 3 so intriguing in the first place . " The reviews of GameSpy and IGN reiterated issues found with the original game , such as the inability to directly control party members in battle . While some critics like IGN criticized Persona 3 Portable for " losing some of its polish " , it was as acclaimed as FES , receiving an 89 out of 100 from Metacritic , making it the third best reviewed PSP game on the website . It was praised for , despite having been released twice already , being an adventure worth playing again . This was echoed by GamesRadar , IGN , 1UP.com and GamePro . It received a score of 32 / 40 from Famitsu ; one reviewer wrote that the remake includes " enough differences in the Social Links to make it fun even for old players . " , and perfect scores from websites such as Destructoid and GamePro . GameTrailers went on to nominate the game for " Best PSP Game " in their awards , losing to God of War : Ghost of Sparta and " Best RPG " , losing to Mass Effect 2 . Three websites specific to coverage of RPGs honored it in annual award postings , namely RPGamer ( Best Re @-@ release ) , RPGFan ( Best Traditional RPG on Handheld ) , and RPGLand ( Best Port ) . Shane Bettenhausen considered the inclusion of Evokers " a ballsy and shocking move " on the part of Atlus , but felt their inclusion created " an edgy sensibitliy that fits perfectly with the overall dark tone " of the game . Similarly , Joe Juba thought the concept fit " perfectly " with the game 's " dark tone " . Jeff Haynes found the animations of characters using their Evokers to be " intriguing and shocking at the same time " . While previewing Persona 3 for GameSpot , Kevin VanOrd said that the continued use of Evokers " never gets old and it never gets any less awesome to watch , and considering that you could play this for fifty , sixty , seventy , eighty hours or more , that 's saying something . " Atlus U.S.A. did not remove the Evokers from Persona 3 for its worldwide release , despite the possible controversy . Nich Maragos said on 1UP.com 's Retronauts podcast that the company did not receive any criticism for their inclusion , however . " There was never any Jack Thompson @-@ ing … we didn 't get any letters from concerned parents . " Persona 3 was named the best role @-@ playing game of 2006 by Famitsu , and of 2007 by GameSpot and RPGFan . GameSpy gave the title its 2007 PS2 RPG of the Year award and placed it second in the 2007 PS2 Top 10 Games of the Year . IGN placed Persona 3 FES fifteenth in their feature " The Top 25 PS2 Games of All Time " . 1UP.com 's 2007 game awards , which ran in the March 2008 issue of Electronic Gaming Monthly , included Persona 3 , given the award for " Most controversial game that created no controversy " . In 2010 , Persona 3 ended up coming first place in RPGamer 's " Top RPGs of the Decade " list , and second place in RPGFan 's " Top 20 RPGs of the Past Decade " list behind Shin Megami Tensei : Digital Devil Saga & Digital Devil Saga 2 . According to IGN 's Top 100 RPGs of All Time , Persona 3 ranks 69th . = = Media = = = = = Merchandise = = = Several figurines of the characters have been produced by Kotobukiya , a Japanese collectible toy company . They include the Protagonist of the game , Aigis , Mitsuru , and Akihiko . The figurines have interchangeable parts , such as an Evoker or weapon , which can be stored in the base . Alter , another Japanese company that specializes in collectibles , has also released 1 : 8 scale figurines of Elizabeth , Aigis , and Mitsuru . The headphones worn by the Protagonist are sold by Audio @-@ Technica , model ATH @-@ EM700 ( Japan @-@ only version ) . Atlus collaborated with the Japanese publishing company Enterbrain to publish the game 's multiple strategy guides and an artbook detailing character and setting designs . Udon recently announced that they will release an English edition of Enterbrain 's Persona 3 : Official Design Works artbook to be released June 10 , 2012 . = = = Manga = = = There is also a manga adaptation of Persona 3 , written and illustrated by Shūji Sogabe , and was published monthly in the Japanese magazine Dengeki Maoh until it went on hiatus once Persona 4 was released . However , it began serialization again starting November 7 , 2011 , moving from Dengeki Maoh to Atlus 's official Persona Magazine . As of June 2012 , 6 volumes have been released . = = = Anime = = = A non @-@ canonical spin @-@ off anime to Persona 3 titled Persona : Trinity Soul aired in Japan starting in January 2008 and ran for twenty @-@ six episodes . Taking place ten years after the events of the game , the anime features Akihiko as a secondary character . NIS America licensed the show and released it in two half @-@ season deluxe edition box sets with the original Japanese audio track in 2010 . = = = Films = = = In June 2012 , the end of the newly released Persona 4 film announced that Persona 3 would receive a film series adaptation . It is produced by AIC ASTA and directed by Noriaki Akitaya . The main Japanese voice actors from the original game reprised their roles in the film series . = = = Radio drama = = = Several series of radio dramas based on Persona 3 and Persona 3 : FES have been released in Japan . Persona 3 Drama CD : A Certain Day of Summer features an original story voiced by the game 's original cast . Persona 3 Drama CD Vol . 2 -Moonlight- links the story of Persona 3 and the epilogue released with Persona 3 : FES . From February to June 2008 , a series of character dramas were released as five CDs . The volumes respectively focus on the Protagonist and Ryoji ; Junpei and Chidori ; Fuuka , Ken , and Aigis ; Yukari and Mitsuru ; and Akihiko , Shinjiro , and Koromaru . In early 2009 , a two @-@ volume side story about Mitsuru was released .
= Phillips Exeter Academy Library = The Phillips Exeter Academy Library in Exeter , New Hampshire , U.S. , with 160 @,@ 000 volumes on nine levels and a shelf capacity of 250 @,@ 000 volumes , is the largest secondary school library in the world . It is part of the Phillips Exeter Academy , an independent boarding school . When it became clear in the 1950s that the library had outgrown its existing building , the school initially hired an architect who proposed a traditional design for the new building . Deciding instead to construct a library with a contemporary design , the school gave the commission to Louis Kahn in 1965 . In 1997 the library received the Twenty @-@ five Year Award from the American Institute of Architects , an award that recognizes architecture of enduring significance that is given to no more than one building per year . Kahn structured the library in three concentric square rings . The outer ring , which is built of load @-@ bearing brick , includes all four exterior walls and the library carrel spaces immediately inside them . The middle ring , which is built of reinforced concrete , holds the heavy book stacks . The inner ring is a dramatic atrium with enormous circular openings in its walls that reveal several floors of book stacks . = = History and services = = The first library at Phillips Exeter Academy was a single small room . A member of the class of 1833 remembered it as containing " old sermons and some history , scarcely ever read " . Even as late as 1905 the library had only two rooms and 2 @,@ 000 volumes . In 1912 the Davis Library was added to the campus with space for 5 @,@ 000 volumes . Although a major improvement , its atmosphere was inhospitable by the standards of later generations . Stacks were locked to students , for example , and the librarian 's office was located at the entrance to the stacks to maximize control over entry . Decisions about book selections and the library 's program were in the hands of an all @-@ male faculty committee instead of the female librarian . In 1950 Rodney Armstrong became librarian , the first with a graduate degree in library science . One of his first moves was to open the stacks to students . That solved one problem , but the real difficulty was the lack of space . The library contained 35 @,@ 000 volumes at that point , many of them stored in cardboard boxes for lack of shelf room . After years of effort , Armstrong eventually succeeded in bringing a new library to the academy . Architect Louis Kahn was chosen to design the new library in 1965 , and it was ready for occupancy in 1971 . Architectural historian Vincent Scully acknowledged its architectural significance by using a photo of it as the frontispiece for his book Modern Architecture and Other Essays . On November 16 , 1971 , classes were suspended for a day , and students , faculty , and staff moved books ( the library had 60 @,@ 000 volumes by this time ) from the old Davis Library into the new library . Henry Bedford , who became librarian shortly after the new library was occupied , supervised the transition not only to the new building but also to a new way of operating a library . Staff librarians were encouraged to see themselves as co @-@ instructors with the regular faculty and to put less emphasis on shushing library patrons . A piano was installed and the library began sponsoring lectures and concerts . In 1977 Jacquelyn Thomas became librarian , the first with full faculty status . By 2006 she oversaw a staff of seven , all with graduate degrees in library science . During Thomas ' tenure the library 's collection and programming grew to a size appropriate to a small liberal arts college . Today the library houses 160 @,@ 000 volumes on nine levels and has a shelf capacity of 250 @,@ 000 volumes , making it the largest secondary school library in the world . The library also contains a collection of works by alumni as well as the Academy Archives . The library was the first building on campus to be computerized thanks to the foresight of Armstrong and Kahn , who supplied the library with sufficient conduit space for the cabling needed by the coming computer revolution . In 1995 , the library was officially named the Class of 1945 Library , honoring Dr. Lewis Perry , Exeter 's eighth principal , who served from 1914 to 1946 . = = Choosing Louis Kahn as architect = = The project to build a new and larger library began in 1950 and progressed slowly for several years . By the mid @-@ 1960s , O 'Connor & Kilham , the architectural firm that had designed libraries for Barnard , Amherst and West Point , had been chosen to design the new library and had drafted plans with traditional architecture . Richard Day arrived as the new principal of the academy at that point , however , and found their design to be unsatisfactory . He dismissed them , declaring his intention to hire " the very best contemporary architect in the world to design our library " . The school 's building committee was tasked with finding a new architect . Influential members of the committee became interested in Louis Kahn at an early stage , but they interviewed several other prominent architects as well , including Paul Rudolph , I. M. Pei , Philip Johnson and Edward Larrabee Barnes . Kahn 's prospects received a boost when Jonas Salk , whose son had attended Exeter , called Armstrong and invited him to visit the Salk Institute in California , which Kahn had recently built to widespread acclaim . Kahn was awarded the commission for the library in November 1965 . Kahn had already thought deeply about the proper design for a library , having earlier submitted proposals for a new library at Washington University . He also expressed a deep reverence for books , saying , " A book is tremendously important . Nobody ever paid the price of a book , they only paid for the printing " . Describing the book as an offering , Kahn said , " How precious a book is in light of the offering , in light of the one who has the privilege of the offering . The library tells you of this offering " . The building committee carefully considered what they wanted in a new library and presented their ideas to Kahn in an unusually detailed document that went through more than fifty drafts . The early designs included some items that were eventually rejected , such as a roof garden and two exterior towers with stairs that were open to the weather . They were removed from the plans when the building committee reminded Kahn that neither of those features would be practical in New England winters . = = Architecture = = The library has an almost cubical shape : each of its four sides is 111 feet ( 33 m ) wide and 80 feet ( 24 m ) tall . It is constructed in three concentric areas ( Kahn called them " doughnuts " ) . In the words of Robert McCarter , author of Louis I. Kahn , " From the very beginning of the design process , Kahn conceived of the three types of spaces as if they were three buildings constructed of different materials and of different scales – buildings @-@ within @-@ buildings " . The outer area , which houses the reading carrels , is made of brick . The middle area , which contains the heavy book stacks , is made of reinforced concrete . The inner area is an atrium . The library 's heating and cooling needs are supplied by the nearby dining hall , which Kahn built at the same time as the library , but which is considered to be of less architectural significance . = = = Exterior = = = The building committee 's document specified that the new library should be " unpretentious , though in a handsome , inviting contemporary style " . Kahn accordingly made the building 's exterior relatively undramatic , suitable for a small New England town . Its facade is primarily brick with teak wood panels at most windows marking the location of a pair of wooden carrels . The bricks are load @-@ bearing ; that is , the weight of the outer portion of the building is carried by the bricks themselves , not by a hidden steel frame . Kahn calls this fact to the viewer 's attention by making the brick piers noticeably thicker at the bottom where they have more weight to bear . The windows are correspondingly wider toward the top where the piers are thinner . Kahn said , " The weight of the brick makes it dance like a fairy above and groan below . " The corners of the building are chamfered ( cut off ) , allowing the viewers to see the outer parts of the building 's structure , the outer " doughnut . " The Macmillan Encyclopedia of Architects says , " Kahn sometimes perceived a building as enclosed by ' plate @-@ walls , ' and to give emphasis to this structural form , he interrupted the plates at the corner , leaving a gap between them . The Library at Phillips Exeter Academy in Exeter , New Hampshire ( 1967 – 1972 ) is a classic example " . Each of these four brick " plate @-@ walls , " which house the library carrels , is 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) deep . At the top of the exterior walls is a row of openings similar to the windows below except that these openings are above the roof and have no glass . Vincent Scully said that Kahn was drawn to architecture based on " solid , almost primitive , masonry masses with voids in them without glass . " The bottoms of these window @-@ like openings are 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) above the floor of an arcade that follows the perimeter of the top of building . Another arcade circles the building on the ground floor . Kahn disliked the idea of a building that was dominated by its entrance , so he concealed the main entrance to the library behind this arcade . His original design , however , called for landscaping with a paved forecourt that would have indicated the entrance without disrupting the symmetry of the facade . Architectural historian William Jordy said , " Perverse as the hidden entrance may seem , it emphatically reinforces Kahn 's statement that his design begins on the periphery with the circle of individual carrels , each with its separate window . " = = = Interior = = = A circular double staircase built from concrete and faced with travertine greets the visitor upon entry into the library . At the top of the stairs the visitor enters a dramatic central hall with enormous circular openings that reveal several floors of book stacks . At the top of the atrium , two massive concrete cross beams diffuse the light entering from the clerestory windows . Carter Wiseman , author of Louis Kahn : Beyond Time and Style , said , " The many comparisons of the experience of entering Exeter 's main space to that of entering a cathedral are not accidental . Kahn clearly wanted the students to be humbled by the sense of arrival , and he succeeded . " David Rineheart , who worked as an architect for Kahn , said , " for Lou , every building was a temple . Salk was a temple for science . Dhaka was a temple for government . Exeter was a temple for learning . " Because the stacks are visible from the floor of the central hall , the layout of the library is clear to the visitor at a glance , which was one of the goals the Academy 's building committee had set for Kahn . The central room is 52 feet ( 15 @.@ 8 m ) high , as measured from the floor to the beginning of the roof structure , and 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) wide . Those dimensions approximate a ratio known as the Golden Section , which was studied by the ancient Greeks and has been considered the ideal architectural ratio for centuries . The circle and the square that are combined so dramatically in the atrium were considered to be the paradigmatic geometric units by the ancient Roman architect Vitruvius . He also noted that the human body is proportioned so that it can fit in both shapes , a concept that was famously expressed with a combined circle and square by Leonardo da Vinci in his drawing Vitruvian Man . The specifications of the Academy 's building committee called for a large number of carrels ( the library has 210 ) and for the carrels to be placed near windows so they could receive natural light . The latter point matched Kahn 's personal inclinations perfectly because he himself strongly preferred natural light : " He is also known to have worked by a window , refusing to switch on an electric light even on the darkest of days . " Each pair of carrels has a large window above , and each individual carrel has a small window at desk height with a sliding panel for adjusting the light . The placement of carrel spaces at the periphery was the product of thinking that began years earlier when Kahn submitted proposals for a new library at Washington University . There he dispensed with the traditional arrangement of completely separate library spaces for books and readers , usually with book stacks on the periphery of the library and reading rooms toward the center . Instead he felt that reading spaces should be near the books and also to natural light . For Kahn , the essence of a library was the act of taking a book from a shelf and walking a few steps to a window for a closer look : " A man with a book goes to the light . A library begins that way . He will not go fifty feet away to an electric light . " Each carrel area is associated with two levels of book stacks , with the upper level structured as a mezzanine that overlooks the carrels . The book stacks also look out into the atrium . The inherent massiveness of the brick " plate @-@ wall " structure of the outer part of the library helps to create the cloistered atmosphere that Kahn felt was appropriate for library carrels . While explaining his proposal for the library at Washington University , Kahn had used the example of the cloistered carrels at the monastic library at Dunham , England , to explain his " desire to find a space construction system in which the carrels were inherent in the support which harbored them ... Wall @-@ bearing masonry construction with its niches and vaults has the appealing structural order to provide naturally such spaces . " = = Architectural interpretations = = Architectural experts sometimes differ in their interpretations of Kahn 's design . Why , for example , are the cross beams at the clerestory windows above the atrium so massive ? Carter Wiseman says , " While they appear to be — and indeed are — structural , they are far deeper than necessary ; their no @-@ less @-@ important role was to diffuse the sunlight coming in from the surrounding clerestory windows and reflect it down into the atrium . " Sarah Goldhagen thinks there is more to the story , asserting that " the concrete X @-@ shaped cross below the skylit ceiling at the Exeter Library is grossly exaggerated for dramatic effect . " Kathleen James @-@ Chakraborty goes even further : " Above , in the most sublime gesture of all , floats a concrete cross brace , illuminated by clerestory windows . Its weight , which appears ready to come crashing down upon the onlooker , revives the sense of threat dissipated elsewhere by the reassuring familiarity of the brick skin and wood details . " Kahn similarly floated a massive concrete structure above the sanctuary of the First Unitarian Church of Rochester , which he designed a few years earlier . Another issue is the extent to which Kahn deliberately introduced elements into some of his buildings that give them the ageless atmosphere of ruins . Kahn himself spoke of " wrapping ruins around buildings " , although in the context of another project . In his essay " Louis I. Kahn and the Ruins of Rome , " Vincent Scully argues that Kahn followed this practice in several of his buildings , including this library , saying , " And in his library at Phillips Exeter Academy in New Hampshire , Kahn won 't even let it become a building ; he wants it to remain a ruin . The walls don 't connect at the top . They remain like a hollow shell " . Romaldo Giurgola , on the other hand , avoids this interpretation in the entry he wrote for Louis Kahn in the Macmillan Encyclopedia of Architects . In it , while discussing the arrangement of exterior components of Kahn 's National Assembly Building of Bangladesh , Giurgola wrote , " This relationship with daylight was the determining element behind this solution , rather than the formal desire to ' create ruins , ' as some critics have suggested . " In the very next paragraph Guirgola describes the chamfered corners of the library at Phillips Exeter by saying only that Kahn used this device to show that the structural importance of the corner is greatly reduced in buildings like the Exeter library that are constructed with reinforced concrete and other modern materials . = = Recognition = = In 1997 the American Institute of Architects gave the library their Twenty @-@ five Year Award for architecture of enduring significance , which is given to no more than one building per year . In 2005 the United States Postal Service issued a stamp that recognized the library as one of twelve Masterworks of Modern American Architecture . In 2007 , the library was ranked # 80 on the List of America 's Favorite Architecture by the American Institute of Architects .
= Trials HD = Trials HD is an Xbox Live Arcade game developed by RedLynx and published by Microsoft Game Studios . It was released on August 12 , 2009 as part of the second annual Xbox Live Summer of Arcade and was later re @-@ released in a retail pack alongside Limbo and ' Splosion Man in April 2011 . It is a 2.5D puzzle / racing game . The player must guide a trial motorcycle with exaggerated physics through various obstacles to reach each stage 's finish line . On September 6 , 2012 it was announced that a Microsoft Windows version of Trials HD would be bundled inside a special version of Trials Evolution , dubbed Trials Evolution : Gold Edition — although this version changes the physics of the game . It is the third game in the series . On February 11 , 2016 , Microsoft added Trials HD as part of its backwards compatibility program for Xbox One . The game was well received by critics , averaging 86 @.@ 1 % at GameRankings and 86 / 100 at Metacritic , two video game aggregate sites . In 2009 it received the Best Overall Arcade Game and Best Innovation awards , voted on by the Xbox 360 community . In September 2010 IGN listed Trials HD sixteenth in their top twenty @-@ five Xbox Live Arcade titles of all time . The game was a commercial success , with sales exceeded two million units factoring in collective downloadable content sales . = = Gameplay = = In Trials HD the player controls a rider on a physics @-@ based motorcycle from the start of the level to the end while navigating a number of obstacles . The objective is to complete the course as fast as possible and with as few crashes , known in the game as faults , as possible . The game uses 3D graphics , but is played on a 2D plane , so the rider can only move forwards and backwards . Players can also control the bike 's pitch at slow speeds or while in the air . The game has a variety of courses in a range of difficulties from beginner to extreme . There are a total of thirty @-@ five courses in the game , and players can replay completed courses to attempt a faster time . Tournament mode sees the player attempt to complete a number of courses in sequence , trying to achieve a fast overall time with minimal faults . Twelve skill games can also be unlocked which place the player in different challenges . These include things such as riding inside or on top of a large spherical cage , achieving as many flips as possible within a set time limit , or towing a trailer with two large bombs as far as possible while keeping them from exploding by impact . Players earn medals based on their completion time , number of faults , and in the case of skill games , other specialized criteria . When connected to Xbox Live , the player can view their performance in relation to players in their friends list . This is done by an in @-@ game meter which displays the closest friend to the player 's time which adjusts based on whether the player is leading or trailing the friend 's course time . Trials HD includes a level editor that allows players to construct their own courses and share them with players in their friends list . Every course in the game was created using the level editor , which allows users to create professional @-@ quality levels . It also features leaderboards for each of the game 's courses and modes . For each course the fastest five thousand times are able to be viewed as replays . During the replay the viewer can view that recorded player 's controller presses , allowing them to learn patterns and skills from it . = = Development and marketing = = Trials HD is the second 2.5D game in the Trials series , following Trials 2 : Second Edition . The game is based on the popular flash games from the same series . It was released on August 12 , 2009 as part of the second annual Xbox Live Summer of Arcade . RedLynx developed Trials HD using an in @-@ house engine coupled with a modified version of Bullet Physics Library which was optimized to utilize the Xbox 360 's CPU and vector units . RedLynx applied the physics system to give a realistic feel , but to maintain the enjoyment of a video game , they tweaked the physics to " bend the reality in just the proper way . " RedLynx saw this as a " crucial thing in making Trials such a fun and addictive game " Previous Trials games used a much simpler in @-@ house physics engine , however for Trials HD developers opted to use the Bullet library and devote one of the 360 's cpu cores entirely to physics . Developers also improved on the Trials 2 engine by adding more advanced lighting and real time soft shadows . Levels created for Trials HD were designed using the same in @-@ game level editor that allows players to make user @-@ based content . All of the tools and abilities the developers had at their disposal can be used by the community . In an interview with Eurogamer , RedLynx 's Lead Programmer Sebastian Aaltonen stated that there were no plans to port the game to other platforms , adding " Trials HD technology has been specially designed for the Xbox 360 feature @-@ set . " The voice work for the game was done by three Pennsylvanian voice actors , Rake Yohn , Brandon DiCamillo , and Art Webb . Trials HD was announced June 1 , 2009 at a Microsoft luncheon during E3 2009 . It was released August 12 , 2009 as part of the Xbox Live Summer of Arcade . On December 23 , 2009 the first downloadable content , known as the Trials HD Big Pack , was released . The content features twenty three new courses , new objects for the game 's built @-@ in level creator and new achievements . A second downloadable content pack was announced for the game in July 2010 . The Trials HD Big Thrills Pack features forty new courses made by RedLynx , but unlike the Trials HD Big Pack it also features ten user created courses . These ten courses are to be decided from entries to the Big Thrills Track Creation Competition . The top three contestants were awarded prizes of $ 5 @,@ 000 , $ 3 @,@ 000 , and $ 1 @,@ 000 , respectively . Winners were announced on November 15 , 2010 . The Big Thrills Pack was released December 1 , 2010 . = = Reception and sales = = Trials HD was generally well received by game critics . Aggregate websites GameRankings and Metacritic report average scores of 86 @.@ 1 % and 86 / 100 , respectively . In its first month , the title sold over 300 thousand units . On September 14 , 2010 RedLynx announced that Trials HD had surpassed 1 @.@ 3 million units in sales . Sales of the first downloadable content pack have also exceeded 360 thousand , with the second pack selling over 90 thousand units . On May 27 , 2011 RedLynx announced that sales have exceeded two million units . In 2009 , Trials HD received two awards voted on by the Xbox 360 community , Best Overall Arcade Game and Best Innovation . In a September 2010 ranking , IGN listed Trials HD sixteenth in their top twenty @-@ five Xbox Live Arcade titles of all time . It was also awarded a perfect score by Xbox World 360 magazine . Reviewers generally praised the game 's replay value . IGN 's Daemon Hatfield remarked that Trials HD had " truckloads of content " adding that the game 's features " really take advantage of what can be done with Xbox Live . " GameTrailers staff also praised the amount of content in the game stating that it was an excellent value for the price . Eurogamer stated that " it 's a game built for endless replay and community expansion beyond that . " The game 's leaderboards , especially the ability to have a view of where other players were at a certain time during a run , were widely praised by Brad Shoemaker of Giant Bomb . One of the primary criticisms given by critics was Trials HD 's steep difficulty curve . Brad Shoemaker of Giant Bomb stated that he wished the difficulty curve was " a little smoother . " Daemon Hatfield of IGN further commented on the game 's difficulty , stating " It 's when you get stuck trying to get over some small hill and you see that fault counter in the top left corner counting up [ ... ] that the game starts being more frustrating than fun . " GameSpy 's Anthony Gallegos added that the " limited number of tries per track feels arbitrary . " He was also critical of the game 's file sharing system , noting that instead of a repository from which to download tracks that sharing is limited to those in the player 's friends list . Tom Mc Shea of GameSpot also agreed that the difficulty on the latter tracks was " ridiculously hard " and shared disappointment in the file sharing system .
= Zanzibar red colobus = The Zanzibar red colobus ( Procolobus kirkii ) is a species of red colobus monkey endemic to Unguja , the main island of the Zanzibar Archipelago , off the coast of Tanzania . It is also known as Kirk 's red colobus after Sir John Kirk , the British Resident of Zanzibar who first brought it to the attention of zoological science . It is now classified as an endangered species and in the mid @-@ 1990s was adopted as the flagship species for conservation in Zanzibar . The population trend is still decreasing , and because this species is only located in the archipelago , conservationists are attempting to work with the local government to devise a proper , effective strategy to protect the population and habitat . The species has been reclassified twice ; it was previously in the genus Colobus , and more recently in the genus Procolobus . = = Evolutionary history and taxonomy = = The Zanzibar red colobus , Procolobus kirkii , population on Zanzibar , represents a population of red colobus that is believed to have been isolated on the island after sea levels rose toward the end of the Pleistocene epoch . Furthermore , it is suggested through mitochondrial analysis , that phylogenetic groups within the red colobus have been genetically isolated from another since the Pliocene . Examining cranial morphology has shown that P. kirkii has diverged from mainland Procolobus to its own species . It has experienced an acceleration in morphological evolution of size which is suggested to be the result of insularity on the island and environmental pressures such as competition , habitat , predation and / or resource availability . There has been no evidence for population bottlenecks in the species . The smaller cranium of P. kirkii in contrast to the mainland colobus monkey , is consistent with Foster 's rule ( also known as the island rule ) in which the original ( larger ) animal becomes smaller over time when there is limited resources . Males tend to have pedomorphic traits which include a shorter face , large orbits and an enlarged neurocranium . It is not certain how long ago and where this evolutionary change occurred . Through molecular analyses , it is indicated that P. kirkii is more closely related to the Udzungwa red colobus ( P. gordonorum ) compared to other red colobus species . This analysis has also placed the divergence of P. kirkii from its sister species P. godronorum at about 600 @,@ 000 years ago , which actually allows for an older evolutionary age compared to the previous assumption that it had become its own species around the last glacial period . The species has been reclassified twice ; it was previously in the genus Colobus , and more recently in the genus Procolobus . An alternative common name is Kirk 's red colobus after Sir John Kirk ( 1832 – 1922 ) , the British Resident of Zanzibar who first brought it to the attention of zoological science . = = Physical description = = This Old World monkey 's coat ranges from dark red to black , accented with a black stripe along the shoulders and arms , and a pale underside . Its black face is crowned with long , white hair , and features a distinguishing pink mark on its lips and nose . Also , the Zanzibar red colobus has a long tail used only for balancing — it is not prehensile . Sexual dimorphism is generally decreased in the species , meaning the females have little difference in their body size and colour from their male counterparts . Females usually outnumber the males in their groups . The species has a notably small cranium and rotund body shape , with males potentially reaching over 12 kg and females , 10 kg . In adults , highly differentiated facial features help them to distinguish each other in a group . The word " colobus " comes from Greek ekolobóse , meaning " he cut short " , and is so named because of the significant reduction in size , or complete lack of an opposable thumb in comparison to other primates . To make up for this , they have four long digits that align to form a strong hook , allowing them to easily grasp branches and climb . Locals on the island have called the Zanzibar red colobus kima punju which means " poison monkey " in Swahili because of their strong smell unlike other monkeys . This has caused people to hold negative views of the monkey and even to say it has an evil influence on trees on which they feed , ultimately killing the trees . = = Habitat = = The Zanzibar red colobus is found in three forests of the Zanzibar archipelago . It displays a wide habit tolerance , but it is mainly an arboreal species and prefers drier areas over wet ones . Its habitats include coastal thickets and coastal rag scrub , but it can also be found in agricultural areas and in mangrove swamps ; the latter provides food year @-@ round . When found in agricultural areas , the monkey is more used to humans and comes closer to the ground . About 1 @,@ 600 to 3 @,@ 000 individuals remain , and currently , 50 % of the monkeys found on the islands live outside protected zones . The largest and most significant area of protection and habitat for the monkey is in Jozani National Park , which provides 25 km2 ( 9 @.@ 7 sq mi ) of land reserve . It is located on the main island and the populations here have been greatly studied in regards to both their ecology and behavior . Even so , many groups have been found in shambas ( Swahili for " farmland " ) within close proximity to the park . In these shambas adjacent to the park , higher densities of the red colobus have been reported living here in more cohesive groups , compared to inside the park reserve . The incidence of some of these monkeys living permanently outside the zone of the protected park reserve can increase the endangerment of the groups . = = Behavior = = The groups consist of up to four adult males and many adult females ; typically yielding a 1 : 2 ratio of males to females . Young of varying ages are also incorporated in the group . The number of monkeys in a group can range from 30 to 50 individuals . The species is a very social animal , and can often be observed playing and grooming during the rest periods between meals . Unlike females , in a group , males actually maintain close bonds , acting together in defense of their group and even in grooming each other . = = = Feeding = = = Feeding is also a group activity . It begins to feed in the morning , and is more active during the cooler parts of the day . Loud calls from males indicate the group is ready to move to another tree to feed . This monkey is mainly a foliovore , and on average , half of the leaves consumed are young leaves . They also eat leaf shoots , seeds , flowers , and unripe fruit . It has also been found eating bark , dead wood , and soil . It is one of the few species that do not eat ripe fruits ; it has a sacculated stomach with four chambers specific for breaking down plant materials , however it cannot digest the sugars contained in mature fruits . Because the monkey feeds on young leaves ( though not limited to them ) , there are instances where it consumes charcoal , which is believed to aid their digestion of the toxins ( possibly phenolic compounds ) found in the young leaves of the Indian almond tree and mango tree . The habit of consuming charcoal is thought to be a learned behavior presumably passed on from the mother to her offspring . It has been noted , however , that not all populations on the islands carry out the behavior , but that it is rather mostly done by those who consume more perennial and exotic foliage . Since some populations use mangroves as a source of food , it is natural for the monkey to consume more sodium chloride ( NaCl ) . Because of this , those populations have been observed to drink water directly from tree @-@ holes , or licking water off of leaves . This innovative behavior shows the adaptation of the monkey to novel ecological and environmental circumstances . In the dry season , one of the staple foods , Indian almond tree , as previously mentioned , drops its leaves and can cause the monkey to go beyond park boundaries in order to extend its feeding range . This puts the already endangered colobine at more risk . = = = Reproduction = = = Males usually reach sexual maturity at about 3 @-@ 3 @.@ 5 years old , while females reach it at about two years old . Females approaching estrous can be easily identified because of the swelling and bright red coloration of the genital area . This signals to males that the given female is ready for mating . Moreover , just prior to mating , males will use their fingers to probe the female 's birth canal . This is immediately followed by sniffing the area because estrogen and progesterone can be detected by this method , further helping the male conclude if the female is indeed ready to breed . Gestation is about 6 months for colobus monkeys and one female has about 1 – 2 new @-@ born every two years . Parental care is intense and often , the role is shared by multiple females of the group . It is observed that about 76 % of offspring are born between September and December . Infanticide has also been noted on occasion when a new male joins a given group that has infants . Research has suggested that the ability for dietary expansion , which consuming charcoal partly allows , explains the higher birth rates and densities due to resource availability . Birth rates for those living in mangroves are higher than colobus monkeys living in coral rag forests . There are higher birthing rates between October – December for colobines on Uzi Island and then January – February for those in Kiwengwa , located on the eastern side of the main island . Infant mortality can be significantly high with half of the infants born not reaching more than six months of age . The birth rates themselves , however , are actually decreased in comparison to mainland colobus monkeys and interbirth intervals are longer as well . Research has suggested that this is a consequence of disturbed habitats in which mainland colobi are not so affected . = = = Communication = = = The red colobus species have a smaller larynx compared to other members of the Colobinae subfamily . The male 's call is more of an alto or soprano in contrast to the low bass of a male 's in black @-@ and @-@ white colobus species . The Zanzibar red colobus is non @-@ territorial in nature and as so does not typically make loud , territorial threat calls . Zanzibar red colobus distress and warning calls are the " bark " , " chist " , or " wheet " . One of the loudest calls from the monkey is heard when he expresses his dominance over the group and when checking the sexual status of his females . The call heard most often by people in or near Jozani Forest is the ' alerting signal ' . This is an attention @-@ getting call that is derived from the progression call . Chirps and grunts are made when there are changes in the surrounding environment such as changes in weather or animal movement in proximity to the group . With most arboreal animals , there are two different alerting calls , one for when a predator is on land , and another when there is an aerial predator . However , because of the lack of larger birds of prey in Zanzibar , such calls are not often witnessed . The young , on the other hand , because of their smaller size and vulnerability , do at times make such calls when they see shadows . Because the Zanzibar red colobus is extremely social , it has a specific call for when it is alone for a certain amount of time upon which it feels vulnerable or threatened . The young are typically the ones to make such a call that sounds like a loud scream , but adults are occasionally likely ( when deemed necessary ) to make some variation of the call as well . = = Conservation = = A number of factors have contributed to the monkey 's endangered status . First , an increase in deforestation has resulted in a significant reduction in resources and habitat ; second , it is hunted for meat and pet markets . To counteract the decline in population , various attempts have been made to protect the species . In 1974 , specimens were moved to Ngezi Forest on Pemba Island to try to re @-@ establish the monkey 's population . It had been found , however , that 20 years after the translocation to the island only one group of Zanzibar red colobus was found and with few sightings and interviews with locals , the population was estimated to be between 15 and 30 individuals . Researchers concluded that the group had certainly survived but did not increase in number possibly due to adverse relations with humans . Some locals in Pemba hold superstitions against the monkey because of the idea that it brings bad luck upon farmers . This may explain the reason that they have not significantly grown in population size . On Uzi and Vundwe Islands , the Zanzibar red colobus is subject to extensive habitat destruction , particularly with coral rag forests . There is also reported poisoning , netting , and disappearance of monkeys as well as other with animals . Various attempts have been made for conservation of the species . One project was with the World Wildlife Fund , specifically in Menai Bay which is located just west of Uzi Island . Second , the Wildlife Conservation Society has funded conservation projects intended for the colobine but in both cases , there has been no apparent action that was directly supportive of the monkey . In the mid @-@ 1990s the Zanzibar red colobus was adopted as the flagship species for conservation in Zanzibar . The African Convention has played a role in the conservation of the animal by categorizing it as ' Class A. ' According to the document African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources , ' Class A ' is described as : species in Class A shall be totally protected throughout the entire territory of the Contracting States ; the hunting , killing , capture or collection of specimens shall be permitted only on the authorization in each case of the highest competent authority and only if required in the national interest or for scientific purposes . It has been suggested that an important way to promote conservation of the monkey is to simply spread awareness about it – that it is not a harmful animal and that it can actually be good for the region 's economy because it draws tourism . This has been the case on the island of Unguja ( Zanzibar ) . Furthermore , it would be necessary to establish and designate protected zones .
= Tennis the Menace = " Tennis the Menace " is the twelfth episode of the twelfth season of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 11 , 2001 . In the episode , the Simpsons build a tennis court in their backyard and are ridiculed by the entire town because of Homer 's inferior tennis ability . Homer therefore tries to please Marge by entering the two into a tournament , but they quickly turn into rivals when Marge replaces Homer with Bart as her partner . The episode features guest appearances from tennis professionals Andre Agassi , Pete Sampras , and sisters Venus and Serena Williams as themselves . " Tennis the Menace " was directed by Jen Kamerman and written by Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , who also directed the Williams sisters ' performance . The animators of The Simpsons experimented with digital ink and paint on " Tennis the Menace " , making it the second episode of the series to be animated using the process . " Tennis the Menace " has received generally positive reviews from critics with particular praise for its guest stars . Around eight million American homes tuned in to watch " Tennis the Menace " during its original airing , and in 2009 it was released on DVD along with the rest of the episodes of the twelfth season . = = Plot = = The Springfield Retirement Castle holds a talent show , which the Simpson family attends . Grampa wins the show after performing his version of the song " What 's New , Pussycat ? " . He wins a free autopsy , so the Simpsons visit a funeral salesman to claim the prize . While there , Homer decides to buy a casket and a tombstone for Grampa . He also discovers that a certain kind of tombstone is produced from the same amount of cement as a tennis court , and this gives him the idea to build a tennis court in the family 's backyard . The court is very popular with Springfield 's residents , but these residents mock Homer and Marge for losing all the time , thanks to Homer 's poor play . Marge pleads with Homer to take the game seriously ; however , Homer is too oblivious to how bad he is at tennis . Homer tries to please Marge by entering Krusty 's celebrity tournament , the " Krusty Kharity Klassic " . Marge , tired of being laughed at , ditches Homer and enters with Bart as her new partner . Homer is outraged that he was abandoned for a ten @-@ year @-@ old boy , and tries to get revenge by entering the tournament with Lisa as his partner , despite Lisa 's disapproval . Because of this , the Simpson family begins to argue and compete against each other . The tournament takes place and in the stands are leading tennis professionals Andre Agassi , Pete Sampras , Venus Williams , and Serena Williams . At the tournament , Homer ditches Lisa for Venus Williams . In response , Marge replaces Bart with Serena Williams as her partner . Ultimately , Serena and Venus replace Marge and Homer with Sampras and Agassi respectively . This forces the family to go back to the bench and resume their normal places in the family ; as they enjoy the exhibition of top @-@ class tennis , they agree that it is better to watch things than to do things and Homer offers to buy the family dinner with money he took from Sampras ' wallet . = = Production = = " Tennis the Menace " was written by Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham and directed by Jen Kamerman as part of the twelfth season of The Simpsons ( 2000 – 2001 ) . Maxtone @-@ Graham considers himself to be a bad tennis player and he has always wanted to win against his mother in a tennis match . This served as the inspiration for the episode , as he thought " family dynamics around tennis would be a fun show . " Maxtone @-@ Graham did a lot a research for the scenes at the beginning of the episode where the Simpsons visit a funeral salesman at a cemetery . He read Jessica Mitford 's book The American Way of Death Revisited , which discusses the funeral industry , and was able to take a tour with funeral salesmen at Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery in Los Angeles . At the time , he did not reveal that this was for research , and instead pretended to have a dying relative . According to Maxtone @-@ Graham , the tour helped him find out " all about urns versus coffins , and cremation . I asked sort of questions about , ' Well , do the bodies smell ? ' They were very nice and gave me all the answers . It was quite fascinating . " The opening of " Tennis the Menace " is what Maxtone @-@ Graham describes as a " screw you " beginning , as the viewer has " no idea that the twist is going to be tennis " . The part of the story revolving around tennis does not begin until around eight minutes into the episode . The Simpsons show runner Mike Scully has said that he thought this was " probably too long to wait before getting the story started . " Maxtone @-@ Graham has similarly said that while he thinks these type of openings " are kind of funny " , they may be best avoided . However , Scully liked the fact that the staff included a comment in the episode on its " screw you " beginning by having Homer say " I 'll bet you didn 't see that coming ! " to the viewers when he decides to get the tennis court . The writers had a number of alternate endings to " Tennis the Menace " before deciding on the one eventually used . For instance , at one point , the family was to return home to watch the match in which Serena and Sampras faced off against Venus and Agassi on television . The staff changed it to the final one because they did not want it to feel like the episode petered out . " Tennis the Menace " features guest appearances from Andre Agassi , Pete Sampras , and sisters Venus and Serena Williams . All of them appeared as themselves . Executive producer Al Jean directed Sampras , who Jean thought delivered his lines " very naturally " , while Maxtone @-@ Graham directed the Williams sisters . Agassi recorded his lines in the summer of 2000 . The Williams sisters , however , recorded their lines in Los Angeles sometime in the winter of 2000 – 2001 . According to Maxtone @-@ Graham , the sisters were " incredibly nice and incredibly generous with their time . " This is the second episode — after season seven 's " Radioactive Man " ( 1995 ) — to be animated with digital ink and paint . This kind of digital coloring would not be used permanently on the show until the season fourteen episodes " Treehouse of Horror XIII " and " The Great Louse Detective " ( 2002 ) . It was used on " Tennis the Menace " primarily to test the technique . The reason for the long gap between this episode and " The Great Louse Detective " was that the staff of The Simpsons wanted to refine the look some more before doing it full @-@ time . = = Reception = = The episode originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 11 , 2001 . It was viewed in approximately eight million households that night . With a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 2 , the episode tied the X @-@ Files episode " Medusa " for the 41st place in the ratings for the week of February 5 – 11 , 2001 . The episode was the fourth highest @-@ rated broadcast on Fox that week ( together with " Medusa " ) , following episodes of Temptation Island , Ally McBeal , and Boston Public . On August 18 , 2009 , " Tennis the Menace " was released on DVD as part of the box set The Simpsons – The Complete Twelfth Season . Staff members Mike Scully , Al Jean , Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , John Frink , Don Payne , Matt Selman , Max Pross , as well as television writer and producer Philip Rosenthal , participated in the DVD audio commentary for the episode . Critics have given " Tennis the Menace " generally positive reviews . Jerry Greene of the Orlando Sentinel listed it at number nine on his 2004 list of the show 's " Top 10 Sporting Episodes " . Nancy Basile of About.com wrote in her 2003 review that the plot of the episode " allowed us to see more secondary characters than usual . It also gave Springfield a sense of community that we sometimes don 't get in recent seasons . Though the blatant use of guest stars has sweeps written all over it , the tennis stars were funny and able to make fun of themselves . Homer had some wonderful lines , too , such as , ' Take your hands off me . They feel like salad tongs . ' Overall , a very funny episode . " In July 2007 , Simon Crerar of The Times listed Agassi 's performance as one of the thirty @-@ three funniest cameos in the history of the show . In his review of the twelfth season of The Simpsons , Jason Bailey of DVD Talk wrote that the staff members ' " habit of using the first act as a red herring , only semi @-@ connected to the rest of the show , is ingenious and hilarious [ ... ] They 'd been doing this kind of thing for years , but it still plays ; what 's more , they 've begun to acknowledge it , and wink about it . " He noted the scene from this episode in which Homer tells the viewers that " I 'll bet you didn 't see that coming ! " , adding that a " moment like that is The Simpsons at its best : smart , knowing , and ridiculously funny . " Also reviewing the twelfth season , DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson was less positive , commenting : " I ’ d love to report that ' Menace ' disrupts the string of mediocre episodes [ before it in the season ] , but I can ’ t . Like its predecessors , it offers a moderately enjoyable experience , but that ’ s the best it can do . Expect a few chuckles and little else . "
= Onneca Fortúnez = Onneca Fortúnez or Iñiga Fortúnez ( c . 848 – after 890 ) was a Basque princess from the Kingdom of Pamplona , later known as the Kingdom of Navarre . She was the daughter of Fortún Garcés of Pamplona and his wife Auria . At the time of Onneca 's birth , which occurred between 848 and 850 , the Iberian Peninsula was largely under the domination of the Muslim Umayyad dynasty . Only the northern kingdoms of Asturias and Pamplona remained under Christian rule , perpetuating the Hispano @-@ Roman Visigothic traditions . Onneca was a member of the Íñiguez dynasty , named after her great @-@ grandfather Íñigo Arista , who founded the Kingdom of Pamplona . Information about Onneca 's life is sketchy . Biographical details about her come from two main sources : the Roda Codex and the accounts of Muslim Andalusi historians , who refer to Onneca by the Arabic name Durr ( در ) , meaning " pearl " . Onneca is primarily known for marrying into the Umayyad dynasty . Although matrimonial unions between Christian slave @-@ concubines and Muslim rulers were common , Onneca 's case is one of the few examples of a Christian princess marrying into Muslim royalty . Her marriage created family ties between the Christian and Muslim ruling families of the Iberian peninsula , initially leading to close collaboration between the Christian House of Íñiguez and the Muslim Umayyads . The political effects resulting from Onneca 's marriages continued to be felt long after her death , which occurred at an unknown date . = = Marriage to Emir Abdullah = = Onneca 's father Fortún Garcés , the then heir to the throne of Pamplona , was captured in 860 in the town of Milagro during a punitive expedition led by Muhammad I , the Muslim emir of Córdoba , against the small Kingdom of Pamplona . The expedition resulted in the devastation of the Christian kingdom 's territory and the seizure of three castles by the Muslim forces . Fortun Garcés , nicknamed al @-@ Anqar ( الأنقر ) by the Muslims because he was one @-@ eyed , was taken to Córdoba where he was detained for two decades in gilded captivity . Onneca accompanied or followed her father to Córdoba , where she was wedded to Muhammad I 's son Abdullah around 862 / 863 . It is not known when or how she came to Córdoba . She may have been captured with her father , or sent to join her father at the emir 's court at a later date . Onneca was presumably still a teenager when she bore Abdullah a son named Muhammad in 864 . As Abdullah 's wife , Onneca became known as Durr . According to some sources , she converted to Islam . In addition to Muhammad , Onneca bore Abdullah two daughters : al @-@ Baha ' and Fatima the Younger . Abdullah became emir in 888 , and Onneca 's son Muhammad was named heir to the throne . However , Muhammad was assassinated by his younger half @-@ brother al @-@ Mutarrif on 28 January 891 . There is disagreement among historians as to whether al @-@ Mutarrif acted on his own or at the instigation of his father Abdullah . Al @-@ Mutarrif himself was beheaded in 895 under orders of his father . As a result , Muhammad 's son Abd @-@ ar @-@ Rahman , who was born three weeks prior to his father 's assassination , was the one who succeeded his grandfather Abdullah as emir of Córdoba . Known in the West as Abd @-@ ar @-@ Rahman III , he later elevated himself to the position of caliph . Onneca was thus the paternal grandmother of Abd @-@ ar @-@ Rahman III , who inherited from her as well as from his mother Muzna hailing from the Pyrenees ( probably a Basque ) European facial features such as blue eyes and light reddish hair that he attempted to alter ( notably through hair coloring ) in order to look more typically Arab . = = Marriage to Aznar Sánchez de Laron = = In about 880 , after two decades in Córdoba , Onneca abandoned her Muslim family , and returned with her father to Pamplona , to which he would shortly succeed . Shortly after her return , Onneca married her first cousin Aznar Sánchez de Laron . Together they had a son and two daughters , probably born between 880 and 890 : Sancho , Toda and Sancha . Their son Sancho Aznar is only known from the Roda Codex genealogies and may have died young . Their daughters Toda and Sancha would both become queens consort of Pamplona by marrying into the Jiménez dynasty , which came to power in 905 after displacing Onneca 's father Fortún Garcés from the throne . Toda married Sancho I Garcés , thus uniting the royal houses of Íñiguez and Jiménez . Toda 's sister Sancha was wedded to Sancho I Garcés ' brother and successor Jimeno Garcés , and was later killed in France by her son García Jiménez . = = Alternative chronology = = The Roda Codex , the sole source for Onneca 's Christian marriage , places this union with her cousin Aznar Sánchez de Laron before her marriage , as a widow , to Abdullah of Córdoba . Based on this , French historian Évariste Lévi @-@ Provençal developed a chronology for Onneca 's life that placed her birth date around 835 . Lévi @-@ Provençal believed that Onneca did not accompany her father when he returned to Pamplona in 882 , either because she had already died , or because she had converted to Islam and chose to remain in Abdullah 's harem . However , such a chronology is problematic since it implies that Onneca 's children by Aznar were born before or only shortly after her father 's capture in 860 , thus making Onneca 's daughter Toda Aznárez a sexagenarian at the time of her son García Sánchez I 's birth ( which is known to have occurred in either 919 or 922 ) , and nearly a centenarian at the time of her 958 visit to Cordoba . Therefore , most historians addressing the question have concluded that the Roda Codex was in error with regard to the order of Onneca 's two marriages . = = Legacy = = Onneca 's historical importance stems from the fact that she provided an important genealogical link between the Muslim caliphs of Córdoba and the Christian kings of Pamplona , as well as between the first two royal dynasties of Pamplona . = = Family tree = = The following family tree shows the relationship between Onneca and her immediate relatives . Solid lines indicate descent , while horizontal dashed lines indicate marriage . The names of the three dynasties to which Onneca was directly related are in big capital letters : the Íñiguez dynasty into which she was born and married , the Umayyad dynasty into which she married , and the Jiménez dynasty into which her two Christian daughters married .
= Le Dernier Combat = Le Dernier Combat ( French pronunciation : [ lə dɛʁnje kɔ ̃ ba ] , English : The Last Battle ) is a 1983 post @-@ apocalyptic French film . It was the first feature @-@ film to be directed by Luc Besson , and also features Jean Reno 's first prominent role . Music for the film was composed by Éric Serra . The film was the first of many collaborations between Besson , Reno and Serra . A dark vision of post @-@ apocalyptic survival , the film was shot in black and white and contains only two words of dialogue . It depicts a world where people have been rendered mute by some unknown incident . = = Plot = = The film opens to a shot of an abandoned office , where the main character ( Pierre Jolivet ) , who is only identified as ' The Man ' in the end credits , is having intercourse with a sex doll . The Man is then seen attempting to salvage parts from abandoned vehicles , but returns to his dwelling empty handed , where he works on building a makeshift aircraft . The Man ventures outside the office building he lives in , which is surrounded by a desert wasteland . A group of men are shown surviving in the wasteland . They hold a man , ' The Dwarf ' ( Maurice Lamy ) , captive , and force him to retrieve water for them . The Man , who has been observing the survivors , makes his way to their camp , stabs their leader , ' The Captain ' ( Fritz Wepper ) and retrieves a car battery . Survivors pursue The Man , though he is able to escape in his now completed aircraft . 'The Brute ' ( Jean Reno ) is seen approaching a hospital with a box containing canned food . The Brute rings a bell , and ' The Doctor ' ( Jean Bouise ) , instructs him to place the canned goods on the ground and back away from the door . The Doctor then takes the goods and closes the door before The Brute can get inside . The Man 's aircraft crash lands at night . The following morning he continues on foot . The Brute returns to the hospital with a new box of items , though this time he constructs a device that will keep the door open long enough for him to enter the building . The plan works , however , once back inside the building The Doctor pulls a lever which closes a secondary iron bar gate preventing The Brute from entering . The Man finds an abandoned bar , get himself heavily intoxicated and passes out . When he awakes , he ventures outside where he is amazed that it is raining fish . While searching for a way to cook the fish , The Man encounters The Brute . A fight ensues ; the Brute gains the upper hand though The Man is able to escape . The Man , now badly injured , wanders around until he finds The Doctor . The Doctor treats The Man and cooks him some fish . The Doctor inhales a form of gas that allows him to , with some difficulty , say a single word : Bonjour . The Man also takes the gas and is able to reply with the same word . Both are ecstatic about being able to speak . The Man and the Doctor bond over table tennis and painting , before The Man ventures outside into a sandstorm to retrieve a painting he found in the bar . The Brute , who has been living in the bar , returns and notices the painting is missing . The Doctor prepares some food and blindfolds The Man . He leads The Man to a part of the hospital where a woman is kept , and gives her the food . The Brute sets fire to the front door of the hospital , though The Doctor and The Man extinguish the flames . The Man and The Doctor go to bring food to the woman again , and The Man gives her a wrapped gift . They then catch The Brute attempting to saw through the iron bar gate , though are able to scare him off . The Doctor and The Man prepare food for the woman , yet this time The Doctor permits the man to not be blindfolded , and encourages him to comb his hair . Meanwhile it is revealed that The Brute has breached the iron gate to the hospital . The Doctor is killed on the way to the woman when chunks of rock rain down from the sky . The Man , who does not know how to find the woman without The Doctor , attempts to locate her , though he is confronted by The Brute . A fight ensues , with The Man eventually killing The Brute . The Man then locates the woman 's room , though is devastated when he discovers that The Brute had already killed her . The Man repairs his aircraft , and flies back to the original survivors he encountered . He kills their new leader and frees The Dwarf . The Dwarf shows the Man where The Captain keeps his concubine ( Christiane Krüger ) . The Man greets her with a warm smile , which she returns . = = Themes = = Writing in the book The Films of Luc Besson , Susan Hayward , director of Film Studies at the University of Exeter , considered Le Dernier Combat and The Fifth Element to be Besson 's two film 's which focus on the theme of environmental damage , as waste and pollution are visible throughout both films . Capitalism was also considered to be a theme ; consumer commodities were said to be signs of death , such as the abandoned cars in the desert and the floating washing machines in a flooded abandoned factory . = = Production = = Besson described the film as an " imaginary excursion " , stating he got the inspiration for the film from an abandoned cinema he saw in Paris . Thinking of all the other abandoned buildings there must be in Paris , Besson decided to create a world where all these places were together , and combined this idea with a previous suggestion that he make a feature @-@ length version of his 1981 debut short film , L 'Avant Dernier . Le Dernier Combat was primarily filmed in Paris , with scenes depicted as begin in the desert filmed in Tunisia . Locations for filming in Paris included a former Électricité de France building that was demolished the day after filming was completed , and the derelict area where the Bibliothèque nationale de France was later constructed . The film was shot in black and white and contains only two words of dialogue . = = Reception = = The film attracted 236 @,@ 189 viewers at the French box office . Time Out gave a favourable review , calling the film a " welcome addition to the post @-@ holocaust barbarism [ film ] boom . " Steve Macfarlane from Not Coming to a Theater Near You gave a moderately positive review , stating " While the film ’ s heart is syrupy @-@ sentimental ( who ’ s shocked ? ) , its surfaces are clean , incremental , reverently silent — appropriate , given that ... humankind has lost its ability to speak . " Janet Maslin from The New York Times called it " a bravura first film , using the simplest means , yet managing to incorporate humor , pathos , suspense and even a well @-@ articulated definition of basic human needs . " Dave Kehr from the Chicago Reader also gave a positive review , stating : " The absence of dialogue ... is a cleverly executed stunt , but it is also an effective alibi for a technically proficient filmmaker who really has nothing to say . Another John Carpenter is born , which is by no means a bad thing . " = = Accolades = = Le Dernier Combat won Best Film , Best Director and the Audience Jury Award at Fantasporto in 1984 . It also won Best Film and Best Director at the 1983 Sitges Film Festival , and won the Critic 's Prize at the 1983 Brussels International Fantastic Film Festival . It was nominated for Best First Work at the 1984 César Awards . = = Home media = = Adam Tyner from DVD Talk gave a positive review of the DVD release in August 2001 , awarding it 4 out of 5 stars for video , audio and content , though awarding it 0 stars for extras , noting the only extras were trailers for other films . The same DVD was released alongside Besson 's 1997 film , The Fifth Element as a ' Luc Besson 2 @-@ pack ' . Upon reviewing the 2 @-@ pack in April 2003 , Ron Epstein from DVD Talk gave the Le Dernier Combat DVD 3 ½ out of 5 for video , audio and content , though also giving it 0 stars for extras .
= Yakovlev Yak @-@ 15 = The Yakovlev Yak @-@ 15 ( Russian : Яковлев Як @-@ 15 ; NATO reporting name : Feather , USAF / DOD designation Type 2 ) was a first @-@ generation Soviet turbojet fighter developed by the Yakovlev design bureau ( OKB ) immediately after World War II . It used a reverse @-@ engineered German Junkers Jumo 004 engine . Along with the Swedish Saab 21R , it was one of only two jets to be successfully converted from a piston @-@ powered aircraft and enter production . 280 aircraft were built in 1947 . Although nominally a fighter , it was mainly used to qualify piston @-@ engine @-@ experienced pilots to fly jets . = = Design = = = = = Development and description = = = On 9 April 1945 , the Council of People 's Commissars ordered the Yakovlev OKB to develop a single @-@ seat jet fighter to be equipped with a single German Jumo 004 engine . To save time , Yakovlev based the new design ( known as the Yak @-@ 3 @-@ Jumo or Yak @-@ Jumo ) on the latest version of his successful Yakovlev Yak @-@ 3 piston @-@ engined fighter . The piston engine was removed and the jet engine was mounted underneath the forward fuselage so that its exhaust exited underneath the middle of the fuselage . To protect the fuselage , a steel heatshield was added to its bottom . The deeper forward part of the fuselage gave the aircraft a " pod @-@ and @-@ boom " configuration . Very few changes were made to the metal fuselage other than at the aircraft 's nose . This was recontoured to accommodate the armament of two 23 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) Nudelman @-@ Suranov NS @-@ 23 autocannon , an additional fuel tank above the engine and the engine itself . No changes were made to the wings other than the elimination of the air intakes for the oil cooler and the bending of the front wing spar into an inverted U @-@ shape to clear the engine . The vertical stabilizer was slightly enlarged , but the tail plane was unmodified . The conventional landing gear was also unmodified other than the tail wheel which now used several steel leaf springs as shock absorbers . The Yak @-@ Jumo carried a total of 590 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 300 lb ) of fuel . Taxi tests began in October 1945 , but the heatshield proved to be too short and the heat from the engine exhaust melted the duralumin skin of the rear fuselage as well as the rubber tire of the tailwheel . Modifications to rectify the problems took until late December . By this time a second prototype had been completed with a solid steel tailwheel and an enlarged tailplane . After a few taxiing tests , it was transferred to the Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute ( TsAGI ) for full @-@ scale windtunnel testing that lasted until February 1946 . On the 26th of that month , the Council of People 's Commissars issued requirements that the aircraft should have a maximum speed of 770 km / h ( 480 mph ) at sea level and a speed of 850 km / h ( 530 mph ) at an altitude of 5 @,@ 000 meters ( 16 @,@ 400 ft ) . It should be able to climb to that altitude in four and a half minutes or less and it should have a range of 500 kilometers ( 310 mi ) at 90 % of maximum speed . Two prototypes were to be ready for flight testing on 1 September . According to aviation historians Bill Gunston and Yefim Gordon , representatives from Yakovlev and the Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich OKB tossed a coin on 24 April 1946 to determine which aircraft would be the first Soviet jet to fly . Yakovlev lost and the Yak @-@ Jumo made one circuit of the airfield before landing . The manufacturer 's flight testing of the aircraft was completed on 22 June , but its early success caused the Council of Ministers to issue a new requirement on 29 April for two aircraft powered by the Soviet @-@ built RD @-@ 10 engine ( known as the Yak @-@ 15 , Yak @-@ 15RD10 or Yak @-@ RD ) . Aside from the new engine , the requirement differed from the previous one only in a range of 700 kilometers ( 430 mi ) at optimum cruise speed and a reduction of the maximum ceiling to 14 @,@ 000 meters ( 45 @,@ 930 ft ) . Two prototypes were ordered to be available for flight testing on 1 September 1946 . Yakovlev was able to adapt the two existing prototypes to the RD @-@ 10 with little trouble and one aircraft participated in the August 1946 Tushino flypast . The day after the aerial display , Joseph Stalin summoned Artem Mikoyan and Aleksandr Yakovlev to his office and ordered that each OKB build 15 aircraft to participate in the 7 November parade in Red Square commemorating the anniversary of the October Revolution . Factory No. 31 in Tblisi was chosen to build the new aircraft because it was still building conventional Yak @-@ 3s and could easily switch to the jet fighter . All 15 aircraft were built before the deadline , although they lacked any armor , were provided with an enlarged fuel tank in lieu of armament , and had an incomplete avionics outfit . The parade was canceled and two of the aircraft were modified with a single 23 mm cannon and began State acceptance trials which lasted until April 1947 . The tests revealed a number of problems in that the thick wing inherited from the Yak @-@ 3 limited the top speed of the aircraft , the engine exhaust damaged the surface of the airfield , the cockpit often filled with smoke from kerosene and oil that had dripped onto the engine , and the aircraft was very short @-@ ranged . Despite these problems , the Yak @-@ 15 proved to be very easy to fly , even for pilots accustomed to piston @-@ engined fighters , and caused the VVS to accept the fighter as a conversion trainer . Even before the State acceptance trials were completed , the Council of Ministers ordered the aircraft into production in December 1946 . 50 aircraft were to be built between January and April 1947 , equally split between single @-@ seat aircraft and two @-@ seat trainers , armed with only a single cannon . The trainer ran into serious development difficulties and all the aircraft of the first batch were single @-@ seaters . Fifty of these participated in the May Day flypast in Moscow in 1947 . A total of 280 Yak @-@ 15s were produced through the end of the year , exclusive of prototypes . The aircraft were distributed in small numbers to fighter aviation regiments based in the USSR , Poland , Romania , Hungary , and Manchuria for use as conversion trainers . The aircraft 's manoeuvrability led it to be used by a number of informal acrobatic display teams throughout the late 1940s . A single prototype of the two @-@ seat trainer was the first aircraft of the first production batch built by Factory No. 31 in the fall of 1946 . The prototype did not begin manufacturer 's flight testing until 5 April 1947 , even though the primary differences from the single @-@ seat version were limited to a redesigned forward fuselage that accommodated an additional cockpit for the trainee where the armament used to be and a common , sideways @-@ opening , canopy . The trainer was initially designated as the Yak @-@ Jumo vyvoznoy , but it was eventually designated as the Yak @-@ 21 although some documents refer to it as the Yak @-@ 15V , Yak @-@ 15UT or Yak @-@ 21V . Further work on the trainer was cancelled with the success of the trainer version of the Yak @-@ 17 with its tricycle undercarriage . One Yak @-@ 15 was used to test a prototype aerial refueling system in 1949 , although the installation on the fighter and the Tupolev Tu @-@ 2 bomber used as the tanker were both dummies to test procedures and fit . = = = Yak @-@ 17 @-@ RD10 = = = On 29 April 1946 , five days after the Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich I @-@ 300 and the Yak @-@ Jumo made their first flights , the Council of Ministers ordered that the Yakovlev OKB begin design of a new aircraft similar to the Yak @-@ Jumo , using the RD @-@ 10 engine with improved aerodynamics . This generally resembled the original aircraft , but the wings were entirely redesigned with laminar flow airfoils , the tail structure was enlarged and an ejection seat was fitted . The back of the seat was armoured and the pilot was also protected by a bullet @-@ proof windscreen . The entire canopy was also redesigned to accommodate the new windscreen . The landing gear could not be housed in the thin wings so it was redesigned to retract into the fuselage . Low and high wing loading wing versions were considered , but the low wing loading 15 @-@ square @-@ meter ( 160 sq ft ) wings were chosen for the prototype . At an altitude of 5000 meters , the Yak @-@ 17 @-@ RD10 , as the new fighter was designated , was expected to have a top speed of 822 km / h ( 511 mph ) ; a significant improvement over that of the production Yak @-@ 15 . The aircraft was completed on 3 September and ground tests lasted until 26 September , but it never flew as the Yak @-@ 15 had already been ordered into production and its conventional landing gear was already deemed obsolete . = = Survivors = = The only known surviving aircraft is ' Yellow 37 ' at the Vadim Zadorozhny Technical Museum , outside Moscow . = = Variants = = Data from : OKB Yakovlev = = = Yak @-@ 15 family = = = Yak @-@ Jumo ( Yak @-@ 3 @-@ Jumo ) The first prototypes of the Yak @-@ 15 series , powered by captured Jumo 004 engines . Yak @-@ 15 @-@ RD10 ( also referred to as Yak @-@ RD ) Initial designation of prototypes and early production aircraft powered by Soviet built RD @-@ 10 engines ( 004 copies ) , with no or reduced armament . Yak @-@ 15 Production aircraft with full armament Yak @-@ 21 Two @-@ seat training version of Yak @-@ 15 . One built , but not proceeded with because of the success of the trainer version of the Yak @-@ 17 . Yak @-@ 15V ( V - Vyvozny - familiarisation trainer ) Alternative designation for the Yak @-@ 21 . Yak @-@ 15U ( U - Uchebnotrenirovochnyy - training ) Alternative designation for the Yak @-@ 21 . = = = Yak @-@ 17 family = = = Yak @-@ 15U ( Yakovlev Yak @-@ 15U @-@ RD10 ) ( U - uloochshenny - improved ) Improved Yak @-@ 15 with tricycle undercarriage and drop tanks , became the prototype of the Yak @-@ 17 proper . UTI Yak @-@ 17 @-@ RD10 ( Yak @-@ 21T ) ( No relation to the earlier Yak @-@ 17 @-@ RD10 ) Two @-@ seat trainer version of the Yak @-@ 15U with long greenhouse canopy over tandem cockpits and tricycle undercarriage . Yak @-@ 17UTI ( UTI - Uchebno @-@ trenirovochnyy Istrebitel - fighter trainer ) Production two @-@ seat Yak @-@ 17 trainers . Yak @-@ 17 Production fighters with tricycle undercarriage . Yak @-@ 21T ( T - Tryokhkolyosnoye shassee - tricycle undercarriage ) Alternative designation of the UTI Yak @-@ 17 @-@ RD10 , no relation to earlier Yak @-@ 21 = = = Similar but unrelated aircraft = = = Yak @-@ 17 @-@ RD10 An experimental aircraft , similar in appearance to the Yak @-@ Jumo aircraft , but actually largely new , incorporating improved aerodynamics , an ejection seat and protection for the pilot . The sole prototype remained unflown after further development was cancelled on 26 September 1946 , as taxi tests were being carried out . = = Users = = Soviet Union . Soviet Air Forces = = Specifications ( Yak @-@ 15 ) = = Data from OKB Yakovlev : A History of the Design Bureau and Its Aircraft General characteristics Crew : 1 Length : 8 @.@ 7 m ( 28 ft 7 in ) Wingspan : 9 @.@ 2 m ( 30 ft 2 in ) Wing area : 14 @.@ 85 m2 ( 159 @.@ 8 sq ft ) Empty weight : 1 @,@ 852 kg ( 4 @,@ 083 lb ) Gross weight : 2 @,@ 638 kg ( 5 @,@ 816 lb ) Fuel capacity : 590 kg ( 1 @,@ 300 lb ) Powerplant : 1 × Klimov RD @-@ 10 turbojet , 8 @.@ 8 kN ( 2 @,@ 000 lbf ) thrust Performance Maximum speed : 786 km / h ( 488 mph ; 424 kn ) Combat range : 510 km ( 317 mi ; 275 nmi ) Service ceiling : 12 @,@ 000 m ( 39 @,@ 370 ft ) Rate of climb : 21 @.@ 6 m / s ( 4 @,@ 250 ft / min ) Wing loading : 197 kg / m2 ( 40 lb / sq ft ) Armament Guns : 2 × 23 mm Nudelman @-@ Suranov NS @-@ 23 cannon with 60 rounds each
= Thutmose I = Thutmose I ( sometimes read as Thothmes , Thutmosis or Tuthmosis I , meaning Thoth @-@ Born ) was the third pharaoh of the 18th dynasty of Egypt . He received the throne after the death of the previous king , Amenhotep I. During his reign , he campaigned deep into the Levant and Nubia , pushing the borders of Egypt farther than ever before . He also built many temples in Egypt , and a tomb for himself in the Valley of the Kings ; he is the first king confirmed to have done this ( though Amenhotep I may have preceded him ) . He was succeeded by his son Thutmose II , who in turn was succeeded by Thutmose II 's sister , Hatshepsut . His reign is generally dated to 1506 – 1493 BCE , but a minority of scholars — who think that astrological observations used to calculate the timeline of ancient Egyptian records , and thus the reign of Thutmose I , were taken from the city of Memphis rather than from Thebes — would date his reign to 1526 – 1513 BCE . = = Family = = It has been speculated Thutmose 's father was Amenhotep I. His mother , Senseneb , was of non @-@ royal parentage and may have been a lesser wife or concubine . Queen Ahmose , who held the title of Great Royal Wife of Thutmose , was probably the daughter of Ahmose I and the sister of Amenhotep I ; however , she was never called " king 's daughter , " so there is some doubt about this , and some historians believe that she was Thutmose 's own sister . Assuming she was related to Amenhotep , it could be thought that she was married to Thutmose in order to guarantee succession . However , this is known not to be the case for two reasons . Firstly , Amenhotep 's alabaster bark built at Karnak associates Amenhotep 's name with Thutmose 's name well before Amenhotep 's death . Secondly , Thutmose 's first @-@ born son with Ahmose , Amenmose , was apparently born long before Thutmose 's coronation . He can be seen on a stela from Thutmose 's fourth regnal year hunting near Memphis , and he became the " great army @-@ commander of his father " sometime before his death , which was no later than Thutmose 's own death in his 12th regnal year . Thutmose had another son , Wadjmose , and two daughters , Hatshepsut and Nefrubity , by Ahmose . Wadjmose died before his father , and Nefrubity died as an infant . Thutmose had one son by another wife , Mutnofret . This son succeeded him as Thutmose II , whom Thutmose I married to his daughter , Hatshepsut . It was later recorded by Hatshepsut that Thutmose willed the kingship to both Thutmose II and Hatshepsut . However , this is considered to be propaganda by Hatshepsut 's supporters to legitimise her claim to the throne when she later assumed power . = = Dates and length of reign = = A heliacal rising of Sothis was recorded in the reign of Thutmose 's predecessor , Amenhotep I , which has been dated to 1517 BC , assuming the observation was made at Thebes . The year of Amenhotep 's death and Thutmose 's subsequent coronation can be accordingly derived , and is dated to 1506 BC by most modern scholars . However , if the observation were made at either Heliopolis or Memphis , as a minority of scholars promote , Thutmose would have been crowned in 1526 BC . Manetho records that Thutmose I 's reign lasted 12 Years and 9 Months ( or 13 Years ) as a certain Mephres in his Epitome . This data is supported by two dated inscriptions from Years 8 and 9 of his reign bearing his cartouche found inscribed on a stone block in Karnak . Accordingly , Thutmose is usually given a reign from 1506 BC to 1493 BC in the low chronology , but a minority of scholars would date him from 1526 BC to 1513 BC = = Military achievements = = Upon Thutmose 's coronation , Nubia rebelled against Egyptian rule . According to the tomb autobiography of Ahmose , son of Ebana , Thutmose traveled up the Nile and fought in the battle , personally killing the Nubian king . Upon victory , he had the Nubian king 's body hung from the prow of his ship , before he returned to Thebes . After that campaign , he led a second expedition against Nubia in his third year in the course of which he ordered the canal at the first cataract — which had been built under Sesostris III of the 12th Dynasty — to be dredged in order to facilitate easier travel upstream from Egypt to Nubia . This helped integrate Nubia into the Egyptian empire . This expedition is mentioned in two separate inscriptions by the king 's son Thure : Year 3 , first month of the third season , day 22 , under the majesty of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt , Aakheperre who is given life . His Majesty commanded to dig this canal after he found it stopped up with stones [ so that ] no [ ship sailed upon it ] ; Year 3 , first month of the third season , day 22 . His Majesty sailed this canal in victory and in the power of his return from overthrowing the wretched Kush . In the second year of Thutmose 's reign , the king cut a stele at Tombos , which records that he built a fortress at Tombos , near the third cataract , thus permanently extending the Egyptian military presence , which had previously stopped at Buhen , at the second cataract . This indicates that he already fought a campaign in Syria ; hence , his Syrian campaign may be placed at the beginning of his second regnal year . This second campaign was the farthest north any Egyptian ruler had ever campaigned . Although it has not been found in modern times , he apparently set up a stele when he crossed the Euphrates River . During this campaign , the Syrian princes declared allegiance to Thutmose . However , after he returned , they discontinued tribute and began fortifying against future incursions . Thutmose celebrated his victories with an elephant hunt in the area of Niy , near Apamea in Syria , and returned to Egypt with strange tales of the Euphrates , " that inverted water which flows upstream when it ought to be flowing downstream . " The Euphrates was the first major river which the Egyptians had ever encountered which flowed from the north , which was downstream on the Nile , to the south , which was upstream on the Nile . Thus the river became known in Egypt as simply , " inverted water . " Thutmose had to face one more military threat , another rebellion by Nubia in his fourth year . His influence accordingly expanded even farther south , as an inscription dated to his reign has been found as far south as Kurgus , which was south of the fourth cataract . During his reign , he initiated a number of projects which effectively ended Nubian independence for the next 500 years . He enlarged a temple to Sesostris III and Khnum , opposite the Nile from Semna . There are also records of specific religious rites which the viceroy of El @-@ Kab was to have performed in the temples in Nubia in proxy for the king . He also appointed a man called Turi to the position of viceroy of Kush , also known as the " King 's Son of Cush . " With a civilian representative of the king permanently established in Nubia itself , Nubia did not dare to revolt as often as it had and was easily controlled by future Egyptian kings . = = Building projects = = Thutmose I organized great building projects during his reign , including many temples and tombs , but his greatest projects were at the Temple of Karnak under the supervision of the architect Ineni . Previous to Thutmose , Karnak probably consisted only of a long road to a central platform , with a number of shrines for the solar bark along the side of the road . Thutmose was the first king to drastically enlarge the temple . Thutmose had the fifth pylon built along the temple 's main road , along with a wall to run around the inner sanctuary and two flagpoles to flank the gateway . Outside of this , he built a fourth pylon and another enclosure wall . Between pylons four and five , he had a hypostyle hall constructed , with columns made of cedar wood . This type of structure was common in ancient Egyptian temples , and supposedly represents a papyrus marsh , an Egyptian symbol of creation . Along the edge of this room he built colossal statues , each one alternating wearing the crown of Upper Egypt and the crown of Lower Egypt . Finally , outside of the fourth pylon , he erected four more flagpoles and two obelisks , although one of them , which now has fallen , was not inscribed until Thutmose III inscribed it about 50 years later . The cedar columns in Thutmose I 's hypostyle hall were replaced with stone columns by Thutmose III , however at least the northernmost two were replaced by Thutmose I himself . Hatshepsut also erected two of her own obelisks inside of Thutmose I 's hypostyle hall . In addition to Karnak , Thutmose I also built statues of the Ennead at Abydos , buildings at Armant , Ombos , el @-@ Hiba , Memphis , and Edfu , as well as minor expansions to buildings in Nubia , at Semna , Buhen , Aniba , and Quban . Thutmose I was the first king who definitely was buried in the Valley of the Kings . Ineni was commissioned to dig this tomb , and presumably to build his mortuary temple . His mortuary temple has not been found , quite possibly because it was incorporated into or demolished by the construction of Hatshepsut 's mortuary temple at Deir el @-@ Bahri . His tomb , however , has been identified as KV38 . In it was found a yellow quartzite sarcophagus bearing the name of Thutmose I. His body , however , may have been moved by Thutmose III into the tomb of Hatshepsut , KV20 , which also contains a sarcophagus with the name of Thutmose I on it . = = Death and burial = = Thutmose I was originally buried and then reburied in KV20 in a double burial with his daughter Hatshepsut rather than KV38 which could only have been built for Thutmose I during the reign of his grandson Thutmose III based on " a recent re @-@ examination of the architecture and contents of KV38 . " The location of KV20 , if not its original owner , had long been known since the Napoleonic expedition of 1799 and , in 1844 , the Prussian scholar Karl Richard Lepsius had partially explored its upper passage . However , all its passageways " had become blocked by a solidified mass of rubble , small stones and rubbish which had been carried into the tomb by floodwaters " and it was not until the 1903 @-@ 1904 excavation season that Howard Carter , after 2 previous seasons of strenuous work , was able to clear its corridors and enter its double burial chamber . Here , among the debris of broken pottery and shattered stone vessels from the burial chamber and lower passages were the remnants of two vases made for Queen Ahmose Nefertari which formed part of the original funerary equipment of Thutmose I ; one of the vases contained a secondary inscription which states that Thutmose II " [ made it ] as his monument to his father . " Other vessels which bore the names and titles of Thutmose I had also been inscribed by his son and successor , Thutmose II , as well as fragments of stone vessels made for Hatshepsut before she herself became king as well as other vessels which bore her royal name of ' Maatkare ' which would have been made only after she took the throne in her own right . Carter , however , also discovered 2 separate coffins in the burial chamber . The beautifully carved sarcophagus of Hatshepsut " was discovered open with no sign of a body , and with the lid lying discarded on the floor ; " it is now housed in the Cairo Museum along with a matching yellow quartzite canopic chest . A second sarcophagus , was found lying on its side with its almost undamaged lid propped against the wall nearby ; it was eventually presented to Theodore M. Davis , the excavation 's financial sponsor as a gesture of appreciation for his generous financial support . Davis would , in turn , present it to the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston . The second quartzite sarcophagus had originally been engraved with the name of " the King of Upper and Lower Egypt , Maatkare Hatshepsut . " However , when the sarcophagus was complete , Hatshepsut decided to commission an entirely new sarcophagus for herself while she donated the existing finished sarcophagus to her father , Thutmose I. The stonemasons then attempted to erase the original carvings by restoring the surface of the quartzite so that it could be re @-@ carved with the name and titles of Tuthmose I instead . This quartzite sarcophagus measures 7 feet long by 3 feet wide with walls 5 inches thick and bears a dedication text which records Hatshepsut 's generosity towards her father : Thutmose I was , however , not destined to lie alongside his daughter after Hatshepsut 's death . Thutmose III , Hatshepsut 's successor , decided to reinter his grandfather in an even more magnificent tomb , KV38 , which featured another yellow sarcophagus dedicated to Thutmose I and inscribed with texts which proclaimed this pharaoh 's love for his deceased grandfather . Unfortunately , however , Thutmose I 's remains would be disturbed late during the 20th dynasty when KV38 was plundered ; the sarcophagus ' lid was broken and all this king 's valuable precious jewellery and grave goods were stolen . Thutmose I 's mummy was ultimately discovered in the Deir el @-@ Bahri Cache above the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut , revealed in 1881 . He had been interred along with those of other 18th and 19th dynasty leaders Ahmose I , Amenhotep I , Thutmose II , Thutmose III , Ramesses I , Seti I , Ramesses II , and Ramesses IX , as well as the 21st dynasty pharaohs Pinedjem I , Pinedjem II , and Siamun . The original coffin of Thutmose I was taken over and re @-@ used by a later pharaoh of the 21st dynasty . The mummy of Thutmose I was thought to be lost , but Egyptologist Gaston Maspero , largely on the strength of familial resemblance to the mummies of Thutmose II and Thutmose III , believed he had found his mummy in the otherwise unlabelled mummy # 5283 . This identification has been supported by subsequent examinations , revealing that the embalming techniques used came from the appropriate period of time , almost certainly after that of Ahmose I and made during the course of the Eighteenth dynasty . Gaston Maspero described the mummy in the following manner : The king was already advanced in age at the time of his death , being over fifty years old , to judge by the incisor teeth , which are worn and corroded by the impurities of which the Egyptian bread was full . The body , though small and emaciated , shows evidence of unusual muscular strength ; the head is bald , the features are refined , and the mouth still bears an expression characteristic of shrewdness and cunning . What has been thought to be his mummy can be viewed in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo . However , in 2007 , Dr. Zahi Hawass announced that the mummy which was previously thought to be Thutmose I is that of a thirty @-@ year @-@ old man who had died as a result of an arrow wound to the chest . Because of the young age of the mummy and the cause of death , it was determined that the mummy was probably not that of King Thutmose I himself .
= Make Me Like You = " Make Me Like You " is a song by American singer Gwen Stefani from her third solo studio album This Is What the Truth Feels Like ( 2016 ) . Released as the album 's second single , the song was first distributed digitally on February 12 , 2016 , while being serviced to contemporary hit radio four days later on February 16 . Stefani co @-@ wrote the song with Justin Tranter , Julia Michaels , and its producers Mattman & Robin . It is a pop and disco song , with influences of light rock , with its instrumentation consisting of chiming guitars , " digi @-@ harps " and a " beachy " drum progression . " Make Me Like You " is about feeling renewed and finding love again following a fractured relationship . Many reviewers believed the song was inspired by her relationship with American singer Blake Shelton ; Stefani later confirmed this . The song received positive reviews from music critics , who praised the track 's upbeat environment and its radio @-@ friendly vibe . The music video for the song was the first to be created on live television and was recorded during a 2016 Grammy Awards commercial break . Stefani 's long @-@ time collaborator , Sophie Muller , directed the video which involved several costume changes and various scenes , including a car crash , a salon , and a piano lounge . It also pokes fun at the media scrutiny over her personal life . The video garnered a positive reaction from critics , for being " colorful " and " entertaining " . = = Background and release = = Having released two songs that were meant to become singles from her then untitled third studio album , Stefani suffered from writer 's block and , after a tumultuous divorce from her former husband , she decided to scrap the album and start over . She recalled that she was unable to write and felt insecure about it . She tried to curate an album where she was only partially involved , but that did not work for her . Stefani later returned to the studio and , after a songwriting session with Rick Nowels , she stated that the " channel was opened " and that she felt inspired again . Her new found confidence allowed Stefani to begin writing songs again . Asked by A & R President Aaron Bay @-@ Schuck of Interscope Records to collaborate with Stefani on her album , producer J.R. Rotem , and songwriters Justin Tranter and Julia Michaels agreed to do so . In mid @-@ 2015 , Stefani began to work with the trio writing for the album . She ended up writing several songs with Michaels and Tranter including " Used to Love You " , " Misery " , and " Make Me Like You " . In an interview with Zane Lowe , Stefani expressed her excitement about the track , stating : " We were losing our minds . It was called ' Make Me Like You ' and we couldn 't believe it like how did we write this song ? It 's so good ! " After the moderate success of " Used to Love You " , Stefani decided to release a second single as a " Valentine 's Day present " to her fans . " Make Me Like You " was released digitally on February 12 , 2016 as the album 's second single , and was serviced to mainstream radio on February 16 , 2016 in the United States . = = Composition and lyrics = = " Make Me Like You " was written by Gwen Stefani , Justin Tranter , Julia Michaels , Mattias Larsson and Robin Fredriksson ; production was handled by Larsson and Fredriksson under their stage name Mattman & Robin . The track lasts for three minutes and 36 seconds . A pop and disco song , " Make Me Like You " also has light rock influences with " feathery guitar riffs " , " digi @-@ harps " , and " beachy drum progression " . Robbie Daw of Idolator noted that the song " contains the best echoes of The Cardigans ' ' 90s staple ' Lovefool ' and classic Kylie Minogue " , while Carl Williot of the same publication thought that the song reminded him of " Phoenix 's ' Too Young , ' or a blown @-@ out The Bird and the Bee song " . Lyrically , the song talks about the other side of a break @-@ up , when the gloom lifts and one has to face the possibility of starting over and finding love again following a fractured relationship . Colin Piwtorak , writing for The Daily of the University of Washington , found the tone of " Make Me Like You " similar to that of " Used to Love You " . In the chorus , Stefani sings : " Why 'd you have to go and make me like you ? / Yeah this is a feeling I 'm not used to / I 'm so mad at you cause now you got me missing you " . The song was considered " an immediate departure from the heartbreaking ' Used to Love You ' " , with critics suggesting that Stefani 's relationship with Blake Shelton inspired the track ; this was later confirmed by Stefani . = = Critical reception = = " Make Me Like You " received highly positive reviews from contemporary music critics . Writing for Rolling Stone , Daniel Kreps called the track " refreshing " and referred to it as " all about renewal " . A staff member from Billboard favored the release , calling it " a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minute nugget of creamy , upbeat pop " . Christian Kennedy , writing for The Michigan Daily , appreciated its lyrics , calling them " catchy without leaning towards the tepidity of much of today 's pop music " . In addition , Kennedy stated " the individual beats and instruments blend to form [ a ] well @-@ oiled production " . Kelly Lawler of USA Today called it " catchy " and a " sweet pop candy " song , while also praising its lyrics . Gregory Adams of Exclaim ! was positive , describing it as a " sugar @-@ sprinkling pop jam " , while praising the " radio @-@ friendly pop @-@ and @-@ snap " and Stefani 's " signature pipes " in the chorus . Idolator 's Robbie Daw was extremely satisfied with the track , writing that Stefani " struck Spring Pop Anthem gold " with the track and that it was " the perfect example of the type of pop we 've been barely @-@ patiently waiting for Gwen to churn out " , while Bianca Gracie and Mike Wass of the same website also responded positively to it . Gracie called the song 's melody " wildly infectious " and applauded it for being " pure , vibrant and cheeky pop " . In the same vein , Wass labeled it a " breezy anthem " and " a worthy addition to Gwen 's discography " . Adam R. Holz , writing for Plugged In , appreciated the track 's " honest lyrics " , while Amanda Dykan of AltWire stated it was " definitely worthy " in spite of Stefani 's hiatus . In her mixed review of This Is What the Truth Feels Like , Jillian Mapes applauded the single , stating that " Make Me Like You " was the album 's " only " [ ... ] song that really works " . Spin critic Theon Weber compared the track to Stefani 's " synth @-@ pop era " , particularly songs " Simple Kind of Life " , " Underneath It All " , and " Serious " . Weber further appreciated its " spacious , twinkling liteness " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant called it : " decidedly more buoyant [ than the previous single ] , reminiscent of 2006 's The Sweet Escape , but it still scans as a peek into the newly single — and clearly revitalized — singer 's personal life " . Gregory Robinson of Redbrick declared the track " another delicious slice of pop perfection " , further exclaiming that " Stefani 's new release is definitely " pop ear candy " " . Spencer Kornhaber from The Atlantic claimed the " strong single [ ... ] adds a dash of her signature pout to Sheryl Crow strumminess " . With the song , Mikael Wood of Los Angeles Times found Stefani " summoning a bit of the appealing insolence " from her work with No Doubt . Wood later lauded her decision to work with Mattman & Robin on the track , calling their collaboration " savvy " . Ryan Middleton of Music Times believed that " Make Me Like You " would be a " temporary earworm " , and complimented its " solid production " . Carolyn Menyes from the same publication stated that of the two tracks that " capture [ ... ] the earliest stage [ s ] of a relationship " ( the other being " Send Me a Picture " ) , " Make Me Like You " was the " more exciting " option . Lindsay Zoladz of Vulture found " Make Me Like You " to be charming , and " irrepressibly , convincingly teenage " . However , Mesfin Fekadu , a critic for The National , claimed the single " do [ es ] n 't feel connected to Stefani – it 's as if another pop star could sing the track and you wouldn 't notice the difference " . Fekadu found the track " disappointing for a singer who is usually a standout on the pop music scene " . Adam Kivel of Consequence of Sound was negative in his review , comparing it to " Lovefool " , which he stated " is as much compliment as it is complaint " . Kivel claimed the " inoffensive " track " won 't win anyone over " . = = Chart performance = = " Make Me Like You " was moderately successful after its release . In the United States , the single debuted and peaked at number 54 on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming the highest debut of the week ; alongside its debut on the Hot 100 , it also peaked at number 12 on the Digital Songs component chart , where it sold over 56 @,@ 000 digital copies . The following week , the song dropped to number 68 on the Hot 100 , and dropped off the week after that . Following the release of This Is What the Truth Feels Like , " Make Me Like You " re @-@ entered in the US at number 97 . It lasted five weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 , before departing the charts at the bottom position of number 100 on April 16 , 2016 . Four days after its digital release , it was shopped to contemporary hit radio on February 16 . Its radio adds prompted the track to enter the Adult Top 40 , where it peaked at number 17 , spending a total of 12 weeks on the charts . For the week ending May 7 , 2016 , " Make Me Like You " peaked at number 24 on the Adult Contemporary chart ; however , it peaked at number 23 on the Mainstream Top 40 , becoming the lowest peak in her career . Additionally , the song was streamed over 1 @.@ 95 million times on Spotify , prompting it to debut at numbers fourteen and fifteen on the Spotify Viral 50 and Spotify Velocity charts , respectively . Elsewhere , " Make Me Like You " found similar success . In Canada , the track peaked at number 62 , and became Stefani 's lowest charting single following previous single " Used to Love You " . On Canada 's Adult Contemporary chart , it peaked in May 2016 at number 27 , and spent a total of 18 weeks on the charts . It spent nine weeks on the CHR / Top 40 chart , where it peaked at the bottom position , in addition to spending 12 weeks on the Hot AC list , where it charted at number 23 . On The Official Finnish Charts download component , " Make Me Like You " fared well and peaked at number 27 , before dropping off the chart completely . In Japan , it peaked at number 47 on Billboard 's Japan Hot 100 , and was Stefani 's first and only entry on the chart . It spent three weeks on their charts , and dropped off after reaching its peak position . The single was less successful in other countries . In Australia , the track entered at number 99 and peaked at number 97 the following week , becoming Stefani 's least successful single there . In the United Kingdom , " Make Me Like You " missed entering the top 100 , and instead debuted and peaked at number 140 . = = Music video = = = = = Development = = = The accompanying music video for the song was the first music video to be created on live television . It was recorded during the 2016 Grammy Awards ' commercial break and directed by Stefani 's longtime collaborator and friend Sophie Muller . On February 16 , 2016 , the finished project was posted on Vevo . The project was co @-@ funded by Target which had exclusive rights to release the deluxe edition of This Is What the Truth Feels Like on March 18 , 2016 . A crew of over 250 workers set up a 32 @,@ 000 sq. ft. studio in Burbank , California to shoot the video , while a creative team of 17 , including Stefani , came up with various concepts and scenes for the video . = = = Synopsis = = = The video begins with Stefani awaking by a car crash wearing a black and white , striped gown . After walking past a line of hanging clocks , and changing into a red kimono , she enters a pink salon where her friend and hair stylist , Danilo Dixon , greets her . Stefani proceeds to read a fake tabloid magazine with the headline announcing " Gwen Pregnant with Alien Baby ! " , referencing then recent rumors of a pregnancy with boyfriend Blake Shelton . The next scene shows Stefani wearing a sequined blazer as she walks behind two male breakdancers . As the song 's bridge plays , Stefani stumbles upon a dark room with five dancers wearing masks with her head on them . As she pushes two of them over , she changes into a multi @-@ colored poncho and rides a motorcycle with other women wearing apparel from her clothing line , L.A.M.B .. When the chorus is played for the third time , Stefani changes into a long , white skirt and walks into a lounge named " Blake 's " , where she is served by a bartender played by social media star Todrick Hall . Stefani is then shown singing the song behind a piano as the video crew helps her put on a pair of roller skates . After inline skating in a black leotard , a stunt double appears and performs a " fake " tumble . The final scene shows Stefani , wearing a rose @-@ inspired red dress , on an elevating platform mouthing the words : " Thank God . Thank God that I 've found you " , before the camera zooms out to display the Target logo . = = = Reception = = = Writing for TIME , Nolan Feeney stated : " Stefani wasn 't scheduled to perform during the Grammys , but she may have just delivered one of the evening 's most colorful performances anyway " . Sierra Marquina of Us Weekly also gave a positive review of the video , claiming that : " the No Doubt frontwoman teamed up with Target to pull off the near impossible " . After the initial broadcast of the video , several critics mistakenly thought the fake ' tumble ' during the rollerblading scene was real . = = Live performances = = Stefani performed the track during various public appearances . She performed " Make Me Like You " live for the first time on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! on February 17 , 2016 , followed by a performance of the song on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on February 25 . Both performances featured Stefani in leopard print clothing , accompanied by several backup dancers . On April 2 , she performed the song on Saturday Night Live , along with This Is What the Truth Feels Like 's third single " Misery " ; Stefani wore " a lacy , babydoll dress " for the performance . Two days later , she performed " Make Me Like You " on Good Morning America . On April 30 , Stefani performed at Radio Disney Music Awards . = = Track listing = = = = Credits and personnel = = Recording Recorded at Wolf Cousins Studios , Stockholm , Sweden ; Maratone Studios , Stockholm , Sweden ; and Interscope Studios , Santa Monica , California Personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of This Is What the Truth Feels Like = = Charts = = = = Release history = =
= Original Stories from Real Life = Original Stories from Real Life ; with Conversations Calculated to Regulate the Affections , and Form the Mind to Truth and Goodness is the only complete work of children 's literature by the 18th @-@ century English feminist Mary Wollstonecraft . Original Stories begins with a frame story that sketches out the education of two young girls by their maternal teacher Mrs. Mason , followed by a series of didactic tales . The book was first published by Joseph Johnson in 1788 ; a second , illustrated edition , with engravings by William Blake , was released in 1791 and remained in print for around a quarter of a century . In Original Stories , Wollstonecraft employed the then @-@ burgeoning genre of children 's literature to promote the education of women and an emerging middle @-@ class ideology . She argued that women would be able to become rational adults if they were educated properly as children , which was not a widely held belief in the 18th century , and contended that the nascent middle @-@ class ethos was superior to the court culture represented by fairy tales and to the values of chance and luck found in chapbook stories for the poor . Wollstonecraft , in developing her own pedagogy , also responded to the works of the two most important educational theorists of the 18th century : John Locke and Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau . = = Historical and biographical context = = Wollstonecraft 's oeuvre shows " a keen and vital concern with education , especially the education of girls and women " . One year before she published Original Stories , she wrote a conduct book ( a popular 18th @-@ century genre , akin to the modern self @-@ help book ) entitled Thoughts on the Education of Daughters ( 1787 ) , which describes how to raise the ideal middle @-@ class woman . In 1789 , she assembled The Female Speaker , a text meant to edify the minds of young women by exposing them to literature ; she modelled it after William Enfield 's anthology The Speaker , which was designed specifically for men . Just one year later , she translated Christian Gotthilf Salzmann 's Elements of Morality , a popular German pedagogical text . Wollstonecraft continued writing on educational issues in her most famous work , A Vindication of the Rights of Woman ( 1792 ) , which is largely a defence of female education . She also devotes an entire chapter to outlining a national education plan — she envisioned a half @-@ public , half @-@ private , co @-@ educational system . She also directly challenged Rousseau 's Emile ( 1762 ) , which claimed that women should not be taught to reason since they were formed for men 's pleasure and that their abilities lay in observation rather than reason . When Wollstonecraft died in 1797 , she was working on two more educational works : " Management of Infants " , a parenting manual ; and " Lessons " , a reading primer inspired by Anna Laetitia Barbauld 's Lessons for Children ( 1778 – 79 ) . Wollstonecraft was not alone in focusing her revolutionary writings on education ; as Alan Richardson , a scholar of the period , points out , " most liberal and radical intellectuals of the time viewed education as the cornerstone of any movement for social reform " . One reason these thinkers emphasized the training of the young mind was the pervasive acceptance during the 18th century of Locke 's theory of mind . He posited that the mind is a " blank slate " or tabula rasa , free from innate ideas , and that because children enter the world without preconceived notions ; whatever ideas they absorb early in life will fundamentally affect their later development . Locke explained this process through a theory he labelled the association of ideas ; the ideas that children connect , such as fear and darkness , are stronger than those ideas adults associate , therefore instructors , according to Locke , must carefully consider what they expose children to early in life . = = Plot summary = = Modelled on Madame de Genlis 's Adèle et Théodore ( 1782 ) and Tales of the Castle ( 1785 ) , both of which have frame stories and a series of inset moral tales , Original Stories narrates the re @-@ education of two young girls , fourteen @-@ year @-@ old Mary and twelve @-@ year @-@ old Caroline , by a wise and benevolent maternal figure , Mrs. Mason . ( Wollstonecraft probably named these characters after people in her own life . She became acquainted with a Miss Mason while teaching in Newington Green , whom she greatly respected , and she taught two girls named Mary and Caroline while she was a governess for the Kingsborough family in Ireland . Margaret King , who was greatly affected by her governess , saying she " had freed her mind from all superstitions , later adopted " Mrs Mason " as a pseudonym . ) After the death of their mother , the girls are sent to live with Mrs. Mason in the country . They are full of faults , such as greediness and vanity , and Mrs. Mason , through stories , real @-@ world demonstrations , and her own example , cures the girls of most of their moral failings and imbues them with a desire to be virtuous . Mrs. Mason 's amalgam of tales and teaching excursions dominates the text ; although the text emphasizes the girls ' moral progress , the reader learns very little about the girls themselves . The work consists largely of personal histories of people known to Mrs. Mason and of moral tales for the edification of Mary and Caroline and the reader . For example , " The History of Charles Townley " illustrates the fatal consequences of procrastination . Mrs. Mason takes the girls to Charles Townley 's ruined mansion to tell them the cautionary tale of a " boy of uncommon abilities , and strong feelings " ; unfortunately , " he ever permitted those feelings to direct his conduct , without submitting to the direction of reason ; I mean , the present emotion governed him ... He always indeed intended to act right in every particular to @-@ morrow ; but to @-@ day he followed the prevailing whim " ( emphasis Wollstonecraft 's ) . Charles wants to help those in need , but he is easily distracted by novels and plays . He eventually loses all of his money but his one remaining friend helps him regain his fortune in India . Yet even when this friend needs assistance , Charles cannot act quickly enough and , tragically , his friend is imprisoned and dies and his friend 's daughter is forced to marry a rake . When Charles returns to England , he is overcome with guilt . He rescues the daughter from her unhappy marriage , but both she and he have gone slightly insane by the end of the story , she from her marriage and he from guilt . Original Stories is primarily about leaving the imperfections of childhood behind and becoming a rational and charitable adult ; it does not romanticise childhood as an innocent and ideal state of being . The inset stories themselves emphasise the balance of reason and emotion required for the girls to become mature , a theme that permeates Wollstonecraft 's works , particularly A Vindication of the Rights of Woman . = = Literary analysis = = Original Stories gained a reputation in the 20th century as an oppressively didactic book and was derided by early scholars of children ’ s literature such as Geoffrey Summerfield . Recent scholars , particularly Mitzi Myers , have re @-@ evaluated Wollstonecraft ’ s book and 18th @-@ century children ’ s literature in general , assessing it within its historical context rather than judging it according to modern tastes . Myers suggests , in her series of seminal articles , that women writers of children ’ s literature such as Mary Wollstonecraft and Maria Edgeworth were not only using the genre of children ’ s literature to teach but also to promote visions of society distinct from those of the Romantics . These authors believed that they could effect great change by exposing young children to their ideas of a better society , even though they were " only " writing stories about seemingly insignificant topics such as small animals or little girls . Myers argues that because scholars have traditionally paid more attention to Romantic poetry and prose ( the works of William Wordsworth and Percy Bysshe Shelley , for example ) than to children ’ s literature , they have missed the social critique that these women writers of children ’ s literature were offering . = = = Pedagogical theory = = = The two most influential pedagogical works in 18th @-@ century Europe were John Locke 's Some Thoughts Concerning Education ( 1693 ) and Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau 's Emile . In Original Stories and her other works on education , Wollstonecraft responds to these two works and counters with her own pedagogical theory . Wollstonecraft follows Locke in emphasising the role of the senses in learning ; for her , as Myers writes , " ideally , children should learn not from direct teaching but from living examples apprehended through the senses . " Wollstonecraft ’ s Mrs. Mason takes Mary and Caroline out into the world in order to instruct them — their very first lesson is a nature walk that teaches them not to torture but rather to respect animals as part of God 's creation . Mrs. Mason uses the experiences of everyday life as a teaching tool because they are grounded in concrete realities and easily absorbed through the senses ; she will seize on " a bad habit , a passerby , a visit , a natural scene , a holiday festivity " and then apply them to a moral lesson that she wants to inculcate into her pupils . Mrs. Mason also tells Mary and Caroline the unfortunate or tragic histories of people she has known , such as that of Jane Fretful , who died because of her bad behaviour ; Jane was an angry and selfish little girl and eventually her anger affected her health and killed her . Her misbehaviour " broke her mother 's heart " and " hastened her death " ; Jane 's guilt over this event and : her peevish temper , preyed on her impaired constitution . She had not , by doing good , prepared her soul for another state , or cherished any hopes that could disarm death of its terrors , or render that last sleep sweet — its approach was dreadful ! — and she hastened her end , scolding the physician for not curing her . Her lifeless countenance displayed the marks of convulsive anger ; and she left an ample fortune behind her to those who did not regret her loss . They followed her to the grave on which no one shed a tear . She was soon forgotten ; and I [ says Mrs. Mason ] only remember her , to warn you to shun her errors . Mrs. Mason also takes her charges to visit models of virtue , such as Mrs. Trueman , who , though poor , still manages to be charitable and a comfort to her family . At the end of one visit , Mrs. Mason reminds the girls that Mrs. Trueman " loves truth , and she is ever exercising benevolence and love — from the insect , that she avoids treading on , her affection may be traced to that Being who lives for ever . — And it is from her goodness her agreeable qualities spring . " Wollstonecraft also adheres to the Lockean conception of the mind as a " blank slate " : in Original Stories , Mrs. Mason describes her own mind using these same terms . Wollstonecraft was not as receptive to Rousseau ’ s ideas as she was to Locke ’ s ; she appropriated the aesthetic of the sublime to challenge Rousseau 's ideas regarding the education of women ( discussed in more detail below ) . During the 18th century , " the sublime " was associated with awe , fear , strength and masculinity . As Myers writes , " to convey her message for female readers that achievement comes from within , Wollstonecraft substitutes the strength , force , and mental expansion associated with heroic sublime for the littleness , delicacy , and beauty that Rousseau and aestheticians such as Edmund Burke equate with womanhood " . Unlike writers such as Rousseau and Burke , who portray women as innately weak and silly , Wollstonecraft argues that women can indeed achieve the intellectual heights associated with the sublime . Although Wollstonecraft disagreed with much of Rousseau ’ s fundamental philosophy , she did agree with many of his educational methods , including his emphasis on teaching through example and experience rather than through precept . In this , she was following children ’ s writers such as Thomas Day who , in his popular The History of Sandford and Merton ( 1783 – 89 ) , also emphasised learning by experience rather than by rote and rules . Gary Kelly , in his book on Wollstonecraft 's thought , explains how this idea and others important to Wollstonecraft are reflected in the title to her work — Original Stories from Real Life ; with Conversations Calculated to Regulate the Affections , and Form the Mind to Truth and Goodness : The first part of the title indicates that the ‘ stories ’ are not merely fictitious but have a factual basis in domestic , quotidian life , though readers would understand ‘ from real life ’ to mean ‘ based on ’ or ‘ adapted from real ‘ life ’ , and not necessarily ‘ representation of actual events ’ . The ‘ stories ’ are ‘ original ’ because narratives for children should start afresh in order to avoid continued ideological contamination from vulgar chapbooks or courtly ‘ fairy tales ’ . The phrase ‘ real life ’ strengthens ‘ original ’ , excluding both the artificial and the fictional or imaginary . ‘ Conversations ’ suggests familiar , familial discourse rather than formal moralising . ‘ Calculated ’ suggests a programme rationally determined . These ‘ conversations ’ and ‘ stories ’ are also to construct the youthful self in a particular way , by regulating ‘ the affections ’ or emotional self and forming ‘ the mind ’ or rational and moral self ‘ to truth and goodness ’ – understood in terms of professional middle @-@ class culture . As Richardson explains , in Original Stories adulthood is defined by the ability to discipline oneself by " constructing moral tales " out of one ’ s life . Wollstonecraft 's extensive use of inset tales encourages her readers to construct a moral narrative out of their own lives , with a predetermined ending . At the end of the book , Mary and Caroline no longer require a teacher because they have learnt the storylines which Mrs. Mason has taught them — they know the stories that they are supposed to enact . = = = Gender = = = As in the Vindication of the Rights of Woman , Wollstonecraft does not highlight the differences between men and women as much as she emphasizes the importance of virtue in Original Stories . Moreover , she defines virtue in such a way that it applies to both sexes . Traditionally , as Kelly explains , virtue was tied to femininity and chastity , but Wollstonecraft ’ s text rejects this definition and argues instead that virtue should be characterized by reason and self @-@ control . Myers has also pointed out that Mrs. Mason ’ s desire to instill rationality in her charges is potentially liberating for women readers and their daughters as such a pedagogy was in direct contrast to much that was being written at the time by conduct book writers such as James Fordyce and John Gregory and philosophers such as Rousseau , who asserted the intellectual weakness of women and the secondary status of their gender . But it was against Rousseau 's depiction of femininity and female education that Wollstonecraft was most vigorously reacting in Original Stories . Rousseau argued in Emile that women were naturally cunning and manipulative , but he viewed these traits positively : [ G ] uile is a natural talent with the fair sex , and since I am persuaded that all the natural inclinations are good and right in themselves , I am of the opinion that this one should be cultivated like the others ... This peculiar cleverness given to the fair sex is a very equitable compensation for their lesser share of strength , a compensation without which women would be not man ’ s companion but his slave . It is by means of this superiority in talent that she keeps herself his equal and that she governs him while obeying him ... She has in her favor only her art and her beauty . For Rousseau , women possessed " guile " and " beauty " that allowed them to control men while men possessed " strength " and " reason " that allowed them to control women . In contrast to Rousseau 's presentation of Sophie , the fictional figure he employs in Book V of Emile to represent the ideal woman , who is enamoured of her own image in a mirror and who falls in love with a character in a novel , Wollstonecraft depicts Mrs. Mason as a rational and sincere teacher who attempts to pass those traits on to Mary and Caroline . = = = Class = = = Original Stories encourages its readers to develop what were at the time coming to be labelled middle @-@ class values : industry , self @-@ discipline , economy , and charity . As Andrew O ’ Malley points out in his analysis of 18th @-@ century children ’ s books , " middle @-@ class writers wanted children to associate happiness with morality and social utility instead " of " the trappings of wealth and status " . The end of the 18th century saw the development of what is now referred to as the " middle @-@ class ethos " , and " children ’ s literature became one of the crucial mechanisms for disseminating and consolidating middle @-@ class ideology " throughout British and American society . Works by children ’ s writers such as Anna Laetitia Barbauld , Ellenor Fenn , Sarah Trimmer , and Dorothy Kilner all embrace this ethos , although they differ radically in their opinions on other political issues , such as the French Revolution . One way that writers such as Wollstonecraft helped to shape the new genre of children 's literature at the end of the 18th century was by attempting to remove its chapbook and fairy tale associations and replace them with a middle @-@ class ideology . Many of these writers considered chapbooks and fairy tales to be associated with the poor and the rich , respectively . As Kelly explains , " traditional chapbook literature embodies a lottery mentality of carpe diem , belief in fortune , wish for lucky gifts ( such as great strength , cleverness or beauty ) , a view of time as cyclical or repetitive and an avid interest in predicting the future . " In contrast , 18th @-@ century children 's literature " embodies an investment mentality . This meant saving for the future , ‘ proper ’ distribution of personal resources , avoiding extravagance , conceiving of time and one ’ s own life as cumulative and progressive , and valuing self @-@ discipline and personal development for a better future under one ’ s own control . " Sarah Trimmer , for example , contends in her Guardian of Education , the first successful periodical dedicated to reviewing children ’ s books , that children should not read fairy tales precisely because they will lead to slothfulness and superstition . = = = Illustrations = = = William Blake , who often did illustrative work for Wollstonecraft 's publisher Joseph Johnson , was engaged to design and engrave six plates for the second edition of Original Stories . Blake scholars tend to read these plates as challenges to Wollstonecraft ’ s text . For example , Orm Mitchell , basing his interpretation on Blake 's personal mythology ( which is elaborated in his other works ) argues that in the frontispiece to the work : The two girls gaze out wistfully from beneath the outstretched arms of Mrs. Mason . The hats that the children wear are drawn in such a way that they form halos around their heads , a touch Blake also uses in Songs of Innocence and of Experience to indicate the innate and divine visionary capacity of the child ( see for example " The Ecchoing Green " and " The Little [ B ] oy Found " ) . The children ’ s eyes are open – they are looking at what a fine morning it is and longing to take part in it . They cannot participate , however , for they are under the suffocating influence of Mrs. Mason . In contrast to the children ’ s halo @-@ like hats Mrs. Mason wears a large cumbrous bonnet . Her eyes are downcast to such an extent that they appear to be shut . Blake often draws Urizen 's eyes in this way to signify the blindness of his rational and materialist ‘ Single vision . ’ See for example plates 1 , 9 and 22 of The Book of Urizen and plate 11 of For Children : The Gates of Paradise where Urizenic ' Aged Ignorance , ’ wearing large spectacles , blindly clips the wings of a child thus preventing its imaginative flight in the morning sunrise . Ironically then , Mrs. Mason is the only individual in the illustration who is not seeing what a fine morning it is . She looks down at the hard factual earth , ignoring the infinite and holy life around her . ( emphasis Mitchell 's ) Myers , in contrast , relying on a more traditional art historical interpretation of the image , reads it more positively . She agrees that the children 's hats resemble halos but she identifies Mrs. Mason 's position as one of a " protective cruciform " , evoking a " heroic , even Christlike ... female mentorial tradition " . Myers views Mrs. Mason as a sacrificial hero rather than as an oppressive adult who cannot see the glories of nature . = = Publication and reception history = = Original Stories was first published anonymously in 1788 , the same year as Wollstonecraft 's first novel Mary : A Fiction , and cost two shillings . When the second edition came out in 1791 , Wollstonecraft ’ s name was printed on the title page ; after the publication in 1790 of her Vindication of the Rights of Men , she had become well known and her name would have boosted sales . Joseph Johnson , the publisher of Original Stories and all of Wollstonecraft 's other works , commissioned William Blake to design six illustrations for the second edition , which cost two shillings and six pence . It is not entirely clear how long the book remained continuously in print . According to Gary Kelly , a prominent Wollstonecraft scholar , the last edition of Original Stories was published in 1820 , but without Wollstonecraft ’ s name on the title page ; by that time she had become a reviled figure in Britain because her husband , William Godwin , had revealed her unorthodox lifestyle in his Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman ( 1798 ) . According to Alan Richardson and the editors of the Masterworks of Children 's Literature series , Original Stories was published until 1835 . It was also printed in Dublin in 1791 and 1799 and translated into German in 1795 . By the time C. M. Hewins , a librarian for the Hartford Library Association who wrote children 's books herself , wrote a " History of Children 's Books " in The Atlantic Monthly in 1888 , Original Stories was more famous for its plates by Blake than it was for its text by Wollstonecraft . The bulk of the article 's discussion is dedicated to Blake , although , strangely enough , not to his work on Original Stories . Hewins does mention that the book was " new and in demand in the autumn of that year [ 1791 ] , [ but is ] now unknown to the bookstalls " . Original Stories is now primarily reprinted for scholars , students , and those interested in the history of children 's literature . = = Modern reprints = = = = = Full = = = Bator , Robert , ed . Masterworks of Children 's Literature : The Middle Period , c.1740 – c.1836. Vol . 3 . New York : Stonehill Publishing Company , 1983 . ISBN 0 @-@ 87754 @-@ 377 @-@ 1 . Todd , Janet and Marilyn Butler , eds . The Complete Works of Mary Wollstonecraft . 7 vols . London : William Pickering , 1989 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8147 @-@ 9225 @-@ 1 . ( in volume 4 ) Wollstonecraft , Mary . Original Stories from Real Life . London : Printed for Joseph Johnson , 1788 . Available from Eighteenth Century Collections Online . ( by subscription only ) Retrieved on 13 October 2007 . Wollstonecraft , Mary . Original Stories from Real Life . 2nd ed . London : Printed for Joseph Johnson , 1791 . Available from Eighteenth Century Collections Online . ( by subscription only ) Retrieved on 13 October 2007 . = = = Partial = = = Carpenter , Humphrey and Mari Prichard , eds . Oxford Companion to Children 's Literature . Oxford : Oxford University Press , 1997 . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 860228 @-@ 6 . Demmers , Patricia , ed . From Instruction to Delight : An Anthology of Children 's Literature to 1850 . Oxford : Oxford University Press , 2003 . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 541889 @-@ 1 . Zipes , Jack , Lissa Paul , Lynne Vallone , Peter Hunt and Gillian Avery , eds . The Norton Anthology of Children 's Literature . New York : W.W. Norton & Co . , 2005 . ISBN 0 @-@ 393 @-@ 97538 @-@ X.
= Sometimes a Great Notion ( Battlestar Galactica ) = " Sometimes a Great Notion " is the thirteenth episode in the fourth season of the reimagined Battlestar Galactica . It aired on television on SCI FI and Space in the United States and Canada respectively on January 16 , 2009 and on Sky One in the United Kingdom on January 20 , 2009 . This episode is the first after the mid @-@ season finale of the fourth season ( " Revelations " ) , which aired on June 2008 . The episode title is a reference to the novel of the same name , written by Ken Kesey . The episode was also the last to be written before the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike . It received a Nielsen rating of 1 @.@ 6 and was received positively throughout . The episode continues from " Revelations " , where both the colonial fleet and the rebel Cylons finally found Earth , only to find it devastated by a nuclear holocaust at least 2 @,@ 000 years before , and the discovery leads to despair all across the fleet . The episode was not given an opening title sequence , but the survivor count for the episode was 39 @,@ 651 . = = Plot = = Both the Human fleet and the rebel Cylons are disillusioned after finding Earth devastated by a nuclear holocaust , which occurred at least 2 @,@ 000 years prior to the events of the episode . After research on the bodies found in the soil , the Cylons and Dr. Baltar ( James Callis ) conclude the remains are not Human , but Cylon in origin . The rebel Cylons further state the mechanical Cylon remains resemble older Centurions of theirs , but are of a kind unknown to them . Following this , they postulate that the Thirteenth Tribe consisted of a different kind of Cylon which existed over 2 @,@ 000 years ago and moved out from Kobol to populate Earth . When addressing the fleet , Admiral Adama ( Edward James Olmos ) never states this fact , leaving the fleet in the belief that the Thirteenth Tribe was human . Meanwhile , Samuel Anders ( Michael Trucco ) , Galen Tyrol ( Aaron Douglas ) and Tory Foster ( Rekha Sharma ) receive memories of their lives on Earth 2 @,@ 000 years ago . Kara Thrace ( Katee Sackhoff ) has Leoben ( Callum Keith Rennie ) help track the origins of the beacon . However , what they find is a crashed Colonial Viper , containing a corpse with Starbuck 's dog tags . After Kara recites what the Hybrid has told her , Leoben becomes scared and retreats , with Thrace wondering what she is . In shock , Thrace takes the body and burns it on a pyre , and decides to not tell anyone about what she found , making people believe she lost the signal . In the fleet , President Roslin ( Mary McDonnell ) burns her book of Pythia , and is unable to address the fleet because of feeling that she led the fleet nowhere , and believing the prophecy is a lost cause . Lee Adama ( Jamie Bamber ) and Anastasia Dualla ( Kandyse McClure ) revisit their relationship , and after their evening together , Dualla returns to her quarters , and commits suicide . Devastated by this , Admiral Adama acquires a handgun from a Marine and attempts to coerce Tigh ( Michael Hogan ) into killing him , which fails . Adama breaks down relieved and converses with Tigh about past memories , and Tigh reminding Adama of his duties as commander of the fleet . Adama eventually steps back into the CIC , and makes an announcement that he will find a home for the fleet , gives instructions to search for any nearby habitable star systems , and invites their new Cylon allies to join them . As the fleet prepares to leave Earth , D 'Anna ( Lucy Lawless ) , devastated by the knowledge that history repeats itself endlessly , decides to remain on Earth to die , rather than being hunted by Cavil . Tigh walks into the sea and receives a flashback of his life on Earth ; He realizes that his wife , Ellen ( Kate Vernon ) , is the last of the Final Five Cylons . In the vision , a dying Ellen tells Tigh that " everything is in place " and that they will be " reborn , again , together " . They are then destroyed in this vision by a nuclear blast . = = Production = = = = = Writing = = = This episode was written back @-@ to @-@ back with the Season 4 @.@ 0 episode , " Revelations . " According to co @-@ writer David Weddle , the title of episode was chosen as co @-@ writers David Weddle and Bradley Thompson outlined their story for the producers . The title is taken from the Ken Kesey novel , Sometimes a Great Notion . The book is one of Weddle 's favorites . While writing the novel , Kesey made notes in which he urged himself to make the novel 's protagonist quit living , and this became the theme of this episode as well . Weddle stated that he and the other writers were inspired by the idea of taking a strong , heroic character and piling misfortunes on him or her until finally the character breaks : What happens in that moment ? Does he despair ? Does he get up and go on ? For me , there is no more defining moment for a character . We tried to do this with almost all the characters in this episode : [ Adama ] , Laura , Kara , Lee . We ripped everything out from under them then sat back to see what they would do . What were their individual breaking points ? And if they did break , would they stay broken or grope toward a recovery ? The " fox in the river " story told by Admiral Adama comes from the novel , and also from real @-@ life incidents with wildlife swimming out to sea near Weddle 's home in Malibu , California . The decision to have Lt. Dualla commit suicide in this episode was made after the writing staff felt there had to be fallout from discovering that Earth was a nuclear ruin . Moore explained : There had to be a cost . There had to be a price somebody paid for that discovery . Not everybody could take that . Not everyone could just say , " OK , that didn 't work out , let 's go on to next week 's episode . " It felt like somebody would just say , " No , I 'm done . I just want to find a little moment of time where I can feel good about myself one last time , then I 'm finished with this long nightmare . " And that seemed like that would be Dualla . Dualla fit this best because she had lost two men whom she loved , and all she had left was the hope of finding Earth . Moore also came up with the idea that Dualla 's suicide was actually an act of hope and control , not despair . Although the network had concerns that the script was too depressing , Moore successfully defended the writing by saying that it might be the last episode of the series and that viewers who had stuck with the show for three and a half seasons would not be put off by yet another " dark " episode . Writers Weddle and Thompson considered giving the characters some leeway in interpreting what they had found . Among the options debated were giving the fleet some hope that Earth might be some other planet , allowing a character to discover a new part of the Prophecy of Pythia , giving one of the characters a vision of an Earth @-@ like planet , and placing a clue in the ruins that would direct the fleet to yet another planet . All were rejected . Weddle and Thompson also worked extensively on the scene in which Admiral Adama tries to provoke Col. Tigh into killing him . Moore encouraged Weddle and Thompson to give the Adama character progressively crueler lines . The writers were the ones who inserted the line in the script in which Adama mentions Ellen Tigh 's sexual infidelity . On the set , however , actor Edward James Olmos changed the line from Adama saying Ellen wanted a man with " real blood in his veins " to " main vein , " then ad @-@ libbed the line in which the character said , " I could smell her . " The scenes where Dualla finds the set of jacks and where Laura Roslin holds the plant cutting were added by director Michael Nankin . Weddle notes that although Nankin usually peppers his writers with script notes , he did not do so for this script . Cost estimates indicated that the script , as originally written , would be $ 300 @,@ 000 over budget ( about two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half times what the studio would have permitted ) and a number of scenes were cut . An extensive opening segment which would have depicted the destruction of Earth was changed to the filmed segment in which Tyrol sees a flash of light and his shadow is left on a wall . However , Nankin restored the scene in which Helo , Dualla , Adama and Roslin ride back to Galactica in the Raptor . = = = The Fifth Cylon = = = According to showrunner Ronald D. Moore , the concept of Ellen and Saul Tigh 's relationship being more than an average husband @-@ and @-@ wife relationship went back to the pilot mini @-@ series for Battlestar Galactica but was not made part of the story arc for the two characters until the middle of Season 3 . As writing progressed on the episode " Torn , " the writing staff needed to explain why Baltar would not see all 12 Cylon models aboard the base star . Moore came up with the concept of five Cylon models that had yet to be revealed . Later , during writing sessions for the episode " Rapture , " D 'Anna Biers has a vision in which she confronts the Final Five Cylons in the opera house , and apologizes to one of them . Although Moore and the writing team had yet to formally settle on Ellen Tigh as one of the Final Five , Moore says it was his intention for the Cylon to be Ellen . When one of the final four Cylons was revealed to be Saul Tigh in the episode " Crossroads , " Moore finally decided to make Ellen the fifth Cylon because " Tigh being revealed as a Cylon was such a profound shift in that character , such a big leap for the show , that it felt really natural that she was also a Cylon . " A clue to the final Cylon 's identity was inserted into several episodes , when Col. Tigh sees Ellen 's face on the Number Six model . Moore 's decision was revealed to the writing team at series writers ' conference which occurred between Season 3 and Season 4 . Other characters were considered as the final Cylon model , but the writing staff agreed none had the same resonance as Ellen Tigh . The decision to reveal Ellen Tigh 's true identity in " Sometimes A Great Notion " was made because Moore did not want Season 4 @.@ 5 to devolve into a guessing game about who the final Cylon might be , and because he wanted the final episode of the series to be about issues other than who the final Cylon was . = = = Writers ' strike = = = The script for " Sometimes A Great Notion " was the only script finished by the time the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike began . Revised script pages were turned in the day before the strike . Moore decided that the crew should proceed as if shooting would be green @-@ lit , and flew to Vancouver , British Columbia , to speak to the cast and crew before the strike began . The strike proved so vexing that the studio did not give approval for shooting to occur until the night before it was to begin . The cast and crew were very emotional during filming , as they were concerned that this might be the last episode ever filmed and the series cancelled if the strike was a lengthy one . Olmos helped to work up the cast 's emotions for the shoot by telling everyone that the show was ending . According to co @-@ writer Weddle , Olmos repeatedly told the cast , " This is the end , I think we all feel that . They 're not going to bring the show back . They 'll pull the sets down . We 'll never shoot another episode . " Actress Kandyse McClure improvised the lullaby her character hums before committing suicide , and series composer Bear McCreary used the melody for part of the episode 's musical soundtrack . = = = Filming = = = The producers intended for this episode to be the last to star Lucy Lawless , who portrayed Number Three . They only had Lawless for one day during the filming of the episode . Most of the Earth scenes were shot on and around Centennial Beach , in Tsawwassen , British Columbia . Two days before the shoot much of the location set was destroyed by a rain storm with 90 kilometres per hour ( 56 mph ) winds , but the art department crew repaired it in time for the shoot to occur on schedule . The final shots for the episode " Revelations " were filmed in the three hours immediately preceding the shooting of the beach scenes for " Sometimes A Great Notion . " Director Michael Rymer , who helmed " Revelations , " and Nankin agreed that all Earth sequences should be reminiscent of the work of film director Ingmar Bergman , so wide camera lenses were used , the color was desaturated , and long rather than short takes were used . The scene in which Adama goads Tigh was scheduled to last a day . Originally the segment was to be shot in small bits and flashbacks edited between each line , but the scene was instead shot as one long take . Actors Olmos and Michael Hogan struggled for several hours to find the right emotional tone . Moore said that the audience should accept the irradiated planet as Earth . " They have found Earth . This is the Earth that the 13th Colony discovered , they christened it Earth . They found Earth . " = = Reception = = " Sometimes a Great Notion " was seen by 2 @.@ 1 million total viewers in the U.S , earning the episode a 1 @.@ 6 household rating . This included 1 @.@ 3 million adults age 18 @-@ to @-@ 49 ( the show 's target demographic ) , and 1 @.@ 4 million adults age 25 @-@ to @-@ 54 . The episode was the top cable program in the 10 p.m. slot among men age 18 @-@ to @-@ 49 and men age 25 @-@ to @-@ 54 the night it premiered . The ratings for the episode increased 23 percent over the Season 4 @.@ 0 average in household ratings and total viewers , increased 21 percent over the same period for adults age 18 @-@ to @-@ 49 , and increased 15 percent over the same period for adults age 25 @-@ to @-@ 54 . According to Nielsen live @-@ plus @-@ seven @-@ day ratings data , an additional 0 @.@ 7 million viewers watched the episode via time @-@ shifted digital video recorder , a 32 percent increase over the day @-@ of @-@ delivery airing . Time @-@ shifted viewing added 540 @,@ 000 adults aged 18 @-@ to @-@ 49 ( a 38 percent increase over same @-@ day numbers ) and 500 @,@ 000 viewers aged 25 @-@ to @-@ 54 ( a 35 percent rise ) . Eric Goldman of IGN gave " Sometimes a Great Notion " an " incredible " rating of 9 @.@ 5 out of 10 . The reviewer quoted the episode as " stronger and sadder than ever , " and was executed " extremely well . " Goldman felt that the episode did not back down from the deeply powerful storylines from the past , and praised the emotions of the fleet after finding Earth in ruins . The Guardian received the episode positively , stating how many events happened during the course of the episode , and felt that the episode played fair with its audience , despite the number of new questions being addressed . It was anticipated that Dualla would play a big part in the episode after her appearance from the cold open . Her suicide was compared with Boomer shooting Adama in the closing scene of season 1 in a dramatical sense . The Guardian also praised the performance between Edward James Olmos and Mary McDonnell 's characters , as well as the standoff between Adama and Tigh . Matt Norris of Cinema Blend stated that most of the events portrayed in the episode were unexpected , including Dualla 's suicide , Starbuck finding her own supposed body , discovering the thirteenth tribe were Cylons , and that Ellen Tigh is the final model , but still thought the episode was among the top five Battlestar Galactica episodes in its run . Marc Bernardin of Entertainment Weekly stated that a lot had been going on in the episode , but criticised the writers ' decision of having Ellen as the fifth Cylon . While Dualla 's suicide was surprising for Bernardin , he was critical about the Adama scene after her suicide , stating it as " some of Olmos ' worst acting in the series " , and that the answered questions for the episode raised more questions , but felt the episode was good overall . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger commented : " What really grabs me about the show ( as I discussed in today 's column ) is its humanity , the way its characters react to situations the way you imagine real , contemporary people might " and felt that " as the stakes for the characters has risen , so has the intensity of [ the actors ' ] performances , " with even the extras in character . Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune praised Nankin 's directing , particularly " the moment in which we see Kara Thrace , silhouetted in black against a dark blue sky , preparing to burn “ her ” body — that ’ s sent a shiver down my spine . That was just such a beautifully operatic image , spot @-@ on in tone and perfectly executed . "
= Harveys Creek = Harveys Creek ( also known as Harvey Creek or Harvey 's Creek ) is a tributary of the Susquehanna River in Luzerne County , Pennsylvania , in the United States . It is approximately 14 @.@ 5 miles ( 23 @.@ 3 km ) long and flows through Harveys Lake , Lake Township , Lehman Township , Jackson Township , and Plymouth Township . The creek 's watershed has an area of 46 @.@ 3 square miles ( 120 km2 ) . The creek has four named tributaries , which are known as Bear Hollow Creek , Paint Spring Run , Pikes Creek , and East Fork Harveys Creek . The watershed is designated as a High @-@ Quality Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery above Pikes Creek and as a Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery below it . The creek 's source is Harveys Lake , the largest natural lake in Pennsylvania . Harveys Creek was used as a water supply as early as the beginning of the 1900s . A number of bridges have been constructed over the creek since the 1920s , and it has been dammed by the Bryant Pond Dam . It is possible to canoe on part of the creek . Rock formations consisting of sandstone and shale occur in the watershed . = = Course = = Harveys Creek begins in Harveys Lake in the community of Harveys Lake . The creek flows southwest and soon enters Lake Township . A short distance downstream , it picks up the tributary Bear Hollow Creek and turns south for several miles . The creek receives the tributary Paint Spring Run during this stretch . It eventually enters Lehman Township and turns southeast , crossing Pennsylvania Route 118 . Slightly more than a mile ( two kilometers ) downstream , the creek turns south again . It eventually enters Jackson Township , where it crosses Pennsylvania Route 29 and picks up the tributary Pikes Creek . It then turns southeast and enters a valley , where it flows roughly parallel to Pennsylvania Route 29 for a number of miles . The creek enters Plymouth Township and soon afterwards turns abruptly southwest . Several miles downstream it enters the community of West Nanticoke . Here , it crosses U.S. Route 11 and reaches its confluence with the Susquehanna River . Harveys Creek joins the Susquehanna River 181 @.@ 02 miles ( 291 @.@ 32 km ) upstream of its mouth . = = = Tributaries = = = Harveys Creek has four named tributaries : Bear Hollow Creek , Paint Spring Run , Pikes Creek , and East Fork Harveys Creek . Bear Hollow Creek joins Harveys Creek in the latter creek 's upper reaches . Paint Spring Run joins Harveys Creek 11 @.@ 42 miles ( 18 @.@ 38 km ) upstream of its mouth . Its watershed has an area of 2 @.@ 35 square miles ( 6 @.@ 1 km2 ) . Pikes Creek joins Harveys Creek 5 @.@ 60 miles ( 9 @.@ 01 km ) upstream of its mouth . Its watershed has an area of 11 @.@ 6 square miles ( 30 km2 ) . East Fork Harveys Creek joins Harveys Creek 3 @.@ 12 miles ( 5 @.@ 02 km ) upstream of its mouth . Its watershed has an area of 7 @.@ 31 square miles ( 18 @.@ 9 km2 ) . = = Hydrology and climate = = High levels of nutrients have been observed in the waters of Harveys Creek and the tributary East Fork Harveys Creek . Harveys Creek has been described as having " degraded conditions " . However , it is not considered to be impaired , although its tributary East Fork Harveys Creek is . In the mid @-@ 1970s , the specific conductance of Harveys Creek at West Nanticoke ranged from 70 to 90 micro @-@ siemens . The pH of the creek ranged from 6 @.@ 5 to 7 @.@ 8 and the concentration of dissolved oxygen ranged between 9 @.@ 7 and 12 @.@ 0 milligrams per liter . The concentration of water hardness ranged from 27 to 37 milligrams per liter . During this time period , the concentration of carbon dioxide in the waters of Harveys Creek at West Nanticoke ranged from 0 @.@ 3 to 8 @.@ 7 milligrams per liter . The concentration of ammonia ranged from 0 @.@ 026 to 0 @.@ 077 milligrams per liter , the concentration of nitrogen in the form of nitrates ranged from 0 @.@ 90 to 1 @.@ 82 milligrams per liter , and the concentration of nitrogen in the form of nitrites ranged between 0 @.@ 026 and 0 @.@ 048 milligrams per liter . The concentration of phosphorus ranged from 0 @.@ 040 to 0 @.@ 160 milligrams per liter and the sulfate concentration ranged from 8 @.@ 0 to 12 @.@ 0 milligrams per liter . The chloride concentration ranged from 5 @.@ 0 to 90 @.@ 0 milligrams per liter . The concentration of magnesium in the waters of Harveys Creek at West Nanticoke ranged from 2 @.@ 00 to 4 @.@ 75 milligrams per liter . The concentration of calcium ranged between 6 @.@ 40 and 8 @.@ 80 milligrams per liter . The concentration of iron ranged from 120 to 740 micrograms per liter . At the boundary between Lake Township and Lehman Township , the peak annual discharge of Harveys Creek has a 10 percent chance of reaching 1133 cubic feet per second . It has a 2 percent chance of reaching 2017 cubic feet per second , a 1 percent chance of reaching 2494 cubic feet per second , and a 0 @.@ 2 percent chance of reaching 3909 cubic feet per second . Upstream of the tributary Paint Spring Run , the peak annual discharge of Harveys Creek has a 10 percent chance of reaching 710 cubic feet per second . It has a 2 percent chance of reaching 1291 cubic feet per second and a 1 percent chance of reaching 1607 cubic feet per second . The peak annual discharge has a 0 @.@ 2 percent chance of reaching 2553 cubic feet per second . The average annual rate of precipitation in the watershed of Harveys Creek ranges from 35 to 45 inches ( 89 to 114 cm ) . The creek 's water temperature is typically low , even in the summer . During the 1970s , the water temperature of the creek was as low as 3 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 5 ° C ( 37 @.@ 4 to 38 @.@ 3 ° F ) in the winter and as high as 15 @.@ 0 to 26 @.@ 0 ° C ( 59 @.@ 0 to 78 @.@ 8 ° F ) in the spring and summer . = = Geography = = The elevation near the mouth of Harveys Creek is 518 feet ( 158 m ) above sea level . The elevation of the creek 's source is 1 @,@ 226 feet ( 374 m ) above sea level . Its elevation around river mile 4 ( river kilometer 7 ) is 900 feet ( 270 m ) above sea level . Upstream of this point , the creek 's elevation decreases at a rate of 34 @.@ 3 feet ( 10 @.@ 5 m ) per mile . Downstream of that point , its elevation decreases at a rate of 97 @.@ 2 feet ( 29 @.@ 6 m ) per mile . Harveys Creek is in the Wyoming Valley . Much of Harveys Creek is in a forested gorge , which is situated in its lower reaches . The upper reaches of its watershed contain swamps and glacial lakes . The cliffs of Tilbury Knob are also situated near the mouth of the creek . The creek 's source is in Harveys Lake , which is the largest natural lake in Pennsylvania . It flows in a generally southward direction . The topography of the watershed of Harveys Creek is described as " rough and hilly " in a 1921 book . The creek 's channel is sinuous and flows through rock formations consisting of sandstone and shale . The creek was described as having " rushing waters " in a 2001 article in The Times Leader . = = Watershed = = The watershed of Harveys Creek has an area of 46 @.@ 3 square miles ( 120 km2 ) . The creek is in the Lower North Branch Susquehanna drainage basin . Its watershed is situated in the northwestern part of Luzerne County . Upstream of the boundary between Lake Township and Lehman Township , the watershed has an area of 14 @.@ 24 square miles ( 36 @.@ 9 km2 ) . Upstream of the tributary Paint Spring Run , its watershed has an area of only 10 @.@ 72 square miles ( 27 @.@ 8 km2 ) . The creek 's mouth is in the United States Geological Survey quadrangle of Nanticoke . However , its source is in the quadrangle of Harveys Lake . Additionally , it flows through the quadrangles of Wilkes @-@ Barre West and Kingston . Harveys Creek is one of four major sources of flooding in Lake Township . The other three are Pikes Creek , Fades Creek , and Beaver Run . However , the floods of these creeks have not caused much damage since Lake Township is relatively undeveloped . Lakes in the watershed of Harveys Creek include a natural lake known as Harveys Lake , which has a surface area of 658 @.@ 6 acres . Pennsylvania Route 29 follows Harveys Creek for several miles . Harveys Creek is dammed by a rockfill and earthfill dam known as Bryants Pond Dam . The dam is 425 feet ( 130 m ) long , with a height of 19 feet ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) . Harveys Creek and its tributary Pikes Creek are used by the Pennsylvania American Water Company Ceasetown as a water supply for part or all of 15 municipalities and communities , including Wilkes @-@ Barre , Nanticoke , Shickshinny , and others . As of 2002 , the creeks supply 67 @,@ 500 people with water . Pennsylvania American Water Company Ceasetown is permitted to take 16 million gallons of water per day from them . = = History = = The United States Board on Geographic Names made an official decision pertaining to Harveys Creek in 1950 . Harveys Creek was entered into the Geographic Names Information System on August 2 , 1979 . Its identifier in the Geographic Names Information System is 1217352 . Historically , the Great Warrior Path of the Native Americans crossed Harveys Creek near its mouth . The path ran from Sunbury to Athens . In December 1775 , a battle known as Plunkett 's Battle was fought along the Susquehanna River very close to the creek . This battle was one of the major battles in the Yankee @-@ Pennamite Wars . The first schoolhouse in the lower part of Plymouth Township was built by Jameson Harvey near the mouth of Harveys Creek in 1834 . The first mill in Lehman Township was built on the creek in 1837 . In 1849 , Johnathan Williams constructed a small mill on the creek . In 1869 , a mining disaster occurred at the Avondale Mine just east of Harveys Creek . This event killed 108 people . In the early 1900s , communities in the watershed of Harveys Creek included Alderson , West Nanticoke , Shawanese , Pikes Creek , Laketon , and Ceases Mills . Their populations in 1921 were 386 , 300 , 150 , 76 , 73 , and 55 , respectively . The main industries in the watershed at that time were agriculture and summer resorts . As early as the 1890s , the Nanticoke Water Company ( which was formed in 1885 ) pumped water from the creek via gravity lines . In the early 1900s , Harveys Creek and its tributary Pikes Creek were used as a water supply by the Spring Brook Water Supply Company . The creeks supplied Nanticoke , West Nanticoke , Plymouth , and Glen Lyon . In 2001 , the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission banned alcoholic beverages within 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) of an 8 @.@ 5 @-@ mile @-@ stretch of Harveys Creek . = = = Bridges = = = A steel girder and floorbeam system bridge carrying T @-@ 486 / East Poplar Street was constructed over Harveys Creek in 1924 . It is 53 @.@ 2 feet ( 16 @.@ 2 m ) long . A two @-@ span concrete tee beam bridge carrying Pennsylvania Route 29 over the creek was built in 1927 and repaired in 1980 . It is situated in Jackson Township and is 78 @.@ 1 feet ( 23 @.@ 8 m ) long . In 1935 , another two @-@ span concrete tee beam bridge , this one carrying Pennsylvania Route 118 , was constructed over the creek . It is 56 @.@ 1 feet ( 17 @.@ 1 m ) long and is situated in Lehman Township . Another two @-@ span bridge , this one a steel stringer bridge , was constructed over the creek in Lehman Township in 1952 . It is 69 @.@ 9 feet ( 21 @.@ 3 m ) long and carries State Route 1016 . A four @-@ span steel culvert bridge carrying State Route 1048 / Meeker Road over Harveys Creek was built in 1977 . It is 29 @.@ 9 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) long and is in Lehman Township . In 1992 , a prestressed box beam bridge was built over the creek . It is 39 @.@ 0 feet ( 11 @.@ 9 m ) long and carries T @-@ 497 / Pavlick Road . A bridge of the same type and length , but carrying T @-@ 499 / Zbick Road was built over the creek in 1993 . One more bridge of the same type was built over the creek in Lehman Township in 1997 . It is 40 @.@ 0 feet ( 12 @.@ 2 m ) long and carries State Route 1059 / Fedor Road . A bridge carrying Pennsylvania Route 29 over Harveys Creek in Plymouth Township was built in 2005 . It is a two @-@ span prestressed box beam bridge with a length of 84 @.@ 0 feet ( 25 @.@ 6 m ) . = = Biology = = Upstream of the tributary Pikes Creek , Harveys Creek and its drainage basin are designated as a High @-@ Quality Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery . Downstream of Pikes Creek , Harveys Creek and its drainage basin are designated as a Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery . Wild trout naturally reproduce in a stretch of the creek from Meeker Outlet Road / T810 , downstream to its mouth . This stretch is 10 @.@ 86 miles ( 17 @.@ 48 km ) long . Harveys Creek is inhabited by brown trout and native brook trout . It is stocked with fish . = = Recreation = = It is possible to canoe on 5 @.@ 4 miles ( 8 @.@ 7 km ) of Harveys Creek during a fast snowmelt or within two days of heavy rain . Its difficulty rating ranges between 2 and 4 and Edward Gertler describes the scenery along the creek as " good to very good " in his book Keystone Canoeing . Gertler also describes it as an " obscure torrent " . The creek is considered to be suitable for advanced paddlers . In the late 1980s , Harveys Creek was the most popular trout stream in Luzerne County . A 1991 book stated that the creek was the most extensively stocked and fished stream in the county .
= Calvatia craniiformis = Calvatia craniiformis , commonly known as the brain puffball or the skull @-@ shaped puffball , is a species of puffball fungus in the family Agaricaceae . It is found in Asia , Australia , and North America , where it grows on the ground in open woods . Its name , derived from the same Latin root as cranium , alludes to its resemblance to an animal 's brain . The skull @-@ shaped fruit body is 8 – 20 cm ( 3 – 8 in ) broad by 6 – 20 cm ( 2 – 8 in ) tall and white to tan . Initially smooth , the skin ( peridium ) develops wrinkles and folds as it matures , cracking and flaking with age . The peridium eventually sloughs away , exposing a powdery yellow @-@ brown to greenish @-@ yellow spore mass ( the gleba ) . The puffball is edible when the gleba is still white and firm , before it matures to become yellow @-@ brown and powdery . Mature specimens have been used in the traditional or folk medicines of China , Japan , and the Ojibwe as a hemostatic or wound dressing agent . Several bioactive compounds have been isolated and identified from the brain puffball . = = Taxonomy = = The species was first described as Bovista craniiformis by Lewis David de Schweinitz in 1832 . Elias Fries transferred it to the then newly circumscribed genus Calvatia in 1849 , setting Calvatia craniiformis as the type and only species . Scott Bates and colleagues suggest that the name is synonymous with Lycoperdon delicatum published by Miles Joseph Berkeley and Moses Ashley Curtis in 1873 ( not the L. delicatum published by Berkeley in 1854 ) , as is Lycoperdon missouriense published by William Trelease in 1891 . The form C. craniiformis f. gardneri , published by Yosio Kobayasi in 1932 ( originally Lycoperdon gardneri Berk . 1875 ) , since been elevated to the distinct species Calvatia gardneri . In their 1962 monograph on North American Calvatia , mycologists Sanford Myron Zeller and Alexander H. Smith set C. craniiformis as the type species of the stirps ( a grouping of related species ) Craniiformis , containing species with a large sterile base and a persistent cottony gleba . Other species they included in this stirps were C. umbrina , C. diguetti , C. lycoperdoides , C. rubroflava , C. ochrogleba , C. excipuliformis ( since transferred by some authorities to Handkea ) , and C. elata . Calvatia craniiformis is commonly known as the " brain @-@ shaped puffball " or the " skull @-@ shaped puffball " . The specific epithet craniiformis derives from the Ancient Greek words cranion , meaning " brain " , and forma , " a form " . = = Description = = The fruit bodies of Calvatia craniiformis grow to dimensions of 6 – 20 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 7 @.@ 9 in ) tall by 8 – 20 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 – 7 @.@ 9 in ) wide , and have a form ranging from pear @-@ shaped , to flattened @-@ spherical , to obovate ( roughly egg @-@ shaped ) , to tunicate ( like an inverted cone ) . At the bottom is a thick , often crumpled base attached to a cord @-@ like rhizomorph , which is often encrusted with surrounding soil . The rhizomorphs are well developed , and when cut into longitudinal section , reveal three distinct tissues : an outer cortex , a subcortical layer , and a central core . The thin and fragile exoperidium ( the outer layer of " skin " ) is whitish @-@ gray to gray , and initially smooth before becoming areolate ( divided by cracks into discrete areas ) . The base extends up one @-@ third to one @-@ half way into the puffball ( where it becomes the columnella ) tapering to a point . The gleba is initially whitish , and then yellow @-@ green , and finally brownish @-@ green in older specimens with mature spores . Spores are spherical , hyaline ( translucent ) , and measure 2 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 4 μm in diameter . They are thick @-@ walled with a short pedicel ( a tubelike extension ) , and are ornamented with tiny spines ( verrucae ) that are roughly equidistant from each other . Capillitial threads are long , hyaline , and branched , measuring 2 @.@ 4 – 4 μm thick . They are septate and occasionally have pits on their walls . The exoperidium comprises thick @-@ walled , inflated hyphae mixed with sphaerocysts ( spherical cells ) , while the endoperidium is made of tightly interwoven , thick @-@ walled hyphae . In the rhizomorphs , the hyphae in the central core are several times as thick as those in the surrounding subcortex . Using light microscopy , the spores of Calvatia craniiformis are generally indistinguishable from those of C. rubroflava and C. gigantea ; electron microscopy reveals that each has distinctive spore ornamentation . C. craniiformis features small , well @-@ separated verrucae ( wartlike projections ) up to 0 @.@ 2 μm tall with rounded tips . In comparison , C. gigantea has larger verrucae ( up to 0 @.@ 4 μm tall ) that are more irregularly arranged . = = = Development = = = Fruit bodies arise from the tips or the lateral branches or rhizomorphs . New fruit bodies are made of an exterior of thick hyphae similar to those found in the rhizomorph core ; in contrast , the hyphae of the interior originate from the puffball 's core . Unlike some other puffball species , the peridium does not differentiate into a distinct exoperidium and endoperidium ; rather , the outer layer develops the features of a pseudoparenchyma ( a tightly organised tissue where the tightly packed cells resemble plant parenchyma ) as the radial and tangential hyphae become interweaved . In time , the peridium dries and falls off in flakes to expose the underlying gleba . = = = Similar species = = = The brain @-@ like surface folds and mature olive @-@ brown gleba are characteristic of Calvatia craniiformis , but younger puffballs that have not yet developed these characteristics may be difficult to identify to species . Another edible puffball , C. cyathiformis ( lilac puffball ) grows to similar dimensions but has gleba that is purple @-@ brown when mature . Calvatia fragilis is smaller and pink or purple mature gleba . C. bicolor is a smaller , rounder puffball that could be confused with younger specimens of C. craniiformis , but the former species has more coarsely ornamented spores , and lacks a distinct subgleba . Handkea utriformis is roughly similar in appearance to C. craniiformis , but unlike the latter it develops a cavernous opening to reveal an olive @-@ brown gleba , and has distinct slits in its capillitial threads . = = Uses = = Calvatia craniiformis is an edible species . Young puffballs with a firm , white gleba have a mild odor and pleasant taste . Early 20th @-@ century mycologist Charles McIlvaine noted over a century ago that " the slightest change to yellow makes it bitter . " Versatile in cooking , the puffball absorbs flavors well . In the United States , the Ojibwe used the powdery gleba as a hemostatic agent to staunch the flow of nosebleeds : the spore powder was inhaled through the nostrils . It is now known that this practice can lead to the pulmonary disease lycoperdonosis , which causes symptoms similar to pneumonia . It is also used as a hemostatic agent in Chinese and Japanese folk medicines . = = Habitat and distribution = = Although Calvatia craniiformis is generally considered a saprobic species , in controlled laboratory conditions , an ectomycorrhizae between the fungus and American sweetgum ( Liquidambar styraciflua ) was reported in a 1966 publication . A Chinese study showed that C. craniifromis would readily form mycorrhiza with poplar seedlings on unsterilized , but not on sterilized soil . Later research was unable to establish any similar association between C. craniiformis and Pinus ponderosa . Brain puffballs grow singly or in groups in fields and open woods , hardwood forests , and wet areas . In Asia , it has been recorded from China , India , Indonesia , Japan , Malaysia , and South Korea . The brain puffball has been recorded from Australia . In North America , its range includes the eastern and southern United States , and Mexico . In Michigan , it is one of the few macrofungi found regularly in black locust plantations . Fruit bodies serve as a food source for several species of flies . = = Research = = Extracts of the puffball have strong antitumor activity in mouse models attributable to protein @-@ bound polysaccharides , the compounds calvatan , craniformin , and a tautomer of rubroflavin . Calvatan is thought to act by stimulating the immune response , rather than by killing cells . Craniformin , originally reported in 1997 , is an azoformamide compound . Three sterol compounds have been identified from the fungus : ergosta @-@ 4 @,@ 6 @,@ 8 ( 14 ) , 22 @-@ tetraene @-@ 3 @-@ one , ergosta @-@ 7 @,@ 22 @-@ diene @-@ 3 @-@ ol , and ergosterol peroxide . Three azo- and azoxyformamides compounds have been isolated and identified from the puffball and tested for their ability to inhibit the growth of plants : 4 @-@ methoxybenzene @-@ 1 @-@ ONN @-@ azoxyformamide , 4 @-@ methoxybenzene @-@ 1 @-@ azoform @-@ amide , and 4 @-@ hydroxybenzene @-@ 1 @-@ azoformamide . Only the first compound was significantly inhibitory , suggesting that the presence of the azoxy moiety is required for growth inhibition . = = = Cited literature = = = Bates ST , Roberson RW , Desjardin DE ( 2009 ) . " Arizona gasteroid fungi I : Lycoperdaceae ( Agaricales , Basidiomycota ) " ( PDF ) . Fungal Diversity 37 : 153 – 207 .
= WrestleMania X = WrestleMania X was the tenth annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by the World Wrestling Federation . It took place at Madison Square Garden in New York , New York on March 20 , 1994 . The central focus of the pay @-@ per @-@ view was the WWF World Heavyweight Championship , which was defended in two matches . Lex Luger challenged champion Yokozuna first but was disqualified for pushing the referee . Bret Hart faced Yokozuna later in the evening and won the championship by pinning Yokozuna . This led to a lengthy worked feud between Bret and his brother Owen , who had defeated Bret in the opening match of the pay @-@ per @-@ view . Several other major feuds were also highlighted at this event . Razor Ramon defeated Shawn Michaels in a Ladder match to resolve an angle in which the two had argued over the rightful holder of the WWF Intercontinental Championship . Bam Bam Bigelow gained revenge against Doink the Clown , with whom he had been feuding , by teaming with Luna Vachon to defeat Doink and his partner Dink . Randy Savage also settled his feud with Crush by defeating him in a Falls Count Anywhere match . WrestleMania X was the first edition of the event not to feature Hulk Hogan , who had been seen as the public face of the WWF ; following Hogan 's 1993 departure , that role had shifted to Bret Hart . The card also marked Randy Savage 's last televised match for the company . This also mark the final play by play by Gorilla Monsoon at Wrestlemania as he called the action along with Chet Coppock on commentary for Radio WWF ( the last pay @-@ per @-@ view to be broadcast on radio ) = = Background = = The storyline surrounding the WWF World Heavyweight Championship began at the 1994 Royal Rumble when the final two wrestlers , Lex Luger and Bret Hart , simultaneously eliminated each other . After a disagreement between two referees , Jack Tunney , the WWF President , declared Luger and Hart co @-@ winners . Tunney announced that both wrestlers would get a WWF World Heavyweight Championship match at WrestleMania , the prize given to the winner of the Royal Rumble match , and both wrestlers would have to wrestle two matches for the pay @-@ per @-@ view . Tunney announced that a coin toss would be used to decide who faced Yokozuna for the belt first . If Luger won , he would face Yokozuna first . Hart would then wrestle his brother Owen Hart before facing the winner of the Luger @-@ Yokozuna match . If Hart won the coin toss , he would get the first title shot , and Luger would wrestle Crush earlier on the card . On the January 31 , 1994 episode of Monday Night Raw , Luger won the coin toss and the right to face Yokozuna first . Bret Hart was booked to face his brother Owen , with whom he was in the middle of a feud . The storyline between the Hart brothers began at Survivor Series 1993 , where they were competing on the same side of an elimination match . As Owen was fighting in the ring , Bret , who had sustained a kayfabe injury , was staggering along the ring apron . Owen ran into Bret , causing Owen to lose his focus and get eliminated from the match . After the match , Owen returned to the ring and had a confrontation with Bret . In the following weeks , Owen demanded a match with Bret , but Bret refused to accept the challenge . Eventually , the storyline had the brothers reunite to face The Quebecers at Royal Rumble 1994 . During the match , Bret sustained another kayfabe injury , causing the referee to end the match . In a planned turn , Owen got upset by the loss and attacked Bret to restart the feud . Luger 's feud with Yokozuna began on July 4 , 1993 , at the Yokozuna Bodyslam Challenge . In June , Mr. Fuji , Yokozuna 's manager , challenged all American athletes to attempt to bodyslam Yokozuna on the deck of the USS Intrepid . After several athletes failed , the storyline saw Luger arrive by helicopter and successfully bodyslam Yokozuna . This began a strong push for Luger , who was then scheduled to challenge Yokozuna for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship at SummerSlam 1993 . Luger won the match by countout but did not win the title . The WWF claimed that the match stipulations did not allow Luger a rematch . The storyline saw Luger campaigning for entry into the 1994 Royal Rumble , as he wanted the title shot that would be given to the winner . Luger was eventually entered into the match , although The Great Kabuki and Genichiro Tenryu were also entered , on Mr. Fuji 's behalf , to attempt to prevent Luger from winning . Kabuki and Tenryu were unsuccessful , however , as Luger won the match and gained a match for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship . The storyline leading to the match between " Macho Man " Randy Savage and Crush focused on the supposedly strained friendship between the two wrestlers . On the July 12 , 1993 , episode of Monday Night Raw , Crush challenged Yokozuna for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship . At the end of the match , Yokozuna performed the Banzai Drop to win the match . After the match , he performed three more Banzai Drops while various wrestlers ran to the ring to stop the attack . Savage eventually came to the ring to help Crush . Following the match , Crush was not seen on televised matches for several months , although he continued to appear at house shows . On October 18 , Crush appeared on Monday Night Raw accompanied by Yokozuna and Yokozuna 's manager , Mr. Fuji . Crush criticized Savage for not intervening sooner during the July 12 match . In a worked promo , Crush announced that he had turned against Savage and the United States in order to align himself with Yokozuna and Fuji . He then attacked Savage by dropping him on the ringside guard rail . Yokozuna performed the Banzai Drop on Savage before a group of referees came to the ring to break up the fight . During the November 8 , 1993 episode of Monday Night Raw , Savage left his position as commentator to attack Crush . The following week , Jack Tunney announced that Savage was suspended from commentating as a result of the previous week 's attack . The feud intensified at Survivor Series 1993 when Savage and Crush caused each other to be eliminated from their respective matches . Bam Bam Bigelow and Doink the Clown were engaged in a feud that began in the fall of 1993 . Doink annoyed Bigelow with a series of pranks , such as throwing water and confetti on him and tripping him with a broom . Bigelow retaliated against Doink and Doink 's midget sidekick Dink . A match was booked for Survivor Series 1993 , but Bigelow was unable to get revenge because Doink did not compete . Instead , the WWF prolonged the feud by having Bigelow 's team face was The Bushwhackers and Men on a Mission dressed as Doinks . The feud eventually culminated in a match scheduled for WrestleMania X. In the match , Bigelow and his storyline girlfriend Luna Vachon competed against Doink and Dink in a Mixed tag team match . The feud between Razor Ramon and Shawn Michaels also dated back to the fall of 1993 . Jack Tunney announced that he was stripping Michaels of the WWF Intercontinental Championship for not defending the title often enough . There have been reports that the real reason for vacating the title was because Michaels refused to drop the belt . Ramon won the title after competing in a battle royal and defeating Rick Martel , the other finalist in the match . In the angle , Michaels refused to acknowledge the title change , however , as he insisted that he was the true Intercontinental Champion . To gain revenge against Ramon for taking the belt , Michaels attacked Ramon and helped Irwin R. Schyster to steal Ramon 's gold chains . = = Event = = In a dark match before the pay @-@ per @-@ view aired , The Heavenly Bodies faced The Bushwhackers . Near the end of the match , The Bushwhackers gained control when they performed the Battering Ram on Jimmy Del Ray . Tom Prichard , Del Ray 's partner , attacked Bushwhacker Butch before he was able to pin Del Ray . This allowed Del Ray to recover and pin Butch to win the match . As the broadcast began , Vince McMahon and Jerry Lawler were introduced as commentators for the event and Little Richard sang " America the Beautiful " . The first televised match was between Bret and Owen Hart . The beginning of the match went back and forth with neither wrestler gaining a strong advantage . The tension between the two was demonstrated by Owen 's bragging and Bret 's refusal to let Owen leave the ring . Owen eventually gained momentum by using a camel clutch on Bret and performing suplexes and a Tombstone piledriver . When Owen stood outside the ring to recuperate , Bret jumped over the top rope to attack him . Bret landed awkwardly , however , and suffered a kayfabe injury to his knee . Owen used a figure four leglock to capitalize on Bret 's sore leg . Bret was able to recover , and he kicked Owen in the back of the head and used a Bulldog and sleeper hold to weaken Owen . Owen regained the advantage , however , and applied the Sharpshooter on Bret . Bret was able to escape and perform a Sharpshooter on Owen . Bret then attempted to end the match with a victory roll , but Owen blocked it and pinned Bret to win the match . Sy Sperling , the president of hair restoration company Hair Club for Men , appeared in the ring before the next match . He announced that he was at WrestleMania to introduce one of his latest clients , ring announcer Howard Finkel . Finkel came to the ring wearing a toupée , showing off his new hair while the crowd applauded . The match then began , as Bam Bam Bigelow and Luna Vachon came to the ring to face Doink the Clown and Dink . Bigelow attacked Doink at the beginning of the match with a dropkick and a powerslam . When Dink entered the match , the rules stated that Bigelow had to tag Vachon into the match . Dink ran around the ring avoiding Vachon , but she eventually caught him . She kicked him and powerslammed him , but she then missed a moonsault attempt . Doink and Bigelow re @-@ entered the match , and Doink performed a DDT on Bigelow . Bigelow reversed the momentum to win the match after a diving headbutt on Doink . Bigelow pinned Doink to win the match , and he and Vachon then attacked Dink . The next match was a Falls Count Anywhere match between Randy Savage and Crush . The rules stated that any time a wrestler was pinned , he then had to make it back inside the ring within sixty seconds or he would lose the match . Savage tried to attack Crush before the bell rang , but Crush reversed the attack . He used a tilt @-@ a @-@ whirl backbreaker to injure Savage and then dropped Savage across the guard rail to get the first pinfall . While Savage was returning to the ring , Mr. Fuji hit him with the Japanese flag to stall him . Savage made it back to the ring with two seconds remaining , so the match continued . Inside the ring , Crush tried to throw salt in Savage 's eyes , but Savage countered by throwing the salt in Crush 's eyes . Savage then performed a diving elbow drop and rolled Crush outside of the ring for the pinfall . Fuji helped revive Crush , which allowed Crush to return to the ring before the count had expired . Savage and Crush then brawled down the aisle and into a room backstage . Savage scored a pinfall and tied Crush 's legs to a pulley . Crush was left hanging upside down and could not return to the ring , so Savage was declared the winner . Alundra Blayze defended her WWF Women 's Championship against Leilani Kai in the next match . Blayze began the match by using a leg sweep and two sunset flips . Kai came back with a powerslam and a suplex . Blayze got the win , however , by pinning Kai after performing a German suplex . In the next match , Men on a Mission challenged The Quebecers for the WWF Tag Team Championship . Although The Quebecers attacked Men on a Mission before the bell , Mabel quickly recovered and clotheslined both Quebecers . The Quebecers used several double @-@ team moves against their opponents , but Mabel reversed the momentum after Pierre missed a senton bomb . Mabel eventually missed an Avalanche , allowing The Quebecers to suplex him . The Quebecers performed an assisted senton on Mabel but did not get a pinfall . Men on a Mission regained the advantage , prompting The Quebecers ' manager , Johnny Polo , to pull his wrestlers out of the ring . Men on a Mission won the match by countout , but they did not win the belts . The first WWF World Heavyweight Championship match came next , as Lex Luger challenged Yokozuna . Mr. Perfect was revealed to be the special guest referee for the match , while Donnie Wahlberg was the guest ring announcer and Rhonda Shear was the guest timekeeper . After a verbal confrontation between Luger and Yokozuna , Luger gained the early advantage by knocking Yokozuna out of the ring . After getting back into the ring , Yokozuna removed the turnbuckle padding from a corner of the ring . Yokozuna used a nerve hold and a belly to belly suplex to wear down Luger . As he tried to throw Luger 's head into the exposed turnbuckle , however , Luger blocked him and hit Yokozuna 's head into the turnbuckle . Luger then performed clotheslines and a powerslam on Yokozuna before knocking Yokozuna kayfabe unconscious with a running forearm smash . Yokozuna 's managers , Mr. Fuji and Jim Cornette jumped onto the ring apron to distract Luger , and Luger pulled them into the ring and attacked them . Luger covered Yokozuna , but Mr. Perfect was tending to the fallen managers and did not make the count . When Luger pushed him , Mr. Perfect disqualified Luger and left the ring , thereby turning heel . Adam Bomb and his manager Harvey Wippleman entered the ring for the next match , and Wippleman criticized Finkel 's new hair and tore the pocket off Finkel 's suit . Earthquake came to the ring and attacked Bomb from behind . He powerslammed Bomb and performed the Earthquake splash to get the pinfall victory in thirty @-@ five seconds . For the Ladder match , the Intercontinental belts belonging to Razor Ramon and Shawn Michaels were both hanging above the ring , and the first wrestler to use the ladder to reach both belts would be declared the winner . Ramon began the match by chokeslamming Michaels . Michaels recovered , however , and performed a neckbreaker on Ramon . Michaels then threw Ramon out to the ringside , where Michaels ' bodyguard Diesel clotheslined Ramon . Referee Earl Hebner responded by ordering Diesel to return to the dressing rooms . Ramon pulled up the padding from the concrete floor , but he was later thrown onto it after Michaels reversed Ramon 's attempt to perform the Razor 's Edge . While Ramon was lying on the floor , Michaels brought the ladder to the ring and used it to hit Ramon in the stomach , chest and back . Michaels tried to retrieve the belts , but Ramon stopped him from climbing the ladder . Michaels then set the ladder up in the corner of the ring and performed a splash onto Ramon . Ramon recovered and Irish whipped Michaels into the ladder . He then hit Michaels with the ladder several times before both men tried to climb up to get the belts . Ramon suplexed Michaels off the ladder and tried to reach the belts . Michaels dropkicked the ladder , which caused Ramon to fall off . Michaels performed a superkick and a piledriver on Ramon and then propped the ladder up in the corner of the ring . Michaels climbed the turnbuckles , jumped onto the ladder , and used his weight to push it down across Ramon 's chest . Michaels tried to retrieve the belts again , but Ramon pushed him off . Michaels fell into the ropes and got tangled up , allowing Ramon to get the belts and win the undisputed Intercontinental championship . A ten @-@ man tag team match was supposed to take place next , but it was canceled due to time constraints . The kayfabe reason given was that the heel team ( Irwin R. Schyster , The Headshrinkers , Rick Martel and Jeff Jarrett ) could not agree on who would be the team 's captain for the match . Their opponents were scheduled to be the face team of the 1 – 2 – 3 Kid , Sparky Plugg , Tatanka and The Smoking Gunns . Bob Holly ( " Sparky Plugg " ) , stated in his 2013 autobiography The Hardcore Truth that the timekeeper backstage repeatedly told the referee over his earpiece to end the ladder match , but Michaels and Ramon ignored him , and kept wrestling until officials were forced to cancel the tag team match . The final match of the night and main event was the WWF World Heavyweight Championship match between Yokozuna and Bret Hart . The guest referee for the match was " Rowdy " Roddy Piper , while the guest ring announcer was Burt Reynolds and the guest timekeeper was Jennie Garth . Yokozuna attacked Hart before the bell , and Hart attempted a couple of comebacks in vain . Eventually , Yokozuna made a mistake and allowed Hart to knock him to the mat . Cornette tried to distract Piper , but Piper punched him and knocked him off the ring apron . Yokozuna performed a leg drop on Hart but then missed an Avalanche attempt . Bret maintained the advantage for a little while , but Yokozuna came back with a belly to belly suplex . When Yokozuna attempted the Banzai drop , however , he lost his balance and fell to the mat . Hart quickly pinned Yokozuna to win the title . He celebrated in the ring with several of the face wrestlers including Lex Luger , " Rowdy " Roddy Piper , Razor Ramon , Tatanka , The 1 – 2 – 3 Kid , Sparky Plugg and " Macho Man " Randy Savage . Others who joined in the celebration included Burt Reynolds , Rhonda Shear , Donnie Wahlberg , and WWF commentators Gorilla Monsoon and Vince McMahon . Owen Hart stood in the aisle , glaring at Bret , then quickly left . = = Aftermath = = Men on a Mission continued to challenge The Quebecers for the tag team belts . Men on a Mission won the title on March 29 , 1994 . This is said to have been an unplanned title change , as Mabel accidentally fell on Pierre to get the pinfall . This title reign lasted only two days , however , as The Quebecers won the titles back in a rematch . Lex Luger and Mr. Perfect were scheduled to face each other in a series of matches on the WrestleMania Revenge Tour . Mr. Perfect was replaced by Crush , however , and Mr. Perfect did not appear again in the WWF until Survivor Series 1995 . Adam Bomb and Earthquake had a rematch on the April 4 , 1994 episode of Monday Night Raw , which Earthquake won . The feud did not progress any further , as Earthquake left the WWF for World Championship Wrestling in May 1994 . Wippleman and Finkel wrestled a series of Tuxedo matches in 1994 that culminated in a match on the January 9 , 1995 episode of Monday Night Raw . Finkel defeated Wippleman in a final Tuxedo match to end the feud . A few weeks after the match between Shawn Michaels and Razor Ramon , Diesel begin to challenge Ramon for the Intercontinental championship . Michaels helped Diesel defeat Ramon for the title on April 13 , 1994 . This win began a push for Diesel that saw him win the WWF 's Triple Crown Championship in one calendar year . The ten @-@ man tag team match took place on the April 4 , 1994 edition of Monday Night Raw . The heel team won , as Irwin R. Schyster pinned the 1 – 2 – 3 Kid to win the match . Bret and Owen Hart continued their feud throughout 1994 . At King of the Ring , their real @-@ life brother @-@ in @-@ law and Bret 's former tag team partner Jim Neidhart became involved in the angle by helping Owen win the tournament . During the coronation ceremony , Owen announced that he wanted to be referred to as the " King of Harts " . At SummerSlam , Bret successfully defended his title against Owen in a Steel cage match but was attacked after the match by Owen and Neidhart , prompting another brother @-@ in @-@ law , Davey Boy Smith , to get involved on Bret 's side . At Survivor Series , the storyline saw Owen partially responsible for costing Bret the WWF Championship . Bret faced Bob Backlund in a match with the stipulation that the winner would be declared when a competitor 's cornerman threw a towel into the ring to signify a submission . After Owen caused Smith to knock himself unconscious , Owen pretended to feel sympathy for Bret . While Backlund had Bret in a crossface Chickenwing , the angle had Owen convince his mother Helen to throw in Bret 's towel , enabling Backlund to win the match and the title . After the match , Owen celebrated with Backlund and showed that he was faking the concern for his brother . = = = Reception = = = The event was attended by 18 @,@ 065 people , who paid a total of $ 960 @,@ 000 in admission fees . The buyrate for this pay @-@ per @-@ view was 1 @.@ 68 , down from the 2 @.@ 0 buyrate that the previous WrestleMania had achieved . The event received positive reviews from various websites and wrestling publications . In 2010 , Rob McNew of 411mania gave the event an overall score of 9 @.@ 0 out of 10 @.@ 0 and noted that WrestleMania X " may lack a lot of historical significance due to being during a relatively down time for business , but this show kicked all kinds of ass . " He further noted that " Bret @-@ Owen and Razor @-@ Shawn were both coin flip choices for not only match of the year , but match of the decade as well . " He concluded the review citing how WrestleMania X was " easily one of the top five Wrestlemania ’ s ever . " Much of the praise towards the event was aimed at the ladder match between Shawn Michaels and Razor Ramon . McNew of 411mania cited the match as " downright groundbreaking for the time " and an " amazing match that put the ladder match on the map . " It was one of the few matches in North America to receive a five @-@ star rating from Dave Meltzer and also to be voted Match of the Year ( 1994 ) by readers of his Wrestling Observer Newsletter publication . Pro Wrestling Illustrated readers also named that match PWI Match of the Year ( 1994 ) . It was placed # 3 on IGN 's Top 20 Matches in Wrestlemania History and described as " one of the most ground @-@ breaking matches in wrestling history " . The opening match between Owen Hart and Bret Hart has also garnered acclaim . McNew described as the " best opening match in professional wrestling history " . It was also # 4 on the list of IGN 's Top 20 Matches in Wrestlemania History ; writer Jon Robinson described it as " the best opening match in pay @-@ per @-@ view history . " Multi @-@ time world champion Chris Jericho stated : " For me , the best match on [ WrestleMania X ] was always Bret vs. Owen , and it kicked off the show and it was hard to follow ... the story was amazing , it was kind of Owen 's coronation – it was a great moment " . = = Results = =
= Acquainted with the Night ( book ) = Acquainted with the Night : Excursions through the World After Dark ( or Acquainted with the Night : A Celebration of the Dark Hours ) is a non @-@ fiction book by Christopher Dewdney about various aspects of night . It was first published in 2004 by HarperCollins . It uses the same title as the Robert Frost poem " Acquainted with the Night " . The book consists of 14 chapters , with one chapter dedicated to each hour of the night , from 6 pm to 5 am . Mini @-@ essays populate each chapter which each follow a theme , like nocturnal creatures , dreams , astronomy , and mythology . Other subjects and topics touched upon include science , art , culture , natural history , superstitions , and psychology . The book was a finalist for the 2004 Governor General 's Awards and for the 2005 Charles Taylor Prize . It tied with Dark Matter : Reading The Bones for the World Fantasy Award in Anthologies . = = Background = = At the time of Acquainted with the Night 's writing , author and poet Christopher Dewdney was 52 years old and living in Toronto with his wife , Barbara Gowdy . He had previously written 14 books , the last being the 2002 book of poetry , The Natural History . His previous non @-@ fiction books were Last Flesh : Life in the Transhuman Era ( 1998 ) on the impacts of technological advances on humanism , The Secular Grail : Paradigms of Perception ( 1993 ) regarding the human psyche , and The Immaculate Perception ( 1986 ) on his views of consciousness , language and dreams . Dewdney 's past books were described as being " more admired than read " . On the topic of ' the night ' , he had a lifelong fascination with nightlife and eventually decided to write a book about it . He quickly became overwhelmed by the amount of information relating to the subject . For research , he consulted a variety of genres and formats , including books , journals , magazines , music , and movies , and collected information within the broad topics of art , science , social sciences and history . The perspective Dewdney took was that of " explaining night to beings from another planet that had two opposed suns and no night at all " . = = Content = = The content is divided into 14 chapters . The first chapter serves as an introduction and considers the mythological and geological origin of night . The next 12 chapters are each titled after an hour starting with chapter 2 's 6 pm and ending with chapter 13 's 5 am . Chapter 2 discusses the transition into night , including sunsets , the green flash , the stages of twilight , as well as Olbers ' paradox , and a definition of the size and speed of night . The 7 pm chapter deals with nature at night , how animals see and hear differently at night with a focus on bats , nighthawks , and nocturnal insects . The 8 pm chapter analyzes children 's literature and bedtime stories . The 9 pm chapter discusses aspects of the city at night , including the evolution of nightclubs , street lights , and the impacts of light pollution . The 10 pm chapter discusses night festivals around the world and throughout history . The 11 pm chapter explains the circadian rhythm and the physiology of sleep and dreams . The 12 am chapter traces the history behind dream interpretation from Gilgamesh to Sigmund Freud , Carl Jung , and Calvin Hall . Here , Dewdney considers nightmares and takes sudden unexplained death syndrome , whose sufferers are almost always Asian males , between 20 and 49 years old , as an extreme example of nightmares that cause the dreamer to die from a " ventricular fibrillation ... brought about by extreme terror " . The 1 am chapter compares literary and mythological personifications of , or beings associated with , the night . The 2 am chapter tells the stories of the legends behind the moon and the constellations . The 3 am chapter is all about insomnia . The 4 am chapter provides a geographical aspect , touring the places with long nights , like Las Vegas , caves , the poles , and deep within the oceans . The 5 am chapter discusses artistic representations of night , especially in music , on film and through paintings . The final chapter is a conclusion in which Dewdney reflects on memorable sunrises he has experienced and contrasts sunrises with sunsets . = = Style = = The title shares its name with the Robert Frost poem Acquainted with the Night , which is quoted on the first page . The book 's structure uses twelve chapters , equating to twelve hours of night , from 6 pm to 5 am . Two additional chapters , " First Night " and " Night 's Last Stand " , bookend the twelve chapters as an introduction and conclusion . This hour @-@ by @-@ hour structure was used to move the narrative along logically while jumping between diverse topics . The topics range from such disparate subjects as culture , superstitions , natural history , physiology , and psychology so that reviewers variously called the book " a compendium " , " a browser 's book " and full of " encyclopedic mini @-@ essays " . Autobiographical passages are also included . One reviewer noted the format uses personal observations that lead to discussions of broad subjects with " side trips into relevant supporting materials " . The reviewer for the Quill & Quire cited the book as an example of a subgenre which an article in The Atlantic Monthly dubbed " mundane studies " referring to the ubiquity of the subject , like Mark Kurlansky 's Salt : A World History and Witold Rybczynski 's One Good Turn : A Natural History of the Screwdriver and the Screw . Dewdney 's writing in Acquainted with the Night combines a poet 's point of view with an interest for the sciences . The tone was described as " boyish enthusiasm " and " highly condensed yet personable voice " . Gisèle Baxter , in the journal Canadian Literature , wrote that the its tone was set at the beginning of the book by " an anecdote of a small boy creeping into the moonlit , partly wooded backyard of his family home " . = = Publication and reception = = Acquainted with the Night : Excursions through the World After Dark was published as a hardback in Canada by HarperCollins in May 2004 . In the United States , Bloomsbury published the hardback version in July 2004 as Acquainted with the Night : A Celebration of the Dark Hours . The trade paperback version was published by HarperCollins in March 2005 . An excerpt was published in the Canadian literary magazine Geist . The book was nominated for the 2005 Charles Taylor Prize , awarded to the best Canadian work of literary non @-@ fiction , and Dewdney was a finalist in the English @-@ language non @-@ fiction category of the Governor General 's Awards . The Library Journal noted the book would be " most useful for larger public libraries " . Regarding Dewdney 's writing , the reviewer for Publishers Weekly wrote that Dewdney writes carefully and " confidently " . Another reviewer called the book " engaging and recreational " . Gisèle Baxter , in Canadian Literature , found his use of language " provok [ es ] consideration through its elegant turns of phrase and image " and Laura Wright , in Discover called the imagery " arresting " . In The Globe and Mail , poet and novelist Margaret Atwood wrote , " The prose moves from the strictly informative to the lyrical to the charming to the amusing to the odd to the strangely moving without batting an eye . " Another reviewer noted Dewdney " combined a deft lyric touch with a deep interest in science " . The reviewer for Canadian Geographic wrote that " the strength of the book is in its artful mix of science and poetry " . Literary critic Sven Birkerts found Dewdney to be " an engaging enough narrator and solid , enthusiastic stylist " . The book 's structure received mixed reviews , some reviewers found Dewdney was able to effectively transition between various topics while other reviewers did not . Birkerts wrote the book has " a fun @-@ facts @-@ fished @-@ from @-@ the @-@ data @-@ ocean ... [ and ] end @-@ of @-@ term crammer " sense to it . The Quill & Quire and The Economist reviewers found the topics were too cursory , like " an encyclopedia entry " . Birkerts concluded " that any one of Dewdney 's excursions could earn its keep as a column in a popular science magazine " but assembled into one book the topics seemed random .
= Houston = Houston ( / ˈhjuːstən / HYOO @-@ stən ) is the most populous city in Texas and the fourth @-@ most populous city in the United States , located in Southeast Texas near the Gulf of Mexico . With a census @-@ estimated 2014 population of 2 @.@ 239 million within a land area of 599 @.@ 6 square miles ( 1 @,@ 553 km2 ) , it also is the largest city in the Southern United States , as well as the seat of Harris County . It is the principal city of Houston – The Woodlands – Sugar Land , which is the fifth @-@ most populated metropolitan area in the United States . Houston was founded in 1836 near the banks of Buffalo Bayou ( now known as Allen 's Landing ) and incorporated as a city on June 5 , 1837 . The city was named after former General Sam Houston , who was president of the Republic of Texas and had commanded and won at the Battle of San Jacinto 25 miles ( 40 km ) east of where the city was established . The burgeoning port and railroad industry , combined with oil discovery in 1901 , has induced continual surges in the city 's population . In the mid @-@ 20th century , Houston became the home of the Texas Medical Center — the world 's largest concentration of healthcare and research institutions — and NASA 's Johnson Space Center , where the Mission Control Center is located . Houston 's economy has a broad industrial base in energy , manufacturing , aeronautics , and transportation . It is also leading in health care sectors and building oilfield equipment ; only New York City is home to more Fortune 500 headquarters within its city limits . The Port of Houston ranks first in the United States in international waterborne tonnage handled and second in total cargo tonnage handled . Nicknamed the " Space City " , Houston is a global city , with strengths in business , international trade , entertainment , culture , media , fashion , science , sports , technology , education , medicine , and research . The city has a population from various ethnic and religious backgrounds and a large and growing international community . Houston is the most diverse city in Texas and has been described as the most diverse in the United States . It is home to many cultural institutions and exhibits , which attract more than 7 million visitors a year to the Museum District . Houston has an active visual and performing arts scene in the Theater District and offers year @-@ round resident companies in all major performing arts . = = History = = In August 1836 , two real estate entrepreneurs from New York — Augustus Chapman Allen and John Kirby Allen — purchased 6 @,@ 642 acres ( 26 @.@ 88 km2 ) of land along Buffalo Bayou with the intent of founding a city . The Allen brothers decided to name the city after Sam Houston , the popular general at the Battle of San Jacinto , who was elected President of Texas in September 1836 . The great majority of slaves in Texas came with their owners from the older slave states . Sizable numbers , however , came through the domestic slave trade . New Orleans was the center of this trade in the Deep South , but slave dealers were in Houston . Thousands of enslaved African Americans lived near the city before the Civil War . Many of them near the city worked on sugar and cotton plantations , while most of those in the city limits had domestic and artisan jobs . In 1860 , 49 % of the city 's population was enslaved . A few slaves , perhaps as many as 2 @,@ 000 between 1835 and 1865 , came through the illegal African trade . Post @-@ war Texas grew rapidly as migrants poured into the cotton lands ; they also brought or purchased enslaved African Americans , whose numbers nearly tripled in the state from 1850 to 1860 , from 58 @,@ 000 to 182 @,@ 566 . Houston was granted incorporation on June 5 , 1837 , with James S. Holman becoming its first mayor . In the same year , Houston became the county seat of Harrisburg County ( now Harris County ) and the temporary capital of the Republic of Texas . In 1840 , the community established a chamber of commerce in part to promote shipping and waterborne business at the newly created port on Buffalo Bayou . By 1860 , Houston had emerged as a commercial and railroad hub for the export of cotton . Railroad spurs from the Texas inland converged in Houston , where they met rail lines to the ports of Galveston and Beaumont . During the American Civil War , Houston served as a headquarters for General John Bankhead Magruder , who used the city as an organization point for the Battle of Galveston . After the Civil War , Houston businessmen initiated efforts to widen the city 's extensive system of bayous so the city could accept more commerce between downtown and the nearby port of Galveston . By 1890 , Houston was the railroad center of Texas . In 1900 , after Galveston was struck by a devastating hurricane , efforts to make Houston into a viable deep @-@ water port were accelerated . The following year , oil discovered at the Spindletop oil field near Beaumont prompted the development of the Texas petroleum industry . In 1902 , President Theodore Roosevelt approved a $ 1 million improvement project for the Houston Ship Channel . By 1910 , the city 's population had reached 78 @,@ 800 , almost doubling from a decade before . African Americans formed a large part of the city 's population , numbering 23 @,@ 929 people , or nearly one @-@ third of the residents . President Woodrow Wilson opened the deep @-@ water Port of Houston in 1914 , seven years after digging began . By 1930 , Houston had become Texas ' most populous city and Harris County the most populous county . In 1940 , the Census Bureau reported Houston 's population as 77 @.@ 5 % white and 22 @.@ 4 % black . When World War II started , tonnage levels at the port decreased and shipping activities were suspended ; however , the war did provide economic benefits for the city . Petrochemical refineries and manufacturing plants were constructed along the ship channel because of the demand for petroleum and synthetic rubber products by the defense industry during the war . Ellington Field , initially built during World War I , was revitalized as an advanced training center for bombardiers and navigators . The Brown Shipbuilding Company was founded in 1942 to build ships for the U.S. Navy during World War II . Due to the boom in defense jobs , thousands of new workers migrated to the city , both blacks and whites competing for the higher @-@ paying jobs . President Roosevelt had established a policy of nondiscrimination for defense contractors , and blacks gained some opportunities , especially in shipbuilding , although not without resistance from whites and increasing social tensions that erupted into occasional violence . Economic gains of blacks who entered defense industries continued in the postwar years . In 1945 , the M.D. Anderson Foundation formed the Texas Medical Center . After the war , Houston 's economy reverted to being primarily port @-@ driven . In 1948 , the city annexed several unincorporated areas , more than doubling its size . Houston proper began to spread across the region . In 1950 , the availability of air conditioning provided impetus for many companies to relocate to Houston , where wages were lower than the North ; this resulted in an economic boom and produced a key shift in the city 's economy toward the energy sector . The increased production of the expanded shipbuilding industry during World War II spurred Houston 's growth , as did the establishment in 1961 of NASA 's " Manned Spacecraft Center " ( renamed the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in 1973 ) . This was the stimulus for the development of the city 's aerospace industry . The Astrodome , nicknamed the " Eighth Wonder of the World " , opened in 1965 as the world 's first indoor domed sports stadium . During the late 1970s , Houston had a population boom as people from the Rust Belt states moved to Texas in large numbers . The new residents came for numerous employment opportunities in the petroleum industry , created as a result of the Arab oil embargo . With the increase in professional jobs , Houston has become a destination for many college @-@ educated persons , including African Americans in a reverse Great Migration from northern areas . One wave of the population boom ended abruptly in the mid @-@ 1980s , as oil prices fell precipitously . The space industry also suffered in 1986 after the Space Shuttle Challenger disintegrated shortly after launch . A cutback in some activities existed for a period . In the late 1980s , the city 's economy suffered from the nationwide recession . After the early 1990s recession , Houston made efforts to diversify its economy by focusing on aerospace and health care / biotechnology , and reduced its dependence on the petroleum industry . Since the increase of oil prices in the 2000s , the petroleum industry has again increased its share of the local economy . In 1997 , Houstonians elected Lee P. Brown as the city 's first African American mayor . In June 2001 , Tropical Storm Allison dumped up to 40 inches ( 1 @,@ 000 mm ) of rain on parts of Houston , causing the worst flooding in the city 's history . The storm cost billions of dollars in damage and killed 20 people in Texas . By December of that same year , Houston @-@ based energy company Enron collapsed into the third @-@ largest ever U.S. bankruptcy during an investigation surrounding fabricated partnerships that were allegedly used to hide debt and inflate profits . In August 2005 , Houston became a shelter to more than 150 @,@ 000 people from New Orleans , who evacuated from Hurricane Katrina . One month later , about 2 @.@ 5 million Houston @-@ area residents evacuated when Hurricane Rita approached the Gulf Coast , leaving little damage to the Houston area . This was the largest urban evacuation in the history of the United States . In September 2008 , Houston was hit by Hurricane Ike . As many as 40 % refused to leave Galveston Island because they feared the traffic problems that happened after Hurricane Rita . During the floods in 2015 and 2016 , parts of the city were covered in several inches of water . On 31 May 2016 , several cities experienced record setting flooding . = = Geography = = Houston is located 165 miles ( 266 km ) east of Austin , 112 miles ( 180 km ) west of the Louisiana border , and 250 miles ( 400 km ) south of Dallas . According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 656 @.@ 3 square miles ( 1 @,@ 700 km2 ) ; this comprises 634 @.@ 0 square miles ( 1 @,@ 642 km2 ) of land and 22 @.@ 3 square miles ( 58 km2 ) covered by water . The Piney Woods are north of Houston . Most of Houston is located on the gulf coastal plain , and its vegetation is classified as temperate grassland and forest . Much of the city was built on forested land , marshes , swamp , or prairie which resembles the Deep South , and are all still visible in surrounding areas . The flatness of the local terrain , when combined with urban sprawl , has made flooding a recurring problem for the city . Downtown stands about 50 feet ( 15 m ) above sea level , and the highest point in far northwest Houston is about 125 feet ( 38 m ) in elevation . The city once relied on groundwater for its needs , but land subsidence forced the city to turn to ground @-@ level water sources such as Lake Houston , Lake Conroe , and Lake Livingston . The city owns surface water rights for 1 @.@ 20 billion gallons of water a day in addition to 150 million gallons a day of groundwater . Houston has four major bayous passing through the city . Buffalo Bayou runs through downtown and the Houston Ship Channel , and has three tributaries : White Oak Bayou , which runs through the Houston Heights community northwest of Downtown and then towards Downtown ; Brays Bayou , which runs along the Texas Medical Center ; and Sims Bayou , which runs through the south of Houston and downtown Houston . The ship channel continues past Galveston and then into the Gulf of Mexico . = = = Geology = = = Underpinning Houston 's land surface are unconsolidated clays , clay shales , and poorly cemented sands up to several miles deep . The region 's geology developed from river deposits formed from the erosion of the Rocky Mountains . These sediments consist of a series of sands and clays deposited on decaying organic marine matter , that over time , transformed into oil and natural gas . Beneath the layers of sediment is a water @-@ deposited layer of halite , a rock salt . The porous layers were compressed over time and forced upward . As it pushed upward , the salt dragged surrounding sediments into salt dome formations , often trapping oil and gas that seeped from the surrounding porous sands . The thick , rich , sometimes black , surface soil is suitable for rice farming in suburban outskirts where the city continues to grow . The Houston area has over 150 active faults ( estimated to be 300 active faults ) with an aggregate length of up to 310 miles ( 500 km ) , including the Long Point – Eureka Heights fault system which runs through the center of the city . No significant historically recorded earthquakes have occurred in Houston , but researchers do not discount the possibility of such quakes having occurred in the deeper past , nor occurring in the future . Land in some areas southeast of Houston is sinking because water has been pumped out of the ground for many years . It may be associated with slip along the faults ; however , the slippage is slow and not considered an earthquake , where stationary faults must slip suddenly enough to create seismic waves . These faults also tend to move at a smooth rate in what is termed " fault creep " , which further reduces the risk of an earthquake . = = = Climate = = = Houston 's climate is classified as humid subtropical ( Cfa in the Köppen climate classification system ) , typical of the lower South . While not located in " Tornado Alley " , like much of the rest of Texas , spring supercell thunderstorms sometimes bring tornadoes to the area . Prevailing winds are from the south and southeast during most of the year , which bring heat and moisture from the nearby Gulf of Mexico . During the summer , temperatures commonly reach over 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) , with an average of 106 @.@ 5 days per year , including a majority from June to September , with a high of 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) or above and 4 @.@ 6 days at or over 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) . However , humidity usually yields a higher heat index . Summer mornings average over 90 % relative humidity . Winds are often light in the summer and offer little relief , except in the far southeastern outskirts near the Gulf Coast and Galveston . To cope with the strong humidity and heat , people use air conditioning in nearly every vehicle and building . In 1980 , Houston was described as the " most air @-@ conditioned place on earth " . Officially , the hottest temperature ever recorded in Houston is 109 ° F ( 43 ° C ) , which was reached both on September 4 , 2000 , and August 28 , 2011 . Houston has mild winters in contrast to most areas of the United States . In January , the normal mean temperature at Intercontinental Airport is 53 @.@ 1 ° F ( 11 @.@ 7 ° C ) , while that station has an average of 13 days with a low at or below freezing . Snowfall is rare . Recent snow events in Houston include a storm on December 24 , 2004 when 1 @.@ 0 in ( 2 @.@ 5 cm ) of snow accumulated in parts of the metro area . Falls of at least 1 @.@ 0 in ( 25 mm ) on both December 10 , 2008 , and December 4 , 2009 , marked the first time measurable snowfall had occurred in two consecutive years in the city 's recorded history . The coldest temperature officially recorded in Houston was 5 ° F ( − 15 ° C ) on January 18 , 1930 . Houston has historically received an ample amount of rainfall , averaging about 49 @.@ 8 in ( 1 @,@ 260 mm ) annually per 1981 – 2010 normals . Localized flooding often occurs , owing to the extremely flat topography and widespread typical clay @-@ silt prairie soils , which do not drain quickly . Houston has excessive ozone levels and is routinely ranked among the most ozone @-@ polluted cities in the United States . Ground @-@ level ozone , or smog , is Houston 's predominant air pollution problem , with the American Lung Association rating the metropolitan area 's ozone level sixth on the " Top 10 Most Ozone @-@ Polluted Cities " in 2014 . The industries located along the ship channel are a major cause of the city 's air pollution . In 2006 , Houston 's air quality was comparable to that of Los Angeles . = = = Cityscape = = = Houston was incorporated in 1837 under the ward system of representation . The ward designation is the progenitor of the 11 current @-@ day geographically oriented Houston City Council districts . Locations in Houston are generally classified as either being inside or outside the Interstate 610 Loop . The inside encompasses the central business district and many residential neighborhoods that antedate World War II . More recently , high @-@ density residential areas have been developed within the loop . The city 's outlying areas , suburbs , and enclaves are located outside of the loop . Beltway 8 encircles the city another 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) farther out . Though Houston is the largest city in the United States without formal zoning regulations , it has developed similarly to other Sun Belt cities because the city 's land use regulations and legal covenants have played a similar role . Regulations include mandatory lot size for single @-@ family houses and requirements that parking be available to tenants and customers . Such restrictions have had mixed results . Though some have blamed the city 's low density , urban sprawl , and lack of pedestrian @-@ friendliness on these policies , the city 's land use has also been credited with having significant affordable housing , sparing Houston the worst effects of the 2008 real estate crisis . The city issued 42 @,@ 697 building permits in 2008 and was ranked first in the list of healthiest housing markets for 2009 . Voters rejected efforts to have separate residential and commercial land @-@ use districts in 1948 , 1962 , and 1993 . Consequently , rather than a single central business district as the center of the city 's employment , multiple districts have grown throughout the city in addition to downtown which include Uptown , Texas Medical Center , Midtown , Greenway Plaza , Memorial City , Energy Corridor , Westchase , and Greenspoint . = = = Architecture = = = Houston has the fourth @-@ tallest skyline in North America ( after New York City , Chicago , and Toronto ) and 12th @-@ tallest in the world , as of 2014 . A seven @-@ mile ( 11 km ) system of tunnels and skywalks links downtown buildings containing shops and restaurants , enabling pedestrians to avoid summer heat and rain while walking between buildings . In the 1960s , Downtown Houston consisted of a collection of midrise office structures . Downtown was on the threshold of an energy industry – led boom in 1970 . A succession of skyscrapers was built throughout the 1970s — many by real estate developer Gerald D. Hines — culminating with Houston 's tallest skyscraper , the 75 @-@ floor , 1 @,@ 002 @-@ foot ( 305 m ) -tall JPMorgan Chase Tower ( formerly the Texas Commerce Tower ) , completed in 1982 . It is the tallest structure in Texas , 15th tallest building in the United States , and the 85th @-@ tallest skyscraper in the world , based on highest architectural feature . In 1983 , the 71 @-@ floor , 992 @-@ foot ( 302 m ) -tall Wells Fargo Plaza ( formerly Allied Bank Plaza ) was completed , becoming the second @-@ tallest building in Houston and Texas . Based on highest architectural feature , it is the 17th @-@ tallest in the United States and the 95th @-@ tallest in the world . In 2007 , downtown Houston had over 43 million square feet ( 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m ² ) of office space . Centered on Post Oak Boulevard and Westheimer Road , the Uptown District boomed during the 1970s and early 1980s when a collection of midrise office buildings , hotels , and retail developments appeared along Interstate 610 West . Uptown became one of the most prominent instances of an edge city . The tallest building in Uptown is the 64 @-@ floor , 901 @-@ foot ( 275 m ) -tall , Philip Johnson and John Burgee designed landmark Williams Tower ( known as the Transco Tower until 1999 ) . At the time of construction , it was believed to be the world 's tallest skyscraper outside of a central business district . The new 20 @-@ story Skanska building and BBVA Compass Plaza are the newest office buildings built in Uptown after 30 years . The Uptown District is also home to buildings designed by noted architects I. M. Pei , César Pelli , and Philip Johnson . In the late 1990s and early 2000s , a mini @-@ boom of midrise and highrise residential tower construction occurred , with several over 30 stories tall . Since 2000 more than 30 high @-@ rise buildings have gone up in Houston ; all told , 72 high @-@ rises tower over the city , which adds up to about 8 @,@ 300 units . In 2002 , Uptown had more than 23 million square feet ( 2 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 m ² ) of office space with 16 million square feet ( 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 m ² ) of class A office space . = = Demographics = = Houston is multicultural , in part because of its many academic institutions and strong industries , as well as being a major port city . Over 90 languages are spoken in the city . It has among the youngest populations in the nation , partly due to an influx of immigrants into Texas . An estimated 400 @,@ 000 undocumented immigrants reside in the Houston area . According to the 2010 Census , Whites made up 51 % of Houston 's population ; 26 % of the total population was non @-@ Hispanic Whites . Blacks or African Americans made up 25 % of Houston 's population . American Indians made up 0 @.@ 7 % of the population . Asians made up 6 % ( 1 @.@ 7 % Vietnamese , 1 @.@ 3 % Chinese , 1 @.@ 3 % Indian , 0 @.@ 9 % Pakistani , 0 @.@ 4 % Filipino , 0 @.@ 3 % Korean , 0 @.@ 1 % Japanese ) , while Pacific Islanders made up 0 @.@ 1 % . Individuals from some other race made up 15 @.@ 2 % of the city 's population , of which 0 @.@ 2 % were non @-@ Hispanic . Individuals from two or more races made up 3 @.@ 3 % of the city . At the 2000 Census , 1 @,@ 953 @,@ 631 people inhabited the city , and the population density was 3 @,@ 371 @.@ 7 people per square mile ( 1 @,@ 301 @.@ 8 / km ² ) . The racial makeup of the city was 49 @.@ 3 % White , 25 @.@ 3 % African American , 5 @.@ 3 % Asian , 0 @.@ 7 % American Indian , 0 @.@ 1 % Pacific Islander , 16 @.@ 5 % from some other race , and 3 @.@ 1 % from two or more races . In addition , Hispanics made up 37 @.@ 4 % of Houston 's population , while non @-@ Hispanic Whites made up 30 @.@ 8 % , down from 62 @.@ 4 % in 1970 . The median income for a household in the city was $ 37 @,@ 000 , and for a family was $ 40 @,@ 000 . Males had a median income of $ 32 @,@ 000 versus $ 27 @,@ 000 for females . The per capita income was $ 20 @,@ 000 . About 19 % of the population and 16 % of families were below the poverty line . Of the total population , 26 % of those under the age of 18 and 14 % of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line . According to a 2014 study by the Pew Research Center , 73 % of the population of the city identified themselves as Christians , with 50 % professing attendance at a variety of churches that could be considered Protestant , and 19 % professing Roman Catholic beliefs. while 20 % claim no religious affiliation . The same study says that other religions ( including Judaism , Buddhism , Islam , and Hinduism ) collectively make up about 7 % of the population = = Economy = = Houston is recognized worldwide for its energy industry — particularly for oil and natural gas — as well as for biomedical research and aeronautics . Renewable energy sources — wind and solar — are also growing economic bases in the city . The Houston Ship Channel is also a large part of Houston 's economic base . Because of these strengths , Houston is designated as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network and global management consulting firm A.T. Kearney . The Houston area is the top U.S. market for exports , surpassing New York City in 2013 , according to data released by the U.S. Department of Commerce 's International Trade Administration . In 2012 , the Houston – The Woodlands – Sugar Land area recorded $ 110 @.@ 3 billion in merchandise exports . Petroleum products , chemicals , and oil and gas extraction equipment accounted for roughly two @-@ thirds of the metropolitan area 's exports last year . The top three destinations for exports were Mexico , Canada , and Brazil . The Houston area is a leading center for building oilfield equipment . Much of its success as a petrochemical complex is due to its busy ship channel , the Port of Houston . In the United States , the port ranks first in international commerce and 10th among the largest ports in the world . Unlike most places , high oil and gasoline prices are beneficial for Houston 's economy , as many of its residents are employed in the energy industry . Houston is the beginning or end point of numerous oil , gas , and products pipelines : The Houston – The Woodlands – Sugar Land MSA 's gross domestic product ( GDP ) in 2012 was $ 489 billion , making it the fourth @-@ largest of any metropolitan area in the United States and larger than Austria 's , Venezuela 's , or South Africa 's GDP . Only 26 countries other than the United States have a gross domestic product exceeding Houston 's regional gross area product ( GAP ) . In 2010 , mining ( which consists almost entirely of exploration and production of oil and gas in Houston ) accounted for 26 @.@ 3 % of Houston 's GAP up sharply in response to high energy prices and a decreased worldwide surplus of oil production capacity , followed by engineering services , health services , and manufacturing . The University of Houston System 's annual impact on the Houston area 's economy equates to that of a major corporation : $ 1 @.@ 1 billion in new funds attracted annually to the Houston area , $ 3 @.@ 13 billion in total economic benefit , and 24 @,@ 000 local jobs generated . This is in addition to the 12 @,@ 500 new graduates the U.H. System produces every year who enter the workforce in Houston and throughout the state of Texas . These degree @-@ holders tend to stay in Houston . After five years , 80 @.@ 5 % of graduates are still living and working in the region . In 2006 , the Houston metropolitan area ranked first in Texas and third in the U.S. within the category of " Best Places for Business and Careers " by Forbes magazine . Foreign governments have established 92 consular offices in Houston 's metropolitan area , the third @-@ highest in the nation . Forty foreign governments maintain trade and commercial offices here with 23 active foreign chambers of commerce and trade associations . Twenty @-@ five foreign banks representing 13 nations operate in Houston , providing financial assistance to the international community . In 2008 , Houston received top ranking on Kiplinger 's Personal Finance Best Cities of 2008 list , which ranks cities on their local economy , employment opportunities , reasonable living costs , and quality of life . The city ranked fourth for highest increase in the local technological innovation over the preceding 15 years , according to Forbes magazine . In the same year , the city ranked second on the annual Fortune 500 list of company headquarters , first for Forbes magazine 's Best Cities for College Graduates , and first on their list of Best Cities to Buy a Home . In 2010 , the city was rated the best city for shopping , according to Forbes . In 2012 , the city was ranked number one for paycheck worth by Forbes and in late May 2013 , Houston was identified as America 's top city for employment creation . In 2013 , Houston was identified as the number one U.S. city for job creation by the U.S. Bureau of Statistics after it was not only the first major city to regain all the jobs lost in the preceding economic downturn , but also after the crash , more than two jobs were added for every one lost . Economist and vice president of research at the Greater Houston Partnership Patrick Jankowski attributed Houston 's success to the ability of the region 's real estate and energy industries to learn from historical mistakes . Furthermore , Jankowski stated that " more than 100 foreign @-@ owned companies relocated , expanded or started new businesses in Houston " between 2008 and 2010 , and this openness to external business boosted job creation during a period when domestic demand was problematically low . Also in 2013 , Houston again appeared on Forbes ' list of Best Places for Business and Careers . = = Culture = = Located in the American South , Houston is a diverse city with a large and growing international community . The metropolitan area is home to an estimated 1 @.@ 1 million ( 21 @.@ 4 percent ) residents who were born outside the United States , with nearly two @-@ thirds of the area 's foreign @-@ born population from south of the United States – Mexico border . Additionally , more than one in five foreign @-@ born residents are from Asia . The city is home to the nation 's third @-@ largest concentration of consular offices , representing 86 countries . Many annual events celebrate the diverse cultures of Houston . The largest and longest @-@ running is the annual Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo , held over 20 days from early to late March , and is the largest annual livestock show and rodeo in the world . Another large celebration is the annual night @-@ time Houston Pride Parade , held at the end of June . Other annual events include the Houston Greek Festival , Art Car Parade , the Houston Auto Show , the Houston International Festival , and the Bayou City Art Festival , which is considered to be one of the top five art festivals in the United States . Houston received the official nickname of " Space City " in 1967 because it is the location of NASA 's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center . Other nicknames often used by locals include " Bayou City " , " Clutch City " , " Magnolia City " , " New Houston " ( a tribute to the cultural contributions of New Orleans natives who left their city during the 2005 Hurricane Katrina catastrophe ) , and " H @-@ Town " . = = = Arts and theater = = = The Houston Theater District , located downtown , is home to nine major performing arts organizations and six performance halls . It is the second @-@ largest concentration of theater seats in a downtown area in the United States . Houston is one of few United States cities with permanent , professional , resident companies in all major performing arts disciplines : opera ( Houston Grand Opera ) , ballet ( Houston Ballet ) , music ( Houston Symphony Orchestra ) , and theater ( The Alley Theatre , Theatre Under the Stars ) . Houston is also home to folk artists , art groups and various small progressive arts organizations . Houston attracts many touring Broadway acts , concerts , shows , and exhibitions for a variety of interests . Facilities in the Theater District include the Jones Hall — home of the Houston Symphony Orchestra and Society for the Performing Arts — and the Hobby Center for the Performing Arts . The Museum District 's cultural institutions and exhibits attract more than 7 million visitors a year . Notable facilities include The Museum of Fine Arts , Houston Museum of Natural Science , the Contemporary Arts Museum Houston , the Station Museum of Contemporary Art , Holocaust Museum Houston , and the Houston Zoo . Located near the Museum District are The Menil Collection , Rothko Chapel , and the Byzantine Fresco Chapel Museum . Bayou Bend is a 14 @-@ acre ( 5 @.@ 7 ha ) facility of the Museum of Fine Arts that houses one of America 's best collections of decorative art , paintings , and furniture . Bayou Bend is the former home of Houston philanthropist Ima Hogg . The National Museum of Funeral History is located in Houston near the George Bush Intercontinental Airport . The museum houses the original Popemobile used by Pope John Paul II in the 1980s along with numerous hearses , embalming displays , and information on famous funerals . Venues across Houston regularly host local and touring rock , blues , country , dubstep , and Tejano musical acts . While Houston has never been widely known for its music scene , Houston hip @-@ hop has become a significant , independent music scene that is influential nationwide . = = = Tourism and recreation = = = The Theater District is a 17 @-@ block area in the center of downtown Houston that is home to the Bayou Place entertainment complex , restaurants , movies , plazas , and parks . Bayou Place is a large multilevel building containing full @-@ service restaurants , bars , live music , billiards , and Sundance Cinema . The Bayou Music Center stages live concerts , stage plays , and stand @-@ up comedy . Space Center Houston is the official visitors ' center of NASA 's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center . The Space Center has many interactive exhibits including moon rocks , a shuttle simulator , and presentations about the history of NASA 's manned space flight program . Other tourist attractions include the Galleria ( Texas 's largest shopping mall , located in the Uptown District ) , Old Market Square , the Downtown Aquarium , and Sam Houston Race Park . Of worthy mention are Houston 's current Chinatown and the Mahatma Gandhi District . Both areas offer a picturesque view of Houston 's multicultural makeup . Restaurants , bakeries , traditional @-@ clothing boutiques , and specialty shops can be found in both areas . Houston is home to 337 parks , including Hermann Park , Terry Hershey Park , Lake Houston Park , Memorial Park , Tranquility Park , Sesquicentennial Park , Discovery Green , and Sam Houston Park . Within Hermann Park are the Houston Zoo and the Houston Museum of Natural Science . Sam Houston Park contains restored and reconstructed homes which were originally built between 1823 and 1905 . A proposal has been made to open the city 's first botanic garden at Herman Brown Park . Of the 10 most populous U.S. cities , Houston has the most total area of parks and green space , 56 @,@ 405 acres ( 228 km2 ) . The city also has over 200 additional green spaces — totaling over 19 @,@ 600 acres ( 79 km2 ) that are managed by the city — including the Houston Arboretum and Nature Center . The Lee and Joe Jamail Skatepark is a public skatepark owned and operated by the city of Houston , and is one of the largest skateparks in Texas consisting of a 30 @,@ 000 @-@ ft2 ( 2 @,@ 800 m2 ) in @-@ ground facility . The Gerald D. Hines Waterwall Park — located in the Uptown District of the city — serves as a popular tourist attraction and for weddings and various celebrations . A 2011 study by Walk Score ranked Houston the 23rd most walkable of the 50 largest cities in the United States . Wet 'n'Wild SplashTown is a water park located north of Houston . The Bayport Cruise Terminal on the Houston Ship Channel is port of call for both Princess Cruises and Norwegian Cruise Line . = = Sports = = Houston has sports teams for every major professional league except the National Hockey League . The Houston Astros are a Major League Baseball expansion team formed in 1962 ( known as the " Colt .45s " until 1965 ) that made one World Series appearance in 2005 . The Houston Rockets are a National Basketball Association franchise based in the city since 1971 . They have won two NBA Championships : in 1994 and 1995 under star players Hakeem Olajuwon , Otis Thorpe , Clyde Drexler , Vernon Maxwell , and Kenny Smith . The Houston Texans are a National Football League expansion team formed in 2002 . The Houston Dynamo is a Major League Soccer franchise that has been based in Houston since 2006 after it won two MLS Cup titles in 2006 and 2007 . The Houston Dash team plays in the National Women 's Soccer League . The Scrap Yard Dawgs , a women 's professional softball team , are expected to play in the National Pro Fastpitch from 2016 . Minute Maid Park ( home of the Astros ) and Toyota Center ( home of the Rockets ) , are located in downtown Houston . Houston has the NFL 's first retractable @-@ roof stadium with natural grass , NRG Stadium ( home of the Texans ) . Minute Maid Park is also a retractable @-@ roof stadium . Toyota Center also has the largest screen for an indoor arena in the United States built to coincide with the arena 's hosting of the 2013 NBA All @-@ Star Game . BBVA Compass Stadium is a soccer @-@ specific stadium for the Houston Dynamo , the Texas Southern Tigers football team , and Houston Dash , located in East Downtown . In addition , NRG Astrodome was the first indoor stadium in the world , built in 1965 . Other sports facilities include Hofheinz Pavilion ( Houston Cougars basketball ) , Rice Stadium ( Rice Owls football ) , and Reliant Arena . TDECU Stadium is where the University of Houston Houston Cougars football team plays . Houston has hosted several major sports events : the 1968 , 1986 and 2004 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Games ; the 1989 , 2006 and 2013 NBA All @-@ Star Games ; Super Bowl VIII and Super Bowl XXXVIII , as well as hosting the 2005 World Series and 1981 , 1986 , 1994 and 1995 NBA Finals , winning the latter two . Super Bowl LI is currently slated to be hosted in NRG Stadium in 2017 . The city has hosted several major professional and college sporting events , including the annual Houston Open golf tournament . Houston hosts the annual NCAA College Baseball Classic every February and NCAA football 's Texas Bowl in December . The Grand Prix of Houston , an annual auto race on the IndyCar Series circuit is held on a 1 @.@ 7 @-@ mile temporary street circuit in Reliant Park . The October 2013 event was held using a tweaked version of the 2006 – 2007 course . The event has a 5 @-@ year race contract through 2017 with IndyCar . In motorcycling , the Astrodome hosted an AMA Supercross Championship round from 1974 to 2003 and the NRG Stadium since 2003 . = = Government and politics = = The city of Houston has a strong mayoral form of municipal government . Houston is a home rule city and all municipal elections in the state of Texas are nonpartisan . The City 's elected officials are the mayor , city controller and 16 members of the Houston City Council . The current mayor of Houston is Sylvester Turner , a Democrat elected on a nonpartisan ballot . Houston 's mayor serves as the city 's chief administrator , executive officer , and official representative , and is responsible for the general management of the city and for seeing that all laws and ordinances are enforced . The original city council line @-@ up of 14 members ( nine district @-@ based and five at @-@ large positions ) was based on a U.S. Justice Department mandate which took effect in 1979 . At @-@ large council members represent the entire city . Under the city charter , once the population in the city limits exceeded 2 @.@ 1 million residents , two additional districts were to be added . The city of Houston 's official 2010 census count was 600 shy of the required number ; however , as the city was expected to grow beyond 2 @.@ 1 million shortly thereafter , the two additional districts were added for , and the positions filled during , the August 2011 elections . The city controller is elected independently of the mayor and council . The controller 's duties are to certify available funds prior to committing such funds and processing disbursements . The city 's fiscal year begins on July 1 and ends on June 30 . Ronald Green is the city controller , serving his first term as of January 2010 . As the result of a 2015 referendum in Houston , a mayor is elected for a four @-@ year term , and can be elected to as many as two consecutive terms . The term limits were spearheaded by conservative political activist Clymer Wright . The city controller and city council members are also subject to the same two @-@ year , three @-@ term limitations . Houston is considered to be a politically divided city whose balance of power often sways between Republicans and Democrats . Much of the city 's wealthier areas vote Republican while the city 's working class and minority areas vote Democratic . According to the 2005 Houston Area Survey , 68 percent of non @-@ Hispanic whites in Harris County are declared or favor Republicans while 89 percent of non @-@ Hispanic blacks in the area are declared or favor Democrats . About 62 percent Hispanics ( of any race ) in the area are declared or favor Democrats . The city has often been known to be the most politically diverse city in Texas , a state known for being generally conservative . As a result , the city is often a contested area in statewide elections . In 2009 , Houston became the first US city with a population over 1 million citizens to elect a gay mayor , by electing Annise Parker . = = = Crime = = = Houston 's murder rate ranked 46th of U.S. cities with a population over 250 @,@ 000 in 2005 ( per capita rate of 16 @.@ 3 murders per 100 @,@ 000 population ) . In 2010 , the city 's murder rate ( per capita rate of 11 @.@ 8 murders per 100 @,@ 000 population ) was ranked sixth among U.S. cities with a population of over 750 @,@ 000 ( behind New York City , Chicago , Detroit , Dallas , and Philadelphia ) according to the FBI . Murders fell by 37 percent from January to June 2011 , compared with the same period in 2010 . Houston 's total crime rate including violent and nonviolent crimes decreased by 11 percent . Houston is a significant hub for trafficking of cocaine , cannabis , heroin , MDMA , and methamphetamine due to its size and proximity to major illegal drug exporting nations . Houston is one of the country 's largest hubs for human trafficking . In the early 1970s , Houston , Pasadena and several coastal towns were the site of the Houston Mass Murders , which at the time were the deadliest case of serial killing in American history . = = Education = = Seventeen school districts exist within the city of Houston . The Houston Independent School District ( HISD ) is the seventh @-@ largest school district in the United States . HISD has 112 campuses that serve as magnet or vanguard schools — specializing in such disciplines as health professions , visual and performing arts , and the sciences . There are also many charter schools that are run separately from school districts . In addition , some public school districts also have their own charter schools . The Houston area encompasses more than 300 private schools , many of which are accredited by Texas Private School Accreditation Commission recognized agencies . The Houston Area Independent Schools offer education from a variety of different religious as well as secular viewpoints . The Houston area Catholic schools are operated by the Archdiocese of Galveston @-@ Houston . = = = Colleges and universities = = = Four separate and distinct state universities are located in Houston . The University of Houston is a nationally recognized Tier One research university , and is the flagship institution of the University of Houston System . The third @-@ largest university in Texas , the University of Houston has nearly 40 @,@ 000 students on its 667 @-@ acre campus in southeast Houston . The University of Houston – Clear Lake and the University of Houston – Downtown are stand @-@ alone universities ; they are not branch campuses of the University of Houston . Located in the historic community of Third Ward is Texas Southern University , one of the largest historically black colleges and universities in the United States . Several private institutions of higher learning — ranging from liberal arts colleges , such as The University of St. Thomas , Houston 's only Catholic university , to Rice University , the nationally recognized research university — are located within the city . Rice , with a total enrollment of slightly more than 6 @,@ 000 students , has a number of distinguished graduate programs and research institutes , such as the James A. Baker Institute for Public Policy . Houston Baptist University , affiliated with the Baptist General Convention of Texas , offers bachelor 's and graduate degrees . It was founded in 1960 and is located in the Sharpstown area in Southwest Houston . Three community college districts exist with campuses in and around Houston . The Houston Community College System serves most of Houston . The northwestern through northeastern parts of the city are served by various campuses of the Lone Star College System , while the southeastern portion of Houston is served by San Jacinto College , and a northeastern portion is served by Lee College . The Houston Community College and Lone Star College systems are within the 10 largest institutions of higher learning in the United States . = = Media = = The primary network @-@ affiliated television stations are KPRC @-@ TV ( NBC ) , KHOU @-@ TV ( CBS ) , KTRK @-@ TV ( ABC ) , KRIV ( Fox ) , KIAH ( The CW ) , and KTXH ( MyNetworkTV ) . KTRK @-@ TV , KRIV and KTXH operate as owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations of their networks . The Houston – The Woodlands – Sugar Land metropolitan area is served by one public television station and two public radio stations . KUHT ( HoustonPBS ) is a PBS member station and is the first public television station in the United States . Houston Public Radio is listener @-@ funded and comprises two NPR member stations : KUHF ( KUHF News ) and KUHA ( Classical 91 @.@ 7 ) . KUHF is news / talk radio and KUHA is a classical music station . The University of Houston System owns and holds broadcasting licenses to KUHT , KUHF , and KUHA . The stations broadcast from the Melcher Center for Public Broadcasting , located on the campus of the University of Houston . Houston is served by the Houston Chronicle , its only major daily newspaper with wide distribution . The Hearst Corporation , which owns and operates the Houston Chronicle , bought the assets of the Houston Post — its long @-@ time rival and main competition — when Houston Post ceased operations in 1995 . The Houston Post was owned by the family of former Lieutenant Governor Bill Hobby of Houston . The only other major publication to serve the city is the Houston Press — a free alternative weekly with a weekly readership of more than 300 @,@ 000 . = = Infrastructure = = = = = Healthcare = = = Houston is the seat of the internationally renowned Texas Medical Center , which contains the world 's largest concentration of research and healthcare institutions . All 49 member institutions of the Texas Medical Center are non @-@ profit organizations . They provide patient and preventive care , research , education , and local , national , and international community well @-@ being . Employing more than 73 @,@ 600 people , institutions at the medical center include 13 hospitals and two specialty institutions , two medical schools , four nursing schools , and schools of dentistry , public health , pharmacy , and virtually all health @-@ related careers . It is where one of the first — and still the largest — air emergency service , Life Flight , was created , and a very successful inter @-@ institutional transplant program was developed . More heart surgeries are performed at the Texas Medical Center than anywhere else in the world . Some of the academic and research health institutions at the center include MD Anderson Cancer Center , Baylor College of Medicine , UT Health Science Center , Memorial Hermann Hospital , The Methodist Hospital , Texas Children 's Hospital , and University of Houston College of Pharmacy . The Baylor College of Medicine has annually been considered within the top ten medical schools in the nation ; likewise , the MD Anderson Cancer Center has consistently ranked as one of the top two U.S. hospitals specializing in cancer care by U.S. News & World Report since 1990 . The Menninger Clinic , a renowned psychiatric treatment center , is affiliated with Baylor College of Medicine and The Methodist Hospital System . With hospital locations nationwide and headquarters in Houston , the Triumph Healthcare hospital system is the third largest long term acute care provider nationally . = = = Transportation = = = = = = = Highways = = = = 71 @.@ 7 percent of residents drive alone to work . Houston 's freeway system comprises 739 @.@ 3 miles ( 1 @,@ 189 @.@ 8 km ) of freeways and expressways in a ten @-@ county metropolitan area . However , the Texas Transportation Institute 's annual Urban Mobility Report found that Houston had the fourth @-@ worst congestion in the country with commuters spending an average of 58 hours in traffic in 2009 . Houston 's highway system has a hub @-@ and @-@ spoke freeway structure serviced by multiple loops . The innermost loop is Interstate 610 , which encircles downtown , the medical center , and many core neighborhoods with around a 8 @-@ mile ( 13 km ) diameter . Beltway 8 and its freeway core , the Sam Houston Tollway , form the middle loop at a diameter of roughly 23 miles ( 37 km ) . A proposed highway project , State Highway 99 ( Grand Parkway ) , will form a third loop outside of Houston , totaling 180 miles in length and making an almost @-@ complete circumference , with the exception of crossing the ship channel . As of June 2014 , two of eleven segments of State Highway 99 have been completed to the west of Houston , and three northern segments totaling 38 miles . In addition to the Sam Houston Tollway loop mentioned above , the Harris County Toll Road Authority currently operates four spoke tollways : The Katy Managed Lanes of Interstate 10 , the Hardy Toll Road , the Westpark Tollway , and the Fort Bend Parkway Extension . Other spoke roads either planned or under construction include Crosby Freeway , and the future Alvin Freeway . Houston 's freeway system is monitored by Houston TranStar — a partnership of four government agencies that are responsible for providing transportation and emergency management services to the region . = = = = Transit systems = = = = The Metropolitan Transit Authority of Harris County ( METRO ) provides public transportation in the form of buses , light rail , and lift vans . METRO began light rail service on January 1 , 2004 , with the inaugural track ( " Red Line " ) running about 8 miles ( 13 km ) from the University of Houston – Downtown ( UHD ) , which traverses through the Texas Medical Center and terminates at NRG Park . METRO is currently in the design phase of a 10 @-@ year expansion plan that will add five more lines. and expand the current Red Line . Amtrak , the national passenger rail system , provides service three times a week to Houston via the Sunset Limited ( Los Angeles – New Orleans ) , which stops at a train station on the north side of the downtown area . The station saw 14 @,@ 891 boardings and alightings in fiscal year 2008 . In 2012 , there was a 25 percent increase in ridership to 20 @,@ 327 passengers embarking from the Houston Amtrak station . = = = = Cycling = = = = Houston has the largest number of bike commuters in Texas with over 160 miles of dedicated bikeways . The city is currently in the process of expanding its on and off street bikeway network . A new Bicycle sharing system known as Houston B @-@ Cycle currently operates 29 different stations in downtown and neighboring areas = = = = Airports = = = = Houston is served by three airports , two of which are commercial that served 52 million passengers in 2007 and managed by the Houston Airport System . The Federal Aviation Administration and the state of Texas selected the " Houston Airport System as Airport of the Year " for 2005 , largely because of its multi @-@ year , $ 3 @.@ 1 billion airport improvement program for both major airports in Houston . The primary city airport is George Bush Intercontinental Airport ( IAH ) , the tenth @-@ busiest in the United States for total passengers , and twenty eighth @-@ busiest worldwide . Bush Intercontinental currently ranks fourth in the United States for non @-@ stop domestic and international service with 182 destinations . In 2006 , the United States Department of Transportation named IAH the fastest @-@ growing of the top ten airports in the United States . The Houston Air Route Traffic Control Center stands on the George Bush Intercontinental Airport grounds . Houston was the headquarters of Continental Airlines until its 2010 merger with United Airlines with headquarters in Chicago ; regulatory approval for the merger was granted in October of that year . Bush Intercontinental became United Airlines ' largest airline hub . The airline retained a significant operational presence in Houston while offering more than 700 daily departures from the city . In early 2007 , Bush Intercontinental Airport was named a model " port of entry " for international travelers by U.S. Customs and Border Protection . The second @-@ largest commercial airport is William P. Hobby Airport ( named Houston International Airport until 1967 ) which operates primarily short- to medium @-@ haul domestic flights . However , in 2015 Southwest Airlines launched service from a new international terminal at Hobby airport to several destinations in Mexico , Central America , and the Caribbean . These were the first international flights flown from Hobby since 1969 . Houston 's aviation history is showcased in the 1940 Air Terminal Museum located in the old terminal building on the west side of the airport . Hobby Airport has been recognized with two awards for being one of the top five performing airports in the world and for customer service by Airports Council International . Houston 's third municipal airport is Ellington Airport ( a former U.S. Air Force base ) used by military , government , NASA , and general aviation sectors . = = Sister cities = = The Houston Office of Protocol and International Affairs is the city 's liaison to Houston 's sister cities and to the national governing organization , Sister Cities International . Through their official city @-@ to @-@ city relationships , these volunteer associations promote people @-@ to @-@ people diplomacy and encourage citizens to develop mutual trust and understanding through commercial , cultural , educational , and humanitarian exchanges .
= Vädersolstavlan = Vädersolstavlan ( Swedish for " The Sun Dog Painting " ) is an oil @-@ on @-@ panel painting depicting a halo display , an atmospheric optical phenomenon , observed over Stockholm on April 20 , 1535 . It is named after the sun dogs ( Swedish : Vädersol , " Weather sun " ) appearing on the upper right part of the painting . While chiefly noted for being the oldest depiction of Stockholm in colour , it is arguably also the oldest Swedish landscape painting and the oldest depiction of sun dogs . The original painting , which was produced shortly after the event and traditionally attributed to Urban målare ( " Urban [ the ] Painter " ) , is lost , and virtually nothing is known about it . However , a copy from 1636 by Jacob Heinrich Elbfas held in Storkyrkan in Stockholm , is believed to be an accurate copy and was until recently erroneously thought to be the restored original . It was previously covered by layers of brownish varnish , and the image was hardly discernible until carefully restored and thoroughly documented in 1998 – 1999 . The painting was produced during an important time in Swedish history . The establishment of modern Sweden coincided with the introduction of Protestantism and the break @-@ up with Denmark and the Kalmar Union . The painting was commissioned by the Swedish reformer Olaus Petri , and the resulting controversies between him and King Gustav Vasa and the historical context remained a well @-@ kept secret for centuries . During the 20th century the painting became an icon for the history of Stockholm , and it is now frequently displayed whenever the history of the city is commemorated . = = Painting = = The painting is divided into an upper part depicting the halo phenomenon viewed vertically and a lower part depicting the city as it must have appeared viewed from Södermalm in the late Middle Ages . The medieval urban conglomeration , today part of the old town Gamla stan , is rendered using a bird 's @-@ eye view . The stone and brick buildings are densely packed below the church and castle , which are rendered in a descriptive perspective ( i.e. , their size relates to their social status , rather than their actual dimensions ) . Scattered wooden structures appear on the surrounding rural ridges , today part of central Stockholm . Though the phenomenon is said to have occurred in the morning , the city is depicted in the evening with shadows facing east . The wooden panel measures 163 by 110 centimetres ( 64 by 43 inches ) and is composed of five vertical deals ( softwood planks ) reinforced by two horizontal dovetail battens . The battens , together with the rough scrub planed back , have effectively reduced warping to a minimum and the artwork is well preserved , with only insignificant fissures and attacks by insects . A dendrochronological examination of the panel by doctor Peter Klein at the Institute für Holzbiologie in Hamburg determined that it is made of pine deals ( Pinus silvestris ) , the annual rings of which date from various periods ranging from the 1480s to around 1618 . The painting can therefore date no further back than around 1620 . This is consistent with the year 1636 given on the frame and mentioned in the parish accounts . The dye , covering a semi @-@ transparent red @-@ brownish bottom layer , is emulsion paint containing linseed oil . The painting was apparently painted detail by detail as no under @-@ painting or preparatory sketches have been discovered , except for marks at the centres of the biggest circles indicating that compasses were used . As a result of this , the horizon tilts to the right ; an x @-@ ray analysis has shown that the painter tried to compensate for this tilt by altering various elements in the painting , including mountains added along the horizon and the gently leaning spires of the church and the castle . A narrow unpainted border has been left around the image . = = = Possible prototypes = = = No prototypes for the painting are known in Sweden , and while the painting is occasionally associated with the Danube school , much about its stylistic and iconographic history remains to be investigated . A possible stylistic prototype is the illustrated Bible of Erhard Altdorfer ( brother of the more famous Albrecht Altdorfer ) . Begun in 1530 , it was inspired by the works of Cranach and Dürer , but also renewed the genre by combining commonplace details with an undertone of approaching disaster . In particular , Altdorfer 's apocalyptic illustrations for the Revelation to John deliver an evangelic message similar to that of the Vädersolstavlan . Historical documents show that Olaus Petri , who commissioned the painting , combined biblical quotations related to the Apocalypse with the painting hanging in the church . Copies of Erhard Altdorfer 's apocalyptic woodcuts may have been available in Stockholm through the German merchant Gorius Holste who lived by Järntorget square and who was a friend of both Petri and Martin Luther . In Albrecht Altdorfer 's The Battle of Alexander at Issus , one of the most famous paintings produced by the Danube School , a composition similar to Vädersolstavlan renders the battle scene in a detailed landscape under a sky crowded with celestial symbols and messages . Just as in Vädersolstavlan , the view is not depicted as it would really appear , but is rather a composite of factual elements as known by the artist . In The Battle of Alexander at Issus the eastern Mediterranean Sea , Africa , and the Nile River are represented as known from contemporary maps , while the knights and soldiers are dressed in 16th century armours and the battle is depicted as retold in sources from Antiquity . The frame suspended over the scene , a device which appears in many other German Renaissance battle scenes , is mirrored by the 17th century inscription in Vädersolstavlan . In both paintings , Apocalyptic symbols in the sky are given a contemporary political significance . The realistically rendered sky , light , and clouds , in both paintings , are emblematic of the Danube School . = = = 17th @-@ century copy and modern restorations = = = The lost original painting is attributed to Urban Målare by tradition . However , historical sources and other works of art from the early Vasa Era are rare , and this attribution is apparently doubtful . Furthermore , as the extant painting has proven to be a 17th @-@ century copy , and not as previously believed a restored original , a credible corroboration is unlikely to ever be produced . In the parish accounts , the painting is first mentioned in 1636 , at which time a " M. Jacob Conterfeyer " was recorded as having " renewed the painting hanging on the northern wall " . Modern scholarship has convincingly identified Jacob Heinrich Elbfas ( 1600 – 1664 ) , guild master from 1628 and court painter of Queen Maria Eleonora from 1634 , as the artist responsible . Based on the brief note referencing the painting 's " renewal " in 1636 , it was long assumed that the extant painting was in fact the original from 1535 , and that the work performed on it in the 17th century was little more than restoration of some kind . However , when the painting was taken down in mid @-@ October 1998 to allow a group of experts from various fields to restore and document it , this notion had to be completely reassessed . A dendrochronological investigation showed that the wood used for the panel came from trees cut down in the early 17th century : the painting in question must therefore be a copy and not the restored original . Notwithstanding the excellent state of the wooden panel prior to its 1998 restoration , the painting was unevenly covered with layers of dust and yellowed varnish . This was particularly pronounced in the area of the sky , obscuring many fine details and altering this area 's colouring . Once these layers were removed , it was discovered that the original grey @-@ blue sky had been repainted with broad strokes of a deep blue dye mixed with a fixing agent . An analysis of the blue pigments in the painting showed that the original blue colour , still discernible as a bright line above the horizon , was composed of azurite , while the blue pigment in more superficial layers was true ultramarine or lapis lazuli . The ultramarine layer has been identified as prussian blue , a pigment which was favoured from the early 18th century onwards . Additional alteration of the painting is well attested in parish accounts ; the painting was " varnished and somewhat restored " by the painter Aline Bernard ( 1841 – 1910 ) in 1885 , and a second time in 1907 by a Nils Janzon . The latter restoration was probably limited to the addition of a thick layer of varnish . When the painting was thus copied in the 17th century from the 16th @-@ century original , the painting was furnished with a Baroque frame carrying a heart @-@ shaped cartouche . This cartouche displayed the message : in Latin , repeated in Swedish and German . In 1885 , the frame was repainted in brown by Leonard Lindh , who also modernized the Swedish and German texts and added his signature at the lower right . During the 1907 restoration the frame was repainted yet again , only to be repainted in its original colour twenty years later , at which time the original text was also uncovered . = = History = = = = = Background = = = In 1523 , as the newly elected King of Sweden , Gustav Vasa had to unify a kingdom which , unlike a modern nation @-@ state , was composed of separate provinces not necessarily happy with his reign . He also had to prepare for a potential Danish attack , and resist the influence of German states and merchants with an interest in reintroducing the hegemony of the Hanseatic League over the Baltic lands . Facing these challenges , the king saw conspiracies everywhere — sometimes correctly — and started to thoroughly fortify his capital while purging it of potential enemies . Shortly after his coronation , Gustav Vasa heard of the reformatory sermons delivered by Olaus Petri in Strängnäs and called him to Stockholm to have him appointed councillor in 1524 . When Petri announced his marriage the following year , the solemnity of the celebration infuriated Catholic prelates to the extent Petri was excommunicated , while the king , in contrast , gave his unreserved support . Although the king and the reformer collaborated initially , they started to pull in different directions within a few years . As the king carried out the Reformation from 1527 , Catholic churches and monasteries were demolished or used for other purposes . Petri strongly opposed the king 's methods of depriving the church of its assets and in his sermons he began to criticize the king 's actions . While both the king and Petri were thus devoted to both establishing what was to become the Swedish state and the new religious doctrine , they were also involved in domestic struggle for power , a situation fuelled by various enemies and Counter Reformation propaganda . = = = Events = = = The primary historical source describing the events following the celestial phenomenon is the minutes of the proceedings from the king 's legal process against the reformers Olaus Petri and Laurentius Andreae in 1539 – 1540 . The process was originally described in the chronicle of Gustav Vasa written by the clerk and historian Erik Jöransson Tegel in the early 17th century . Sun dogs were apparently well known during the Middle Ages , as they are mentioned in the Old Farmer 's Almanac ( Bondepraktikan ) which states that the phenomenon forecasts strong winds , and also rain if the sun dogs are more pale than red . According to the passage in the Vasa Chronicle , however , both Petri and the master of the mint Anders Hansson were sincerely troubled by the appearance of these sun dogs . Petri interpreted the signs over Stockholm as a warning from God and had the Vädersolstavlan painting produced and hung in front of his congregation . Notwithstanding this devotion , he was far from certain on how to interpret these signs and in a sermon delivered in late summer 1535 , he explained there are two kinds of omens : one produced by the Devil to allure mankind away from God , and another produced by God to attract mankind away from the Devil — one being hopelessly difficult to tell from the other . He therefore saw it as his duty to warn both his congregation , mostly composed of German burghers united by their conspiracy against the king , and the king himself . However , on his return to Stockholm in 1535 , the king had prominent Germans imprisoned and accused Petri of replacing the law with his own " act of faith " . In response , Petri warned his followers that the lords and princes interpreted his sermons as rebellious and complained about the ease with which punishment and subversion were carried through , while restoring " what rightly and true is " was much harder . In a sermon published in 1539 , Petri criticized the misuse of the name of God " now commonly established " , a message clearly addressed to the king . Petri also explained to his congregation that the Devil ruled the world more obviously than ever , that God would punish the authorities and those who obeyed them , and that the world had become so wicked that it was irrevocably doomed . The king 's interpretation of the phenomenon , however , was that no significant change was presaged , as the " six or eight sun dogs on a circle around the true sun , have apparently disappeared , and the true natural sun has remained itself " . He then concluded that nothing was " much different , since the unchristian treason that Anders Hansson and several of that party had brought against His Highness , was not long thereafter unveiled " . The king referred to the so @-@ called " Gun Powder Conspiracy " uncovered in 1536 , which aimed at murdering him by a blasting charge hidden under his chair in the church . This resulted in various death sentences and expatriations , including Mint Master Anders Hansson who was accused of being a counterfeiter . Petri further excited royal disapproval by writing a chronicle describing contemporary events from a neutral point of view . Both Olaus Petri and Anders Hansson were eventually sentenced to death as a result of the trial in 1539 / 1540 , but were later reprieved . In the end , the king achieved his aim and the appointment of bishops and other representatives of the church was placed under his jurisdiction . = = = Censorship = = = When Tegel 's Vasa Chronicle was published in 1622 , the section describing the king 's legal process and death sentences against the reformers was regarded as unfavourable to the Vasa dynasty and was subsequently left out . The original manuscript , finally published in 1909 , was however not the only account of the events . The oldest report , dating from the 1590s , is a handwritten manuscript simply confirming the event , and a publication on meteorological phenomena published in 1608 described the halo in 1535 as " five suns surrounding the right one with its rings as still depicted in the painting hanging in the Great Church " . Knowledge of the events faded : in 1622 when the Danish diplomat Peder Galt asked for the meaning of the signs in the painting , he could get no replies anywhere in the city . He translated the Swedish text then accompanying the painting to Latin — " Anno 1535 1 Aprilis hoc ordine sex cœlo soles in circulo visi Holmie a septima matutina usque ad mediam nonam antermeridianam " — and concluded that the real sun represented Gustav Vasa and the other suns his successors , an assumption he thought confirmed by contemporary Swedish history . Even this confused report was soon forgotten and in 1632 the halo display in the painting was described in a German leaflet as three beautiful rainbows , a ball , and an eel hanging in the sky over the Swedish capital day and night for four weeks in 1520 , furthermore interpreted as a prophecy announcing the forthcoming liberation of Protestant Germany by " the Lion from the North " ( i.e. King Gustavus Adolphus ) . With the publishing of the first Swedish ecclesiastical history in 1642 , the interpretation of the painting and the historical details surrounding it found a new path to follow . Relying on a publication from 1620 , the sun dogs are said to have appeared first to King John III ( 1537 – 1592 ) on his deathbed - the painting subsequently being produced by the papist @-@ friendly king in order to save the souls of the Protestant kingdom - and a second time before King Gustavus Adolphus shortly before his death at the Battle of Lützen in 1632 . The 1592 date remained the established one until the 19th century . In the 1870s , however , several publications corrected the dating and within a few decades 1535 became the generally accepted date . The painting 's correct historical context was finally laid bare with the publication of the censored manuscript from the Vasa Chronicle in 1909 . = = = Historic icon = = = Over time , the painting has become emblematic of the history of Stockholm , and as such appears frequently in various contexts . The 1000 kronor banknote published in 1989 shows a portrait of King Gustav Vasa , based on a painting from the 1620s , in front of details from Vädersolstavlan . In the arcs of the parhelion is the microtext SCRIPTURAM IN PROPRIA HABEANT LINGUA , which roughly translates to " Let them have the Holy Scripture in their own language " . This is a quote from a letter written by the king in which he ordered a translation of the Bible into the Swedish language . Two stamps engraved by Lars Sjööblom were published in March 2002 for the 750th anniversary of Stockholm . They were both printed in two colours , an inland postage depicts the entire old town , while the 10 kronor stamp focuses on the castle and the church . For the restoration of the Gamla stan metro station in 1998 the artist Göran Dahl furnished the walls and floors with motifs from various medieval textiles and manuscripts , including the Överhogdal tapestries and the 14th @-@ century Nobilis humilis ( Magnushymnen ) from the Orkney Islands . Vädersolstavlan is prominently featured on the eastern wall just south of the platform where the terrazzo wall depicts the emblematic sun dog arcs interwoven with enlarged fragments of textiles . The painting is used on a variety of merchandise — such as puzzles , posters , notebooks — in museum shops and other cultural institutions in Stockholm , like the Museum of Medieval Stockholm and the Stockholm City Museum . = = Medieval Stockholm = = Just as the 1630s replica has proven to be an accurate copy of the lost original , the panorama has proven to be a surprisingly reliable historical document offering a rare and detailed glimpse of medieval Stockholm . The landscape and a great number of notable buildings are correctly rendered in such great detail , that historical censorship , misinterpretations , and later restorations have not prevented modern research from repeatedly corroborating the painting 's accuracy . In the painting , the medieval city is viewed looking east with the dark waters of Riddarfjärden in the foreground and the interior of the Stockholm archipelago in the background . Although the event depicted is said to have occurred in the morning , the city is painted in evening light . = = = The church and the castle = = = The painting is centred on the Storkyrkan church , first mentioned in historical records in 1279 and gradually enlarged over the following centuries . In 1468 – 1496 , during the reign of Sten Sture the Elder , its size was doubled — the chapels where transformed into aisles , while rounded windows and a taller roof allowed more light into the building . The building in the painting depicts the church as it must have appeared when Gustav Vasa became king — the buttresses added in the 1550s are not present in the painting , which seem to confirm that the 17th century copy was faithful to the original . The church still exists , although the present exterior is mostly a later Baroque design . Immediately behind the church is Tre Kronor castle . Destroyed by fire in 1697 and subsequently replaced by the Stockholm Palace , it was named after the central citadel , a large gun tower emblazoned with the Three Crowns symbol , known as the first building in Stockholm and a symbol for the Swedish Crown . While it is not known when the symbol was first added to the citadel ( it became the national coat of arms in the late 14th century ) , it was gilded during the 16th century . Again , the painting is strictly accurate , as the 1540s enlargement of the tower is not present in the image . The castle 's eastern wing , the king 's personal residence , was destroyed by fire in 1525 and in letters ten years later the king , burdened by debts of war to Lübeck , expressed his indignation over the fact that the reconstruction was still not completed . In the painting to the right of the church the eastern wing is accurately depicted as under construction , the exposed roof trusses confirming the inconvenience experienced by the monarch . However , the two western towers left of the church display an unusual detail in the painting . The uniformly proportioned , large , square windows depicted there are associated with the Italian Renaissance , which was introduced in Sweden in 1572 during reconstruction of Kalmar Castle . While the construction works of Gustav Vasa are poorly documented , the presence of these windows in Stockholm in 1535 is unlikely . It seems more credible that this part of the painting had been damaged before 1632 , forcing the copyist to rely on another source . As the two square and crenellated towers in the painting are depicted much as they appear on a copperplate of Stockholm produced by Frantz Hogenberg around 1560 – 1570 , the painting thus probably renders this part of the castle as it appeared while the reconstruction was still under way , before its completion in the 1580s . = = = Riddarholmen = = = The islet in the left foreground , today known as Riddarholmen ( " Knights ' Islet " ) , was during the medieval era known as Gråmunkeholmen ( " Greyfriars Islet " ) after the Franciscan monastery located there and in the painting represented as a building with stepped gables and a tall turret at the far side of the islet . Together with other similar institutions , the monastery was closed by the king following the Reformation although the building was used as a hospital until the mid 16th century . The turret of the monastery was replaced by the cast iron spire of Riddarholm Church in the 19th century , but the remains of the monastery still exist inside the church and under the surrounding buildings . The two defensive towers appearing along the near shoreline of the islet are still present , their structures remain intact although their exteriors are considerably altered . The leftmost is Birger Jarls torn located in the north @-@ western corner of the islet and erroneously named after Birger Jarl , by tradition attributed to be the founder of Stockholm . The other is the so @-@ called Vasatornet ( " Tower of Vasa " ) , today forming the southern tower of the Wrangel Palace . For the construction of the towers and other defensive structures , the king used bricks from the monastery Klara kloster located just north of the city but absent in the painting . Since the monastery is known to have been demolished immediately following the introduction of Protestantism in 1527 , the painting is , again , a credible source rendering the city as it appeared in 1535 . = = = Helgeandsholmen = = = Just behind the Greyfriars turret is the islet of Helgeandsholmen , where the northern city gate and defensive wall were located . Today occupied by the Swedish Parliament , this islet was named after the charitable institution , Helige andens holme ( " Islet of the Holy Spirit " ) , located there from around 1300 and discernible in the painting as a building with stepped gables facing an open space perhaps indicating the location of the demolished Johannite monastery . King Gustav Vasa had all the charitable institutions in the city merged into a single one housed in the former Greyfriars monastery on Riddarholmen , so the monasteries in the painting were all the possession of the crown when the painting was produced . The painting shows a bridge stretching north ( left ) from the northern city gate to an open space . This is the site of perhaps the oldest river crossing in Stockholm , today replaced by the Norrbro , Riksbron , and Stallbron bridges . The latter of these ( not present in the painting ) is a 19th @-@ century bridge still located on the site of the medieval structure . It connects Riksgatan passing through the Parliament Building on Helgeandsholmen to the square Mynttorget on Stadsholmen , from where Västerlånggatan extends it further south . To the left of the open space north of the medieval city are the steep southern slopes of the Brunkebergsåsen esker , a geological feature whose remains still stretch north through the city . Missing in the painting is the small island of Strömsborg , which was little more than an insignificant cliff at the time . = = = Southern city gate = = = The two defensive towers of the southern city gate appearing in the left foreground , are known to be much older than the painting but their history remains poorly documented . The outer tower ( Yttre Söderport ) was built on an artificial island in the strait and was rebuilt in front of an expected attack by King Christian II of Denmark in the late 1520s . In Blodbadstavlan ( " The Bloodbath Painting " ) , an image ten years older than Vädersolstavlan , it appears with a cone @-@ shaped roof seriously damaged during the Danish assault . In Vädersolstavlan , the inner tower ( Inre Söderport ) is similar to the exterior tower , and both structures , together with the narrow bridge between them , match other historical sources . Additions younger than the 1530s , such as the reinforcements ordered by Gustav Vasa during the 1540s , are missing in the painting but present in engravings from 1560 to 1580 , which confirms Vädersolstavlan is a credible contemporary document . Where the southern city gates were , is today the Slussen area . The sluice and the locks of Karl Johanslussen had to be rebuilt regularly , and the appearance of the city 's southern approach changed constantly . In the early 1930s , when a multi @-@ story concrete roundabout replaced everything else in the area , the foundations of the outer defensive tower were discovered ( known as Gustav Vasas rondell ) and remains of the southern defensive structures can still be found below the present squares in the area . = = = Defensive structures = = = Along the western shoreline are several defensive structures of various ages . The wooden defence structure built along the shore around 1650 is absent in the painting , but the double row of piles protecting the western harbour is present . It served both as a defensive structure and , because a duty was imposed on all incoming ships , as an important source of income for the city . The western defence structures were neglected around 1500 , which resulted in settlements being constructed between the western city wall and a shoreline constantly pushed westward by landfill , just as the painting renders it . While the old city wall is not discernible in the painting , several of the towers sitting on the city gates are ( left to right ) : The tower with a cone @-@ shaped roof just to the right of the Greyfriars monastery was called Draktornet ( " Dragon 's Tower " ) , and in 1535 served as a prison . Just to the right of it was Gråmunketornet ( " Greyfriars Tower " ) with stepped gables and a large gate leading to Riddarholmen island . Excavations in the 1950 showed that the gate was 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 5 feet ) wide . The second tower with stepped gables but without a gate was the Lejontornet ( " Lion 's Tower " ) , the foundations of which were rediscovered during an archaeological excavation in 1984 and are now part of the interior of a restaurant on Yxsmedsgränd . Between Lejontornet and the southern city gate flanked by two boats is a wooden structure , roughly triangular in plan ; this is a defensive tower called Kivenäbben , built in 1520 – 1523 on piles in the water . Lastly , next to the southern city gate is an open space , believed to be the precursor of present @-@ day Kornhamnstorg , the square where ships from the Lake Mälaren region used to deliver corn and iron . = = = Other buildings and surrounding ridges = = = The turret on the right side of the church and the palace was the Blackfriars monastery , inaugurated in 1343 and demolished in 1547 . It was built on the location of the first southern defensive tower , of which no traces have been found . The basement of the monastery , however , can still be seen by Benickebrinken and the school next to Tyska Stallplan . During the Middle Ages , there were two harbours west and east of the city 's southern square ; in the painting they are only suggested by the presence of a mast behind the city . On the western shore at Kornhamn ( " Grain Harbour " ) – today Kornhamnstorg – grain , iron , and other goods from the Lake Mälaren area were delivered . These goods were then weighed in the Våghuset ( " The Scales Building " , i.e. a weigh house ) , another important source of income for both the crown and the city , before being transported to the eastern harbour , Kogghamnen ( " The Cog Harbour " ) – today the southern part of Skeppsbron – from which large ships delivered goods across the Baltic Sea . In the painting , the Våghuset is the building with stepped gables and iron bars to the right of the Blackfriars monastery facing Järntorget ( " Iron Square " ) . Våghuset was located where the Södra Bankohuset ( " Southern [ National ] Bank Building " ) is today . Just behind Våghuset there is another stepped gable symbolizing the Klädeshuset ( " Broadcloth Building " ) where goods were stored . The building with stepped gables between the church and the Blackfriars monastery was Själagården ( " Soul 's Homestead " ) . It was built in the 15th century at Själagårdsgatan to accommodate the poor and aged but also priests and others serving at the church . During the reign of Gustav Vasa it was transformed into the first royal printing house . Between the city and the horizon are several rural islands , which today form part of central Stockholm . Behind the church and the castle is Skeppsholmen , which for centuries served as a base for the Swedish Navy together with Kastellholmen islet , which can be seen above the Blackfriars monastery . To the left of Skeppsholmen are two small islets , which are today merged into the peninsula of Blasieholmen . Behind these islands are Djurgården ( right ) , Östermalm , and Norra Djurgården ( left ) . On the horizon , the Lilla Värtan strait passes in front of Lidingö and , arguably , the interior islands of the Stockholm archipelago . Like the islands , the ridges surrounding the city , including the cliffs in the foreground , look very much as they still do . South ( right ) of the city is the island of Södermalm , where a cluster of buildings ( see image of the southern city gate above ) lined up along the shore called Tranbodarna were used to burn train oil ( e.g. seal lard ) . The round building on the eastern end of Södermalm was the gallows hill . As depicted in the painting , it was used exclusively for men ( women were beheaded ) . The gallows remained there until the late 17th century when they were moved to present @-@ day Hammarbyhöjden south of the historical city centre . = = Halo display = = While the painting is arguably the oldest realistic depiction of a halo phenomenon — almost a century older than Christoph Scheiner 's famous observation of a halo display over Rome in 1630 — the phenomenon was apparently not entirely understood . The image contains several obvious misinterpretations and a few peculiarities . Most notably , like many other early depictions of haloes , the painting depicts a series of events occurring over several hours and is consistent in its preference for perfect circles rather than ellipses . A work of art produced in the spirit of the Danube School ( see Possible prototypes above ) , Vädersolstavlan features realistic depictions of cirrus clouds and the sky is properly rendered , going from bright blue near the horizon to dark blue near zenith . The shadows in the lower half of the painting , however , seem to suggest the sun is located in the west — even leaving the southern façades in shadow — which is incorrect as historical sources claim the event lasted from 7 to 9 a.m. In contrast to the city below it , the halo phenomenon is depicted vertically in a fisheye perspective with the major circle centred on zenith ( like in the ray tracing solution above ) . In the painting , the actual sun is the yellow ball in the upper @-@ right corner surrounded by the second circle . The large circle taking up most of the sky is a parhelic circle , parallel to the horizon and located at the same altitude as the sun , as the painting renders it . This is actually a common halo , although a full circle as depicted is rare . Such parhelic circles are caused by horizontally oriented plate ice crystals reflecting sun rays . In order for a full circle to appear sun rays must be reflected both internally and externally . The circle surrounding the sun is a 22 ° halo , as the name implies located 22 ° from the sun . While the painting depict it pretty much as it normally appears , it should be centred on the sun and is misplaced in the painting . The pair of arcs flanking the 22 ° halo and crossing each other are most likely a misinterpretation of a circumscribed halo . While the sun is still low , it starts as a V @-@ shaped upper tangent arc which gradually develops into something looking like the unfolding wings of a seagull . As the sun ascends , in rare cases it finally joins with the lower tangent arc to form an ellipse which closes in on the circumscribed 22 ° halo . The sun dogs or parhelia , in the painting erroneously pinned to the misinterpreted arcs of the circumscribed halo , are rather frequent optical phenomena which appear when sunlight is refracted by hexagonal ice crystals forming cirrus or cirrostratus clouds . When the sun is still low , they are located on the 22 ° halo , the way they are most commonly observed , and as the sun ascends they move laterally away from the 22 ° halo . At rare occasions , they can actually reach the circumscribed halo . As depicted in the painting , the sun dogs are located midway between the 22 ° halo and the circumscribed halo , and , assuming they are correctly rendered , the sun should have been located at about 35 @-@ 40 ° above the horizon ( as in the simulation above ) . The unintelligible arc on the lower right might be a misinterpreted and misplaced infralateral arc missing its mirrored twin . These phenomena are , however , rare and only form when the sun is below 32 ° . Their shape change quickly as the sun rises , and as the painting most likely isn 't depicting any specific moment , it is impossible to draw any conclusions from the mysterious shape in the painting . The crescent moon shape in the middle of the sky looks very much like a circumzenithal arc , which is parallel to the horizon but centred at and located near zenith . However , they only form when the sun is located lower than 32 @.@ 2 ° and are at their brightest when the sun is located at 22 ° , which is not consistent with other haloes depicted in the painting . Furthermore , one of the most striking features of circumzenithal arcs is their rainbow colours , and the shape in the painting is perfectly devoid of any colours . It is however not a complete circle ( see Kern arc ) , and it is facing the sun , which are both correct properties for this phenomenon . The white spot on the lower left part of the parhelic circle , opposite to the sun , should be an anthelion , a bright halo always located at the antisolar point . Most scientists are convinced anthelia are caused by the convergence of several halo arcs ( of which are no traces in the painting ) and thus should not be regarded as an independent halo . Other researchers believe column @-@ shaped crystals could generate the phenomenon which could explain the constellation in the painting . Finally , the minor , slightly bluish dots , flanking the anthelion , may be perfectly depicted 120 ° parhelia . These halos are produced by the same horizontally oriented ice crystals that produce sun dogs and the parhelic circle . They result from multiple interior reflections of sun rays entering the hexagonal top face and leaving through the bottom face .
= 1940 New England hurricane = The 1940 New England hurricane moved off of the U.S. East Coast and Atlantic Canada in August and September 1940 , producing strong winds and torrential rainfall . The fourth tropical cyclone and third hurricane of the season , the storm originated from a well @-@ defined low @-@ pressure area in the open Atlantic Ocean on August 26 . Moving slowly in a general west @-@ northwest motion , the disturbance intensified , reaching tropical storm strength on August 28 and subsequently hurricane intensity on August 30 . The hurricane passed within 85 mi ( 135 km ) of Cape Hatteras before recurving towards the northeast . The hurricane continued to intensify , and reached peak intensity as a Category 2 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 961 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 38 inHg ) , though these statistical peaks were achieved at different times on September 2 . Afterwards , the hurricane began a weakening trend as it proceeded northeastward , and had degenerated into a tropical storm by the time it made its first landfall on Nova Scotia later that day . The storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone the next day while making another landfall on New Brunswick . The extratropical remnants persisted into Quebec before merging with a larger extratropical system late on September 3 . Despite not making landfall on the United States , the hurricane caused widespread damage . Extensive precautionary measures were undertaken across the coast , particularly in New England . The heightened precautions were due in part to fears that effects from the storm would be similar to that of a devastating hurricane that struck the region two years prior . Most of the damage associated with the hurricane occurred in New Jersey , where the combination of moisture from the hurricane and a stationary front produced record rainfall , peaking at 24 in ( 610 mm ) in the town of Ewan . This would make the storm the wettest in state history . The resultant floods damaged infrastructure , mostly to road networks . Damage in the state amounted to $ 4 million . Farther north in New England , strong winds were reported , though damage remained minimal . Although the storm made two landfalls in Atlantic Canada , damage too was minimal , and was limited to several boating incidents caused by strong waves . Overall , the hurricane caused seven fatalities . = = Meteorological history = = The origins of the hurricane can be traced to a compact and slow @-@ moving low @-@ pressure area in the open Atlantic Ocean in late August 1940 . As the system progressed in a west @-@ northwest direction , its center of circulation became more organized . As a result , the disturbance was classified as a tropical depression between the Greater Antilles and Bermuda at 1200 UTC on August 26 . Operationally , the storm was analyzed to have undergone tropical cyclogenesis on August 30 . However , a reanalysis of the storm conducted in 2012 found that the system was already organized prior . In its initial stages , the depression remained weak , with few ships reporting abnormally strong winds in association with the storm . Continuing in a slow west @-@ northwest movement , the disturbance gradually intensified , and was analyzed to have attained tropical storm intensity by 1800 UTC on August 28 . At 0600 UTC on August 30 , the tropical storm strengthened further into the equivalent of a modern @-@ day Category 1 hurricane , roughly 225 mi ( 360 km ) east of the Florida peninsula . At the same time , the hurricane began to intensify and move quicker than it had previously . Later that day , a ship within the periphery of the storm reported winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 979 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 90 inHg ) . At 1200 UTC on September 1 , the hurricane attained modern @-@ day Category 2 intensity . Ships continued to report strong winds and low pressures associated with the storm . Early on September 1 , the hurricane passed 85 mi ( 135 km ) of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina , before recurving towards the northeast and away from the coast . That same day , two ships reported hurricane @-@ force winds . At 0200 UTC on September 2 , the American steamboat Franklin K. Lane reported a barometric pressure of 965 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 50 inHg ) while located within the hurricane 's radius of maximum wind ; this would be the lowest pressure measured in association with the tropical cyclone and the lowest measured in the entire North Atlantic Ocean in September 1940 . Based on the ship observation , the storm was analyzed to have reached peak intensity on September 2 with maximum sustained winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) and a minimum central pressure of 961 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 38 inHg ) . However , stronger winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) were analyzed to have been present in the hurricane earlier . As it traversed though more northerly latitudes , the storm began to gradually weaken . The storm made landfall slightly northwest of Yarmouth , Nova Scotia at 2100 UTC later on September 2 as a tropical storm with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . After quickly passing over Nova Scotia , the weakening tropical storm transitioned into an extratropical storm over the Bay of Fundy at 0000 UTC on September 3 . At the same time , the cyclone made a second landfall on New Brunswick as a slightly weaker storm with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . The extratropical system progressed over the Gulf of Saint Lawrence before it was absorbed by a larger extratropical storm at 1800 UTC later that day in Quebec just north of Anticosti Island . = = Preparations , impact , and aftermath = = As the hurricane approached the United States East Coast on August 31 , the United States Weather Bureau advised extreme caution to ships between Cape Hatteras and southern areas of New England . Storm warnings were issued for coastal regions between Wilmington , North Carolina and the Virginia Capes . These warnings were later extended northward to the Delaware Breakwater . Strong winds exceeding gale @-@ force were expected for much of the East Coast , particularly for Cape Hatteras . On September 1 , hurricane warnings were ordered for areas from Hatteras , North Carolina to Pamlico Sound , while previously issued storm warnings remained in place . On September 2 , gale warnings extended further north into Nantucket , Massachusetts . In Norfolk , Virginia , city department heads were ordered to stand by for potential emergency duties . United States Coast Guard personnel were also dispatched along the North Carolina coast . United States Navy personnel were detained in New London , Connecticut until the storm passed . In Westhampton , New York , a mass evacuation occurred , involving 10 @,@ 000 residences . Air traffic to and from Mitchel Air Force Base was cancelled , and 100 airplanes stationed at the base were fastened to the ground . Police and firemen evacuated a 50 mi ( 80 km ) stretch of the Rhode Island coastline . This included Roy Carpenter 's Beach , where 1 @,@ 000 families were forced to evacuate . In Narragansett Bay , boats were sent back to harbors or towed to shore . The extensive precautionary measures undertaken occurred in part due to fears that the storm would cause similar effects to a destructive hurricane which swept through areas of New England two years prior . On September 1 , the Venezuelan tanker Acosta relayed an SOS signal while near the hurricane 200 mi ( 320 km ) southeast of the Frying Pan Shoals . United States Coast Guard stations in Norfolk , Virginia and Morehead City , North Carolina dispatched cutters to aid the ship . Off of the East Coast , an offshoot of the hurricane resulted in the drownings of two people . In the Mid @-@ Atlantic states , the passing hurricane 's outflow interacted with a cold front that had become quasi @-@ stationary over the area . The cyclone 's flow pattern enhanced the moisture environment over the region , resulting in locally heavy rainfall , particularly in New Jersey , where precipitation peaked at 24 in ( 610 mm ) in Ewan in a nine @-@ hour period on September 1 . This would make the hurricane the wettest tropical cyclone in state history . Most of the rain was in western portions of the state , however , with minimal rainfall at the coast . The floods caused small rivers to overflow , breaching dams . An overflowed creek inundated parts of Lumberton Township , rendering 2 @,@ 000 people homeless . Rail service between Philadelphia , Pennsylvania and areas of southern New Jersey was suspended as a result of washed out tracks . Resulting damage to infrastructure totaled $ 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in the southwestern quarter of New Jersey alone . Damage to roads in Burlington County amounted to $ 2 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 . In Camden County , damage was estimated at $ 1 million . Four fatalities were reported as a result of the floods . In Delaware , rainfall was comparatively less . However , rough seas generated by the hurricane offshore caused $ 50 @,@ 000 in damages and one death . Further north , strong gusts were reported across New England . Winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) were recorded by a weather station in Nantucket . Peak winds in Massachusetts were estimated at 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . In Eastport , Maine , winds of 45 mph ( 70 km / h ) were reported . After the storm , New Jersey state health department investigators from Trenton were dispatched to study the possibility for an increase in typhoid fever in flooded areas . In Woodbury , where the city pumping station was flooded , water was rationed . Gas service was also limited in Woodbury , Pedricktown , Penns Grove . As a result of a gas plant becoming inundated in Glassboro , electricity was rationalized in Hammonton , forcing residents to eat uncooked food . Police were forced to transport residents of Mount Holly to work via boat due to the high floodwaters . Despite making two separate landfalls in Atlantic Canada on September 2 and September 3 , the hurricane caused minimal damage . Effects in Nova Scotia were limited to boating incidents . In Lake Milo , near Yarmouth , six yachts capsized due to the strong winds . In New Brunswick , damage was also minimal . A car accident associated with the storm injured a man near Barnesville .
= 2007 French Grand Prix = The 2007 French Grand Prix ( formally the XCIII Grand Prix de France ) was a Formula One motor race held on 1 July 2007 at the Circuit de Nevers Magny @-@ Cours , Magny @-@ Cours , France . It was the eighth race of the 2007 Formula One season . The 70 @-@ lap race was won by Kimi Räikkönen for the Ferrari team after starting from third position . Felipe Massa , who started the race from pole position , finished second in the latter Ferrari , with Lewis Hamilton third in a McLaren car . Massa controlled most of the race from the front , but Räikkönen overtook him during the second round of pit stops to take the lead . = = Report = = = = = Background = = = Following the United States Grand Prix , the Formula One teams headed to Silverstone for a three @-@ day test . Nine teams participated , with the exception of Honda and Super Aguri , who opted to test at the Jerez circuit . Neither Ferrari nor McLaren were fastest on the first two days at Silverstone , rather it was Toyota that was fastest on both of the days . However , on the third and final day of testing Felipe Massa put Ferrari on top with a time of 1 : 20 @.@ 805 . The nearest challenger , Nico Rosberg was 0 @.@ 469 behind , with Fernando Alonso a further 0 @.@ 010 behind . With Ferrari fastest on the third day , both of their drivers , Massa and Kimi Räikkönen were very confident heading into the French round of the season . Off track Ferrari launched a criminal investigation in Modena against their own employee Nigel Stepney . Stepney 's lawyer ruled out sabotage claims , and Stepney said it was part of a " dirty tricks " campaign . There was also controversy at the rear @-@ end of the grid , as Spyker asked the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) to look at the new updates that were put on the Super Aguri at Indianapolis to see whether the Aguri team are receiving current Honda parts . On Saturday , Super Aguri 's managing director Daniel Audetto said " We have rules – they [ Spyker ] can just protest . Tell them to protest – if I have something to complain about , I will make a protest . " Robert Kubica was back in his BMW after his crash at the Canadian Grand Prix . Early on Saturday , Nick Heidfeld was cleared to continue in his BMW after experiencing back pains during Friday practice . = = = Practice = = = Ferrari dominated both practice sessions on the Friday , with Räikkönen fastest in the first Practice Session and Felipe Massa was fastest in the second Practice Session . Behind the Ferraris , Alonso was third in his McLaren , but seven tenths behind , with his team @-@ mate and World Championship leader Lewis Hamilton sixth , but lost nearly an hour of the session due to car trouble . The two McLarens were split by David Coulthard and Nico Rosberg . Hamilton managed to recover from his morning trouble to post the fourth fastest time in the second Practice Session on Friday afternoon . The Ferraris were still leading , but Massa was fastest , just 0 @.@ 035 seconds ahead of Räikkönen . However , one of the major surprises came from Scuderia Toro Rosso , as Scott Speed posted the third quickest time , with Vitantonio Liuzzi posting the fifth quickest time . During the session , Liuzzi was involved in a bizarre incident with Anthony Davidson ; Davidson exited his garage , and smashed his Super Aguri into the side of Liuzzi 's Toro Rosso ; knocking his front wing off in the accident . Alonso finished the second practice session eighth . In the final practice session on Saturday morning , Hamilton managed to beat Ferrari , with the Englishman ahead of second @-@ placed Massa by 0 @.@ 063 seconds . Hamilton and the two Ferraris completed the top three , but Alonso was again down in eighth , having missed nearly the whole of the session with a faulty brake sensor . The Renaults sparked a return to form with Heikki Kovalainen and Giancarlo Fisichella fourth and fifth , both ahead of rivals BMW , who were sixth and fifteenth respectively . = = = Qualifying = = = Both Spykers and both Super Aguris were knocked out of the first phase of qualifying , along with Alexander Wurz 's Williams and Vitantonio Liuzzi 's Toro Rosso . For Super Aguri 's Takuma Sato , it did not matter where he qualified , as he was docked ten places , due to overtaking Jenson Button under yellow flags at the last Grand Prix . Spykers Adrian Sutil was hoping for a wet race after an unspectacular qualifying . At the front end of the grid , the McLarens were first and fourth , with Hamilton on top , and the Ferraris splitting them in third and fourth . Heikki Kovalainen rounded out the top five . David Coulthard failed to complete a single timed lap in the second part of qualifying due to a gearbox problem , and started sixteenth . Both Hondas were knocked out also , along with Mark Webber , Scott Speed and Ralf Schumacher . Both Button and Barrichello were happier with the upgraded Honda , with Button saying " the car is certainly better than the last race in Indianapolis , although the positions don 't reflect that " . Hamilton was again fastest in Part two , with team @-@ mate Alonso down in fifth . Massa , Räikkönen and Kubica rounded out the top four . After topping the first two parts of qualifying , Hamilton dropped to second in the third and final part , with Massa taking pole position , just 0 @.@ 070 ahead of the Englishman . Massa stated in the post @-@ Qualifying press conference that " it looks like we [ Ferrari ] are back and fighting " , with Hamilton believing pole was possible had he not made a mistake at Turn 15 . Räikkönen qualified third as he lost time on one corner , which he called " all my fault " . Alonso was unable to complete a single lap in the session due to a gearbox problem . He was classified tenth and stated that he 'd " prefer a wet race " . Behind Räikkönen was Kubica in fourth , but despite qualifying fifth , Giancarlo Fisichella believed there was " potential for more " from the Renault . Fisichella 's team @-@ mate Kovalainen was sixth , with Nick Heidfeld seventh . Jarno Trulli , Nico Rosberg and Alonso rounded out the top ten . Rosberg also had a slight gearbox problem in the final part of qualifying , which he believed cost him a few tenths coming into the final few corners . = = = Race = = = Three people were killed in a helicopter crash at the circuit on Saturday night . They were Emmanuel Longobardi , a PR operative ; the pilot Pierre Bennehard ; and Simon McGill , a New Zealand national . A Bridgestone employee and his niece were injured . Longobardi was a popular member of the Formula One Paddock . Adrian Sutil in the Spyker opted to start from the pitlane . Massa got off to the best possible start and retained his lead , but Räikkönen passed Hamilton into Turn One . At the back of the field , Anthony Davidson hit the back of Vitantonio Liuzzi 's Toro Rosso . The Toro Rosso came back onto the track and smashed into the side of the Super Aguri . Liuzzi said afterwards that " all we can do is wait for Silverstone and hope that the definite improvement we have made with the car pays off " . At the Adelaide hairpin , Jarno Trulli rammed into the back of Heikki Kovalainen . Trulli was out , but Kovalainen continued at the back of the field . Trulli apologised to Kovalainen after the race , and declared it " a racing accident " . The tangle promoted Alonso up to eighth . Robert Kubica was quickly losing ground on the two Ferraris and Hamilton . Alonso passed Rosberg for seventh , and quickly closed in on Heidfeld , but stayed behind him until he pitted on Lap 16 . Alonso attempted to get past on Lap five , but ran wide , giving the position back to the German . Hamilton also pitted on Lap 16 , with Massa pitting on Lap 19 and Räikkönen on Lap 21 . Räikkönen decreased Massa 's lead back down from four seconds to two seconds . Alonso passed both Heidfeld and Fisichella in the middle section of the race . In the second round of stops , Räikkönen pitted two laps after Massa . These two laps extra gave Räikkönen the lead after his second stop , with Massa now second . Alonso pitted for the second time on lap 35 . Heidfeld and Fisichella pitted several laps later , and both of them got out in front of Alonso . Christijan Albers had an unusual accident , his car left the pit lane with the fuel rig attached without being detached by the pit crews . Eventually , he drove to the side of the track and retired . Räikkönen won the race from team @-@ mate Massa , with Hamilton third . This marked Ferrari 's first one @-@ two of the season . Massa stated that the race win was lost " because of traffic " , while team @-@ mate Räikkönen stated he was " much happier with the car " , as he became the first Finn to win the race . Kubica was a lonely fourth , with Fisichella , Heidfeld , Alonso and Button rounding out the points . Despite it being Button 's first points of 2007 , he said that he was " not getting too excited about it " . Despite finishing seventh , Alonso was still confident about his title chances , saying that he hoped the " two points are important at the end of the season " . = = Classification = = = = = Qualifying = = = Notes ^ 1 – Fernando Alonso did not set a time in Q3 due to a gearbox problem . ^ 2 – David Coulthard did not set a time in Q2 due to a gearbox problem . ^ 3 – Takuma Sato was given a drive @-@ through penalty for passing Button under yellow flags at the 2007 United States Grand Prix but retired from the race before he could serve the penalty , so the penalty was changed to a ten @-@ place grid penalty at this event . = = = Race = = = = = Championship standings after the race = = Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
= Backlash ( 2006 ) = Backlash ( 2006 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , which took place on April 30 , 2006 , at the Rupp Arena in Lexington , Kentucky . It was presented by Topps . It was the eighth event under the Backlash name and featured wrestlers and other talent that performed on the Raw brand . Seven professional wrestling matches were scheduled on the event 's card , which saw two main matches . The first main event was Shawn Michaels versus Vince and Shane McMahon in a Handicap match . The second main event was a " Triple Threat match " that pitted WWE Champion John Cena against Triple H and Edge , with his title on the line . The event received 273 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys , which was more than the previous year 's event received . This contributed to WWE 's pay @-@ per @-@ view revenue increasing by $ 4 @.@ 3 million from the previous year . When the event was released on DVD , it peaked at second on Billboard 's DVD sales chart for recreational sports . = = Background = = Backlash featured professional wrestling matches that involved different wrestlers from pre @-@ existing scripted feuds , plots , and storylines that were played out on Raw . Wrestlers portrayed a villain or a hero as they followed a series of events that built tension , and culminated into a wrestling match or series of matches . All wrestlers were from World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) ' s Raw brand — a storyline division in which WWE employees are assigned to a television program of the same name . The main event at Backlash was a triple threat match , a match involving three wrestlers , for the WWE Championship between John Cena , Triple H , and Edge . The buildup to the match began when Triple H lost the Royal Rumble match , a multi @-@ competitor match type in which wrestlers are eliminated until one is left and declared winner but participated in the 2006 Road to WrestleMania Tournament , where the winner would become the number @-@ one contender to the WWE Championship at WrestleMania . Triple H won the tournament . Cena defeated Triple H at WrestleMania to retain the title after forcing him to submit to the STFU , a move in which the wrestler wraps his arm around the neck of the opponent in a sleeper hold instead of pulling back on the head of the opponent . The next night on Raw , one of WWE 's primary television programs , Triple H demanded another shot at the WWE Championship , but Edge and Lita ( Edge 's girlfriend ) interrupted Triple H 's segment . Edge said that he became WWE Champion at New Year 's Revolution when he cashed in his Money in the Bank title shot , that he won at WrestleMania 21 , and defeating Cena at the event , after Cena had defeated five other men in an Elimination Chamber , a match featuring wrestlers fighting in a ring surrounded by a steel structure of chain and girders . Cena , however , reclaimed the Championship at the 2006 Royal Rumble , when he defeated Edge . Edge claimed that it was time for a new opponent for the WWE Championship , after stating that at WrestleMania , Triple H lost his opportunity when he lost to Cena . All three men had a series of Handicap matches , a match consisting of one team of wrestlers facing off against a team of wrestlers with numerical superiority such as three against two , or two against one leading up to Backlash with Triple H pinning Cena after tucking Cena 's head between his knees and jumping up to slam his head to the mat , a move that Triple H calls the Pedigree , Cena forcing Edge to submit to the STFU , and Edge executing a shoulder block takedown on Triple H and pinning him . It was then announced that Cena would defend the WWE Championship in a Triple Threat match against Triple H and Edge at Backlash . Another rivalry heading into the event was Vince McMahon and Shane McMahon versus Shawn Michaels and God . This feud started on December 26 , 2005 , when Vince McMahon made note of Bret Hart 's DVD , claiming that he " tricked " Hart in the hours of his match at Survivor Series 1997 , where Hart lost the WWE Championship to Shawn Michaels . At the event , Michaels applied Hart 's own finisher , the Sharpshooter , and McMahon called for the bell , in an event known as the " Montreal Screwjob " . Michaels interrupted McMahon and told him to " let it go " and " move on " from the events of Survivor Series . In reply McMahon told Michaels that he indeed screwed Bret Hart and added , " Shawn , do not make me screw you . " At the Royal Rumble , Shane McMahon made a surprising appearance when he eliminated Michaels from the Rumble match , though Shane was not a participant . McMahon informed Michaels that he would face his son Shane on the March 18 , 2006 , edition of Saturday Night 's Main Event in a No Holds Barred match . At the event , Vince interfered throughout the match on his son 's behalf , by stopping the referee 's count , after Michaels performed Sweet Chin Music , a move which sees the wrestler use the sole of the foot to strike an opponent 's head or chin on Shane , an enraged Michaels grabbed McMahon but before he could do anything , Shane hit Michaels with a low blow . McMahon ordered Shane to apply the Sharpshooter on Michaels , and , after he executed the submission move , McMahon called for the bell , similar to the 1997 Survivor Series match . Mr. McMahon booked himself and Michaels in a No Holds Barred match at WrestleMania 22 . At WrestleMania , the Spirit Squad and Shane McMahon interfered on McMahon 's behalf , but Michaels defeated Vince McMahon after he performed Sweet Chin Music and captured the pinfall victory . The next night on Raw , The McMahons confronted Michaels and informed him that his win at WrestleMania was " an act of God , " therefore setting up the tag team match at Backlash that would have The McMahons facing Michaels and God . The Divas rivalry between Mickie James and Trish Stratus over the WWE Women 's Championship continued entering the event . Stratus and James first fought over the title at New Year 's Revolution , with Stratus retaining . In the months that followed , James ' obsession with Stratus grew to the point that she confessed to Stratus that she was in love with her ; making Stratus uncomfortable . James made one final attempt to kiss Stratus at Saturday Night 's Main Event on March 18 , after the duo defeated Candice Michelle and Victoria . After she was rebuffed , James attacked Stratus and later vowed to destroy her , turning James into a villainess . At WrestleMania 22 , the evil James defeated Stratus to capture the Women 's Championship for the first time in her career . In the following weeks , James continued her mind games by dressing like Stratus and claiming to be her . Stratus eventually confronted James by dressing like her and mocking her personality . It was later announced that a Women 's Championship rematch between James and Stratus would take place at Backlash . = = Event = = Before the event aired live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , Goldust defeated Rob Conway in a match that aired on Heat . Goldust won the match after a powerslam , a move where the wrestler performing the slam falls face @-@ down on top of his opponent . The first match of the event was between Carlito and Chris Masters . In the beginning of the match , Carlito had the advantage over Masters , as he jumped from the ring to the outside and impacts his chest against Masters ' chest , and performed a Springboard Back elbow . Masters , however , gained the advantage and executed a Powerbomb , a move which is executed by the attacking wrestler slamming the opponent after lifting them on their shoulders on Carlito into the turnbuckle . Carlito performed a Back Cracker , a move where the wrestlers goes behind the opponent and jumps up to place both his knees against the opponent 's back , forcing the wrestler 's knees to push up into the back of the opponent . Carlito then pinned Masters while using the ropes for leverage to win the match . Next was a match between Umaga and Ric Flair . Umaga had the advantage throughout the match , as Umaga hit Flair with a knee to his head . Umaga defeated Flair after hitting Flair in the throat with his thumb . The third match was between Mickie James and Trish Stratus for the WWE Women 's Championship . The match had escalated outside the ring . When Stratus delivered punches to Mickie , who was on the second turnbuckle , Mickie threw her over the top rope , causing Stratus to land on her right arm . Afterwards , Mickie choked Stratus with a wristband she was wearing that fell off during the match , therefore giving the win to Stratus by disqualification , but per WWE regulations , a title can only change hands via pinfall or submission therefore Mickie retained the Championship . The next match was for the WWE Intercontinental Championship between Rob Van Dam and Shelton Benjamin . Both Van Dam and Benjamin started the match with high spots as Benjamin performed a Sunset Flip Powerbomb , a move in which a wrestler will roll / flip over an elevated opponent facing them in a reverse body scissors and use the momentum to pull the opponent down to the floor . The match went back and forth with action , but in the end Van Dam performed a body splash , known in wrestling as a frog splash , from the top turnbuckle on Benjamin and pinned him to win the match and retain his Money in the Bank briefcase and win the Intercontinental Championship . The next match was The Big Show versus Kane , which ended in a no contest after a red hue covered the ring and voices from the speakers in the arena began taunting Kane with " May 19 " . Big Show who seemed to have enough , hit Kane with a folding chair and walked away . The sixth match was Vince and Shane McMahon versus Shawn Michaels and God in a No Holds Barred match . As soon as The McMahons made their way to the ring , Vince informed the referee to " check " God for any hidden objects , as God was being " portrayed " by the stage spotlight . The match started with Shawn Michaels executing a crossbody on both Vince and Shane McMahon on the outside of the ring . Afterwards , Michaels crossbodied Vince down through a part of the Backlash staging area . Shane then hit Michaels with a folding chair and caused him to bleed . After Vince and Shane took turns assaulting Michaels , Vince grabbed a microphone and informed Michaels that " God " had left the building and used a Superkick , Michaels ' own signature finisher , against him . Michaels battled back and grabbed two tables and put both Vince and Shane on them . Michaels then grabbed a ladder and stood on top of it . The Spirit Squad ( Kenny , Johnny , Mitch , Nicky , and Mikey ) interfered and attacked Michaels , which was followed by the Spirit Squad putting Michaels through a table with a Sky lift slam , a move in which the two attacking wrestlers standing either side of an opponent ; the wrestlers then force the opponent upwards , throwing them up while releasing the hold to allow the opponent slam to the mat back @-@ first . Vince then pinned Michaels for the win . The main event was the Triple Threat match for the WWE Championship between champion John Cena , Edge , and Triple H. As the match began , Edge chose to stand outside the ring , hoping that Cena and Triple H would simply fight the match themselves . Cena and Triple H , however , teamed up and turned against Edge . One spot in the match saw Edge catapult Triple H into the steel ringpost , which made Triple H bleed as a result . Afterwards , Edge drove Triple H 's head through a table and then focused on Cena . Cena , however , locked Edge in the STFU , but was broken when Triple H hit Cena in the head with a microphone . Triple H then went after Edge and hit him with a chair , sending him over the security wall and into the audience . Lita , who accompanied Edge , entered the ring with a chair to hit Triple H , but Triple H reversed it into a Spinebuster , a move where the wrestler lifts the opponent , turning 180 ° , and then tosses her forward onto her back . Near the end of the match , Cena had Edge on his shoulders for an FU , Triple H then delivered a low blow to Cena , which made Cena drop Edge out of the ring and attempted to execute a Pedigree . Cena , however , countered it into a jackknife roll @-@ up , a hold that has the attacking wrestler lift the opponent 's legs from behind the knees . Still gripping the opponent 's legs , the attacking wrestler then flips forward , over the opponent , and plants their feet on the mat while bridging the back to add leverage . Cena won the match and successfully retained the WWE Championship . After the match , Triple H hit Cena , Edge , and the referee with a sledgehammer , and performed his signature taunt until performing his signature DX cross chops , receiving a standing ovation from the audience , closing the show . = = Aftermath = = On the May 15 episode of Raw , Rob Van Dam lost the WWE Intercontinental Championship to Shelton Benjamin in a rematch . The following week , after John Cena defeated Chris Masters in a singles match , Rob Van Dam came out and informed Cena that he would be cashing in his Money in the Bank contract , that he won at WrestleMania at ECW One Night Stand . On the May 29 episode of Raw , Van Dam was selected by ECW Representative Paul Heyman to be drafted from Raw to WWE 's new ECW brand . At One Night Stand , Cena lost the WWE Championship to Van Dam in an Extreme Rules match . Following the aftermath from Backlash , Kane was confronted by an Imposter Kane , who was wearing Kane 's old mask and ring attire . The Imposter executed a chokeslam on Kane during his match against Shelton Benjamin for the Intercontinental Championship . This rivalry lead to a match between the two at Vengeance , in which the real Kane lost to the Imposter . The McMahons , along with The Spirit Squad , continued their feud with Shawn Michaels . In the weeks that followed , Michaels would get revenge on both the McMahons and the Spirit Squad . On the May 22 episode of Raw , however , Michaels was in a 5 @-@ on @-@ 1 handicap match , and the Spirit Squad members , in storyline , injured Michaels ' left knee . Triple H , who was included during the rivalry , was ordered by Vince McMahon to " break Michaels ' skull " , with his signature sledgehammer . Triple H failed to do what Mr. McMahon ordered , turned into a crowd favorite and attacked the Spirit Squad . Weeks followed in which Triple H was supposed to become a member of Mr. McMahon 's " Kiss My Ass Club " . Triple H , however , backfired when trying to become a member , when he gave a Pedigree to McMahon and laid him and Shane out in the ring . On the June 12 episode of Raw , McMahon booked Triple H in a Handicap Gauntlet match against the Spirit Squad . The match saw Michaels return from his storyline injury , which led to Triple H and Michaels reforming their previous wrestling stable D @-@ Generation X. At Vengeance , DX met the Spirit Squad in a 5 @-@ on @-@ 2 handicap match , which DX won . = = = Reception = = = The event received 273 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys , which was more buys than the previous year 's event received , however , the event made $ 19 @.@ 9 million in revenue , which was less than the previous year 's revenue of $ 21 @.@ 6 million . The event was released on DVD on May 30 , 2006 , by Sony Music Entertainment and reached second on Billboard 's DVD Sales Chart for recreational sports during the week of June 24 , 2006 . = = Results = =
= Werner Erhard ( book ) = Werner Erhard : The Transformation of a Man , The Founding of est is a biography of Werner Erhard by philosophy professor William Warren Bartley , III . The book was published in 1978 by Clarkson Potter . Bartley was professor of philosophy at California State University and had studied with philosopher Karl Popper . He was the author of several books on philosophy , including a biography about Ludwig Wittgenstein . Prior to writing the book , Bartley was a friend of Erhard 's and was involved in his company Erhard Seminars Training ( est ) . While writing the book , Bartley was paid US $ 30 @,@ 000 in the role of philosophical consultant for est . Erhard wrote a foreword to the book . The book 's structure describes Erhard 's education , transformation , reconnection with his family , and the theories of the est training . The book became a bestseller and was well received by graduates of the est training . Reviewers generally commented that the book was favorable to Erhard , and a number of critics felt that it was unduly so , or lacked objectivity , citing Bartley 's close relationship to Erhard . Responses to the writing were mixed ; while some reviewers found it well written and entertaining , others felt the tone was too slick , promotional , or hagiographic . = = Background = = Werner Erhard ( born John Paul Rosenberg ) , a California @-@ based former salesman , training manager and executive in the encyclopedia business , created the Erhard Seminars Training ( est ) course in 1971 @.@ est was a form of Large Group Awareness Training , and was part of the Human Potential Movement. est was a four @-@ day , 60 @-@ hour self @-@ help program given to groups of 250 people at a time . The program was very intensive : each day would contain 15 – 20 hours of instruction . During the training , est personnel utilized jargon to convey key concepts , and participants had to agree to certain rules which remained in effect for the duration of the course . Participants were taught that they were responsible for their life outcomes , and were promised a dramatic change in their self @-@ perception . By 1977 over 100 @,@ 000 people completed the est training , including public figures and mental health professionals. est was widely ridiculed in the popular press and aroused a great deal of controversy . William S. McGurk , a lecturer in Clinical Psychology at Brown University , summarized : Est promises dramatic awakening to its participants by enhancing the capacity to experience oneself . Trainees are given the opportunity to re @-@ examine those belief systems and reflex patterns of living that keep their lives from working . Notions of self @-@ responsibility are central in which we become cause rather than effect through choosing the inevitable . We can be the directors of our own determined fate . Needless to say , accounts of est are fraught with controversy and criticisms abound . Its major critics suggest that est is simply brainwashing . They also suggest that it is fascistic , narcissitic , and too superficial . Nevertheless , what follow @-@ up studies have been done report strong evidence in favor of positive health changes among the respondents after the training ( even though est claims not to be a form of therapy ) Space does not allow for a thorough review of est ’ s principles here . Let it suffice to say that est appears to have a powerful effect on people ’ s lives in a short two weekends . In 1985 , Werner Erhard and Associates repackaged the course as " The Forum " , a seminar focused on " goal @-@ oriented breakthroughs " . By 1988 , approximately one million people had taken some form of the trainings . In the early 1990s Erhard faced family problems , as well as tax problems that were eventually resolved in his favor . In 1991 a group of his associates formed the company Landmark Education , purchasing The Forum 's course " technology " from Erhard . = = Author = = William Warren Bartley , III , professor of philosophy at California State University , prior to writing his biography on Erhard , had authored The Retreat to Commitment , on the epistemology of Sir Karl Popper ; Wittgenstein , a biography of the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein ; edited Lewis Carroll 's Symbolic Logic ; and authored a book titled , Morality and Religion . Bartley was first introduced to est in March 1972 by a doctor whom he had consulted about his nine @-@ year struggle with insomnia . Finding his insomnia cured , he became very involved in the est organization , and served for several years as the company 's philosophical consultant . He received payments of over US $ 30 @,@ 000 in this capacity during the two years he spent writing the book . He also served on the " Advisory Board " of est . Bartley interviewed a number of individuals who were involved in his subject 's life and made use of quotations from a wide array of sources . Bartley commented on his subject in an article on the book in The Evening Independent , stating : " He 's not a huckster , although he 's a great salesman . I think he 's a very good man , a very important man . ... He 's a fascinating man . People are interested in him . " = = Contents = = Life story The book recounts how Erhard 's childhood events , job positions and self @-@ education lead to the development of the est training . Born Jack Rosenberg , Erhard was an inquisitive child who was close to his mother . In his student years , he read profusely and earned superior grades . As a teenager , Eerhard experienced both conflicts with his mother and a growing dissatisfaction with his life . Shortly after graduating from high school he married his girlfriend Pat Campbell , who had become pregnant . Instead of pursuing his plans for higher education , he took on a variety of jobs including meat @-@ packing , heating and plumbing , estimating and selling cars . By the age of 21 , Erhard had become the top car salesman at the dealership he worked for . By the time he was 25 , Erhard and his wife had four children and he was feeling increasingly restless and constrained . He formed a friendship with a woman named June Bryde , which gradually deepened into an affair . He secretly arranged a flight from Philadelphia , Pennsylvania with June in 1960 , leaving behind his wife and their four children , who would not hear from him for twelve years . The couple settled for a time in St Louis , and it was at this time that he changed his name to Werner Erhard with June changing hers to Ellen Erhard . After more work in car sales , Erhard joined the sales staff of Parents Magazine and was rapidly promoted to training manager and eventually appointed Vice @-@ President in 1967 . During this period Erhard moved frequently to different parts of the US as dictated by the demands of the job , finally settling in San Francisco . When Parents Magazine was sold to the Time @-@ Life group , he was recruited by the Grolier Society as Divisional Manager . According to Grolier vice @-@ president John Wirtz the intention of appointing Erhard was that he would bring “ integrity , honesty and straightforwardness ” to their sales practices . Personal search and self @-@ education Shortly after moving to St. Louis Erhard began to embark on a program of inquiry and self @-@ education . Initially he focused on self @-@ improvement books such as Think and Grow Rich by Napoleon Hill and Psycho @-@ Cybernetics by Maxwell Maltz . From there , he widened his search to Human Potential Movement psychologists such as Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers , a range of traditional Western philosophers , and Eastern disciplines such as Zen Buddhism , Taoism , Confucianism , Subud and the Martial arts as well as contemporary movements including Mind Dynamics , and Scientology . Creating the est training Bartley recounts a revelation that Erhard said he had experienced in March 1971 while driving into San Francisco , California to work at Grolier Society . Erhard described to Bartley what the revelation experience felt like : " What happened had no form . It was timeless , unbounded , ineffable , beyond language . " He told Bartley that he realized : " I had to ' clean up ' my life . I had to acknowledge and correct the lies in my life . I saw that the lies that I told about others — my wanting my family , or Ellen ( his second wife ) , or anyone else , to be different from the way that they are -- came from lies that I told about myself -- my wanting to be different from the way that I was . " His desire to share this experience led to the plans formed later that year to create the est training . The first promotional seminar was held in September with over one thousand attendees , and the first est training took place in October 1971 in a San Francisco hotel . In October 1972 , while leading an est session in New York , Erhard realized that the time had come to reconnect with his family after an absence of 12 years . Although his long absence from his family caused them feelings of confusion and pain , he re @-@ established cordial and loving relationships with all of them . His brother and sister became est Trainers and took on prominent roles in the business . He also set up a separate business venture for Ellen that gave her the financial freedom to choose how to structure her life and her relationship with him . Key concepts of the est training as defined by Erhard and described in the book include : Completion : the acknowledgement of actions or decisions taken in the past , and the taking of steps to bring a resolution . Rackets : behavior patterns ostensibly involving complaints about people in one ’ s life , but actually resulting in the perpetuation of the complaint and the securing of a payoff such as dominating the other person . Integrity : being whole and complete , and honoring one ’ s word . In the est context the word is used to depict a matter of workability , rather than with the moral overtones it has in everyday usage . Stories : the interpretations of experiences which are regarded as reality , leading to conflict with other people who have created differing interpretations of the same events . Responsibility : the willingness to accept oneself as the source of outcomes in life – whether welcome or unwelcome – rather than blaming others for them . Intersections The biographical chapters on Erhard are interspersed with chapters that Bartley refers to as “ Intersections ” . These chapters contain Bartley ’ s scholarly overview and analysis of the various disciplines that Werner Erhard explored before founding the est training . = = Reception = = The book was a bestseller in 1978 , taking 8th place on the TIME non @-@ fiction bestseller list of November 20 , 1978 . Bartley told The Evening Independent in February 1979 that the book had sold a total of 110 @,@ 000 copies and gone through five editions . The growing numbers of est graduates contributed to strong sales . Jonathan Lieberson , writing for The New York Review of Books , described the book as " attractively written , never shrill or unduly proselytizing , careful to avoid the hysteria and tribalism that usually characterize the early years of movements like est " , but considered Bartley to have " fallen " for Erhard . Given Bartley 's previous work , Lieberson stated , he might have made an ideal interpreter of Erhard , but he found this expectation " disappointed [ although ] the book is nevertheless instructive " . A review of Werner Erhard in Kirkus Reviews similarly concluded , " Too entranced to be truly objective , Bartley is nonetheless an insightfully partial observer . " Booklist stated that Bartley , as an est student , had made the " mistake of being too close to his subject to be objective or critical . " In Psychology Today , Morris B. Parloff stated that Bartley had written his biography of Erhard " carefully , lovingly , and well " . Kris Jeter , writing in Cults and the Family , commented that " wise researchers know and teach that one should be in love with their research topic " , and counted Bartley 's book among several in which " this love was highly evident " . Steve McNamarra , in the Pacific Sun , said that the book was " clearly written and , while basically sympathetic " was not " an adulatory ' house job ' . " McNamarra found the sections detailing Erhard 's " soap opera " , making up three @-@ quarters of the book , the easiest to read , while the " intersections " , passages in which Bartley provided concise summaries of the philosophical traditions underpinning Erhard 's est training , were tougher but ultimately rewarding . Kenneth Wayne Thomas , in Intrinsic Motivation at Work , described the book as " somewhat sympathetic " to Erhard and the est philosophy ; Steve Jackson , writing in Westword , similarly included it among " books sympathetic to Erhard , est and Landmark " , written by an " old friend of Erhard 's " . Stephen Goldstein , in a Washington Post review , said Bartley had made it " obvious from the start that he cares about his subject and his own est experience " and had told " a rather simple , straightforward story that pretty much lets you draw your own conclusions [ about Erhard ] or keep the ones you have already reached . " A reviewer in Choice : Current Reviews for Academic Libraries stated he was " enthusiastic about this book " , praising the " personal quality [ of ] the narrative , which , though , sometimes becomes overly detailed . " He highly recommended the book for general and college libraries focused on the social sciences . Other commentators felt that the book was unduly favourable to Erhard . A review of the book in The Christian Century stated that Bartley had got " sucked into " writing a " promo on Erhard , founder of one of the pseudo @-@ therapies of the ' 70s . " The Los Angeles Times commented that " [ Bartley 's ] philosophical justification of est as a mishmash of totalitarianism , hucksterism and existentialism makes this book more a public relations product than an objective study . " A Chicago Tribune review described the book as a " painstaking [ ... ] act of devotion " that nevertheless failed in its mission : " No one reading it is likely to agree with Bartley that the founder of est is a philosopher and spiritual leader of Gandhian magnitude except the already convinced . " James R. Fisher , in Six Silent Killers : Management 's Greatest Challenge , and Suzanne Snider , writing for The Believer magazine , referred to Bartley 's book as a " hagiography " , and Rachel Jones of Noseweek considered the book " sycophantic " . A review in The Evening Independent described Bartley as Erhard 's " friend and admitted booster " , telling his " often @-@ sordid story in detail . " E. C. Dennis , writing for Library Journal , found that Bartley 's work " has a slick tone and more than a trace of hero worship " . Dennis acknowledged that the book gave " the full details of Erhard 's ' soap opera , ' often in his own words , " but was critical of Bartley 's writing , saying he cast " a Freud 's @-@ eye @-@ view on his subject 's youthful failings , but after the famous ' transformation ' his tone becomes almost reverential . " Dennis stated that the book failed to ask important questions , but that large public libraries should carry a copy , given its status as an " authorized " biography .
= Humphrey Atherton = Major @-@ General Humphrey Atherton , ( ca.1608 – September 16 , 1661 ) an early settler of Dorchester , Massachusetts , held the highest military rank in colonial New England . He first appeared in the records of Dorchester on March 18 , 1637 and made freeman May 2 , 1638 . He became a representative in the General Court in 1638 and 1639 – 41 . In 1653 , he was Speaker of the House , representing Springfield , Massachusetts . He was chosen assistant governor , a member of the lower house of the General Court who also served as magistrate in the judiciary of colonial government , in 1654 , and remained as such until his death . " He was a member of the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company of Massachusetts and held the ranks of lieutenant and captain for several years before rising to the rank of major @-@ general . He also organized the first militia in Massachusetts . It is unclear where and when Atherton was born . It is presumed he came from Lancashire , England . He was active in the governance of the colony , taking part in the acquisition of Native American lands , the persecution of Quakers , and the apprehension and convictions of heretics . His accidental death was seen by the Quakers as a punishment from God for his persecution of them , an idea repeated in a play by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow . He was one of the most successful land speculators in the New England colonies . He and his wife , Mary , had a number of children and several New England families have traced their ancestry to them . He is interred at Dorchester North Burying Ground , one of the oldest cemeteries in New England . = = Origin and emigration = = Humphrey Atherton 's date and place of birth are uncertain . It has been presumed by some that he was born in Lancashire , England , because the name Atherton is prominent there . However , genealogist Robert Charles Anderson , in The Great Migration , states that this " does not come close to constituting proof of origin . " The date of 1608 is sometimes given as his date of birth because Edmund Atherton of Wigan Lancashire , England died in 1612 leaving , as his heir , a four @-@ year @-@ old son named Humphrey . However , Duane Hamilton Hurd , in History of Norfolk County , Massachusetts stated that Atherton was 36 years old when he died in 1661 . On the other hand , Charles Samuel Hall in Hall Ancestry , pointed out that when Atherton was made freeman and was granted property in 1638 , " he must at that time reached his majority . " A descendant of his , Charles H. Atherton , said that Humphrey Atherton , his wife and three young children arrived at the colony in the ship James , August 7 , 1635 , but there is no record of this . His descendant further said that Atherton and his wife were each about 15 years old when they were married . There is a record of Nathaniel Wales having voyaged on the James . Wales referred to Humphrey Atherton as his " brother @-@ in @-@ law " in his will , so it has been assumed that Atherton 's wife , Mary , was Wales ' sister . However , the term may have been used because Atherton 's daughter , Isabel , was married to Nathaniel Wales , Jr . The identity of his wife is unknown . = = Political and military life = = Atherton had a very active public life having power and taking part in the law making , enforcing and interpreting affairs of the colony . Subsequent to his acceptance as a freeman , in 1638 , he was frequently selectman or treasurer , and for several years a member of the Court of Assistants which gave him a say in the appointment of governors as well as judicial power in criminal and civil matters . In 1638 and 1639 – 41 he was a governor 's assistant in the General Court , and in 1653 , he was Speaker of the House , leader of the Court of Deputies , which was the lower house of the General Court , representing Springfield , Massachusetts . He was also " long a justice of the peace , and solemnized many marriages " . One of the marriages over which he officiated was that of Myles Standish , Jr. and Sarah Winslow . Atherton was a member of the Ancient and Honorable Artillery and he organized the first trained band ( militia ) in Dorchester . As Major @-@ General in the Suffolk Regiment , he was the senior military officer in New England. which included the responsibilities of subduing and controlling Native Americans and apprehending criminals , such as those accused of heresy . In 1644 he [ Atherton ] was sent , with Captains Johnson and Cook , to Narragansett to arrest and try Samuel Gorton for heresy . It is hoped that Gorton 's complaint of his treatment was exaggerated , for he said , in passing through Dorchester . ' A large concourse of persons assembled with several ministers to witness the passage of the troops , and the prisoners were stationed apart and volleys of musketry fired over their heads in token of victory . ' " = = = Other persecutions = = = Harlow Elliot Woodword , in Epitaphs from the Old Burying Ground in Dorchester , said that Atherton had believed in witches and " felt it to be a duty which he owed to God and to his Country to mete out to the poor creatures , against whom accusations were brought , the punishment , which , in his opinion , they so richly merited . " Woodward said that , in his capacity as assistant , Atherton had been instrumental in bringing about the execution of Mrs. Ann Hibbins , a wealthy widow , who was executed for witchcraft on June 19 , 1656 . Hibbins was later fictionalized in Nathaniel Hawthorne 's The Scarlet Letter . In that book she was depicted as the sister of Governor Bellingham . Atherton was involved in the persecution of Quakers and there are two incidents in particular that the Quakers wrote about in relationship to Atherton . First , the case of Mary Dyer , a Quaker who was executed in 1660 after returning to Boston despite banishment . Atherton was assistant governor at the time , and at her hanging he was said to have remarked , " She hangs there like a flag . " The Quakers understood this comment to be an insulting boast . Secondly , there was the case of Wenlock Christison , a Quaker who had repeatedly returned to Massachusetts despite banishment , whose trial in May , 1661 put an end to the execution of Quakers . He was sentenced to death , but the law was changed soon after , and he was not executed . He was the last Quaker to be sentenced to death in Massachusetts . The Quakers believed that during an altercation between the accused and Atherton at the trial , Christison prophesied the outcome of his trial as well as the circumstances of Atherton 's untimely death . Quaker writer George Bishop wrote , " Yea , Wenlock Christison , though they did not put him to death , yet they sentenced him to die , so that their cruel purposes were nevertheless . I cannot forbear to mention what he spoke , being so prophetical , not only as to the judgment of God coming on Major @-@ general Adderton , but as to their putting any more Quakers to death after they had passed sentence on him . " Henry Wadsworth Longfellow recreated the Christison trial in his play John Endicott which included the damnation of Atherton by the accused . = = Relationship with Native Americans = = Ebenezer Clapp , in The History of Dorchester said of Atherton , " He had great experience and skill in the treatment of the Indians , with whom his public duties brought him in frequent contact . He manifested much humanity and sympathy for their ignorant and degraded condition , but exercised great energy and decision of character when necessary . " In 1637 the colonists had sided with the Mohegans in the Pequot War , which wiped out most of the Pequot people . By the early 1640s tensions were building between the Mohegans and the Narragansetts . " In 1645 , the New England Colonies met by representatives to consult upon the Indian problem , and appointed a Council of War ; Capt. Miles Standish , of Plymouth , was chairman . Mason of Connecticut , Leverett and Atherton of Massachusetts , were the other councilors " . The New England colonies , with the exception of Rhode Island , formed a confederation called " The Four United Colonies of New England " . Rhode Island , according to The Proceedings of the Rhode Island Historical Society , 1881 – 1882 , was excluded , not for reasons of religious differences , but because its founder , Roger Williams , had been banished from Massachusetts " for denying the right of the magistrates to take the lands of the Indians with out compensating the owners " . The United Colonies obtained Narragansett lands within the boundaries of Rhode Island by putting in motion a series of events that began with their promise of aid to the Mohegan Sachem , Uncas , whom they had supported during the Pequot War , if he declared war against the Narragansett Sachem , Miantinomo . During the ensuing war , Miantinomo was captured and brought to the commissioners of the Four United Colonies at Hartford . " After obtaining him as a captive , they could find no excuse for putting him to death ; and , to avoid the responsibility , they referred his case for decision to a convention of ministers in Boston ; [ sic ] Winthrop states , ' Miantinomo was killed near Hartford by a blow on the back of his head with a hatchet . ' " The Connecticut settlers demanded land from Uncas in return for their assistance to him . " Trumbull states , ' Mr. Leffingwell obtained nearly the whole township of Norwich for his services . ' " Miantinomo 's successor , Pessicus , declared war against Uncas and the colonies fined him 2000 fathoms of wampum for causing the hostilities , which he was unable to pay . " " Humphrey Atherton was sent by the commissioners of the Four Colonies , with twenty armed men , to enforce the payment . As stated in Arnold 's history of Rhode Island ( vol. i . , p . 199 ) , ' Atherton forced his way , pistol in hand , into the wigwam , and , seizing the Sachem by the hair , dragged him out , threatening instant death if any resistance was offered . ' The debt was settled by Pessicus giving a mortgage of all his lands to the commissioners of the Four Colonies . " In 1658 , Atherton came into contact with Native Americans again when he was appointed by the General Court to the post of Superintendent of Indian Affairs , overseeing the praying Indians ; Nipmuck Indians who had been converted to Christianity by John Eliot . He held that position until his death . " Though a terror to warlike Indians , yet he was the trusted friend of all who were well disposed , helping on their education and Christianizing , and guarding their rights , so that he had immense personal influence with them , and was a successful treaty @-@ maker " . = = Land speculation = = Humphrey Atherton was a successful land speculator . The land he owned in Dorchester included a large portion of South Boston . He also owned a share in what became Milton , Massachusetts . The General Court awarded 500 acres ( 2 @.@ 0 km2 ) to him for his public service , but because some of it impeded the town on Hadley , Massachusetts , he was given a new grant that had an additional 200 acres ( 0 @.@ 81 km2 ) . Since he had represented Springfield in the General Court , he probably owned land in Springfield as well . When he died , his estate was worth 900 pounds , not including much of his land . Atherton " played a key role in fighting and removing Indians from land he later owned . " In 1659 , he and some friends , including Connecticut Governor , John Winthrop , Jr . , made some purchases of land from Native Americans on the western side of Narragansett Bay for which Rhode Island had claimed . The group , referred to as the Atherton Company , circumvented Rhode Island 's law by acquiring the land when the Natives defaulted on a loan . In 1660 , commissioners of the Four Colonies , of whom John Winthrop , Jr. was one , transferred ownership of the mortgage of Pessicus 's land to the Atherton Company for 735 fathoms of wampum . The Company then foreclosed on the mortgage . The land included the Narragansett property within the bounds of Rhode Island . Rhode Island found this transference of land to be illegal and prevented the sale of the land for several years . The company , which changed its name to " Proprietors of the Narragansett Country , " eventually did sell 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 20 km2 ) of the land to Huguenot immigrants who began a colony there called Frenchtown . The Huguenots lost the land when , in 1688 , a Royal Commission determined the Atherton claim to be illegal . = = Death = = Humphrey Atherton died , September 16 , 1661 , from head injuries sustained in a fall from his horse . He was traveling through Boston Common , on his way home after drilling his troops when his mount collided with a cow . Woodward , aforementioned author of Epitaphs from the Old Burying Ground in Dorchester , said that because of Atherton 's persecution of the Quakers , " they believed his horrible death to be God 's visitation of wrath . " Woodword credits Joseph Besse , a Quaker author , with the following account of Atherton 's death : " ' Humfray Adderton , who at the trial of Wenlock Christison , did , as it were , bid defiance to Heaven , by saying to Wenlock , ' You pronounce Woes and Judgements , and those that are gone before you pronounced Woes and Judgements ; but the Judgements of the Lord God are not upon us yet , ' was suddenly surprised : having been , on a certain day , exercising his men with much pomp and ostentation , he was returning home in the evening , near the place where they usually loosed the Quakers from the cart , after they had whipped them , his horse , suddenly affrighted , threw him with such violence , that he instantly died ; his eyes being dashed out of his head , and his brains coming out of his nose , his tongue hanging out at his mouth , and the blood running out at his ears : Being taken up and brought into the Courthouse , the place where he had been active in sentencing the innocent to death , his blood ran through the floor , exhibiting to the spectators a shocking instance of the Divine vengeance against a daring and hardened persecutor ; that made a fearful example of that divine judgment , which , when forewarned of , he had openly despised , and treated with disdain . ' " Longfellow repeated this sentiment in his account of Atherton 's death in the final scene of John Endicott . In the scene Governor Endicott , while speaking to Richard Bellingham , asks if it is true that Humphrey Atherton is dead . Bellingham confirms that he is and adds , " His horse took fright , and threw him to the ground , so that his brains were dashed about the street . " Endicott responds , " I am not superstitions , Bellingham , and yet I tremble lest it may have been a judgment on him . " Humphrey Atherton , whose wife , Mary died in 1672 @.@ is interred at the Dorchester North Burying Place in Boston . Engraved upon his tombstone are the following words : Here lies our Captain & Major of Suffolk was withall ; A godly magistrate was he , and Major General ; Two troop horse with him here comes , such worth his love did crave Two companies of foot also mourning march to his grave , Let all that read be sure to keep the faith as he has done With Christ he lives now crowned , his name was Humphrey Atherton . = = Legacy = = Humphrey Atherton and his wife , Mary , had twelve children . Jonathan was their first born and was probably born in England , as was Isabel , who married Nathaniel Wales , Jr . Elizabeth was married to Timothy Mather and Margaret was married to James Trowbridge . Mary was born 1636 and married to William Billings and Joseph Weeks . Rest was born 1639 and married Obadiah Swift . Increase was baptized February , 1641 and died at sea . Thankful was born 1644 and married Thomas Bird of Dorchester . Their son , Hope , was born 1646 . He was minister of Hadley , Massachusetts and married Sarah Hollister . Their son , Consider , married Ann Anibal . Watching , who was born 1651 , married Elizabeth Rigbee . Patience , born in 1654 , married Issac Humphrey . Among the family genealogies that the Humphrey Atherton family are included in are The History of the Dorchester Pope Family : 1634 – 1888 , by Charles Henry Pope and Hall Ancestry , by Charles Samuel Hall . George Caster Martin traced his ancestry to Atherton in his article Humphrey Atherton : Founder of the Atherton Family of New England in National Genealogical Society Quarterly , Volume 1 , Issue 4 . In the National Genealogical Society Quarterly , Volume 60 , some of Humphrey Atherton 's descendants are included in the Belcher Genealogy . In the same volume , Samuel Edward Atherton 's ancestry was traced to Humphrey Atherton . William B. Task claimed descent from Atherton in the 1899 New England Historical Genealogical Register . = = = Notable descendants = = = Susan B. Anthony , woman @-@ suffrage advocate and lecturer Robert Hutchings Goddard , rocket scientist and space pioneer , inventor of liquid @-@ fueled rocket King Leka I , King of the Albanians Alfred Lee Loomis , physicist and financier Henry Lewis Stimson , U.S. Secretary of War Raquel Welch ( AKA : Jo Raquel Tejada ) , entertainer T. V. John Langworthy , songwriter singer
= Para @-@ alpine skiing classification = Para @-@ alpine skiing classification is the classification system for para @-@ alpine skiing designed to ensure fair competition between alpine skiers with different types of disabilities . The classifications are grouped into three general disability types : standing , blind and sitting . Classification governance is handled by International Paralympic Committee Alpine Skiing . Prior to that , several sport governing bodies dealt with classification including the International Sports Organization for the Disabled ( ISOD ) , International Stoke Mandeville Games Federation ( ISMWSF ) , International Blind Sports Federation ( IBSA ) and Cerebral Palsy International Sports and Recreation Association ( CP @-@ ISRA ) . Some classification systems are governed by bodies other than International Paralympic Committee Alpine Skiing , such as the Special Olympics . The sport is open to all competitors with a visual or physical disability . It is not open to people with intellectual disabilities . The first classification systems for para @-@ alpine skiing were developed in Scandinavia in the 1960s , with early systems designed for skiers with amputations . At the time , equipment had yet to be developed to allow participation for skiers with spinal cord injuries . The goal of the early classification systems was to be functional but ended up being medical classification systems . At the first Winter Paralympics in 1976 , there were two classifications for the sport . By the 1980s , classification existed for skiers with cerebral palsy . At that time , with inspiration from wheelchair basketball classification , efforts were made to make classification more of a functional system . Ten classes existed by the 1980s , and since then , efforts have been made to improve the efficiency of classification by reducing the number of classes so fewer medals can be rewarded . Competition rules for classes use rules set by or modified from rules created by the International Ski Federation . For skiers with visual impairments , guides are used to assist the skier down the course . For standing skiers , different class rules determine what sort of equipment is allowed in competition , such as one pole , two poles or no poles , or one or two skis . Sit skiers use a specially designed ski called a mono @-@ ski . Skiers are classified based on medical assessment , and their body position when they ski . Blind skiers are evaluated purely on a medical assessment . = = Definition = = The para @-@ alpine skiing classification system ensures fair competition in the sport by categorising skiers according to their functional mobility or vision impairment . Classification for amputees is based on their mobility with the use of an assistive device . People with cerebral palsy in classifications from CP1 to CP8 are covered by skiing classifications . Skiers from CP5 to CP8 compete standing up with the use of equipment . The blind classifications are based on medical classification , not functional classification . In 1995 , the classifications for skiing were LW1 , LW2 , LW3 , LW4 , LW5 / 7 , LW6 / 8 , and LW9 , where LW stands for Locomotor Winter . There were three sit @-@ ski classifications : LW10 , LW11 and LW12 . Classification for competitors with cerebral palsy is difficult because the levels of spasticity can change as the race progresses . There are 9 standing classifications , on a gradient of most severe being LW1 and LW9 being the least severe . Sit skiing has three classifications , LW10 , LW11 and LW12 . These are grouped from the most severe at LW10 to least severe at LW12 . LW10 have T5 @-@ T10 paraplegia . In 2010 , there were three vision impaired classifications , B1 , B2 and B3 . These classifications based on a gradient with B1 being the most severe and B3 being the least severe , with B3 skiers having vision around 2 / 60 to 6 / 60 . Beyond the level of vision impairment , research done at the Central Institute on Employment Abilities of the Handicapped in Moscow has found differences in functional capabilities based on differences in visual acuity , which plays a significant role in skiing . In 1997 , one of the international alpine skiing classifiers was Mirre Kipfer . She said " Sometimes athletes try to cheat , to hide what they can really do . They are athletes who want to be in a class that is more advantageous to for them . In testing and classification they don 't show what they can really do . They try to show that they are not able to do some movement , and that is why we have started functional testing . " She goes on to say " The second problem is that when you have a very good athlete who is very well trained in the sport , you don 't want to punish that person for their good performance . He or she might be an elite athlete doing a very good sport performance , and you might be tempted to say ' OK , he is doing so well he must be in another class . ' We do try to get fewer classes so that we don 't get , for example , 10 or 12 gold medals in alpine sports . We try to review the classes , but you always have borderline classes and it is always difficult . In winter the aim is to have three classes , like sitting , standing and blind : that is certainly the future that we are all looking to . " = = Governance = = Para @-@ alpine skiing is governed by the International Paralympic Committee Alpine Skiing . In the sport 's early history , the International Sports Organization for the Disabled ( ISOD ) , founded in 1964 , governed the sport . In 1980 , there were two governing bodies handling classification , ISOD and the International Stoke Mandeville Games Federation ( ISMWSF ) . ISMWSF was in charge of classification for athletes with spinal cord related disabilities . In 1981 , the International Blind Sports Federation ( IBSA ) was created , and took over governance for skiers with visual impairments . In 2003 , ISMWSF merged with ISOD , and changed its name to the International Wheelchair and Amputee Sports Federation ( IWAS ) in 2004 . While the Cerebral Palsy International Sports and Recreation Association ( CP @-@ ISRA ) has an interest in the sport because it is open to people with cerebral palsy , it is not governed by them . In 1983 , the rules for this sport and approval for classification was done by the CP @-@ ISRA , but in 2002 , the rules governing the sport , including classification , were set by the 1994 IPC Handbook . In the United States , the sport is governed by Disabled Sports USA for skiers with functional mobility , and governed by the United States Association of Blind Athletes ( USABA ) for skiers with vision impairment , while Special Olympics governs the sport and classification for people with intellectual disabilities . = = Eligibility = = The sport is open to all competitors with a visual or physical disability . It is not open to people with intellectual disabilities . In 1983 , Cerebral Palsy @-@ International Sports and Recreation Association ( CP @-@ ISRA ) set the eligibility rules for classification for this sport . They defined cerebral palsy as a non @-@ progressive brain lesion that results in impairment . People with cerebral palsy or non @-@ progressive brain damage were eligible for classification by them . The organisation also dealt with classification for people with similar impairments . For their classification system , people with spina bifida were not eligible unless they had medical evidence of loco @-@ motor dysfunction . People with cerebral palsy and epilepsy were eligible provided the condition did not interfere with their ability to compete . People who had strokes were eligible for classification following medical clearance . Competitors with multiple sclerosis , muscular dystrophy and arthrogryposis were not eligible for classification by CP @-@ ISRA , but were eligible for classification by International Sports Organisation for the Disabled for the Games of Les Autres . The sport was not open to competitors with intellectual disabilities in 2002 . = = History = = The earliest classification systems for the sport were developed in Scandinavia . Classification for winter sport started out as a medical one before moving to a functional system . The original classification system was for amputees , with classification based on the type of amputation as determined by a medical expert . Other classes of disability were not eligible to compete . During the 1970s , equipment was developed for skiers with spinal injuries and a classification system had yet to become fully developed for the sport . Going into the first winter Paralympic Games , the 1976 Winter Paralympics , the organisers had a difference of opinion with Paralympic Games founder Ludwig Guttmann , because they wanted a functional classification , not medical classification system , from the onset . They largely succeeded , although the system that ended up being used was developed in Örnsköldsvik , Sweden , based on equipment utilised by the skier instead of a true functional classification system . The 1976 Winter Paralympics were the first time that classifications other than spinal cord injury classifications competed at the Paralympic Games . There were only two classifications for alpine skiing . One athlete from Austria with a spinal disability as a result of polio competed in an alpine event . He was able to ski from a standing position and competed against amputee skiers . In 1983 , classification for cerebral palsy competitors in alpine skiing was done by the Cerebral Palsy @-@ International Sports and Recreation Association . The classification used the classification system designed for track events . There were five cerebral palsy classifications . During the 1980s , there were 3 sit @-@ ski classes and 7 other classes . During the 1980s , while not formally part of the para @-@ skiing classification system , intellectual disability alpine skiing classes did exist as part of the Special Olympics movement . By 1984 , there were four organisations governing classification for the sport . They included ISOD , ISMGF , IBSA and CP @-@ ISRA . In 1985 , Swedish Brigitta Blomqwist , Swiss Andre Deville and Austrian Richard Altenberger began to develop a classification system for mono @-@ skiing . Their classification system was put into use in competition in 1988 . Prior to 1988 , the classification assessment process generally involved a medical exam to determine the classification . The change in winter disability sport classification towards a more formal functional classification system happened more quickly as a result of changes being made in wheelchair basketball classification that started in 1983 . Sit skiing was not included on the Paralympic programme . Norway worked to change this by added sit skiing classifications to the World Championships in 1986 . The move from a medical classification to a functional classification system was still taking place during the 1990s . Vision impaired , cerebral palsy and amputee classifications representing standing classifications were the only ones eligible for the Paralympics prior to the 1998 Winter Paralympics , when sit @-@ ski classifications were added . By 2002 , there were three vision impaired classifications . For the 2002 Winter Paralympics , for the Winter Paralympics , the Games Classifiers were Mirre Kipfer , Bob Harney , Richard Altenberger and Dr. Ann @-@ Sophie von Celsing . The Games Classifiers for vision impairment classifications were Roman Tolmatschev , Johan Wirsching and Axel Bolsinger . There were fourteen classifications for the sport , with four of them for sit @-@ skiing , seven for standing and three for vision impairment . A factoring system was used when there were not enough competitors in a class and the classes had to be combined . This was modified for the 2006 Winter Paralympics , with skiers being grouped into one of three categories based on a skiers functional ability : vision impaired , standing and sitting . The 14 classes still exist , but against these three groups with different classes having their results factored based on average historical performances inside that classification . The debate about inclusion of competitors into able @-@ bodied competitions was seen by some disability sport advocates like Horst Strokhkendl as a hindrance to the development of an independent classification system not based on the rules for able @-@ bodied sport . At the time , sport administrators were trying to get disability skiing into able bodied competitions like the Olympics . These efforts ended by 1993 as the International Paralympic Committee tried to carve out its own identity and largely ceased efforts for inclusion of disability sport on the Olympic programme . The sport was one sports people with disabilities were more likely to participate in during the 1990s . During the 1990s , there were conversations about whether or not less @-@ disabled wintersport athletes should be competing in disability winter sport and if they should instead be competing against able bodied competitors . At the same time , there were people including IPC first vice president Jens Bromann who entertained discussions about whether or not blind classifications should be combined into a single class like is done in some other disabilities sports . In 2006 , skiers with amputation still had a medical component to their classification assessment . The three @-@ group classification system , which utilized the Realistic Handicap Competition and Kreative Renn Ergebnis Kontolle ( RHC @-@ KREK ) , was used for the first time at the Paralympics . The decision to use the RHC @-@ KREK and limit it to medals for the three groups was made at the IPC Aline Skiing Sports Assembly in October 2004 in order to limit the number of potential medals being offered . It was implemented immediately for all IPC Paralympic Games and IPC World Championships . The system has been criticized because it relies on historical data from individual skiing competitors inside their own class , with out taking into account conditions that could slow a skier such as temperature , visibility and precipitation . Going forward , disability sport 's major classification body , the International Paralympic Committee , is working on improving classification to be more of an evidence @-@ based system as opposed to a performance @-@ based system so as not to punish elite athletes whose performance makes them appear in a higher class alongside competitors who train less . = = Sports = = Three classifications exist for skiers with visual disabilities . Vision impaired skiers generally follow the same rules as sighted skiers laid out by the International Ski Federation . The major difference is skiers in this group follow sighted guides who give the skiers vocal directions on where to ski . The guide for B1 skiers generally skis behind the skier in order to maximize the ability of the skier to hear the guide . The guide tells the skier things like when weight should be shifted , elements coming up on the course , and how to position themselves to maximize the diagonal run of the course . Guides for B2 and B3 skiers often position themselves differently as the skiers have some vision , which means the things a guide assists with will be different from what is required of a skier who has almost no sight . Standing skiers generally follow the same rules as sighted skiers laid out by the International Ski Federation . They may wear a prosthesis , use modified length ski poles , and / or use a ski pole called an outrigger that had a small ski on the end . LW1 skiers use two poles but may ski on one or two skis . LW2 skiers use one ski and two poles . LW3 , LW4 skiers use two skis and two poles . LW5 and LW7 skiers do not use poles . LW6 and LW8 skiers use two ski and one pole . Sit skiers generally follow the same rules as sighted skiers laid out by the International Ski Federation . They use a mono @-@ ski , which has a specially fitted chair attached to the single ski . The skiers also use outrigrer poles to aid in balance . The monoskis are sometimes called tubs or buckets . Wheelchair users are classified as sit @-@ skiers . Classifications were combined for one event in 2002 when there were fewer than six competitors in a single class . When classes are combined , a percentage system is used to determine the winner of a race . The Canadian Paralympic Committee explains how this works with the following example : " Athlete A is classified as LW6 with a factor of 91 % finishes the race in 1 minute , their final race time is 54 @.@ 6 seconds . Athlete B is classified as LW5 with a factor of 79 % finishes the race in 1 minute and 2 seconds , their final race time is 48 @.@ 98 seconds . Athlete B wins . Therefore , the athlete who completed the race fastest may not be the winner and gold medalist . " = = Process = = In general , classification for all para @-@ alpine skiers looks at which equipment is utilized by a skier and their body position when they ski . Sit @-@ skiers who are in the wheelchair group are assessed based on the residual muscle strength and level of spinal cord injury . For skiers with a visual impairment , their classification is handled by the International Blind Sports Association . They are tested based on medical classification by an Ophthalmologist . For Australian competitors in this sport , the sport and classification is managed the national sport federation with support from the Australian Paralympic Committee . There are three types of classification available for Australian competitors : Provisional , national and international . The first is for club level competitions , the second for state and national competitions , and the third for international competitions . = = At the Paralympic Games = = The sport was introduced at the 1976 Winter Paralympics . At the 1988 Games , the Giant Slalom was an exhibition event for amputee classified skiers . At the 1992 Winter Paralympics , all disability types were eligible to participate , with classification being run through the International Paralympic Committee , with classification being done based on blind , amputee and sitting disability types . Downhill was open to the LW classification , the Super G had a blind event and an LW event , the Giant was open to blind and LW classes , and the slalom was open to the LW classification . At the 2002 Winter Paralympics , the blind skiers skied first , followed by the sit skiing classified skiers , with the standing classes skiing last . Going into the Games , skiers had to have their classification recorded by a chief classifier by 14 February 2001 , with the chief classifiers requiring to submit any amendments by 31 March 2001 . This list was then sent to National Paralympic Committees ( NPC ) by 27 April 2001 , with an ability to send in amendments again by 7 August 2001 . Any discrepancies between the IPC list and NPC lists were reviewed in August 2001 . A final master list for classifications was sent by the IPC to the NPCs on 7 September 2001 . On 27 January 2002 , the IPC sent a classification evaluation schedule to NPCs . At the 2010 Winter Paralympics the LW5 and LW7 events were combined , as were LW6 and LW8 events . There were 25 men and 18 women in the downhill standing classes , 25 men and 10 women in the downhill sitting classes , and 12 men and 10 women in the downhill vision impaired classes . In the Super Combined , there were 18 men and 14 women in the standing event , 18 men and 10 women in the sitting classes , and 10 men and 10 women in the vision impaired classes .
= Joseph Berchtold = Joseph Berchtold ( 6 March 1897 – 23 August 1962 ) was an early senior Nazi Party member and a co @-@ founder of both the Sturmabteilung ( SA ) and Schutzstaffel ( SS ) . Berchtold served in World War I and upon Germany 's defeat joined the German Workers ' Party ( DAP ) a small right @-@ wing extremist organization at the time . He remained in the party after it became known as the National Socialist German Workers ' Party ( Nazi Party ; NSDAP ) and went on the become the second commander of the Schutzstaffel ( SS ) from April 1926 to March 1927 . After resigning as the SS leader , Berchtold spent much of his time writing for Nazi magazines and journals . He survived the war , but was arrested by the Allies . Berchtold was later released and died on 23 August 1962 . He was the last surviving person to hold the rank of Reichsführer @-@ SS and the only one to survive under it during the Second World War . = = Early life = = Born on 6 March 1897 in Ingolstadt , Berchtold attended school in Munich from 1903 to 1915 . He went on to serve in the Royal Bavarian Army during World War I ( 1914 @-@ 18 ) and held the rank of second lieutenant at the wars end . After the war , he studied economics at the University of Munich and gained employment as a journalist . In early 1920 , he joined the small right @-@ wing extremist group the German Workers ' Party ( DAP ) . He remained in the party after it became known as the National Socialist German Workers ' Party ( Nazi Party ; NSDAP ) . Berchtold became the treasurer of the Nazi Party , until he resigned at the end of July , 1921 . = = SA Career = = Upon re @-@ joining the party in 1922 , Berchtold became a member of the Sturmabteilung ( " Storm Detachment " ; SA ) , a paramilitary wing formed to protect its speakers at rallies , and to police Nazi meetings . Adolf Hitler , leader of the party since 1921 , ordered the formation of a small separate bodyguard dedicated to his protection only instead of a suspected mass of the party in 1923 . Originally the unit was composed of only eight men , commanded by Julius Schreck and Berchtold . It was designated the Stabswache ( " Staff Guard " ) . Later that year , the unit was renamed Stoßtrupp @-@ Hitler ( " Shock Troop @-@ Hitler " ) . On 9 November 1923 the Stoßtrupp , along with the SA and several other paramilitary units , took part in what would become known as the Beer Hall Putsch . The plan was to take control of Munich and then seize total power in Berlin . The coup d 'état failed and resulted in the death of 16 Nazi supporters and 4 police officers . In the aftermath of the putsch both Hitler and other Nazi leaders were incarcerated at Landsberg Prison . The Nazi Party and all associated formations , including the Stoßtrupp , were officially disbanded . Berchtold then left Germany and fled to Tirol , Austria . Berchtold was tried in absentia before the special People 's Court in Munich in 1924 for his role in the Beer Hall Putsch and sentenced to a prison term . During his time in Austria , Berchtold continued to be involved with Nazi Party activities , even though it was illegal . When Hitler was released from prison on 20 December 1924 , Berchtold was District Director of the Nazi Party in Carinthia , Austria and was leader of the SA there . After the re @-@ formation of the Nazi Party on 20 February 1925 , he again joined the party , documented as member # 964 . In March 1926 , Berchtold returned to Munich from Austria . He became chief of the SA in Munich . = = SS Career = = On 15 April 1926 , Berchtold became the successor to Schreck as chief of the Schutzstaffel ( " Protection Squadron " ; SS ) , a special elite branch of the party under the control of the SA . Berchtold changed the title of the office position which became known as the Reichsführer @-@ SS . He issued new rules to establish the position of the SS . The rules stated the unit was " ... neither a military organisation nor a group of hangers @-@ on , but a small squad of men that our movement and our Führer can rely on . " He further stressed that the men must follow " only party discipline " . He was considered to be more dynamic than his predecessor , but was still unable to keep the party organizers at bay . He was frustrated in his efforts to have a more independent unit and became disillusioned by the SA 's authority over the SS . On 1 March 1927 , he handed over leadership of the SS to his deputy Erhard Heiden . = = After the SS = = In 1927 , he became a lead writer for Völkischer Beobachter , the Nazi Party newspaper . From 1928 to 1945 , Berchtold was a SA leader on the staff of the Supreme SA leadership ( OSAF ) . In 1934 , he became the permanent deputy editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the Völkischer Beobachter newspaper . In the following years , he operated primarily as a journalist and propagandist . In 1928 , Berchtold founded the newspaper SA @-@ Mann ( " SA Man " ) . Until January 1938 , he was the main writer of the paper , which was published by the OSAF . Berchtold was also the author of various Nazi publications and staff of additional magazines . Additional posts in Nazi Germany were of secondary importance to Berchtold . From March 1934 to the end of the war , Berchtold was city councilman of the town councilor in Munich . On 15 November 1935 , Berchtold was appointed to the Reich Culture Senator . Furthermore , he belonged to the " Cultural Circle of the SA " since 6 March 1936 . He belonged to the Reichstag from 29 March 1936 , forward . From 29 April 1940 , Berchtold served as a captain of the reserve on a temporary basis in the Wehrmacht . = = Post @-@ war = = After World War II in Europe ended in early May 1945 , Berchtold was temporarily in Allied detention . He was released and later died on 23 August 1962 . = = SA promotions = = = = Awards and decorations = = Iron Cross ( 1914 ) 2nd Class The Honour Cross of the World War 1914 / 1918 Blood Order Honour Chevron for the Old Guard Golden Party Badge Nazi Party Long Service Award ( bronze , silver , gold )
= Das Bus = " Das Bus " is the fourteenth episode of The Simpsons ' ninth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 15 , 1998 . In an extended parody of Lord of the Flies , Bart , Lisa and other children from Springfield Elementary School are stranded on an island and are forced to work together . Meanwhile , Homer founds his own Internet company . It was written by David S. Cohen and directed by Pete Michels . Guest star James Earl Jones narrates the final scene of the episode . = = Plot = = The Springfield Elementary School Model United Nations club is going on a field trip . On the bus , Bart , Nelson , Ralph , and Milhouse are playing a game by racing fruit down the aisle . Milhouse rolls a grapefruit that gets stuck under the brakes . When bus driver Otto attempts to press down on the pedal , it squirts juice into his eyes , causing him to lose control and drive the bus off a bridge . Otto attempts to swim for help but ends up being swept away by the current and picked up by Chinese fishermen . The students swim to a nearby tropical island , where Bart tries to tell the children that being stranded on an island is fun . Reality soon sets in when the island is found to be largely barren and the children lack survival skills . With no food found on the island and no adult supervision , the children rely on snack food retrieved from the sunken bus by Bart. They awaken the next morning to find the snacks all gone . Suspecting Milhouse because of his pot @-@ belly and nacho cheese breath , the students put him on trial and he blames the loss on a mysterious island " monster " . Back at home , Homer discovers that Ned Flanders has his own home @-@ based Internet business , and decides he wants to start his own company . His business is later dismantled by Bill Gates and his goons . As there is insufficient evidence to prove Milhouse ate all the food , he is acquitted . The other students are not happy with this verdict and attempt to kill Milhouse , along with Bart and Lisa , who tried to intervene . The other students end up chasing them into a cave , where it is revealed that Milhouse 's " monster " is actually a wild boar . On one of the boar 's tusks is an empty bag of chips , revealing that it was the actual culprit for eating the snacks . The kids kill the boar and eat it ( except for Lisa , who adheres to her vegetarianism ) . The episode concludes with a comically obvious deus ex machina ending , narrated by James Earl Jones : = = Production = = The couch gag was suggested by Dan Castellaneta 's niece . The film True Lies was the inspiration for the bus crashing against the bridge . To get the fisherman 's Chinese correct , Cohen called his friend . When the Chinese actors came , the actors felt Cantonese would be more appropriate for the fisherman than Mandarin , so it was changed . Moe was picked to rescue the children , because the writers thought it was funny . = = Cultural references = = Most of the episode 's plot , namely a group of children trapped on an island and the breakdown of law , order and civility , is a reference to William Golding 's 1954 novel Lord of the Flies , but unlike the book , the children on the island are a limpidity . The title comes from the 1981 film Das Boot , although it would be " Der Bus " in German . When the children are squabbling in the classroom , Principal Skinner restores order by banging his shoe on the desk . Skinner 's actions are a reference to the shoe @-@ banging incident by Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev at the UN in 1960 . When escaping from the other children , Bart , Lisa and Milhouse have to swing across a gap on a vine ; Milhouse goes across first , but refuses to throw the vine back in a reference to the opening scene of the 1981 film Raiders of the Lost Ark , where the same thing happens to Indiana Jones . = = Reception = = In its original broadcast , " Das Bus " finished 17th in ratings for the week of February 9 – 15 , 1998 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 9 , equivalent to approximately 9 @.@ 6 million viewing households . It was the third highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files and King of the Hill . In a 2006 article in USA Today , " Das Bus " was highlighted among the six best episodes of The Simpsons season 9 , along with " Trash of the Titans " , " The Last Temptation of Krust " , " The Cartridge Family " , " Dumbbell Indemnity " , and " The Joy of Sect " . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , called it a " fantastic episode " , adding : " Ignore the Internet business side , and wallow in the cleverness of the children trapped on the island . Bart has never been cleverer , Nelson more menacing , and Milhouse more geekish . Great stuff with a delightful ending that is so witty and obvious , that it 's annoying you never imagined they 'd get away with it . " The episode has become study material for sociology courses at University of California , Berkeley , where it is used to " examine issues of the production and reception of cultural objects , in this case , a satirical cartoon show " , and to figure out what it is " trying to tell audiences about aspects primarily of American society , and , to a lesser extent , about other societies " . Some questions asked in the courses include : " What aspects of American society are being addressed in the episode ? What aspects of them are used to make the points ? How is the satire conveyed : through language ? Drawing ? Music ? Is the behavior of each character consistent with his / her character as developed over the years ? Can we identify elements of the historical / political context that the writers are satirizing ? What is the difference between satire and parody ? "
= That Still Small Voice = " That Still Small Voice " is the fifth episode of the American fairy tale / drama television series Once Upon a Time . The series takes place in the fictional seaside town of Storybrooke , Maine , in which the residents are actually characters from various fairy tales that were transported to the " real world " town by a powerful curse . In this episode , Henry ( Jared S. Gilmore ) becomes upset when told by Archie ( Raphael Sbarge ) that his fairy tale theories are delusions ; Henry places himself in danger when he investigates a mysterious sinkhole , forcing a regretful Archie to save him . Meanwhile , the backstory of Jiminy Cricket ( Sbarge ) is revealed – he yearns to leave his con artist parents and become a good person , but accidentally hurts an innocent couple along the way . It was the first Once Upon a Time episode to be written by consulting producer Jane Espenson , while being directed by Paul Edwards . Espenson was " thrilled " to be assigned the episode ; Jiminy Cricket was typically a character that appeared in other people 's stories , so she was eager to explore him in his own narrative . Espenson especially wanted to depict how some , like Jiminy in this episode , " have their adolescence well after adolescence . It took Jiminy a long time to figure out how to get away from the life he was living , and I think a lot of people feel like that . " In addition , the episode contained several cultural references to the television series Lost and the Disney film One Hundred and One Dalmatians . " That Still Small Voice " first aired in the United States on November 27 , 2011 , with the network ABC . An estimated 10 @.@ 7 million viewers watched the episode , helping it finish in third place for its timeslot . " That Still Small Voice " finished in fourteenth place for the week among the major networks . Since then , it has garnered generally positive critical reviews . Many praised Espenson 's screenwriting , as well as Jiminy 's characterization and the performances of Sbarge and Robert Carlyle . = = Synopsis = = = = = Opening Sequence = = = A straw spinning wheel is shown in the forest . = = = In the Characters ' Past = = = In the Enchanted Forest , a young pickpocket named Jiminy desires the chance to be a good person , but is forced by his father ( Harry Groener ) and mother ( Carolyn Hennesy ) to participate in their cons . After he finishes collecting some stolen goods , Jiminy tells them that he desires to leave the family business . Unfortunately , as years go by , the now @-@ adult Jiminy ( Raphael Sbarge ) is still aiding his parents , who come up with excuses to keep him from leaving . He runs into a young boy who tells him to follow his conscience . One night , Jiminy pays a visit to see Rumpelstiltskin ( Robert Carlyle ) and is given a tonic that will set him free from his parents . Later that evening , Jiminy and his parents convince a couple to give up some goods in exchange for a tonic that will supposedly make them immune to a plague . He soon discovers that his father switched Rumpelstiltskin 's tonic with the one they sold , and finds that the couple have been turned into dolls . Having realized what he has done , Jiminy makes a wish and receives an answer from The Blue Fairy , who shows up to give him his one true wish : becoming a cricket . Jiminy is also told that he has a chance to help someone in the future , starting with the young boy , who would grow up to be Gepetto . As for the cursed dolls , they end up as a collection at Mr. Gold 's ( Carlyle ) pawn shop . = = = In Storybrooke = = = In the present day , Dr. Archie Hopper ( Sbarge ) continues to evaluate Henry ( Jared S. Gilmore ) , who is still trying to convince him that he is Jiminy . Meanwhile , Sheriff Graham ( Jamie Dornan ) officially makes Emma Swan ( Jennifer Morrison ) his new deputy . An explosion soon after causes the town to shake , followed by a sinkhole that emerges at an abandoned mine shaft . As Emma , Henry , Archie , and the sheriff show up to see the damaged area , Regina ( Lana Parrilla ) arrives to try to keep everyone from going any further , then comes across a certain object which looks like an ornate piece of glass and puts it in her pocket . She is also not pleased with the sheriff hiring Emma , and also reminds Archie that she can have him fired and out on the streets if he fails to succeed in dissuading Henry of the veracity of the fairy tale stories . The next day , Archie follows through on Regina 's warning by convincing Henry that the fairy tale stories are not real , upsetting Henry . This prompts Emma to pay a visit to Archie as she figures out that Regina was responsible for threatening him . Emma accuses Regina of threatening Archie , but Regina says that Henry is missing again . Archie conjectures that Henry may have gone back to the mine shaft . There , Henry begins to investigate the area and comes across a glass item similar to the one Regina found earlier that he puts into his backpack . Archie goes in to search for Henry and finds the boy , but as they try to escape , an aftershock blocks off the main entrance , leaving an injured Archie and Henry trapped . They find an elevator shaft , not knowing that above ground Emma and Regina have taken the suggestion of blasting the main entrance from Marco ( Tony Amendola ) , which results in the elevator carrying Henry and Archie being lowered even further after the blast takes place . Inside the elevator , Henry asks Archie why he refuses to believe that he is Jiminy Cricket . Archie acknowledges that he might share Jiminy 's personality and in a similar fashion to his alternative past , yearn to be free from being told what to do . Meanwhile , above ground , Emma finds the opening of the elevator shaft and volunteers to go down the shaft , where she succeeds in rescuing Henry and Archie . Archie tells Regina that he will continue to see Henry and that if she attempts to interfere he will take action against Regina and have her declared an unfit mother . Regina backs down after Archie 's threat , she looks at the object she had in her pocket and throws it down the shaft , where it lands on top of the rest of Snow White 's ( Ginnifer Goodwin ) glass coffin . Concurrent with these events , Mary Margaret ( Goodwin ) continues to visit the amnesiac David ( Joshua Dallas ) at the hospital . At the same time , Kathryn ( Anastasia Griffith ) also continues to visit David , showing him pictures to jog his memory but later admits , although he claimed otherwise to Kathryn , to Mary Margaret that he doesn 't remember anything that he saw in the pictures . As Mary Margaret notices David becoming more attracted to her , she still feels threatened by Kathryn 's presence . This prompts Mary Margaret to submit her letter of resignation as a volunteer at the hospital . = = Production and cultural references = = " That Still Small Voice " was the first Once Upon a Time episode written by consulting producer Jane Espenson . She was drawn to join the series because she believed a curse involving fairy tale characters was a " fantastic concept " . She explained , " What 's the modern take on Jiminy Cricket and Rumpelstiltskin ? What would their issues be in the real world ? The beauty of the production , the care and the effort and , honestly , the expense that was put into it just made clear that was a project done with a lot of attention and love . " The episode was directed by Lost veteran Paul Edwards . " That Still Small Voice " , featuring Jiminy Cricket , was assigned to Espenson , and she was " thrilled to get it , " as she wanted to explore the character in his own story . She elaborated that Jiminy is Someone who you might think of as being part of someone else ’ s story – even in Pinocchio , he ’ s all about someone else ’ s arc . I like taking that character and reminding us all that everyone is the hero of their own story . I related to him because of that , and also because it was such an identifiable story — the way so many people have their adolescence well after adolescence . It took Jiminy a long time to figure out how to get away from the life he was living , and I think a lot of people feel like that . Actor Raphael Sbarge became attracted to join the series because he would effectively be helping tell two stories , one in a fantasy world and the other in a modern setting . In an interview with The Hollywood Reporter , Sbarge compared Once Upon a Time to the television series Lost " in that they have a large ensemble and what they do is that they take a few characters and they kind of take them , effectively on a deep dive . " When Sbarge read the script for " That Still Small Voice " , he was worried about " treading into people 's imaginations , " but ultimately decided that " they cast me for a reason because there are some qualities in me that they obviously recognize for the story they want to tell . " Believing that his character was " sort of a surrogate father figure " to Henry , Sbarge admitted that the script " made me weep because what they came up with is so lovely and magical and delightful . " Referring to his character 's storyline as a hero 's journey , Sbarge said the intention was to show that Jiminy Cricket did not just begin as a noble guy – " what you get to see on this trip are the fire rings he had to walk through to get to a place where he could evolve to develop a sense of doing the right thing . " The episode featured guest stars Harry Groener and Carolyn Hennesy as Jiminy 's parents Martin and Myrna . Groener had previously worked with Espenson in the third season of the fantasy television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer . It is their only appearances in the series . The episode contains several cultural references and allusions . The scenes in which Henry was carrying a couple of Apollo Chocolate Candy Bars in his back pack was also the same brand of candy bars made by the DHARMA Initiative on Lost , while Archie 's pet Pongo is also the name of one of the dogs in the Disney film One Hundred and One Dalmatians . The episode 's title , " That Still Small Voice " , is an apparent allusion , or reference to a Biblical passage in the Books of Kings : " but the Lord was not in the fire : and after the fire a still small voice . " = = Reception = = = = = Ratings = = = The episode first aired on November 27 , 2011 . It earned a ratings share of 3 @.@ 4 / 8 among 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds and scored a 5 @.@ 9 / 8 ratings share overall . An estimated 10 @.@ 7 million watched the episode , and it ranked third in its timeslot behind Football Night In America on NBC and 60 Minutes on CBS but ahead of The Simpsons on the Fox network . The episode ultimately finished in fourteenth place for the week among the major networks . In Canada , the episode finished in twenty @-@ second place for the week , garnering an estimated 1 @.@ 43 million viewers , a decrease from the 1 @.@ 59 million of the previous episode . = = = Reviews = = = The episode was met with generally positive reviews . Writing for AOL TV , Laura Prudom noted that the episode " proved to be an undeniably satisfying hour of television , deepening our understanding of Archie / Jiminy 's character and giving us some welcome development in Mary Margaret and David 's tragic romance . I don 't know about you , but I really could watch a whole hour of those two playing hangman and innocently flirting and need nothing else from the show . " Entertainment Weekly columnist Shaunna Murphy wrote that while she " ragged on Robert Carlyle initially , his campy Rumpel is quickly becoming one of my favorite parts of this show . " Tor.com 's Teresa Jusino called Espenson 's script " so engaging " because it deviated from the series ' typical two @-@ story format and " incorporated a third , separate modern storyline " that featured other characters in addition to Jiminy Cricket , in which " each storyline got just enough attention . " She added that the episode 's best parts were its " intimate character moments , particularly the scenes between Archie / Jiminy and the boys in his life , " and attributed this to Espenson 's strength as a writer . Jusino felt another highlight was Sbarge 's performance , as he " navigated both Archie and Jiminy ’ s journeys from being pawns to being their own men with precision and warmth . " Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club graded the episode with a C. He criticized Gilmore 's performance in " That Still Small Voice " and earlier episodes , writing that " Gilmore struggles to make a connection with his character , so it always looks like he ’ s reading lines , " which might have a negative effect on the Henry 's character development . Sava felt that Espenson , based on her previous work , was good at balancing large casts and wrote " this episode juggles the expansive character roster of this series better than its predecessors . " Conversely , IGN 's Amy Ratcliffe said she has " never liked Henry as much as I did in this episode , " especially his explanation to Archie on why he is Jiminy Cricket . Ratcliffe added that Jiminy had the " most touching backstory " of the season up to that point , opining that " the transformation of Dr. Hopper was moving , and this episode maybe felt the most like a fairytale of the stories we 've seen so far . " She graded " That Still Small Voice " with 8 out of 10 , an indication of a " great " episode .
= The Clash of Triton = " The Clash of Triton " , also known as " Neptune 's Party " , is the 26th episode of the sixth season and the 126th overall episode of the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants . It originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on July 5 , 2010 . The series follows the adventures and endeavors of the title character and his various friends in the underwater city of Bikini Bottom . In this episode , King Neptune wants to celebrate his 5,000th birthday at the Krusty Krab , but he is depressed about his long @-@ disowned son , Triton . Determined to make this the king 's happiest birthday ever and save the day , SpongeBob sets out to find Triton and bring him back to the party . The episode was written by Casey Alexander , Zeus Cervas , Aaron Springer , Steven Banks , and Paul Tibbitt , and was directed by Andrew Overtoom and Alan Smart . Alexander , Cervas , and Springer also served as storyboard directors on the episode . It features guest appearances by John O 'Hurley , Victoria Beckham , and Sebastian Bach . Upon release , the episode was watched by 5 @.@ 2 million viewers , and met positive reviews . = = Plot summary = = King Neptune wants to celebrate his 5,000th birthday at the Krusty Krab . SpongeBob and the crew spare no expense for the gala , rolling out the red carpet to welcome the royal family . Despite the party itself , the king 's spirits are brought down by the absence of his son , Triton , spoiling the festivities for everyone , especially his wife , Queen Amphitrite . Triton was banished to a cage on the deserted Island in the Sky , until he is ready to be a proper god , having displeased his father with his growing interests in the mortal world . Determined to make this the king 's happiest birthday ever and save the day , SpongeBob sets out to find Triton and bring him to the party . Once found , Triton initially ignores SpongeBob , but after smelling SpongeBob 's terribly smelly breath , he tells him to undo the lock . Unable to figure it out , SpongeBob calls his best friend , Patrick , to help out . Patrick unlocks Triton 's cell , and the Prince escapes the island . No one anticipates Triton 's wrath , Triton destroys Bikini Bottom . Noticing that something is wrong at the Krusty Krab , SpongeBob and Patrick enter the building from the back , discovering the guests and staff locked in a cage . When Patrick unlocks the cell , Triton attempts to escape his father , who catches up to him . King Neptune can 't tolerate his son 's wrongdoings , but on seeing how Triton destroyed Bikini Bottom , is pleased that he 's finally using powers , becoming a worthy successor . The family leaves for home , with King Neptune crediting SpongeBob for this development ; the townsfolk of Bikini Bottom see differently , chasing him and Patrick in an angry mob . = = Production = = " The Clash of Triton " was written by Casey Alexander , Zeus Cervas , Aaron Springer , Steven Banks , and Paul Tibbitt , with Andrew Overtoom and Alan Smart serving as animation directors . Alexander , Cervas , and Springer also served as storyboard directors . Writer Banks said that the writing crew " liked the idea of gods and of Triton as an angry teenager dealing with his father . It all goes back to Greek tragedy . " The episode originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on July 5 , 2010 . In addition to the regular cast , English singer Victoria Beckham guest starred in the episode as the wife of King Neptune , Queen Amphitrite . The writers created the role of a Queen Amphitrite especially for Beckham . The former Spice Girl accepted the role because her sons , Brooklyn , Romeo , and Cruz , love the show , were excited when their mother told them of the role , and looked forward to watching the episode with her . Beckham recorded the voice @-@ over in late @-@ 2008 in a day , and claimed that she was " thrilled " to provide the vocal cameo . Other guests including Seinfeld actor John O 'Hurley also made a vocal cameo in the episode as King Neptune , and Skid Row heavy metal vocalist Sebastian Bach as the voice of Triton . Ideas for casting guest voices often come from the writers and executive producer , said Sarah Noonan , vice president of talent and casting for Nickelodeon . Steven Banks told " But the harder part was for Sebastian . I was so pleased that he really could sound like a pimple @-@ faced , snotty teenager . " Nickelodeon animation president Brown Johnson said " We 're happy to have such a talented and eclectic group of celebrities lend their voices to this SpongeBob special [ ... ] Victoria [ Beckham ] , John [ O 'Hurley ] and Sebastian [ Bach ] truly brought Bikini Bottom 's royal family to life . " On July 13 , 2010 , the episode became available on DVD titled Triton 's Revenge as Paramount Home Entertainment and Nickelodeon announced its release . The DVD features six other episodes including " Sand Castles in the Sand " , " Shell Shocked " , " Chum Bucket Supreme " , " Single Cell Anniversary " , " Tentacle @-@ Vision " , and " I Heart Dancing " , and special features such as shorts of the episode and Fanboy and Chum Chum episodes . It was also included series ' season six DVD compilation . = = Reception = = The premiere of " The Clash of Triton " drew 2 @.@ 8 million kids 2 @-@ 11 , 2 @.@ 0 million kids 6 @-@ 11 , 1 @.@ 5 million teens 9 @-@ 14 and 5 @.@ 2 million total viewers age 2 + for Nickelodeon . SpongeBob.com had its most trafficked week in 2010 with 1 @.@ 4 million unique visitors , 15 @.@ 1 million page views , and 5 @.@ 7 million total game sessions . Additionally , the new Nick Game of the Week based on the special generated 1 @.@ 2 million game sessions . " The Clash of Triton " received mixed to positive reviews from critics . Steve Earhart called the episode " a hilarious special that runs perfect with the six other quirky and crazy @-@ funny episode . " Shannon Gosney of The Mommy @-@ Files said that " you 'll love this special [ ... ] " Nancy Basile of the About.com said " it was funny enough and endearing enough to make it well worth watching . " Gord Lacey of TV Shows on DVD claimed " I enjoyed ' Clash of the Triton ' , and the bonus episode of Fanboy and Chum Chum was neat . " Ken Tucker of the Entertainment Weekly said " The values of SpongeBob remain intact . The script ’ s rapid @-@ fire gags , the show 's wildly bright color palette , and the series ' resolute avoidance of heavy @-@ handed messages combine to give Stephen Hillenburg 's SpongeBob its adventurous energy . " He added " [ SpongeBob ] SquarePants just doesn 't seem to get old , does it ? " Maxie Zeus of Toon Zone said " the plot isn 't even well structured , being slack and inefficient about getting from one situation to the next . " He added " the whole special is like this : plot points clumsily rolled out to ' motivate ' other plot points , which are themselves there only to motivate yet more plot points . But somehow , while they were distracted by all this wheezing machinery , they forgot to put any actual humor in . " Paul Mavis of DVD Talk said " ' The Clash of Triton ' spends way too much time on exposition , setting up the short 's premise , while skimping on what should have been a priority : the jokes . " In his review for the DVD Verdict , Roy Hrab gave the episode 's DVD a negative review and said " loud noises and frantic action fill the screen to little or no purpose . It 's all punch lines and no jokes or clever set @-@ ups . "
= Pelvicachromis pulcher = Pelvicachromis pulcher is a freshwater fish of the cichlid family , endemic to Nigeria and Cameroon . The species is popular amongst aquarium hobbyists , and is most commonly sold under the name kribensis , although the species has other common names , including various derivatives and color morphs of the kribensis : krib , common krib , red krib , super @-@ red krib and rainbow krib , along with rainbow cichlid and purple cichlid . The species is a popular cichlid for the aquarium . = = Description = = In the wild , male P. pulcher grow to a maximum length of approximately 12 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) and a maximum weight of 9 @.@ 5 grams ( 0 @.@ 34 oz ) . Females are smaller and deeper bodied , growing to a maximum length of 8 @.@ 1 cm ( 3 @.@ 2 in ) and a maximum weight of 9 @.@ 4 g ( 0 @.@ 33 oz ) . Both sexes have a dark longitudinal stripe that runs from the caudal fin to the mouth and pink to red abdomens , the intensity of which changes during courtship and breeding . The dorsal and caudal fins also may bear gold @-@ ringed eye spots or ocelli . Males show colour polymorphisms in some populations collected at single localities . Juveniles are monomorphic until approximately six months of age . = = Distribution , habitat and predators = = Pelvicachromis pulcher is native to southern Nigeria and to coastal areas of Cameroon , where it occurs in warm ( 24 – 26 ° C or 75 – 79 ° F ) , acidic to neutral ( pH 5 @.@ 6 – 6 @.@ 2 ) , soft water ( 12 – 22 mg L − 1 CaCO3 ) . Populations of P. pulcher also occur outside its natural range in Hawaii , USA as a by @-@ product of the ornamental fish trade . The species inhabits both slow and fast @-@ moving water , though it is only found where patches of dense vegetation are available . Other fish that share the habitat of P. pulcher include other Pelvicachromis species ( Pelvicachromis taeniatus ) , other cichlid species ( Chromidotilapia guntheri , Hemichromis cristatus and H. fasciatus , Tilapia mariae and T. zilli ) along with Brycinus longipinnis and Aphyosemion species . The species is prey for a number of rheophilic predators including Hepsetus odoe , Hydrocynus forskahlii , and Lates niloticus ( Nile perch ) . In the natural habitat , P. pulcher have been observed excavating , defending , and sheltering in caves dug underneath plants , and these holes are also used for breeding . Not all P. pulcher , however , claim territories and many live in large , non @-@ reproductive aggregates . = = Diet = = Despite the suggestion in some aquarium literature that the species feeds on worms , crustaceans , and insects , analysis of the stomach contents of wild P. pulcher suggests this is incorrect . A study by Nwadiaro ( 1985 ) of 161 individuals showed that the main food items were diatoms , green algae , pieces of higher plants , along with blue @-@ green algae . Invertebrates , though consumed , were found to be relatively uncommon food items for wild fish . = = Sexual dimorphism and reproduction = = Like other Pelvicachromis species , P. pulcher is sexually dimorphic . Males have pointed pelvic , dorsal , and anal fins , while the female 's pelvic , dorsal , and anal fins are more rounded in appearance . In addition , males are larger , lack the gold sheen to the dorsal fin and have a more elongated , spade @-@ shaped caudal fin . Despite the suggestion in the aquarium literature that the species forms monogamous pairs , the formation of polygynous harems is not uncommon in the natural habitat . The species are secretive cave spawners ( speleophils ) although detailed information on their reproductive biology in the wild is limited . In the wild , the species is known to breed in holes excavated beneath aquatic and semi @-@ aquatic plants . In captivity , artificial caves are readily accepted as breeding sites , however , these too are excavated prior to egg @-@ laying . The eggs are adhesive and are frequently laid in rows of ca . 10 on the upper surface of the cave and produce a clutch that ranges in size from 40 to 100 . Both the male and female provide active brood care , typically lasting 21 – 28 days , which includes guarding , herding , and feeding . It is noteworthy , however , that the female is predominantly responsible for fry care , while the male is primarily involved in territorial defence . As in all Pelvicachromis species , the gender ratio of female to male fry increases with pH . This ratio is also known to vary at different locales in the wild . Breeding pairs of P. pulcher have been known to adopt similarly aged fry from conspecifics in aquarium trials , and it has been suggested this may be an adaption to reduce predation on their own fry . Male colour polymorphism may be indicative of behavioural differences . For example , red males obtained from a single site were found to be more aggressive and more polygamous than yellow males obtained from the same site . In addition , the species has been demonstrated to engage in cooperative territorial defence where multiple males defend a single territory . = = Taxonomy = = Pelvicachromis pulcher was originally described as Pelmatochromis pulcher by George Boulenger in 1901 . Subsequently a number of junior synonyms ( Pelmatochromis aureocephalus , Pelmatochromis camerunensis ) and misidentifications ( Pelmatochromis kribensis , Pelmatochromis subocellatus var. kribensis and Pelmatochromis pulcher var. kribensis ) were brought into use . Some of these synonyms are still in use by aquarium hobbyists which complicates identification of this species . Many of the common and trade names used for this species , such as kribensis , krib , rainbow krib are derived from the erroneous binomial , Pelmatochromis kribensis . The genus Pelmatochromis was revised by Thys van den Audenaerde in 1968 when the genus Pelvicachromis was erected with P. pulcher designated as the type species . The etymology of this species is as follows : Pelvicachromis : Latin , pelvica
= pelvic or belly + Greek , chromis = a fish , perhaps a perch Pulcher : Latin , pretty or beautiful = = In the aquarium = = Pelvicachromis pulcher is a popular cichlid for the aquarium . = = = Selective breeding = = = An albino form of the species has been developed for the aquarium trade . Unlike normal albinism , the trait is not recessively inherited in P. pulcher . The trait is incompletely dominant . Like many albino animals red and yellow pigments are retained , however , albino P. pulcher also show patches of melanin in the dorsal and caudal fin around the ocelli . Langhammer ( 1982 ) reports that matings from these albino forms with red and yellow pigments produce 25 % wild coloured offspring and 75 % albino fry . The albino fry were themselves divided into completely amelanistic forms , and forms which retained colouration of their parents .
= Ontario Highway 400 = King 's Highway 400 , commonly referred to as Highway 400 , historically as the Toronto – Barrie Highway , and colloquially as the 400 , is a 400 @-@ series highway in the Canadian province of Ontario linking the city of Toronto in the urban and agricultural south of the province with the scenic and sparsely populated central and northern regions . The portion of the highway between Toronto and Lake Simcoe roughly traces the route of a historic trail between the Lower and Upper Great Lakes . Highway 400 is part of the highest @-@ capacity route from southern Ontario to the Canadian West , via a connection with the Trans @-@ Canada Highway in Sudbury . The highway also serves as the primary route from Toronto to southern Georgian Bay and Muskoka , areas collectively known as cottage country . The highway is patrolled by the Ontario Provincial Police and has a speed limit of 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) , except for the section south of the 401 , where the speed limit is 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) . Highway 400 is the second longest freeway in the province , the trans @-@ provincial Highway 401 being the longest . It was the first fully controlled @-@ access highway in Ontario when it was opened between North York and Barrie on July 1 , 1952 . On that date , it was also the first highway to be designated as a 400 @-@ series . The freeway was extended in both directions ; north of Barrie to Coldwater in 1958 , and south of Highway 401 to Jane Street in 1966 . It was widened between North York and Barrie in the 1970s . Since 1977 , construction on the freeway has been snaking north along Highway 69 towards Parry Sound and now Sudbury . As of 2011 , a four lane freeway is opened as far north as Carling . At the north end of Highway 69 , a segment of freeway is in operation between Murdock River and Sudbury ; while this section will be part of the completed Highway 400 route , at present it remains signed as Highway 69 . The remaining gap between Carling and Murdock River will be opened in stages and is expected to be completed by 2021 . = = Route description = = While Highway 400 was originally known as the Toronto – Barrie Highway , the route has been extended well beyond Barrie to north of Parry Sound , and is projected to reach its eventual terminus in Sudbury by 2021 . As of 2009 , the length of the highway is 209 @.@ 0 km ( 129 @.@ 9 mi ) with an additional 152 km ( 94 mi ) planned . Highway 400 begins at the Maple Leaf Drive overpass in Toronto , south of Highway 401 . South of that , it is known as Black Creek Drive , a high speed commuter road once planned as a southern extension of the 400 . Highway 400 had been completed to Jane Street in 1966 ( alongside the expansion of Highway 401 ) but plans to extend Highway 400 further south to the Gardiner Expressway were cancelled after several citizens groups protested the proposal in the 1970s . Black Creek Drive was built along the empty right @-@ of @-@ way and transferred to Metro Toronto in 1982 . North of Maple Leaf Drive , the highway shifts northwestward , but then turns approximately northward at Highway 401 . At the interchange with the 401 , Highway 400 widens to twelve lanes . It continues north through Toronto , shedding two lanes at Finch Avenue . The congested section between Highway 407 and Langstaff Road in suburban Vaughan features a short collector @-@ express system . The 400 / 407 junction is the only four @-@ level stack interchange in Canada . From Highway 401 to the Holland Marsh the freeway largely parallels the arterial / concession roads Weston Road and Jane Street , passing over the height of land at the Oak Ridges Moraine . The highway passes through protected rural areas in northern York Region and encounters rolling countryside in Simcoe County south of Barrie . The section near Barrie is subject to snowsqualls as it lies near the edge of Georgian Bay 's snowbelt . Within Barrie , Highway 400 passes through a trench which places it below grade for most of its length , the route curving around downtown Barrie towards the north @-@ east . On the outskirts of Barrie , the through right @-@ of @-@ way continues as Highway 11 towards Orillia and North Bay , while Highway 400 exits and veers 90 degrees to the north @-@ west towards Georgian Bay , travelling alongside the former Highway 93 to Craighurst . At Craighurst the highway again turns north @-@ east , skirting the Copeland Forest and the ski hills of the Oro Moraine , to meet Highway 12 in Coldwater . From here , the highway takes on the Trans @-@ Canada Highway designation , and follows a predominantly north @-@ western heading along what was the route of Highway 69 , toward the planned terminus of Sudbury . In Muskoka and Parry Sound Districts , Highway 400 is in most sections a twinned four @-@ lane highway , but several bypasses have and are being built to circumvent the communities along the way . At Port Severn , the highway meets the rugged Canadian Shield , and winds its way north through the granite , often flanked by towering slabs of rock . = = History = = = = = Initial construction = = = Highway 400 , along with Highway 401 and Highway 402 , was one of the first modern freeways in Ontario . Planning for the Toronto – Barrie Highway , which would become Highway 400 , began in 1944 . The two routes connecting Barrie with Toronto at the time , Highway 11 and Highway 27 , were becoming congested . Grading on a new alignment between Weston Road and Jane Street was completed from Wilson Avenue to Highway 27 ( Essa Road ) by 1947 . The onset of the Korean War slowed construction on the highway considerably , and it wasn 't until December 1 , 1951 that two lanes ( one in each direction ) would be opened to traffic . All four lanes were opened to traffic on July 1 , 1952 , at which point the highway was designated Highway 400 . The name was the scorn of one newspaper editor , who published his distaste for using numbers to name a highway . The freeway featured a 9 @.@ 1 m ( 30 ft ) grass median . Shortly after its completion , Hurricane Hazel struck on October 15 , 1954 . The torrential downpours caused catastrophic damage to southern Ontario , amongst which was the flooding of Holland Marsh to a depth of 3 @.@ 3 m ( 11 ft ) . Several bridges and sections of road were washed away by Hazel . The damaged highway and bridges were completely reconstructed after the water was pumped away . = = = Expansion = = = By 1958 Highway 400 was extended north parallel with Highway 93 as a super two with at @-@ grade intersections to Craighurst and construction had begun to extend it further to Highway 12 and Highway 103 at Coldwater . Both sections opened to traffic on December 24 , 1959 . For many years afterwards , and still today to older drivers , this portion of the 400 north of Barrie is referred to as the " 400 Extension " . Plans were also conceived to extend the freeway south from Highway 401 to Eglinton Avenue , where it would join two new expressways : the Richview and the Crosstown Expressways . These plans would never reach fruition , as public opposition to urban expressways cancelled most highway construction in Toronto by 1971 . Highway 400 would still open as far south as Jane Street on October 28 , 1966 before the rest of the plans were shelved following the cancellation of the Spadina Expressway . The province used the right @-@ of @-@ way in the Black Creek valley to construct a four @-@ lane divided expressway with signalled intersections as far south as Eglinton Avenue . Originally known as the Northwest Arterial Road , the expressway was transferred to Metropolitan Toronto on March 1 , 1983 and named Black Creek Drive . In exchange , the province was given the expropriated land purchased for Spadina south of Eglinton Avenue . Widening of Highway 400 began in 1971 . An additional lane in either direction was created by reducing the 9 @.@ 1 m median by 6 m ( 20 ft ) and using 1 @.@ 2 m ( 4 ft ) of the shoulder on each side . The first section to be widened was from Highway 401 to Finch Avenue , which was widened to eight lanes . Soon thereafter , the section from Finch to Highway 88 was widened to six lanes . A year later , the six lane freeway was extended 41 @.@ 8 km ( 26 mi ) north to Highway 11 . The two @-@ lane highway north of Barrie was widened starting in 1977 , necessitated by the increasing use of the highway by recreational tourists and vacationers . This work involved the construction of two southbound lanes parallel to the original , with a 30 metres ( 98 ft ) median between them . In addition , at @-@ grade intersections were converted into grade @-@ separated interchanges . This work was completed as far as Highway 93 north of Craighurst by 1982 . In 1980 construction began on four @-@ laning the section from Highway 93 to Simcoe County Road 19 , which was completed by the end of 1982 . During the summer of 1983 , four @-@ laning began between Simcoe County Roads 19 and 23 , bypassing west of Coldwater . This was completed during the summer of 1985 . Between 1985 and 1987 , the pace of construction slowed temporarily as the foundations for the new structures over Matchedash Bay were compacted and settled . During the fall of 1987 , a contract was awarded to extend the four @-@ laning north to Waubaushene and to complete the interchange with Highway 12 , first constructed during the late 1950s with the two @-@ lane highway . This work was completed a year later during the fall of 1988 . Several structures were constructed over the next few years . In 1989 construction began on the Matchedash Bay structures as well as the Canadian National Railway crossing north of Highway 12 . Both were complete by the end of 1990 . During 1991 , construction began on the interchanges at Quarry Road and Port Severn Road , new service roads between those interchanges and the southbound structure over the Trent – Severn Waterway . = = = Twinning Highway 69 = = = Following the completion of Highway 400 to Port Severn , the next target became Parry Sound . In 1988 , the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario completed a study of the Highway 69 corridor between Muskoka Road 5 in Port Severn and Tower Road southwest of MacTier , a distance of approximately 45 km ( 28 mi ) . This work was carried out through the 1990s , reaching as far as Muskoka Road 38 ( former Highway 660 ) by 1999 . The four @-@ laning was extended north to the Musquash River in October 1999 , although an interchange wasn 't constructed at Muskoka Road 32 / 38 until October 2005 . However , a land claim dispute between the Government of Ontario and the Wahta Mohawk Territory prevented the twinning of Highway 69 between the Musquash and Moon Rivers . The Territorial Reserve did not oppose the construction of the highway ; however , the land was unobtainable due to a technicality requiring a minimum voter turnout of 65 percent . Construction of the Parry Sound Bypass , a new alignment from Badger Road to the Seguin River , began with an interchange along Highway 518 at the site of the future freeway , which was completed during the autumn of 1999 . Construction south of the interchange to Badger Road started in November 1999 , while the section north of the interchange to the Seguin River began three months later . On February 7 , 2000 , the government officially committed to complete Highway 400 to Parry Sound . Work began on two projects as a result of this : a 26 @.@ 5 km ( 16 @.@ 5 mi ) bypass of Highway 69 on a new alignment between the Moon River , south of MacTier , and Rankin Lake Road near Horseshoe Lake , as well as a 4 km ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) segment connecting that to the Parry Sound Bypass . The first segment of freeway to be completed north of the Musquash River was the Parry Sound Bypass , which opened on November 1 , 2001 . This section bypassed to the east of the old highway , now known as Oastler Park Drive . However , it was numbered as Highway 69 for the moment . In October 2002 , the section south of the Parry Sound Bypass to Rankin Lake Road was opened . This was followed a year later on October 7 with the opening of the bypass of Highway 69 from the Moon River to Rankin Lake Road , connecting with the Parry Sound segment . At that point , the Highway 400 designation was extended north to the Seguin River . However , the Highway 69 designation remained in place as far south as the Musquash River . The remaining 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) gap through the Wahta Mohawk Territory would eventually be constructed , starting in December 2004 . It opened to traffic during the summer of 2008 , completing the freeway south of Parry Sound . Since then , the Highway 69 designation has been removed south of Nobel . = = = Since 2000 = = = In the early 2000s , the junctions with Rutherford Road and Major Mackenzie Drive in Vaughan were extensively reconstructed to modern Parclo A4 configurations , and a new partial interchange was added for Bass Pro Mills Drive in 2004 to accommodate the opening of the Vaughan Mills shopping centre . On October 27 , 2010 , one lane in either direction on the Nobel Bypass opened to traffic . The new four @-@ lane bypass , which travels as far north as Highway 559 , was fully opened in November . The former route of Highway 69 through the town was renamed as Nobel Drive and will be reduced in width from four to two lanes , with the decommissioned lanes to be converted into a recreational trail . Some businesses in Nobel were affected after the opening of the new highway 400 realignment and had to be closed down . On February 27 , 2014 , a major snowsquall affected Highway 400 in Innisfil with heavy wind gusts and near @-@ zero visibility . A total of 96 vehicles were involved in a major collision that ensued near Innisfil Beach Road . Although no injuries were reported , the highway was closed for a day and buses were shuttled in to warm stranded motorists . = = Future = = On June 28 , 2005 , it was officially confirmed that Highway 69 would be twinned and bypassed north to Highway 17 in Sudbury . This announcement was accompanied by a time line with the completion date set for 2017 ; in March 2015 , the Ministry of Transportation acknowledged that the original completion date will not be met , and announced that its current goal is to have the project completed by 2021 . However , work was already underway in 2003 to expand Highway 69 south of Sudbury to four lanes . As work is completed at the southern end near Nobel , the Highway 400 designation is being extended north . Construction began on the segment from Sudbury southwards to Estaire in 2005 , while route planning studies were completed for the Estaire to Parry Sound segment . Portions of the route will be opened to traffic in segments as contracts are fulfilled ; the segment between Sudbury and Estaire opened on November 12 , 2009 , while the Nobel bypass from Parry Sound to Highway 559 opened October 26 , 2010 . As the Sudbury segment of the freeway is discontinuous with the remainder of Highway 400 , it will not be renumbered until the southern segment is connected with it . As one of the oldest 400 @-@ series freeways , several vintage overpasses have been demolished in recent years to accommodate the future expansion of Highway 400 to a ten @-@ lane freeway in the section from Vaughan to Barrie . Sixteen of these historic structures , sub @-@ standard by today 's freeway requirements , remained as of summer 2009 , with all slated for replacement in the near future . In order to preserve some of this heritage the Ministry of Transportation created a 1800mm x 1625mm reusable urethane mould of the provincial coat @-@ of @-@ arms from the 5th Line overpass located south of Bradford , which will be used to decorate the replacement structures . Construction began north of Barrie in April 2013 to replace the overpass at the Crown Hill junction with Highway 11 . The new structure , designed to accommodate future highway expansion , was completed in October 2015 . The original overpass , built during the 1950s , was demolished during an overnight closure on December 13 , 2015 . The overall cost of this project was C $ 8 @.@ 5 million . = = Services = = There are four service centres located along Highway 400 : Maple , King City , Innisfil and Barrie . The centres were originally leased to and operated by several major gasoline distributors ; however , those companies have chosen not to renew their leases as the terms end . In response , the MTO put the operation of the full network of service centres out for tender , resulting in a 50 @-@ year lease with Host Kilmer Service Centres , a joint venture between hospitality company HMSHost ( a subsidiary of Autogrill ) and Larry Tanenbaum 's investment company Kilmer van Nostrand , which operates them under the ONroute brand . Three of the four service centres will be upgraded and will feature a Canadian Tire gas station , an HMSHost @-@ operated convenience store known as " The Market " , as well as fast food brands such as Tim Hortons , A & W and Burger King . The southbound Vaughan service centre is not included in these plans . The Barrie centre closed for reconstruction on October 19 , 2010 . The King City service centre relocated a few hundred meters south in October 2012 . The Cookstown centre had its developments underway in February 1 , 2013 and reopened in June 2015 , however it moved to a new location north of 4th line and rebranded as Innisfil ONRoute Service centres are located at the following points along Highway 400 : = = Exit list = = The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 400 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario .
= New York State Route 215 ( 1940s – 1970s ) = New York State Route 215 ( NY 215 ) was a north – south state highway located within the town of Hamlin in Monroe County , New York , in the United States . It served as the primary highway to and from Hamlin Beach State Park prior to the construction of the Lake Ontario State Parkway . The southern terminus of the route was at an intersection with NY 360 east of the hamlet of Morton . Its northern terminus was at the park on the shore of Lake Ontario . The entirety of NY 215 was named Redman Road . NY 215 was assigned in the early 1940s to provide a signed connection between NY 360 and Hamlin Beach State Park . It ceased to exist in the early 1970s once it was severed from the Lake Ontario shoreline by a westward extension of the Lake Ontario State Parkway . However , the remaining portion of NY 215 remained state maintained for another 30 years as New York State Route 941P , an unsigned reference route . Ownership and maintenance of NY 941P was transferred to Monroe County as part of a highway maintenance swap that took effect on November 26 , 2007 . The former routing of NY 941P is now part of unsigned County Route 236 ( CR 236 ) . = = Route description = = NY 215 began at a three @-@ way intersection with NY 360 east of the hamlet of Morton in the town of Hamlin . NY 360 turned off Redman Road here to follow Morton Road west to the hamlet of Morton while NY 215 headed north on Redman Road . It passed by open , cultivated fields and small pockets of residences as it proceeded through rural northwestern Monroe County . After 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) , NY 215 intersected Moscow Road , a local highway connecting NY 215 to the then @-@ western end of the Lake Ontario State Parkway . North of Moscow Road , the fields on the highway 's east side slowly gave way to forested areas as the route approached Hamlin Beach State Park and intersected Cook Road . The route terminated 500 feet ( 150 m ) north of Cook Road at the southern boundary of Hamlin Beach State Park . The physical roadway continued into the park and to nearby Lake Ontario as a local highway . = = History = = The portion of Redman Road north of modern NY 360 in Hamlin was a state highway as early as 1920 ; however , it was not assigned a designation until the early 1940s , when it became NY 215 . At the time , it was the primary highway to and from Hamlin Beach State Park on the Lake Ontario shoreline , as no continuous east – west lakeside roadway existed at the time . This changed in the late 1940s and early 1950s following the construction of the Lake Ontario State Parkway , a lakeshore highway connecting the park to NY 261 in Greece . The parkway began east of NY 215 at Moscow Road and provided a direct connection to Hamlin Beach State Park from Greece , and eventually Rochester . As a result , NY 215 became merely an alternate route to the park . In the early 1970s , the Lake Ontario State Parkway was extended westward across Monroe and Orleans counties to Lakeside Beach State Park in Carlton . NY 215 's connection to Hamlin Beach State Park was severed as part of the construction . As a result , the remaining portion of NY 215 from NY 360 to Cook Road lost its signed route status and was redesignated NY 941P , an unsigned reference route . The highway remained state maintained until 2007 , when ownership and maintenance of it was transferred from the state of New York to Monroe County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . A bill ( S4856 , 2007 ) to enact the swap was introduced in the New York State Senate on April 23 and passed by both the Senate and the New York State Assembly on June 20 . The act was signed into law by Governor Eliot Spitzer on August 28 . Under the terms of the act , it took effect 90 days after it was signed into law ; thus , the maintenance swap officially took place on November 26 , 2007 . The former routing of NY 941P is now part of CR 236 . = = Major intersections = = The entire route was in Hamlin , Monroe County .
= Team effectiveness = Team effectiveness ( also referred to as group effectiveness ) is the capacity a team has to accomplish the goals or objectives administered by an authorized personnel or the organization . A team is a collection of individuals who are interdependent in their tasks , share responsibility for outcomes , and view themselves as a unit embedded in an institutional or organizational system which operates within the established boundaries of that system . Teams and groups have established a synonymous relationship within the confines of processes and research relating to their effectiveness ( i.e. group cohesiveness , teamwork ) while still maintaining their independence as two separate units , as groups and their members are independent of each other 's role , skill , knowledge or purpose versus teams and their members , who are interdependent upon each other 's role , skill , knowledge and purpose . = = Overview = = The evaluation of how effective a team is , is achieved with the aid of a variety of components derived from research and theories that help in creating a description of the multifaceted nature of team effectiveness . According to Hackman ( 1987 ) , team effectiveness can be defined in terms of three criteria : Output - The final outputs produced by the team must meet or exceed the standards set by key constituents within the organization Social Processes - The internal social processes operating as the team interacts should enhance , or at least maintain , the group ’ s ability to work together in the future Learning - The experience of working in the team environment should act to satisfy rather than aggravate the personal needs of team members In order for these criteria to be assessed appropriately , an evaluation of team effectiveness should be conducted , which involves both a measure of the teams ’ final task performance as well as criteria with which to assess intragroup process . The three major intragroup process constructs examined are intra @-@ group conflict , team cohesion , and team @-@ efficacy . Intra @-@ group conflict is an integral part of the process a team undergoes and the effectiveness of the unit that was formed . Previous research has differentiated two components of intra @-@ group conflict : Relationship conflict - This is the interpersonal incompatibilities between team members such as annoyance and animosity Task conflict - This occurs when members convey divergent ideas and opinions about specific aspects related to task accomplishment Team cohesion is viewed as ‘ ‘ a general indicator of synergistic group interaction — or process ’ ’ . Furthermore , cohesion has been linked to greater coordination during team @-@ tasks as well as improved satisfaction , productivity , and group interactions . Team efficacy refers to team members ’ perceptions of task @-@ specific team competence . This construct is thought to create a sense of confidence within the team that enables the group to persevere when faced with hardship . According to Hackman ( 2002 ) , there are also 5 conditions that research has shown to optimize the effectiveness of the team : Real Team - Stability in the group membership over time Compelling Direction - A clear purpose that relies on end goals Enabling Structure - The groups dynamic must be producing good , not bad Social Support - The group must have a system to collaborate properly Coaching - Opportunities for a coach to give help = = Work teams = = Work teams ( also referred to as production and service teams ) are continuing work units responsible for producing goods or providing services for the organization . Their membership is typically stable , usually full @-@ time , and well @-@ defined . These teams are traditionally directed by a supervisor who mandates what work is done , who does it , and in what manner is it executed . Work teams are effectively used in manufacturing sectors such as mining and apparel and service based sectors such as accounting which utilize audit teams . = = = Self @-@ managed = = = Self @-@ managed work teams ( also referred to as autonomous work groups ) allow their members to make a greater contribution at work and constitute a significant competitive advantage for the organization . These work teams determine how they will accomplish the objectives they are mandated to achieve and decide what route they will take to complete the current assignment . Self @-@ managed work teams are granted the responsibility of planning , scheduling , organizing , directing , controlling and evaluating their own work process . They also select their own members and evaluate the members ' performance . Self @-@ managed work teams have been favored for their effectiveness over traditionally managed teams due their ability to enhance productivity , costs , customer service , quality , and safety . = = Parallel teams = = Parallel teams ( also referred to as advice and involvement teams ) pull together people from different work units or jobs to perform functions that the regular organization is not equipped to perform well . These teams are given limited authority and can only make recommendations to individuals higher in the organizational hierarchy . Parallel teams are used for solving problems and activities that are in need of revision or improvement . Examples of parallel teams are quality circles , task forces , quality improvement teams , employee involvement groups . The effectiveness of parallel teams is proven by the continuation of their usage and expansion throughout organizations due to their ability to improve quality and increase employee involvement . = = Project teams = = Project teams ( also referred to as development teams ) produce new products and services for an organization or institution on a one @-@ time or limited basis , of which the copyrights of that new product or service will belong to the establishment that it was made for once it is completed . The task of these teams may vary from just improving a current project , concept or plan to creating an entirely new projects with very few limitations . Projects teams rely on their members being knowledgeable and well versed in many disciplines and functions , as this allows them to complete the task effectively . Once a project is completed , the team either disbands and are individually moved to other special functions or moves on to other projects and tasks that they as a unit can accomplish or develop . A common example of project teams are cross @-@ functional teams . A project team 's effectiveness is associated with the speed with which they are able to create and develop new products and services which reduces time spent on individual projects . = = Management teams = = Management teams ( also referred to as action and negotiation teams ) are responsible for the coordination and direction of a division within an institution or organization during various assigned projects and functional , operational and / or strategic tasks and initiatives . Management teams are responsible for the total performance of the division they oversee with regards to day @-@ to @-@ day operations , delegation of tasks and the supervision of employees . The authority of these teams are based on the members position on the company 's or institution 's organizational chart . These management teams are constructed of managers from different divisions ( e.g. Vice President of Marketing , Assistant Director of Operations ) . An example of management teams are executive management teams , which consists of members at the top of the organization 's hierarchy , such as Chief Executive Officer , Board of Directors , Board of Trustees , etc . , who establish the strategic initiatives that a company will undertake over a long term period ( ~ 3 – 5 years ) . Management teams have been effective by using their expertise to aid companies in adjusting to the current landscape of a global economy , which helps them compete with their rivals in their respective markets , produce unique initiatives that sets them apart from their rivals and empower the employees who are responsible for the success of the organization or institution .
= Spotlight ( Madonna song ) = " Spotlight " is a song by American singer Madonna from her first remix album You Can Dance ( 1987 ) . It was released as a single in Japan on April 25 , 1988 by Sire Records and Warner @-@ Pioneer Japan . Initially rejected during her True Blue album recording sessions , it was written by Madonna , Stephen Bray and Curtis Hudson . It was inspired by the song " Everybody Is a Star " ( 1970 ) , by American rock band Sly and the Family Stone . The song was remixed by Shep Pettibone , with additional mixing done by John " Jellybean " Benitez . " Spotlight " features instrumentation from drums , bass synths and handclaps , accompanied by vocal echos , a piano segment and violin phrases in the musical interlude . The lyrics talk about how one can be famous if one sings about it . The song received mixed reviews from critics . After its release , it reached number 68 on the Japanese Oricon weekly singles chart , as well as number three on its international singles chart . Although not released in the United States , the song managed to chart on Billboard 's Airplay chart in early 1988 . The song was used in a Mitsubishi VCR commercial , in which she appeared . = = Background = = By the mid @-@ eighties , post @-@ disco dance music was extremely popular and the concept of remix was widely regarded as a new direction of music . Several artists were remixing their tracks and compiling them to create new albums . Hence Madonna , who was the most popular dance artist of that era , decided to create a similar remix compilation album , later titled You Can Dance , which included seven of her up @-@ tempo songs . Along with the pre @-@ released tracks in remixed form , " Spotlight " was included as an added bonus . Madonna said that she was inspired by the song " Everybody Is a Star " ( 1970 ) , by American rock band Sly and the Family Stone . In 1983 , Curtis Hudson and Lisa Stevens of the group Pure Energy had written the song " Holiday " , which Madonna recorded and released as the third single from her self @-@ titled debut album . After the single 's commercial success , Hudson wrote a song sounding like " Holiday " , in case Warner , Madonna 's record company , wanted to release a similar song to it . He named it " Spotlight " and offered it to Madonna , who recorded the song for her 1986 album True Blue . However , Madonna didn 't include it in the album because she felt that it was similar in composition and structure to " Holiday " . = = Composition = = When Madonna decided to create You Can Dance , she and Stephen Bray reworked the demo composed by Hudson and Madonna asked Shep Pettibone , who had remixed her songs from True Blue , to remix " Spotlight " and included it on the album . John " Jellybean " Benitez , who had recorded the original demo during the True Blue sessions , assisted Pettibone in remixing the song . " Spotlight " begins with the sound of drums , bass synths and handclaps , followed by Madonna uttering the words " Spotlight , shine bright " . After the first verse , the sound of keyboard is heard during the effect . It continues like this through the second verse , which is followed by an interlude featuring vocal echos , a piano segment and violin phrases . Madonna follows the music played by the piano and utters the words " Pa @-@ da @-@ pa @-@ da @-@ pappa pappa pa pa " in the same melody . The lyrics deal with Madonna making the listener remember that " Everybody is a Star " and that if one wants to be famous and be under the " Spotlight " , the person should sing about it and reality may catch up with him or her . = = Reception = = Mark Bego , author of Madonna : Blonde Ambition wrote that " Spotlight " was a " typical Madonna ' look @-@ at @-@ me ' dance routine , that sounds flat besides the heavy remixes in You Can Dance . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic said that the song " sounds dated — this is quite clearly extended mixes from the mid 80 's — but that 's part of the charm . " Dave Barry from The Miami Herald commented that although You Can Dance sounds like " old Madonna " , " Spotlight " sounds surprisingly fresh to his ears . Joe Brown from The Washington Post commented that the song should have been a " flat reject " . Don McLeese from Chicago Sun @-@ Times called the song " exuberant " . Dennis Hunt from Los Angeles Times commented that " [ You Can Dance ] is an attractive package for dance fans — particularly with the inclusion of a new cut , ' Spotlight ' " . He went on to add that the " lyrics of ' Spotlight ' aren 't great , but they 're still more interesting than the others . Still , the words , like those of most dance songs , are just window dressing that 's secondary to the beat . The big attraction of ' Spotlight ' is a long , hard @-@ driving , closing passage that 's guaranteed to turn dancers on . " Jan DeKnock , while writing for Orlando Sentinel , noted that the song was already receiving airplay from radio stations . " Spotlight " was not officially released as a single in the United States ; therefore it was not eligible at the time to appear on Billboard 's Hot 100 . Even so , it managed to garner enough airplay to appear on the publication 's Hot 100 Airplay survey in early 1988 . It debuted on the Airplay chart at 37 on the issue dated January 16 , 1988 . After three weeks , " Spotlight " reached a peak of 32 , but fell to 40 the next week before exiting the chart . It had also reached the Hot Crossover 30 chart beginning on the issue dated December 12 , 1987 , peaking at 15 for two consecutive weeks beginning January 9 , 1988 and spending eight total weeks on the chart . The song was released commercially in Japan on April 25 , 1988 . " Spotlight " peaked at number 68 on the Oricon weekly singles chart , remaining on the chart for five weeks . It also charted on the Oricon international singles chart , reaching a peak of three on May 19 , 1988 , staying on the chart for ten weeks . = = Media appearance = = " Spotlight " was featured in the last of a series of Japanese TV commercials Madonna filmed for electronics company Mitsubishi . The commercial promoted their VCR model F @-@ 5 @.@ 3 . In the commercial , Madonna was featured as coming out of a car and sitting down on a sofa , while watching a film on the VCR , as " Spotlight " is played in the background . The song was also used as cross @-@ promotion for the Japanese leg of her 1987 Who 's That Girl World Tour under the campaign name of " Dreams Come True " . = = Track listings and formats = = Japanese 7 " single , 3 " Mini CD single " Spotlight " ( Single Edit ) – 4 : 32 " Where 's The Party " ( Remix Single Edit ) – 4 : 13 US 12 " Vinyl Promo " Where 's The Party " ( Extended Remix ) – 7 : 11 " Where 's The Party " ( Dub ) – 6 : 22 " Spotlight " ( Extended Remix ) – 6 : 34 " Spotlight " ( Dub ) – 4 : 49 = = Credits and personnel = = Madonna – vocals , writer Stephen Bray – producer , writer Curtis Hudson – writer Shep Pettibone – remixing John " Jellybean " Benitez – additional mixing Source : = = Charts = =
= On the Pulse of Morning = " On the Pulse of Morning " is a poem by African @-@ American writer and poet Maya Angelou that she read at the first inauguration of President Bill Clinton on January 20 , 1993 . With her public recitation , Angelou became the second poet in history to read a poem at a presidential inauguration , and the first African American and woman . ( Robert Frost was the first inaugural poet , at the 1961 inauguration of John F. Kennedy . ) Angelou 's audio recording of the poem won the 1994 Grammy Award in the " Best Spoken Word " category , resulting in more fame and recognition for her previous works , and broadening her appeal . The poem 's themes are change , inclusion , responsibility , and role of both the President and the citizenry in establishing economic security . Its symbols , references to contemporary issues , and personification of nature has inspired critics to compare " On the Pulse of Morning " with Frost 's inaugural poem and with Clinton 's inaugural address . It has been called Angelou 's " autobiographical poem " , and has received mixed reviews . The popular press praised Clinton 's choice of Angelou as inaugural poet , and her " representiveness " of the American people and its President . Critic Mary Jane Lupton said that " Angelou 's ultimate greatness will be attributed " to the poem , and that Angelou 's " theatrical " performance of it , using skills she learned as an actor and speaker , marked a return to the African @-@ American oral tradition of speakers such as Frederick Douglass , Martin Luther King , Jr. and Malcolm X. Poetry critics , despite praising Angelou 's recitation and performance , gave mostly negative reviews of the poem . = = Background = = When Angelou wrote and recited " On the Pulse of Morning " , she was already well known as a writer and poet . She had written five of the seven of her series of autobiographies , including the first and most highly acclaimed , I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings ( 1969 ) . Although she was best known for her autobiographies , she was primarily known as a poet rather than an autobiographer . Early in her writing career she began alternating the publication of an autobiography and a volume of poetry . Her first volume of poetry Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ' Fore I Diiie , published in 1971 shortly after Caged Bird , became a best @-@ seller and was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize . As scholar Marcia Ann Gillespie writes , Angelou had " fallen in love with poetry " during her early childhood in Stamps , Arkansas . After her rape at the age of eight , which she depicted in Caged Bird , Angelou memorized and studied great works of literature , including poetry . According to Caged Bird , her friend Mrs. Flowers encouraged her to recite them , which helped bring her out her self @-@ imposed period of muteness caused by her trauma . Angelou was the first poet to read an inaugural poem since Robert Frost read his poem " The Gift Outright " at President John F. Kennedy 's inauguration in 1961 , and the first Black and woman . When it was announced that Angelou would read one of her poems at Clinton 's inauguration , many in the popular press compared her role as inaugural poet with that of Frost 's , especially what critic Zofia Burr called their " representativeness " , or their ability to speak for and to the American people . The press also pointed to the nation 's social progress that a Black woman would " stand in the place of a white man " at his inauguration , and praised Angelou 's involvement as the Clinton administration 's " gesture of inclusion " . Angelou told her friend Oprah Winfrey that the call requesting her to write and recite the poem came from television producer Harry Thomason , who organized the inauguration , shortly after Clinton 's election . Even though she suspected that Clinton made the request because " he understood that I am the kind of person who really does bring people together " , Angelou admitted feeling overwhelmed , and even requested that the audiences attending her speaking engagements pray for her . She followed her same " writing ritual " that she had followed for years and used in writing all of her books and poetry : she rented a hotel room , closeted herself there from the early morning to the afternoon , and wrote on legal pads . After deciding upon the theme " America " , she wrote down everything she could think of about the country , which she then " pushed and squeezed into a poetic form " . Angelou recited the poem on January 20 , 1993 . = = Themes = = " On the Pulse of Morning " shared many of the themes in President Clinton 's inaugural address , which he gave immediately before Angelou read her poem , including change , responsibility , and the President 's and the citizenry 's role in establishing economic security . The symbols in Angelou 's poem ( the tree , the river , and the morning , for example ) paralleled many of the same symbols Clinton used in his speech , and helped to enhance and expand Clinton 's images . Clinton 's address and the poem , according to Hagen , both emphasized unity despite the diversity of American culture . " On the Pulse of Morning " attempted to convey many of the goals of Clinton 's new administration . Burr compared Angelou 's poem with Frost 's , something she claimed the poetry critics who gave " On the Pulse of Morning " negative reviews did not do . Angelou " rewrote " Frost 's poem , from the perspective of personified nature that appeared in both poems . Frost praised American colonization , but Angelou attacked it . The cost of the creation of America was abstract and ambiguous in Frost 's poem , but the personified Tree in Angelou 's poem signified the cultures in America that paid a significant cost to create it . Both Frost and Angelou called for a " break with the past " , but Frost wanted to relive it and Angelou wanted to confront its mistakes . Burr also compared Angelou 's poem with Audre Lorde 's poem " For Each of You " , which has similar themes of looking towards the future , as well as with Walt Whitman 's " Song of Myself " and Langston Hughes ' " The Negro Speaks of Rivers " . According to Hagen , the poem contains a recurring theme in many of Angelou 's other poems and autobiographies , that " we are more alike than unalike " . " On the Pulse of Morning " was full of contemporary references , including toxic waste and pollution . Angelou 's poem was influenced by the African @-@ American oral tradition of spirituals , by poets such as James Weldon Johnson and Langston Hughes , and by modern African poets and folk artists such as Kwesi Brew and Efua Sutherland , which also influenced her autobiographies . = = Critical response and impact = = According to Lupton , " On the Pulse of Morning " is Angelou 's most famous poem . Lupton has argued that " Angelou 's ultimate greatness will be attributed " to the poem , and that Angelou 's " theatrical " performance of it , using skills she learned as an actor and speaker , marked a return to the African @-@ American oral tradition of speakers such as Frederick Douglass , Martin Luther King , Jr. and Malcolm X. British reporter Kate Kellaway compared Angelou 's appearance as she read the poem at Clinton 's inauguration with the eight @-@ year @-@ old child in Caged Bird , noting that the coats she wore in both occasions were similar : " She looked magnificent , sternly theatrical with an unsmiling bow mouth . She wore a coat with brass buttons , a strange reminder of the eight @-@ year @-@ old Maya Angelou who stood in a courtroom , terrified at the sight of the man who had raped her " . Gillespie stated regarding Kellaway 's observations : " But standing tall on the steps of the Capitol , she was light @-@ years removed from that terrible time , and America was no longer an ' unfriendly place . ' Her poem ' On the Pulse of Morning ' was a soaring call for peace , justice , and harmony . Capturing the hope embodied in the human spirit , it was a solemn and joyful reminder that all things are possible . She wished us ' Good morning ' in her poem , and one felt as if a new day was truly dawning . " Angelou recognized that although " On the Pulse of Morning " was a better " public poem " than a great poem , her goal of conveying the message of unity was accomplished . Poet David Lehman agreed , stating that although it fulfilled its theatrical and political objectives , the poem was " not very memorable " . Poet Sterling D. Plumpp found Angelou 's performance " brilliant " , but was " not as enthusiastic about it as a text " . Burr stated that the negative reviews of Angelou 's poem , like the majority of the reviews about her other poetry , was due to their elitism and narrow views of poetry , which were limited to written forms rather than spoken ones like " On the Pulse of Morning " , which was written to recite aloud and perform . Burr compared the response of literary critics to Angelou 's poem with critics of Frost 's poem : " Frost 's powerful reading served to supplement the poem in the sense of enhancing it , while Angelou 's powerful reading of her poem supplemented it in the sense of making evident its inadequacy and lack . " Angelou 's recitation of " On the Pulse of Morning " resulted in more fame and recognition for her previous works , and broadened her appeal " across racial , economic , and educational boundaries " . The week after Angelou 's recitation , sales of the paperback version of her books and poetry rose by 300 – 600 percent . Bantam Books had to reprint 400 @,@ 000 copies of all her books to keep up with the demand . Random House , which published Angelou 's hardcover books and published the poem later that year , reported that they sold more of her books in January 1993 than they did in all of 1992 , accounting for a 1200 percent increase . The sixteen @-@ page publication of the poem became a best @-@ seller , and the recording of the poem was awarded a Grammy Award .
= Hygrophorus bakerensis = Hygrophorus bakerensis , commonly known as the Mt . Baker waxy cap , the brown almond waxy cap or the tawny almond waxy cap , is a species of fungus in the Hygrophoraceae family . It is characterized by its medium to large , relatively slender @-@ statured fruit bodies with an almond odor , and growth often on or near rotting conifer wood . The slimy cap is brown in the center and cream to white near its curved edges . The gills and the stem are white , and in moist environments are often covered with droplets of a translucent liquid . The mushroom is known only from the United States , where it is common in coniferous forests throughout the Pacific Northwest . It was initially collected in Washington State on Mount Baker , a volcano . Although edible , the mushroom is not considered to be of high quality . = = Taxonomy and naming = = The species was first described scientifically by American mycologists Alexander H. Smith and Lexemuel Ray Hesler in a 1942 publication . The specific epithet bakerensis refers to Mount Baker , a volcano in the North Cascades of Washington State in the United States , where the mushroom was first collected . It is commonly known by various names , including the " Mt . Baker waxy cap " , the " brown almond waxy cap " , and the " tawny almond waxy cap " . = = Description = = Young fruit bodies of H. bakerensis have rounded caps with cottony margins that are rolled inward ; as the mushrooms mature the caps flatten out and the margins may lift upward . The diameter of the cap reaches between 4 and 15 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 and 5 @.@ 9 in ) . The center of the cap is colored yellow @-@ brown , tawny or amber , reducing to nearly white at the margin . The cap surface is slimy when wet , and sticky as it gets older and dries out . Beneath the slime layer are hairs that are plastered tightly to the surface , which clump together a few at a time to form many little streaks . The firm white flesh of the cap is thick — 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 inches ) near the stem attachment — and tapers evenly to the margin . It does not change color when cut or bruised . It has a mild taste and a characteristic fragrant odor that resembles almonds , or " crushed peach pits " . The waxy gills are decurrent or bluntly attached to the stem . The gill spacing is close to subdistant — between 56 – 88 individual gills reach the stem , with 2 – 3 tiers of short lamellulae ( shorter gills that do not extend fully from the cap margin to the stem ) . The gills have even edges , and are narrow but become broad in large caps ( 8 – 12 mm ) , ranging in color from creamy white to pinkish @-@ buff . They do not discolor when they are bruised . Young specimens often have drops of a clear liquid beaded on the gills . The gills of dried specimens darken considerably . The stem is 7 to 14 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 to 5 @.@ 5 in ) long , 0 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 3 to 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick at the apex , solid ( i.e. , not hollow ) , and either equal in width throughout or narrowed downward . Its color is white to pale pinkish @-@ buff , with a dry surface . The top portion of young specimens have a cottony , fine whitish powder near the top , but this sloughs off as it matures . Like the gills , the top of the stem is often beaded with drops of translucent liquid in moist weather . The spores are ellipsoid , smooth , and measure 7 – 9 by 4 @.@ 5 – 5 µm . They are yellowish when stained with Melzer 's reagent . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells in the hymenium ) are four @-@ spored , and measure 40 – 54 by 6 – 8 µm . There are no cystidia on the gill faces or edges . The cap cuticle is an ixotrichoderm — a layer of gelatinized tissue where the distal portion of the filamentous hyphae are different lengths and the hyphae themselves are arranged perpendicular to the surface ; this layer of gelatinous hyphae is between 100 and 250 µm thick . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae of the cuticle and the gill tissue . = = = Edibility = = = The mushroom is edible , but considered " low @-@ quality " . Smith does not recommend the mushroom for consumption , noting " I have been informed by a number of collectors that the species is edible , but many of them thought it was a Clitocybe or a Tricholoma ! " . = = = Similar species = = = Hygrophorus variicolor is very similar in overall appearance , differing only in having a stem made slimy by a gelatinous partial veil . H. tennesseensis is another lookalike species , but has a farinaceous odor ( like raw potatoes ) and a bitter taste . H. arbustivus is a European species found under oaks . The " clay waxy cap " ( H. discoideus ) is another lookalike European species ; there is a North American equivalent H. discoideus var. californius found at high elevations in the Sierra Nevada . Other North American species of Hygrophorus with an odor of almonds include H. agathosmus ( which has a gray cap ) , H. monticola ( larger spores ) , and H. vinicolor ( which has larger spores and an unpleasant taste ) . Collybia oregonensis has a similar coloration and odor , but has adnexed or notched and non @-@ waxy gills . = = Habitat and distribution = = Hygrophorus bakerensis is an ectomycorrhizal species , and forms a mutualistic relationship with compatible host plant by forming a sheath around their root tips . In this way , the fungus gains carbon and other essential organic substances from the tree and in return helps the trees take up water , mineral salts and metabolites . It can also fight off parasites and predators such as nematodes and soil pathogens . Associated tree species include Douglas @-@ fir . The fruit bodies of H. bakerensis grow scattered , clustered , or in groups on the forest floor under conifers . They are common at elevations of 1 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 ft ( 300 to 1 @,@ 220 m ) throughout the Pacific Northwest region of the United States and the northern Rocky Mountains , and have been collected from California , Idaho , Washington , and Oregon . It has been found as far north as Hazelton , British Columbia east to Quebec , Canada . Fruit bodies typically appear from September to December , and they can be very common .
= Isaac Perrins = Isaac Perrins was an English bareknuckle prizefighter and 18th @-@ century engineer . A man reputed to possess prodigious strength but a mild manner , he fought and lost one of the most notorious boxing matches of the era , a physically mismatched contest against the English Champion Tom Johnson . Such was the mismatch that Perrins was described as Hercules fighting a boy . During the period when he was prizefighting Perrins worked for Boulton and Watt , manufacturers of steam engines , based at their Soho Foundry , Birmingham , but also travelled around the country and at times acted as an informant on people who were thought to have breached his employer 's patents . In the later years of his life he also ran a public house in Manchester and undertook engineering work on his own account . He was appointed to lead the Manchester fire brigade in 1799 , and died a little over 12 months later in the performance of his duties . = = Early life = = There is little information regarding Issac Perrins ' early life , but he was probably born in about 1751 . His father , also called Isaac , worked for Boulton and Watt erecting stationary steam engines in the West Midlands until his death in 1780 . In that year Isaac junior was offered work in Cornwall by the business but turned it down . He subsequently accepted a Birmingham @-@ based job with the firm in 1782 . = = Prizefighting = = Bareknuckle fighting was " particularly popular " in Birmingham during Perrins ' lifetime . From a legal standpoint such fights ran the risk of being classified as disorderly assemblies but in practice the authorities were concerned mainly about the number of criminals congregating there . The patronage of the aristocracy – including royal princes and dukes – and other wealthy people ensured that any legal scrutiny was generally benign , in particular because fights could take place on private estates . There was increased support for the sport from around 1786 because of the interest shown in it by the Prince of Wales ( later King George IV ) and his brothers , the future King William IV and Duke of Kent . Prizefighting in early 18th @-@ century England took many forms rather than just pugilism , which was referred to by noted swordsman and then boxing champion James Figg as " the noble science of defence " . By the middle of the century the term was generally used to denote boxing fights only . The appeal of prizefighting at that time has been compared to that of duelling , with historian Adrian Harvey saying that Patriotic writers often extolled the manly sports of the British , claiming that they reflected a courageous , robust , individualism in which the nation could take pride . Pugilism was regarded as humane and fair and its practice was presented in chivalrous terms . It was also a symbol of national courage , embodying the worth which Englishmen placed upon their own individual honour . The French , it was argued , did not like pugilism because they were not a free people and relied on the authorities to resolve their disputes . By contrast , the British dealt with their own problems in a straightforward manner , according to established rules of fair play . Showell 's Dictionary of Birmingham reported that although pugilism was long practised in the area the first local records it could find were of a prizefight on 7 October 1782 at Coleshill between Isaac Perrins , " the knock @-@ kneed hammerman from Soho " , and a professional called Jemmy Sargent . The fighters received 100 guineas each . Perrins won in around six minutes , after knocking Sargent down thirteen times . Perrins ' friends apparently won £ 1 @,@ 500 with their betting . This record is an exception to the rule : the records of fights are not detailed for this period and particularly so in the case of those which did not involve men from London . Unless a death or some other remarkable incident occurred , the information is scarce . London was the premier centre for boxing because the aristocratic supporters of the sport dispersed to their country estates during the summer months but tended to congregate in the city for the winter period . Birmingham was often portrayed as second only to London for the sport and in 1789 there were a series of challenges issued by fighters from the Birmingham area to opponents based around London . The challenges were intended to demonstrate the level of organisation and confidence among the Birmingham boxers and their supporters . Three of these challenges were accepted , including that from Perrins to Tom Johnson . Perrins had already issued a general challenge , offering to fight any man in England for a prize of 500 guineas , having beaten all challengers in the counties around Birmingham . The Perrins – Johnson fight took place at Banbury on 22 October 1789 and was billed as a battle between Birmingham and London as well as for the English Championship . The venue had been intended to be Newmarket during a race meeting but permission could not be obtained . The two men were around the same age but physically very different . Perrins stood 6 ' 2 " ( 1 @.@ 88 m ) tall and weighed 238 pounds ( 108 kg ) , while Johnson was 5 ' 10 " ( 1 @.@ 78 m ) and weighed 196 pounds ( 89 kg ) . It was claimed that Perrins had lifted 896 pounds ( 406 kg ) of iron with ease , and he was " universally allowed to possess much skill and excellent bottom " . That is , it was acknowledged that he was skilful and courageous . The physical mismatch was later described as a fight between Hercules , in the form of Perrins , and a boy . The first five minutes of competition saw neither man strike a blow and then when Perrins tried to make contact Johnson dodged and felled Perrins in return . Although Perrins recovered to hold the upper hand in the first few rounds , Johnson then began to dance around the ring , forcing Perrins to follow to make a fight of it . This " shifting " confused Perrins because the custom at the time was for the fighters to stand still and hit each other , but the rules for this particular fight did not prevent it . Nor did they specify what should happen if a contestant fell to the ground , which is what Johnson did to avoid being hit – this action was thought by the spectators to be unsporting but was permitted by the two umpires . Before long both fighters showed signs of their opponent 's attacks , with first Perrins and then Johnson suffering cut eyes and then further damage to their faces . By the fight 's end Perrins ' head " had scarcely the traces left of a human being " , according to Pierce Egan in his history of boxing . The contest lasted 62 rounds , which took a total of 75 minutes to complete , until Perrins became totally exhausted . Tony Gee has said that Perrins had overwhelming physical advantages but , owing to his naïvety , no clause was inserted in the articles of agreement to prevent " shifting " ... Moreover , Perrins was inexperienced in the subterfuges of the sport and found himself outwitted by his artful adversary . A celebrated champion , Jack Broughton , and his supporters had gone some way to codifying some rules in 1743 , based on work by an earlier champion called James Figg , but by Johnson 's time they were still very loose in interpretation and implementation . Perrins ' supporters had gambled heavily on him because of his reputation and his advantage in size . In the event it was a major supporter of Johnson , a Thomas Bullock , who gained ; he won £ 20 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 220 @,@ 000 in 2010 ) from his bets in favour of Johnson and gifted the victor £ 1 @,@ 000 . The event was recorded in The Gentleman 's Magazine of that month ... a great boxing match took place ... between two bruisers , Perrins and Johnson : for which a turf stage had been erected 5 foot 6 inches high , and about 40 feet square . The combatants set @-@ to at one in the afternoon ; and , after sixty @-@ two rounds of fair and hard fighting , victory was declared in favour of Johnson , exactly at fifteen minutes after two . The number of persons of family and fortune , who interested themselves in this brutal conquest , is astonishing : many of whom , it is proper to add , paid dearly for their diversion . The contestants received 250 guineas each , with Johnson also receiving two @-@ thirds of the entrance takings ( after costs ) and Perrins receiving the other third . The net takings were £ 800 , with the number of spectators variously stated as being 3 @,@ 000 or 5 @,@ 000 . Johnson called on Perrins and left him a guinea to buy himself a drink before leaving Banbury . The fight had proved to be " one of the hardest , cleanest and most brilliant encounters that ever took place " . Copper medals were struck to commemorate each of the contestants . The obverse side of these contained a picture of the respective fighter ; the reverse had the Latin inscription Bella ! Horrida bella ! ( a quotation from Virgil which can be translated as wars , horrible wars ) and the words Strength and magnanimity in the case of Perrins , and Science and intrepidity for that of Johnson . Chaloner has speculated that these may have been produced by his employers and says that they bear similarities with the work of a French die maker called Ponthon who was supplying the firm with industrial items from at least 1791 . The National Portrait Gallery holds two pictures of the Banbury fight , one being an etching published by George Smeeton in 1812 , and the other by Joseph Grozer in 1789 . It is possible that his last fight was an 85 @-@ minute contest at Shrewsbury in July 1790 . This was widely reported in the London press and that of provincial cities but was subsequently denied by newspapers more local to the event . There were unsuccessful attempts after that date to match him against Ben Bryan ( sometimes known as Ben Brian , Ben Brain or Ben Bryant ) , who had by that time defeated Johnson . Indeed , these attempts , conducted by Daniel Mendoza , did not help the cause of his employment with Boulton and Watt as the firm thought that they were a distraction and expressed concern regarding his commitment to his work . Despite the brutal nature of prizefighting , it was the opinion of boxing historian Henry Downes Miles , in his book Pugilistica , that Perrins was of a " lamb @-@ like disposition " and an intelligent , modest , discerning , and well @-@ liked man . He was also jolly , full of anecdotes , and ever ready to sing a tune , all of which stood him in good stead when he became a publican . Nonetheless , he was " an erratic histrionic genius , whose reckless riot ruined and extinguished his higher gifts " . = = Work = = Employed as a foreman by Boulton and Watt in Birmingham , Perrins was sent around the country by the firm . In 1787 he visited Scotland , from where he reported on an invention by the Symingtons which might possibly have infringed a patent held by his employers , although Watt was disparaging of the device and its creator . He installed the first Boulton and Watt stationary steam engine in Manchester , at Drinkwater 's Mill in 1789 . He was there again by June 1791 , when he spotted a copy of a Boulton and Watt product in Deansgate , one of many examples which infringed the firm 's patents . An engine had been built by Joshua Wrigley and used a " smokeless fire @-@ place " similar to one patented by Boulton and Watt , although in this instance the matter was not pursued any further by them . His position in the firm was sufficiently elevated that he received business correspondence at the factory ; for example , a letter to Perrins survives from October 1791 , when a John Stratford sought his advice . Perrins was educated and literate by the standards of his time , although economic historian Eric Robinson has said that all engine @-@ erectors needed to be literate to understand fitting instructions sent to their work site by their employers . Perrins eventually moved to Manchester permanently in 1793 , to run a public house . This was not an unusual thing for retired prizefighters then : they often received the proceeds of a financial collection by their supporters to enable them to buy a licence to operate such premises and " today 's fighter was merely tomorrow 's publican in waiting " . In a 1901 review of sporting prints titled The old and new pugilism , which lamented the passing of the style and the discipline of prize @-@ fighting , " the goal of the successful pugilist was a sporting public house ... they were generally in side or back streets , where the house did not command a transient trade . Most of these sporting " pubs " had a large room at the back or upstairs , which was open one night a week ( preferably Saturday ) , for public sparring , which was always conducted by a pugilist of some note . " As well as running his public house , Perrins continued to do work for Boulton and Watt , and was an accredited engine @-@ erector for them . In 1794 he was dismissed from employment by them due to his drunkenness . He had also been arguing with another of the firm 's engineers , James Lawson , had upset customers with his manner and was accused of failing to maintain the engines in the Manchester area to a satisfactory standard . He tried to rebuff the last charge in particular , on the grounds that the firm did not pay him a retainer for the maintenance work If you had allowed me a competency to have kept them clean , I should not be afraid of durtying ( sic ) my hands with doing it as some of your servants are that you send here with ruffles at hands and powdered heads , more like some Lord than an engineer . It cannot be thought that I can lose my time and neglect my own business without some consideration for it Even after this setback he still did some work for the firm . He tracked down and informed the firm of patent infringing copies of their engines in Leeds between 1795 – 1796 and probably also did the same thing subsequently in Lancashire . Scholes 's Manchester and Salford Directory for 1797 shows Perrins as a " victualler and engineer " , living at the Fire Engine public house , 24 Leigh Street . ( The street is listed as being off George Street , which was in turn off Great Ancoats Street . It is now called George Leigh Street . ) His entry in the directory is one of the first references to the term " engineer " found in Mancunian documents , the job description at that time being a relatively new one . It has been stated that at the time of his death he was running another public house , the Neptune , but historian W. H. Chaloner believes the source of the statement to be unreliable . In 1800 he was still doing engineering work for his former employers , who were beset with manufacturing problems and a shortage of engine @-@ erectors . He was also running his own business engaged in general millwrighting and was still called upon by various Manchester engine owners who preferred to use his services for their machine erection and maintenance needs than those of Boulton and Watt . He had moved to New Street , Hanover Street and in December 1799 was appointed to the position of conductor of firemen and inspector of engines by the Manchester police commissioners , positions which effectively put him in charge of the fire brigade . One source – the one considered unreliable by Chaloner – has stated that he had held the position for 20 years prior to his death . = = Death = = Perrins ' death at the age of 50 was announced on 10 December 1800 in the Annual Register , which noted him as being an " engine @-@ worker " . The Register said that This pugilistic hero will ever be remembered for the well @-@ contested battle he fought with the celebrated Johnson ... Perrins possessed most astonishing muscular power , which rendered him well calculated for a bruiser , to which was united a disposition the most placid and amiable . His death was occasioned by too violently exerting himself in assisting to save life and property at a fire in Manchester . However , this announcement of his demise was premature as in fact he died on 6 January 1801 after contracting a fever because of his exertions during the rescue , which had occurred during a huge fire that burned all through the night of 10 December . The fire may be that described in The Annals of Manchester : " warehouses in Hodson Square were burnt down December 10 , caused damages to the extent of £ 50 @,@ 000 , exclusive of the buildings " . On 29 December 1800 he had been awarded £ 20 per annum by the commissioners for " meritorious services " . A memorial to Perrins and his wife , Mary ( who had predeceased him by a few months ) , was placed at St John 's Church , Byrom Street , Manchester .
= Nation Alliance Party = The Nation Alliance Party was a minor political party in British Columbia , Canada . While the party was registered with Elections BC as a provincial party , it also participated in the 2008 federal election , the 2008 municipal election , as well as the 2009 provincial election . The party sought to promote multiculturalism , advocate for rights of ethnic minorities and recent immigrants focusing on employment access , security , health care , education and overall rights and status . It was an advocacy party that sought to politically empower and enable those who do not speak English as a first language to participate in politics . Led by Wei Ping Chen , the party was founded in June 2007 . Chen stood for election in Richmond in the October 2008 federal election , and for mayor of Richmond , British Columbia in the November 2008 municipal election , losing both times . In the May 2009 provincial election the party nominated two candidates , one in Richmond Centre and the other in Richmond East , neither of whom were elected but combined for 818 total votes . = = Background = = The Nation Alliance Party was founded in June 2007 by four people : realtor Wei Ping Chen of Delta , renovator Steven Lian from Surrey , tourism guide Randy Liu from Burnaby , and Simon Fraser University student Locan Wang . Party leader Wei Ping Chen had immigrated to Canada from Beijing , via Australia . He witnessed the challenges that recent immigrants faced once in a new country , and how uninvolved they were in politics . Contrasted to his experience in China , Wei Ping Chen was impressed with the political freedoms available in Canada and felt motivated to start a political party . He felt that political campaigns oriented towards recent immigrants and people whose first language is not English , would empower those communities to become more politically active . Wei Ping Chen was a candidate in the October 2008 federal election in the Richmond electoral district . However , because the party was not registered with Elections Canada , he ran as an independent . He came in fifth place , with 397 votes ( 0 @.@ 93 % ) , losing to the Conservative Party 's Alice Wong . In November 2008 , Nation Alliance Party members nominated candidates for the municipal election in Richmond . Wei Ping Chen challenged incumbent Malcolm Brodie for the mayoral position and Kang Chen , Yang Dai , Jiajian Cheung , Jian Liu , and Bai Chen were nominated for councillor positions . Like the federal campaign , they were classified as independents . The latest census at the time reported that 50 % of Richmond 's population was of Chinese descent and their campaign highlighted the language barrier faced by those who did not speak English , for example tax notices were only available in English . They participated in the all @-@ candidate forums that were translated in Cantonese and Mandarin . None of its candidates were elected with Wei Ping Chen receiving 7 % of the vote . = = Political positions = = The Nation Alliance Party was guided by a support for multiculturalism . Specifically , the party sought to increase translation services for people who could not read or speak English or people whose first language is not English , equivalency of academic standards , more supportive immigration services that assist transition into Canadian society , and better working conditions for recent immigrants and migrant labourers . While the party did not maintain a full slate of policy positions , its candidates advocated for increasing the number of police in Richmond , especially along the SkyTrain route , protection of green spaces , support for affordable housing , and trade missions with China . They were generally in favour of lower taxes but with more spending on senior services and education . In the 2009 provincial election they campaigned against the carbon tax which the governing BC Liberal Party had implemented the previous year . = = Election results = = In the 2009 provincial election , the party nominated candidates in two ridings . Wei Ping Chen stood in the Richmond East riding but got only 419 votes ( 2 @.@ 27 % ) , coming in last place , losing to BC Liberal Linda Reid . In Richmond Centre , the Nation Alliance Party candidate was Kang Chen . He came in last with 399 votes ( 2 @.@ 33 % ) , losing to BC Liberal Rob Howard . The party de @-@ registered with Elections BC in May 2012 , one year prior to the next election , scheduled for May 2013 . = = Finances = = In 2009 provincial election both candidates only reported $ 250 worth of expenditures to Elections BC . In that same election the party claimed $ 318 in general election expenditures .
= 1992 Giro d 'Italia = The 1992 Giro d 'Italia was the 75th edition of the Giro d 'Italia , one of cycling 's Grand Tours . The Giro started off in Genoa on 24 May with a 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) individual time trial . The race concluded in Milan with an 66 km ( 41 @.@ 0 mi ) individual time trial on 14 June . Twenty teams entered the race , which was won by the Spaniard Miguel Indurain of the Banesto team . Second and third respectively were the Italians Claudio Chiappucci and Franco Chioccioli . Indurain 's victory in the 1992 Giro was his first step in completing the Giro - Tour double – winning the Giro d 'Italia and Tour de France in one calendar year - becoming the sixth rider to accomplish this feat , with the first being Fausto Coppi in 1949 . Thierry Marie won the events opening leg and in doing so , became the first rider to wear the race leader 's maglia rosa ( English : pink jersey ) in this edition . He held the race lead for another stage , before he lost it to eventual winner Indurain upon the conclusion of the third stage who held it for the rest of the race 's duration . Indurain built upon his advantage during the fourth and twenty @-@ second stages , both individual time trials , and protected the lead by responding to most attacks from his rivals during the mountainous stages . Indurain became the first Spanish rider to win the Giro d 'Italia . Indurain also won the secondary intergiro classification . In the race 's other classifications , Lampre – Colnago rider Pavel Tonkov of Russia finished as the best rider aged 25 or under in the general classification , finishing in seventh place overall ; Mario Cipollini of the GB – MG Maglificio team was the winner of the points classification , with GB @-@ MG Maglificio finishing as the winners of the team classification , ranking each of the twenty teams contesting the race by lowest cumulative time . = = Teams = = Twenty teams were invited by the race organizers to participate in the 1992 edition of the Giro d 'Italia . Each team sent a squad of nine riders , which meant that the race started with a peloton of 180 cyclists . From the riders that began the race , 148 made it to the finish in Milan . The twenty teams that took part in the race were : = = Pre @-@ race favorites = = The starting peloton did include the previous year 's winner Franco Chioccioli . According to author Bill McGann , Miguel Indurain came into the race with the aims of riding it for preparation for the Tour de France in July . Claudio Chiappucci came into the race as a contender after finishing on the podium at the previous season 's Giro d 'Italia and Tour de France . The Spanish newspaper El País believed Indurain to be the favorite heading into the first day of racing . However , the newspaper did state that his chances were lower since his teammate Jean @-@ François Bernard was not participating in the race due to an injury. l 'Unità writer Dario Ceccarelli and Avui writer Recuero believed that Chiappucci and Indurain were the favorites to win the overall crown . Spanish newspaper Diari de Girona named Indurain , Chiappucci , Laurent Fignon , and Massimiliano Lelli the main contenders to win the race . = = Route and stages = = The route for the 1992 Giro d 'Italia was unveiled by race director Carmine Castellano on 30 November 1991 . It contained three time trial events , all of which were individual . There were eleven stages containing high mountains , of which four had summit finishes : stage 10 , to Monte Terminillo ; stage 14 , to Monte Bondone ; stage 18 , to Monviso ; and stage 19 , to Pila . The organizers chose to include no rest days . When compared to the previous year 's race , the race was 128 km ( 80 mi ) longer and lacked an opening time trial prologue . In addition , this race contained one less of half stages . El País felt that the route was best suited for an all @-@ round cyclist , while stating that final 66 km ( 41 mi ) individual time trial would be decisive in determining the winner of the race . Avui writer Recuero believed that the course was the toughest in years , while also stating that many experts found that the race route was well balanced between the time spent in the mountains and the distance allocated to time trials . The race 's nineteenth stage , which began and ended in Saluzzo , was named the queen stage for the amount of difficult mountains contained in the stage . = = Race overview = = The Giro began with a short 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) individual time trial that navigated through the streets of Genoa , which was won by Thierry Marie by a margin of three seconds . The next day of racing culminated with a bunch sprint that was won by Jolly Componibili @-@ Club 88 's Endrio Leoni after the leading two @-@ man breakaway just kilometers before the finish . Banesto controlled the pace @-@ making for most of the third stage before general classification contender Claudio Chiappucci attacked . Chiappucci attacked near the end of the stage , but was caught by his rivals . Motorola 's Maximilian Sciandri edged out Massimiliano Lelli for the stage win as the race lead shifted from Marie to Miguel Indurain . Indurain increased his advantage over the rest of the competing riders by winning the stage 4 individual time trial by thirty @-@ two seconds . The race 's sixth stage was the first stage containing several climbs of great difficulty . As the stage progressed , the general classification contenders formed a group on the road . Chiappucci and Marco Giovannetti attacked a few times , with all of their attempts being marked by the other riders . The contenders all crossed the finish line together seconds after stage winner Franco Vona , with Frenchman Laurent Fignon being the only one to lose time . The following day , sprinter Guido Bontempi and Giuseppe Petito formed a breakaway group that survived to the stage 's conclusion , with Bontempi taking the stage victory . Stages 8 and 9 both came down to field sprints won by Mario Cipollini and Bontempi , respectively . The event 's tenth stage featured a summit finish to Monte Terminillo . The general classification contenders were all in a group together as they reached the final climb of the day . Piotr Ugrumov was the first of the group to attack and was joined by Roberto Conti shortly after . Behind , Indurain led a chase group that contained Andrew Hampsten , Chiappucci , Giovannetti , and Luis Herrera , while general classification hopefuls Chioccioli and Fignon dropped off the back since they could not keep pace . The group caught Conti , who was alone after Ugrumov slowed , and from there , Herrera attacked to win the stage . The next day 's route was an undulating one . Chioccioli , Roberto Pagnin , and Marco Lietti formed a breakaway group and gained an advantage of three and a half minutes over the main field which was led by Indurain 's team , Banesto . The group remained in front , Pagnin took the stage victory , and Indurain finished over two minutes later . With around nine kilometers remaining in the twelfth stage , there was an accident that saw Chiappicci and Giovannetti amongst others go down . The peloton continued on , gearing up for a sprint finish that Leoni won . The race entered the Dolomites in the thirteenth stage . Indurain was attacked several times on the final climb of the day by Chioccioli , Giovannetti , and Chiappucci ; however , he was able to counter each attack and the group of main competitors finished together three after the stage winner , Vona . The next day was the most mountainous of the race , according to El Pais writer Paolo Viberti , as it contained the Passo Pordoi and twice climbed Monte Bondone , with the second being the end of the stage . Giorgio Furlan launched a solo attack that won him the stage as the general classification contenders attacked each other behind . Indurain marked each move that was made by his rivals , except for a last ditch effort by Chioccioli that allowed him to finish five seconds ahead of the rest of the general classification hopefuls . The next leg of the race saw a nine @-@ man group form a breakaway after the stage started . The breakaway group was not caught and reached the finish line where Castorama 's François Simon won sprint to the line . Marco Saligari won the sixteenth stage after participating in a breakaway that lasted around 146 km ( 90 @.@ 7 mi ) . The eighteenth stage featured a summit finish to the Pian del Re . After several rival riders attacked Indurain , a group of general classification riders were leading on the road going into the final climb of the day . As the climb wore on , the group thinned and Gatorade – Chateau d 'Ax 's Giovannetti attacked on a false flat with about 500 m ( 1 @,@ 640 @.@ 4 ft ) remaining in the stage to win the day . Giancarlo Perini and Udo Bölts caught the nineteenth stage 's leading rider on the road , Ramon Gonzalez . Bölts attacked with two kilometers left on the day and rode solo to stage victory . Meanwhile , race leader Indurain countered all the attacks made by his rivals and maintained his advantage . The event 's twentieth stage saw Chioccioli and Chiappucci attack Indurain several times . Chioccioli won the stage and was the first over most of the categorized climbs on the stage , but Indurain finished with the same time . The penultimate stage resulted in a field sprint that was won by Cipollini for his fourth victory of this edition . The final stage of the race was a 66 km ( 41 @.@ 0 mi ) individual time trial . Race leader Indurain won the stage by two minutes and forty @-@ six seconds over the second @-@ place finisher on the stage , thereby sealing his overall victory . Five riders achieved multiple stage victories : Cipollini ( stages 5 , 8 , 17 , and 21 ) , Bontempi ( stages 7 and 9 ) , Leoni ( stages 2 and 12 ) , Vona ( stages 6 and 13 ) , and Indurain ( stages 4 and 22 ) . Stage wins were achieved by eleven of the twenty competing squads , six of which won multiple stages . GB @-@ MG Maglificio collected a total of seven stage wins through three riders , Cipollini , Vona , and Chioccioli ( stage 20 ) . Carrera Jeans @-@ Vagabond amassed a total of two stage victories through Bontempi . Jolly Componibili @-@ Club 88 achieved the same feat through Leoni . Castorama earned two stage wins through Marie ( stage 1 ) and Simon ( stage 15 ) . Ariostea gained two stage victories through Furlan ( stage 14 ) and Saligari ( stage 16 ) . Banesto collected two stage success through Indurain . Motorola , Postobon @-@ Manzana @-@ Ryalcao , Lotus @-@ Festina , Gatorade @-@ Chateau d 'Ax , and Team Telekom all won a single stage at the Giro , the first through Sciandri ( stage 3 ) , the second through Herrera ( stage 10 ) , the third with Pagnin ( stage 11 ) , the fourth with Giovannetti ( stage 18 ) , and the fifth through Bölts ( stage 19 ) . = = Classification leadership = = Five different jerseys were worn during the 1992 Giro d 'Italia . The leader of the general classification – calculated by adding the stage finish times of each rider , and allowing time bonuses for the first three finishers on mass @-@ start stages – wore a pink jersey . This classification is the most important of the race , and its winner is considered as the winner of the Giro . For the points classification , which awarded a purple ( or cyclamen ) jersey to its leader , cyclists were given points for finishing a stage in the top 15 ; additional points could also be won in intermediate sprints . The green jersey was awarded to the mountains classification leader . In this ranking , points were won by reaching the summit of a climb ahead of other cyclists . Each climb was ranked as either first , second or third category , with more points available for higher category climbs . The Cima Coppi , the race 's highest point of elevation , awarded more points than the other first category climbs . The Cima Coppi for this Giro was the Passo Pordoi . The first rider to cross the Pordoi Pass was Italian Claudio Chiappucci . The white jersey was worn by the leader of young rider classification , a ranking decided the same way as the general classification , but only riders born after 1 January 1968 were eligible for it . The intergiro classification was marked by a blue jersey . The calculation for the intergiro is similar to that of the general classification , in each stage there is a midway point that the riders pass through a point and where their time is stopped . As the race goes on , their times compiled and the person with the lowest time is the leader of the intergiro classification and wears the blue jersey . Although no jersey was awarded , there was also one classification for the teams , in which the stage finish times of the best three cyclists per team were added ; the leading team was the one with the lowest total time . The rows in the following table correspond to the jerseys awarded after that stage was run . = = Final standings = = = = = General classification = = = = = = Team classification = = = = = Aftermath = = Miguel Indurain entered the Tour de France in July as the favorite to win the race . He would go on to win the race after taking the lead upon the finish of the thirteenth stage . By winning the Tour , he became the sixth rider to complete the Giro - Tour double in history . Indurain would go on to repeat this feat again the following calendar year .
= You ( George Harrison song ) = " You " is a song by English musician George Harrison , released as the opening track of his 1975 album Extra Texture ( Read All About It ) . It was also the album 's lead single , becoming a top 20 hit in America and reaching number 9 in Canada . A 45 @-@ second instrumental portion of the song , titled " A Bit More of You " , appears on Extra Texture also , opening side two of the original LP format . Harrison wrote " You " in 1970 as a song for Ronnie Spector , formerly of the Ronettes , and wife of Harrison 's All Things Must Pass co @-@ producer Phil Spector . The composition reflects Harrison 's admiration for 1960s American soul / R & B , particularly Motown . In February 1971 , Ronnie Spector recorded " You " in London for a proposed solo album on the Beatles ' Apple record label , but the recording remained unissued . Four years later , Harrison returned to this backing track while making his final album for Apple Records , in Los Angeles . The released recording features the 1971 contributions from Leon Russell , Jim Gordon and others , with further instrumentation and vocals overdubbed in 1975 , notably a series of saxophone solos by Jim Horn . On release , the song was well received by the majority of music critics , who viewed it as a return to form for Harrison after his disappointing 1974 North American tour and the accompanying Dark Horse album . Dave Marsh of Rolling Stone hailed it as Harrison 's best work since his 1970 – 71 hit song " My Sweet Lord " ; author Ian Inglis describes " You " as " a near @-@ perfect pop song " . Capitol Records included " You " as one of just six Harrison solo hits , alongside compositions of his performed with the Beatles , on the 1976 compilation The Best of George Harrison . For the first time since the debut CD release of Extra Texture in the early 1990s , " You " was remastered , along with its parent album , as part of Harrison 's 2014 Apple Years reissues . Lisa Mychols and Les Fradkin are among the artists who have covered the song . = = Background and composition = = George Harrison 's admiration for American soul / R & B acts dated back to the early 1960s , to singles by Doris Troy , Marvin Gaye , Mary Wells and others . A similar influence on him and his fellow Beatles was that era 's girl group sound , as reflected in the band 's choice of cover versions during 1962 – 63 . In 1969 , while producing Billy Preston 's debut album on Apple Records , Harrison worked with Doris Troy in London and signed her to the label as a recording artist , songwriter and producer . Another of his favourite female vocalists was Ronnie Spector – formerly known as Veronica Bennett , lead singer of girl group the Ronettes until 1967 , and latterly married to American producer Phil Spector . After co @-@ producing Harrison 's acclaimed All Things Must Pass triple album in 1970 , following the break @-@ up of the Beatles , Spector was granted an unofficial role as head of A & R for Apple Records , and had previously insisted that his wife record for the label . That year , Harrison wrote the soul @-@ inspired " You " as what he later termed " a Ronettes sort of song " , specifically for Ronnie Spector . The main lyrics – " I ... love ... you " and " You ... love ... me " , in verses one and two , respectively – make it one of Harrison 's simplest compositions . Author Ian Inglis observes that Harrison 's lyrics here recall the Beatles ' use of personal pronouns in songs such as " Love Me Do " , " From Me to You " and " She Loves You " to effectively " include the listener in the song 's narrative " . A deviation from these lines occurs only with the repeated bridges : And when I 'm holding you , what a feeling Seems so good to be true That I 'm telling you all that I must be dreaming . Harrison musical biographer Simon Leng notes the importance of soul music in Harrison 's solo career during the 1970s and views " You " as a song that most obviously demonstrates the influence of Motown on its composer . Inglis suggests that Harrison 's former Beatles bandmate Paul McCartney adopted part of the melody of " You " for his 1976 hit single with Wings , " Silly Love Songs " . = = Recording = = = = = 1971 basic track = = = According to Leng , Harrison taped demos of " You " during the lengthy recording sessions for All Things Must Pass . The sessions for a proposed Ronnie Spector solo album began at London 's Abbey Road Studios on 2 February 1971 , with Harrison and Phil Spector again co @-@ producing and Phil McDonald as recording engineer . Since the Ronettes ' break @-@ up in early 1967 , Ronnie Spector had worked only sporadically , and she later claimed to have been a virtual prisoner in her husband 's 23 @-@ room Los Angeles mansion during this period . She flew in from California for the sessions , which featured three musicians who had been part of the so @-@ called " blue @-@ eyed soul school " of the late 1960s , via their association with Delaney & Bonnie : multi @-@ instrumentalist Leon Russell on piano , Jim Gordon on drums , and Carl Radle on bass . In addition to Harrison , who supplied guitar , another participant was Gary Wright , on keyboards , reprising his role on All Things Must Pass . For two days , this group of musicians taped the basic tracks for " You " and five other songs written or co @-@ written by Harrison , with Ronnie Spector recording guide vocals only . The sessions then " broke down " , according to authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter , due to " Phil 's health issues " , which had similarly interrupted the recording of All Things Must Pass in 1970 . Despite the fact that " You " was tailor @-@ made for his wife , Phil Spector opted not to issue the song as her comeback single ; he had likewise held back recordings by the Ronettes and the Crystals , another act signed to his label , Philles Records , in the 1960s . With the solo @-@ album plan abruptly abandoned , another Harrison original from the sessions , " Try Some , Buy Some " , was completed and selected for release as a Ronnie Spector single on Apple . A minor hit in America only , that song 's disappointing commercial reception led to the cancellation of a second single , which was to be " You " . = = = 1975 overdubs = = = Four years after the Abbey Road sessions , Harrison revisited " You " while completing his final album for Apple Records , the soul @-@ influenced Extra Texture ( Read All About It ) , at A & M Studios in Los Angeles . His standing with music critics had recently plummeted following a North American tour with Ravi Shankar in November – December 1974 and his accompanying album , Dark Horse . These two projects had been marred by Harrison 's laryngitis @-@ ravaged singing voice ; in addition , a number of concert reviewers had condemned Harrison for refusing to indulge the public 's nostalgia for the Beatles , and for his on @-@ stage spiritual pronouncements . Looking to rehabilitate himself with critics and his audience in early 1975 , Harrison had what author Robert Rodriguez describes as " at least one ace in the commercial hole ... the Motown @-@ esque ' You ' " . Harrison recorded his own lead vocal onto the 1971 basic track , as he had done earlier with " Try Some , Buy Some " , for Living in the Material World ( 1973 ) . On 31 May 1975 , further overdubs were carried out on " You " , comprising a second drum part , by Jim Keltner ; tenor sax solos from Jim Horn ; and ambient keyboards , played by David Foster . The overdubs added to the song 's radio @-@ friendly qualities , particularly through the use of ARP String Synthesizer , but Madinger and Easter note that Keltner 's drum part , which is higher in the mix than Gordon 's and was played in half @-@ time , produces an effect whereby the song 's tempo appears to be slower than on the 1971 recording . With a significant amount of post @-@ production work having been carried out in Los Angeles , Spector did not receive a co @-@ producer 's credit for " You " as he had for Harrison 's version of " Try Some , Buy Some " . In September 1975 Harrison told BBC Radio 1 's Paul Gambaccini that it was " such a good backing track " originally , yet he had forgotten about its existence until coming across the tape years later . In a 1987 interview , Harrison acknowledged the difficulty he had in singing the song in so high a key ; " it was recorded in Ronnie 's register , " he explains in his 1980 autobiography , " a bit high for me . " Although Ronnie Spector 's name did not appear in the album credits , snippets of her 1971 guide vocal remain on Harrison 's released recording . Spector 's voice can be heard intermittently from the two @-@ minute mark onwards , with her signature " woh oh @-@ oh oh @-@ oh " s audible during the song 's playout . = = Release = = An upbeat pop song in a similar vein to Harrison 's 1971 hit " What Is Life " , " You " was the most obvious choice for a single off Extra Texture . It was released in advance of the album , backed by " World of Stone " , on 12 September 1975 in Britain ( as Apple R 6007 ) and three days later in the United States ( as Apple 1884 ) . The picture sleeve in Britain featured a photo of a smiling Harrison taken on stage by 1974 tour photographer Henry Grossman ; the US picture sleeve incorporated Roy Kohara 's humorous design for the album , showing blue lettering on a vivid orange background . In another example of the upbeat mood that was otherwise lacking in the musical content of Extra Texture , the single 's face labels showed the familiar Apple Records logo as an apple core , a pun on the demise of the company . In the UK , where Harrison had undertaken promotional activities for the first time for Extra Texture , " You " was Radio 1 's Record of the Week , guaranteeing it substantial airplay . The song peaked no higher than Harrison 's previous hit there , " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " , at number 38 , however . As with his Dark Horse singles , " You " performed better in America , where it held the number 20 position for two weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 , during a ten @-@ week chart stay . The song served as both the opener for Extra Texture as well as , in the form of a 45 @-@ second instrumental portion titled " A Bit More of You " , the first track on side two of the original LP . Harrison biographer Dale Allison dismisses this reprise with the words " It 's filler " , while Leng suggests its purpose was to " fashion a soul mood " for the song that follows , the pop @-@ soul ballad " Can 't Stop Thinking About You " . The full version of " You " appears on the 1976 compilation The Best of George Harrison as one of only six selections from Harrison 's solo career up to the end of 1975 . Having last been remastered for the 1991 – 92 CD release of Extra Texture , the song was remastered for inclusion on Harrison 's Apple Years 1968 – 75 reissues , released in September 2014 . = = Reception = = = = = Contemporary reviews = = = After the so @-@ called " Dark Hoarse " debacle in 1974 , and with his singing voice now healed , music critics viewed " You " as a return to form for Harrison . The tone of the song suggested that , in the words of Robert Rodriguez , " the irritable , gravel @-@ voiced mystic on tour the previous year had been but an illusion " – an impression that was supported by the lightheartedness evident in the parent album 's artwork and Harrison 's self @-@ deprecating " Ohnothimagen " producer 's moniker . Dave Marsh of Rolling Stone wrote of the song : " ' You , ' the single which preceded Extra Texture ... is not only the best thing he has done since 1971 's ' My Sweet Lord , ' but also promised some of the prestige and credibility he lost with last year 's sourvoiced album ( Dark Horse ) and fizzled tour . " In the NME , Neil Spencer opined : " ' You ' seems at least to proclaim a return to energy . It has the kind of semi @-@ Spector production that was spread all over All Things Must Pass . It bounds along OK , Harrison 's double @-@ tracked vocals gasp convincingly , and it deserves to be the hit that it will be . " Writing later in the 1970s , however , in their book The Beatles : An Illustrated Record , Roy Carr and Tony Tyler dismissed it with the words : " Doleful , lacklustre , [ with ] would @-@ be singalongs which quite fail to arouse . " = = = Retrospective assessment and legacy = = = Modern @-@ day critical opinion of the song is almost unanimously favourable . In his review of Harrison 's 1987 album Cloud Nine , for Creem magazine , Bill Holdship included the track among the " scattered brilliant moments " of Harrison 's career post @-@ All Things Must Pass , saying : " ' You ' from the Extra Texture LP sounds like punk ( depends on your definition ) pop as Phil Spector might 've done it , and remains a killer to this day . And when I saw Harrison perform in 1974 , he put on a far better show than the one I would later see Wings do . " Writing in the posthumous Rolling Stone Press tribute , Harrison , in 2002 , Mikal Gilmore similarly identified " You " as a highlight of the artist 's work in the mid to late 1970s . In the same publication , Greg Kot deemed it to be " a terrific single " , adding : " Its roaring Wall of Sound arrangement suits Harrison well , right down to its closing quote of the Ronettes ' ' Be My Baby ' . " In a January 2002 review of Harrison 's solo releases , for Goldmine magazine , Dave Thompson described the song as " magnificent " . AllMusic 's Lindsay Planer admires it as a " propulsive and rocking love song ... backed by one of Harrison 's most liberated and driving melodies " ; Planer also notes the " nonstop powerhouse instrumental track " , driven by Gordon and Keltner 's " double @-@ barreled percussive assault " . Richard Ginell , also writing for AllMusic , calls the song an " instantly winning " single and album @-@ opener , and rates it among the best tracks of Harrison 's solo career . Reviewing Harrison 's 2014 Apple Years reissues , New Zealand Herald critic Graham Reid describes " You " as a " remarkably upbeat rocker " , while Walter Tunis of the Lexington Herald @-@ Leader considers Extra Texture to be " a delight " , from the opening , " brightly orchestrated pop of You " through to the closing track , " His Name Is Legs " . Conversely , Paul Trynka of Classic Rock opines that the song " sounds dull today , with its dated sessioneer funk " , whereas " it 's the confessional songs [ on Extra Texture ] that have worn well . " Among Harrison 's biographers , Simon Leng views it as " a great pop record " , noting : " ' You ' has the same surging spirit as [ Motown classics ] " Dancing in the Street " and " Heat Wave " and , as the lyrics are full of boy @-@ meets @-@ girl triteness , the groove is what carries it . " Ian Inglis identifies the song 's strengths as its lyrical simplicity , a " soaring , galloping melody ... [ that ] encapsulates the joy of reciprocated love and the liberation of rock ' n ' roll at its most exuberant " , and the quality of the musicianship on the recording , particularly Jim Horn 's contribution . Inglis concludes of " You " : " Even the slight unease [ Harrison ] has in striving to maintain some of the higher notes cannot detract from what is , quite simply , a near @-@ perfect pop song . " = = Cover versions = = Two years after Harrison 's death from cancer in November 2001 , American singer @-@ songwriter Lisa Mychols covered " You " for the multi @-@ artist compilation He Was Fab : A Loving Tribute to George Harrison ( 2003 ) – a reading that Lindsay Planer describes as " affective " and a highlight of the album . Original Beatlemania cast member Les Fradkin released a version of the song on his 2005 tribute CD Something for George . At the New York Celebrates George Harrison Concert on 26 February 2011 , in honour of what would have been Harrison 's 68th birthday , New York band the 253 Boys performed " You " in a medley with his 1987 song " This Is Love " . = = Personnel = = George Harrison – vocals * , electric guitar , acoustic guitar * , backing vocals * Ronnie Spector – vocals Jim Horn – saxophone * Leon Russell – piano Gary Wright – electric piano David Foster – organ * , string synthesizer * Carl Radle – bass Jim Gordon – drums , tambourine Jim Keltner – drums * * denotes May – June 1975 overdubs = = Chart positions = =
= Luke Foster = Luke James Foster ( born 8 September 1985 ) is an English semi @-@ professional footballer who plays as a defender for National League North club Harrogate Town . Foster started his career as a trainee with Sheffield Wednesday , signing a professional contract with the club at the age of 18 . He joined Scarborough on work experience in September 2004 , and was also loaned out to Conference North side Alfreton Town in February 2005 until the end of the 2004 – 05 season . On returning to his parent club , Foster was released , and joined Lincoln City in June 2005 . After failing to cement a first @-@ team place at Lincoln , he was loaned out to York City the following season on a two @-@ month loan , making a handful of appearances for the club . In January 2007 , Foster was released by Lincoln , and he joined Stalybridge Celtic on a short @-@ term contract , making six appearances for the club . He left Stalybridge a month later , in order to join Oxford United on an initial six @-@ month deal . Foster went on to play over 100 times for Oxford in just under three years at the club , winning two end of season awards in the process . However , he joined Mansfield Town in January 2010 for an undisclosed fee after he was told that his contract would not be extended at Oxford . He was made club captain at Mansfield and played regularly until the end of the 2009 – 10 season . Despite this , he left the club at the end of the season and joined Stevenage on a two @-@ year contract in May 2010 , helping the club earn promotion to League One in their first ever season in the Football League . After just one season at Stevenage , Foster joined Rotherham United in June 2011 , spending an injury @-@ hit season with the club before being released . He briefly spent time at Matlock Town , before joining Preston North End in December 2012 for a six @-@ month period . = = Club career = = = = = Early career = = = Born in Mexborough , South Yorkshire , Foster began his career as a trainee with the Sheffield Wednesday youth system . He joined Conference National club Scarborough on work experience in September 2004 . Foster made his debut for Scarborough in a 1 – 0 defeat to Hereford United , coming on as a 76th minute substitute . He started the following match in the club 's 2 – 1 loss at Carlisle United , and went on to make 10 appearances during his loan spell . Foster returned to his parent club , but failed to make any first @-@ team appearances , and was subsequently loaned out to Conference North outfit Alfreton Town in February 2005 until the end of the season . He made his Alfreton debut in the club 's 3 – 0 victory against Woking in the FA Trophy . He scored his first goal for the club in a 3 – 1 loss against Southport , and scored again a week later in Alfreton 's 2 – 1 defeat against Kettering Town . His third and final goal for Alfreton came in the following game , scoring the first goal in the club 's 3 – 0 win at Barrow . He played his last game for the club in the final game of the 2004 – 05 season , in a 3 – 1 loss at Stafford Rangers . Foster played in 19 games for the club , scoring three goals . On his return to Sheffield Wednesday in May 2005 , Foster was released and later joined League Two side Lincoln City on a one @-@ year contract ahead of the 2005 – 06 season . Foster made his debut for Lincoln in the club 's first game of the season , a 2 – 1 defeat to Notts County . However , he failed to hold down a first @-@ team place and had to wait a month to make another appearance for the club – coming on as a 73rd @-@ minute substitute in Lincoln 's 2 – 0 win against Stockport County . However , he was unable to string a series of appearances together throughout the campaign , and made 17 appearances , scoring once in a 5 – 0 win against Grimsby Town on 25 March 2006 . Despite a lack of first @-@ team appearances , Foster signed an extended one @-@ year contract at the end of the season . However , Foster did not feature again for Lincoln during the 2006 – 07 campaign and after training with York City , he joined the Conference National team on a one @-@ month emergency loan on 5 October 2006 due to injuries to defenders , making his debut for the club the following day in a 1 – 0 win against Aldershot Town . This loan deal was extended for a second month in November , but after Foster suffered an ankle injury during the last week of the loan , he returned to his parent club in December . He made his last appearance for York in the club 's 1 – 0 loss to League One side Bristol City in the FA Cup first round . He made seven appearances for York during a two @-@ month loan spell with the club . Foster returned to Lincoln in December , and a month later was told by the club that he was free to find another club after being deemed surplus to requirements at Sincil Bank . Shortly after , in January 2007 , he mutually agreed to cancel his contract with Lincoln , enabling him to join Conference North side Stalybridge Celtic . He made his debut for Stalybridge in the FA Trophy , starting in a 1 – 1 draw against Kettering Town , scoring an own goal just before half @-@ time . He scored his first goal for the club against one of his former employers , Alfreton , netting the winner in a 2 – 1 victory . He made six appearances for the club in all competitions , scoring once . = = = Oxford United = = = After just a month at Stalybridge , Foster returned to the highest tier in non @-@ League football , joining Oxford United in February 2007 . He made his Oxford debut two weeks after signing for the club , starting in a 1 – 0 home defeat to Kidderminster Harriers . He played nine times during the club 's 2006 – 07 campaign , scoring once in a 2 – 0 win over St Albans City at Clarence Park . At the end of the season , he signed a new one @-@ year contract with Oxford keeping him contracted to the club throughout the 2007 – 08 season . Foster featured off the bench in the club 's first two fixtures of the season , but only made one further appearance during September 2007 – with Oxford manager Jim Smith stating that Foster needed to " improve the way he leads his life " in order to " stand a chance " of getting back into the Oxford first @-@ team . After this , Foster witnessed an upturn in form , featuring regularly until the end of the season , although he was given a one match suspension following his sending off against Northwich Victoria in March 2008 . At the end of the 2007 – 08 season , in which he made 39 appearances , he won Oxford 's Supporters Player of the Year and Players ' Player of the Year awards . As a result of his impressive form , he signed a new two @-@ year contract with the club in July 2008 . During the 2008 – 09 season , Foster continued to feature regularly for Oxford , starting in both of the club 's two defeats at the start of the season – a 3 – 0 defeat to newly promoted Barrow , followed by a 1 – 0 loss to Weymouth at the Kassam Stadium . He assisted one of the goals in the following game , a 6 – 3 win against Eastbourne Borough . However , in Oxford 's next game against Wrexham , Foster was sent off after just 11 minutes for " denying Wrexham 's Shaun Whalley a clear goalscoring opportunity " . As a result , he missed the next two games , returning to first @-@ team action against Ebbsfleet United in late August 2008 , but was again sent off for a foul on Craig Stone . Foster did not feature again in the first @-@ team for another month , when playing in a 3 – 1 win against Cambridge United . He consequently regained his place in Oxford 's defence , and played regularly until the end of the season . He scored his only goal of the season in a 2 – 1 victory over Lewes in February 2009 . Foster made 44 appearances for the club during the season , scoring one goal , as Oxford narrowly missed out on a place in the Conference Premier play @-@ offs . The following campaign , Foster was again a regular under manager Chris Wilder , appearing in all of Oxford 's games up until December 2009 . He scored his first goal of the season in Oxford 's 1 – 1 draw against Barrow on 3 October 2009 . On 28 November 2009 , Foster was sent off in a 1 – 1 draw against Barrow in the FA Cup , resulting in Barrow being awarded a penalty kick and subsequently scoring . During January 2010 , manager Chris Wilder revealed that Oxford would not be extending Foster 's contract in the summer , stating " we were not going to extend Luke 's contract after the summer . He wanted that option to pursue offers from other clubs and he has done that " . = = = Mansfield Town = = = He subsequently entered talks with Cambridge United in January 2010 , although nothing materialised . Mansfield Town also enquired about signing Foster , although they initially decided against making a bid , citing Foster 's " high wages as the main stumbling block " . However , a week later , Mansfield signed Foster on a one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract for an undisclosed fee and he was instantly appointed the club captain . He made his debut in Mansfield 's 4 – 1 victory over Forest Green Rovers , but was sent off in a 1 – 0 defeat to York in March , which resulted in him receiving a two @-@ match suspension . He made 16 appearances for Mansfield during the second half of the 2009 – 10 season . At the end of the season Foster made a comment on his Facebook page , calling the club a " shambles " , but later apologised to both the club and its fans . He was released in May 2010 , with Mansfield boss David Holdsworth saying " it 's a practical decision for both the club and Luke " . = = = Stevenage = = = Foster joined newly promoted League Two side Stevenage on a two @-@ year contract on 31 May 2010 . Foster made his Stevenage debut in the club 's first ever Football League fixture , a 2 – 2 draw against Macclesfield Town , playing the whole game in the centre of defence . After the Macclesfield game , Foster did not appear in the first @-@ team until late September 2010 , coming on as a late substitute in Stevenage 's 1 – 0 away win at Lincoln City . He then appeared as a 52nd @-@ minute substitute in the club 's victory over Burton Albion , but was sent @-@ off for a foul on Shaun Harrad . Foster scored his first goal for Stevenage in January 2011 , scoring the first goal of the game in Stevenage 's 4 – 2 home win over Barnet . Foster received his second red card of the 2010 – 11 season in a game against Northampton Town , receiving the red card for a foul on Nana Ofori @-@ Twumasi , a game that Stevenage went on to lose 2 – 0 . Stevenage appealed against the sending off , but the appeal was subsequently rejected . This ultimately meant that Foster had played his last game of the 2010 – 11 season , serving a four @-@ match suspension that ruled him out of Stevenage 's end of season 3 – 3 draw with Bury , as well as the club 's subsequent play @-@ off campaign . Foster played 23 times for Stevenage in his only season with the club , scoring once , and the team went on to win promotion into League One via the play @-@ offs . = = = Rotherham United = = = Foster signed for League Two side Rotherham United on 20 June 2011 . He signed a one @-@ year contract with the club , with an option of a second year . Foster made his debut for the club in a 3 – 0 home victory against Gillingham on 27 August 2011 , coming on as an 84th @-@ minute substitute with Rotherham already holding a three @-@ goal advantage . After making no further first @-@ team appearances the following month , Foster was made available for loan by manager Andy Scott . Scott stated Foster lacked both desire and fitness since signing for the club — " If you want to be match fit , you get yourself match fit . You can work in training , you can stay behind , you have days off , you can get yourself fit . Luke has not been in the side and that tells you everything you need to know " . However , no loan move materialised , and Foster made his second appearance for Rotherham in a 3 – 3 away draw at Morecambe on 25 October 2011 . He appeared as a 27th @-@ minute substitute in the club 's following match four days later , a 1 – 1 draw against Northampton Town , and subsequently made his first start in a 2 – 0 home victory over Aldershot Town on 5 November — Rotherham 's first win in 10 matches . In December 2011 , Rotherham manager Andy Scott revealed that Foster would miss the rest of the 2011 – 12 season as a result of a cruciate ligament damage sustained in a match against Hereford United on 10 December 2011 . He was released by Rotherham in May 2012 , having made six appearances for the club . = = = Matlock Town = = = Ahead of the 2012 – 13 season , Foster went on trial with League One side Sheffield United . He played in the club 's opening pre @-@ season fixture , coming on as a 62nd @-@ minute substitute in a 1 – 1 draw with Ilkeston . No move materialised , and Foster signed non @-@ contract terms with Northern Premier League Premier Division side Matlock Town to build match fitness ahead of a return to the professional game . He made his Matlock debut just a day after signing , on 18 August , playing the whole match as Matlock opened the season with a 5 – 0 home loss to Nantwich Town . Foster made ten appearances in all competitions for the club , leaving in October 2012 . = = = Preston North End = = = After a month without a club , Foster went on trial at League One club Preston North End in November 2012 , managed by former Stevenage manager Graham Westley . The trial proved successful , and he signed on non @-@ contract terms with the club on 18 December 2012 . He made his debut on the same day in a 3 – 3 draw against Bury in the Football League Trophy , with Preston progressing following a penalty shoot @-@ out . After impressing in his first four matches for the club , Foster signed a permanent contract , keeping him at Preston for the remainder of the 2012 – 13 season . In the club 's next match , on 10 January 2013 , a televised 3 – 2 defeat to Coventry City at the Ricoh Arena in the Football League Trophy , Foster scored his only goal for Preston , briefly restoring parity in the match as Coventry scored two injury @-@ time goals to win the match . Foster made eight appearances in all competitions during his time with the club , and at the end of the season , new Preston manager Simon Grayson told him that his contract would not be renewed when it expired in June 2013 . = = = Return to Lincoln City = = = On 1 August 2013 , Foster agreed to rejoin Conference Premier side Lincoln City on a one @-@ year @-@ contract . = = = Later career = = = Foster signed for Lincoln 's Conference Premier rivals Southport on 18 June 2014 . On 24 February 2016 , he joined National League North club Harrogate Town on a contract until the end of 2015 – 16 , in order to move closer to his home in Barnsley . = = International career = = Foster was named on standby for the England C team in November 2007 for a game against Finland C , but did not receive a call @-@ up . He was called up again to represent England C in a game against Bosnia and Herzegovina in Sarajevo in September 2008 . Foster played the whole match as England C lost 6 – 2 to Bosnia , assisting Luke Moore 's goal . = = Personal life = = Foster grew up in South Yorkshire . He has described himself as a " family man " , but admits to making bad lifestyle choices in his " younger years " . He has one son , whom his partner gave birth to in January 2010 . = = Career statistics = = As of match played 20 February 2016 .
= Bob Barr presidential campaign , 2008 = The Bob Barr presidential campaign of 2008 began when the former Republican Congressman of Georgia announced his candidacy for the Libertarian Party 's presidential nomination on May 12 , 2008 after months of grassroots draft efforts . Barr 's candidacy was criticized by Libertarians who opposed his efforts in Congress , which included a vote in favor of the USA PATRIOT Act and authorization of the War in Iraq , but he was supported by others who accepted his regret for the votes . Barr won the party 's nomination after six rounds of balloting at the 2008 Libertarian Party National Convention . Former contender Wayne Allyn Root was named as his running mate . Reason magazine senior editor Radley Balko called Barr " the first serious candidate the LP has run since I 've been eligible to vote . " In the general election , Barr hoped to portray himself as a conservative alternative to the Republican nominee John McCain . He emphasized his opposition to the Republican Party for its positions on the War in Iraq and the USA PATRIOT Act , but stood as an advocate for border security and fiscal constraint , demonstrated by his opposition to the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 . The candidate never made headway in election polls , placing third or fourth when included . Barr 's efforts to be invited to presidential debates with the two main candidates also fell short when he failed to meet the 15 % polling threshold . Barr campaigned throughout the nation . He litigated to gain ballot access in several states and to prevent McCain and the Democratic presidential nominee Barack Obama from appearing on the Texas ballot for failing to meet the filing deadline . On election day , Barr appeared on the ballot in 44 states ; he finished fourth in the general election , behind Ralph Nader , receiving 523 @,@ 686 votes , or 0 @.@ 4 % of the total . = = Background = = Bob Barr was first elected to the House of Representatives in 1994 as part of the Republican Revolution . While in office , he was a strong proponent of the War on Drugs , called for further investigations into the Waco Siege , and authored the Defense of Marriage Act . In 1998 , he was a central figure in the Lewinsky scandal investigation , being the first congressman to call for President Bill Clinton 's resignation after the allegations surfaced . Near the end of his time in Congress , Barr voted in favor of the USA PATRIOT Act and the authorization for use of force against Iraq . After his congressional district was redrawn in 2002 , making reelection more difficult , Barr was ousted from the House . After leaving Congress , Barr became critical of the Bush administration , specifically for the administration 's use of the USA PATRIOT Act , which Barr now believed to be unconstitutional . He also worked as a privacy consultant for the American Civil Liberties Union . In 2004 , he left the Republican Party and endorsed Libertarian Party nominee Michael Badnarik for president , formally joining the party in 2006 . = = Early stages = = On March 19 , 2008 , Barr confirmed his interest in running for president . This coincided with the media acknowledging a movement on Facebook encouraging the former Congressman to begin a campaign . Barr talked about a widespread " dissatisfaction with the candidates for the two major parties " but complimented presidential candidate and Republican Congressman Ron Paul for " advocat [ ing ] libertarian and true conservative principles " . Pollster John Zogby commented that a possible Barr candidacy would be potentially upsetting for Republicans , and described his possible supporters as individuals who saw him " as a consistent libertarian who opposed the PATRIOT Act , budget deficits and gun control . " Later in the month , Barr stated that he was " looking very seriously at " a presidential run . Barr launched an exploratory committee and created a campaign website on April 5 , 2008 . Within two days , the committee reported that $ 25 @,@ 000 had been contributed . Russ Verney , who had served as an adviser to Ross Perot in the 1992 and 1996 presidential elections , joined the campaign as a volunteer adviser and worked with Barr 's consulting firm , Liberty Strategies LLC , to form a campaign team and build an organization . Verney became the campaign manager after Barr officially announced his candidacy . A poll in late April by Barr 's exploratory committee showed that Barr had the support of 7 % of the electorate before he had officially declared his candidacy . Leading up to Barr 's announcement , columnist George Will wrote an article in Newsweek chronicling the Libertarian Party and the potential candidate 's run . Will stated that Barr could have an effect on the election similar to Ralph Nader 's in 2000 . He described the potential effect as a " condign punishment " for presumptive Republican Party nominee John McCain for his co @-@ sponsorship of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 , which Barr opposed . = = Campaign developments = = = = = Libertarian Party nomination campaign = = = Barr publicly announced his candidacy on May 12 , 2008 . He commented that his run would give the American people a " meaningful choice " to vote for in November , preventing them from having to " hold their nose and pull a lever ... for the lesser of two evils . " During his speech , Barr cited out of control government growth as the primary reason for his run . In response to the announcement , Republican consultant Christopher Barron countered the claim of George Will on the campaign 's potential " spoiler effect . " Baron stated that Barr 's run " is unlikely to hurt Sen. McCain in any significant way " but would aide the Republican Party " by siphoning off some of the enthusiasm among college voters and antiwar advocates for Obama . " During an interview with Newsweek following his entrance into the race , Barr was asked why he had announced his candidacy only two weeks before the Libertarian Party convention . He remarked that he had not " seriously consider [ ed ] [ running ] until about five or six weeks " prior to his official announcement . When asked about the " spoiler effect " , he stated that " the votes [ Barr would receive ] are not going to come from people that are committed to voting for McCain . " Also during the interview , Barr articulated that his campaign would make use of the internet with methods similar to those employed by Ron Paul and Barack Obama to mobilize young voters . Barr attempted to tap into Ron Paul 's resources and supporters to raise funds , and used the same company that Paul used , Terra Eclipse , to design his campaign website . Stephen P. Gordon , who worked for Paul , was hired as the e @-@ Campaign manager , and Doug Bandow , who previously worked as an advisor for both Ron Paul and Ronald Reagan , was hired as the Senior Policy Advisor . Barr 's campaign manager Russ Verney sent a fundraising memorandum on May 19 that included his projections for the campaign , and compared Barr favorably to Ross Perot . His predictions included participation in the nationally televised debates in October 2008 and a popular vote total of 19 % . The manager commented that this was " no ordinary presidential campaign " and that Barr would do well because " America is swamped in Libertarian information . " May 18 , 2008 Rasmussen polling reports showed Barr at 6 % nationally in a four @-@ way race with Barack Obama , John McCain , Ralph Nader . He led Nader by 2 % . A breakdown of Barr 's support showed that 7 % of Republicans , 5 % of Democrats and 5 % of unaffiliated voters supported his campaign . The report concluded that most Americans did not have enough information about Barr to form an opinion . May 20 polls from the Insider Advantage @-@ Majority Opinion Survey of 652 individuals showed that in his home state of Georgia , Barr would receive 8 % of the popular vote , placing him in third place , and 27 % behind Barack Obama for second . Barr participated in the Libertarian Party presidential debate , an event sponsored by Reason Magazine , on May 20 , 2008 , at Dupont Circle . Fellow contenders Mike Gravel and Wayne Allyn Root each appeared at the event . During the discussion , Barr remarked that " inside the heart of every American beats the heart of a libertarian " , and said that the nation was on the verge of entering a " Libertarian era . " He also stated that as president he would eliminate the Department of Education , a mainstay of the party platform . Later in the debate , Barr 's opponent , Root , criticized the Washington media for its portrayal of Barr as the " only candidate " , an action he described as " absurd " . = = = Libertarian Party presidential nomination = = = As the 2008 Libertarian National Convention in Denver approached , members of the Libertarian Party 's Radical Caucus criticized Barr by distributing fliers that declared : the " Libertarian Party [ is ] not for sale . " The criticism was in response to allegations that Barr 's campaign was an attempt by conservatives to take over the party . Libertarian delegates disagreed with the media 's portrayal of the race and said that Barr was " not a shoo @-@ in " for the nomination . At the convention , Barr was attacked by fellow candidates Steve Kubby and Mary Ruwart for his PATRIOT Act vote in 2001 . Barr responded , by saying that he regretted the vote and had spent the previous five years " working [ to ] ... drive a stake through [ the PATRIOT ACT 's ] heart , burn it , shoot it , [ and ] burn it again ... " Barr was named the Libertarian Party 's nominee after six rounds of balloting on May 25 , 2008 . Las Vegas businessman , and fellow Libertarian primary opponent Wayne Allyn Root , was named as his running mate . = = General election campaign = = As the nominee of the Libertarian Party , Barr promised to " travel the width and breadth of this great land " to vie for the presidency . Executive Vice President of the Cato Institute David Boaz commented that Barr had the best chance to be successful in the western states . Russ Verney confirmed that certain states would be targeted , and that a strategy would be drawn that would enable the campaign to raise $ 30 million . On May 28 , the Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution reported that Barr had raised $ 163 @,@ 000 in cash donations . Barr invited the Republican and Democratic Parties ' presumptive presidential nominees , John McCain and Barack Obama respectively , to participate in weekly presidential debates . To participate in official presidential debates the Barr campaign had to surpass the 15 % threshold put in place by the Commission on Presidential Debates . CNN polling on June 7 placed Barr at 2 % nationally . = = = Campaign exposure = = = Barr received some media exposure a few days after his nomination by visiting New York City to appear on both the Colbert Report and on Glenn Beck 's Headline News program for an hour @-@ long interview . The former appearance was part of the campaign 's strategy to inform young voters and former Ron Paul supporters about the campaign . During the interview with Colbert , Barr was asked why he " voted for the PATRIOT Act " if he was such a " big advocate of personal privacy . " He responded by saying that the Bush Administration " went back on everything they told us [ in Congress ] they would do with the PATRIOT Act . " In early June , the campaign dealt with the issue of racism when a white supremacist group posted a Barr endorsement on Stormfront.org , urging whites to vote for the " best man " rather than the " liberal " John McCain . The Barr campaign repudiated this endorsement . Campaign manager Russ Verney stated , " We do not want and will not accept the support of haters . Tell the haters I said don 't let the door hit you in the backside on the way out . " He emphasized that " anyone with love in their heart for our country and for every resident of our country regardless of race , religion , nationality , or sexual orientation is welcome with open arms . " Although the campaign garnered $ 300 @,@ 000 in donations by June 28 , Barr had yet to hold a campaign fundraiser or film television advertisements . On June 30 , Barr appeared on Fox News Sunday with Chris Wallace . He described his qualms with the presumptive Republican nominee , and said " John McCain is symptomatic of what 's wrong with the Republican Party in these first years of the 21st century . They talk one thing but do something different . " When asked if he agreed that McCain would be a better choice than Barack Obama , he responded that it was " a mixed bag " and that " Senator Obama clearly is much better [ on ] civil liberties and privacy issues " but that he " would favor a more expansive federal spending policy . " Barr opined that " neither of these candidates is talking about the deep cuts in government spending and returning power to the people . " He identified the Republican Party 's position on FISA legislation as his biggest aversion to the party . When confronted with opinion polls that showed the candidate with 3 % in the presidential race , Barr explained that the numbers would increase in the following weeks , announcing that his campaign would be launched " full @-@ time " on July 4 . = = = Full @-@ time escalation = = = Barr launched his " full @-@ time " campaign at Atlanta 's Fourth of July parade , where the city celebrated the opening of the Millennium Gate arch . Democratic Congressman John Lewis spoke alongside Barr at the dedication . The next week , Barr appeared on Fox News , where he criticized the United States Treasury Department 's plan to help Freddie Mac and Fannie Mae . His opposition was based on the government 's use of taxpayer money to credit the enterprises , explaining that " the taxpayers of this country are being put at further risk . " But Barr did state that " doing nothing would not be advisable " and that the government " has to do something . " He explained that Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac must be restructered . Barr was criticized by some Libertarians for these remarks . Barr was invited by former Vice President Al Gore to attend a We Campaign event to raise awareness for global warming . He met with Gore privately before attending the July 17 event . Barr remarked that " global warming is a reality " , and affirmed his belief that the government should " remain firmly committed to free market solutions and innovations to address this issue ; not tax @-@ driven policies . " He praised Gore for his efforts and said he was " pleased that Mr. Gore agrees that the public debate of this issue should include me . " He criticized fellow candidates John McCain and Barack Obama for not attending the event and said that their absence showed " their unwillingness to address this important issue . " He called on his fellow candidates to appear at other We Campaign events to debate solutions to the problem of climate change . During a visit to Austin for a fundraiser , Barr made a surprise appearance at the July 19 Netroots Nation convention . The candidate remarked at the meeting of progressive bloggers that " there are a lot of libertarians here , [ and ] a lot of [ Barr ] supporters . " His presence was acknowledged by Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi , who observed that " Bob Barr — even Bob Barr — opposed " the domestic spying bill that she was discussing . On July 23 , CNN polling placed Barr at 3 % in a four @-@ way race , while Zogby placed Barr at 6 % . He polled at 8 % in Georgia , Colorado , Iowa , and Minnesota , and at 9 % in Oklahoma , New Mexico , and Nevada . Surveys in New Hampshire put Barr at 10 % . In August , Barr spoke at the Minuteman Civil Defense Corps ' protest during the Democratic National Convention in Denver . Approximately a dozen individuals were in attendance at the event . Former Republican candidates Tom Tancredo and Alan Keyes also attended the event , which organizers called a success . Barr presented a " common sense " approach to the issue by promising to put an end to birthright citizenship and public education for illegal immigrants , while supporting an increase in green cards . Claremont McKenna College professor John Pitney argued that the candidate was sending mixed messages since " the Libertarian Party essentially supports open borders , " and was unlikely to gain the support of anti @-@ immigration activists . A Zogby poll released on August 15 , 2008 indicated that most Republicans and Democrats wanted Barr included in the presidential debates . The poll also indicated that nearly 70 % of independent voters would have liked to see him included . = = = Final stages = = = As September began , commentator Greg Pierce of The Washington Times noted that the " grass @-@ roots enthusiasm for [ Barr 's ] candidacy seems to have faded a bit in the wake of individualist Governor Sarah Palin joining the Republican ticket . " It was announced at a press conference on September 10 , 2008 that former Republican Presidential candidate Ron Paul would give his open endorsement to Constitution Party nominee Chuck Baldwin , Green Party nominee Cynthia McKinney , independent Ralph Nader , and Barr , in opposition to the Republican and Democratic Parties ' nominees . Barr chose not to attend the event , and his name was not included in the final statement released by the other candidates . Paul had previously made favorable comments about Barr 's campaign , leaving the candidate to feel that he alone should have received the endorsement . Later that day , it was revealed that Barr had earlier offered the Libertarian vice @-@ presidential nomination to Paul , via a letter . The letter stated that Barr 's current running mate , Wayne Allyn Root , would willingly step down should Paul accept the offer . A spokesman for the Paul campaign called Barr 's offer " terribly interesting " , but added that Paul had no intentions of running on a third party ticket . Ron Paul dropped his endorsement of Barr on September 22 , citing the candidate 's criticism of his earlier endorsements . Paul opted to instead support Chuck Baldwin 's candidacy . Barr received $ 252 @,@ 383 of donations in September , which was slightly more than the $ 224 @,@ 350 the campaign raised in August . On the dawn of the final month of campaigning , Barr appeared on National Public Radio , and discussed his political positions , including those on health care , a topic that had rarely been discussed by Barr over the course of his campaign . Barr gave his shortest response to the issue , saying that " everybody ought to be able to get health care , but that 's up to them ... " and went on to say that " the government could be ... reducing and removing the onerous regulations that actually prevent people from being able to afford health care . " Close to the end of the campaign , Barr 's polling numbers remained stagnant . An Associated Press @-@ GfK poll from late October placed the candidate at 1 % nationally , the same figure he had stood at three weeks previously . = = Ballot access = = Barr achieved ballot access in 45 states according to the Libertarian Party website . He was denied access in Oklahoma after failing to reach the minimum threshold of petition signatures . In July , the campaign filed a lawsuit against the state to try to get the candidate on the ballot despite not meeting the guidelines . Barr also filed lawsuits in Massachusetts , West Virginia and Maine to appear on the ballot under similar circumstances . Barr 's plea in West Virginia failed on September 7 after U.S. District Court Judge John T. Copenhaver Jr. dismissed the lawsuit . The judge proclaimed that " it was their ( the campaign 's ) lack of reasonable diligence that ultimately thwarted their effort to gain ballot access here " in West Virginia . Lawsuits were filed against Barr by GOP members in Pennsylvania to prevent the candidate from appearing on the state 's ballot on charges that the Libertarian Party tricked individuals into signing the state 's ballot access petition . Commonwealth Court Judge Johnny Butler dismissed these allegations on September 16 , allowing Barr to remain on the state 's ballot . The Barr campaign filed a lawsuit to prevent John McCain and Barack Obama from appearing on the ballot in Texas , charging that the candidates ' parties did not reach the state 's August 26 deadline to report their nominations to the Secretary of State . Texas Secretary of State Esperanza Andrade reported that all the correct paperwork was filed , though neither the Democratic nor Republican parties formally nominated their candidates ( at their respective conventions ) until after the deadline . On September 23 , 2008 , the Texas Supreme Court rejected Barr 's request without giving a reason . On September 26 , 2008 , the Louisiana Supreme Court reversed an earlier decision to keep Barr and Root on the ballot , and ordered that they both be removed due to missing the state 's deadline , which passed while state offices were closed due to Hurricane Gustav . The Barr @-@ Root campaign announced that it planned to appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court . The court refused to hear the case , and Barr 's name was absent from the state 's ballot on election day . = = Results = = Barr 's campaign ended after receiving 523 @,@ 686 ( 0 @.@ 40 % ) of the popular vote on Election Day . He finished in fourth place , winning a higher percentage than the 2004 Libertarian nominee Michael Badnarik . 67 @,@ 582 of his votes were won in California , the nation 's most populous state , but Barr won his largest percentage in Indiana with 1 @.@ 06 % . Reason Magazine 's Brian Doherty commented that Barr 's showing did not meet earlier expectations . He wrote that Barr did not win a significant percentage of the population because he was " not Libertarian enough , " distanced himself too far from Ron Paul , and lacked adequate " communication and coordination . " = = Aftermath = = Following the campaign , Barr was certified as a mediator to resolve disputes upon request . He currently writes a regular column for The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution titled " The Barr Code " , and is a contributor for CNN . In his column , he discusses privacy issues and often criticizes the Obama administration , disapproving of the effect of its spending on the federal budget . He has become involved in the Tea Party movement , and remains a member of the Libertarian Party . He supported former running mate Wayne Allyn Root 's bid to be chairman of the Party . Root was also considered a potential 2012 presidential candidate . Barr reflected on the campaign in an interview with Reason shortly after the election . He explained that his campaign 's inability to gain access to donor lists hindered the campaign 's fundraising capacity . In April 2009 , he commented that his exclusion from the presidential debates prevented his campaign from gaining significant traction . Barr has stated that he will not run for public office in the future . In May 2010 , the Barr campaign was sued by libertarian pundit Jim Bovard , who was hired to ghostwrite a book about the campaign . Bovard claims he was never paid the $ 47 @,@ 000 he was to receive for his efforts . Campaign manager Russ Verney stated that the campaign hoped to raise enough money to pay Bovard , and asked for donations . The ensuing litigation resulted in a judgment entered for Bovard against the Bar 2008 Presidential Committee , Inc . , in the full amount of $ 47 @,@ 000 @.@ 00 .
= River Hull = The River Hull is a navigable river in the East Riding of Yorkshire in the north of England . It rises from a series of springs to the west of Driffield , and enters the Humber estuary at Kingston upon Hull . Following a period when the Archbishops of York charged tolls for its use , it became a free navigation . The upper reaches became part of the Driffield Navigation from 1770 , after which they were again subject to tolls , and the section within the city of Hull came under the jurisdiction of the Port of Hull , with the same result . Most of its course is through low @-@ lying land that is at or just above sea level , and regular flooding has been a long @-@ standing problem along the waterway . Drainage schemes to alleviate it were constructed on both sides of the river . The Holderness Drainage scheme to the east was completed in 1772 , with a second phase in 1805 , and the Beverley and Barmston Drain to the west was completed in 1810 . Since 1980 , the mouth of the river has been protected by a tidal barrier at the estuary , which can be closed to prevent tidal surges entering the river system and causing flooding upriver . Most of the bridges which cross the river are movable , to allow shipping to pass . There are six swing bridges ; four bascule bridges , two of which have twin leaves , one for each carriageway of the roads which they carry ; and three Scherzer lift bridges , which are a type of rolling bascule bridge . Scott Street Bridge , which is now permanently raised , was originally powered from a high pressure water main maintained by the first public power distribution company in the world . = = Course = = The source of the River Hull is in the Yorkshire Wolds . It rises from a series of springs to the west of Driffield , near the site of the medieval village of Elmswell . The Elmswell Beck flows eastwards from these , and is joined by the Little Driffield Beck , which flows southwards from Little Driffield . It continues as the Driffield Beck , flowing around the south @-@ western edge of Driffield , where it is joined by the Driffield Trout Stream . After the junction , it becomes the River Hull or the West Beck and flows to the east , before turning south to reach Corps Landing . For much of the route below Driffield , the Driffield Navigation runs parallel to the river . The river from Corps Landing to its mouth is navigable . At Emmotland , it is joined by the Frodingham Beck , which is also navigable , and leads to the canal into Driffield , which forms the major part of the Driffield Navigation . Scurf Dyke joins from the west and is followed by Struncheon Hill lock , which marks the end of the Navigation , and the official start of the navigable River Hull . Below here , the river is tidal . The tidal range of tides can be up to 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) in winter and 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) in summer . Just above the lock , the Beverley and Barmston Drain , which collects water from the catchwater drains on either side of the main channel , flows under the navigation in a tunnel , and runs just to the west of the river almost to its mouth . Below the lock , the surrounding land is almost at sea level , and the river is constrained by flood banks on both sides . On its route southwards , the river passes the former junction with Aike Beck , once navigable to Lockington Landing , but the stream was subsequently re @-@ routed to join the Arram Beck . The Leven Canal used to join on the east bank , but the entrance lock has been replaced by a sluice . The Arram Beck flows in from the west , and then the river is crossed by Hull Bridge , the cause of repeated disagreement between the owners of the Driffield Navigation and the Corporation of Beverley , who owned the bridge . Just above Beverley Beck , which joins from the west , is Grovehill Bridge , now a lift bridge but once a ferry bridge . Once the river reaches the outskirts of Hull , its course is marked by a series of bridges , most of which open to allow boats to pass . There are swing bridges , lift bridges and bascule bridges , and the river becomes part of the Port of Hull . The river , which is the dividing line between West and East Hull , bisects the city 's industrial area . The bridges can cause ship traffic delays during high tides , though river traffic is less than it once was . The Beverley and Barmston Drain rejoins the river above Scott Street Bridge . Below North Bridge , an unused dry dock on the west bank marks the former entrance to Queens Dock . Below Drypool Bridge , a muddy basin on the east bank was once the entrance to Drypool Basin and Victoria Dock . The river reaches its confluence with the Humber estuary in the centre of Kingston upon Hull . At its mouth , a tidal barrier has been constructed to prevent tidal surges from entering the river . In the past , these had regularly flooded the town and the flat countryside to the north . = = History = = The River Hull has served as a navigation and a drainage channel , and has been subject to the conflicts that this usually creates , as water levels need to be raised for navigation , but lowered for efficient drainage . In 1213 , the Archbishops of York laid claim to the river , and declared their right to navigate on a 24 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) channel . A number of fish @-@ weirs made navigation difficult , and the Archbishop negotiated their removal in 1296 , so that a wharf could be established at Grovehill to serve the town of Beverley . By 1321 , river rights had been extended to the charging of tolls . One @-@ third of a shilling ( 1 @.@ 7 p ) was charged for each bushel carried on the river between Emmotland and the Humber , but the merchants of Hull were unhappy with this ; eventually the river had free navigation , and goods could be carried on it without toll . The Arram Beck was also exempt from all tolls . It has remained free , except for 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the mouth , which is part of the Port of Hull and is under the control of Hull Corporation . The outlet of the river onto the Humber is thought to have changed in the early medieval period . The original outlet has been identified at a place called Limekiln creek . A second channel Sayers creek was cut or widened , with both outlets existing simultaneously at one point . Limekiln creek was subsequently reduced in flow to the level of a drain . The lower river was bordered by salt marshes in medieval times , when efforts were first made to drain them . Further upstream , channels were cut through the fens in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries by the monks of Meaux Abbey , primarily to enable travel by boat , but these gradually became part of the drainage system . John Smeaton , when asked by the merchants of Driffield to advise on ways to allow keels to reach their town , suggested a small cut of about 1 @.@ 2 miles ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) including one lock , from the river near Wansford . The merchants sought a second opinion , and John Grundy , Jr. suggested a much longer canal , running for 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) from Fisholme on the Frodingham Beck . When fully opened in 1770 , the new route was some 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) shorter than the river , which follows an extremely winding course in its upper reaches . The river above Aike was now considered to be part of the Driffield Navigation , and tolls were charged for its use . Also in this period the first cut of the Holderness Drain was made , enabled by an act of 1964 , originally outfalling onto the river . In addition to the drainage works to the east of the river , the banks were raised for 17 miles ( 27 km ) on the east side , to prevent flooding . Although beyond their jurisdiction , the Navigation commissioners attempted to extend their powers , to improve the river below the junction with Aike Beck . They particularly wanted to replace the stone Hull Bridge , near Beverley , with a swing bridge , which would make it easier for keels to reach Frodingham bridge . The Corporation of Beverley objected , because the bridge was the main route of communication between Beverley and Holderness , and the commissioners instead dredged parts of the river to improve access . Plans to improve Hull Bridge were again resisted by Beverley Corporation in 1799 , but an agreement was finally reached in 1801 , and an Act of Parliament was obtained in July of that year . William Chapman acted as engineer , as the act authorised the construction of towpaths , a new cut between Bethels Bridge and the lock at Struncheon Hill , to avoid a long loop in the river , and rebuilding of the bridge . The bridge cost £ 500 , half of which was met by Richard Bethell , the owner of the Leven Canal , on condition that the tolls for passing through it were reduced significantly . Passage through Hull had long been difficult , because of the number of ships which used the river for loading and unloading goods . In 1794 , the merchants of Beverley had advocated the building of docks at Hull , with a separate entrance , so that traffic to the upper river would not be impeded , while the Driffield Navigation had unsuccessful attempted to get a clause inserted into the Act of Parliament which the Hull Dock Company obtained in 1840 , to ensure free passage for vessels , and the removal of tolls for boats not using the docks . The Navigation Company also received complaints from the Beverley and Barmston Drainage Commissioners , who believed that water levels were being kept at a higher level than was good for drainage . In 1980 , the Environment Agency constructed a tidal barrier at the mouth of the river . The structure spans the river , and a huge steel gate , weighing 202 tonnes , can be lowered into the waterway , effectively sealing the river from the Humber , and preventing tidal surges from moving up the river and flooding parts of the city and the low @-@ lying areas beyond . The gate is lowered between eight and twelve times a year , and protects around 17 @,@ 000 properties . In 2009 , a £ 10 million upgrade of the structure was started , to ensure it would stay operational for a further 30 years . The upgrade included a new drive mechanism , which raises and lowers the gate , and pivots it when it is at the top of the structure , so that it lies horizontally rather than vertically . It also included a new control system . Plans have been considered to build a barrage at the mouth of the Hull where it joins the Humber Estuary to maintain a constant water level as it passes through the city . The idea was first raised by the Abercrombie report , which considered how to redevelop Hull after significant destruction during the Second World War . The estimated cost of such a project was around £ 195 million in 2007 . = = Traffic = = Because the river was a free river , there are no figures for traffic on the lower river . However , it connected to a number of waterways on which tolls were collected , and so an indication of the traffic can be gained from the figures for these waterways . The main cargoes on Beverley Beck in 1730 were coal , bricks , turfs and wool , together with cereal crops , consisting of wheat , barley , oats and malt . Receipts from tolls more than doubled between 1732 and 1748 , after which the tolls were let to an independent collector . The annual rent charged for this privilege doubled again between 1748 and 1792 . There was a steady expansion of trade on the Driffield Navigation during the same period , as the dividends paid to shareholders rose from 1 @.@ 5 to 4 per cent . In 1789 , Bainton , Boyes and Co negotiated a lump sum payment to cover coal from the Aire and Calder Navigation to their new carpet factory and the export of their carpets in the downstream direction . The factory later became a corn mill . Toll rentals continued to increase on the Beverley Beck , rising from £ 190 to £ 435 between 1793 and 1835 . Some 31 @,@ 185 tons of cargo were carried in 1838 . In 1817 , a steam packet service started to run between Driffield and Hull . Three return trips each week were made , but the journey times were too long , and an advertisement in 1825 indicated that the engine had been altered and an express steam packet service would commence . Three boats were recorded as trading between Driffield and Hull every other day in a directory of Yorkshire published in 1823 . Traffic for 1832 included 7 @,@ 394 chaldrons of coal , 18 @,@ 173 quarters of wheat , 7 @,@ 745 quarters of oats , 19 @,@ 396 quarters of barley and 4 @,@ 555 sacks of flour . An additional 1 @,@ 564 quarters of wheat and 8 @,@ 194 sacks of flour were carried to or from Foston Mill , reached from Frodingham Beck . A regular carrier also operated between the Leven Canal and Hull once a week . Between 1848 and 1905 , traffic on Beverley Beck more than trebled , from 33 @,@ 498 tons to 101 @,@ 540 tons . Coal and other minerals accounted for around one quarter of the traffic in 1905 , while goods carried in 1906 included fertiliser , burnt ore , flour and scrap metal . Commercial traffic continued into the 1970s , when tolls of £ 2 @,@ 365 were collected on 28 @,@ 169 tons of cargo . Traffic on the Driffield Navigation was relatively steady between 1871 and 1905 , falling slightly from 35 @,@ 654 to 32 @,@ 666 tons . Goods carried included coal , linseed , cottonseed , wheat , flour and artificial manures . In 1922 , £ 7 of income was received from pleasure craft using the navigation . Traffic declined during the 1930s , with commercial traffic finally ceasing in 1944 . The Leven Canal carried 4 @,@ 242 tons in 1888 and 4 @,@ 546 in 1905 , but then succumbed to road competition , and closed in 1935 . = = Drainage = = The problems of flooding of the land adjacent to the river were addressed by the construction of catchwater drains to both sides of it . The east side of the river was protected by the Holderness Drainage scheme . John Grundy worked on plans for the scheme which would protect 11 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 500 ha ) of low @-@ lying land to the north @-@ east of Hull . John Smeaton was also involved , although the final report was largely Grundy 's work , and an Act of Parliament to authorise the work was passed on 5 April 1764 . The Trustees for the scheme wrote to Grundy and Smeaton in May 1764 , asking them to work on the project . Grundy 's wife had died only a fortnight previously , and the two engineers corresponded , but besides valuable comment on Grundy 's plans for the outfall sluice , Smeaton had no further involvement , and it was Grundy who ran the project , which included 17 miles ( 27 km ) of barrier bank along the east side of the river . John Hoggard acted as Superintendent for the scheme , while Joseph Page was appointed as resident engineer , to oversee the construction of the drains and the outfall sluice . Grundy made regular visits until October 1767 , by which time the sluice and the main drainage channels were completed , at which point he and Page moved on , while Hoggard oversaw additional work on the drains and banks , which lasted for several more years . By the time of its completion in 1772 , the scheme had cost £ 24 @,@ 000 . Despite the Holderness scheme , there were still problems near Leven and Weel , and William Jessop spent a month inspecting the area before writing a report in July 1786 . His plan advocated separating the water which fell on the uplands to the north and flowed through the low @-@ lying areas , from the local drainage of those low @-@ lying areas . George Plummer carried out most of the subsequent survey work on Jessop 's behalf , although Jessop surveyed the River Hull in 1787 , to identify how the outfall could be improved . Jessop visited the works from time to time , making seven visits between 1789 and 1792 , while the day to day oversight of the scheme was handled by Plummer as resident engineer . Plummer was succeeded by Anthony Bower , who was engineer from 1792 to 1795 , and the whole scheme was completed in 1805 , having cost £ 16 @,@ 000 . In 1796 , Robert Chapman was asked to report on possible solutions for flooding to the west . His report formed the basis for the Beverley and Barmston Drainage Act , which was passed by Parliament in June 1798 . Chapman was appointed as engineer for the scheme , which would cost £ 115 @,@ 000 , and would provide flood defences and drainage for 12 @,@ 600 acres ( 5 @,@ 100 ha ) of land to the west of the river . The project included the construction of 23 miles ( 37 km ) of drainage cuts , and building embankments along 20 miles ( 32 km ) of the river . At Hull , an outfall sluice was constructed , and the drain passed through tunnels under eleven waterways , including the Beverley Beck . 27 bridges were built to carry roads over the drain , and the whole project was finished in 1810 . = = River crossings = = There are several bridges in the Hull area which cross the River Hull . Details of them are shown in the following table , starting from that furthest north and moving south to the river mouth . The present Drypool bridge was designed by W. Morris , the Hull City Engineer , and it was built in Hull . The previous wrought iron swing bridge , which had opened in 1888 , was too narrow , with a carriageway which was 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) wide . It was closed in May 1959 , so that it could be demolished and Morris 's new bridge opened in March 1961 . Scott Street bridge had gradually deteriorated , and a public consultation was held in 1986 , to determine its future . By that time a 10 @-@ ton weight limit had been imposed on traffic using the bridge , because of its poor structural state . Three suggestions were made as to its future . These were to close and demolish it , to refurbish it at an estimated cost of £ 1 @.@ 6 million , and to build a new bridge on the same site but a different alignment , to eliminate the awkward turn at the west end , which was costed at £ 2 million . None of these actions have been taken , as the bridge leaves were raised in 1994 , and have remained raised ever since . Consideration was given in 2007 to preserving two of the hydraulic rams which operated the bridge , during planning to demolish the structure . The Hull Hydraulic Power Company was set up in 1872 , and by 1876 was operating a pumping station on Machell Street . This supplied water to a high pressure main which ran from Wellington Street to Sculcoates Bridge , and was used by local industries to power machinery , including the bridge when it was constructed . Although the power company closed in the 1940s , it made Hull the first city in the world to have a public system of power distribution . The design for the Ennerdale Link road included a tunnel under the river . Initial investigations suggested that there was a layer of boulder clay below the alluvium of the river bed , and that a chalk aquifer was below the clay . Construction work started in July 1991 . A cofferdam was built on the east bank , and the cutting which would have provided access to the twin @-@ bore tunnel was nearly excavated when a 6 @.@ 6 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) hole appeared in the river bed , and the entire site flooded . A 3 @-@ month investigation took place , which suggested that it would be difficult to finish the tunnel and maintain the integrity of the aquifer . Despite some £ 10 million having been spent on the project , it was abandoned in 1993 . A contract for a replacement bridge was awarded in June 1995 and the river was crossed by twin lift bridges , which were opened in April 1997 . The project had cost £ 30 million , compared to an original budget of just £ 13 million . A tunnel was successfully constructed under the river in 2001 . The 6 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 10 @.@ 0 km ) long sewer runs from the city centre to a treatment works at Salt End . It was excavated using two tunnelling machines , which were manufactured in Canada and were named Maureen and Gloria . The tunnel was officially opened on 21 August 2001 , when a Mini car was driven through it , recreating scenes from the film The Italian Job . Before 1897 , there had been a ferry at Grovehill , and a shipyard on the east bank , owned by Joseph Scarr . To assist his workers to reach the shipyard , Scarr designed and built a ferry bridge , which cost him £ 300 . It consisted of a large rectangular pontoon , above which was fitted a bridge deck with handrails . Two jack screws enabled the deck to be raised or lowered in relation to the pontoon , so that it remained at approximately the same height , whatever the state of the tide . On the eastern bank , Scarr constructed a variable @-@ height landing , but the landing on the west bank was constructed by Beverley Council , and was fixed . Scarr campaigned to have a variable landing here as well , and was prepared to fund it , but his requests were always rejected . The fixed landing made access to the bridge difficult at high tides . When a boat needed to pass , the west end was freed , and the pontoon swung round to lie parallel to the bank , either upstream or downstream , depending on the state of the tide . It would then be winched back into position by a small barrel winch . At night the bridge was closed and moored beside the bank . Responsibility for the bridge was taken over by Beverley Council before the Second World War . Its condition deteriorated , and in 1948 , they attempted to replace it with a footbridge around 400 yards ( 370 m ) further upstream . Because the ferry rights had been in existence for more than 600 years , an Act of Parliament was needed , and this was thwarted by a petition containing 84 signatures , presented by the people of Weel to the House of Lords . Plans for a new lift bridge were drawn up , and it was opened on 19 October 1953 . In 1913 , the Hull Bridge upstream of Beverley , which had caused so much disagreement in the 18th century until it had been replaced in 1801 , was demolished by the County Council , who installed a steel rolling bridge in its place . Once the Tickton Bypass bridge had been built a short distance upstream , it no longer needed to carry road traffic , and it was replaced by a footbridge in 1976 . At the other end of the river , the Millennium Bridge was opened in 2001 . There was once a ferry at this point , before 1865 , which gave access to the Victoria Dock , opened in 1850 . South Bridge replaced the ferry in 1865 , making it easier for workers to reach the dock . The swing footbridge was closed in 1934 , but was not demolished until 1944 . = = Points of interest = =
= Noye 's Fludde = Noye 's Fludde is a one @-@ act opera by the British composer Benjamin Britten , intended primarily for amateur performers , particularly children . First performed on 18 June 1958 at that year 's Aldeburgh Festival , it is based on the 15th @-@ century Chester " mystery " or " miracle " play which recounts the Old Testament story of Noah 's Ark . Britten specified that the opera should be staged in churches or large halls , not in a theatre . By the mid @-@ 1950s Britten had established himself as a major composer both of operas and of works for mixed professional and amateur forces , including the mini @-@ opera for young audiences involving child performers , The Little Sweep ( 1949 ) . He had also used text from the Chester play cycle , retelling the story of Abraham and Isaac , for his 1952 Canticle II . Noye 's Fludde was composed as a project for television ; to the Chester text Britten added three congregational hymns , the Greek prayer Kyrie eleison as a children 's chant , and an Alleluia chorus . A large children 's chorus represents the pairs of animals who march into and out of the ark , and proceedings are directed by the spoken Voice of God . Of the solo sung roles , only the parts of Noye ( Noah ) and his wife were written to be sung by professionals ; the remaining roles are for child and adolescent performers . A small professional ensemble underpins the mainly amateur orchestra which contains numerous unconventional instruments to provide particular musical effects ; bugle fanfares for the animals , handbell chimes for the rainbow , and various improvisations to replicate musically the sounds of a storm . At its premiere Noye 's Fludde was acclaimed by critics and public alike , both for the inspiration of the music and the brilliance of the design and production . The opera received its American premiere in New York in March 1959 , and its first German performance at Ettal in May of that year . Since then it has been staged worldwide ; the performance in Beijing in October 2012 was the first in China of any Britten opera . The occasion of Britten 's centenary in 2013 led to numerous productions at music festivals , both in the UK and abroad . = = Background = = = = = Chester mystery plays = = = English mystery or " miracle " plays were dramatised Bible stories , by ancient tradition performed on Church feast days in town squares and market places by members of the town 's craft guilds . They covered the full range of the narrative and metaphor in the Christian Bible , from the fall of Lucifer to the Last Judgement . From the many play cycles that originated in the late Middle Ages , the Chester cycle is one of four that has survived into the 21st century . The texts , by an unidentified writer , were revised during the late 15th century into a format similar to that of contemporary French passion plays , and were published in 1890 , in Alfred W. Pollard 's English Miracle Plays , Moralities , and Interludes . The story of Noah and the flood , the third play in the Chester cycle , was originally performed by the city 's Guild of the Drawers of Dee , otherwise known as the water @-@ carriers . A feature of this play , observed by the historian Rosemary Woolf , is the depiction of Noah 's wife , and by implication women generally , as disobedient , obdurate and finally abusive , in contrast to the " grave and obedient " Noah and his patient sons . By the end of the 16th @-@ century Reformation , the Church grew less tolerant of mystery plays . A performance in Chester in 1575 is the last recorded from the city until the 20th century . The Chester cycle was then revived as part of the city 's Festival of Britain celebrations in June 1951 , under the supervision of Christopher Ede . This production was received enthusiastically , and was repeated the following year ; thereafter it became a regular feature and tourist attraction . = = = Inception = = = By the late 1940s Benjamin Britten had established himself as a leading composer of English opera , with several major works to his credit . In 1947 he suggested to his librettist Eric Crozier that they should create a children 's opera , based on a bible story . Crozier gave Britten a copy of Pollard 's book , as a possible source of material . Nothing came of this project immediately ; instead , Britten and Crozier wrote the cantata Saint Nicolas ( 1948 ) , the first of several works in which Britten combined skilled performers with amateurs . The cantata involves at least two children 's choirs , and incorporates two congregational hymns sung by the audience . Britten also used this fusion of professional with amateur forces in The Little Sweep ( 1949 ) , which forms the second part of his entertainment for children , Let 's Make an Opera , that he devised with Crozier . Again , child singers ( also doubling as actors ) were used , and the audience sings choruses at appropriate points . In 1952 , although Britten 's collaboration with Crozier had ended , he used the Chester plays book as the source text for his Canticle II , based on the story of Abraham and Isaac . In April 1957 Boris Ford , Head of Schools Broadcasting at Associated Rediffusion ( A @-@ R ) , wrote to Britten , proposing a series of half @-@ hour programmes . These would show Britten composing and rehearsing a work through to its performance , and would provide children with " an intimate piece of musical education , by ... watching a piece of music take shape and in some degree growing with it " . Britten was initially cautious ; he found the idea interesting but , he warned Ford , he was at that time busy travelling , and had little time for writing . He was also anxious not to cover the same ground as he had with Let 's Make an Opera . However , he agreed to meet Ford to discuss the project further . On 11 July they met in London , together with Britten 's musical assistant Imogen Holst . Britten told Ford that he had " for some months or a year vaguely been thinking of doing something with the [ Chester ] miracle plays " , and agreed to write an opera for A @-@ R 's 1958 summer term of school programmes . The subject would be Noah and the flood , based on the Chester text . Later , Ford and his script editor , Martin Worth , travelled to Aldeburgh , and with Britten looked at possible churches for the performance . The Church of St Bartholomew , Orford , was chosen as , unlike most other churches in East Suffolk , its pews were not fixed , thus offering a more flexible performing space . = = Roles = = = = Synopsis = = After the opening congregational hymn " Lord Jesus , think on me " , the spoken Voice of God addresses Noye , announcing the forthcoming destruction of the sinful world . God tells Noye to build an ark ( " a shippe " ) that will provide salvation for him and his family . Noye agrees , and calls on the people and his family to help . His sons and their wives enter with tools and materials and begin work , while Mrs Noye and her Gossips ( close friends ) mock the project . When the ark is completed , Noye tries to persuade his wife to enter : " Wyffe , in this vessel we shall be kepte " , but she refuses , and they quarrel . The Voice of God foretells forty days and forty nights of rain , and instructs Noye to fill the ark with animals of every kind . The animals enter the ark in pairs , while Noye 's sons and their wives provide a commentary . Noye orders his family to board the ark ; again Mrs Noye and the Gossips refuse , preferring to carouse . The sons finally drag Mrs Noye on board , while the Gossips are swept away by the encroaching flood ; she rewards her husband with a slap . Rain begins to fall , building to a great storm at the height of which the first verse of the naval hymn " Eternal Father , Strong to Save " is heard from the ark . The congregation joins in the second and third verses of the hymn , during which the storm gradually subsides . When it is calm , Noye sends out a Raven , saying " If this foule come not againe / it is a signe soth to sayne / that dry it is on hill or playne . " When the Raven fails to return , Noye knows that the bird has discovered dry land . He sends out a Dove , who eventually brings back an olive branch . Noah accepts this as a sign of deliverance , and thanks God . The Voice of God instructs everyone to leave the ark . As they do , the animals sing " Alleluias " and the people sing a chorus of praise : " Lord we thanke thee through thy mighte " . God promises that he will never again destroy the earth with water , and produces a rainbow as his token . The cast begins Addison 's hymn " The spacious firmament on high " , with the congregation joining in the last two verses . All the cast depart except Noye , who receives God 's blessing and promise of no more vengeance : " And nowe fare well , my darling deare " before his departure from the stage . = = Creation = = = = = Writing = = = Britten began detailed planning for the opera in August 1957 , while sailing to Canada for a tour with the English Opera Group . He told Colin Graham , at that time the EOG 's stage manager , that he wanted him to direct the new work . After a further meeting at Associated Rediffusion 's London headquarters on 18 October , Britten began a composition draft in Aldeburgh on 27 October . To Pollard 's edition of the Noah play 's text , he added three congregational Anglican hymns : " Lord Jesus , think on me " ; " Eternal Father , strong to save " ; and " The spacious firmament on high " . Britten introduced the repetitive Greek chant " Kyrie eleison " ( " Lord , have mercy " ) at the entry of the animals , and " Alleluias " at their triumphant exit . He had completed about two @-@ thirds of the opera when Ford was dismissed from A @-@ R , allegedly for administrative shortcomings and inexperience . A @-@ R then decided to withdraw from the project , which was then taken up by Associated Television ( ATV ) , whose chairman Lew Grade personally took responsibility for signing the contract and urged that Britten should complete the opera . In November 1957 Britten moved to the Red House , just outside Aldeburgh , but continued to work on the opera throughout the upheaval . According to a letter he wrote to Edith Sitwell on 14 December , " the final bars of the opera [ were ] punctuated by hammer @-@ blows " from workmen busy at the Red House . Before he finished the composition draft ( on 18 December ) , Britten wrote to the baritone Owen Brannigan , who had sung in several previous Britten operas , asking if he would take the title role . Britten completed the full score of the opera in March 1958 , which he dedicated " To my nephew and nieces , Sebastian , Sally and Roguey Welford , and my young friend Ronald Duncan [ one of Britten 's godsons ] " . = = = Performance requirements = = = With the wide variety of child performers required in the opera , and in light of how it was cast and performed at its premiere , Britten detailed some of its specific requirements for performance in the vocal and study scores published by Boosey & Hawkes . The opera is intended for a large hall or church , not a theatre . The action should take place on raised rostra , though not on a formal stage set apart from the audience , and the orchestra should be placed in full sight , with the conductor in a position to conduct both the orchestra and , when performing the hymns , the congregation . Noye and Mrs Noye are sung by " accomplished singer @-@ actors " , and the Voice of God , although not necessarily a professional actor , should have " a rich speaking voice , with a simple and sincere delivery , without being at all ' stagey ' " . The young amateurs playing the parts of Noye 's children should be between 11 and 15 years old , with " well @-@ trained voices and lively personalities " ; Jaffet , the eldest , could have a broken voice . Mrs Noye 's Gossips should be older girls with strong voices and considerable acting ability . The children playing the animals should vary in size , and range in age from seven to eighteen . The older age groups , with perhaps some broken voices , should represent the larger animals ( lions , leopards , horses , camels etc . ) , while the younger play rats , mice and birds . There is a dance or ballet involving two child performers playing the roles of the raven and the dove . For the first time in any of his works involving amateurs , Britten envisaged a large complement of child performers among his orchestral forces , led by what Graham described as " the professional stiffening " of a piano duet , string quintet ( two violins , viola , cello and bass ) , recorder and a timpanist . The young musicians play a variety of instruments , including a full string ensemble with each section led by a member of the professional string quintet . The violins are further divided into parts of different levels of difficulty , from the simplest ( mostly playing open strings ) to those able to play in third position . The recorders should be led by an accomplished soloist able to flutter @-@ tongue ; bugles , played in the original production by boys from a local school band , are played as the children representing animals march into the ark , and at the climax of the opera . The child percussionists , led by a professional timpanist , play various exotic and invented percussion instruments : the score itself specifies sandpaper ( " two pieces of sandpaper attached to blocks of wood and rubbed together " ) , and " Slung Mugs " , the latter used to represent the first drops of rain . Britten originally had the idea of striking teacups with a spoon , but having failed to make this work , he sought Imogen Holst 's advice . She recalled that " by great good fortune I had once had to teach Women 's Institute percussion groups during a wartime ' social half hour ' , so I was able to take him into my kitchen and show him how a row of china mugs hanging on a length of string could be hit with a large wooden spoon . Britten also added – relatively late in the process of scoring the work – an ensemble of handbell ringers . According to Imogen Holst , a member of the Aldeburgh Youth Club brought Britten 's attention to a local ensemble of young handbell ringers ; hearing them play , Britten was so enchanted by the sound that he gave the ensemble a major part to play as the rainbow unfolds towards the end of the opera . Several commentators , including Michael Kennedy , Christopher Palmer and Humphrey Carpenter , have noted the affinity between the sound of Britten 's use of the handbells and the gamelan ensembles he had heard first @-@ hand in Bali in 1956 . The scarcity of handbells tuned at several of the pitches Britten required in the opera was to become an issue when the score was being prepared for publication . = = Performance history and reception = = = = = Premiere = = = The first performance of Noye 's Fludde was staged during the 1958 Aldeburgh Festival , at Orford Church on 18 June . The conductor was Charles Mackerras , who had participated in several productions at past Aldeburgh festivals . The production was directed by Colin Graham , who also designed its set , with costume designs by Ceri Richards . Apart from Brannigan as Noye , two other professional singers were engaged : Gladys Parr , in her last role before retirement , sang the part of Mrs Noye , and the spoken Voice of God was provided by the Welsh bass Trevor Anthony . The other major roles were taken by child soloists , who were selected from extensive auditions . Among these was the future actor @-@ singer , Michael Crawford , then 16 years old and described by Graham as " a very recently broken @-@ voiced young tenor " , who played the role of Jaffet . Mrs Noye 's Gossips were originally to be performed by girls from a Suffolk school , but when the headmistress heard rumours about the " dissolute " parts they were to play , she withdrew her pupils . The professional element in the orchestra was provided by the English Opera Group players , led by Emanuel Hurwitz , with Ralph Downes at the organ . The children players , billed as " An East Suffolk Children 's Orchestra " , included handbell ringers from the County Modern School , Leiston ; a percussion group , whose instruments included the slung mugs , from Woolverstone Hall School ; recorder players from Framlingham College ; and bugle players from the Royal Hospital School , Holbrook . Graham , recalling the premiere some years later , wrote : " The large orchestra ( originally 150 players ) ... were massed around the font of Orford Church while the opera was played out on a stage erected at the end of the nave . " Philip Hope @-@ Wallace , writing for The Manchester Guardian , observed that " Charles Mackerras conducted the widespread forces , actually moving round a pillar to be able to control all sections in turn . " Martin Cooper of The Daily Telegraph noted : " The white walls of Orford Church furnished an ideal background to the gay colours of Ceri Richards 's costumes and the fantastic head @-@ dresses of the animals . In fact , the future of the work will lie in village churches such as this and with amateur musicians , for whom Britten has written something both wholly new and outstandingly original . " The general critical reception was warmly enthusiastic . Felix Aprahamian in The Sunday Times called the performance " a curiously moving spiritual and musical experience " . Eric Roseberry , writing in Tempo magazine , found the music " simple and memorably tuneful throughout ... the writing for strings , recorders and percussion is a miracle of inspiration " . Andrew Porter in Opera magazine also found the music touched " by high inspiration " ; the evening was " an unforgettable experience ... extraordinarily beautiful , vivid and charming , and often deeply moving " . The design and production , Porter reported , were " brilliant " , while Mackerras commanded his disparate forces masterfully . Several critics remarked favourably on the sound of the handbells . The Times 's critic noted the effectiveness of Britten 's setting of the mystery play : " It is Britten 's triumph that in this musically slender piece he has brought to new life the mentality of another century by wholly modern means . These means included a miscellaneous orchestra such as he alone could conceive and handle " . After the premiere , there were two further performances by the same forces in Orford Church , on 19 and 21 June . Noye 's Fludde became the first of Britten 's operas to be shown on television , when it was broadcast by ATV on 22 June 1958 . = = = Later performances = = = Noye 's Fludde had been largely created according to the resources available from the local Suffolk community . However , according to the Aldeburgh Festival organiser , Stephen Reiss , once Britten witnessed the public and critical reception following the premiere , he insisted on taking it to London . Looking for a suitable London church , Britten settled on Southwark Cathedral , somewhat reluctantly as he felt that it did not compare favourably with Orford . Four performances featuring the same principals as the premiere were given , on 14 and 15 November 1958 , with Britten conducting the first . All four performances sold out on the first day of booking , even , as Britten told a friend , " before any advertisement & with 2000 circulars yet to be sent ! ! " On 24 and 25 April 1959 the Finchley Children 's Music Group , which was formed in 1958 specially to perform Noye 's Fludde , gave what was billed as " the first amateur London performance " of the work , at All Saint 's Church , Finchley ; the cast included the operatic bass Norman Lumsden as Noah . In the United States , after a radio broadcast in New York City on 31 July 1958 , the School of Sacred Music of Union Theological Seminary staged the US premiere on 16 March 1959 . The following year saw the opera 's Canadian premiere , conducted by John Avison , staged during the 1960 Vancouver International Festival in Christchurch Cathedral . During preparations for the first German performance of Noye 's Fludde in Ettal , planned for May 1959 , the problem of the scarcity of handbells became acute . Britten suggested that in the absence of handbells a set of tubular bells in E flat in groups of twos and threes could be played by four or six children with two hammers each to enable them to strike the chords . Britten was not present in Ettal , but he learned from Ernst Roth , of Boosey & Hawkes , that the Ettal production had substituted glockenspiel and metallophone for the handbells ; according to Roth the bells in Carl Orff 's Schulwerk percussion ensembles were " too weak " for the purpose . Britten later wrote to a friend : " I am rather relieved that I wasn 't there ! – no church , no bugles , no handbells , no recorders – but they seem to have done it with a great deal of care all the same . Still I rather hanker after doing it in Darmstadt as we want it – even importing handbells for instance . " In the UK , Christopher Ede , producer of the landmark performances of the Chester mystery plays during the Festival of Britain , directed Britten 's opera in Winchester Cathedral , 12 – 14 July 1960 . Writing to Ede on 19 December 1959 , Britten urged him to keep the staging of Noye 's Fludde simple rather than elaborate . In 1971 the Aldeburgh Festival once again staged Noye 's Fludde at Orford ; a full television broadcast of the production , transferred to Snape Maltings , was made by the BBC , conducted by Steuart Bedford under the composer 's supervision , with Brannigan resuming the role of Noah , Sheila Rex as his wife , and Lumsden as the Voice of God . In 1972 Jonathan Miller directed his first opera with a production of Noye 's Fludde , staged during 21 – 23 December at the Roundhouse Theatre , London . The adult roles were taken by Michael Williams ( God ) , Bryan Drake ( Noah ) and Isabelle Lucas ( Mrs Noah ) , and the conductor was John Lubbock . Among less conventional productions , in September 2005 Noye 's Fludde was performed at Nuremberg zoo , in a production by the Internationales Kammermusikfestival Nürnberg involving around 180 children from Nuremberg and from England , directed by Nina Kühner , conducted by Peter Selwyn . A subsequent zoo production was presented in Belfast , Northern Ireland , by NI Opera and the KT Wong Foundation . The performance was directed by Oliver Mears and conducted by Nicholas Chalmers , with Paul Carey Jones as Noye and Doreen Curran as Mrs Noye . The same production was performed in China , in October 2012 , at the Beijing Music Festival , this being the Chinese premiere of the work , and the first full performance of a Britten opera in China . It was performed again at the Shanghai Music In The Summer Air ( MISA ) Festival in July 2013 . Britten 's centenary year 2013 prompted numerous performances across the UK , including at Tewkesbury Abbey during the Cheltenham Music Festival , and the Thaxted Festival where 120 local children appeared as the animals . An Aldeburgh Festival production as a finale to the centenary year was staged in November , on the eve of Britten 's 100th birthday anniversary , in his home town of Lowestoft . Andrew Shore appeared as Noye , and Felicity Palmer as Mrs Noye . This performance was broadcast in the UK on BBC Radio 3 on 24 November . Outside the UK , several professional companies mounted centenary year productions involving local children , including the Santa Fe Opera , and the New Orleans Opera which mounted its first production of any Britten opera . = = Music = = Noye 's Fludde has been described by the musicologist Arnold Whittall as a forerunner of Britten 's church parables of the 1960s , and by the composer 's biographer Paul Kildea as a hybrid work , " as much a cantata as an opera " . Most of the orchestral writing , says the music analyst Eric Roseberry , lies " well within the range of intelligent young players of very restricted technique " . Several episodes of the opera – such as " the grinding conflict of Britten 's passacaglia theme against Dykes 's familiar hymn @-@ tune in the storm " – introduces listeners and the youthful performers to what Roseberry terms " a contemporary idiom of dissonance " , in contrast to the " outworn style " of most music written for the young . With its innovatory arrangement of vocal and instrumental forces , Noye 's Fludde is summarised by Whittall as " a brilliant demonstration of how to combine the relatively elementary instrumental and vocal skills of amateurs with professionals to produce a highly effective piece of music theatre . " The opera begins with a short , " strenuous " instrumental prelude , which forms the basis of the musical accompaniment to the opening congregational hymn ; its first phrase is founded on a descending bass E @-@ B @-@ F , itself to become an important motif . Humphrey Carpenter notes that throughout the hymn the bass line is out of step with the singing , an effect which , he says , " suggests an adult world where purity is unattainable " . Following the hymn , the Voice of God is accompanied , as it is in all his pre @-@ flood warnings and declamations , by the E @-@ B @-@ F notes from the opera 's opening bass line , sounded on the timpani . After Noye 's response in recitative , the next musical episode is the entry of Noye 's children and their wives , a passage which , Carpenter suggests , replaces the pessimism of the adult word with " the blissful optimism of childhood " . The syncopated tune of the children 's song is derived from the final line of Noye 's recitative : " As God has bidden us doe " . Mrs Noye and her Gossips enter to an F sharp minor distortion of the children 's tune , which reflects their mocking attitude . In Noye 's song calling for the ark to be built , a flood leitmotiv derived from the first line of the opening hymn recurs as a solemn refrain . The music which accompanies the construction work heavily involves the children 's orchestra , and includes recorder trills , pizzicato open strings , and the tapping of oriental temple @-@ blocks . After the brief " quarrel " duet between Noye and his wife in 6 / 8 time , timpani @-@ led percussion heralds the Voice of God 's order to fill the ark . Bugle fanfares announce the arrival of the animals , who march into the ark to a " jauntily innocent " tune in which Roseberry detects the spirit of Mahler ; the fanfares punctuate the entire march . The birds are the last group to enter the ark , to the accompaniment of a three @-@ part canon sung by Noye 's children and their wives . In the final scene before the storm , where Noye and his family try to persuade Mrs Noye to join them in the ark in G major , the music expresses Mrs Noye 's obstinacy by having her reply accompanied by a D sharp pedal which prepares for the Gossips ' drinking scherzo in E minor . The slap which Mrs Noye administers when finally persuaded is accompanied by an E major fortissimo . The storm scene which forms the centre of the opera is an extended passacaglia , the theme of which uses the entire chromatic scale . In a long instrumental introduction , full rein is given to the various elements of the children 's orchestra . Slung mugs struck with a wooden spoon give the sound of the first raindrops . Trills in the recorders represent the wind , strings impersonate waves , while piano chords outline the flood leitmotiv . The sound builds to a peak with thunder and lightning from the percussion . When " Eternal Father " is sung at the climax of the storm , the passacaglia theme provides the bass line for the hymn . After the hymn , the minor @-@ key fury of the passacaglia gradually subsides , resolving into what Roseberry describes as " a dewy , pastoral F major " akin to that of the finale of Beethoven 's Pastoral Symphony . Noye 's reappearance is followed by the brief waltzes for the Raven , accompanied by solo cello , and the Dove , the latter a flutter @-@ tongued recorder solo the melody of which is reversed when the Dove returns . Following God 's instruction , the people and animals leave the ark singing a thankful chorus of Alleluias with more bugle fanfares in B flat . The appearance of the rainbow is accompanied by handbell chimes , a sound which dominates the final stages of the work . In the final canonical hymn , the main tune moves from F major to G major and is sung over reiterated bugle calls , joined by the handbells . In the third verse , the organ provides a brief discordant intervention , " the one jarring note in Noye 's Fludde " according to the musicologist Peter Evans . Graham Elliott believes that this may be a musical joke in which Britten pokes gentle fun at the habits of some church organists . The mingled chimes of slung mugs and bells continue during God 's final valedictory blessing . As Noye leaves , the full orchestra provides a final fortissimo salute , the opera then concluding peacefully with B flat chimes of handbells alternating with extended G major string chords – " a hauntingly beautiful close " , says Roseberry . = = Publication = = Several of the opera 's novel features , including the use of a large amateur orchestra , and specifically its use of handbells , posed problems for Britten 's publishers , Boosey & Hawkes . Ernst Roth made enquiries about the availability of handbells to the firm Mears & Stainbank ( the bell foundry based in Whitechapel , London ) , and then wrote to Britten urging him to prepare an alternative , simplified version of Noye 's Fludde for publication , since the rarity of handbells in the scale of E flat made the original score , in his view , impractical . Britten resisted such a proposal : " I think if you consider a performance of this work in a big church with about fifty or more children singing , you will agree that the orchestra would sound totally inadequate if it were only piano duet , a few strings and a drum or two . " Britten suggested , rather , that Boosey & Hawkes should invest in a set of E flat handbells to hire for performances ; or , that the handbells music could be simply cued in the piano duet part . After the score had been published , and in the face of an imminent performance in Ettal , Britten suggested that he could attempt to rewrite the music for a handbell ensemble in D , since sets in that key were more common than in E flat . Britten never prepared this alternative version for reduced instrumentation . He did agree , however , to make the published full score " less bulky " by presenting the amateur forces of recorders , ripieno strings and percussion in the form of short score , on the understanding that full scores for those groups would be available to hire for rehearsal and performance purposes . The full score was published in 1958 , and the vocal score , prepared by Imogen Holst with the libretto translated into German by Prince Ludwig of Hesse and the Rhine , under the pseudonym Ludwig Landgraf , was published in 1959 . = = Recordings = =
= Allegra Byron = Clara Allegra Byron ( 12 January 1817 – 20 April 1822 ) , initially named Alba , meaning " dawn " , or " white " , by her mother , was the illegitimate daughter of the poet George Gordon , Lord Byron and Claire Clairmont , the stepsister of Mary Shelley . Born in Bath , England , she initially lived with her mother and Mary Shelley and Percy Bysshe Shelley , but was turned over to Byron when she was fifteen months @-@ old . She lived most of her short life with boarders chosen by Byron or in a Roman Catholic convent , where she died at age five of typhus or malaria . She was visited only intermittently by her father , who displayed inconsistent paternal interest in her . = = Early life = = Allegra was the product of a short @-@ lived affair between the Romantic poet and her starstruck teenage mother , who was living in reduced circumstances in the household of her stepsister and brother @-@ in @-@ law . Claire wrote to Byron during the pregnancy begging him to write back and promise to take care of her and the baby . Byron ignored her . After her birth , she was initially taken into the household of Leigh Hunt as the child of a cousin . A few months later the Shelleys and Claire took the baby back as an " adopted " child . Claire bonded with her baby daughter and wrote in her journal with delight about her close , physical connection with little Allegra , but she was also dealing with emotional and financial pressures from the Shelleys that made it difficult for her to keep the baby with her . The Shelleys were fond of Allegra , but Mary Shelley feared that neighbours would believe Percy Bysshe Shelley fathered her as the truth about her relationship to Claire leaked out . William Godwin , Mary 's father and Claire 's stepfather , had immediately leaped to that conclusion when he learned of Allegra 's birth . In an October 1817 letter to Percy Bysshe Shelley , Mary Shelley remarked that their toddler son William disliked Allegra , but was fond of his baby sister Clara . She saw her son 's reaction to Allegra , who was no blood relation to him , as " an argument in favor of those who advocate instinctive natural affection . The Shelleys were constantly in debt . Mary Shelley wanted the baby to be sent to Byron and wanted her difficult and temperamental stepsister , who had too close a relationship with her husband , to leave her house . After the child 's birth , Shelley wrote to Byron " of the exquisite symmetry " and beauty of " a little being whom we ... call Alba , or the Dawn . " He asked Byron what his plans were for the child . Later , Shelley acknowledged the child 's presence was becoming something of an embarrassment . Byron asked his half @-@ sister Augusta Leigh to take Allegra into her household , but Augusta refused . Hostile to Claire and initially sceptical that he had fathered her daughter , Byron agreed to take custody of Allegra under the condition that her mother have only limited contact with her . Shelley warned Claire that this might not , after all , be the best plan for Allegra , but Claire hoped that her daughter would be more financially comfortable and would have a better chance at a good life if she lived with her father . " I have sent you my child because I love her too well to keep her , " she wrote to Byron . Byron requested that her name be changed from Alba , which also related to " Albé , " Claire Clairmont 's nickname for Byron , to Allegra , an Italian name meaning " cheerful , brisk " and relating to the musical term " allegro . " During the journey to turn the child over to Byron , Claire wrote in her journal that she had bathed her daughter in Dover , but then crossed the passage out , as if afraid to mention the baby 's name . The child was baptised with the name Clara Allegra before her mother relinquished her to Byron . Byron discussed spelling Allegra 's surname as " Biron " instead of as " Byron " to further distinguish her from his legitimate daughter , Augusta Ada Byron . Byron offered to pay Shelley for the expense of Allegra 's upkeep during her first months of life , but Shelley indignantly refused and said the cost was a trifle . = = Resemblances to Byron = = Mary Shelley had called the baby Allegra " the little Commodore " because of her sturdy body and alert , intelligent look . Byron was also pleased with Allegra 's resemblances to himself in appearance and temperament . When she was eighteen months old , he wrote in a letter to a friend : " My bastard came three days ago — very like — healthy — noisy & capricious . " In an 1818 letter to his half @-@ sister Augusta Leigh , Byron wrote that " She is very pretty — remarkably intelligent ... She has very blue eyes — that singular forehead — fair curly hair — and a devil of a spirit — but that is Papa 's . " In 1819 , in another letter to Augusta Leigh , Byron described two and a half @-@ year @-@ old Allegra as " very droll " and again commented on her resemblance to himself in physical appearance , temperament and interests : " ( She ) has a very good deal of the Byron . Can 't articulate the letter ' r ' at all — frowns and pouts quite in our way — blue eyes — light hair growing darker daily — and a dimple in the chin — a scowl on the brow — white skin — sweet voice — and a particular liking of Music — and of her own way in every thing — is that not B. all over ? " The child had forgotten any English she had learned and now spoke only Venetian Italian . In March 1820 , he complained in a letter that three @-@ year @-@ old Allegra was vain and " obstinate as a mule " . Her behaviour was sometimes unmanageable , probably as a result of her unstable living arrangements and frequent changes in caregivers . At age four , the naughty child terrorised Byron 's servants with her temper tantrums and other misbehavior and told frequent lies . As she grew older , Allegra also demonstrated a talent for acting and singing . Byron 's mistress Teresa , Contessa Guiccioli , whom Allegra called " mammon " , remarked on Allegra 's talent for mimicking the servants and for singing popular songs . Byron felt her talent for mimicry , another talent she shared with him , might amuse other people in the short term but would eventually be a cause of trouble for her . Stability and the affection of the nuns at the Capuchin convent in Bagnacavallo , where she spent the last year of her life , improved Allegra 's self @-@ control . Still , the nuns indulged her because of her charm and she was rarely punished for breaking the rules . = = In poetry = = Percy Bysshe Shelley , remembering his 1818 visit to Byron , when he rolled billiard balls with Allegra , immortalised the toddler as Count Maddalo 's child in his 1819 poem Julian and Maddalo : A Conversation : In the next stanza he imagines her grown to a woman : " A wonder of this earth ... Like one of Shakespeare 's women . " = = Convent education = = Shelley , who visited the toddler Allegra while she was being boarded with a family chosen by Byron , objected to the child 's living arrangements over the years , though he had initially approved of Claire Clairmont 's plan to relinquish her to her father . During the summer of 1819 , Allegra stayed with four different families and was abandoned by her nursemaid . Byron sent her to stay for long periods with his friend , British consul Richard Belgrave Hoppner , but Hoppner 's wife didn 't like Allegra and sent her to stay with three other families in as many months . Though he 'd originally agreed to permit Claire to visit their daughter , Byron reneged on the agreement . Shelley often tried to persuade Byron to let Claire see her daughter and they thought of ways to regain custody of her . Claire was alarmed by reports in 1820 that her daughter had suffered a malarial @-@ type fever and that Byron had moved her to warm Ravenna at the height of the summer . Claire wrote that Allegra must be moved to a more healthy climate if she was to survive and pleaded with Byron to send their daughter to her in Bagni di Lucca , a town with a cool mountain climate . However , Byron didn 't want to send Allegra back to be raised in the Shelley household , where he was sure she 'd grow ill from eating a vegetarian diet and would be taught atheism . He pointed out that all of the other children in the Shelley household had died . The Shelleys ' first three children had all died young . Byron believed the rumours that a fourth child , Elena Adelaide Shelley , was Claire 's daughter by Shelley and Allegra 's half @-@ sister . Elena died in a foster home in 1820 at age seventeen months . " Have they raised one ? " Byron wrote in a letter to a friend in the fall of 1820 . Shelley wrote to his wife Mary that Allegra looked pale and quiet when he saw her in 1818 . When he saw her again in 1821 at the Capuchin convent in Bagnacavallo , when she was four , he again felt she looked pale and delicate and was infuriated by the Roman Catholic education she was receiving , though he had initially told Byron he approved of her being sent to a convent . " ( Besides ) Paradise & angels ... she has a prodigious list of saints — and is always talking of the Bambino ... The idea of bringing up so sweet a creature in the midst of such trash till Sixteen ! " he wrote . " However , though Shelley thought the little girl was more serious and contemplative than he remembered , he said she had not lost her " excessive vivacity . " After five months in the convent school , her behaviour had also improved ; she obeyed the nuns readily and was well @-@ disciplined , though Shelley didn 't think the nuns had been too severe with her . The child asked Shelley to " tell her mother she wanted a kiss and a gold dress and would he please beg her Papa and Mammina to visit her . " Allegra no longer had any real memory of Claire , but had grown attached to " her Mammina , " Byron 's mistress Teresa , Countess Guiccioli , who had mothered her . Teresa gave the little girl her own childhood toys and played with her when she spent weeks recovering from a childhood illness . Claire Clairmont had always opposed Byron 's decision to send her daughter to the convent in March 1821 . Shortly afterwards , she wrote him a furious , condemnatory letter accusing him of breaking his promise that their daughter would never be apart from one of her parents . She felt that the physical conditions in convents were unhealthy and the education provided was poor and was responsible for " the state of ignorance & profligacy of Italian women , all pupils of Convents . They are bad wives & most unnatural mothers , licentious & ignorant they are the dishonour & unhappiness of society ... This step will procure to you an innumerable addition of enemies & of blame . " In March 1822 , she dreamed up a plot to kidnap her daughter from the convent and asked Shelley to forge a letter of permission from Byron . Shelley refused . Byron had arranged for Allegra to be educated in the convent precisely because he , unlike his former lover Claire , thought favourably of the manners and attitudes of Italian women who had received convent educations . He disapproved of what he called Claire 's " loose morals " and " Bedlam behavior " and didn 't want her to influence Allegra . He also believed that his daughter , given her illegitimacy , would have a far better chance of marrying well in Italy than she would in England . A Roman Catholic girl with a suitable dowry , raised in a convent , would have a decent chance of marrying into high Italian society . He wanted the child to become a Roman Catholic , which he viewed as the " best religion . " " If Claire thinks that she shall ever interfere with the child 's morals or education , she mistakes ; she never shall , " wrote Byron in a letter to Richard Belgrave Hoppner in September 1820 . " The girl shall be a Christian and a married woman , if possible . " Her mother could see Allegra , he added , only with the " proper restrictions . " Byron wrote to Hoppner in March 1821 that Allegra would receive better care in the convent than she would with him . His mistress , Teresa , Countess Guiccioli , had a happy experience at the convent boarding school where she had lived from the age of five , and had also persuaded Byron that a convent school would be the best place for Allegra . He also viewed the convent as the safest place for her with revolution brewing in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies . Allegra was doted on by the nuns at the convent , who called her " Allegrina , " and was visited once by Teresa 's relatives . Probably with considerable assistance from the nuns , four @-@ year @-@ old Allegra wrote her father a letter in Italian from the convent , dated 21 September 1821 , asking him to visit her : My dear Papa . It being fair @-@ time , I should like so much a visit from my Papa as I have many wishes to satisfy . Won 't you come to please your Allegrina who loves you so ? The abbess of the convent included her own note inviting Byron to come to see Allegra before he left for Pisa and assuring him " how much she is loved . " On the back of this letter , Byron wrote : " Sincere enough , but not very flattering – for she wants to see me because ' it is the fair ' to get some paternal Gingerbread – I suppose . " Byron never responded to Allegra 's letter or visited the child during the thirteen months she was in the convent . = = Death , burial , and a memorial = = Allegra died on 20 April 1822 , attended by three doctors and all of the nuns at the convent , of what some biographers have identified as typhus . Byron biographer Benita Eisler speculated that she died after suffering a recurrence of her malarial @-@ type fevers , which she had also suffered from the previous autumn . Byron sent her body to England and wrote an inscription for her gravestone that read : " In memory of Allegra , daughter of G.G. , Lord Byron , who died at Bagna Cavallo in Italy , 20 April 1822 , Aged Five Years and Three Months , - ' I shall go to her , but she shall not return to me . ' -2 Samuel , xii , 23 " Byron felt guilty about his neglect of the child after her death , he told Marguerite , Countess of Blessington , a few months afterwards : Let the object of affection be snatched away by death , and how is all the pain ever inflicted upon them avenged ! The same imagination that led us to slight or overlook their sufferings , now that they are forever lost to us , magnifies their estimable qualities ... How did I feel this when my daughter , Allegra , died ! While she lived , her existence never seemed necessary to my happiness ; but no sooner did I lose her , than it appeared to me as if I could not live without her . The memory of Allegra haunted Shelley and her mother . Before his own death by drowning in July 1822 , Shelley had a vision of the dead child in which she rose naked from the sea , laughed , clapped her hands , and beckoned to him . Claire Clairmont furiously accused Byron of murdering Allegra . She demanded that Byron send her a portrait of Allegra , a lock of the child 's hair , and that she be placed in charge of the funeral arrangements . In the end , though , Claire could not bear to see Allegra 's coffin or to hold a funeral service for her daughter . She blamed Byron for the rest of her life for Allegra 's death . Scandalized by Byron 's reputation and the child 's illegitimacy , the rector of St. Mary 's Parish Church in Harrow , Middlesex , England , refused to place a plaque on Allegra 's grave and permitted her only to be buried at the entrance of the church without a marker . When Byron died two years later , the rector also refused to bury him at St. Mary 's Parish Church in Harrow . He was also denied burial at Westminster . He was ultimately buried at St. Mary Magdalens ' Church in Hucknall Torkard , Nottinghamshire , England . In 1980 , The Byron Society placed a memorial plaque for Allegra at Harrow , inscribed with words from a letter Byron wrote to Shelley after her death : " I suppose that Time will do his usual work ... – Death has done his . "
= Toby Creek = Toby Creek ( also known as Toby 's Creek ) is a tributary of the Susquehanna River in Luzerne County , Pennsylvania , in the United States . It is approximately 10 @.@ 5 miles ( 16 @.@ 9 km ) long and flows through Dallas Township , Dallas , Kingston Township , Courtdale , Luzerne , Pringle , Kingston , Edwardsville , and Larksville . The watershed of the creek has an area of 36 @.@ 5 square miles ( 95 km2 ) . The entire drainage basin is designated as a Migratory Fishery and parts are designated as either a Coldwater Fishery , a Warmwater Fishery , or a Trout Stocking Fishery . The creek has two named tributaries : Huntsville Creek and Trout Brook . It is said to show " some degraded conditions " , but does not experience severe pollution and is not considered to be impaired . The creek is piped underground in Pringle , but resurfaces in Edwardsville . The watershed of Toby Creek occupies part or all of ten boroughs and four townships . The creek 's watershed is mainly rural . Pennsylvania Route 309 , Pennsylvania Route 118 , and US Route 11 are partially within it . The two @-@ billion @-@ gallon Huntsville Reservoir is also in the creek 's drainage basin . Several mills were built along the creek in the 1800s and many bridges have been constructed over it . The creek experienced significant floods in 1942 and 1972 . = = Course = = Toby Creek begins in Dallas Township . It flows south @-@ southeast for a short distance before turning south and then southeast . The creek then flows east @-@ southeast alongside Pennsylvania Route 415 for a few miles , passing through Dallas on the way . It then crosses Pennsylvania Route 309 and enters Dallas Township . At this point , it turns east for a few tenths of a mile and receives the tributary Trout Brook from the left . The creek then turns south and slightly east for a few miles , flowing not far from Pennsylvania Route 309 and entering Kingston Township . It then turns south @-@ southeast , crossing Pennsylvania Route 309 and receiving the tributary Huntsville Creek from the right . At this point , the creek enters a water gap , flowing very close to Pennsylvania Route 309 . After several tenths of a mile , it gradually turns northeast and then turns south @-@ southeast , briefly passing through Courtdale and into Luzerne , where it exits the water gap . After several tenths of a mile , the creek turns south , crossing Pennsylvania Route 309 and entering Pringle , where it disappears from the surface . The creek reappears in Edwardsville and flows west for a few tenths of a mile before turning south and then south @-@ southwest . Several tenths of a mile further downstream , it reaches its confluence with the Susquehanna River on the border between Edwardsville and Larksville . Toby Creek joins the Susquehanna River 187 @.@ 79 miles ( 302 @.@ 22 km ) upriver of its mouth . = = = Tributaries = = = Toby Creek has two named tributaries : Huntsville Creek and Trout Brook . Huntsville Creek joins Toby Creek 5 @.@ 04 miles ( 8 @.@ 11 km ) upstream of its mouth . Its watershed has an area of 14 @.@ 7 square miles ( 38 km2 ) . Trout Brook joins Toby Creek 7 @.@ 60 miles ( 12 @.@ 23 km ) upstream of its mouth . Its watershed has an area of 4 @.@ 20 square miles ( 10 @.@ 9 km2 ) . = = Hydrology = = The lower reaches of Toby Creek were polluted by coal mining waste in the early 1900s . However , in modern times , no part of the watershed of Toby Creek is considered to be impaired . It has been described as showing " some degraded conditions " , but does not rank among the most polluted watersheds in the Middle Susquehanna Subbasin . However , the creek has high levels of nutrients and sodium . There is one combined sewer overflow in the watershed , near the mouth of the creek . The discharge of Toby Creek in its lower reaches is lowest in August and September , when it averages 15 and 19 cubic feet per second . In July and October , the average discharge is also relatively low ( 22 and 21 cubic feet per second , respectively ) . The highest average discharges occur in April and March : 83 and 82 cubic feet per second , respectively . The highest average monthly discharge between 1941 and 1993 was 269 @.@ 3 cubic feet per second , in April 1993 . However , during severe floods , the discharge can top 3000 cubic feet per second . The lowest recorded average monthly discharge during that time , 3 @.@ 00 cubic feet per second , occurred in September 1951 . The average discharge of the creek between 1941 and 1993 was 41 @.@ 2 cubic feet per second . The gage height of the creek between 1986 and 1993 ranged from 0 @.@ 25 feet ( 0 @.@ 076 m ) to 1 @.@ 46 feet ( 0 @.@ 45 m ) , but can be over 4 to 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 8 m ) during severe floods . The turbidity of Toby Creek ranges from 1 to 150 JTU . The creek 's specific conductance ranges from 70 to 210 micro @-@ siemens per centimeter at 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) . This value was historically somewhat higher . The creek is very slightly alkaline , with an average pH of 7 @.@ 1 . Its pH ranges from 6 @.@ 4 to 7 @.@ 7 . The concentration of water hardness in the creek 's waters ranges from 26 to 84 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 026 to 0 @.@ 084 oz / cu ft ) . The concentration of dissolved oxygen in the waters of Toby Creek ranges from 9 @.@ 1 to 13 @.@ 6 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 0091 to 0 @.@ 0136 oz / cu ft ) and is typically over 10 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 0100 oz / cu ft ) . The concentration of carbon dioxide in the waters of the creek ranges from 0 @.@ 9 to 12 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 00090 to 0 @.@ 01199 oz / cu ft ) and the ammonia concentration ranges from 0 @.@ 05 to 0 @.@ 76 milligrams per liter ( 5 @.@ 0 × 10 − 5 to 0 @.@ 000759 oz / cu ft ) per liter . The nitrite concentration ranges from 0 @.@ 048 to 0 @.@ 124 milligrams per liter ( 4 @.@ 8 × 10 − 5 to 0 @.@ 000124 oz / cu ft ) and the nitrate concentration ranges from 0 @.@ 94 to 1 @.@ 60 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 00094 to 0 @.@ 00160 oz / cu ft ) . The phosphorus concentration ranges between 0 @.@ 06 and 0 @.@ 62 milligrams per liter ( 6 @.@ 0 × 10 − 5 and 0 @.@ 000619 oz / cu ft ) . The concentration of chloride ranges from 7 to 25 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 0070 to 0 @.@ 0250 oz / cu ft ) and the sulfate concentration ranges from 2 to 24 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 0020 to 0 @.@ 0240 oz / cu ft ) . The average concentration of total dissolved solids in the creek is 117 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 117 oz / cu ft ) , but this was historically slightly higher . A total of 10 @,@ 200 tons of dissolved solids flow through the creek per day . The calcium concentration in the waters of Toby Creek ranges from 8 @.@ 8 to 152 micrograms per liter ( 8 @.@ 8 × 10 − 6 to 0 @.@ 0001518 oz / cu ft ) and the magnesium concentration ranges from 1 to 13 micrograms per liter ( 1 @.@ 00 × 10 − 6 to 1 @.@ 299 × 10 − 5 oz / cu ft ) . The concentration of recoverable iron in the creek ranges from 20 to 21 @,@ 000 micrograms per liter ( 2 @.@ 0 × 10 − 5 to 0 @.@ 020976 oz / cu ft ) and the concentration of recoverable aluminum was once measured to be 12 @,@ 000 milligrams per liter ( 12 oz / cu ft ) . The concentrations of chromium and copper were both once measured to be 20 micrograms per liter ( 2 @.@ 0 × 10 − 5 oz / cu ft ) and the arsenic concentration was measured to be 1 microgram per liter ( 1 @.@ 00 × 10 − 6 oz / cu ft ) . The manganese and zinc concentrations were once measured to be 520 and 70 micrograms per liter ( 0 @.@ 000519 and 7 @.@ 0 × 10 − 5 oz / cu ft ) . = = Geography , geology , and climate = = The elevation near the mouth of Toby Creek is 518 feet ( 158 m ) above sea level . The elevation of the creek 's source is between 1 @,@ 220 and 1 @,@ 240 feet ( 370 and 380 m ) above sea level . Its gradient is relatively low . In its upper 8 miles ( 13 km ) , the creek 's elevation decreases at a rate of 92 @.@ 5 feet ( 28 @.@ 2 m ) per mile . In its lower 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) , its elevation decreases at a rate of 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) per mile . Toby Creek passes through a gorge between Trucksville and Luzerne . Downstream of Luzerne , it flows through broad bottom lands . The creek is surrounded by steep slopes in the borough of Courtdale . The topography of the creek 's watershed is described as " rough and hilly " in a 1921 book . The watershed has been affected by glaciation . The channel of Toby Creek is sinuous . Rock formations consisting of sandstone and shale occur in its vicinity . There are also coal deposits along the creek in its lower reaches . Rocks of the Chemung Formation occur in the vicinity of Toby Creek . The bedrock is 4 @.@ 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 3 m ) underground in some areas of the watershed . A large impounding basin diverts water away from Kingston and Pringle . The creek is then piped via gravity into a " massive " underground pipe for some distance . The creek resurfaces in Edwardsville . There is also a pressure conduit on the creek . A levee is situated on the creek in Edwardsville Township , as are flumes and conduits . It is protected by riprap in Dallas Township . The creek is channelized for much of its length and has been relocated in places . In the uppermost 31 @.@ 8 square miles ( 82 km2 ) of the watershed of Toby Creek , the annual rate of precipitation ranges from 35 to 50 @.@ 4 inches ( 89 to 128 cm ) , with an average of 40 @.@ 6 inches ( 103 cm ) . The waters of the creek at one site have a velocity of 10 @.@ 7 feet ( 3 @.@ 3 m ) per second . The water temperature was measured several times between January and August 1976 . In January , February , and March , it ranged from 0 @.@ 0 to 5 @.@ 0 ° C ( 32 @.@ 0 to 41 @.@ 0 ° F ) . = = Watershed = = The watershed of Toby Creek has an area of 36 @.@ 5 square miles ( 95 km2 ) . The watershed is situated in north @-@ central Luzerne County . The creek is entirely within the United States Geological Survey quadrangle of Kingston . The stream density of the uppermost 31 @.@ 8 square miles ( 82 km2 ) of the watershed is 1 @.@ 6 miles ( 2 @.@ 6 km ) per 1 square mile ( 2 @.@ 6 km2 ) . A total of 59 @.@ 7 percent of this segment of the watershed is forested and 17 @.@ 7 percent is urban . Toby Creek 's watershed is in part or all of 14 municipalities . It is in ten boroughs : Swoyersville , Pringle , Luzerne , Larksville , Kingston , Harveys Lake , Fort Fort , Edwardsville , Dallas , and Courtdale . It is also in four townships : Lehman Township , Kingston Township , Jackson Township , and Dallas Township . It is adjacent to watersheds such as those of Harveys Creek and Abrahams Creek . A 9 @-@ mile ( 15 @-@ kilometer ) long stretch of land along the main stem of Toby Creek is highly urbanized . This stretch of land begins in Dallas , near the creek 's headwaters , and passes through Shavertown , Luzerne , Kingston , and Edwardsville . Both the Back Mountain and Endless Mountain regions are associated with the creek 's watershed and are adjacent to it . The watershed of Toby Creek is predominantly rural . Most of it ( 61 @.@ 3 percent ) is forested land . Considerably less common are grassland ( 19 @.@ 6 percent ) and urban land ( 16 @.@ 4 percent ) . A total of 2 @.@ 1 percent of the creek 's watershed consists of wetlands and 0 @.@ 6 percent consists of mining lands . The mining land is confined to one area near the mouth of the creek . The watershed of Toby Creek is very narrow in its lower reaches . However , it becomes much broader in its middle and upper reaches . The watershed is developed . The number of employees in the creek 's drainage basin is expected to increase until 2030 . Pennsylvania Route 309 runs through the watershed in a north @-@ south direction . Pennsylvania Route 118 is in the watershed 's northwestern portion and US Route 11 passes through its southernmost part . A total of 4 @.@ 03 million gallons of water per day are withdrawn from Toby Creek and its tributaries . 3 @.@ 38 million gallons per day ( 84 percent ) are removed by registered water suppliers and 0 @.@ 51 million gallons per day ( 13 percent ) are removed for commercial and industrial purposes . 0 @.@ 10 million gallons per day ( 2 percent ) are removed for mineral purposes and 0 @.@ 04 million gallons per day ( 1 percent ) are removed for residential purposes . A reservoir known as the Huntsville Reservoir is located in the watershed of Toby Creek . It has a capacity of approximately 1 @.@ 915 billion gallons . Toby Creek is the main source of flooding in Courtdale , Dallas , Luzerne , Pringle , and Kingston Township . It is also one of the main sources of flooding in the borough of Kingston . However , the creek 's floods cause little damage in Courtdale , since its floodplain is relatively undeveloped in that borough . The creek has an Act 167 Stormwater Management Plan . There are numerous swamps , lakes , and ponds in the watershed of Toby Creek . = = History = = Toby Creek was entered into the Geographic Names Information System on August 2 , 1979 . Its identifier in the Geographic Names Information System is 1189612 . An ancient fortification is located on a plain near Toby Creek in Kingston Township . The fort is elliptical and measures 337 by 272 feet ( 103 by 83 m ) . It is 150 feet ( 46 m ) from the creek and 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) from the Susquehanna River . In the beginning of the 1800s , there were no roads going through the valley of Toby Creek . However , one was built by the late 1800s or early 1900s . Peter Grubb operated a gristmill and sawmill on Toby Creek in the late 1700s and / or early 1800s . They were the only gristmill and sawmill that were ever built in Kingston up to 1893 . The later came to be owned by Thomas Borbridge , who tore them down in 1826 . In 1812 , a Mr. Buckingham , a Mr. Carbon , a Mr. Tuttle , and a Mr. Parker constructed a paper mill on Toby Creek . Later , in 1836 , George W. Little built a small charcoal furnace on the creek at the site of the paper mill . Jude Baldwin constructed a mill on the creek in 1813 . In 1847 , Miner Fuller built another mill approximately 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) further upstream . Both were torn down in the late 1800s since they were no longer needed . In the early 1900s , the main industries in the watershed were agriculture and coal mining . The creek was also used as water power for several mills . Around this time , the Lehigh Valley Railroad crossed the watershed , following the creek for its entire length . The Delaware , Lackawanna , and Western Railroad followed also traversed the watershed and followed the creek in its lower reaches . The two most severe floods in the watershed of Toby Creek occurred on December 30 , 1942 and June 22 , 1972 . During these floods there were peak discharges of 3 @,@ 010 and 3 @,@ 390 cubic feet per second ( 85 and 96 m3 / s ) , respectively . The gage heights reached 4 @.@ 8 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) and 6 @.@ 1 feet ( 1 @.@ 9 m ) . Numerous bridges have been built over Toby Creek . One was built in 1920 and repaired in 1989 . Another was built in 1928 and repaired in 1963 and a third was built in 1939 . Six bridges were built over the creek in 1941 , all of them in Kingston Township or Dallas Township . Another bridge was built over Toby Creek in 1955 and four more were built in 1963 , one of which was repaired in 1988 . One was built in 1970 and repaired in 1980 and another was built in 1976 and repaired in 1997 . Two more bridges were built across the creek in 1980 , one more in 1984 , and one in 1989 . The streambank of Toby Creek underwent a stabilization project after 2005 . = = Biology = = The drainage basin of Toby Creek upstream of the tributary Huntsville Creek is designated as a Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery . From below Huntsville Creek downstream to Pringle , where Toby Creek disappears from the surface , Toby Creek and its drainage basin are designated as a Trout Stocking Fishery and a Migratory Fishery . From that point downstream to the creek 's mouth , the drainage basin is designated as a Warmwater Fishery . Wild trout naturally reproduce in the creek from its headwaters downstream to its mouth . The concentration of fecal coliform bacteria in the waters of Toby Creek was once measured to be 1000 colonies per 100 millilitres ( 3 @.@ 5 imp fl oz ; 3 @.@ 4 US fl oz ) . Out of a number of stream segments studied by the Susquehanna River Basin Commission , a section of Toby Creek was found to be the poorest habitat . Specific problems faced by the creek at this site include embeddedness , a lack of riffles , poor epifaunal substrate , low instream cover , low @-@ quality streambanks , and sediment deposition . The borough of Dallas has plans to construct a greenway along the creek .
= Hafizullah Amin = Hafizullah Amin ( Persian : حفيظ الله امين born 1 August 1929 – 27 December 1979 ) was an Afghan politician and statesman during the Cold War . Amin was born in Paghman and educated at Kabul University , after which he started his career as a teacher . After a few years in that occupation , he went to the United States to study . He would visit the United States a second time before moving permanently to Afghanistan , and starting his career in radical politics . He ran as a candidate in the 1965 parliamentary election but failed to secure a seat . Amin was the only Khalqist elected to parliament in the 1969 parliamentary election , thus increasing his standing within the party . He was one of the leading organisers of the Saur Revolution which overthrew the government of Mohammad Daoud Khan . Amin 's short @-@ lived presidency was marked by controversies from beginning to end . He came to power by ordering the death of his predecessor Nur Muhammad Taraki . The revolt against communist rule which had begun under Taraki worsened under Amin , and was a problem that his government was unable to solve . The Soviet Union , which alleged that Amin was an agent of the CIA , intervened in Afghanistan while invoking the Twenty @-@ Year Treaty of Friendship between Afghanistan and the Soviet Union . Amin was assassinated by the Soviets in December 1979 as part of Operation Storm @-@ 333 , having ruled for slightly longer than three months . = = Early life and career = = Hafizullah Amin was born to a Ghilzai Pashtun family in Paghman on 1 August 1929 . His father , a civil servant , died when he was still very young . Thanks to his brother Abdullah , a primary school teacher , Amin was able to attend both primary and secondary school , which in turn allowed him to attend Kabul University ( KU ) . After studying mathematics there , he also graduated from the Darul Mualimeen Teachers College in Kabul , and became a teacher . Amin later became vice @-@ principal of the Darul Mualimeen College , and then principal of the prestigious Avesina High School , and in 1957 left Afghanistan for Columbia University in New York City , where he earned M. A. in education . It was at Columbia that Amin became attracted to Marxism , and in 1958 he became a member of the university 's Socialist Progressive Club . When he returned to Afghanistan , Amin became a teacher at Kabul University , and later , for the second time , the principal of Avesina High School . During this period Amin became acquainted with Nur Muhammad Taraki , a communist . Around this time , Amin quit his position as principal of Avesina High School in order to become principal of the Darul Mualimeen College . It is alleged that Amin became radicalised during his second stay in the United States in 1962 , when he enrolled in a work @-@ study group at the University of Wisconsin . Amin studied in the doctoral programme at the Columbia University Teachers College , but started to neglect his studies in favour of politics ; in 1963 he became head of the Afghan students ' association at the college . When he returned to Afghanistan in the mid @-@ 1960s , the route flew to Afghanistan by way of Moscow . There , Amin met the Afghan ambassador to the Soviet Union , his old friend Ali Ahmad Popel , a previous Afghan Minister of Education . During his short stay , Amin became even more radicalised . Some people , Nabi Misdaq for instance , do not believe he travelled through Moscow , but rather West Germany and Lebanon . By the time he had returned to Afghanistan , the Communist People 's Democratic Party of Afghanistan ( PDPA ) had already held its founding congress , which was in 1965 . Amin ran as a candidate for the PDPA in the 1965 parliamentary election , and lost by a margin of less than fifty votes . In 1966 , when the PDPA Central Committee was expanded , Amin was elected as a non @-@ voting member , and in the spring of 1967 he gained full membership . Amin 's standing in the Khalq faction of the PDPA increased when he was the only Khalqist elected to parliament in the 1969 parliamentary election . When the PDPA split along factional lines in 1967 , between Khalqists led by Nur and Parchamites led by Babrak Karmal , Amin joined the Khalqists . As a member of parliament , Amin tried to win over support from the Pashtun people in the armed forces . According to a biography about Amin , he used his position as member of parliament to fight against imperialism , feudalism , and reactionary tendencies , and fought against the " rotten " regime , the monarchy . Amin himself said that he used his membership in parliament to pursue the class struggle against the bourgeoisie . Relations between Khalqists and Parchamites deteriorated during this period . Amin , the only Khalq member of parliament , and Babrak Karmal , the only Parcham member of parliament , did not cooperate with each other . Amin would later , during his short stint in power , mention these events with bitterness . Following the arrest of fellow PDPA members Dastagir Panjsheri and Saleh Mohammad Zeary in 1969 , Amin became one of the party 's leading members , and was still a pre @-@ eminent party member by the time of their release in 1973 . = = = The Daoud era = = = From 1973 until the PDPA unification in 1977 , Amin was second only to Taraki in the Khalqist PDPA . When the PDPA ruled Afghanistan , their relationship was referred to as a disciple ( Amin ) following his mentor ( Taraki ) . This official portrayal of the situation was misleading ; their relationship was more work @-@ oriented . Taraki needed Amin 's " tactical and strategic talents " ; Amin 's motivations are more uncertain , but it is commonly believed that he associated with Taraki to protect his own position . Amin had attracted many enemies during his career , the most notable being Karmal . According to the official version of events , Taraki protected Amin from party members or others who wanted to hurt the PDPA and the country . When Mohammed Daoud Khan ousted the monarchy , and established the Republic of Afghanistan , the Khalqist PDPA offered its support for the new regime if it established a National Front which presumably included the Khalqist PDPA itself . The Parchamite PDPA had already established an alliance with Daoud at the beginning of his regime , and Karmal called for the dissolution of the Khalqist PDPA . Karmal 's call for dissolution only worsened relations between the Khalqist and Parchamite PDPA . However , Taraki and Amin were lucky ; Karmal 's alliance actually hurt the Parchamites ' standing in Afghan politics . Some communists in the armed forces became disillusioned with the government of Daoud , and turned to the Khalqist PDPA because of its apparent independence . Parchamite association with the Daoud government indirectly led to the Khalqist @-@ led PDPA coup of 1978 , popularly referred to as the Saur Revolution . From 1973 until the 1978 coup , Amin was responsible for organising party work in the Afghan armed forces . According to the official version , Amin " met patriotic liaison officers day or night , in the desert or the mountains , in the fields or the forests , enlightening them on the basis of the principles of the working class ideology . " Amin 's success in recruiting military officers lay in the fact that Daoud " betrayed the left " soon after taking power . When Amin began recruiting military officers for the PDPA , it was not difficult for him to find disgruntled military officers . In the meantime , relations between the Parchamite and Khalqist PDPA deteriorated ; in 1973 it was rumoured that Major Zia Mohammadzai , a Parchamite and head of the Republican Guard , planned to assassinate the entire Khalqist leadership . The plan , if true , failed because the Khalqists found out about it . The assassination attempt proved to be a further blow to relations between the Parchamites and Khalqists . The Parchamites deny that they ever planned to assassinate the Khalqist leadership , but historian Beverley Male argues that Karmal 's subsequent activities give credence to the Khalqist view of events . Because of the Parchamite assassination attempt , Amin pressed the Khalqist PDPA to seize power in 1976 by ousting Daoud . The majority of the PDPA leadership voted against such a move . The following year , in 1977 , the Parchamites and Khalqists officially reconciled , and the PDPA was unified . The Parchamite and Khalqist PDPAs , which had separate general secretaries , politburos , central committees and other organisational structures , were officially unified in the summer of 1977 . One reason for unification was that the international communist movement , represented by the Communist Party of India , Iraqi Communist Party and the Communist Party of Australia , called for party unification . = = = Saur Revolution = = = On 18 April 1978 Mir Akbar Khyber , the chief ideologue of the Parcham faction , was killed ; he was commonly believed to have been assassinated by the Daoud government . Khyber 's assassination initiated a chain of events which led to the PDPA taking power eleven days later , on 27 April . The assassin was never caught , but Anahita Ratebzad , a Parchamite , believed that Amin had ordered the assassination . Khyber 's funeral evolved into a large anti @-@ government demonstration . Daoud , who did not understand the significance of the events , began a mass arrest of PDPA members seven days after Khyber 's funeral . Amin , who organised the subsequent revolution against Daoud , was one of the last Central Committee members to be arrested by the authorities . His late arrest can be considered as proof of the regime 's lack of information ; Amin was the leading revolutionary party organiser . The government 's lack of awareness was proven by the arrest of Taraki – Taraki 's arrest was the pre @-@ arranged signal for the revolution to commence . When Amin found out that Taraki had been arrested , he ordered the revolution to begin at 9am on 27 April . Amin , in contrast to Taraki , was not imprisoned , but instead put under house arrest . His son , Abdur Rahman , was still allowed freedom of movement . The revolution was successful , thanks to overwhelming support from the Afghan military ; for instance , it was supported by Defence Minister Ghulam Haidar Rasuli , Aslam Watanjar the commander of the ground forces , and the Chief of Staff of the Afghan Air Force , Abdul Qadir . = = PDPA rule = = = = = Khalq – Parcham break = = = After the Saur revolution , Taraki was appointed Chairman of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council and Chairman of the Council of Ministers , and retained his post as PDPA general secretary . Taraki initially formed a government which consisted of both Khalqists and Parchamites ; Karmal became Deputy Chairman of the Revolutionary Council while Amin became Minister of Foreign Affairs and a Deputy Prime Minister , and Mohammad Aslam Watanjar became a Deputy Prime Minister . The two Parchamites Abdul Qadir and Mohammad Rafi became Minister of National Defence and Minister of Public Works respectively . According to Angel Rasanayagam , the appointment of Amin , Karmal and Watanjar as Deputy Prime Ministers led to the establishment of three cabinets ; the Khalqists were answerable to Amin , the Parchamites were answerable to Karmal , and the military officers ( who were Parchamites ) were answerable to Watanjar . The first conflict between the Khalqists and Parchamites arose when the Khalqists wanted to give PDPA Central Committee membership to the military officers who participated in the Saur Revolution . Amin , who had previously opposed the appointment of military officers to the PDPA leadership , switched sides ; he now supported their elevation . The PDPA Politburo voted in favour of giving membership to the military officers ; the victors ( the Khalqists ) portrayed the Parchamites as opportunists , implying that the Parchamites had ridden the revolutionary wave , but not actually participated in the revolution . To make matters worse for the Parchamites , the term Parcham was , according to Taraki , a word synonymous with factionalism . On 27 June 1978 , three months after the revolution , Amin managed to outmaneuver the Parchamites at a Central Committee meeting . The meeting decided that the Khalqists had exclusive rights to formulate and decide policy , a policy which left the Parchamites impotent . Karmal was exiled , but was able to establish a network with the remaining Parchamites in government . A coup to overthrow Amin was planned for September . Its leading members in Afghanistan were Qadir , the defence minister , and Army Chief of Staff General Shahpur Ahmedzai . The coup was planned for 4 September , on the Festival of Eid , because soldiers and officers would be off duty . The conspiracy failed when the Afghan ambassador to India told the Afghan leadership about the plan . A purge was initiated , and Parchamite ambassadors were recalled ; few returned , for example Karmal and Mohammad Najibullah both stayed in their assigned countries . = = = Amin – Taraki break = = = The Afghan people revolted against the PDPA government when the government introduced several socialist reforms , including land reforms . By early 1979 , twenty @-@ five out of Afghanistan 's twenty @-@ eight provinces were unsafe because of armed resistance against the government . On 29 March 1979 , the Herat uprising began ; the uprising turned the revolt into an open war between the Mujahideen and the Afghan government . It was during this period that Amin became Kabul 's strongman . Shortly after the Herat uprising had been crushed , the Revolutionary Council convened to ratify the new Five @-@ Year Plan , the Afghan – Soviet Friendship Treaty , and to vote on whether or not to reorganise the cabinet and to enhance the power of the executive ( the Chairman of the Revolutionary Council ) . While the official version of events said that all issues were voted on democratically at the meeting , the Revolutionary Council held another meeting the following day to ratify the new Five @-@ Year Plan and to discuss the reorganisation of the cabinet . Alexander Puzanov , the Soviet ambassador to Afghanistan , was able to persuade Aslam Watanjar , Sayed Mohammad Gulabzoy and Sherjan Mazdoryar to become part of a conspiracy against Amin . These three men put pressure on Taraki , who by this time believed that " he really was the ' great leader ' " , to sack Amin from office . It is unknown if Amin knew anything about the conspiracy against him , but it was after the cabinet reorganisation that he talked about his dissatisfaction . On 26 March the PDPA Politburo and the Council of Ministers approved the extension of the powers of the executive branch , and the establishment of the Homeland Higher Defence Council ( HHDC ) to handle security matters . Many analysts of the day regarded Amin 's appointment as Prime Minister as an increase in his powers at the expense of Taraki . However , the reorganisation of the cabinet and the strengthening of Taraki 's position as Chairman of the Revolutionary Council , had reduced the authority of the Prime Minister . The Prime Minister was , due to the strengthening of the executive , now appointed by the Chairman of the Revolutionary Council . While Amin could appoint and dismiss new ministers , he needed Taraki 's consent to actually do so . Another problem for Amin was that while the Council of Ministers was responsible to the Revolutionary Council and its chairman , individual ministers were only responsible to Taraki . When Amin became Prime Minister , he was responsible for planning , finance and budgetary matters , the conduct of foreign policy , and for order and security . The order and security responsibilities had been taken over by the HHDC , which was chaired by Taraki . While Amin was HHDC Deputy Chairman , the majority of HHDC members were members of the anti @-@ Amin faction . For instance , the HHDC membership included Watanjar the Minister of National Defence , Interior Minister Mazdoryar , the President of the Political Affairs of the Armed Forces Mohammad Iqbal , Mohammad Yaqub , the Chief of the General Staff , the Commander of the Afghan Air Force Nazar Mohammad and Assadullah Sarwari the head of ASGA , the Afghan secret police . The order of precedence had been institutionalised , whereby Taraki was responsible for defence and Amin responsible for assisting Taraki in defence related matters . Amin 's position was given a further blow by the democratisation of the decision @-@ making process , which allowed its members to contribute ; most of them were against Amin . Another problem for Amin was that the office of HHDC Deputy Chairman had no specific functions or powers , and the appointment of a new defence minister who opposed him drastically weakened his control over the Ministry of National Defence . The reorganisation of ministers was a further blow to Amin 's position ; he had lost control of the defence ministry , the interior ministry and the ASGA . Amin still had allies at the top , many of them in strategically important positions , for instance , Yaqub was his brother @-@ in @-@ law and the Security Chief in the Ministry of Interior was Sayed Daoud Taroon , who was also later appointed to the HHDC as an ordinary member in April . Amin succeeded in appointing two more of his allies to important positions ; Mohammad Sediq Alemyar as Minister of Planning and Khayal Mohammad Katawazi as Minister of Information and Culture ; and Faqir Mohammad Faqir was appointed Deputy Prime Minister in April 1978 . Amin 's political position was not secure when Alexei Yepishev , the Head of the Main Political Directorate of the Soviet Army and Navy , visited Kabul . Yepishev met personally with Taraki on 7 April , but never met with Amin . The Soviets were becoming increasingly worried about Amin 's control over the Afghan military . Even so , during Yepishev 's visit Amin 's position was actually strengthened ; Taroon was appointed Taraki 's aide @-@ de @-@ camp . Soon after , at two cabinet meetings , the strengthening of the executive powers of the Chairman of the Revolutionary Council was proven . Even though Amin was Prime Minister , Taraki chaired the meetings instead of him . Amin 's presence at these two meetings was not mentioned at all , and it was made clear that Taraki , through his office as Chairman of the Revolutionary Council , also chaired the Council of Ministers . Another problem facing Amin was Taraki 's policy of autocracy ; he tried to deprive the PDPA Politburo of its powers as a party and state decision @-@ making organ . The situation deteriorated when Amin personally warned Taraki that " the prestige and popularity of leaders among the people has no common aspect with a personality cult . " Factionalism within the PDPA made it ill prepared to handle the intensified counter @-@ revolutionary activities in the country . Amin tried to win support for the communist government by depicting himself as a devout Muslim . Taraki and Amin blamed different countries for helping the counter @-@ revolutionaries ; Amin attacked the United Kingdom and the British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC ) and played down American and Chinese involvement , while Taraki blamed American imperialism and Iran and Pakistan for supporting the uprising . Amin 's criticism of the United Kingdom and the BBC fed on the traditional anti @-@ British sentiments held by rural Afghans . In contrast to Taraki , " Amin bent over backwards to avoid making hostile reference to " , China , the United States or other foreign governments . Amin 's cautious behavior was in deep contrast to the Soviet Union 's official stance on the situation ; it seemed , according to Beverley Male , that the Soviet leadership tried to force a confrontation between Afghanistan and its enemies . Amin also tried to appease the Shia communities by meeting with their leaders ; despite this , a section of the Shia leadership called for the continuation of the resistance . Subsequently a revolt broke out in a Shia populated district in Kabul ; this was the first sign of unrest in Kabul since the Saur Revolution . To add to the government 's problems , Taraki 's ability to lead the country was questioned – he was a heavy drinker and was not in good health . Amin on the other hand was characterised in this period by portrayals of strong self @-@ discipline . In the summer of 1979 Amin began to disassociate himself from Taraki . On 27 June Amin became a member of the PDPA Politburo , the leading decision @-@ making body in Afghanistan . = = = Rise to power = = = In @-@ mid July the Soviets made their view official when Pravda wrote an article about the situation in Afghanistan ; the Soviets did not wish to see Amin become leader of Afghanistan . This triggered a political crisis in Afghanistan , as Amin initiated a policy of extreme repression , which became one of the main reasons for the Soviet intervention later that year . On 28 July , a vote in the PDPA Politburo approved Amin 's proposal of creating a collective leadership with collective decision @-@ making ; this was a blow to Taraki , and many of his supporters were replaced by pro @-@ Amin PDPA members . Ivan Pavlovsky , the Commander of the Soviet Ground Forces , visited Kabul in mid @-@ August to study the situation in Afghanistan . Amin , in a speech just a few days after Pavlovsky 's arrival , said that he wanted closer relations between Afghanistan and the People 's Republic of China ; in the same speech he hinted that he had reservations about Soviet meddling in Afghanistan . He likened Soviet assistance to Afghanistan with Vladimir Lenin 's assistance to the Hungarian Soviet Republic in 1919 . Taraki , a delegate to the conference held by the Non @-@ Aligned Movement in Havana , met personally with Andrei Gromyko , the Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs , to discuss the Afghanistan situation on 9 September . Shah Wali , the Minister of Foreign Affairs , who was a supporter of Amin , did not participate in the meeting . This , according to Beverley Male , " suggested that some plot against Amin was in preparation " . Within hours of his return to Kabul on 11 September , Taraki convened the cabinet " ostensibly to report on the Havana Summit " . Instead of reporting on the summit , Taraki tried to dismiss Amin as Prime Minister . This was a miscalculation , and all but the Gang of Four ( consisting of Watanjar , Mazdoryar , Gulabzoi and Sarwari ) , supported retaining Amin as Prime Minister . Taraki sought to neutralise Amin 's power and influence by requesting that he serve overseas as an ambassador . Amin turned down the proposal , shouting " You are the one who should quit ! Because of drink and old age you have taken leave of your senses . " The following day Taraki invited Amin to the presidential palace for lunch with him and the Gang of Four . Amin turned down the offer , stating he would prefer their resignation rather than lunching with them . Soviet ambassador Puzanov persuaded Amin to make the visit to the Presidential Palace along with Taroon , the Chief of Police and Nawab Ali ( an intelligence officer ) . Upon arriving at the palace , unknown individuals within the building opened fire on the visitors . Taroon was killed , while Ali sustained an injury and escaped , together with Amin , who was unharmed . Shortly afterward , Amin returned to the palace with a contingent of Army officers , and placed Taraki under arrest . The Gang of Four , however , had " disappeared " and their whereabouts would remain unknown for the duration of Amin 's 104 @-@ day rule . After Taraki 's arrest , Amin reportedly discussed the incident with Leonid Brezhnev , and indirectly asked for the permission to kill Taraki . Brezhnev replied that it was his choice . Amin , who now believed he had the full support of the Soviets , ordered the death of Taraki . Taraki was subsequently suffocated with pillows . The Afghan media would report that the ailing Taraki had died , omitting any mention of his murder . = = = Presidency = = = = = = = Domestic policies = = = = Following Taraki 's fall from power , Amin was elected Chairman of the Presidum of the Revolutionary Council and General Secretary of the PDPA Central Committee by the PDPA Politburo . The election of Amin as PDPA General Secretary and the removal of Taraki from all party posts was unanimous . The only members of the cabinet replaced when Amin took power were the Gang of Four – Beverley Male saw this as " a clear indication that he had their [ the ministers ' ] support " . Amin 's rise to power was followed by a policy of moderation , and attempts to persuade the Afghan people that the regime was not anti @-@ Islamic . Amin 's government began to invest in the reconstruction , or reparation , of mosques . He also promised the Afghan people freedom of religion . Religious groups were given copies of the Quran , and Amin began to refer to Allah in speeches . He even claimed that the Saur Revolution was " totally based on the principles of Islam " . The campaign proved to be unsuccessful , and many Afghans held Amin responsible for the regime 's totalitarian behavior . Amin 's rise to power was officially endorsed by the Jamiatul Ulama on 20 September 1979 . Their endorsement led to the official announcement that Amin was a pious Muslim – Amin thus scored a point against the counter @-@ revolutionary propaganda which claimed the communist regime was atheist . Amin also tried to increase his popularity with tribal groups , a feat Taraki had been unable or unwilling to achieve . In a speech to tribal elders Amin was defensive about the Western way he dressed ; an official biography was published which depicted Amin in traditional Pashtun clothes . During his short stay in power , Amin became committed to establishing a collective leadership ; when Taraki was ousted , Amin promised " from now on there will be no one @-@ man government ... " Attempting to pacify the population , Amin released a list of 18 @,@ 000 people who had been executed , and blamed the executions on Taraki . The total number of arrested during Taraki 's and Amin 's combined reign number between 17 @,@ 000 and 45 @,@ 000 . Amin was not liked by the Afghan people . During his rule , opposition to the communist regime increased , and the government lost control of the countryside . The state of the Afghan military deteriorated ; due to desertions the number of military personnel in the Afghan army decreased from 100 @,@ 000 in the immediate aftermath of the Saur Revolution , to somewhere between 50 @,@ 000 and 70 @,@ 000 . Another problem Amin faced was the KGB 's penetration of the PDPA , the military and the government bureaucracy . While Amin 's position in Afghanistan was becoming more perilous by the day , his enemies who were exiled in the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc were agitating for his removal . Babrak Karmal , the Parchamite leader , met several leading Eastern Bloc figures during this period , and Mohammad Aslam Watanjar , Sayed Mohammad Gulabzoy and Assadullah Sarwari wanted to exact revenge upon Amin . = = = = Foreign policy = = = = When Amin became leader , he tried to reduce Afghanistan 's dependence on the Soviet Union . To accomplish this , he aimed to balance Afghanistan 's relations with the Soviet Union by strengthening relations with Pakistan and Iran . The Soviets were concerned when they received reports that Amin had met personally with Gulbuddin Hekmatyar , one of the leading anti @-@ communists in Afghanistan . His general untrustworthiness and his unpopularity amongst Afghans made it more difficult for Amin to find new " foreign patrons " . Amin 's involvement in the death of Adolph Dubs , the American Ambassador to Afghanistan , strained his relations with the United States . He tried to improve relations by reestablishing contact , met with three different American chargé d 'affaires , and was interviewed by an American correspondent . But this did not improve Afghanistan 's standing in the eyes of the United States Government . After the third meeting with Amin , J. Bruce Amstutz , the American Ambassador to Afghanistan from 1979 to 1980 , believed the wisest thing to do was to maintain " a low profile , trying to avoid issues , and waiting to see what happens " . In early December 1979 , the Ministry of Foreign Affairs proposed a joint summit meeting between Amin and Muhammad Zia @-@ ul @-@ Haq , the President of Pakistan . The Pakistanti Government , accepting a modified version of the offer , agreed to send Agha Shahi , the Pakistani foreign minister , to Kabul for talks . In the meanwhile , the Inter @-@ Services Intelligence ( ISI ) , Pakistani 's secret police , continued to train Mujahideen fighters who opposed the communist regime . = = = = = Afghan – Soviet relations = = = = = Contrary to popular belief , the Soviet leadership headed by Leonid Brezhnev , Alexei Kosygin and the Politburo , were not eager to send troops to Afghanistan . The Soviet Politburo decisions were guided by a Special Commission on Afghanistan , which consisted of Yuri Andropov the KGB Chairman , Andrei Gromyko the Minister of Foreign Affairs , Defence Minister Dmitriy Ustinov , and Boris Ponomarev , the head of the International Department of the Central Committee . The Politburo was opposed to the removal of Taraki and his subsequent murder . According to Brezhnev , the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union , " Events developed so swiftly in Afghanistan that essentially there was little opportunity to somehow interfere in them . Right now our mission is to determine our further actions , so as to preserve our position in Afghanistan and to secure our influence there . " Although Afghan – Soviet relations deteriorated during Amin 's short stint in power , he was invited on an official visit to Moscow by Alexander Puzanov , the Soviet ambassador to Afghanistan , because of the Soviet leadership 's satisfaction with his party and state @-@ building policy . Not everything went as planned , and Andropov talked about " the undesirable turn of events " taking place in Afghanistan under Amin 's rule . Andropov also brought up the ongoing political shift in Afghanistan under Amin ; the Soviets were afraid that Amin would move Afghanistan 's foreign policy from a pro @-@ Soviet position to a pro @-@ United States position . By early @-@ to @-@ mid December 1979 , the Soviet leadership had established an alliance with Babrak Karmal and Assadullah Sarwari . As it turned out , the relationship between Puzanov and Amin broke down . Amin started a smear campaign to discredit Puzanov . This in turn led to an assassination attempt against Amin , in which Puzanov participated . The situation was worsened by the KGB accusing Amin of misrepresenting the Soviet position on Afghanistan in the PDPA Central Committee and the Revolutionary Council . The KGB also noted an increase in anti @-@ Soviet agitation by the government during Amin 's rule , and harassment against Soviet citizens increased under Amin . A group of senior politicians reported to the Soviet Central Committee that it was necessary to do " everything possible " to prevent a change in political orientation in Afghanistan . However , the Soviet leadership did not advocate intervention at this time , and instead called for increasing its influence in the Amin leadership to expose his " true intentions " . A Soviet Politburo assessment referred to Amin as " a power @-@ hungry leader who is distinguished by brutality and treachery " . Amongst the many sins they alleged were his " insincerity and duplicity " when dealing with the Soviet Union , creating fictitious accusations against PDPA @-@ members who opposed him , indulging in a policy of nepotism , and his tendency to conduct a more " balanced policy " towards First World countries . By the end of October the Special Commission on Afghanistan , which consisted of Andropov , Gromyko , Ustinov and Ponomarev , wanted to end the impression that the Soviet government supported Amin 's leadership and policy . The KGB 's First Chief Directorate was put under orders that something had to be done about Afghanistan , and several of its personnel were assembled to deal with the task . Andropov fought hard for Soviet intervention , saying to Brezhnev that Amin 's policies had destroyed the military and the government 's capabilities to handle the crisis by use of mass repression . The plan , according to Andropov , was to assemble a small force to intervene and remove Amin from power and replace him with Karmal . The Soviet Union declared its plan to intervene in Afghanistan on 12 December 1979 , and the Soviet leadership initiated Operation Storm @-@ 333 ( the first phase of the intervention ) on 27 December 1979 . = = = = Death = = = = Amin trusted the Soviet Union until the very end , despite the deterioration of official relations . When the Afghan intelligence service handed Amin a report that the Soviet Union would invade the country and topple him , Amin claimed the report was a product of imperialism . His view can be explained by the fact that the Soviet Union , after several months , finally gave in to Amin 's demands and sent troops into Afghanistan to secure the PDPA government . Contrary to common Western belief , Amin was informed of the Soviet decision to send troops into Afghanistan . General Tukharinov , Commander of the 40th Army , met with Afghan Major General Babadzhan to talk about Soviet troop movements before the Soviet army 's intervention . On 25 December Dmitriy Ustinov issued a formal order , stating " The state frontier of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan is to be crossed on the ground and in the air by forces of the 40th Army and the Air Force at 1500 hrs on 25 December " . This was the formal beginning of the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan . Concerned for his safety , Amin moved from the Presidential Palace , in the centre of Kabul , to the Tajbeg Palace , which had previously been the headquarters of the Central Army Corps of the Afghan military . The palace was formidable , with walls strong enough to withstand artillery fire . According to Rodric Braithwaite , " its defences had been carefully and intelligently organised " . All roads to the palace had been mined , with the exception of one , which had heavy machine guns and artillery positioned to defend it . To make matters worse for the Soviets , the Afghans had established a second line of defence which consisted of seven posts , " each manned by four sentries armed with a machine gun , a mortar , and automatic rifles " . The external defences of the palace were handled by the Presidential Guard , which consisted of 2 @,@ 500 troops and three T @-@ 54 tanks . Several Soviet commanders involved in the assassination of Amin thought the plan to attack the palace was " crazy " . Several soldiers hesitated , claiming , in contradiction of what their commanders Yuri Drozdov and Vasily Kolesnik had told them ( they in turn had been informed by the Soviet leadership ) , it seemed strange that Amin , the leader of the PDPA government , was an American sympathiser ( accused of being a " CIA agent " by the Soviets ) and betrayed the Saur Revolution . Despite several objections , the plan to assassinate Amin went ahead . Before resorting to killing Amin by brute force , the Soviets had tried to poison him ( but nearly killed his nephew instead ) and to kill him with a sniper shot on his way to work ( this proved impossible as the Afghans had improved their security measures ) . They even tried to poison Amin just hours before the assault on the Presidential Palace . Amin had organised a lunch for party members to show guests his palace and to celebrate Ghulam Dastagir Panjsheri 's return from Moscow . Panjsheri 's return improved the mood even further ; he boasted that the Soviet divisions had already crossed the border , and that he and Gromyko always kept in contact with each other . During the meal , Amin and several of his guests lost consciousness as they had been poisoned . Luckily for Amin , but unfortunately for the Soviets , he survived his encounter with death . Mikhail Talybov , a KGB agent , was given responsibility for the poisonings . The assault on the palace began shortly afterward . During the attack Amin still believed the Soviet Union was on his side , and told his adjutant , " The Soviets will help us " . The adjutant replied that it was the Soviets who were attacking them ; Amin initially replied that this was a lie . Only after he tried but failed to contact the Chief of the General Staff , he muttered , " I guessed it . It 's all true " . There are various accounts of how Amin died , but the exact details have never been confirmed . Amin was either killed by a deliberate attack or died by a " random burst of fire " . Amin 's son was fatally wounded and died shortly after . His daughter was wounded , but survived . It was Gulabzoy who had been given orders to kill Amin and Watanjar who later confirmed his death .
= E ² = " E ² " is the seventy @-@ third episode of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise , the twenty @-@ first episode of season three . It first aired on May 5 , 2004 , on the UPN network in the United States . The episode was the fifth of the season written by Mike Sussman , and it was directed by Star Trek : Voyager alumni Roxann Dawson , her fourth of the third season . Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship , Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . Season three of Enterprise features an ongoing story following an attack on Earth by previously unknown aliens called the Xindi . In this episode , the Enterprise encounters a version of itself which was sent 117 years into the past and is now populated by the descendants of the crew and became a generational ship . The two crews have to work together to allow the modern Enterprise to gain access to a wormhole which is defended by Xindi vessels . The episode made use of the standing Enterprise sets , as well as those created for Degra 's ship . Guest stars included those who had previously appeared as members of the Xindi Council , as well as several who are new to Enterprise , who appeared as members of the future Enterprise . Most scenes were filmed between February 3 and February 11 , 2004 , with an additional special effect shoot on February 13 . Reviewers compared " E ² " to a number of several other episodes , including " Children of Time " , " Deadlock " and " All Good Things ... " . The Nielsen ratings received by the episode equated to a 3 @.@ 3 / 5 % audience share . = = Plot = = In " E ² " , Enterprise is approaching a nebula containing a subspace corridor defended by Kovaalan vessels . Suddenly an older yet enhanced copy of Enterprise appears , captained by a half @-@ Vulcan man named Lorian , who explains that after entering the corridor , it will destabilize causing Captain Archer 's version to travel 117 years into the past . Confronted with this situation , and not wanting to contaminate Earth 's time stream , it then turns itself into a generational ship to re @-@ await the Xindi crisis . Arriving on board , Lorian then reveals himself to be the son of Commander Tucker and Sub @-@ Commander T 'Pol . Lorian , after considering his knowledge of events , believes that the wormhole must be avoided altogether . Archer and Lorian then disagree over whether to implement an engine modification to Enterprise , since there is a 22 % chance it may cause the destruction of the ship . Archer then meets with old T 'Pol on board old Enterprise , and considers a plan where his ship could pass through it safely , due to alternate modifications suggested by her . A frustrated Lorian then reveals a secret plan : to steal the newer plasma injectors from Enterprise to allow them to confront the Xindi in the place of their ancestors . Lorian leads a raid and successfully steals the parts , but old Enterprise is disabled as it is about to go to warp . He is placed in the brig . Archer is angered at having his own method of stealing engine components ( as seen in " Damage " ) used against him , but they finally agree to work towards their shared mission . Meanwhile , T 'Pol meets her older self and discuss her addiction to Trelium @-@ D and her relationship with Tucker . The Enterprises then enter the nebula , but Archer 's is quickly disabled . Lorian 's then tows it into the corridor using a tractor beam , intending , as it turns to attack the Kovaalan ships , to follow shortly . Archer 's Enterprise arrives safely , but old Enterprise never emerges and Archer wonders if , by successfully traversing the corridor , they ceased to exist . His thoughts are soon cut short as Degra arrives for their rendezvous . = = Production = = The episode was the fifth to be written by Mike Sussman during the third season . His previous work was " Hatchery " , co @-@ written with André Bormanis . It was also the fourth episode of the season to be directed by Roxann Dawson . With " E ² " , she had directed more episodes than any other director at this point in the season , having previously worked on " Doctor 's Orders " , " Exile " and " Chosen Realm " . Scott Bakula was involved in a webchat on StarTrek.com during the production of the episode , which he described as " a great episode along the lines of " Twilight " and " Similitude . " It 's a classic sci @-@ fi and Star Trek episode . " Filming began on February 3 , 2004 , overlapping with the final day of production on the previous episode , " The Forgotten " . Production required the use of the standing Enterprise sets as well as those which were used to represent Degra 's ship . The majority of the shoot was completed on February 11 , but an additional day of special effects filming with part of the cast also took place on February 13 . The actors who played the members of the Xindi Council were amongst the guest stars who appeared in this episode ; Randy Oglesby , Rick Worthy and Tucker Smallwood . In addition there were several guest actors who appeared in Star Trek for the first time , these included David Andrews , Tess Lina , Tom Schanley and Steve Truitt . = = Reception and home media release = = " E ² " was first aired on May 5 , 2004 . It received a 3 @.@ 3 / 5 % share , meaning that it was seen by 3 @.@ 3 percent of all households , and 5 percent of all households watching television at the time of the broadcast . This was a similar level of ratings that were drawn by the previous episode , " The Forgotten " and slightly less than the following episode , The Council " . Compared to other shows in the same time slot , it placed sixth on the night , one place behind Smallville on The WB . Michelle Erica Green watched the episode for TrekNation , saying that it " focused far more on the characters and the consequences of their contact with their descendants than it is on the vast technobabble resulting in a successful traverse of the Xindi corridor " . She praised David Andrews as Lorian , calling it " a wonderful bit of casting " , and felt that the character 's actions mirrored those of Captain Archer previously in the series . She compared the resolution of " E ² " to the Star Trek : Voyager episode " Deadlock " and the series finale of Star Trek : The Next Generation , " All Good Things ... " . She felt that the lack of conclusion to what happened to the future Enterprise was " very satisfying " . Jamahl Epsicokhan on his website Jammer 's Reviews , called the episode an " acceptable but all @-@ too @-@ familiar time @-@ travel concept " and a " step down " compared to the previous three episodes of the series . He compared it to the Star Trek : Deep Space Nine episode " Children of Time " , which he said " was a far superior episode because it was about our characters — astonishingly and agonizingly — choosing one destiny over another , and sacrificing a great deal in coming to that decision . " He gave " E ² " a rating of two and a half out of four . The first home media release of " E ² " was as part of the season three DVD box set , released in the United States on September 27 , 2005 . The Blu @-@ ray release of Enterprise was announced in early 2013 , and released on January 7 , 2014 . This also featured deleted scenes from this episode .
= Pray ( Justin Bieber song ) = " Pray " is a song performed by Canadian recording artist Justin Bieber . The song was written by Bieber along with Omar Martinez and Adam Messinger and Nasri of The Messengers , with the latter duo producing the track . The song is taken as a single in several European countries from his first compilation album , My Worlds : The Collection . In the United States and Canada , the song is included on My Worlds Acoustic . According to Bieber , he was inspired by Michael Jackson 's " Man in the Mirror " ( 1988 ) when writing the song . The song is a contemporary Christian song , while deriving from pop and R & B influences , and using a world music backdrop . It primarily features acoustic instruments , however does make small usages of electronic sounds . " Pray " received generally positive reviews , with critics appreciating the message portrayed in the song . It reached the lower half on the singles charts in Germany and Austria , and charted in several regions where it was not released as a single such as the United States and Australia . The song 's music video premiered on Facebook on December 11 , 2010 . The video , which also has religious undertones , features clips of places affected by natural disasters , sick children , possessed homes , and more , which are intercut with Bieber performing . Bieber debuted and performed the song on the American Music Awards , accompanied by a full choir . = = Background and composition = = " Pray " was written by Omar Martinez and Adam Messinger and Nasri Atweh of The Messengers . While Bieber was being interviewed by Ryan Seacrest on his radio show , Bieber talked about the songs initial writing stating the song was influenced by Michael Jackson , Bieber elaborated , " It 's a very uplifting song , very motivational . It definitely comes from the heart . It 's very beautiful . I definitely thought of Michael [ Jackson 's ] ' Man in the Mirror ' when I was writing it . " The song was released as a CD single in Germany on December 3 , 2010 . " Pray " is a mid @-@ tempo song that uses a " world @-@ music beat " as a backing . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Universal Music Group , " Pray " is set in common time with a tempo of 80 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of B major with Bieber 's vocal range spanning from the low @-@ note of F ♯ 3 to the high @-@ note of B4 . The song follows in the chord progression of B / G ♯ – B / F ♯ – E – B. Present throughout the songs background is the use of violins and a choir , as well as guitar , string instruments , congas and a cajon . However it does make subtle use of synths and electronic sounds . Musically and lyrically , it is influenced by Contemporary Christian music , and has a gospel feel , while including standard pop and R & B. The song opens with Bieber singing , " And I pray " over a keyboard , while the song 's chorus repeats one simple refrain , " I close my eyes and I can see a better day / I close my eyes and pray . " In the lyrics , Bieber " recognizes the pain and suffering in the world " and then offers " a passive solution " through lines such as " Children are crying / soldiers are dying / Some people don 't have a home , " before compromising , " I know there 's sunshine beyond that rain / good times beyond that pain . " Vocally , Bieber 's vocals are sung in a lower key compared to previous singles . = = Critical reception = = Referring to the song as a " junior varsity " take on " Man in the Mirror " , Allison Stewart of Washington Post said " as an indicator of the Bieb 's awakening social consciousness , it 's a good start . " Melinda Newman of HitFix called the song a " lovely testament to the power of prayer , " commenting that it was " for True Believers , not just True Beliebers " Calling it Bieber 's " Man in the Mirror " moment , Newman also said while it did not have the " staying power or resonance of the Michael Jackson classic , " she said the themes of how to effect change were the same . Lucy Jones of The Daily Telegraph noted the song as a recommended download from the album . Dan Savoie of Rockstar Weekly said the song " is a more advanced lyric and shows a more political side to the young singer , but the gospel feel of the song really works with his voice . " Savoie went on to say " The song just moved Bieber from the category of pop child star to responsible young man . " Monica Herrera of Billboard wrote that the song was " a treacly but well @-@ meaning ballad that taps into Bieber 's spiritual beliefs . " Katie Amoroso of ReviewStream.com writes , " The song itself is less poppy and more natural than other Justin songs and shows strong musical talent . Many have commented that the song made them emotional ... promotes deep thought on our impact on the world " = = Chart performance = = " Pray " was only released as a single in select European countries , and had moderate success . On the Belgian Flanders Tip chart , the song charted at number five , while on the Belgian Tip chart for Wallonia , the song charted at number fifteen . On the Austrian Singles Chart , " Pray " peaked at number sixty @-@ five , spending a week on the chart . " Pray " debuted at fifty @-@ one on the German Singles Chart , and spent eight weeks on the chart . Despite not being released as a single in these countries , due to sales after the digital releases of My Worlds : The Collection and My Worlds Acoustic , " Pray " debuted at number ninety @-@ four on the Australian Singles Chart , and number 112 on the UK Singles Chart . It also debuted at number ninety @-@ one in the US Billboard Hot 100 and reached number sixty @-@ one the following week . = = Music video = = In the music video , Bieber highlights several social injustices around the world . Clips are shown from footage of earthquake @-@ torn Haiti , a suffering post @-@ Katrina New Orleans , and Bieber himself visiting sick children in hospital beds . More scenes feature military soldiers being reunited with their families , and homes being possessed because families cannot pay mortgage . The video is intercut with scenes of Bieber performing . Like the song itself , the video also includes religious undertones , including the video ending with the quote , " God speaks in the silence of the heart . Listening is the beginning of prayer . " Bill Lamb of About.com likened the video to the saying , " There are times when putting pictures to the words does indeed make a song more powerful than simply listening to the track . " Calling the video " outstanding for the holiday season " Lamb said the theme of " bringing hope and joy into the lives of others " related to " the celebrations that bring all of us together in hope for a brighter future for our world . " = = Live performance = = " Pray " debuted and was performed for the first time at the 2010 American Music Awards . The performance opened with Bieber sitting playing the piano while singing . Midway through the performance Bieber arose from the piano and took center stage , he was accompanied by a choir singing background vocals . The performance was ended with Bieber kneeling singing the songs title , the performance was greeted by standing ovation from the audience . According to Jocelyn Vena of MTV News Bieber , " threw in that showmanship that 's made him famous . " Thomas Conner of Chicago Sun @-@ Times noted Bieber as the standout performance of the night , saying it was proof that he could sing , besting " the wavering pitches " of Taylor Swift and Miley Cyrus . = = Track listing = = Classic single " Pray " " U Smile " ( Acoustic Version ) = = Charts = =
= No. 75 Squadron RAAF = No. 75 Squadron is a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) fighter unit based at RAAF Base Tindal in the Northern Territory . The squadron was formed in 1942 and saw extensive action in the South West Pacific theatre of World War II , operating P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks . It was disbanded in 1948 , but reformed the following year and operated jet aircraft throughout the Cold War . The squadron was based at Malta from 1952 to 1954 , flying de Havilland Vampires , and Malaysia from 1968 to 1983 , with Dassault Mirage IIIs , before returning to Australia . The squadron was re @-@ equipped with F / A @-@ 18 Hornet fighters and moved to RAAF Base Tindal in 1988 . It was placed on alert to support the Australian @-@ led INTERFET peacekeeping deployment to East Timor in 1999 , and saw combat in 2003 as part of the Australian contribution to the invasion of Iraq and in 2015 during the military intervention against ISIL . = = History = = = = = Port Moresby and Milne Bay = = = In February and March 1942 the Allied position in New Guinea was under pressure and Japanese aircraft had been sighted over the Torres Strait Islands and Cape York in northern Australia . As a result , priority was given to basing a fighter squadron at Port Moresby in New Guinea to defend the town 's important airfields and port facilities . The RAAF received an allocation of 25 P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk fighters in late February that were flown to Townsville , Queensland , and used to form No. 75 Squadron on 4 March 1942 . The need to reinforce Port Moresby 's defences was so pressing that the squadron was allowed only nine days to train with the aircraft before it deployed . Commanded initially by Squadron Leader Peter Jeffrey , No. 75 Squadron 's advance party arrived in Port Moresby on 17 March and its aircraft followed between the 19th ( when Squadron Leader John Jackson assumed command ) and 21st of the month . At this time only four of the squadron 's 21 pilots , including its commander , had previously seen combat . No. 75 Squadron took part in the Battle of Port Moresby between March and April 1942 . The squadron scored its first " kill " on the afternoon of 21 March when two Kittyhawks shot down a Japanese bomber which was conducting a reconnaissance of the town . On 22 March nine Kittyhawks attacked the Japanese airstrip at Lae , destroying 14 aircraft ( including two during a dogfight ) and damaging another five ; two Australian aircraft were lost in this operation though another three crashed in separate accidents on 22 March . The Japanese launched a retaliatory raid on Port Moresby the next day . No. 75 Squadron was in action over Port Moresby or Lae almost every day during late March and April , and was generally outnumbered by Japanese aircraft . As well as mounting their own attacks on Japanese positions , the Kittyhawks also frequently escorted a squadron of United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) A @-@ 24 Banshee dive bombers , which were stationed at Port Moresby . No. 75 Squadron 's casualties quickly mounted and were exacerbated by high rates of disease . Squadron Leader Jackson was shot down and killed on 28 April , shortly after he had destroyed a Japanese fighter . His younger brother Squadron Leader Les Jackson assumed command the next day . By the time two USAAF squadrons arrived to reinforce it on 30 April , No. 75 Squadron had been reduced to just three serviceable aircraft and a further seven Kittyhawks in need of repair . The squadron was withdrawn from operations on 3 May after losing two aircraft the day before . During its period at Port Moresby No. 75 Squadron was confirmed to have destroyed 35 Japanese aircraft , probably destroyed another four and damaged 44 . The squadron suffered twelve fatalities and lost 22 Kittyhawks , including six in accidents . The squadron departed Port Moresby to return to Australia on 7 May 1942 . It was first located at Townsville and later moved to Kingaroy followed by Lowood to be re @-@ equipped . During this period it also received a number of pilots who had served in Supermarine Spitfire @-@ equipped squadrons in Europe . In late July the unit departed Queensland and returned to New Guinea . No. 75 Squadron arrived at Milne Bay on 31 July 1942 where it joined No. 76 Squadron , which was also equipped with Kittyhawks . At the time an Allied base was being developed at Milne Bay to both protect Port Moresby and mount attacks against Japanese positions in New Guinea and nearby islands . Japanese aircraft made their first major raid on Milne Bay on 11 August , which was intercepted by Kittyhawks from both No. 75 and No. 76 Squadrons . In mid @-@ August the Milne Bay defenders were warned that they might be the target of a Japanese landing , and on 24 August Japanese barges were sighted heading for the area . These vessels were destroyed the next day on Goodenough Island by nine No. 75 Squadron Kittyhawks . However , on the night of 25 / 26 August another Japanese convoy landed an invasion force at Milne Bay . During the resulting Battle of Milne Bay the two Kittyhawk squadrons provided important support to the Allied defenders by heavily attacking Japanese positions and intercepting Japanese air raids on the area . On 28 August the Kittyhawks were withdrawn to Port Moresby when the Japanese troops came close to their airstrips , but they returned to Milne Bay the next day . No. 75 and No. 76 Squadrons later supported the Allied counter @-@ offensive at Milne Bay which ended with the remaining Japanese troops being evacuated in early September . Following the battle Lieutenant General Sydney Rowell , the commander of New Guinea Force , stated that the attacks made by the two squadrons on the day of the Japanese landing were " the decisive factor " in the Allied victory . From 21 to 23 September No. 75 Squadron flew sorties in support of the 2 / 12th Battalion during the Battle of Goodenough Island . In late September the two Australian squadrons at Milne Bay were relieved by two USAAF squadrons , and No. 75 Squadron was redeployed to Horn Island . It subsequently moved again to Cairns for a period of rest before returning to Milne Bay in February 1943 , under the command of Squadron Leader Wilfred Arthur . During this deployment the squadron operated alongside No. 77 Squadron . No. 75 Squadron flew patrols over Milne Bay and Goodenough Island , and on 14 May a mixed force of 17 Kittyhawks from it and No. 77 Squadrons inflicted heavy casualties on a force of 65 Japanese aircraft bound for Milne Bay while only a single Australian aircraft was lost . This was No. 75 Squadron 's last major air battle of the war . From August to December the squadron was issued with two F @-@ 4 Lightning aircraft for photo reconnaissance tasks . No. 75 Squadron moved to Goodenough Island in October 1943 to support the Allied offensive in the Louisiade Archipelago and New Britain . = = = Offensive operations = = = In December 1943 No. 75 Squadron became part of No. 78 Wing , which in turn formed part of the newly established No. 10 Operational Group . This group had been formed to provide a mobile organisation capable of supporting the offensives in and around New Guinea which were planned for 1944 . During the first half of 1944 the squadron frequently moved between air bases to support Allied operations and was based at Nadzab from January to March , Cape Gloucester from March to May , Tadji in May , Hollandia from May to June and Biak from June to July . During this period its role was to provide close air support for Australian and US ground troops and protect Allied shipping from air attack . No. 75 Squadron was stationed at Noemfoor from July to November 1944 where it conducted long @-@ range attacks on Japanese airstrips and shipping in the eastern islands of the Netherlands East Indies . No. 10 Operational Group was renamed the First Tactical Air Force ( 1TAF ) on 25 October 1944 ; at this time No. 75 Squadron continued to form part of No. 78 Wing alongside No. 78 and No. 80 Squadrons . The squadron was ordered back to Biak by 1TAF on 2 November to provide air defence for the island , to the displeasure of the pilots who considered that they were " being taken out of the war " . Only 149 sorties were flown from Biak before No. 75 Squadron returned to Noemfoor on 11 December . No. 75 Squadron and the rest of No. 78 Wing moved to Morotai in the Netherlands East Indies in late December 1944 . The squadron arrived at Morotai on 21 December and flew 147 operational sorties that month during attacks on Japanese positions in the nearby Halmahera islands . Attacks on Halmahera and other islands in the NEI continued in early 1945 , and No. 75 Squadron also flew sorties in support of US troops who were attacking the remaining Japanese on Morotai . These and similar operations were seen as wasteful by many of 1TAF 's fighter pilots and their leaders . On 20 April , eight officers including Wilf Arthur , now a group captain and No. 78 Wing 's commander , attempted to resign in protest during the " Morotai Mutiny " . From May 1945 No. 75 Squadron participated in the Borneo Campaign . While the squadron 's ground crew landed on Tarakan with the invasion force in early May 1945 , delays in bringing the island 's airstrip into operation meant that its aircraft could not be deployed there until mid @-@ July rather than 3 May as had been originally planned . During this period No. 75 Squadron 's pilots remained at Morotai but conducted little flying , causing their morale to decline . Once established at Tarakan the Kittyhawks attacked targets near Sandakan and supported Australian forces during the Battle of Balikpapan in the war 's last weeks . Following the Japanese surrender No. 75 Squadron flew reconnaissance patrols over prisoner of war camps and continued general flying . The Kittyhawks were later flown to Oakey , Queensland and the ground crew returned to Australia in December 1945 on board the British aircraft carrier HMS Glory . The squadron suffered 42 fatalities during World War II . = = = Cold War = = = From December 1945 to May 1946 No. 75 Squadron was maintained as a cadre located at Deniliquin and manned by one officer and three airmen without any aircraft . In May 1946 the squadron moved to RAAF Station Schofields near Sydney , but was not issued with any aircraft or further personnel until it moved to RAAF Base Williamtown in September that year and was equipped with P @-@ 51 Mustang fighters . No. 75 Squadron used these aircraft for routine training and exercises until it was disbanded on 25 March 1948 . The squadron was re @-@ formed at Williamtown on 24 January 1949 equipped with de Havilland Vampire jet fighters . From 1949 to early 1952 No. 75 Squadron conducted training exercises , which included teaching new pilots to operate Vampires , as well as making acceptance flights of Vampires delivered to the RAAF . During this period a key role for the squadron was training pilots for combat in the Korean War with the Gloster Meteor @-@ equipped No. 77 Squadron . In March 1952 the Australian Government decided to reform No. 78 Wing and deploy it to Malta where it would form part of a British force which sought to counter the Soviet Union 's influence in the Middle East . No. 75 and No. 76 Squadrons were selected to form the wing 's flying units , and they arrived at RAF Hal Far in Malta during July 1952 and were equipped with Vampires leased from the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) . While based at Malta the wing took part in numerous training exercises in the Mediterranean region as well as Europe , including a large @-@ scale NATO exercise in 1953 which involved 2 @,@ 000 aircraft and 40 @,@ 000 personnel . In addition , the wing participated in a royal review to commemorate the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II . No. 78 Wing moved to the RAF station at Ta ' Qali in June 1953 where it remained until it returned to Australia in late December 1954 . In preparation for its return to Australia No. 75 Squadron was disbanded in November 1954 . No. 75 Squadron was reestablished at Williamtown in April 1955 . It was initially equipped with Vampires and Gloster Meteor fighters , but these were replaced with CAC Sabre aircraft in early 1957 . While operating Sabres the squadron made a number of deployments to Darwin for air defence exercises which often involved RAF units . On 8 December 1958 No. 75 Squadron transferred from No. 78 Wing to become an independent unit under the direct command of RAAF Base Williamtown . In November 1964 several of the squadron 's pilots took part in an emergency deployment to Darwin when an Indonesian attack was feared as part of an apparent escalation of the Indonesia – Malaysia confrontation . The squadron became the first Australian fighter unit to be equipped with Dassault Mirage III fighters in December 1964 and was declared operational with these aircraft on 1 August 1967 . It subsequently maintained a detachment of Mirages at Darwin from 2 May 1966 until early 1967 . Following a period of training No. 75 Squadron transferred to RAAF Base Butterworth in Malaysia during May 1967 . From this base the squadron took part in regular exercises with the Royal Malaysian Air Force ( RMAF ) , Royal New Zealand Air Force ( RNZAF ) , Republic of Singapore Air Force ( RSAF ) and occasional exercises involving the RAF . No. 75 Squadron also trained with the United States Air Force and United States Navy on occasion , including the large @-@ scale Cope Thunder series of exercises during which it deployed to Clark Air Base in the Philippines . Throughout its period based at Butterworth No. 75 Squadron deployed detachments of six Mirages to Tengah Air Base in Singapore on a rotational basis with No. 3 Squadron RAAF , with this responsibility swapping between the two units every three months . In 1981 the Australian Government decided to withdraw a RAAF fighter squadron from Malaysia to Darwin pending the completion of RAAF Base Tindal near Katherine in the Northern Territory . No. 75 Squadron was the unit selected , and it arrived in Darwin in October 1983 , becoming the first fighter squadron to be permanently based in the Northern Territory since World War II . The unit began to convert to F / A @-@ 18 Hornets in May 1988 and moved to Tindal in October that year . No. 75 Squadron also became part of No. 81 Wing during 1988 . Tindal was close to the RAAF 's newly developed Delamere Air Weapons Range and the squadron was assigned two GAF Nomad light transport aircraft between January 1989 and 1993 to fly supplies to the facilities there . = = = Current role = = = During late 1999 No. 75 Squadron was placed on alert to provide close air support and air defence to protect the international forces which had deployed to East Timor as part of INTERFET . However , despite the threat posed by Indonesian forces , ultimately they were not required . No. 75 Squadron saw action for the first time since 1945 as part of the Australian contribution to the 2003 invasion of Iraq . The Australian Government announced that it would deploy a squadron of F / A @-@ 18s to the Middle East on 1 February 2003 and 14 No. 75 Squadron Hornets flew from Tindal to Al Udeid Air Base in Qatar via Diego Garcia between 13 and 16 February . Following the outbreak of the Iraq War on 20 March the squadron was initially used to escort high @-@ value Coalition aircraft such as tankers and E @-@ 3 Sentry aircraft . As it became clear that the Iraqi Air Force posed no threat , the role of No. 75 Squadron shifted to providing close air support to Coalition ground forces and air interdiction against Iraqi forces . These missions were initially flown in support of the US Army but the squadron was later switched to supporting the US Marine Corps . The squadron also supported the Australian Special Air Service Regiment and 4th Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment on 12 April when these units captured Al Asad Airbase . No. 75 Squadron flew its last combat sortie on 27 April . During the war the squadron flew 350 combat missions and dropped 122 laser @-@ guided bombs . During these operations the squadron was augmented with pilots from No. 81 Wing 's other F / A @-@ 18 squadrons . No. 75 Squadron 's aircraft returned to Tindal on 14 May 2003 and its ground crew arrived there the next day . The squadron was awarded a Meritorious Unit Citation on 27 November 2003 for " sustained outstanding service during warlike operations , in the Middle East Area of operations , over Iraq during Operation Falconer " . In August 2005 , a group of current and veteran members of No. 75 Squadron travelled to Papua New Guinea to commemorate the 60th anniversary of the end of the Pacific War , and the 63rd anniversary of the Battle of Milne Bay . As at 2011 , No. 75 Squadron remained at Tindal and was the RAAF 's largest F / A @-@ 18 @-@ equipped unit . The squadron regularly exercises with units from the RMAF , RNZAF , RSAF and US Military and conducts training using the facilities of the Delamere Air Weapons Range . As of 2014 , No. 75 Squadron is scheduled to transition to Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35A Lightning II fighters from late 2021 . In March 2015 , six F / A @-@ 18As from No. 75 Squadron deployed to the Middle East during Operation Okra as part of the military intervention against ISIL . The aircraft replaced a detachment of six F / A @-@ 18F Super Hornets from No. 1 Squadron , and began flying combat operations late that month . The squadron was deployed to the Middle East until September 2015 , when it handed over to the next rotation from No. 77 Squadron .
= Greyfriars , Bristol = Greyfriars , in Bristol , England , was a Franciscan friary . The name Greyfriars derived from the grey robes worn by the friars . It was founded at some time before 1234 , within the town walls and then moved to Lewin 's Mead in 1250 . The site included extensive gardens surrounded by a stone wall . Following the Dissolution of the Monasteries in the sixteenth century , the premises were leased to the town council in 1541 , who desired to use the stone to make repairs to the town walls , and the harbour facilities . In succeeding centuries many different uses have been made of the site , which is currently occupied by an office block and part of Bristol Dental School . = = History = = The friary was established at some time before 1234 , this being known because Henry III granted wood for fuel to the friars in that year , followed by further grants of oak wood and fresh fish landed at Bristol . The friars wore long grey coats , with a grey hood or cowl , hence the name , grey friars . Originally located within the town walls , the friary was moved to Lewin 's Mead in 1250 . This followed the diversion of the river Frome into St Augustine 's Reach . A marshy area on the north bank of the Frome was drained and some of the clay and rock from the excavations was deposited on it . The earliest church on the site was approximately 50 by 9 metres ( 164 ft × 30 ft ) . It was later enlarged with cloisters , a bell tower and a chapter house being added . The buildings were constructed from the local red sandstone . Bristol City Museum houses some stained glass which was recovered from the chapter house , probably after the dissolution of the monasteries . Writing in the fifteenth century , William Worcester described the area of the precinct as roughly bounded by the modern Upper Maudlin Street , Lower Maudlin Street , Lewin 's Mead and Johnny Ball Lane . The friars had extensive gardens devoted to horticulture . There were also two lime kilns and the whole was surrounded by freestone walls . A report in 1538 , by Richard Yngworth , during the Dissolution of the Monasteries , describes the warden of the friary as " stiff " . The warden also held office in Richmond and Yngworth went on to say " yet for all his great port , I think him twenty marks in debt , and not able to pay it . " Six remaining friars surrendered the property to Ingworth and it was dissolved . The precinct was leased to one Jeremy Green for a total annual rent of 20 shillings and 8 pence . In 1541 , Henry VIII granted the friary , together with other dissolved houses , to the Mayor and Commonalty of Bristol for a " consideration of £ 1 @,@ 000 cash and a yearly fee farm rent of £ 20 " . The Mayor had earlier petitioned the king , saying " The Grey Friars of Bristol is of the foundation ... of the town , built by ancient burgesses at their cost ; we should like it to repair the walls and quay and to make a wharf . " = = Post @-@ dissolution = = The site has been redeveloped many times in subsequent centuries ; amongst other uses , a Moravian church and a chocolate factory have occupied premises there . It is currently occupied by an office development , also called Greyfriars , and parts of Bristol Dental School . Traces of the abbot 's house were discovered during building works in 1989 and a small oval window was incorporated into the new building . Archaeological investigations have found graves with human remains , dating to the thirteenth to fifteenth century , and a medieval conduit , similar to one excavated at Saint Augustine 's Abbey in Bristol .
= Wookey Hole Caves = Wookey Hole Caves are a series of limestone caverns , show cave and tourist attraction in the village of Wookey Hole on the southern edge of the Mendip Hills near Wells in Somerset , England . The River Axe flows through the cave . It is a Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) for both biological and geological reasons . Wookey Hole cave is a " solutional cave " , one that is formed by a process of weathering in which the natural acid in groundwater dissolves the rocks . Some water originates as rain that flows into streams on impervious rocks on the plateau before sinking at the limestone boundary into cave systems such as Swildon 's Hole , Eastwater Cavern and St Cuthbert 's Swallet ; the rest is rain that percolates directly through the limestone . The temperature in the caves is a constant 11 ° C ( 52 ° F ) . The caves have been used by humans for around 45 @,@ 000 years , demonstrated by the discovery of tools from the Palaeolithic period , along with fossilised animal remains . Evidence of Stone and Iron Age occupation continued into Roman Britain . A corn grinding mill operated on the resurgent waters of the River Axe as early as 1086 . The waters of the river are used in a handmade paper mill , the oldest extant in Britain , which began operations circa 1610 . The low temperature of the caves means that they can be used for maturing Cheddar cheese . The caves are the site of the first cave dives in Britain which were undertaken by Jack Sheppard and Graham Balcombe . Since the 1930s divers have explored the extensive network of chambers developing breathing apparatus and novel techniques in the process . The full extent of the cave system is still unknown with approximately 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) , including 25 chambers , having been explored . Part of the cave system opened as a show cave in 1927 following exploratory work by Herbert E. Balch . As a tourist attraction it has been owned by Madame Tussauds and , most recently , the circus owner Gerry Cottle . The cave is noted for the Witch of Wookey Hole – a roughly human shaped stalagmite that legend says is a witch turned to stone by a monk from Glastonbury . It has also been used as a location for film and television productions . = = Description = = The show cave consists of a dry gallery connecting three large chambers , the first of which contains the Witch of Wookey formation . There are various high level passages leading off from these chambers , with two small exits above the tourist entrance . The River Axe is formed by the water entering the cave systems and flows through the third and first chambers , from which it flows to the resurgence , through two sumps 40 metres ( 130 ft ) and 30 metres ( 98 ft ) long , where it leaves the cave and enters the open air . The river is maintained at an artificially high level and falls a couple of metres when the sluice is lowered to allow access to the fourth and fifth chambers , two small air spaces . Normally , however , these are only accessible by cave diving . Beyond the fifth chamber a roomy submerged route may be followed for a further 40 metres ( 130 ft ) , passing under three large rifts with air spaces , to surface in the ninth chamber - a roomy chamber over 30 metres ( 98 ft ) long and the same high . High level passages here lead to a former resurgence , now blocked , some 45 metres ( 148 ft ) above the current resurgence . An artificial tunnel 180 metres ( 590 ft ) leading off from the third chamber allows show cave visitors to cross the seventh and eight chambers on bridges , and skirt around the ninth chamber on a walkway , before exiting near the resurgence . A second excavated 74 @-@ metre @-@ long ( 243 ft ) tunnel from Chamber 9 allows visitors to visit Chamber 20 . From the ninth chamber , a dive of about 200 metres ( 660 ft ) passes almost immediately from the Dolomitic Conglomerate into the limestone , and descends steadily for 70 metres ( 230 ft ) to a depth of 23 metres ( 75 ft ) under a couple of high rifts with airbells , which are enclosed air spaces between the water and the roof , before reaching air space in the nineteenth chamber . The twentieth chamber is at the top of a large boulder slope - 60 metres ( 200 ft ) long , 15 metres ( 49 ft ) wide , and 22 metres ( 72 ft ) high . From here a roomy passage some 400 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) long ascends towards a now @-@ blocked fossil resurgence in the Ebbor Gorge . The total length of passages in this area is about 820 metres ( 2 @,@ 690 ft ) . A passage near the end is being cleared in an attempt to provide an easier connection with Wookey 24 , which is only an estimated 30 metres ( 98 ft ) away . The continuation is found in the nineteenth chamber , where 152 metres ( 499 ft ) of passage descending to a depth of 24 metres ( 79 ft ) surfaces in the twenty second chamber - 300 metres ( 980 ft ) of dry passages at various levels with a static pool . The way on is within this pool at a depth of 19 metres ( 62 ft ) where 100 metres ( 330 ft ) of passage ascends to surface in Wookey 23 - 100 metres ( 330 ft ) of large passage , followed by four short sumps that arrive in Wookey 24 . This is 370 metres ( 1 @,@ 210 ft ) of what is described in the guide book as " magnificent " river passage , 13 metres ( 43 ft ) high and 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) wide , which finishes at a cascade falling from a 30 metres ( 98 ft ) long lake . There are also more than 370 metres ( 1 @,@ 210 ft ) of high level passages above the river . The way on continues underwater for some 100 metres ( 330 ft ) reaching a depth of 25 metres ( 82 ft ) before surfacing in Wookey 25 - called the Lake of Gloom because of its thick mud deposits . The sump at the end of this has been dived for 400 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) to a maximum depth of 90 metres ( 300 ft ) before gravel chokes prevented further progress . The end is located about 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 1 @,@ 100 yd ) north @-@ east of the entrance . = = Hydrology and geology = = Wookey Hole is on the southern escarpment of the Mendip Hills , and is the resurgence which drains the southern flanks of North Hill and Pen Hill . It is the second largest resurgence on Mendip , with an estimated catchment area of 46 @.@ 2 square kilometres ( 17 @.@ 8 sq mi ) , and an average discharge of 789 litres ( 174 imp gal ; 208 US gal ) per second . Some of the water is allogenic in origin i.e. drained off non @-@ limestone rocks , collecting as streams on the surface before sinking at or near the Lower Limestone Shale — Black Rock Limestone boundary , often through swallets such as Plantation Swallet near St Cuthbert 's lead works between the Hunter 's Lodge Inn and Priddy Pools . It then passes through major cave systems such as Swildon 's Hole , Eastwater Cavern and St Cuthbert 's Swallet , around Priddy , but 95 % is water that has percolated directly into the limestone . The southern slopes of the Mendip Hills largely follow the flanks of an anticline , a fold in the rock that is convex upwards and has its oldest beds at its core . On the Mendips the crest of the anticline is truncated by erosion , forming a plateau . The rock strata here dip 10 ° -15 ° to the south @-@ west . The outer slopes are mainly of Carboniferous Limestone , with Devonian age Old Red Sandstone exposed as an inlier at the centre . Wookey Hole is a solutional cave mainly formed in the limestone by chemical weathering whereby naturally acidic groundwater dissolves the carbonate rocks , but it is unique in that the first part of the cave is formed in Triassic Dolomitic Conglomerate , a well @-@ cemented fossil limestone scree representing the in @-@ fill of a Triassic valley . The cave was formed under phreatic conditions i.e. below the local water table , but lowering base levels to which the subterranean drainage was flowing resulted in some passages being abandoned by the river , and there is evidence of a number of abandoned resurgences . In particular , the passages in the twentieth chamber are interpreted as a former Vauclusian spring , the waters of which once surfaced in the Ebbor Gorge . It is uncertain whether that was the original rising or whether it formed when the main rising at Wookey was blocked . The current resurgence is located close to the base of the Dolomitic Conglomerate at the head of a short gorge formed by headward erosion with subsequent cavern collapse . The morphology of the passages is determined by the rock strata in which they are formed . The streamway in the outer part of the cave system that is formed within the Dolomitic Conglomerate is characterised by shallow loops linking low bedding chambers , or tall narrow passages , known as ' rifts ' , developed by phreatic solutional enlargement of fractured rifts . The streamway in the inner part of the system formed within the limestone is characterised by deep phreatic loops reaching depths as much as 90 metres ( 300 ft ) , with the water flowing down @-@ dip along bedding planes and rising up enlarged joints . In the far reaches of the cave the passages descend to 26 metres ( 85 ft ) below sea level . = = History = = Witcombe suggests that the name Wookey is derived from the Celtic ( Welsh ) for ' cave ' , " Ogo " or " Ogof " which gave the early names for this cave of " Ochie " " Ochy " . Hole is Anglo @-@ Saxon for cave , which is itself of Latin / Norman derivation . Therefore , the name Wookey Hole Cave basically means ' cave cave cave . Eilert Ekwall gives an alternative derivation of Wookey from the Old English " wocig " meaning a noose or snare for animals . Fossils of a range of animals have been found including the Pleistocene lion ( Felis leo spelæ ) , Cave hyena ( Crocuta crocuta spelaea ) and Badger ( Meles meles ) . Wookey Hole was occupied by humans in the Iron Age , possibly around 250 @-@ 300 BC , while nearby Hyena Cave was occupied by Stone Age hunters . Badger Hole and Rhinoceros Hole are two dry caves on the slopes above the Wookey ravine near the Wookey Hole resurgence and contain in situ cave sediments laid down during the Ice Age . Just outside the cave the foundations of a 1st @-@ century hut have been identified . These had been built on during the Roman era up to the end of the 4th century . In 1544 products of Roman lead working in the area were discovered . The lead mines across the Mendips have produced contamination of the water emerging from the underground caverns at Wookey Hole . The lead in the water is believed to have affected the quality of the paper produced . The designation of the water catchment area for Wookey Hole , covering a large area of the Mendip Hills as far away as Priddy Pools as a Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) during the 1970s and 1980s was controversial because of conflicts of interest between land owners , recreational cavers and cave scientists . Initially proposals were put forward by the Council of Southern Caving Clubs which is part of the British Caving Association was that SSSI designation , which would restrict what farmers and other landowners were allowed to do , would cover the entire catchment area . This was opposed as being too restrictive and difficult to enforce . It was argued that agricultural uses of fields which were not directly in contact with cave entrances would have little detrimental effect on the caves themselves . There was also debate about which caves and cave features should be considered " important " . The final settlement resulted in a smaller area being designated and many agricultural practices being removed from the list of proscribed " Potentially Damaging Operations " . The entrance weir and sluice gate servicing the paper mill was built about 1852 . The tunnel excavated from the Third Chamber to the Ninth Chamber and then out to daylight was dug in 1974 / 1975 by ex @-@ coal miners from the Radstock area . The show cave was further extended in 2015 by excavating a tunnel from Chamber 9 to Chamber 20 . The constant temperature of 11 ° C ( 52 ° F ) in the caves is used by Ford Farm of Dorset to mature Cheddar cheese in the ' Cheese Tunnel ' - an excavated side tunnel between the Ninth Chamber and the exit to the show cave . = = = Cave archaeology = = = Archaeological investigations were undertaken from 1859 to 1874 by William Boyd Dawkins , who moved to Somerset to study classics with the vicar of Wookey . On hearing of the discovery of bones by local workmen he led excavations in the area of the hyena den . His work led to the discovery of the first evidence for the use by Palaeolithic man in the Caves of the Mendip Hills . Middle Paleolithic tools have been found in association with butchered bones with a radiocarbon age of around 41 @,@ 000 years . Herbert E. Balch continued the work from 1904 to 1914 , when he led excavations of the entrance passage ( 1904 – 15 ) , Witch 's Kitchen ( the first chamber ) and Hell 's Ladder ( 1926 – 1927 ) and the Badger Hole ( 1938 – 1954 ) , where Roman coins from the 3rd century were discovered along with Aurignacian flint implements . Rhinoceros Hole was scheduled as an ancient monument in 1992 . The 1911 work found a 4 to 7 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 1 m ) of stratification , mostly dating from the Iron age and sealed into place by Romano @-@ British artefacts . Finds included a silver coin of Marcia ( 124 BC ) , pottery , weapons and tools , bronze ornaments , and Roman coins from Vespasian to Valentinian II ( first to fourth centuries ) . The work was continued , first by E. J. Mason from 1946 to 1949 , and then by G. R. Morgan in 1972 . Later work led by Edgar Kingsley Tratman explored the human occupation of the Rhinoceros hole , and showed that the fourth chamber of the great cave was a Romano @-@ British cemetery . During excavations in 1954 @-@ 7 at Hole Ground , just outside the entrance to the cave , the foundations of a 1st @-@ century hut and Iron Age pottery were seen . These were covered by the foundations of Roman buildings , dating from the 1st to the late 4th century . = = = Exploration = = = The cave as far as the third chamber and side galleries has been known since at least the Iron Age period . Prior to the construction of a dam at the resurgence to feed water to the paper mill downstream , two more chambers ( the Fourth and Fifth ) were accessible . Further upstream the way lies underwater . Diving was first tried by the Cave Diving Group under the leadership of Graham Balcombe in 1935 . With equipment on loan from Siebe Gorman , he and Penelope ( " Mossy " ) Powell penetrated 52 m ( 170 ft ) into the cave , reaching the seventh chamber , using standard diving dress . The events marked the first successful cave dives in Britain . Diving at Wookey resumed in early June 1946 when Balcombe used his home @-@ made respirator and waterproof suit to explore the region between the resurgence and first chamber , as well as the underground course of the river between the third and first chambers . During these dives , the Romano @-@ British remains were found and archaeological work dominated the early dives in the cave . The large ninth chamber was first entered on 24 April 1948 by Balcombe and Don Coase . Using this as an advance dive base , the tenth and then eleventh chambers were discovered . The way on , however , was too deep for divers breathing pure oxygen from a closed @-@ circuit rebreather . The cave claimed its first life on 9 April 1949 when Gordon Marriott lost his life returning from the ninth chamber . Another fatality was to occur in 1981 when Keith Potter was drowned on a routine dive further upstream . Further progress required apparatus which could overcome the depth limitation of breathing pure oxygen . In 1955 using an aqualung and swimming with fins , Bob Davies reached the bottom of the eleventh chamber 11 at 15 m ( 49 ft ) depth in clear water and discovered the 12th and 13th chambers . Unfortunately , he got separated from his guideline and the other two divers in the eleventh chamber , ending up spending three hours trapped in chamber 13 and had much trouble getting back to safety . Opinion hardened against the use of the short @-@ duration aqualung in favour of longer @-@ duration closed @-@ circuit equipment . Likewise , the traditional approach of walking along the bottom was preferred over swimming . Employing semi @-@ closed circuit nitrogen @-@ oxygen rebreathers , between 1957 and 1960 John Buxton and Oliver Wells went on to reach the elbow of the sump upstream from the ninth chamber at a depth of 22 m ( 72 ft ) . This was at a point known as " The Slot " , the way on being too deep for the gas mixture they were breathing . A six @-@ year hiatus ensued while open circuit air diving became established , along with free @-@ swimming and the use of neoprene wetsuits . The new generation of cave diver was now more mobile above- and under @-@ water and able to dive deeper . Using this approach , Dave Savage was able to reach air surface in the eighteenth chamber ( chambers did not have to have air spaces to be so named ; they were the limits of each exploration ) in May 1966 . A brief lull in exploration occurred while the mess of guidelines laid from the ninth chamber was sorted out before John Parker progressed first to the large , dry , inlet passage of the twentieth chamber , and thence followed the River Axe upstream on a dive covering 152 metres ( 499 ft ) at a maximum depth of 152 metres ( 499 ft ) to the twenty second chamber where the way on appeared to be lost . Meanwhile , climbing operations in the ninth chamber found an abandoned outlet passage which terminated very close to the surface , as well as a dry overland route downstream through the higher levels of the eight to sixth chambers as far as the fifth chamber . These discoveries were used to enable the show cave to be extended into the ninth chamber and the cave divers to start directly from here , bypassing the dive from the third chamber onwards . The way on from the twenty second chamber was at last found by Colin Edmond and Martyn Farr in February 1976 and was explored until the line ran out . A few days later Geoff Yeadon and Oliver Statham somewhat controversially reached the twenty third chamber after laying just a further 9 metres ( 30 ft ) of line . A further three short dives and they surfaced in the twenty fourth chamber to be confronted by what Statham described as " a magnificent sight — the whole of the River Axe pouring down a passage 40 feet high by five feet wide " terminating in a blue lake after 90 metres ( 300 ft ) . This lake was dived by Farr a few days later for 90 metres ( 300 ft ) at a maximum depth of 18 metres ( 59 ft ) to emerge in the twenty fifth chamber 25 , a desolate , muddy place named " The Lake of Gloom " . The twenty fifth chamber represents the furthest upstream air surface in Wookey Hole Cave . From here the River Axe rises up from a deep sump where progressive depth records for cave diving in the British Isles have been set : firstly by Farr ( 45 m or 148 ft ) in 1977 , then Rob Parker ( 68 m or 223 ft ) in 1985 , and finally by John Volanthen and Rick Stanton ( 76 m or 249 ft ) in 2004 . The pair returned again in 2005 to explore the sump to a depth of 90 m ( 300 ft ) , setting a new British Isles depth record for cave diving . This record was broken in 2008 by Polish explorer Artur Kozłowski on a dive in Pollatoomary in Ireland . During 1996 – 1997 water samples were collected at various points throughout the caves and showed different chemical compositions . Results showed that the location of the " Unknown Junction " , from where water flows to the static sump in the twenty second chamber by a different route from the majority of the River Axe , is upstream of Sump 25 . = = Witch of Wookey Hole = = There are old legends of a " witch of Wookey Hole " , which are still preserved in the name of a stalagmite in the first chamber of the caves . The story has several different versions with the same basic features : A man from Glastonbury is engaged to a girl from Wookey . A witch living in Wookey Hole Caves curses the romance so that it fails . The man , now a monk , seeks revenge on this witch who — having been jilted herself — frequently spoils budding relationships . The monk stalks the witch into the cave and she hides in a dark corner near one of the underground rivers . The monk blesses the water and splashes some of it at the dark parts of the cave where the witch was hiding . The blessed water immediately petrifies the witch , and she remains in the cave to this day . A 1000 @-@ year @-@ old skeleton of a woman was discovered in the caves by Balch in 1912 , and has also traditionally been linked to the legendary witch . The remains have been part of the collection of the Wells and Mendip Museum , which was founded by Balch , since they were excavated , though in 2004 the owner of the Caves said that he wanted them to be returned to Wookey Hole . It was partly down to the legend of the witch that prompted TV 's Most Haunted team to visit Wookey Hole Caves and Mill to explore the location in depth , searching for evidence of paranormal activity . The show , which aired on 10 March 2009 , was the last episode transmitted in series eleven of the show 's run on the satellite and cable TV channel Living . In 2009 a new actor to play the ' witch ' was chosen by Wookey Hole Ltd amid much media interest . Carole Bohanan in the role of Carla Calamity was selected ahead of over 3 @,@ 000 other applicants . = = Tourism = = The cave was first opened to the public by the owner Captain G.W. Hodgkinson in 1927 following preparatory work by Balch . Three years later , John Cowper Powys wrote of the caves in the novel A Glastonbury Romance . Hodgkinson took offence at the portrayal of his fictional equivalent , initiating a costly libel suit . The current paper mill building , whose water wheel is powered by a small canal from the river , dates from around 1860 and is a Grade II @-@ listed building . The commercial production of handmade paper ceased in February 2008 after owner Gerry Cottle concluded there was no longer a market for the product , and therefore sold most of the historic machinery . Visitors to the site are still able to watch a short video of the paper being made from cotton . Other attractions include the dinosaur yard , a small museum about the cave and cave diving , a theatre with circus shows , House of mirrors and Penny arcades . In 1956 , Olive Hodgkinson , a cave guide whose husband 's family owned the caves for over 500 years , was a contestant on What 's My Line ? The cave and mill were joined , after purchase , by Madame Tussauds in 1973 and operated together as a tourist attraction until there was a management team buyout in 1989 . A collection of fairground art of Wookey Hole was sold in 1997 at Christie 's . The present owner is the former circus proprietor Gerry Cottle , who has introduced a circus school . The cave was used for the filming of episodes of the BBC TV series Doctor Who : the serial Revenge of the Cybermen ( 1975 ) starring Tom Baker . This has since been referenced in the comedy of The League of Gentlemen . The cave was also used in the filming of the British series Blake 's 7 ( 1978 ) and Robin of Sherwood ( 1983 ) . The caves were used again for Doctor Who in The End of Time ( 2009 ) , including a scene with the Doctor sharing thoughts and visions with the Ood . On 1 August 2006 , CNN reported that Barney , a Doberman Pinscher employed as a security dog at Wookey Hole , had destroyed parts of a valuable collection of teddy bears , including one which had belonged to Elvis Presley , which was estimated to be worth $ 75 @,@ 000 . The insurance company insuring the exhibition of stuffed animals had insisted on having guard dog protection . In February 2009 Cottle turned the Victorian bowling green next to the caves into a crazy golf course without first obtaining planning permission .
= Summer Love ( Justin Timberlake song ) = " Summer Love " is a song recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter Justin Timberlake for his second studio album , FutureSex / LoveSounds ( 2006 ) . It was written and produced by Timberlake , Tim " Timbaland " Mosley and Nate " Danja " Hills . " Summer Love " is a pop song about " wanting to fall in love with the lusty seasonal lover " . Its instrumentation consists of keyboards , drums , guitars , pianos , and handclaps . " Summer Love " received generally positive acclaim from music critics ; with some comparing it to his work with NSYNC . " Summer Love " reached number six on the Billboard Hot 100 and number one on the Billboard Pop Songs chart . It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for selling over one million units . The song also peaked at the top ten in Belgium and Canada . " Summer Love " was included in the set list of Timberlake 's second worldwide tour FutureSex / LoveShow in 2007 . = = Production and release = = When composing songs for his second studio album FutureSex / LoveSounds , Timberlake went to former Justified collaborator Timbaland 's studio in Virginia Beach , Virginia to begin sessions for his second album . However , not one of them had an idea of what the album would be – no plan for it and even a title . " Summer Love / Set the Mood ( Prelude ) " was written and produced by Timo " Timbaland " Mosley , Nate " Danja " Hills and Timberlake himself . The song was recorded by Jimmy Douglas , while its mixing was done by Douglas together with Timbaland . The keyboards were provided by Timberlake , Timbaland and Danja ; the latter also played the drums in the single . " Summer Love " was released as the sixth and final single from FutureSex / LoveSounds . The song was remixed with additional vocals by American rapper Stat Quo . A reviewer of DJ Booth commented that the collaboration will " burn up the dance floors " . He also stated that " the collaboration is chalked full of infectious production work from none other than Timbo [ Timbaland ] . " = = Composition = = " Summer Love " is an uptempo pop ballad song , with a length of four minutes and thirteen seconds ( 4 : 13 ) . According to digital sheet music published at Musinotes.com by Universal Music Publishing Group , " Summer Love " was written in the key of D minor , in common time with a moderately slow 96 beat @-@ per @-@ minute tempo . Timberlake 's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of D4 to the high note of A5 . Its instrumentation consists of keyboards , drums , guitar , piano and handclaps . Barry Schwartz of Stylus Magazine praised the song and commented that " with its good foot hesitation boom @-@ clap and cascading chorus synthline " " Summer Love " shows Timberlake 's best vocals on FutureSex / LoveSounds . Schwartz further stated that " the beat drops out while he sings in perfect harmony , ' Tell me how they got that pretty little face on that pretty little frame girl ' " . Lyrically , the single is about " wanting to fall in love with the lusty seasonal lover " . = = Critical response = = Critics reacted in a generally positive manner to " Summer Love " . Barry Schwartz of Stylus Magazine gave " Summer Love " a positive review and additionally praised " its good foot hesitation boom @-@ clap and cascading chorus " . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian stated , " a dreary central @-@ casting pop ballad called ' Summer Love ' is enlivened only by another of Timberlake 's peculiar announcements : ' I 'm sick and tired of trying to save the world . ' Shaheem Reid and Jayson Rodriguez off MTV News stated that " Summer Love " alongside Timberlake 's 2007 singles " My Love " and " LoveStoned " , rocked every iPod , stereo player and stadium during his tour . North by Northwestern 's Dagny Salas called " Summer Love / Set the Mood ( Interlude ) " a stand @-@ out track on FutureSex / LoveSounds . According to him the song " oozes sun , sex , and a sultry affair " . A reviewer of IGN commented that " the bulk of the album is focused on funk lite , but with ' Summer Love / Set The Mood ( Prelude ) ' Timberlake and Timbaland slip into darkness . " An editor of Billboard criticized Timbaland 's production : " [ W ] hile the track offers cunning instrumentation , Timbaland 's heavy production hand is so overwhelming that the singer is pushed to the back of the track " . = = Commercial performance = = The song debuted at number 74 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart in the issue dated April 28 , 2007 . After seven weeks on the chart , on June 9 , 2007 , the single reached its peak at number six . The next week it fell to number eight and stayed on the position for four weeks , before falling to number nine in the issue dated July 14 , 2007 . " Summer Love " became Timberlakes 's sixth single to reach the top ten and stayed a total of 20 weeks on the chart . It ranked at number 39 on Billboard 's Best of 2007 – Hot 100 Songs . The single debuted on the US Pop Songs chart at number 39 in the issue dated April 21 , 2007 , and peaked at number one on June 23 , 2007 . " Summer Love " became Timberlake 's fifth number one single on the US Pop Songs chart . For the issue dated July 28 , 2007 , the song peaked at number 24 on the US Adult Pop Songs chart . It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) after one million downloads of the song were sold . " Summer Love " peaked at number eight on the Canadian Hot 100 chart , for the issue dated June 30 , 2007 and stayed on the chart for 16 weeks . Elsewhere , the song attained moderate success . In New Zealand , " Summer Love " debuted at number 35 on August 27 , 2007 . After thirteen weeks fluctuating on the chart it reached its peak of 15 on November 26 , 2007 . The song stayed on the chart for total of 19 weeks . In Europe , the single entered on six national charts . In Austria it debuted at number 52 , and after two weeks the song peaked at number 47 . It stayed on the chart for total of seven weeks . " Summer Love " was more successful in Belgium , where it reached number six on the Flandrian Singles Chart and number eight on the Wallonian Singles Chart . The single entered the Swedish Singles Chart at number 53 and the next week it reached its peak at number 38 . In Germany , " Summer Love " charted together with " Until the End of Time " and peaked at number 39 . It stayed on the chart for nine weeks . The song also reached number 22 on the Slovakian Singles Chart . = = Track listing = = CD single and digital download " Summer Love " – 4 : 13 " Until the End of Time " ( duet with Beyoncé ) – 5 : 22 = = Charts = = = = Certifications = = = = Credits and personnel = = Technical Recorded and mixed at Thomas Crown Studios in Virginia Beach , Virginia Personnel Jimmy Douglas – Recording , mixing Nate " Danja " Hills – Drums , keyboards , production , songwriting Tim " Timbaland " Mosley – Drums , keyboards , mixing , production , songwriting Justin Timberlake – Background vocals , keyboards , production , songwriting Credits adapted from the liner notes of FutureSex / LoveSounds . = = Release history = =
= What Now ( song ) = " What Now " is a song recorded by Barbadian singer Rihanna for her seventh studio album , Unapologetic ( 2012 ) . It was written by Olivia Waithe , Parker Ighile and Nathan Cassells alongside Rihanna , with production handled by Ighile and Cassells . A remix collection was released exclusively to Beatport on August 29 , 2013 and later via iTunes , Amazon , and Google Play on September 17 , 2013 . The single was serviced to US rhythmic radio on September 24 , 2013 , before impacting mainstream radio on October 1 , 2013 as the fifth international single and sixth overall from Unapologetic . Another remix collection was released to Beatport on October 29 , 2013 . The song is a mid @-@ tempo piano ballad which incorporates sounds which resemble " sonic bombs " during the chorus and " crashing " drums . " What Now " received generally positive reviews from music critics , with many calling it an emotional , stand @-@ out song on the album and praising Rihanna 's vocals . Following the release of Unapologetic , " What Now " made appearances on various charts around the world . Following its release as a single , the song re @-@ peaked in multiple territories , having it also reach new peaks at number 25 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number 25 on the UK Singles Chart , while topping the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart and attaining a top three peak on the UK R & B Chart . The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Jeff Nicholas , Jonathan Craven , and Darren Craig from Uprising Creativity . It portrays Rihanna having an " emotional breakdown " and performing exorcism @-@ type dance moves . Critics complimented the video and compared it to Rihanna 's 2008 video for the song " Disturbia " . Rihanna promoted " What Now " on Alan Carr : Chatty Man and the song is included on the set list of her Diamonds World Tour ( 2013 ) . British television network ITV used the song for their " Where Drama Lives " 2014 advertisement . = = Production and release = = Rihanna began " working on the new sound " for her seventh studio album in March 2012 , even though she had not yet begun recording . On September 12 , 2012 , Def Jam France announced via Twitter that Rihanna would release a new single the upcoming week while her seventh studio album was scheduled to be released in November 2012 . On October 11 , 2012 , in one of her tweets revealed that the title of her new album is Unapologetic alongside with its cover . " What Now " was written by British singer @-@ songwriter Livvi Franc together with Rihanna , Parker Ighile and Nathan Cassells , while the production of the song was done by the latter two . Ighile and Cassells recorded the music for the track in Metropolis Studios located in London , United Kingdom , and provided all of the instrumentation and programming . Kuk Harrell provided the vocal production of the song and also recorded Rihanna 's vocals together with Marcos Tovar at Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles , California . Blake Mares and Robert Cohen served as assistant vocal engineer of " What Now " . It was mixed by Phil Tan at Ninja Club Studios in Atlanta , Georgia with Daniela Rivera serving as assistant mixing engineer . " What Now " was released as the sixth single from the album Unapologetic . Ten remixes of the song were digitally released via Beatport on August 28 , 2013 in the United States . The same remixes , were also added on the iTunes Store on September 17 . " What Now " was serviced to rhythmic contemporary radio in the United States on September 24 . It was later sent to contemporary hit radio on October 1 . Via her Instagram account , Rihanna revealed the official artwork for the song on October 16 . It features the singer dressed in black and " stares out with piercing eyes " while her name is written on chalkboard behind her . Jocelyn Vena of MTV News described Rihanna 's style on the artwork as goth and noted that it is reminiscent of the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes shot she posted during filming the song 's video . = = Composition = = " What Now " is a piano @-@ led mid tempo pop ballad which lasts four minutes and three seconds . According to Sony / ATV Music Publishing 's digital sheet music for the song , it is composed in the key of G ♯ minor and set in compound duple meter ( 68 time ) with a moderately slow groove of 60 beats per minute . Rihanna 's vocals span from the low note of A ♯ 3 to the high note of C ♯ 5 . " What Now " follows a chord progression of G ♯ m – B2 – F ♯ – F ♯ sus4 – F ♯ . The instrumental features " crashing " drums ; Dean Martin of NME described it as a ' bonkers marriage of pianos and bass @-@ pop ' . According to Mesfin Fekadu of The Huffington Post , the song " builds nicely from its calming verse to its electrified hook . " The Urban Daily 's Smokey D. Fountaine compared " What Now " to the works by singer Pink as according to him contains " yell @-@ as @-@ long @-@ as @-@ you @-@ have @-@ a @-@ great @-@ hook style " . Its structure " flips " from verse to chorus " like they ’ re from two different planets " , according to Michael Gallucci of PopCrush . Gallucci also felt that Rihanna 's over @-@ sings on the track , in contrast with Chris Younie of 4Music who said that Rihanna sounds " sweet " . During the " roaring " chorus , sounds which resemble " sonic bombs " are included in the background . = = Critical reception = = A Billboard reviewer praised " What Now " and called the song an " emotional highlight on an album filled with moments of resonance in its second half . " Giovanny Caquias of Culture Blues wrote that the song feels like the first " candid " and " insightful " track on Unapologetic . He continued , " Rihanna gets a little introspective on What Now , and doesn ’ t resort to being overtly sexual or defiantly callous ( more on that later ) , which gave me the feeling that she stripped away her armor for a moment and actually allowed herself to be ' real ' . " Daily News Jim Farber wrote that the song shows a heft . Brad Stern of MTV Buzzworthy praised Rihanna 's vocals on the song and referred to it as a " most poignant offering on the record " . The Star @-@ Ledger 's reviewer labelled the song as " staggering power ballad that makes all her other mid @-@ tempo numbers sound featherweight by comparison . " Andy Kellman of Allmusic praised " What Now " and called it a " massive , slamming , wailing power ballad " . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times positively reviewed the song writing , " Rihanna is doing some of her most direct , ambitious singing here . It ’ s the album ’ s one real purge , and a sign of a pulse beneath the armor . " Genevieve Koski for The A.V. Club criticised " What Now " , writing that it ( as well as " Stay " ) are the types of " milquetoast ballads " which have never been Rihanna 's speciality . = = Commercial performance = = Upon the release of Unapologetic , " What Now " charted in France and on two charts in the United Kingdom due to strong digital download sales . It debuted on the French Singles Chart at number 144 for the week dated December 1 , 2012 , and remained on the chart for one week . On July 13 , 2013 , it re @-@ entered the chart at number 174 ; the song peaked at number 83 two weeks later . On December 2 , 2012 , it debuted at number 165 on the UK Singles Chart , and number 32 on the UK R & B Chart . On July 27 , 2013 , " What Now " debuted at number 38 on the singles chart of the Wallonia region of Belgium . " What Now " was later serviced to radio in Australia as the fourth single from the album . It debuted at number 37 on the ARIA Singles Chart on August 18 , 2013 , and peaked at number 21 . According to IFPI , the song has sold 2 million copies worldwide . = = Music video = = = = = Production and synopsis = = = Rihanna shot the music video for " What Now " inside a warehouse in Phuket , Thailand on September 17 , 2013 , during a tour stop of the Diamonds World Tour . It was directed by Jeff Nicholas , Jonathan Craven , and Darren Craig from Uprising Creativity . Nicholas and Craven previously worked on the video for Justin Timberlake 's single " Tunnel Vision " from his third studio album The 20 / 20 Experience . According to Steven Gottlieb of VideoStatic the double @-@ exposure body shots are a visible common similarity of the two videos . On November 13 , Rihanna unveiled a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes video via her official Vevo account . During it she explained the concept of the video , " It 's gonna be kind of eerie , very creepy because ' What Now ' is one of those songs that you can get really boring with the visual . You can get really almost expected . Everybody 's probably expecting narrative type of video , a love story of some sorts or something really soft and pretty " and then says , " It is pretty and kind of soft , but it 's really a little demented . " Prior to the video 's release , Rihanna posted a sneak peek of the video on YouTube . The official music video was released to VEVO on November 15 , 2013 . Rob Newman is the producer of the video , while Craven , Nicholas and Thananath Songchaikul executively produced the visual . Sing Howe Yam performed the direction of the photography while Clark Eddy is the editor . The video opens to Rihanna appearing on a static television screen in a simple nude gown and crucifix necklace . She then begins to sing whilst being in a darkened room with a black gown on and later appearing in a brightened room with a white gown on . Throughout the video , Rihanna seems to have an " emotional breakdown " and does exorcism @-@ type dance moves . The video switches between the creepy and the pretty Rihanna as she mopes in a sparse warehouse space , possessed by her loneliness . = = = Reception = = = Jocelyn Vena of MTV compared the video to four of Rihanna 's past videos , with " Disturbia " being one of the four , she says " both ' What Now ' and ' Disturbia ' have a dark , supernatural vibe about them . And in addition to sharing that similarity , the visuals ' shots are layered , giving off a sort of 3 @-@ D effect . " Other comparisons included were " Diamonds " and " Stay " , which is also included on her 2012 Unapologetic , and " We Found Love " . Even Rachel Brodsky of MTV 's Buzzworthy Blog used seven comparisons of how the video relates to the 1996 film The Craft . Jason Lipshutz of Billboard says that Rihanna " dials it down " for the video after the " twerking , pole @-@ dancing and general skin @-@ showing " video she released for " Pour It Up " the month before . Other reviewers gave similar opinions , as an anonymous reviewer of The Huffington Post says " The clip shows the 25 @-@ year @-@ old singer in a spooky place , writhing in a sparse room shot in a fashion similar to many horror movies . " = = Live performances = = On September 27 , 2013 , Rihanna performed the song on Channel 4 's Alan Carr : Chatty Man . It is also included on the set list of her Diamonds World Tour ( 2013 ) . = = Credits and personnel = = Recording Recorded at Metropolis Studios , London , United Kingdom . Vocals recorded at Westlake Recording Studios , Los Angeles , California . Mixed at Ninja Club Studios , Atlanta , Georgia . Personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of Unapologetic , Def Jam Recordings , SRP Records . = = Track listing = = = = Charts = = = = Certifications = = \| - class = " sortbottom " style = " text @-@ align : center ; " \| colspan = 3 \| * sales figures based on certification alone ^ shipments figures based on certification alone \| } = = Release history = =
= Nicky Barr = Andrew William " Nicky " Barr , OBE , MC , DFC & Bar ( 10 December 1915 – 12 June 2006 ) was a member of the Australian national rugby union team , who became a fighter ace in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) during World War II . He was credited with 12 aerial victories , all scored flying the Curtiss P @-@ 40 fighter . Born in New Zealand , Barr was raised in Victoria and first represented the state in rugby in 1936 . Selected to play for Australia in the United Kingdom in 1939 , he had just arrived in England when the tour was cancelled following the outbreak of war . He joined the RAAF in 1940 and was posted to North Africa with No. 3 Squadron in September 1941 . The squadron 's highest @-@ scoring ace , he attained his first three victories in the P @-@ 40D Tomahawk and the remainder in the P @-@ 40E Kittyhawk . Barr 's achievements as a combat pilot earned him the Distinguished Flying Cross and Bar . Shortly after taking command of No. 3 Squadron in May 1942 , he was shot down and captured by Axis forces , and incarcerated in Italy . He escaped and assisted other Allied fugitives to safety , receiving for his efforts the Military Cross , a rare honour for an RAAF pilot . Repatriated to England , he saw action during the invasion of Normandy in June 1944 before returning to Australia as chief instructor with No. 2 Operational Training Unit . After the war he became a company director , and rejoined the RAAF as an active reserve officer from 1951 to 1953 . From the early 1960s he was heavily involved in the oilseed industry , for which he was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in 1983 . He died in 2006 , aged 90 . = = Early career = = Andrew Barr was born in Wellington , New Zealand , on 10 December 1915 ; he had a twin brother , Jack . The family moved to Australia when the boys were six . Growing up in Melbourne , Andrew attended Kew Public School and played Australian rules football . He was also the Victorian Schoolboys ' 100 yards athletics champion three years in succession , from 1926 to 1928 . In 1931 , aged fifteen , he began his association with the Lord Somers Camp and Power House social and sporting organisations located at Western Port . After leaving school , Barr studied construction at Swinburne Technical College , but later took a diploma course in accountancy and made it his profession . He started playing rugby union in 1935 through a friend in the Power House club . Weighing 80 kilograms ( 180 lb ) and just under 6 feet ( 180 cm ) tall , Barr gained selection for Victoria as a hooker the following year . In 1939 , he was chosen to play in the United Kingdom with the Australian national team , the Wallabies . The tour was cancelled less than a day after the team arrived in the UK on 2 September , due to the outbreak of World War II . Keen to serve as a fighter pilot , Barr initially tried to enlist in the Royal Air Force , but withdrew his application when told that it was unlikely he would fly anytime in the near future , and that he could expect only administrative duties in the interim . Returning to Australia on the RMS Strathaird , Barr joined the Royal Australian Air Force as an air cadet on 4 March 1940 . After undergoing instruction on Tiger Moths at No. 3 Elementary Flying Training School , Essendon , and on Hawker Demons and Avro Ansons at No. 1 Service Flying Training School , Point Cook , he was commissioned as a pilot officer on 24 September . He gained a reputation as something of a rebel during training , and became forever known as " Nicky " , for " Old Nick " , or the Devil . In his quest to gain assignment as a fighter pilot , he had deliberately aimed poorly during bombing practice , a stratagem also adopted by at least two of his fellow students . By November 1940 , he had been posted to No. 23 ( City of Brisbane ) Squadron , flying CAC Wirraways on patrol off the Queensland coast . The aircraft was , according to Barr , " our front line fighter in those days , but it didn 't take too long to realise that the capacity of the Wirraway , compared with the types of planes that we were going to encounter , left much to be desired " . Though his duties frustrated him somewhat , Barr was grateful to have this extensive flight experience under his belt when he eventually saw combat . While based in Queensland , he served as honorary aide @-@ de @-@ camp to the Governor , Sir Leslie Wilson , and also captained the RAAF rugby union team . He was promoted to flying officer on 24 March 1941 . = = Combat service = = Barr was posted to North Africa on 28 September 1941 , to fly with No. 3 Squadron under the command of Squadron Leader Peter Jeffrey . He converted to P @-@ 40D Tomahawk fighters at an RAF operational training unit in Khartoum . There he also received his " goolie chit " , a piece of paper to be shown to local tribesmen in the event he was shot down , reading in Arabic : " don 't kill the bearer , feed him and protect him , take him to the English and you will be rewarded . Peace be upon you . " Returning to North Africa , Barr achieved his first aerial victory , over a Messerschmitt Bf 110 , on 12 December . He followed this up with a Junkers Ju 88 and a Messerschmitt Bf 109 the next day . The squadron then re @-@ equipped with P @-@ 40E Kittyhawks ; Barr was flying the new model when he became an ace on New Year 's Day 1942 , shooting down two Junkers Ju 87 Stukas . On 8 March , he led a flight of six Kittyhawks to intercept a raid on Tobruk by twelve Ju 87s escorted by ten Macchi C. 202s and two Bf 109s . The Australians destroyed six Macchis and three Ju 87s without loss , Barr personally accounting for one of the Macchis . Eventually credited with victories over twelve enemy aircraft , plus two probables and eight damaged , Barr became No. 3 Squadron 's highest @-@ scoring member . He flew a total of eighty @-@ four combat sorties , twenty of them in one fortnight , and six on 16 June 1942 alone . His philosophy was that the P @-@ 40 was not a top @-@ class fighter , but that its shortcomings " could be offset by unbridled aggression " , so he resolved to treat aerial combat as he would a boxing match and " overcome much better opponents by simply going for them " . Bobby Gibbes became No. 3 Squadron 's commanding officer in February 1942 , and made Barr his senior flight commander . Promoted to flight lieutenant on 1 April , Barr was raised to acting squadron leader and appointed to command the unit in May , barely six months after he commenced operations , following Gibbes 's hospitalisation with a broken ankle . Barr had never sought leadership of the squadron , and felt that others were just as well qualified for the role . As a commander he delegated most administrative tasks to his adjutant but , contrary to normal practice , wrote letters to the next @-@ of @-@ kin of casualties himself . Three times while serving with No. 3 Squadron , Barr was himself shot down . The first occasion was on 11 January 1942 when , having destroyed a Bf 109 and a Fiat G.50 , he was preparing to touch down in the desert to pick up a fellow pilot who had crash landed . He had his undercarriage halfway down when he was " jumped " by two other Bf 109s . He immediately engaged both and shot one down before more German fighters arrived and he was hit and forced to land behind enemy lines . As one of the German planes came in low to strafe the downed Kittyhawk , Barr ran straight at it in an attempt to throw the pilot off his aim , and was injured by fragments of rock sent airborne by impact from cannon shells . A tribe of friendly Senussi Arabs found him , dressed his wounds , and helped him return to Allied lines . For this exploit , and his earlier successes , Barr was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross ( DFC ) , the full citation being published in the London Gazette on 20 February 1942 : This officer , who commenced operational flying in November , 1941 , has displayed the greatest keenness and skill as a fighter pilot . In December , 1941 , during a patrol over the Derna area , he shot down a Messerschmitt 110 ; the next day , in the same area , he destroyed a Messerschmitt 110 and a Junkers 88 . One day in January , 1942 , his squadron formed part of an escort to bomber aircraft operating over El Agheila . Enemy aircraft were encountered and , in the ensuing engagement , Flying Officer Barr attacked 2 Italian fighters , one of which he shot down . He then observed one of his fellow pilots , who had been shot down , waving to him from the ground but , when preparing to make a landing in an attempt to rescue him , Flying Officer Barr was attacked by 2 Messerschmitt 109s . Although the undercarriage of his aircraft was not fully retracted , he immediately manoeuvred to engage the attackers , only to find that his guns had jammed . Quickly rectifying the fault he delivered an accurate burst of fire which caused one of the Messerschmitts to disintegrate in the air . A further 2 enemy aircraft joined in the combat and Flying Officer Barr was wounded and forced down . While on the ground he was further wounded by the enemy 's fire but , despite this , he made his way through the enemy 's lines and rejoined our own forces some 3 days later . He brought back much valuable information regarding the disposition of enemy tanks and defences . Flying Officer Barr displayed the greatest courage and tenacity throughout . He has destroyed 8 enemy aircraft . On 25 May 1942 , Barr had to land in the desert when his engine overheated . Having just taken off the engine cowling , he spotted enemy tanks approaching and immediately took off with the engine exposed to the elements , safely landing back at base . He was shot down for the second time on 30 May , when he engaged eight Bf 109s and destroyed one before being hit and forced to crash land at high speed in no @-@ man 's land . He came down in a minefield during a fierce tank battle , and was forced to remain where he was as troops of both sides slowly converged on him ; British forces managed to reach him first and , after treatment for wounds , he again returned to his squadron . On 26 June , however , after being attacked by two Bf 109s and bailing out of his burning Kittyhawk , he was captured by Italian soldiers and taken as a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war , first to Tobruk , and then to Italy , where he received hospital treatment for serious wounds . He later learned that the pilot who shot him down was Oberleutnant Werner Schroer , a Luftwaffe ace credited with sixty @-@ one victories in North Africa . Bobby Gibbes , having recovered from his own injuries , again took command of No. 3 Squadron . During his incarceration , on 5 February 1943 , Barr was awarded a Bar to his DFC for " destroying further enemy aircraft " . Barr tried to escape from his confinement four times . By November 1942 he had recovered sufficiently from the injuries received in June to break out of the hospital where he was being held in Bergamo , northern Italy . He made his way to the Swiss border , but was challenged by an Italian customs official , whom he struck with a rock before being recaptured . Court @-@ martialled on a charge of murder , Barr only avoided a death sentence when the Swiss Red Cross colonel representing him located the official and proved that he had not died . Barr was instead sentenced to ninety days solitary confinement in Gavi Prison Camp , Genoa . In August 1943 , with Italy on the verge of surrender , prisoners of war were rounded up for transport to Germany . Barr jumped from a moving train bound for the Brenner Pass and joined a group of Italian partisans in Pontremoli , remaining at large for two months before again being captured . Taken to a transit camp just over the Austrian border , Barr and fourteen other prisoners escaped by tunnelling under the barbed wire . Eventually he managed to link up with an Allied special operations unit , which was gathering intelligence behind enemy lines , sabotaging Axis infrastructure , and helping Allied prisoners and Italian refugees escape over the Apennine Mountains along the so @-@ called " Alpine Route " . Barr was recaptured and escaped once more before finally making it through the Alpine crossing himself , leading a group of more than twenty . After reaching friendly lines in March 1944 , he was sent to a military hospital in Vasto , weighing only 55 kilograms ( 121 lb ) and in poor health , suffering malaria , malnutrition , and blood poisoning . The assistance he rendered to fellow Allied fugitives earned him the Military Cross ( MC ) for " Exceptional courage in organising escapes " ; the award was gazetted on 1 December 1944 . He is thought to be one of only five or six RAAF pilots to receive the MC during World War II . Posted to Britain in April 1944 , Barr went ashore at Omaha Beach two days after D @-@ Day as part of an air support control unit . During the campaign in Normandy , he flew rocket @-@ armed Hawker Typhoons on operations against V @-@ 1 flying bomb launch sites . After his return to Australia on 11 September , Barr was promoted to acting wing commander and appointed chief instructor at No. 2 Operational Training Unit in Mildura , Victoria , taking over from Bobby Gibbes . He also went to New Guinea and flew some ground @-@ attack missions in the Kittyhawk to gain experience in the South West Pacific theatre . Following the end of hostilities in August 1945 , Barr was treated for recurring fever and underwent two operations on his limbs in No. 6 RAAF Hospital , Heidelberg . He was discharged from the Air Force on 8 October . = = Later career = = After leaving the Air Force , Barr remained in Mildura with his wife , Dorothy ( Dot ) . They had met on a blind date in 1938 and been married only a few weeks when Nicky joined the RAAF . During the war she was told on three occasions that her husband was dead . The couple had two sons , born in 1945 and 1947 . Barr 's injuries prevented him from returning to a rugby career , and he took up yachting as a sport . He also briefly assisted fellow No. 3 Squadron veteran Bobby Gibbes in an airline venture in New Guinea , before going into business as a company manager and director with civil engineering and pharmaceutical firms . Barr rejoined the RAAF on 20 March 1951 as a pilot in the active Citizen Air Force ( CAF ) , with the acting rank of wing commander . On 15 April 1953 , he transferred to the CAF reserve . A member of the Royal Air Forces Escaping Society , Barr began travelling to Italy with his wife on a regular basis in the late 1950s to seek out and offer assistance to those who had helped him during his wartime escape attempts . In 1961 , Barr became General Manager of Meggitt Ltd , an oilseed @-@ crushing firm ; he eventually rose to become Executive Chairman . The firm 's board was joined in 1971 by the recently retired Chief of the Air Staff , Air Marshal Sir Alister Murdoch . Barr 's work in the industry led to his appointment in the 1983 New Year Honours as an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) . The same year , he became Australian representative and Chairman of the International Oil Seed Group . In June 1987 , Barr accepted an invitation to join John Glenn , Chuck Yeager , and fifteen other famed flyers in a so @-@ called " Gathering of Eagles " for a seminar at the USAF Air Command and Staff College in Montgomery , Alabama . Generally reluctant to talk publicly about the war , he agreed to discuss his experiences during an episode of the television series Australian Story in 2002 , appearing with his biographer Peter Dornan , and Bobby Gibbes . By this time Barr was said to be receiving daily treatment for the injuries he had suffered in combat . He died at the age of ninety on 12 June 2006 , a few months after his wife . Four F / A @-@ 18 Hornet jet fighters from No. 3 Squadron overflew his funeral service on the Gold Coast , Queensland . He was further honoured at a rugby test match between Australia and England at Telstra Dome in Melbourne on 17 June , the day after his funeral . On 14 September 2006 , No. 3 Squadron dedicated a stone memorial in Barr 's honour ; the unveiling was attended by his sons Bob and Brian .
= LGBT themes in American mainstream comics = LGBT themes in American mainstream comics is a relatively new concept , as lesbian , gay , bisexual , and transgender ( LGBT ) themes and characters were historically omitted intentionally from the content of comic books , due to either formal censorship or the perception that comics were for children and thus LGBT themes were somehow inappropriate . With any mention of homosexuality in mainstream United States comics forbidden by the Comics Code Authority ( CCA ) until 1989 , earlier attempts at exploring these issues in the US took the form of subtle hints or subtext regarding a character 's sexual orientation . LGBT themes were tackled earlier in underground comix from the early 1970s onward . Independently published one @-@ off comic books and series , often produced by gay creators and featuring autobiographical storylines , tackled political issues of interest to LGBT readers . Mainstream comics — the genre of superhero comics published in the United States since the late 1930s — have historically excluded gay characters , and the superhero genre and its two largest publishing houses , Marvel Comics and DC Comics , have been criticised for their lack of inclusivity . Transgender characters have likewise been under @-@ represented , although the common storyline of a superhero having their sex changed by magical or technological means has been regarded as an oblique reference to transgender and transsexual issues . Queer theory analyses have noted that LGBT characters in mainstream comic books are often shown as assimilated into heterosexual society , whereas in alternative comics the diversity and uniqueness of LGBT culture is at the forefront . Mainstream comics have also been labelled as " heteronormative " , in comparison to " integrationist " alternative comics . Since the 1990s LGBT themes have become more common in mainstream US comics , including in a number of titles in which a gay character is the star . = = Censorship , criticism and inclusivity = = For much of the 20th century , creators were strongly discouraged from depicting gay relationships in comic books , which were regarded as a medium for children . Until 1989 the Comics Code Authority ( CCA ) , which imposed de facto censorship on comics sold through newsstands in the United States , forbade any suggestion of homosexuality , and LGBT characters were excluded from comics bearing the CCA seal . The CCA itself came into being in response to Fredric Wertham 's Seduction of the Innocent , in which comic book creators were accused of attempting to negatively influence children with images of violence and sexuality , including subliminal homosexuality . Wertham claimed that Wonder Woman 's strength and independence made her a lesbian , and stated that " The Batman type of story may stimulate children to homosexual fantasies . " Storytellers subsequently had to drop subtle hints while not stating directly a character 's orientation . Overt gay and lesbian themes were first found later in underground and alternative titles which did not carry the CCA 's seal of approval . In recent years the number of LGBT characters in mainstream superhero comics has increased greatly . At first gay characters appeared in supporting roles , but their roles have become increasingly prominent . The trend has prompted both praise from the LGBT community and organizations like the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation ( GLAAD ) , and criticism from conservative groups . Critics make regular accusations that comics are attempting to subvert readers into a " gay lifestyle " , trying to " lure young American boys into the kinky web of homosexuality and AIDS " . According to writer Devin Grayson , the amount of creative freedom allowed by editors in the portrayal of LGBT characters depends upon how popular and established a character already is . Long @-@ standing characters that would require a retcon to change their sexuality are less likely to be shown as LGBT than newer characters . When such changes to a character 's continuity are made , fans are often disgruntled , particularly when sexuality is involved , and Alan Moore suggests that creating a new character is preferable . Scott Lobdell claims that it is more often the fans , rather than editors , that have stronger negative reaction to LGBT issues . Moore notes however , that " it 's probably quite fashionable ... to have the odd gay character , " and that the inclusion of LGBT people continues to improve in mainstream comics , but that the characters continue to be limited by stereotypes and do not represent a varied cross @-@ section of LGBT people . Greg Rucka says that some scenes of same @-@ sex interactions are rejected by editors due to unease with sexual content in general rather than the LGBT content . On the other hand , inclusion of LGBT issues attract media attention , in which the hype makes some fans and creators uncomfortable . Podcaster Faust points out for example , that gay marriage in a comic issue is treated almost as an “ event ” , when that series had already been significant with openly gay characters . Lobdell , while wondering about the attention media gives gay characters , hopes that in the near future , they will not “ make the news at all , because they are as common as capes and cowls . ” = = DC = = = = = Pre @-@ 1990s = = = The Encyclopedia of Gay Histories and Cultures ( 2000 ) notes that gay subtext can be found in DC Comics publications as early as the Golden Age of Comic Books , with readers inferring homosexuality between superheroes and their same @-@ sex sidekicks and on the women @-@ only Paradise Island . Batman 's relationship with Robin has famously come under scrutiny , in spite of the majority of creators associated with the character denying that the character is gay . Psychologist Fredric Wertham , who in Seduction of the Innocent asserted that " Batman stories are psychologically homosexual , " claimed to find a " subtle atmosphere of homoeroticism which pervades the adventures of the mature ' Batman ' and his young friend ' Robin . ' " It has also been claimed that Batman is interesting to gay audiences because " he was one of the first fictional characters to be attacked on the grounds of his presumed homosexuality , " and " the 1960s TV series remains a touchstone of camp . " Frank Miller has described the Joker as a " homophobic nightmare , " and views the character as sublimating his sexual urges into crime fighting . Burt Ward has also remarked upon this interpretation in his autobiography , noting that the relationship between the two could be interpreted as a sexual one . When creating the character of Jericho in Teen Titans , Marv Wolfman and George Perez considered making him gay , which would have marked one of the first appearances of a gay character in a major super hero book . However , they ultimately passed on the idea after concluding that it would be too stereotypical to make the sensitive , artistic , effeminate featured Jericho a homosexual . The first obviously gay character was Extraño , an effeminate Hispanic man whose name means " Strange " in Spanish , who was created by Steve Englehart and Joe Staton and appeared in Millennium and New Guardians in 1987 . New Guardians was not successful , but during its short run it also featured a character dying of AIDS . An official aftermath to Millennium , The Spectre ( vol . 2 ) # 11 , depicted a " mostly male and mostly gay " AIDS rally . Several characters , including the Enchantress ( describing them as " filthy disgusting men " ) and a police helicopter pilot named Ed ( screaming about " fags " ) are influenced into attempting to crush the rally by a seven @-@ headed spirit . Thanks to the actions of the Spectre , Doctor Fate , Deadman , Madame Xanadu , and Ben Turner , the men are saved . Previous to this , in the hugely influential Watchmen ( 1986 ) , one of the central characters , Ozymandias , is referred to as " possibly homosexual " by Rorschach , who critics have interpreted as asexual . The series also strongly implied that minor characters the Hooded Justice and Captain Metropolis were gay , and that Silhouette was kicked off the Minutemen superhero team when she was publicly outed as a lesbian . In Watchmen and Philosophy , Mark White and William Irwin write that the gay relationships in Watchmen remain ambiguous as " lots of heteros are icked out by homos " , and also that Watchmen is particularly surprising and challenges preconceptions of homosexuality , as " if it 's true that Hooded Justice and Captain Metropolis are gay , they sure as heck don 't act or look like they are gay " . Alan Moore was described by AfterElton.com writer Lyle Masaki as " very gay friendly " , due to his inclusion of complex LGBT characters and realistic treatment of LGBT issues in Watchmen and V for Vendetta . = = = 1990s = = = The early 1990s saw a few more LGBT minor characters portrayed in DC titles . Transsexual themes were explored in a 1992 storyline in Legion of Super @-@ Heroes , in which Element Lad finds out that Shvaughn Erin , the woman he is in love with , is actually a man who has taken a sex @-@ change drug to be with him ; Element Lad subsequently reveals that he prefers Shvaughn as a male . A lesbian relationship was also implied between the Legion of Super @-@ Heroes ' Shrinking Violet and Lightning Lass , but all these non @-@ heterosexual characters were retconned during the Zero Hour " reboot " to be straight . Camelot 3000 also explored transsexual themes by having Sir Tristan reincarnated into the body of a woman , to his initial dismay . Notable storylines featuring LGBT themes include the 1991 ’ s The Flash ( vol . 2 ) # 53 , which had received the first GLAAD Award for Best Comic Book in 1992 . Here , the reformed villain Pied Piper was revealed as gay . Another is the coming out of Kyle Rayner 's assistant and an arc about his " gay bashing " in Green Lantern , both written by Judd Winick . These stories earned the writer title two GLAAD awards and a Gaylactic Spectrum Awards ( and a further nomination ) . Green Lantern also has a lesbian couple , Lee and Li , as supporting characters . The 1990s title Doom Patrol introduced a number of LGBT characters and explored transsexual themes . Doom Patrol 's base of operations in later stories is the sentient transvestite street Danny the Street . Danny is named after British female impersonator Danny La Rue , and " dresses in drag " by hosting typically masculine shops ( such as gun shops ) , but decorating them in bright frilly patterns and pastel curtains . " His inclusion is described by Timothy Callahan as part of the " increasingly absurd " tone of the book from the twentieth issue . One member of the team is the transsexual , bisexual Coagula , who can coagulate liquids and dissolve solids , created by transsexual fantasy writer Rachel Pollack . Coagula gains her powers while working as a prostitute : One of her customers is Rebis , a radioactive hermaphrodite and Coagula gains her powers after having sex with them . DC Comics has a number of imprints , including Wildstorm and Vertigo . Wildstorm was originally a studio producing work for Image Comics , which is noted to have a greater proportion of LGBT characters . Vertigo is an imprint that produces comics for more mature audiences , allowing more sexual themes . George Haggerty notes in Gay histories and cultures : an encyclopedia that " substantive mainstream presentation of gay themes in the future seems most likely in DC 's adult @-@ orientated Vertigo titles . " Vertigo titles that have tackled LGBT themes include the Sandman , Shade , The Changing Man and Enigma . The Sandman : A Game of You ( 1991 ) had a transsexual character , and its creator Neil Gaiman said that he included transgender characters in his works in response to the lack of realistic representation of such people in comics . The title character of Shade , the Changing Man was an alien who could change his surface form : This resulted in people sometimes perceiving him as female , and although he remained essentially male , it was implied that he had relationships with both genders . Enigma ( 1992 ) deconstructed the superhero genre , with the title characters homosexuality playing a large part . John Constantine , the protagonist of Hellblazer was first hinted as bisexual in 1992 , and confirmed in 2002 . In the television series however , Constantine was portrayed straight due to NBC guidelines , which brought on criticism from both critics and fans . An example of a gay character in a starring role is the violent vigilante superhero Midnighter , who appears in comic books first published by Wildstorm . The Batman @-@ like Midnighter was revealed to be in a relationship with the Superman @-@ like Apollo during their time as members of the superhero team The Authority . The portrayal of the relationship was initially subtle , with writer Warren Ellis not informing the artist of his intentions . However , the DC editorial board still censored a kiss between the two characters in 2000 . Described as the " first openly gay couple in comics , " Midnighter and Apollo married in a later issue and have an adopted daughter . Midnighter starred in his own solo title from 2006 ; the Midnighter comic was criticised by François Peneaud for ignoring the protagonist 's relationship with his husband , and also for the continual use of homophobic insults by villains . Criticism has also been leveled at a storyline in which Apollo is raped , with critics saying that straight superheroes are never subjected to such treatment . Alan Moore pointed to the characters as an example of comics ' " strange attitude " towards LGBT themes , describing them as " vicious muscle queens . " Starting 2015 , Midnighter once again stars in his own solo series , published from DC Comics , making him the first gay male superhero to have his own series in a mainstream publisher . = = = 2000s = = = Manhunter , created by Mark Andreyko in 2004 , caused reaction in the fan community when it was revealed that the boyfriend of the title character 's gay co @-@ counsel was long @-@ time Infinity , Inc. member Obsidian . Obsidian had a number of failed heterosexual romances in Infinity , Inc. and while a member of the Justice League , and later struggled to come to terms with his sexuality , but it wasn 't until his appearances Manhunter that the character was revealed to be gay and to have accepted his homosexuality . Andreyko said that making the character openly gay could be seen as a retcon , but that this seemed a logical step in character 's growth . Homosexual interpretations of Batman have continued into the 21st century . One notable example occurred in 2000 , when DC Comics refused permission for the reprinting of four panels ( from Batman # 79 , 92 , 105 , and 139 ) to illustrate Christopher York 's paper All in the Family : Homophobia and Batman Comics in the 1950s . In summer 2005 , painter Mark Chamberlain displayed a number of watercolours depicting both Batman and Robin in suggestive and sexually explicit poses . DC threatened both the artist and the Kathleen Cullen Fine Arts gallery with legal action if they did not cease selling the works and demanded the surrender of all remaining art , as well as any profits derived from them . In 2006 DC drew widespread media attention by announcing a new , lesbian incarnation of the well @-@ known character Batwoman even while openly lesbian characters such as Gotham City police officer Renee Montoya already existed in DC Comics . It was revealed at the 2009 New York Comic Con that she would be DC Comics ' highest profile gay superhero , appearing in a new Justice League comic book written by James Robinson and taking over as the lead character in Detective Comics with issue # 854 . Greg Rucka said that DC 's editors had no problem with his writing Montoya or Batwoman as lesbian , but the media controversy over Batwoman 's sexuality " nullified any positive effect Batwoman might have had on the industry " and forced the character into minor roles during major crossover storylines . In 2011 Batwoman gained her own title as part of The New 52 DC comics relaunch . This makes her the first LGBT character to headline a monthly series in the DC Universe . In 2006 , Gail Simone brought back the Secret Six as a team of villains with new members , in which many are LGBT , including lesbian Scandal Savage , her lover Knockout , pansexual Rag Doll , bisexual Jeannette , and Catman , who is also bisexual . Secret Six relaunched in December 2014 , with Gail Simone returning as the writer . Scandal Savage , Rag Doll , and Jeannette return as recurring characters . The team consists of new members save Catman , and among them , Porcelain is genderfluid . = = = 2010s = = = In Earth 2 , Green Lantern Alan Scott was revealed as gay . In issue 3 , Scott is revealed to have a boyfriend named Sam , to whom he intends to propose while on vacation in China . Before he can do so , however , the train on which the couple is travelling is suddenly wrecked . A mysterious green flame protects Scott and heals him ; a disembodied voice informs him that the crash was caused by a force that threatens the whole world , and that Sam did not survive . The grief @-@ stricken Scott is then told that he will be given the power to avenge his love and protect the world . Alongside Batwoman , DC also released a series starring Voodoo , a bisexual African American woman , as part of The New 52 relaunch . The same relaunch also introduced Bunker , an openly @-@ gay Latino superhero , as part of the core cast of the new Teen Titans series . Demon Knights brought back Shining Knight , who previously appeared in Grant Morrison ’ s Seven Soldiers of Victory as a girl crossdressing as a male knight . In the new series however , The Shining Knight says that he is “ not just a man or a woman [ , but ] both . ” This makes him the possible first intersex hero . The number of minor DC characters being identified as LGBT continues to increase , including bisexual superheroes Sarah Rainmaker and Icemaiden , as well as major ones such as Catwoman . In Catwoman # 39 , she was confirmed bisexual , which critics claim iconic , as she is one of the most famous characters in the DC Universe . Furthermore , DC Comics officially stated that Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy , whose relationship many fans have speculated as romantic or sexual , are “ girlfriends without the jealousy of monogamy . ” = = Marvel = = = = = 1990s = = = Marvel Comics ' incorporation of LGBT themes has been unfavorably compared with that of DC ; its use of gay characters has been described as " less prolific but more deliberate " . Marvel reportedly had a " No Gays in the Marvel Universe " policy during Jim Shooter 's 1980s tenure , and Marvel 's policy from the 1990s had stated that all series emphasizing solo gay characters must carry an " Adults Only " label , in response to conservative protests . Yet in 2006 publisher Joe Quesada claimed that this policy is no longer in force . Although same @-@ sex couples are depicted occasionally kissing , intimate or sexual scenes have not been shown , even in Marvel 's " Adult only " imprint . The use of mutants and the discrimination they face in the X @-@ Men comics has been seen as a metaphor for the real @-@ world discrimination directed at minority groups including LGBT people . Alpha Flight ’ s Northstar , a member of the original Alpha Flight superhero team , was the first major gay character created by Marvel Comics . Creator John Byrne said that Northstar was planned to be gay from his inception in 1979 , but although hints about Northstar 's sexual identity appeared during 1983 in issues 7 and 8 of Alpha Flight , his apparent lack of interest in women was attributed to his obsessive drive to win as a ski champion . The character was finally revealed to be gay in 1992 's Alpha Flight issue 106 , the only comic book issue to have been inducted into the Gaylactic Hall of Fame . Storylines involving Northstar have included an illness seen by some readers as a metaphor for AIDS , which was cured when it revealed that the character is actually a part " fairy " , a race of non @-@ human beings . Northstar also adopts an abandoned baby , which soon dies of AIDS . Criticism has been levelled at the fact that in 30 years Northstar has never been shown kissing another man , although many interactions with other gay characters are shown , as in the Marvel Swimsuit Special , in which he is shown socializing with the gay Pantheon member Hector . After the cancellation of Alpha Flight Northstar appeared in his own miniseries , which mostly ignored his sexuality , and eventually became a member of the X @-@ Men . During his time in this team he became a mentor to gay teenage mutant Anole , who later became a Young X @-@ Men member along with another gay teen , Graymalkin . Notable also in Northstar 's tenure in the X @-@ Men was his death in three separate continuities in the same month . Other LGBT members of Marvel 's mutant teams were X @-@ Statix 's Phat , Vivisector , and Bloke ( until their deaths ) and the villain Mystique , the latter having been in a relationship with the character Destiny , although this was not explicitly revealed until years after the relationship had ended with Destiny 's murder . = = = 2000s = = = Freedom Ring was a character depicted as gay from his debut by his creator Robert Kirkman . Joe Quesada touted him as Marvel Comics ' leading gay hero , with stories dedicated to his adventures in Marvel Team @-@ Up . Despite this , the character was killed one month later . His death and general treatment was met with some negative reactions , including accusations of homophobia , particularly with respect to the phallic imagery of the death , with the character being killed by being impaled with spikes . Kirkman commented on the controversy , stating " Freedom Ring was always planned as an inexperienced hero who would get beaten up constantly and probably die . I wanted to comment on the fact that most superheroes get their powers and are okay at it ... and that 's not how life works . During working on the book , I was also noticing that most gay characters ... are all about being gay . Straight characters are well @-@ rounded characters who like chicks . So I wanted to do a well @-@ rounded character who just happened to like dudes . Then I decided to combine the two ideas . In hindsight , yeah , killing a gay character is no good when there are so few of them ... but I really had only the best of intentions in mind . " Kirkman later stated , " Frankly , with the SMALL amount of gay characters in comics in general , and how unfortunate the portrayals have been thus far , whether intentional or not — I completely understand the backlash on the death of Freedom Ring , regardless of my intentions . If I had it to do all over again ... I wouldn 't kill him . I regret it more and more as time goes on . I got rid of what ? 20 % of the gay characters at Marvel by killing off this ONE character . I just never took that stuff into consideration while I was writing . " In 2002 , Marvel revived Rawhide Kid in their Marvel MAX imprint , introducing the first openly gay comic book character to star in his own magazine . The first edition of the Rawhide Kid ’ s gay saga was called Slap Leather . According to a CNN.com article , “ The new series pairs the original artist , John Severin , now 86 , with Ron Zimmerman , a television writer . Making the Rawhide Kid gay was Zimmerman ’ s idea . The character ’ s sexuality is conveyed indirectly , through euphemisms and puns , and the comic ’ s style is campy . Conservative groups protested the gay take on the character , which they claimed would corrupt children , and the covers carried an " Adults only " label . The Young Avengers series , which debuted in 2005 , featured two gay teenager major characters , Hulkling and Wiccan , from its inception . The characters ' sexuality was criticised by some readers and defended by the writers in an extended series of letters on the title 's letters page . The Young Avengers earned Marvel its first ( and to date only ) GLAAD Award Best Comic Book Award in 2005 . Hulkling was originally planned to be a female character : According to Tom Brevoort , " Originally , Allan pitched Hulkling as a female character using her shape @-@ changing abilities to pose as a man . I suspect this was as close as Allan felt he could get to depicting an openly gay relationship in a Marvel comic . But as we got underway ... he started to have second thoughts and approached me about maintaining Hulkling and Wiccan as two involved male characters . " In the latest incarnation of X @-@ Factor , written by Peter David , depowered mutant Rictor and his longtime friend Shatterstar ( with whom he 'd had an ambiguous relationship ) were shown in an on @-@ panel kiss . After the issue was published , Peter David confirmed Rictor and Shatterstar 's bisexuality in his blog and expressed his desire to develop the relationship between them further . Shortly after , one of Shatterstar 's creators , Rob Liefeld , expressed his disapproval of Peter David 's decision . Despite his complaints , however , both Peter David and Marvel editor @-@ in @-@ chief Joe Quesada have defended the development , and the story will most likely go on as planned . = = = 2010s = = = 2012 ’ s Astonishing X @-@ Men # 51 held Northstar and his long @-@ term partner , Kyle Jinadu ’ s wedding . Though it is not the first same @-@ sex marriage to be featured in superhero comics , as Apollo and Midnighter had married in The Authority , this is the first in mainstream comics . Due to flirtations with characters of various genders and sexuality , fans have speculated Deadpool as pan- or omnisexual . Writers Gerry Duggan and Gail Simone , as well as Terry Miller , the director of the Deadpool film , accepts the fan theory . However , Fabian Nicieza , one of the creators of the character , stated on Twitter that such speculation on his sexuality is invalid because his “ brain cells are in CONSTANT FLUX . He can be gay one minute , hetero the next , etc . ” The comment upset many fans , for it suggests that Deadpool ’ s sexuality is linked to his mental disorder . Hercules , in previous works such as Hercules : Fall of an Avenger and X @-@ Treme X @-@ Men have been portrayed as bisexual . However , Marvel ’ s editor @-@ in @-@ chief Axel Alonso stated that Hercules in the new series will be heterosexual , which disappointed fans and critics for “ straightwashing ” an LGBT character . Other recent major characters that have confirmed to be LGBT include Iceman , who came out as gay , and Loki , who is now genderfluid and bisexual . = = Other publishers : Malibu , Image , Dark Horse = = The 1990s saw the creation of a number of independent publishing houses with output that competed with the giants of mainstream comics publishing , Marvel and DC . The companies included Malibu Comics , Image Comics and later , Dark Horse Comics . These companies gave greater artistic freedom to their writers and artists and chose not to ascribe to the Comics Code , allowing exploration of more mature themes . As a result , comics from these companies included a greater relative number of LGBT characters and storylines than their more traditional competitors . LGBT superhero characters include Spectral and Turbo Charge ( from Malibu comics ) , and Promethea and Gen13 's Sarah Rainmaker ( both created by Wildstorm for Image Comics before being taken over by DC ) . Image comic 's A Distant Soil , written by Colleen Doran , depicts an alien culture with exotic gender and sexual mores and gay romances that gained the series a Gaylactic Spectrum Award nomination . Dark Horse 's Buffy the Vampire Slayer @-@ related comics feature the lesbian characters of Willow , Tara and Kennedy and the closeted character Andrew from the television series . The Buffy Season Eight comics attracted media attention when the title character has a one night stand with another girl who had fallen in love with her . The encounter was repeated , but both the character and the creators denied that this made Buffy gay , with Joss Whedon saying : " We 're not going to make her gay , nor are we going to take the next 50 issues explaining that she 's not . She 's young and experimenting , and did I mention open @-@ minded ? " . Archie featured their first gay character , Kevin Keller , in 2010 . The American Family Association spoke out against the character and issues containing same @-@ sex romance , but Veronica # 202 had been so popular it sold out , resulting in his own solo series . = = Fandom and Awards = = As the visibility of LGBT comic book creators and characters has increased , comic book fandom has taken notice . Panels discussing LGBT topics occur regularly at comic book and LGBT conventions such as Comicon and Gaylaxicon , and conventions also feature stands dedicated to LGBT comics . Ted Abenheim , event chair of Prism Comics said in 2008 , “ We ’ re in our sixth year of exhibiting at Comic @-@ Con , presenting a larger booth and more panels and events than ever before . ” A number of websites dedicated to LGBT comic book fandom and featuring content from staff writers exist , such as Prismcomics.org , Pinkkrytonite.com and Gayleague.com. = = = GLAAD awards = = = The first GLAAD Award for " outstanding comic book " was awarded in 1992 ( to DC 's The Flash ) . Since then , a number of GLAAD awards have been awarded to mainstream titles , including for DC 's Green Lantern and The Authority titles , and Marvel 's Young Avengers . According to Paul Lopez , LGBT fans and creators have " debated whether the awards for mainstream comics were more about media hype than the actual content of the comic 's stories . " = = = Gaylactic Spectrum Awards = = = The Gaylactic Spectrum Awards are given to works of science fiction , fantasy or horror published in the United States , and their " other works " category allows nomination of comic book series or individual issues . Comic book winners include issues of DC 's Green Lantern , The Authority and Gotham Central , and nominations have been given to titles from Marvel ( X @-@ Force , X @-@ Statix ) , Dark Horse ( Buffy Season Eight ) and Image Comics ( A Distant Soil ) . = = = General = = = Haggerty , George E. ( 2000 ) , Encyclopedia of Gay Histories and Cultures , Taylor & Francis , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8153 @-@ 1880 @-@ 4 Rothschild , D. Aviva ( 1995 ) , Graphic novels : a bibliographic guide to book @-@ length comics , Libraries Unlimited , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 56308 @-@ 086 @-@ 9 Lopes , Paul ( 2009 ) , Demanding Respect : The Evolution of the American Comic Book , Temple University Press , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 59213 @-@ 443 @-@ 4 Furey , Emmett . Homosexuality in Comics – Part I , Part II , Part III and Part IV , Comic Book Resources , July 16 – 19 , 2007
= Ron Paul presidential campaign , 1988 = The Ron Paul presidential campaign of 1988 began in early 1987 when former Congressman Ron Paul of Texas announced his candidacy for the 1988 presidential nomination of the Libertarian Party . He joined the third party after leaving the Republican Party over the Reagan administration 's handling of the federal budget . He ran on a platform that included non @-@ interventionism in foreign conflicts , decriminalization of illegal drugs on a federal level , a return to the gold standard , the abolition of the Federal Reserve and a reduction in all government spending . Paul defeated Native American activist Russell Means at the Libertarian Party 's National Convention in Seattle to win the party 's presidential nomination . Former Alaska State representative Andre Marrou was selected as his running mate . After over a year of campaigning as the Libertarian Party nominee , Paul received very little media coverage , and was excluded from presidential debates . On Election Day , he was on the ballot in 46 states and the District of Columbia , and finished in third place with approximately 0 @.@ 47 % of the vote , behind Democratic candidate Michael Dukakis and the winner Vice President George H.W. Bush . = = Background = = Paul was elected to Texas 's 22nd congressional district as a Republican during a special election early in 1976 , and he supported Ronald Reagan 's presidential bid that year . Paul lost his bid for re @-@ election in late 1976 , but was elected back to the seat in 1978 . During his time in office , Paul followed the political and economic princles of laissez @-@ faire advocate Ludwig von Mises , and gained a reputation as Dr. No , voting against legislation he felt was unconstitutional . He also advanced legislation establishing term limits for Congressmen , and opposed any implementation of a military draft . After serving four terms in the U.S. House of Representatives , Paul vied for the 1984 Republican Party Senatorial nomination in Texas , and gained a reputation as an adept fundraiser . He was defeated in the primary and returned to his practice of obstetrics and gynecology In January 1987 , Paul officially left the Republican Party to run for the Libertarian Party nomination after becoming disillusioned by the spending policies of the Reagan administration and presumptive Republican presidential nominee George H.W. Bush . On leaving the party , Paul remarked : " Ronald Reagan has given us a deficit ten times greater than what we had with the Democrats . It didn 't take more than a month after 1981 , to realize there would be no changes . " The Libertarian Party had courted Paul for the previous six years . = = Campaign developments = = = = = Libertarian Party nomination campaign = = = Ron Paul announced his candidacy for the Libertarian Party 's presidential nomination on February 16 , 1987 during a party luncheon in San Francisco , California . During his announcement speech , Paul commented that " Big government is running away with our freedom and our money , and the Republicans are just as much to blame as the Democrats . " He later proclaimed himself as " a choice for freedom . " According to Paul , Libertarian Party leaders notified him that there would be little opposition to his run at the party 's September 1987 National convention . Paul campaigned for the nomination for the most part of 1987 , traveling to numerous state conventions . He visited Pennsylvania in April to discuss the Libertarian Party 's platform with students from Penn State . Native American activist , and challenger to Paul , Russell Means of South Dakota also appeared at the event . Means had officially announced his Libertarian presidential nomination candidacy a day before Paul . While Means received heightened media attention for his comments regarding Native Americans and militancy , reports in the news media circulated that highlighted Paul 's calls for the nation to return to the Gold Standard , and diminish the power of the Federal Reserve . Paul and Means were described as members of the right and left wing of the Libertarian Party , respectively . By June , Paul was appearing at speaking events with Libertarian vice presidential candidate Andre Marrou . Marrou had previously served as a Libertarian member of the Alaska House of Representatives . The pair campaigned side @-@ by @-@ side in Idaho where Paul remarked " that a Libertarian can win the White House in the not @-@ too @-@ distant future . " After that , Paul traveled west to address Libertarian Party officials in Washington and Oregon . By the end of the month , Paul had raised $ 200 @,@ 000 for his campaign . As the convention approached , Paul was one of seven candidates vying for the party 's nomination . However , he and Means were the only candidates mentioned in the press . Speculation that Marrou could be chosen as a compromise candidate also surrounded the event , at which 800 attendees were expected . = = = Libertarian National Convention = = = The Libertarian National Convention , formally called the Culture of Freedom Conference and Presidential Nominating Convention , was held from September 2 – 6 at the Sheraton Hotel in Seattle , Washington . His candidacy was seen as problematic because of the party 's long support for freedom of choice on abortions . One of his opponents , Native American activist Russell Means , emphasized that he was pro @-@ choice on the abortion issue . In a forum held prior to the nomination , Means dismissed the greater funds raised by Paul 's campaign , commenting that Means was receiving " 10 times more press " than the former Congressman and was therefore " 100 times more effective . " Another candidate expressed his desire to " put handcuffs on all IRS agents . " Paul was nominated on the first ballot with 196 of the 368 votes cast , with his closest opponent , Means , receiving 120 votes . He accepted the nomination and thanked the delegates with his wife , Carol , by his side . Andre Marrou was chosen as the vice presidential nominee . = = General election campaign = = Paul returned to the campaign trail and entered the General election stretch of the campaign a year ahead of the nominees for the two major parties . He traveled to Universities held press conferences and filmed an eight @-@ minute television advertisement , to be shown in small states and on cable television , to help spread his message . He focused on gaining enough support to win a place in the League of Women Voters @-@ sponsored presidential debates . = = = Spreading the message = = = Paul held one of his numerous press conferences in Helena , Montana , where he pushed for the Reagan administration to balance the budget and cut spending and taxes . He argued that Reagan had reneged on his 1980 campaign promise to balance the budget , resulting in voter dissatisfaction . Paul stated that Treasury Secretary James Baker should be removed from his office for the administration 's monetary policy . Paul was featured in the November 1987 issue of Texas Monthly . The article compared the campaign to that of former U.S. Senator Eugene McCarthy , and made note of Paul 's opposition to the CIA 's assistance of the Contras in Nicaragua . Journalist Tom Curtis described Paul 's supporters as " a ragtag coalition of antiabortion activists , tax rebels , anti @-@ war types , gold bugs and other anti @-@ establishment , single issue voters . " Curtis noted that Paul 's monthly newsletter , The Ron Paul Investment Letter had 12 @,@ 000 subscribers who paid an annual fee of $ 99 . Paul traveled to Rome , Georgia and appeared at the downtown Holiday Inn in November 1987 . During the appearance , he railed against the policies of Washington D.C. , commenting that there was no difference between the two major parties , and that both supported " intervention overseas , ... in our personal lives ... [ and ] in the marketplace . " Paul went on to compare his Libertarian ideology to the mindset of the founding fathers . The next month , vice presidential nominee Andre Marrou traveled to Texas and discussed the Paul campaign 's prospects . He opined that the ticket could possibly win 2 to 12 million votes in the following year 's election , and that Paul might win if Jesse Jackson and Pat Robertson were selected as the Democratic and Republican presidential nominees , respectively . He explained that America did not want a preacher as president . Since the chance that either of those candidates would be named as their party 's representative seemed unlikely , by this point in the election one of the campaign 's priorities was securing a place on the ballot , which they had done in 20 of the 50 states . = = = " Kamikaze " campaign = = = Paul arrived in North Florida for a campaign event in early January 1988 , with ten months still remaining until the election . The event was chronicled by a journalist for the Ocala Star @-@ Banner , who compared Paul to a kamikaze and remarked that he never gives up even though his " chance of becoming president " was no greater than that for the journalist himself . Paul was described as " slim , attractive , graying , immaculately attired and most articulate , " but as a candidate who was dismissed by the media for his political positions such as support of the decriminalization of hard drugs . Paul visited the University of Florida during his trip , and gave a campaign speech in front of 200 students in the auditorium in Turlington Hall . Later in the month , he left Florida and campaigned in Iowa , where he spoke at Drake University and the University of Iowa . In February , he received the endorsement of Former Congressman Pete McCloskey ( R @-@ Calif . ) . He was also endorsed by comedian and talk @-@ show host David Letterman , as well as psychologist and counterculture icon Timothy Leary , who held a fundraiser for Paul . Paul had received little media attention during the early stages of the Democratic and Republican primary contests . But as Vice President George H.W. Bush and Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis secured their respective parties ' nominations , mentions of Paul increased . It was noted that if Bush became unacceptable to conservatives , they would not turn to Dukakis , but would most likely vote for Paul as a protest . During this time , publications also started discussed Paul 's tax policy . It called for a flat income tax rate of 10 % on all earnings over $ 10 @,@ 000 annually . Paul sold his tax plan while campaigning in Utah . In front of 250 people in Kane County , he hailed California 's 1978 passage of Proposition 13 as starting the " tax revolt and [ sending ] a message across the country . The next big message for this country should be the overwhelming passage of the tax initiatives ... in November . " Paul was also part of C @-@ SPAN 's program Road to the White House , which followed different candidates on the campaign trail . In June , they aired Paul 's address to the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws . During a July press conference in Spokane , Washington , while lobbying for ballot access , Paul promised that as president he would veto spending increases for both domestic programs and the military . He asked in reference to the portrayal of his party 's plank , " what 's extreme about a balanced budget ? " Paul conceded that he would not win the election but explained that votes for his ticket would give a bigger voice to Libertarian issues in American politics , and that he would only be disappointed if he did not receive at least 5 % of the vote in the state . A few weeks later , The New York Times discovered that many former members of the Pat Robertson campaign were helping Ron Paul 's candidacy . They found that the campaign workers were disseminating literature in Michigan that criticized Bush , and stated that Paul would " carry the standard " of the free market . Paul commented in a San Diego Union interview that he " identif [ ied ] with Robertson " although " he 's not a libertarian . " Paul spent the beginning of August , campaigning in his home state of Texas . = = = Final stages = = = In August , Republicans began to argue that a vote for Paul would equate to a vote for Dukakis . Later in the month , Republicans grew weary of Dan Quayle as the party 's vice presidential nominee . Paul commented that " we like Dan Quayle . We also like George Bush and Mike Dukakis . They have been the best recruiters we have . " He explained that the Libertarian Party was receiving around 100 calls a day from people interested in the party because " a large number of Americans are disenchanted with the choice they have . " Paul held a rally in Salt Lake City that drew 200 supporters , and proclaimed that he " wouldn 't be surprised if we got 20 % of the vote in Utah . " By October 1988 , the campaign had secured ballot access in 46 states and the District of Columbia , and newspapers across the nation began running editorials and letters supporting Paul 's run , and criticizing the low volume of media coverage . The New York Times chronicled Paul 's campaign in late October . Paul 's 25 @-@ year @-@ old son , Rand Paul who served as the aide @-@ de @-@ camp , was interviewed and explained that Paul had raised $ 2 million , $ 500 @,@ 000 of which was spent on ballot access . Paul had spent $ 40 @,@ 000 a month on traveling expenses . Just prior to Election Day , Paul predicted a low voter turnout . = = Results = = Paul finished in third place on Election Day , far behind Dukakis and the victorious George H.W. Bush . He received 431 @,@ 750 votes , which made up 0 @.@ 47 % of the overall vote . The largest percentage won by Paul came in Alaska , where he received 2 @.@ 74 % . In Washington , he missed his goal of 5 % with a 0 @.@ 92 % showing . In Utah , Paul received 1 @.@ 16 % . = = Aftermath = = After the election , Paul was speculated to run for president in 1992 but opted instead to work on the campaign for Pat Buchanan . That year , Marrou received the Libertarian presidential nomination . Paul later returned to the Republican Party and was re @-@ elected to his seat in Congress in 1996 , without much support from establishment Republicans , who supported the party @-@ switching Democratic incumbent . Back in Congress , Paul regained his nickname of Dr. No , favoring a free market and advocating a reduction in the size of the federal government . He was drafted to challenge President George W. Bush in the 2004 Republican primaries , but chose not to run . He ran for president again in 2008 and 2012 as a Republican , attracting a large amount of grassroots support .
= J. R. Richard = James Rodney Richard ( born March 7 , 1950 ) is an American , right @-@ handed , former starting pitcher in Major League Baseball who played his entire career , from 1971 to 1980 , with the Houston Astros . After leaving high school , Richard was selected by the Astros as the second pick in the first round of the 1969 amateur draft . From the time he made his major league debut with the Astros in 1971 until 1975 , Richard had a limited role as an Astros pitcher , throwing no more than 72 innings in a season . In 1975 , Richard played his first full season in the majors as a starting pitcher . From 1976 to 1980 , he was one of the premier pitchers in the majors , leading the National League twice in strikeouts , once in earned run average , and three times in hits allowed per nine innings , winning at least 18 games between 1976 and 1979 . On July 30 , 1980 , Richard suffered a stroke and collapsed while playing a game of catch before an Astros game , and was rushed to the hospital for emergency surgery to remove a life @-@ threatening blood clot in his neck . His condition brought a sudden end to his major league career at the age of 30 . His 313 strikeouts in 1979 remains an Astros franchise record , and he held the team 's record for career strikeouts ( 1 @,@ 493 ) until 1987 . In 1981 , Richard attempted a comeback with the Astros , but this failed because the stroke had slowed down his reaction time and weakened his depth perception . He spent the next few seasons in the minor leagues before being released by the Astros in 1984 . After his professional baseball career ended , Richard became involved in unsuccessful business deals and went through two divorces , which led to him being homeless and destitute in 1994 . Richard found succor in a local church and later became a Christian minister . = = Early life = = Richard was born to Clayton and Lizzie ( née Frost ) Richard in Vienna , Louisiana and gained prominence in both baseball and basketball at historically black and since closed Lincoln High School in nearby Ruston . By the time he was a high school senior , Richard stood 6 feet 8 inches ( 2 @.@ 03 m ) tall and weighed 220 pounds ( 99 @.@ 8 kg ; 15 @.@ 7 st ) . That year , he was one of the starting pitchers for Lincoln High School and did not concede a run for the entire season . In one game Richard hit four consecutive home runs while pitching his team to a 48 – 0 victory against its local rival , Jonesboro 's Jackson High School . Richard , whose baseball idol was St. Louis Cardinals pitcher Bob Gibson , never lost a game he started in his high school career . Upon graduating from high school , he turned down more than 200 basketball scholarship offers to sign with the Houston Astros . The Astros would later select him with the second overall pick in the 1969 amateur baseball draft , behind the Washington Senators ' selection of outfielder Jeff Burroughs . Richard later recalled , " There were other guys in my high school with as much ability as I had , but instead of working at a job , they wanted to drink wine on Saturday nights . They thought that was the in thing to do , and consequently our lives went in different directions . For some people it takes that to make a world . It does not for me . " = = Early minor league career = = After the Astros drafted Richard , they sent him to play for the Covington Astros , a rookie @-@ level minor league baseball team in the Appalachian League . Richard started 12 games for Covington , finishing with five wins and four losses . Despite accumulating an average of 11 @.@ 41 strikeouts per nine innings , Richard had trouble throughout the season with his pitching mechanics and control . In 56 innings , Richard struck out 71 batters but walked 52 and gave up 41 earned runs , resulting in a 6 @.@ 59 earned run average . The following year , at 20 years of age , Richard was promoted to the Cocoa Astros of the Florida State League in high @-@ A minor league baseball . Richard again compiled a low hits per nine innings ( H / 9IP ) ratio by giving up only 67 hits in 109 total innings pitched . Despite his 4 – 11 win – loss record , Richard finished the season with a 2 @.@ 39 ERA and even threw a no @-@ hitter against the Daytona Beach Dodgers . During the season , Richard was able to throw an accurate fastball which occasionally exceeded 100 miles per hour , and his slider 93 miles per hour , faster than those of most major @-@ league pitchers . During the 1970 – 71 off @-@ season , the Astros again promoted Richard : this time to Class @-@ AAA baseball , one step below the major leagues , with the Oklahoma City 89ers of the now @-@ defunct American Association . Richard wore number 50 and kept that number for the rest of his minor @-@ league and major @-@ league career . Richard started all but one of the games he pitched that season . He pitched eight complete games and led the league with 202 strikeouts in 173 innings of work . He ended the season with twelve wins and seven losses before being called up by the Houston Astros . = = Early major league career = = = = = 1971 season = = = Richard entered Major League Baseball with the Astros in 1971 as a September call @-@ up . On September 5 , Richard made his major league debut at just 21 years of age , in the second game of a doubleheader against the San Francisco Giants . Richard used his fastball – slider combination to pick up the win and tied Karl Spooner 's 17 @-@ year @-@ old major league record for striking out 15 batters in his first major league start . Richard was charged with two earned runs and seven hits in the 5 – 3 Astros win but struck out Willie Mays and Dick Dietz three times . Richard made his next start , after five days rest , against the Cincinnati Reds , who would later finish the NL West season in a tie for fourth place with the Astros . Richard gave up a lead @-@ off home run to Pete Rose in the first inning and pitched five innings of the a two @-@ hit , one @-@ run game . He struck out five batters but walked six . Richard struggled in his two following starts . In a September 16 match @-@ up against the Astros ' division rival , the third @-@ place Atlanta Braves , Richard pitched seven innings and surrendered four runs on seven hits . He struck out nine batters and even struck out the side in the first inning but also walked four batters . Furthermore , he threw two wild pitches in the first and fifth innings . In his final game of the season , against the Giants , Richard was replaced in the first inning after pitching to only four batters . = = = In and out of the minors = = = During the next few seasons , Richard split time between the minors and majors and did not become a regular starter with the Astros until 1975 . After his " cup of coffee " with the Astros in 1971 , Richard was sent back down to Class @-@ AAA baseball to work on his pitching with the Oklahoma City 89ers for the 1972 season . He started 19 games with the 89ers before being called back up to the Astros . In Triple @-@ A baseball in the American Association , Richard finished with 10 wins and eight losses in 128 innings of work . His 3 @.@ 02 ERA was slightly higher than that of the previous season , but he maintained approximately the same walks per nine innings ratio ( BB / 9IP ) that he had the previous year . He recorded six complete games and finished with 169 strikeouts , for a ratio of 11 @.@ 88 strikeouts per 9 innings . Richard re @-@ entered the majors , starting a day game of a day @-@ night doubleheader for the Astros against the San Diego Padres on July 30 , 1972 . He struggled and took the 10 – 7 loss . Richard did not pitch again until two weeks later , when he entered in relief for Ken Forsch in the fifth inning to keep the Giants limited to a one @-@ run lead . In two innings of relief , Richard gave up one hit , struck out three batters and garnered the win . In his two final relief appearances of the season , Richard gave up five earned runs in just over one inning of work . He finished the season with a 13 @.@ 50 ERA in only six innings of work and was again sent back down to Triple @-@ A , this time with the Astros @-@ affiliated Denver Bears . Richard started eight games with the Bears in 1973 and posted minor league career @-@ worsts in ERA and hits allowed per nine innings . Despite his poor performance with the Bears , Richard was again called up by the Astros . Richard entered in the fourth inning of a June 16 game against the St. Louis Cardinals and his idol Bob Gibson . He pitched four innings of one @-@ run ball and three innings of a two @-@ hit game in his next relief outing . Afterwards , the Astros placed Richard in the starting rotation , and he made his first major league start since July 30 of the previous year . He pitched six solid innings of a one @-@ run ballgame and struck out six while walking three batters . Richard would make his next start four days later . Richard again pitched more than six innings but earned no decision after the Astros ' bullpen gave up nine runs during the top of the ninth inning . After starting a July 4 game against the Braves ( which he won ) , Richard was sent into the bullpen to add Tom Griffin into the Astros ' starting rotation . He made three relief appearances against the Montreal Expos before making a start against the Los Angeles Dodgers on July 27 . Four days later , Richard threw his first shutout against the Dodgers , in which he gave up just five hits and struck out nine batters . Nineteen days later , Richard pitched another complete game , this time giving up two runs while striking out nine and walking three batters . He concluded the season with six wins and two losses in 16 total games , 10 of which he started . He finished with a 4 @.@ 00 ERA , and struck out 75 batters in 72 innings . He walked 38 batters , giving him a ratio of 4 @.@ 75 walks per nine innings , which was lower than the ratio he had had in his two previous minor league seasons . Despite his improved performance in the 1973 season , Richard was sent down to work on his pitching mechanics and ball control in Class @-@ AA baseball with the Columbus Astros of the Southern League . He started 13 games with Columbus before being moved back up to Class @-@ AAA with the Denver Bears . In four starts with the Bears , Richard threw three shutouts and pitched 33 scoreless innings with a 4 – 0 record and 26 strikeouts . He was called back into the majors on July 13 and stayed with the Astros for the remainder of the season . He first pitched 14 innings of baseball in six relief appearances before being placed on the starting rotation . He then started in all nine of the games he pitched during the remainder of the season . Richard finished with a 4 @.@ 18 ERA in just over 64 innings of work during the 15 pitching appearances he made during the season . Even though Richard 's statistics showed he bounced between Houston and the minors during his first four years with the Astros due to his wildness , he often told reporters that racism played a role in keeping him from becoming a regular with the big club sooner . = = Mainstay with the Astros = = In the off @-@ season , the Astros traded starting pitcher Claude Osteen to the Cardinals , and lost pitching ace Don Wilson , who died from carbon monoxide poisoning at the age of 29 on January 5 , 1975 . As a result , Richard entered the 1975 season as the third starter of the Astros ' pitching rotation , behind veterans Larry Dierker and Dave Roberts . Richard was scheduled to start on April 9 versus the Braves . He was removed from the game in the fifth inning after jamming his toe on the first base bag but gave up no earned runs in his start . Richard continued to exhibit wildness , as shown when he issued eight walks in both his third and fourth starts of the season . He followed by pitching a complete game win against the San Diego Padres on April 29 . The following start , he walked a career @-@ high eleven batters in just six innings of pitching and also gave up seven runs in the Astros ' 12 – 8 win over the Giants . By the All @-@ Star break , Richard had six wins and four losses with a 4 @.@ 93 ERA in just over 98 innings of work . In an August 10 game against the Pittsburgh Pirates , Richard yielded just one hit in six innings but walked 10 batters . He rebounded with a complete game shutout against the New York Mets eight days later . Richard ended the season on a strong note by winning three of his last four starts , including his final two games against the Dodgers . He finished the year with a 12 – 10 record for the Astros , who finished with a franchise @-@ worst 64 – 97 record . Richard was the only starter on the Astros ' pitching staff who had a winning record for the season . He led the team with 176 strikeouts , which was also the fifth @-@ highest in the National League . Richard also led the league in walks allowed and wild pitches thrown , with 138 and 20 , respectively . = = = Breakout season = = = Richard entered the 1976 season as the pitching staff ace and took over Larry Dierker 's position as the Opening Day starter for the Astros . In his first start of the season , Richard gave up four runs in four innings against the defending World Series champion Cincinnati Reds on April 8 . He followed this inauspicious beginning with wins in five of his next six decisions . One of them included a 10 @-@ inning shutout effort that led to a 16 @-@ inning 1 – 0 Astros victory against the Dodgers . By the end of May , however , Richard was sitting even with a 5 – 5 record , loser of four straight decisions . He closed the first half of the season by winning a 10 @-@ inning shutout against the Mets on July 6 , and an eight @-@ inning start against the Expos four days later . At the All @-@ Star break , Richard had a 9 – 9 record with a 2 @.@ 88 ERA in over 153 innings of work . From July 10 to August 31 , Richard racked up eight complete games , including one shutout , and he improved his record from 9 – 9 to 16 – 13 . He pitched 98 innings and yielded only 22 earned runs , which gave him an ERA of 2 @.@ 02 during the approximately 50 @-@ day span . On August 26 , Richard hit his first home run of the season during the second inning of the game . In his last game of the season on October 2 , Richard pitched a complete game 13 @-@ strikeout performance , and he also hit a two @-@ run home run in the sixth inning . Richard finished the season with a 20 – 15 record , 14 complete games , three shutouts , and 214 strikeouts in 291 innings of work . At age 26 , Richard became only the second pitcher in Astros ' history ( after Dierker in 1969 ) to record 20 wins in a season , tying him for fourth in the NL that year . Richard also became the ninth member of the Black Aces , an organization founded by Mudcat Grant that consists of all African American pitchers who have won at least 20 major league games in a season . He was named the Most Valuable Player of the Astros by the Houston chapter of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America ( BBWAA ) . Richard finished 17th in MVP Award voting and seventh in the NL 's Cy Young Award voting . His 2 @.@ 75 ERA was the seventh @-@ best among the league 's starting pitchers , and he held hitters to a 0 @.@ 212 batting average . He led the league in lowest number of hits allowed per nine innings and in walks allowed ; Richard also finished the season second in batters faced , innings pitched and games started . In addition , he led all NL pitchers with 14 hits , two home runs , and nine runs batted in as a hitter . However , during the year he committed ten errors and finished with an 0 @.@ 853 fielding percentage , nearly 0 @.@ 100 lower than the league average . = = Middle years = = = = = 1977 season = = = Richard began the 1977 season on a high note with a nine @-@ inning , seven @-@ strikeout performance on April 8 against the Braves . He pitched seven complete game victories in the first half of the season . By the All @-@ Star break , Richard had nine wins and six losses in over 160 innings of work , accompanied by 119 strikeouts and a 2 @.@ 69 ERA . Although Richard struggled through July and early August , he did manage to pitch three complete games ( including two shutouts ) in five starts from August 27 to September 17 . He had 11 and 10 strikeouts respectively in the final two starts of that roughly 20 @-@ day span . Richard closed out the season with two complete games , the first against the Braves on September 27 , and the second against the Dodgers on October 2 . He had a season @-@ high 14 strikeouts in his final start , which tied Steve Carlton 's season @-@ high mark . Richard concluded the season on a high note by winning nine of his last twelve decisions . At the end of the season , he led the Astros ' pitching staff in wins , starts , complete games , innings pitched , walks and strikeouts . He had 18 wins and 12 losses in 267 innings pitched and posted a 2 @.@ 97 ERA and 214 strikeouts . For the first time since becoming a permanent member of the Astros ' starting rotation , Richard was not the league leader in walks allowed , but as he had done in 1976 , he led the league in wild pitches . He finished fourth in the league with 13 complete games , and he improved his fielding from the previous season by going through an error @-@ free season . Richard hit well for a pitcher , going 20 @-@ for @-@ 87 in the season with two triples , two home runs and seven runs batted in . After the season was completed , Richard underwent an emergency appendicectomy on October 26 , 1977 at a Houston hospital . He spent most of the off @-@ season working out at the Houston Astrodome and , for relaxation , fishing . In early 1978 , he was a participant in ABC 's Superstars all @-@ around sports competition . = = = Record @-@ setting year = = = Richard entered the 1978 season as the Astros ' Opening Day starter . In the first game of the season , he gave up seven runs on 11 hits and just made it into the fifth inning before being replaced in a loss to the Cincinnati Reds . He recovered from the loss by pitching a complete game two @-@ hit shutout in his next outing against the Dodgers . In an eight @-@ start period from April 26 to June 4 , Richard threw six complete games , including two back @-@ to @-@ back shutouts , and lowered his ERA from 4 @.@ 15 to 3 @.@ 05 . He struck out 67 and gave up only 39 hits in the 63 total innings he pitched . On a June 9 start against the Cardinals , Richard struck out 12 batters but also walked six and gave up five earned runs . By the end of the first half of the season Richard had pitched back @-@ to @-@ back games with nine and 12 strikeout performances , against the Reds and Dodgers , respectively . At the All @-@ Star break , he had an 8 – 9 record with a 3 @.@ 49 ERA but also had 157 strikeouts in 139 innings of work . After the break , Richard threw an 11 @-@ inning , 10 @-@ strikeout game against the Expos and followed with two complete games and another nine @-@ inning performance in a game that went into extra innings . He was selected as the National League Pitcher of the Month after going a perfect 4 – 0 with a 1 @.@ 29 ERA and 58 strikeouts in 56 innings during July . Throughout much of August , his season ERA hovered below 3 @.@ 00 , and he averaged well over a strikeout per inning . On August 21 , in an 8 – 3 victory over the Chicago Cubs , he broke Don Wilson 's 1969 club record of 235 strikeouts . In the final two months of the season , Richard 's strikeout average dramatically increased , and he struck out a double @-@ digit number of batters in three of his last five starts . In his third @-@ to @-@ last start , Richard broke Tom Seaver 's NL record of 290 strikeouts by a right @-@ hander when he struck out Bob Horner . In his final outing of the season , Richard reached the 300 @-@ strikeout pinnacle by striking out Rowland Office in a September 28 victory over the Braves . He also hit his seventh career home run , making him the Astros ' career leader in home runs by a pitcher . At that time , he became only the tenth pitcher , third National Leaguer and first NL right @-@ hander in history to strike out more than 300 batters in a single season . Richard finished the season with 18 wins , 11 losses and a 3 @.@ 11 ERA . He led the team 's pitching staff in innings pitched , starts , complete games , shutouts , hits allowed , earned runs , walks allowed and strikeouts . He held batters to a .156 batting average at home and a .196 average overall , which was the lowest in the NL . Richard again fared well in the field , finishing with three errors and a 0 @.@ 957 fielding percentage , slightly higher than the 0 @.@ 950 league average . He finished fourth in the Cy Young Award voting , behind Gaylord Perry , Burt Hooton and Vida Blue . He finished atop the league in strikeouts per nine innings ( 9 @.@ 90 ) , fewest hits allowed per nine innings ( 6 @.@ 28 ) , walks ( 141 ) , and wild pitches ( 16 ) . = = = 1979 season = = = In his second game of the 1979 season , Richard set the modern @-@ day record for throwing six wild pitches in a single game against the Dodgers . Despite this , he finished the game with a 13 @-@ strikeout performance in a 2 – 1 Astros victory . He won his first four decisions that season but those victories were followed by four losses . He continued to accumulate strikeouts and finally began to walk fewer batters on average , exhibiting greater control over his pitching . Richard evened out his record at seven wins and seven losses by pitching a complete game three @-@ hit shutout against the Padres on June 30 . By the All @-@ Star break , Richard had 7 wins , 10 losses , a 3 @.@ 52 earned run average and 158 strikeouts in just a bit over 157 innings of work . By July 25 , his record stood at eight wins and 11 losses , but after he pitched nine straight complete games ( including two @-@ hit and three @-@ hit shutouts on August 27 and September 6 , respectively ) through September 6 and worked 86 consecutive innings without the need of a relief pitcher , which set an Astros club record , it was clear that he was on a winning streak . On September 21 , in a game against the Reds , he pitched 11 innings and matched a career high of 15 strikeouts , which he also reached earlier in the season on August 3 in a game against the Braves . He closed out the season against the Dodgers by winning his 11th straight game against the team , with his last loss coming on June 23 , 1976 . He was honored as the National League Pitcher of the Month for September after going 4 – 1 with a 1 @.@ 24 ERA , four complete games , two shutouts and 69 strikeouts in 53 innings pitched during the stretch . He finished the season with 18 – 13 record and a league @-@ best 2 @.@ 71 ERA . He struck out 10 or more batters 14 times in the season , and totaled a league @-@ leading 313 strikeouts for the season , breaking his own club record . Richard joined Nolan Ryan and Sandy Koufax as the only modern @-@ day pitchers to strike out over 300 batters in consecutive seasons . He led the club in ERA , complete games and innings pitched and tied Joe Niekro in number of games started . He gave up 220 hits in the season , which gave him a league @-@ best 6 @.@ 77 hits per nine innings ratio . He again led the league by limiting the opposing hitters ' batting averages to .209 that year . Richard finished fifth in the league in walks allowed , with his first sub @-@ 100 total since he became a mainstay starter with the Astros . He also led the league with a 9 @.@ 64 strikeouts per nine innings ratio . Richard finished 19th in National League MVP Award voting and third in Cy Young Award voting , behind winner Bruce Sutter and teammate Joe Niekro , who had 21 wins and a 3 @.@ 00 ERA that season . Richard fared slightly worse in batting and fielding , finishing with a .126 batting average and a .902 fielding percentage and five errors . On October 11 , Richard signed a four @-@ year contract with the Astros . = = 1980 season and stroke = = By now Richard was among the best pitchers in baseball . When asked in 2012 who was the " toughest pitcher to get a hit off of " during his career , Dale Murphy answered " Anybody that played in the late 70 's or early 80 's will probably give you the same answer : JR Richard " . In 1980 , Richard was now teamed with seven @-@ time American League strikeout champion Nolan Ryan , who had joined the Astros as a free agent . During the first half of the season , Richard was virtually unhittable , starting the year with five straight wins , 48 strikeouts ( including two starts with 12 and 13 strikeouts ) , and a sub @-@ 2 @.@ 00 ERA . He was named National League Pitcher of the Month for April . At one point , Richard threw three straight complete @-@ game shutouts , two against the Giants and one against the Cubs . On July 3 , he broke Dierker 's team record of 1487 career strikeouts in a 5 – 3 win over the Braves ; it was to be Richard 's last major league victory . After finishing the first half of the season with a 10 – 4 record , 115 strikeouts and a 1 @.@ 96 ERA , Richard was selected to be the National League 's starting pitcher in the All @-@ Star Game on July 8 , but he pitched just two innings due to various back and shoulder problems . As the season progressed , Richard began to complain of a " dead arm " , citing discomfort in his shoulder and forearm . His concerns fell on deaf ears . Some in the media even interpreted these complaints as whining or malingering , citing Richard 's reputation for moodiness . Others hypothesized that Richard was egotistical and could not handle the pressure of pitching for the Astros , while others suggested he was jealous of Ryan 's $ 4 @.@ 5 million contract . During his next start on July 14 against the Braves , Richard was pitching well and even struck out the side in the second inning , but had trouble seeing catcher Alan Ashby 's signs and also had difficulty moving his arm . He left the game in the fourth inning after throwing a fastball and feeling his right arm go " dead " . He had numbness in the fingers of his right hand and could not grasp a baseball . The Astros placed Richard on the 21 @-@ day disabled list . As it turned out , it would be his last major league game . Nine days later , he checked into Methodist Hospital in Houston for a series of physical and psychological tests to determine the cause of his mysterious arm problems . An angiogram revealed an obstruction in the distal subclavian and axillary arteries of the right arm . Richard 's blood pressure in his left arm was normal but pressure was nearly absent in his right arm due to the completely obstructed artery . On July 25 , however , the arteries in his neck were studied , and the doctors reached a conclusion that all was normal and no surgical treatment needed to be performed . On July 30 , Richard went to see a chiropractor who rotated his neck to fix the flow of blood in his upper torso region . Later that day , Richard was participating in warm @-@ ups before the game when he suffered a major stroke and collapsed in the outfield . Before the stroke , he had a headache and a feeling of weakness through his body . Eventually , that progressed into vision problems and paralysis in the left side of his body . A massive blockage in his right carotid artery necessitated emergency surgery that evening . An examination by neurologist William S. Fields showed that Richard was still experiencing weakness in his extremities and on the left side of his face . He also had blurred vision through his left eye . A CAT scan of Richard 's brain later showed that Richard had experienced three separate strokes from the different obstructions in his arterial system . Furthermore , the arteries in his right arm were still obstructed . Later examinations showed that Richard was suffering from extensive arterial thoracic outlet syndrome . While pitching , his clavicle and first rib pinched his subclavian artery . As a result of this problem , Richard would feel normal for the first few innings of the game but after putting repeated pressure on his subclavian artery , his arm would start to ache in pain and eventually start to feel " heavy " . His wife at the time , Carolyn , told reporters , " It took death , or nearly death , to get an apology . They should have believed him . " Richard underwent rehabilitation and missed the rest of the season . Meanwhile , the Astros recovered from the loss of one of their staff aces and qualified for the playoffs for the first time in the club 's 18 @-@ year history . = = = Comeback attempt = = = In 1981 , Richard underwent a rehabilitation program with the aim of recovering from the effects of the stroke . He trained with the Astros and the Texas Southern University team , participating regularly in pitching and batting practice with both towards the end of the baseball season . After pitching in a few simulated games , Richard was placed on the 40 @-@ man active roster on September 1 , 1981 . Astros manager Bill Virdon thought Richard was not ready to return , so Richard did not pitch with the team during the last two months of the season . The following year , Richard pitched in a single spring training game and then went into extended spring training in Sarasota , Florida , during the first two months of the season . There he registered three wins and two losses and a 3 @.@ 38 ERA in seven starts with thirty @-@ two total innings . Afterwards , he joined the major league rehabilitation program with the Daytona Beach Astros of the Florida State League . In his six starts , Richard notched three wins , two complete games and posted a 2 @.@ 79 ERA . He was then promoted to Triple @-@ A baseball with the Tucson Toros of the Pacific Coast League . He struggled to control the ball , conceding a high number of runs to opposing teams . He took a loss on August 12 against the Phoenix Giants and on August 27 against the Salt Lake City Gulls in a 13 – 0 rout . His longest outing as a starter — more than five innings — was an appearance against the Giants in the last game of the season on September 1 . He then joined the Astros ' extended roster but did not play in any games . In 1983 , Richard started to complain of pain in his left calf . The synthetic graft inserted in his July 1980 surgery had closed off , which meant that he needed a surgical bypass in his left leg . Richard was granted free agency by the Astros on November 7 , 1983 , but the Astros still had faith in him , so he was re @-@ signed on February 17 of the following year . Just a little over two months later , he was released by the Astros , thus ending his baseball career . Despite an almost complete recovery , the risk of future complications was so great that he never pitched again . His final major league record was 107 – 71 , with 1 @,@ 493 strikeouts and a 3 @.@ 15 ERA in 238 games and 1 @,@ 606 innings . Nolan Ryan broke his Astros record for career strikeouts in 1987 . = = Career statistics = = * = Led NL † = Top 10 in National League ∞ = Selected to All @-@ Star Team * * = Top 10 in Cy Young Award voting ‡ = Top 10 in MVP voting Source : = = After baseball = = After his professional baseball career ended , Richard returned to Louisiana and invested in some business ventures . He fell prey to an oil business scam , losing over $ 300 @,@ 000 in the deal . A few years later , Richard paid $ 669 @,@ 000 in a divorce settlement to ex @-@ wife Carolyn . He married and divorced again , losing his suburban Houston home and most of his money . In 1989 , Richard was drafted into the Senior Professional Baseball Association and played for the Orlando Juice but was cut from the team in preseason play . In the winter of 1994 , Richard was homeless and destitute and lived under a highway overpass in Houston . By 1995 , Richard was eligible for his pension from Major League Baseball . He played in the Old @-@ Timers ' Day game with the Astros in the same year . In the following months , after spending many nights under the overpass Highway 59 at Beechnut Road in Houston , he turned to the Now Testament Church and sought help from its minister , Reverend Floyd Lewis . Richard overcame his homelessness by working with this minister , with a belief that he " always knew God was on his side " . Richard started working at an asphalt company and later returned to the church as a minister . Richard became involved in the Houston community , working with local financial donors to help establish baseball programs for children . A small @-@ budget 2005 movie , Resurrection : The J. R. Richard Story , depicted Richard 's baseball career as well as his life after baseball .
= John Kefalas = John Michael Kefalas ( born December 26 , 1954 ) is a legislator in the U.S. state of Colorado . An educator and lobbyist before first running for the legislature in 2004 , Kefalas defeated a Republican incumbent to win election to the Colorado House of Representatives as a Democrat in 2006 . Kefalas won election to the State Senate in 2012 and he now represents Senate District 14 . In the legislature , Kefalas has focused primarily on health care and poverty issues . = = Biography = = = = = Early life , education , and career = = = Born in Piraeus , Greece , Kefalas earned a bachelor 's degree in botany from Colorado State University in 1978 and then joined the Peace Corps in 1979 , serving as an agricultural extension worker in El Salvador . After returning to the United States , he earned a master 's degree in teaching , with a secondary science specialization from Fairleigh Dickinson University in 1982 and taught in the Poudre School District . He has also worked as an employment counselor for Larimer County , Colorado , and as a health outreach worker . = = = Public service and volunteerism = = = From 1997 to 2004 , Kefalas worked as a public policy advocate and community development coordinator for Catholic Charities until his departure amidst a controversy regarding his public support for Roe v. Wade and abortion rights during his 2004 legislative campaign . Before entering the legislature , he directed the Colorado Progressive Coalition 's Tax Fairness Project . He has served as a member of the Fort Collins Housing Authority and the Colorado Social Legislation Committee , and , in 2001 , won the City of Fort Collins Human Relations Award . From 1980 to 1994 , Kefalas redirected a portion of his federal income taxes to charitable organizations as a protest against United States military actions in Central America . He has paid his income taxes in full since 1994 , but continued to boycott the federal telephone excise tax as recently as 2004 . As a result , Kefalas has had a lien filed him and has had wages garnished . Kefalas has paid his back taxes and considers his actions to be a conscientious protest . He has also written about his experience of " war tax resistance " for the newsletter of the National War Tax Resistance Coordinating Committee . In both his 2004 and 2006 legislative campaigns , Kefalas was accused of avoiding his federal tax obligation , both by his Republican opponent and by independent political committees . Kefalas has also been an outspoken opponent of the Iraq War , and has engaged in non @-@ violent civil disobedience in protest of the war . Kefalas is married ; he and his wife Beth have two sons — Harlan , an active @-@ duty U.S. Army soldier who has served in Iraq , Kosovo , and Afghanistan , and Timothy , the coach of the Colorado State University ultimate frisbee team . = = Legislative career = = = = = 2004 and 2006 campaigns = = = Kefalas first ran for the state legislature in 2004 , winning the Democratic Party primary by only seven votes over Fort Collins councilman Bill Bertschy after a recount process that lasted for several weeks . Kefalas lost the general election by fewer than 500 votes to incumbent Republican Bob McCluskey in a race that also included Libertarian Party candidate Jassen Bowman . Kefalas ran unchallenged for the Democratic nomination in 2006 , and narrowly prevailed over McCluskey in the general election . = = = 2007 legislative session = = = In the 2007 @-@ 2008 session of the Colorado General Assembly , Kefalas sat on the House Finance Committee and the House Health and Human Services Committee . While in the legislature , he sponsored successful bills to encourage state purchasing of " environmentally preferable " products , to allow Colorado State University to require graduate student health insurance , and to create licensing standards for hemodialysis technicians . Kefalas proposed a bill to explore alternative voting systems , which was defeated in committee , but which led to the creation of an 11 @-@ member multi @-@ partisan task force to study related issues . Another of Kefalas ' proposed bills , which would have required the Colorado Department of Revenue to regularly report on tax burdens across individual income groups , was also defeated in committee . During his first year in the legislature , Kefalas also founded the bipartisan Common Good Caucus to address poverty issues , and was a member of the Hispanic Caucus and the Diabetes / Obesity Caucus . = = = 2008 legislative session = = = In the 2008 session of the Colorado General Assembly , Kefalas sat on the House Finance Committee and the House Health and Human Services Committee . Representative Kefalas was joined by chief of staff Anne Bellows , a legal and civil rights expert . For the 2008 legislative session , Kefalas worked with other Fort Collins legislators , particularly Rep. Randy Fischer , on bills to increase scrutiny of proposed uranium mining operations . While one bill , which would require that groundwater quality be restored following mining operations , passed the state legislature and was signed into law , another measure , which would have created stronger public disclosure requirements for mining operations , was killed in committee , but later revived in the state senate . With Sen. Ron Tupa , Kefalas was the house sponsor of legislation designed to reduce the cost of college textbooks by requiring textbook publishers to disclose costs and offer textbooks unbundled from additional materials , and he sponsored legislation to allow outpatient surgery centers to establish peer review committees ; both bills were signed into law by Gov. Ritter . For his support of ambulatory surgical centers , Kefalas was awarded the Legislator of the Year Award by the Colorado Ambulatory Surgery Center Association later that year . Kefalas also sponsored a bill to authorize local pilot tests of ranked choice voting methods . Kefalas sponsored a bill to establish a Colorado Housing Investment Fund , but withdrew the bill when proponents moved forward with a similar ballot initiative . He later expressed frustration when plans for the ballot measure were withdrawn . Building on his 2007 bill to allow purchasing of " green " products , Kefalas also sponsored a measure to require Colorado governments to consider products ' expected life and cost of ownership in making purchasing decisions , which was signed into law . Among Kefalas ' top priorities is restoring and expanding Colorado 's earned income tax credit , a move which met with resistance from legislative leaders in 2007 due to budget constraints . Kefalas introduced a bill in the 2008 session to restore Colorado 's EITC at ten percent of the federal credit , but the bill was defeated in a House committee . = = = 2008 election = = = Holding office in a closely contested district , Kefalas is expected to be targeted by Colorado Republicans during his 2008 re @-@ election bid , which he formally announced in January 2008 . Since taking office , Kefalas sought to maintain a dialogue with constituents by leading a series of monthly " community conversations " on topics ranging from health care to mobile home parks , and named sustainable economic development his top priority in office . Former Rep. Bob McCluskey announced his intention to run against Kefalas in February 2008 , pitting the two against each other for the third time in as many election cycles and creating a competitive race in what was seen as one of Colorado 's " swing " districts . During the campaign , Kefalas held a fundraising advantage over McCluskey , with $ 60 @,@ 000 cash on hand — three times as much as McCluskey — in mid @-@ September . By late October , Kefalas had raised over $ 100 @,@ 000 , about $ 15 @,@ 000 short of McCluskey 's fundraising total ; which included $ 65 @,@ 000 that McCluskey donated to his own campaign . McCluskey targeted Kefalas with a direct mail advertisement blaming Kefalas and the Democratic state legislature for high gasoline prices , a tactic Kefalas dismissed as " negative campaigning . " Kefalas also condemned independent ads attacking McCluskey 's legislative record as having " crossed the line of civility . " The 527 group Accountability for Colorado also spent over $ 50 @,@ 000 in support of Kefalas ' re @-@ election , including mailers attacking McCluskey 's legislative record ; Kefalas also expressed disapproval of these advertisements . McCluskey 's bid to unseat Kefalas was endorsed by the Denver Post , while Kefalas was endorsed by the Windsor Beacon and the Fort Collins Coloradoan . Kefalas ultimately won a second term with about 59 percent of the popular vote , becoming the first Democrat to win re @-@ election in the east Fort Collins district since 1936 . = = = 2009 legislative session = = = For the 2009 legislative session , Kefalas was named to seats on the House Appropriations Committee , the House Finance Committee , and the House Health and Human Services Committee . Kefalas has named health care reform as his top priority and plans on introducing legislation to create a single @-@ payer universal health care system in Colorado during the 2009 session . The bill was introduced as a proposal to create a 23 @-@ member commission to make recommendations as to how to implement a single @-@ payer system , and was reported favorably out of a House committee . However , Kefalas was one vote short of the 33 necessary to pass the legislation out of the house , and in April , asked that the legislation be killed . Kefalas also sponsored the Colorado Innovation Investment Tax Credit , legislation to create $ 750 @,@ 000 in tax credits for angel investors in startup companies , to increase support for job training programs , and to create a Colorado Railroad Authority to begin planning for statewide passenger rail service . Kefalas also sponsored legislation to create an Economic Opportunity / Poverty Reduction Task Force , which he chaired following the regular session . The committee 's objective is to develop plans to reduce Colorado 's poverty rate by half in ten years , examining a broad range of issues from economic development to education to transportation to tax policy , and it considered potential legislation on topics ranging from the earned income tax credit to rent control . Following the legislation session , Kefalas was the only male legislator honored with the Colorado Lawmakers Award by the Denver Women ’ s Commission and the Colorado Women ’ s Chamber of Commerce . = = = 2010 election = = = In August 2009 , Kefalas announced his intention to seek a third term in the legislature in the November 2010 legislative elections . Kefalas was reelected with 57 % of the vote . = = = 2012 election = = = Representative Kefalas announced that he would seek election to the state senate seat vacated by Bob Bacon . Kefalas ' bid was endorsed by The Fort Collins Coloradoan and several former elected officials . In the 2012 General Election , Representative Kefalas faced Republican challenger Syndi Anderson for the open Senate seat . Kefalas was elected by a wide margin of 58 % to 36 % with the remainder of the vote going to third @-@ party candidates . Senator Kefalas now represents the people of State Senate District 14 .
= Rika 's Landing Roadhouse = Rika 's Landing Roadhouse , also known as Rika 's Landing Site or the McCarty Roadhouse , is a roadhouse located at a historically important crossing of the Tanana River , in the Southeast Fairbanks Area , Alaska , United States . It is off mile 274 @.@ 5 of the Richardson Highway in Big Delta . The roadhouse is named after Rika Wallen , who acquired it from John Hajdukovich and operated it for many years . It became a hub of activity in that region of the interior . With the construction of the ALCAN ( now Alaska ) Highway and the replacement of the ferry with a bridge downstream , traffic moved away and patronage declined . The roadhouse was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1976 , and is now a centerpiece of Big Delta State Historical Park , also listed on the National Register . = = Background = = The Richardson Highway , an important route through the Alaska Interior that contributed significantly to development and settlement of the region , began as a pack trail from the port at Valdez to Eagle , downstream on the Yukon River from Dawson . It was built in 1898 by the U.S. Army to provide an " all @-@ American " route to the Klondike gold fields during the gold rush . After the rush ended , the Army kept the trail open in order to connect its posts at Fort Liscum in Valdez , and Fort Egbert in Eagle . The Valdez @-@ to @-@ Eagle trail , and its branch to Fairbanks , became one of the most important access routes to the Alaska Interior during the Fairbanks ' gold rush of 1902 , and the 1903 construction of a WAMCATS telegraph line along the trail . This was accomplished by men of the U.S. Army Signal Corps , directed in part by then @-@ Lieutenant Billy Mitchell , who later rose to the rank of general . Many roadhouses , some 37 in all and some now listed on the National Register of Historic Places , were built along this trail for the convenience of travelers . These roadhouses offered meals , sleeping quarters , and supplies . They were typically located about 15 to 20 miles apart . = = Early activity = = The Tanana River was one of the major rivers to be crossed by travelers along the Valdez @-@ Eagle trail . A ferry was established just upriver of the Tanana 's confluence with the Delta River , at a location then called Bates Landing . Bates Landing was about 12 km ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) north of the current settlement of Delta Junction , in the area known now as Big Delta . The government collected a ferry toll on the south side from all those traveling northbound . The WAMCATS telegraph line was relocated to parallel the trail after a fire . McCarty Station was established at the line 's crossing of the Tanana in 1907 to maintain the telegraph . Several log cabins housed the telegraph office , a dispatcher , two repairmen and their supplies . A trading post was constructed on the south bank of the Tanana , at Bates Landing in April 1904 by a prospector named Ben Bennett on his claim of 80 acres ( 32 ha ) , but Bennett sold the post and land to Daniel G. McCarty in April 1905 . However since E.T. Barnette , the founder of Fairbanks , and McCarty 's former employer , had financed the goods in the post , Barnette retained ownership of them . The post property , now being used as a roadhouse , soon became known as McCarty 's . Another prospector named Alonzo Maxey , and a friend , built Bradley 's Roadhouse to compete with McCarty 's and by 1907 , McCarty 's had been transferred to Maxey . = = Hajdukovich era = = In 1906 , or perhaps sometime after , Jovo ' John ' Hajdukovich ( Montenegrin : Jovo Hajduković , Јово Хајдуковић ) , an entrepreneur who had come to Alaska from Montenegro in 1903 , sensed a business opportunity and purchased the trading post and roadhouse from Maxey . Hajdukovich built a new and bigger roadhouse in 1909 using logs floated downriver . He continued to use the old trading post to store his gear . Hadukovich had other business interests , including prospecting , freighting , acting as a hunting guide by taking hunting parties into the nearby Granite Mountains , and trading with , and advocating for , the Athabaskan natives . ( Later he was instrumental in founding the Tetlin Reserve . ) After he was appointed as US Game Commissioner for the area , he could no longer personally operate the roadhouse full @-@ time . As with many informally managed roadhouses , Hadukovich asked travelers to " make themselves at home and leave some money on the table " for what they used . Despite this informality , the operations prospered . Starting in 1904 , the trail was improved and upgraded . In 1907 , By 1910 , the Alaska Road Commission completed the upgrade , making the trail usable as a wagon road . Major Wilds P. Richardson led the project and later became the namesake for the highway . He was promoted to general later in his career . ) Stages plied the road , using horse @-@ drawn sledges in winter and wagons in summer . By 1913 the roadhouse was a local center of activity for gold prospectors , local hunters , traders , and freighters . Meanwhile Erika ' Rika ' Wallen , born Lovisa Erika Jakobson in 1874 on a farm near Örebro Sweden , immigrated with her sister in 1891 to the United States . They traveled to Minneapolis , Minnesota to join their brother Carl Jakobson . There they changed their last name to Wallen to distinguish themselves from the many other Jacobsons and Jakobsons . After Carl died in an accident , the sisters moved to San Francisco , which they heard was booming . Rika took a job as a cook for the Hills Brothers coffee family , which lasted until the 1906 San Francisco earthquake . In 1916 Rika Wallen traveled to Valdez , reportedly " because she thought Alaska would be like Sweden " . = = Rika Wallen takes over the Roadhouse = = After jobs cooking at the Kennecott copper mine and for a Fairbanks boarding house , Rika Wallen made her way to Big Delta . In 1917 , or 1918 , she was hired by Hadukovich to manage operations at his roadhouse , then still known as McCarty 's . Although Hadukovich had many business interests , he was not always solvent . For example , in later years he failed to be paid for timber he supplied to the ALCAN Highway project due to not keeping adequate records . In either 1918 , or 1923 , he transferred ownership of the roadhouse to Wallen for " $ 10 @.@ 00 and other considerations , " presumably in lieu of back wages . Their friendship and partnership continued for many years ; historians and writers have not been able to define their relationship . Following local custom of naming places for people , the roadhouse was soon named Rika 's . At that time , the roadhouse had eleven bedrooms , a living room , and a large kitchen / dining area . By 1925 , Wallen had applied for US citizenship , and filed a homestead claim on 160 acres ( 65 ha ) . She began growing food and raising livestock , including sheep , chicken , and goats . Sheep provided wool that she wove , and the goats provided milk , from which she made butter and cheese . She also raised silver fox , ducks , geese , rabbits and honeybees . She cultivated grain by using a yoke of oxen for plowing . Rika was a talented farmer , and she successfully grew crops where others failed . She developed a heating and ventilation system for her stable to protect the livestock through the harsh winters . When Wallen bought the roadhouse , it still had packed dirt floors and rough wood walls . To improve the interior , she scavenged wallpaper , sometimes using different patterns on different walls of the same room . She made a hardwood parquet floor from wooden kerosene crates collected from the freighters and boatmen who patronized the roadhouse . Her ability to grow crops and to make a pleasant space transformed the inn and its offerings . For meals , she provided fresh milk and eggs , berries , fish , game , and produce picked from the garden and nearby orchard . Afterward , travelers could go to clean , comfortable beds in the multi @-@ story building . A 1929 travelogue of the Richardson Highway described Rika 's by the following : " a commodious roadhouse boasting of such luxuries as fresh milk and domestic fowls . " About 1926 , Rika added a wing , which she used for additional living space , a liquor store , fur storage , and the Big Delta ( then known as Washburn ) Post Office . She was appointed as the US postmaster and served until 1946 . Eventually Wallen also homesteaded an adjoining piece of land , bringing her holdings to 320 acres ( 130 ha ) . = = End of an era = = The construction of the Alaska Railroad was completed in 1922 , but by the 1930s , due to effects of the Great Depression , freight traffic declined on the railroad . In 1935 , the Alaska Road Commission tried to force shippers to use the railroad , and raised the toll at the Tanana ferry crossing to almost 10 dollars a ton . The truckers rebelled at this , with some violent skirmishes . Pirate ferry operations were started , lasting until the start of World War II . With the coming of the war and construction of the ALCAN Highway , which connected to the Richardson south of Big Delta , road traffic waned further . The ferry crossing was replaced by a wooden bridge , and later , a larger steel bridge was constructed downriver . This caused rerouting of the highway away from the roadhouse , drawing off traffic and travelers . Wallen operated the roadhouse through the 1940s and early 1950s , although in later years guests were by invitation only . John Hajdukovich died in 1965 , and Rika Wallen died four years later in 1969 . = = Big Delta State Historical Park = = According to Judy Ferguson in Parallel Destinies , a biography of Hajdukovich and Wallen : " For fifty years , Rika was a stake in the ground for the roaming John . While John traded and prospected , Rika ran the hub of the Upper Tanana 's cross @-@ roads . Her establishment was " town " to the three hundred people who walked the trails to the Alaskan @-@ Canadian border . John and Rika were the history of the Upper Tanana Valley . " Rika 's Roadhouse , the adjacent outbuildings , and property are preserved as the Big Delta State Historical Park . In 1976 the roadhouse was placed on the National Register of Historic Places , and the entire cluster was listed as the " Big Delta Historic District " in 1991 . The structure was restored in 1984 by Stanton and Stanton Construction ( owned and operated by brothers , Eldon and Richard Stanton ) . It was placed on a new foundation using original timbers , and in some areas , the packing crate floor was restored . It is now operated as a " house museum " ; some rooms have been fitted with 1920s @-@ 1930s period furniture and accessories donated by local residents . The property also has a food service facility called the " Packhouse Pavilion " operated by a local concessionaire .
= Bobby Dodd = Robert Lee Dodd ( November 11 , 1908 – June 21 , 1988 ) was an American college football coach at Georgia Tech . He was elected to the College Football Hall of Fame as a player and coach , something that only three people have accomplished . After playing quarterback at the University of Tennessee , he served as an assistant coach under William Alexander at Georgia Tech beginning in December 1930 . Alexander made the hire while Dodd was still a student at Tennessee . Dodd succeeded Alexander in 1945 as the third head coach at the Institute . He retired from coaching after the 1966 season , compiling a 165 – 64 – 8 record . He also served as Athletic Director from 1950 until 1976 . All together , Dodd served Georgia Tech 57 years in various capacities . Bobby Dodd died in June 1988 at the age of 79 in Atlanta , Georgia . = = Early life = = Robert Lee " Bobby " Dodd was born in 1908 in Galax , Virginia . He was named after another famous Virginian , Confederate General Robert E. Lee . Dodd was the youngest of Edwin and Susan Dodd 's four children . In the fall of 1921 , the Dodd family relocated to Kingsport , Tennessee . When Dodd was twelve years old and weighed only 100 pounds , he made the seventh @-@ grade team of Kingsport 's first organized football program . However , the happiness of Bobby Dodd 's early life came to a sad end in 1924 when his father committed suicide due to business failure and financial troubles . The family was forced to move , but was held together by the perseverance of Dodd 's mother . During the next three seasons , the Kingsport Indians football team at Dobyns Bennett High School was very successful gaining two state titles . They were helped by Dodd , who moved from receiver to quarterback and kicker positions . In 1926 , Bobby Dodd graduated high school and was admitted to the University of Tennessee with a football scholarship . = = Player = = Bobby Dodd played quarterback for the Tennessee Volunteers football team from 1928 to 1930 , playing under legendary coach Robert Neyland . He wore number 17 . Dodd wanted to play for Georgia Tech but was not offered a scholarship . Ironically , he would later go on to coach the Yellow Jackets . In the games that Dodd started at UT , the Vols held a record of 27 – 1 – 2 . Dodd was a difference in one famous game . During his sophomore year , in his first game of The Third Saturday in October rivalry against Alabama played in Tuscaloosa , " Dodd threw a touchdown pass in that game to tie Alabama , 13 – 13 . Then he punted out of bounds inside the Alabama 1 @-@ yard line and Tennessee got a safety on the next play to win , 15 – 13 " . Another instance in Dodd 's career foreshadowed the creativity he would use in his coaching career . " Against Florida in 1930 he got his teammates in a huddle and told them about a play he had used in high school . When the ball was snapped , it was placed on the ground unattended . The players ran in one direction . Then the center returned , picked up the ball , and waltzed to the winning touchdown . " This play would later come to be popularly known as the " fumblerooski " , after Nebraska famously used it in the 1984 Orange Bowl versus Miami . Tennessee fans even developed a catch phrase for Dodd during his time there : " In Dodd we trust " . During his time at UT , Dodd twice earned All @-@ Southern team honors . Dodd led Tennessee to back @-@ to @-@ back unbeaten seasons with identical 9 @-@ 0 @-@ 1 records his sophomore and junior years . During Dodd 's era , the Vols went 33 games without a loss until an 18 @-@ 6 setback against Alabama in 1930 , which ranks as the longest unbeaten streak in UT history . After the loss , Dodd and his teammates helped kick off a 28 @-@ game unbeaten streak that ranks as the second longest . " It is doubtful if any quarterback in the south can match Dodd on all @-@ around ability . He is a fine passer , a punter of ability , and the greatest field general to ever grace southern turf since the days of the one and only Pooley Hubert , " according to newspaper article of this era . In his senior year " The Dodger " again showed his versatility in a 13 @-@ 0 win against Vanderbilt . Dodd finished with 14 punts for a 42 @-@ yard average , had nine carries for 39 yards , was 7 @-@ of @-@ 12 passing for 159 yards and two touchdowns and intercepted two passes . During that game , Dodd gained 212 all @-@ purpose yards , collecting all but 14 of Tennessee 's team total of 226 . The Vols finished the 1930 season with 9 @-@ 1 record , and Dodd earned multiple honors for his dominance on the gridiron . Dodd was named to Grantland Rice 's All @-@ American team in 1930 , making him the 2nd granted that honor at Tennessee ( following Gene McEver ) . In 1959 , Dodd was named to the University of Tennessee 's Hall of Fame and to the College Football Hall of Fame as a player . He was elected in the same year as teammate Herman Hickman . He was nominated though not selected for an Associated Press All @-@ Time Southeast 1920 @-@ 1969 era team . Dodd also won varsity letters in baseball , basketball , and track during his time at Tennessee . = = Coach = = After being recognized as 1928 national champions , Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets football team struggled during the next two season . Georgia Tech football coach William Alexander began looking for a new assistant . During 1930 football season , Alexander sent his line coach , Mac Tharpe , to scout future opponent North Carolina , playing Tennessee in Knoxville . Tharpe 's car broke down and by the time he reached Knoxville , the game was over . Tharpe asked Tennessee head coach Bob Neyland for information , who suggested that he talk to Dodd . When Tharpe returned to Atlanta he told Alexander : " Dodd 's analysis of Carolina is better than any scouting report that I could have made . " Alexander was also impressed by reports of Dodd 's performance during games . Dodd joined Alexander 's staff as an assistant coach on December 28 , 1930 . Dodd served as an assistant coach at Tech for 14 years , even though he received many offers for head coaching positions from other schools during that time frame . Dodd lionized Coach Alexander which was later reflected in his coaching style . " He taught me to treat athletes as men , not boys - to never use their failings as an alibi for a loss , " Dodd said . Dodd took over the Georgia Tech football program in 1945 following Coach Alexander 's retirement as head football coach . Dodd 's coaching philosophy revolved around player treatment and character development . He did not believe in intense physical practices but rather precise and well executed practices . Dodd 's philosophy translated to winning ; he set the record for career wins at Tech at 165 career coaching wins , including a 31 @-@ game unbeaten streak from 1951 – 1953 . He also managed to capture two Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) championships ( 1951 and 1952 ) and the 1952 national title , which concluded a perfect 12 – 0 season and Sugar Bowl conquest of Ole Miss . Under Dodd 's leadership , Tech played in 13 major bowl games , winning 9 , including six in a row from 1952 to 1956 . Bobby Dodd compiled a 165 – 64 – 8 record as head coach at Georgia Tech . Football was Dodd 's lifelong passion , but at Tech he was just as obsessed with the notion that his players should get an education as he was with teaching them how to play football . Other coaches and sportswriters of his era were united in their puzzlement that anyone could coach with such a light hand and still win so many games . However , Coach Dodd knew that his " Books First " reputation caused parents to favor Georgia Tech over his competition . Georgia Tech often played teams that were physically superior but Bobby Dodd would still find a way win . The experts called it " Dodd 's luck , " but his success actually came from an understanding of motivational psychology , football strategy , and innovative game @-@ planning . Georgia Tech football was Atlanta 's one major sports franchise during this time frame . To hold a ticket to watch the Yellow Jackets play was highly valued and was difficult to obtain . During the games , Bobby Dodd sat in a folding chair at a card table on the side line , rarely standing or showing interest in the game . Dodd took his seat and left the pacing to his assistants . When a crisis arose , Dodd would decide which plays to be run and the designated players to run them . Dodd sometimes made unusual substitutions , as on a Saturday in Athens when Georgia Tech was about to be upset . Dodd sent in a small halfback who had been frequently injured during his career , who then broke to the right faking a run , stopped , threw a pass for a touchdown and returned to the bench . What Dodd brought to Grant Field was a kind of unbruising football other coaches couldn 't understand : runty halfbacks ; lightweight linemen ; rarely a classic quarterback . Once free substitution became possible , no one made more use of it than Dodd . Georgia Tech had an intense rivalry with University of Alabama which ended during Bobby Dodd 's tenure as head football coach . Until that time , the matchup between the Crimson Tide and the Yellow Jackets was a fall football classic . The two teams have met on the gridiron a total of 52 times with Georgia Tech coming away victorious in 21 of those matchups with 3 additional tied games . Bobby Dodd 's football teams won 7 out of 17 games played against the University of Alabama . The contests were annual events until Georgia Tech withdrew from the SEC . Dodd considered two of his biggest victories at Tech came against Alabama , including a 7 – 3 victory in 1952 and a 7 – 6 victory in 1962 . The former victory secured a perfect season for Georgia Tech which led to a national title . The latter victory came against a top ranked Alabama team and cost the Crimson Tide another national title . Dodd also understood the deep @-@ seated rivalry with the University of Georgia . His teams won 8 games in a row over the Bulldogs from 1949 – 1956 outscoring the Bulldogs 176 – 39 during the winning streak . This 8 – game winning streak is still the longest winning streak for either side in the series , which is commonly referred to as " The Drought " by UGA football fans . Dodd would finish his career with a 12 – 10 record against the Bulldogs . By the end of his coaching career , Dodd had built a reputation not only as a good coach , but also as a lucky one . University of Georgia 's longtime football coach Wallace Butts once said " If Bobby Dodd were trapped in the center of an H @-@ Bomb explosion , he 'd walk away with his pockets full of marketable uranium . " However , the following describes Dodd 's perspective regarding his luck : In 1967 , Dodd stepped down as head football coach due to health concerns , and he was succeeded by assistant Bud Carson . Dodd simply retained his athletic director position , which he had acquired in 1950 from William Alexander . Dodd retired as athletic director in 1976 and was followed in the position by Doug Weaver . Dodd continued to serve during his retirement years as an Alumni Association consultant and as a fundraiser for Georgia Tech . In 1983 , he expressed interest in running a United States Football League team if Atlanta were awarded one , but the league folded before Atlanta received a team . = = Integration = = During Bobby Dodd 's tenure , Georgia Tech played against several integrated football teams while the South was resisting integration . Georgia Tech played against Notre Dame in 1953 with Wayne Edmonds starting at offensive tackle and defensive end for the Irish . Edmonds was the first black player to win a monogram at Notre Dame . Georgia Tech lost to Notre Dame by score 27 @-@ 14 . Georgia Tech also participated in the first integrated bowl game in the Deep South . The 1956 Sugar Bowl featured the 7th ranked Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets , and the 11th ranked Pitt Panthers . There was controversy over whether Bobby Grier from Pitt should be allowed to play because he was black , and whether Georgia Tech should even play at all due to Georgia governor Marvin Griffin 's opposition to integration . Ultimately , Bobby Grier played which made the game the first integrated Sugar Bowl and the first integrated bowl game in the Deep South . Georgia Tech won the 1956 Sugar Bowl by score 7 @-@ 0 . Bobby Dodd oversaw the integration of Georgia Tech football team as Athletic Director . Eddie McAshan was the first African American football player to start for Georgia Tech . Bud Carson started McAshan in 1970 at quarterback as a sophomore and McAshan would go on to set several career records for Georgia Tech ( which have since been broken by Shawn Jones and Joe Hamilton ) . McAshan 's first career start was on September 12 , 1970 against South Carolina . His start marked the first time that an African American had ever started at quarterback for a major Southeastern university and McAshan did not disappoint . He rallied Tech with a fourth quarter deficit , defeating the Gamecocks 23 @-@ 20 with two late touchdown drives . McAshan threw for 32 touchdowns during his college football career , and Georgia Tech had 22 @-@ 13 @-@ 1 record during that time frame . = = Georgia Tech 's withdrawal from SEC = = = = = Feud with Bear Bryant = = = Dodd 's tenure included Georgia Tech 's withdrawal from the Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) . The initial spark for Dodd 's withdrawal was an historic feud with Alabama Crimson Tide Coach Bear Bryant . The feud began when Tech was playing the Tide at Legion Field in Birmingham in 1961 . After a Tech punt , Alabama fair @-@ caught the ball . Chick Graning of Tech was playing coverage and relaxed after the signal for the fair catch . Darwin Holt of Alabama continued play and smashed his elbow into Graning 's face causing severe fracturing in his face , a broken nose , and blood @-@ filled sinuses . Graning was knocked unconscious and suffered a severe concussion , the result of which left him unable to play football ever again . Dodd sent Bryant a letter asking Bryant to suspend Holt after game film indicated Holt had intentionally injured Graning . Bryant never suspended Holt . The lack of discipline infuriated Dodd and sparked Dodd 's interest in withdrawing from the SEC . Georgia Tech lost that game , 10 – 0 , and Alabama went on to win its first Associated Press national championship . = = = Over @-@ recruitment = = = Another issue of concern for Dodd was Alabama 's and other SEC schools ' over @-@ recruitment of players . Universities would recruit more players than available space on their rosters . During the summer the teams in question would cut the players well after signing day . This practice prevented the cut players from being able to play for other colleges during the following football season . Dodd appealed the SEC administration to punish the " tryout camps " of his fellow SEC members but the SEC did not . Finally , Dodd withdrew Georgia Tech from the SEC after 1963 football season . Tech would remain an independent like Notre Dame and Penn State ( at the time ) during the final three years of Dodd 's coaching tenure . Dodd insisted the only reason he left the SEC was due to the " 140 Rule " , which allowed colleges to over @-@ recruit . The 140 Rule stated a college program could only have 140 football and basketball players on scholarship at any one time , but the teams were still allowed to sign up to 45 players a year . Therefore , if a school recruited its full allotment of players each year it would exceed the 140 maximum even with normal attrition . Dodd would sign about 30 @-@ 32 football players a year to meet the guidelines , but the other schools in the SEC were offering 45 scholarships a year , and most were allotting all but a nominal amount to football . Players not good enough to fall under the 140 Rule had their scholarships withdrawn before the end of each year by the other schools . Dodd insisted the recruiting of athletes by this method amounted to nothing more than a tryout for a scholarship . Dodd would not allow any of the football players choosing Tech to be dismissed from Tech , because they were not the best players . Dodd said , " it is not the recruit 's fault for not making the squad , it was the coaches ' fault for misjudging their talents . " If a recruit came to Tech , he would stay on a football scholarship until he graduated . Dodd wanted the SEC to limit the amount of scholarships to about 32 per year , which would keep the other schools from offering 45 scholarships , picking the best , and withdrawing scholarships from the rest . A vote was to be taken by the presidents of the colleges on the issue , and Dodd made it clear that Tech would have to leave the SEC unless the rule was changed . The presidents were split six for Dodd ’ s position and six against . Bear had promised Dodd he would get his president to vote for Dodd ’ s position , which would have changed the rule . When the meeting was held on January 24 , 1964 , the Alabama president voted against Dodd ’ s position and the 140 Rule was upheld . Tech ’ s president immediately walked to the podium and announced Tech was withdrawing from the SEC . = = Legacy and awards = = Dodd was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame as a player in 1959 and as a coach in 1993 . He was voted Southeastern Conference Coach of the Year by his fellow coaches in 1951 , and " National Coach of the Year " by the New York Daily News poll in 1952 . After retiring , he was awarded a special " Citation of Honor " by the Football Writers Association of America for his accomplishments and contributions to football . Dodd also developed 22 recognized All @-@ America football players as head football coach . Dodd was also inducted into the Virginia Sports Hall of Fame in 1973 . Coach Dodd has also received honors not related to football . The Bobby Dodd Institute is an organization that helps people with disabilities ; it is named in honor of Coach Dodd for his assistance to the disabled . = = = Bobby Dodd Stadium = = = Georgia Tech named its stadium Bobby Dodd Stadium in honor of the legendary coach in April 1988 , two months before he died . In 1989 part of Third Street located next to Bobby Dodd Stadium was rechristened Bobby Dodd Way . On Friday September 14 , 2012 , Georgia Tech provided another honor for the former coach by unveiling the Bobby Dodd statue in Callaway Plaza on the Georgia Tech campus , which was funded by former players for Coach Dodd . In attendance for the unveiling included members of the 1952 national championship squad , the President of the Institute , Bud Peterson , athletic director , current head football coach , Paul Johnson , and Bobby Dodd 's son and daughter . = = = Bobby Dodd Coach of the Year Award = = = While Bobby Dodd was a determined competitor , he cared deeply for those who played for him . Unlike some other coaches , he did not believe in winning at any costs ; he truly believed that the most important aspect of college football was the college football player . As a testament to the character of Bobby Dodd , each year a Division I college coach whose team excels on the field , in the classroom , and in the community is awarded the Bobby Dodd Coach of the Year Award , presented by the Bobby Dodd Coach of the Year Foundation . = = = Influence on other coaches = = = Many coaches have been influenced by Dodd 's style and approach to the game , including Vince Dooley , University of Georgia 's longtime football coach , who was the first recipient of the Bobby Dodd Coach of the Year Award . In addition , several assistant coaches for Bobby Dodd went on to have successful careers as head football coach for other colleges , including Frank Broyles with University of Arkansas and Ray Graves with University of Florida . Broyles led the Razorbacks to 14 @-@ 7 victory over the Yellow Jackets in the 1960 Gator Bowl , which was the first bowl game Georgia Tech had lost with Bobby Dodd as head coach . The 1990 Georgia Tech National Championship football team was led by another coach named " Bobby , " who had more in common with Dodd than his first name . Like Dodd , Bobby Ross was a fair and caring coach who wanted his players to reach their potential in both academics and athletics . As a result , Bobby Ross won the Bobby Dodd Coach of the Year Award at the end of the 1990 football season . = = Head coaching record = = = = Family and personal life = = Dodd married Alice Davis in 1933 , and they had two children , Linda Dodd Thompson and Robert Lee Dodd Jr . , who played quarterback for the University of Florida during 1960 and 1961 football seasons . Dodd Jr. had wanted to play for Georgia Tech , but Dodd thought it would be best if he played for another college . On October 1 , 1960 , Dodd Jr. contributed to Florida 's 18 @-@ 17 upset win over the Yellow Jackets at Florida Field with Ray Graves , Dodd 's former assistant , as the Gators ' head coach . Alice Davis was a younger sister to Wink Davis , who played half back on Georgia Tech football team . Dodd met Alice in 1931 through Ed Hamm , who was the track coach at that time . They went on a few double dates together and then Bobby started dating Alice . They postponed their wedding until after the 1933 football season since Dodd was coaching his future brother @-@ in @-@ law . Bobby Dodd and Bear Bryant ended their feud in 1975 after Bill Curry helped negotiate a peace settlement between the two old football coaches . As a result , Georgia Tech and Alabama resumed their series during 1979 through 1984 football seasons . Dodd stayed in touch with many of his former football players over the years , and he was like a father to them up until his death . " The record I am most proud of , " he said , " is from all those years of coaching I probably don 't have five former players who are bitter at me or Georgia Tech . That means more than the number of games we won . " Alice Dodd was named honorary alumnus of the Georgia Tech Alumni Association in 1967 . After her husband 's death in 1988 , she continued to attend Homecoming functions and special events , such as the 1991 Florida Citrus Bowl which led to Georgia Tech winning its fourth national championship .
= Jessica Hardy = Jessica Adele Hardy ( born March 12 , 1987 ) is an American competition swimmer who specializes in breaststroke and freestyle events . Hardy earned a bronze medal in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle and a gold medal in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relays at the 2012 Summer Olympics . She has won a total of twenty @-@ eight medals in major international competition , fourteen gold , nine silver , and five bronze spanning the Olympics , World and the Pan Pacific Championships . = = Personal life = = Hardy was born in Orange , California , in 1987 , the daughter of George Hardy and Denise Robinson . Her mother swam collegiately for Indiana State University for one week and is currently a psychotherapist . She is a 2005 graduate of Wilson Classical High School in Long Beach and was Swimming World 's Female High School Swimmer of the Year in 2004 and 2005 . Hardy attended the University of California , Berkeley , where she competed for coach Teri McKeever 's California Golden Bears swim team for two years . She was a four @-@ time NCAA Champion , and met her husband Dominik Meichtry , a Swiss swimmer and 3 @-@ time Olympian , at Berkeley . She gave up her eligibility and turned professional in 2007 , to train with coach Dave Salo for Trojan Swim Club of the University of Southern California . In 2016 , she announced that she would now be training with Mark Schubert at the Golden West Swim Club in Huntington Beach , CA . She also completed her Bachelors of Science degree from Arizona State University in 2016 . She married Dominik Meichtry on October 5 , 2013 . In 2015 , she released an autobiography , titled Swimming Toward the Gold Lining : How Jessica Hardy turned her wounds into wisdom , in 2015 . The book " covers her journey from trials to triumph , from wounds to wisdom , and from setbacks to comebacks . You know her name , but you won ’ t know her true story until you ’ ve read [ the ] book . " She also has a long history of philanthropy work with organizations such as the USA Swimming Foundation , the Jessie Rees Foundation , the Special Olympics , Surf Aid International , the Long Beach Water Department , and volunteering as an athlete representative on the Olympic Internal Operations Committee , the USA Swimming Steering Committee , and the USA Swimming Athletes ’ Executive Committee . = = 2005 – 08 = = At the 2005 World Aquatics Championships , a long course meet , Hardy competed in two individual breaststroke events and in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay . She won silver in all of those events . Hardy broke Leisel Jones ' world record in the semifinals of the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke on July 25 before ultimately finishing second in the finals two days later . In the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay , on July 30 , Hardy won a silver medal with Natalie Coughlin , Rachel Komisarz , and Amanda Weir . On July 31 , Hardy placed second in the 50 @-@ meter breaststroke , finishing behind Jade Edmistone of Australia . At the 2006 Short Course World Championships in Shanghai , Hardy competed in two individual breaststroke events and swam in the heats of the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay . At the conclusion of the meet , she won a silver and bronze medal . In the 50 @-@ meter breaststroke on April 6 , Hardy won a bronze medal , finishing behind Jade Edmistone and Brooke Hanson of Australia . Hardy then competed in the heats of the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay ( with Mary Mohler , Elaine Breeden , and Amanda Weir ) on April 7 , and won a silver medal after the United States placed second in the finals . On April 8 , Hardy finished in fourth place in the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke . At the 2007 World Aquatics Championships , a long course meet , Hardy competed in two individual breaststroke events and in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay . She won a gold and silver medal at this competition . In her first event , the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke , on March 27 , Hardy placed fourth . Hardy then swam in the heats of the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay ( with Leila Vaziri , Dana Vollmer , and Amanda Weir ) on March 31 , and won a silver medal after the United States placed second in the finals . On April 1 , Hardy won the gold in the 50 @-@ meter breaststroke . At the 2008 Short Course World Championships in Manchester , England , Hardy won a total of three gold medals . In her first event , the 50 @-@ meter breaststroke , on April 10 , Hardy won gold with a world record time of 29 @.@ 58 . In the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley , on April 11 , Hardy teamed with Margaret Hoelzer , Rachel Komisarz , and Kara Denby to win gold in a world record time of 3 : 51 @.@ 36 . Going into the final of the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke , Hardy was the clear favorite for gold . She topped the heats with a time of 1 : 05 @.@ 31 and broke the championship record in the semifinals with a time of 1 : 04 @.@ 63 both on April 11 . In the final of the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke , on April 12 , Hardy won gold with a time of 1 : 04 @.@ 22 , and broke her own championship record . = = Positive drug test = = At the 2008 U.S. Olympic Team Trials , Hardy qualified for the USA Olympic Team . A few weeks later , on July 23 , 2008 , Hardy was notified that the second of her three tests from the Trials came back as positive for low levels of clenbuterol ; this notification subsequently leaked to the media . Her attorney confirmed on July 24 , 2008 , that Hardy 's " A " and " B " samples from a test administered on July 4 were positive for clenbuterol . Hardy claimed innocence and said she had never even heard of clenbuterol . Media coverage of the issue noted that tainted supplements have played a part in some previous instances of bans . An example offered has been that of American swimmer Kicker Vencill , who won a lawsuit against a company that provided him with tainted supplements that resulted in a positive dope test and two @-@ year ban from the sport . Under both American and international regulations , a lack of knowledge of the source of the substance ingested is not considered to be a defence against a positive result . On August 1 , 2008 , following Hardy 's hearing before the United States Anti @-@ Doping Agency ( USADA ) , USADA released a statement stating , " The U.S. Anti @-@ Doping Agency ( USADA ) announced today that U.S. swimmer , Jessica Hardy , of Long Beach , CA , tested positive for the prohibited substance clenbuterol at the U.S. Olympic Trials on July 4 , 2008 , and has agreed to withdraw from the 2008 United States Olympic Team in the best interests of the team . " On August 1 , 2008 , Hardy officially , and voluntarily , left the 2008 U.S. Olympic Team . In May 2009 , it was announced that Hardy would be banned from the sport for one year for the positive test . On May 21 , 2010 , the Court of Arbitration for Sport ( CAS ) agreed with the 2009 decision of the American Arbitration Association and dismissed the appeal by WADA ( the World Anti @-@ Doping Agency ) to increase the suspension from one to two years . However , CAS did not entertain Hardy 's request to have the International Olympic Committee join this arbitration nor her request to make a recommendation on her eligibility for the 2012 London Olympic games . In April 2012 , it was announced that Hardy would be eligible for the 2012 Olympics . = = 2009 comeback = = Hardy returned from her suspension on August 5 , at the U.S. Open National Championships . On August 6 , Hardy broke Yuliya Yefimova 's world record in the 50 @-@ meter breaststroke ( long course ) with a time of 29 @.@ 95 to become the first woman under 30 seconds in the event . On August 7 , Hardy lowered the world record for the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke with a time of 1 : 04 @.@ 45 . En route to this world record , she also lowered her own world record in the 50 @-@ meter breaststroke with a time of 29 @.@ 80 . At the World Cup on October 17 , Hardy broke her own 50 @-@ meter breaststroke ( short course ) record set in April 2008 with a time of 29 @.@ 45 . On November 7 , Hardy again bettered her own world record in the 50 @-@ meter breaststroke ( short course ) with a time of 29 @.@ 36 . On November 12 , Hardy broke her own world record for the third time with a 28 @.@ 96 , the first woman to go sub 29 in the 50 @-@ meter short course breaststroke . On November 15 , Hardy bettered her record for the fourth time with a time of 28 @.@ 80 , 0 @.@ 16 seconds faster than her previous record . Hardy was the overall winner in the female division for the 2009 FINA Swimming World Cup . She received U.S. $ 100 @,@ 000 for her efforts . = = 2010 = = = = = 2010 National Championships = = = At the 2010 National Championships , Hardy made the American team that competed at the 2010 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships after finishing second in the 100 @-@ meter freestyle . On August 5 , despite being the world record holder in the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke , Hardy finished in seventh place with a time of 1 : 09 @.@ 24 . At the first 50 , Hardy came in first in 30 @.@ 92 , but faded badly at the end . Hardy did not blame her poor performances on her physical condition but rather her mental state . On her final chance of making the team , on August 7 , Hardy finished in second place in the 100 @-@ meter freestyle in 54 @.@ 14 , a personal best for her . After the competition , Hardy said , " I 've been struggling so much with the pressure I put on myself , especially in the 100 [ meter ] breaststroke . " = = = 2010 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships = = = Going into the 2010 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships , Hardy said her only goal was to have fun . Hardy competed in two individual freestyle events ( the 50 @-@ meter and 100 @-@ meter freestyle ) , the 50 @-@ meter butterfly , the 50 @-@ meter breaststroke , and in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley and freestyle relays . She went on to win four gold medals . On the first day of competition , on August 18 , Hardy competed in the 50 @-@ meter butterfly and finished in sixth place . On the second day of competition , on August 19 , Hardy didn 't qualify to swim in the 100 m freestyle A final and had to compete in the B final . In the 100 @-@ meter freestyle B final , she finished first with a time of 54 @.@ 16 . On the third day of competition , on August 20 , Hardy won gold in the 50 @-@ meter breaststroke and the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay . In the 50 @-@ meter breaststroke , Hardy won gold in a time of 30 @.@ 03 . Less than an hour later , Hardy competed in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay with Natalie Coughlin , Amanda Weir and Dana Vollmer . As the second leg of the relay , Hardy had a 53 @.@ 43 split , the fastest in the field . The next day , on August 21 , Hardy competed in both the 50 @-@ meter freestyle and the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay . In the 50 @-@ meter freestyle , Hardy won gold in a championship record time of 24 @.@ 63 , just ahead of Amanda Weir who recorded a time of 24 @.@ 70 . Hardy then competed in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay with Natalie Coughlin , Dana Vollmer and Rebecca Soni . As the freestyle leg , Hardy recorded a time of 53 @.@ 12 and the American team went on to win the gold medal in a time of 3 : 55 @.@ 23 . = = 2011 World Championships = = Hardy won the 50 @-@ meter breaststroke at the 2011 World Championships in Shanghai , China . She swam the race in 30 @.@ 19 seconds , beating defending champion and training partner Yuliya Efimova by 0 @.@ 3 seconds . It was her first win in the event since 2007 . After qualifying from the 50 @-@ meter freestyle heats with the joint fastest time , she finished eighth in the final . She also won a silver medal with the 4x100 @-@ meter freestyle relay . = = 2012 Summer Olympic Games = = At the 2012 United States Olympic Trials in Omaha , Nebraska , Hardy won the 50 @-@ meter freestyle with a time of 24 @.@ 50 seconds , and also won the 100 @-@ meter freestyle in 53 @.@ 96 seconds , thus qualifying to compete in those two events , as well as the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle and the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relays , at the 2012 Olympics . She also competed in the 100 @-@ meter breaststroke , and placed third in the final behind Olympic newcomer Breeja Larson and veteran Rebecca Soni . At the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , Hardy won her first Olympic medal , a bronze , in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle with Missy Franklin , Lia Neal and Allison Schmitt , when the U.S. team finished third behind the teams from Australia and the Netherlands . Swimming the second leg , Hardy had a split of 53 @.@ 53 seconds and the team finished with a total time of 3 : 34 @.@ 24 , an American record . She also earned a gold medal by swimming for the winning U.S. team in the preliminary heats of the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay . In her two individual events , she finished seventh in the 50 @-@ meter freestyle and eighth in the 100 @-@ meter freestyle . = = 2013 @-@ 2015 = = Jessica won a gold and two bronze medals at the long course 2013 World Championships in Barcelona , Spain . Her first bronze medal was in the 100 breaststroke , with her best time coming from the heats with a 1 : 05 @.@ 18 . Her second bronze medal was in the 50 breaststroke , tying her American Record time of 29 @.@ 80 seconds . The gold medal was in the 4x100 @-@ meter medley relay , swimming with Missy Franklin , Dana Vollmer , and Megan Romano . Jessica won gold in the 100 breaststroke at the 2014 Pan Pacific Championships , as well as a silver in the 4x100 @-@ meter medley relay with Missy Franklin , Kendyl Stewart , and Simone Manuel . She was voted team captain of the 2014 Pan Pacific USA team , along with Caitlin Leverenz , Matt Grevers , and Anthony Ervin . Despite competing on a SLAP shoulder tear , fractured ribs , and a micro @-@ fracture in her left knee , Jessica was able to compete in the final of the 50 breaststroke , finishing 5th , missing out on the gold medal by a mere .15 of a second . She also placed 4th in the 4x100 medley relay , and 10th in the individual 100 breaststroke . She was again voted team captain of the 2015 World Championships team along with Elizabeth Beisel , Cammile Adams , Matt Grevers , Anthony Ervin , and David Plummer . = = Personal bests = = As of June 30 , 2012 .
= Manchester Martyrs = The Manchester Martyrs – William Philip Allen , Michael Larkin , and Michael O 'Brien – were members of the Irish Republican Brotherhood , an organisation dedicated to ending British rule in Ireland . They were executed for the murder of a police officer in Manchester , England , in 1867 , during an incident that became known as the Manchester Outrages . The trio were members of a group of 30 – 40 Fenians who attacked a horse @-@ drawn police van transporting two arrested leaders of the Brotherhood , Thomas J. Kelly and Timothy Deasy , to Belle Vue Gaol . Police Sergeant Charles Brett , travelling inside with the keys , was shot and killed as the attackers attempted to force the van open by blowing the lock . Kelly and Deasy were released after another prisoner in the van took the keys from Brett 's body and passed them to the group outside through a ventilation grill ; the pair were never recaptured , despite an extensive search . Two others were also charged and found guilty of Brett 's murder , Thomas Maguire and Edward O 'Meagher Condon , but their death sentences were overturned : O 'Meagher Condon through the intercession of the United States government – he was an American citizen – and Maguire because the evidence given against him was considered unsatisfactory . Allen , Larkin , and O 'Brien were publicly hanged on a temporary structure built on the wall of Salford Gaol , on 23 November 1867 , in front of a crowd of 8 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 . Brett was the first Manchester City Police officer to be killed on duty , and he is memorialised in a monument in St Ann 's Church . Allen , Larkin , and O 'Brien are also memorialised , both in Manchester – where the Irish community made up more than 10 percent of the population – and in Ireland , where they were regarded by many as inspirational heroes . = = Background = = The whole of Ireland had been under British rule since the end of the Nine Years ' War in 1603 . The Irish Republican Brotherhood ( IRB ) was founded on 17 March 1858 by James Stephens , with the aim of establishing an independent democratic republic in Ireland . The IRB was a revolutionary fraternal organisation , rather than an insurrectionary conspiracy ; Stephens believed that a " thorough social revolution " was required in Ireland before the people could become republicans . The Fenian Brotherhood was founded in New York in 1858 by John O 'Mahony , ostensibly the IRB 's American wing . By 1865 the IRB had an estimated 100 @,@ 000 members , and was carrying out frequent acts of violence in metropolitan Britain . The Irish community in Manchester accounted for more than 10 per cent of the population , and one contemporary estimate put the number of Fenians and Fenian sympathisers living within 50 miles ( 80 km ) of the city at 50 @,@ 000 . In 1867 the Fenians were preparing to launch an armed uprising against British rule , but their plans became known to the authorities , and several key members of the movement 's leadership were arrested and convicted . Two succeeded in evading the police , Thomas J. Kelly and Timothy Deasy , and travelled from Ireland to Britain to reorganise and raise the morale of the Fenian groups there in the wake of the failed uprising . Both were Irish Americans who had fought with distinction in the American Civil War – Kelly achieving the rank of colonel and Deasy that of captain – and both had played important roles in the abortive uprising ; Kelly had been declared the chief executive of the Irish Republic at a secret republican convention , and Deasy commanded a Fenian brigade in County Cork . During the early hours of 11 September 1867 , police arrested two men found loitering in Oak Street , Shudehill , suspecting them of planning to rob a shop . Both were charged under the Vagrancy Act and held in custody . The Manchester police were initially unaware of their identities , until their colleagues in the Irish police identified them as Kelly and Deasy . = = Rescue = = On 18 September 1867 , Kelly and Deasy were being transferred from the courthouse to Belle Vue Gaol on Hyde Road , Gorton . They were handcuffed and locked in two separate compartments inside a police van escorted by a squad of 12 mounted policemen . The van contained six prisoners : a 12 @-@ year @-@ old boy who was being taken to a reformatory , three women convicted of misdemeanours , and the two Fenians . As it passed under a railway arch , a man darted into the middle of the road , pointed a pistol at the driver and told him to stop . Simultaneously , a party of about 30 – 40 men leaped over a wall at the side of the road , surrounded the van and seized the horses , one of which they shot . The unarmed police were described by O 'Meagher Condon , who organised the attack on the police van , as " a miscellaneous lot , apparently embracing the long and short and the fat and lean of the Manchester force " ; they offered little resistance and soon fled . The rescuers , after an unsuccessful attempt to force open the van with hatchets , sledgehammers , and crowbars , called upon Police Sergeant Brett , who was inside the van with the prisoners , to open the door . Brett refused , so one of the rescuers placed his revolver at the keyhole of the van to blow the lock , just as Brett looked through the keyhole to see what was happening outside . The bullet passed through his eye into his brain and killed him . The door was opened when one of the women prisoners took the keys from Brett 's pocket , and passed them through a ventilator to the Fenians outside , allowing Kelly and Deasy to escape . Brett was the first Manchester police officer to be killed on duty , in an incident that became known locally as the " Manchester Outrages " . = = Investigation = = The police suspected that Kelly and Deasy had been taken by their rescuers to Ancoats , considered at that time to be a Fenian area of Manchester . Anonymous letters alleged that the pair were being sheltered in a house on Every Street , but the 50 armed police who raided the premises found no signs of the fugitives . Despite a reward of £ 300 ( £ 24 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) offered by the authorities , neither Kelly nor Deasy were recaptured . An article published in the 14 November edition of The Times newspaper reported that they had made their way to Liverpool , from where they had taken passage on a ship bound for New York . The police raided Manchester 's Irish quarters and brought " dozens of suspects , selected almost at random " , before local magistrates ; the raids have been described as a " reign of terror " for the Irish in Manchester . Amongst those arrested was Thomas Maguire , a young Royal Marine on leave , who unfortunately for him had been in the vicinity of the attack on the police van and was Irish . Such was the zeal of the police that one man with a strong Irish accent surrendered himself to the magistrates " as the only means I have of saving myself from being arrested over and over again wherever I go , as a Fenian " . = = Committal proceedings = = On 27 September 1867 committal proceedings were heard in front of a magistrate to establish whether there was a prima facie case against the 28 accused . The team of defence barristers included Chartist leader Ernest Jones , who had spent two years in prison for making seditious speeches , and W. P. Roberts , whose fee was paid by subscribers to a defence fund to represent nine of the men . Jones , representing Condon and O 'Brien , clashed with the court almost immediately because the accused were handcuffed , saying " It appears to be discreditable to the administration of justice that men whom the law presumes to be innocent should be brought into Court handcuffed together like a couple of hounds . " Jones also objected to the presence of a number of soldiers in the courtroom , and when the magistrate refused to order the prisoners ' handcuffs to be removed he " marched dramatically " out of the courtroom saying " Then as a member of the Bar I decline to sit in any Court where the police override the Magistrate ... I cannot disgrace the Bar by proceeding with the defence . " All but two of the accused – Allen and Larkin – claimed that they had witnesses who would testify that they were elsewhere when the police van was attacked . The defence argued that " the rescue was not illegal as the prisoners [ Kelly and Deasy ] were wrongly imprisoned " , and that there was no intention of " sacrificing human life " , as evidenced by only a single fatality despite the presence of so many guns and so many shots being fired . Nevertheless , 26 of the prisoners were sent for trial before a judge and jury at the next assizes ; two were released because of " unsatisfactory identification " . = = Trial = = Proceedings began on 28 October 1867 , in front of Mr Justice Blackburne and Mr Justice Mellor . Twenty @-@ six appeared in court on the first day in front of a grand jury , which found that there was a prima facie case against all of the defendants for murder , felony , and misdemeanour . It was decided to charge the five " principal offenders " – Allen , Larkin , Gould ( O 'Brien ) , Shore ( Condon ) , and Maguire – under one indictment . They were therefore brought back to the courtroom the following day , when their trial proper began , despite none of them having fired the fatal shot . Allen was a 19 @-@ year @-@ old carpenter ; Larkin was a tailor , the only married member of the group , and had five children . O 'Brien , who had fought in the American Civil War , was a 30 @-@ year @-@ old shop assistant from County Cork . O 'Meagher Condon , born in Cork and 32 years old , had also fought for the Union side in the American Civil War . Thomas Maguire was a Royal Marine who had served for 10 years and had just returned home on leave . The jury retired at 6 : 15 pm on the fifth day and returned at 7 : 30 pm to give its verdict of guilty for each of the five defendants . When asked if they had anything to say before sentence was passed , several of the convicted men made a closing speech . Allen stated his innocence , and that he regretted the death of Sergeant Brett , but that he was prepared to " die proudly and triumphantly in defence of republican principles and the liberty of an oppressed and enslaved people " . Larkin said he felt that he had received a fair trial , and that his counsel had done everything they could in his defence . He ended by saying : " So I look to the mercy of God . May God forgive all who have sworn my life away . As I am a dying man , I forgive them from the bottom of my heart . May God forgive them . " O 'Brien claimed that all of the evidence given against him was false , and that as an American citizen he ought not to be facing trial in a UK court . He then went on at length to condemn the British government , the " imbecile and tyrannical rulers " of Ireland , until he was interrupted by the judge , who appealed to him to cease his remarks : " The only effect of your observations must be to tell against you with those who have to consider the sentence . I advise you to say nothing more of that sort . I do so entirely for your own sake . " O 'Meagher Condon 's address to the court was considered by The Times to have " excelled all the other convicts in his zeal for the Fenian cause " . He admitted to having organised the attack on the police van in his role as leader of the north @-@ west section of the movement , but claimed that he " never threw a stone or fired a pistol ; I was never at the place [ where the attack took place ] ... it is all totally false " . He went on to say that " had I committed anything against the Crown of England , I would have scorned myself had I attempted to deny it " . Towards the end of his speech he shouted , " God save Ireland ! " , a cry taken up by his companions in the dock . William Allen , Michael Larkin , Michael O 'Brien , Thomas Maguire , and Edward O 'Meagher Condon , were sentenced to death by hanging – the only punishment English law at that time allowed for murder – again crying " God save Ireland " from the dock after sentence was pronounced . Maguire was subsequently pardoned and discharged , and O 'Meagher Condon 's sentence was commuted on the eve of his execution . The trial took place in what was described as a " climate of anti @-@ Irish hysteria " by the weekly Reynold 's Newspaper , which described it as a " deep and everlasting disgrace to the English government " , the product of an ignoble panic which seized the governing classes . A yell of vengeance , it said , had issued from every aristocratic organ , and that before any evidence had been obtained the prisoners ' guilt was assumed and their executions had been demanded . = = Reprieves = = In Thomas Maguire 's case the witnesses who had identified the prisoners and had testified that Maguire was in the forefront of the attack had their evidence shown to be transparently false . This resulted in over 30 English reporters sending an appeal to the Home Secretary to have him pardoned . With such widespread doubts about the conviction of Maguire the government yielded to the pressure to grant him a pardon . This led many to believe that the other four would not be hanged since they had been convicted on the evidence of the same witnesses who , according to Liz Curtis , had " blatantly perjured themselves in the case of Maguire " . While eminent lawyers tried through procedural means to halt the executions , leading figures such as John Bright , Charles Bradlaugh and John Stuart Mill appealed for clemency . = = Execution = = A crowd estimated at 8 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 gathered outside the walls of Salford Gaol on the evening of 22 November 1867 to witness the public execution of the three convicted men the following morning . A platform had been built about 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) above ground , through the outside wall of the jail facing New Bailey Street , to support the gallows . The spectators were " well supplied by the gin palaces of Deansgate and the portable beer and coffee stalls " . According to Father Gadd , one of the three Catholic priests who attended to the men : A crowd of inhuman ghouls from the purlieus of Deansgate and the slums of the City ... made the night and early morning hideous with the raucous bacchanalian strains of " Champagne Charlie " , " John Brown " , and " Rule Britannia " . No Irish mingled with the throng ... They had obeyed the instructions of their Clergy . Throughout Manchester and Salford , silent congregations with tear @-@ stained faces ... assembled for a celebration of early Mass for the eternal welfare of the young Irishmen doomed to die a dreadful death that morning . The authorities took considerable pains to discourage any rescue attempt . Over 2 @,@ 500 regular and special police were deployed in and around the prison , augmented by a military presence which included a detachment of the 72nd Highlanders and a squadron of the Eighth Hussars . All traffic in and out of the city was stopped . The Times newspaper reported that by the time the hangings took place , shortly after 8 : 00 am , " the mob were quiet and orderly " , in contrast to the previous night and early morning . The executioner , William Calcraft , was the most famous of the 19th century , but was reportedly nervous of executing Fenians , because of threats he had received . He was also " particularly incompetent " , and was " notoriously unable to calculate the correct length of rope required for each individual hanging ; he frequently had to rush below the scaffold to pull on his victim 's legs to hasten death " . Most accounts claim that Allen died almost instantaneously from a broken neck , but Larkin and O 'Brien were not so fortunate . Father Gadd , reported that : The other two ropes , stretched taut and tense by their breathing twitching burdens , were in ominous and distracting movement . The hangman had bungled ! ... Calcraft then descended into the pit and there finished what he could not accomplish from above . He killed Larkin . Father Gadd refused to allow Calcraft to dispatch O 'Brien in the same way , and so " for three @-@ quarters of an hour the good priest knelt , holding the dying man 's hands within his own , reciting the prayers for the dying . Then the long drawn out agony ended . " The bodies of the three men were buried in the New Bailey Prison graveyard , from which they were transferred to Strangeways Prison Cemetery when New Bailey Prison closed in 1868 . In 1991 their remains were cremated and reinterred at Blackley Cemetery in Manchester . = = Aftermath = = Most of the British press had demanded " retribution swift and stern " , not because the men were Irish , but because they were Fenians ; " the public demand for the death penalty was not simply an expression of anti @-@ Irish sentiment , but rather a product of the Fenian panic and popular feelings of insecurity and the desire for order . " The Daily Telegraph , for instance , although like most of its contemporaries describing Brett 's death as " a vulgar , dastardly murder " , nevertheless supported reform in Ireland ; " we may hang convicted Fenians with good conscience , but we should also thoroughly redress those evils distinctly due to English policy and still supported by English power . " Many funeral processions were held in Ireland and even in a few British cities during the weeks following the executions , sometimes attracting crowds of thousands . These demonstrations of support for the three Fenians further outraged British public opinion , and " reinforced the prevailing sentiment that the Irish moral compass was somehow off @-@ center " . The executions gave rise to an enormous groundswell of feeling among Irish communities the world over . In New Zealand , for instance , seven men were convicted of unlawful assembly in a high @-@ profile trial following a mock funeral to Hokitika cemetery ; two of the seven , a newspaper editor and a priest , pleaded guilty to seditious libel , having published " a succession of very rabid articles about the Queen 's Government . " The viceregal government declared the holding of a Manchester Martyr funeral procession illegal . Throughout Ireland Masses , even public ones , were said for the three , although Bishop David Moriarty of Kerry prohibited celebration of Mass for them in his diocese . Archbishop John MacHale of Tuam , on the other hand , personally assisted at a High Mass for them , and Cardinal Archbishop Paul Cullen of Dublin , while opposing public celebrations , instructed his priests to pray for the dead Fenians , and to say Mass privately for them . The day after the executions , Frederick Engels wrote to Karl Marx : So yesterday morning the Tories , by the hand of Mr Calcraft , accomplished the final act of separation between England and Ireland . The only thing that the Fenians still lacked were martyrs . They have been provided by Derby and G Hardy . Only the execution of the three has made the liberation of Kelly and Deasy the heroic deed which will now be sung to every Irish babe in the cradle in Ireland , England and America ... To my knowledge , the only time that anybody has been executed for a similar matter in a civilised country was the case of John Brown at Harpers Ferry . The Fenians could not have wished for a better precedent . The Southerners had at least the decency to treat J. Brown as a rebel , whereas here everything is being done to transform a political attempt into a common crime . The cry of the condemned men was the inspiration for the song " God Save Ireland " , which became Ireland 's unofficial national anthem until officially replaced by " Amhrán na bhFiann " ( " The Soldier 's Song " ) . The executions were also " incalculable " in their influence on the " political awakening " of Charles Stewart Parnell . Speaking in the House of Commons ten years later , Parnell told the House : " I wish to say as directly as I can that I do not believe , and never shall believe , that any murder was committed in Manchester . " = = Monuments = = Monuments erected in honour of Allen , Larkin , and O 'Brien stand in Tralee ( County Kerry ) , Limerick , Kilrush ( County Clare ) , Clonmel ( County Tipperary ) , Birr ( County Offaly ) , Ennis ( County Clare ) , Milltown Cemetery , Belfast , ( County Antrim ) , Glasnevin Cemetery ( Dublin ) , and in St Joseph 's Cemetery , Moston , Manchester . The monument in St Joseph 's Cemetery was designed by J. Geraghty and unveiled in November 1898 ( 53 ° 30 ′ 56 @.@ 17 ″ N 2 ° 11 ′ 24 @.@ 14 ″ W ) . Commissioned by the Manchester Martyrs Central Memorial Committee , it stands just over 20 feet ( 6 m ) high and takes the form of a Celtic cross . On three sides of the pedestal are medallion portraits of the three men , originally surmounted by figures of the Irish Wolfhound , now removed . The site of this monument has been the scene of several disturbances , as it has been the tradition for Republican sympathisers to parade there on the anniversary of the deaths of those hanged . The monument has suffered several attacks to its structure , as well as acts of vandalism , and is listed as being " at risk " by the Public Monument and Sculpture Association National Recording Project . To commemorate the centenary of the men 's execution , the Manchester Connolly Association commissioned the artist Arthur Dooley to produce a memorial sculpture to stand on the site of New Bailey prison in Salford . There was opposition to the proposal , and it seems that the sculpture was never made , let alone installed . Dooley did however produce a foot @-@ high maquette which now forms part of the collection of the Working Class Movement Library in Manchester . The maquette suggests that the memorial was to consist of a Wicklow granite base with three standing steel pillars with attached Celtic shields each bearing a martyr 's name and some detail of the event 's significance . The maquette was donated to the WCML in 2011 by the family of Jud Cooper who had been given the maquette by Dooley . Police Sergeant Brett was buried in Harpurhey Cemetery ; the words " I will do my duty " are engraved on his tombstone . There is also a memorial tablet to him in St Ann 's Church , Manchester .
= Testaroli = Testaroli , sometimes referred to as testarolo , is a type of pasta or bread in Italian cuisine that is prepared using water , flour and salt , which is sliced into triangular shapes . A common dish in the Lunigiana region and historical territory of Italy , it is an ancient pasta originating from the Etruscan civilization of Italy . Testaroli has been described as " the earliest recorded pasta . " It is also a native dish of the southern Liguria and northern Tuscany regions of Italy . Testaroli is prepared from a batter that is cooked on a hot flat surface , after which it may be consumed . It is traditionally cooked on a testo , a flat terra cotta or cast iron cooking surface from which the food 's name is derived . It is sometimes cooked further in boiling water and then served . Testaroli is sometimes referred to as a bread , similar to focaccia in composition , and is sometimes referred to as a crêpe . It may be dressed with pesto sauce or other ingredients such as olive oil , Pecorino cheese , Parmigiano @-@ Reggiano , and garlic . Falsi testaroli al ragu is a similar dish prepared using sliced pasta dough and a ragù sauce . = = Etymology = = Testaroli 's name is based upon the testo , a terra cotta or cast iron cooking device with a hot , flat surface that testaroli is traditionally cooked on . = = History = = Testaroli is an ancient pasta that originated from the Etruscan civilization , a civilization of ancient Italy . The book Rustico : Regional Italian Country Cooking states that testaroli is " a direct descendant of the porridges of the Neolithic age that were poured over hot stones to cook . " It is a native dish of the southern Liguria and northern Tuscany regions of Italy . According to an article published by The Wall Street Journal , it is " the earliest recorded pasta . " In the Italian province of Massa and Carrara , located within the Tuscany region , it was a peasant food consumed as a one @-@ course meal , topped with grated cheese and olive oil . In Massa and Carrara , it was sometimes accompanied with stracchino cheese or charcuterie . Testaroli remains a very popular dish in Pontremoli , a small city in the province of Massa and Carrara , where it is served at virtually every restaurant in the city , during both mornings and evenings . Testaroli is also a common and specialty dish in the Lunigiana region and historical territory of Italy , which is located between the Liguria and Tuscany regions . = = Overview = = = = = Ingredients and preparation = = = Testaroli is a type of pancake @-@ like pasta prepared using water , wheat flour and salt that is sliced into triangular shapes . Chestnut flour is sometimes used in its preparation . The ingredients are mixed together and prepared as a batter , after which it is cooked , sometimes using a two @-@ stage cooking process . In the typical first stage , and sometimes only stage of cooking , the batter is poured and cooked on a hot , flat surface in the style of a pancake or crêpe . In this process , testaroli is traditionally cooked on a testo , which may be prepared for use by being heated over hot coals . A skillet is another cooking device that can be used to cook the batter . The pasta is then sliced into triangles , and is sometimes directly served after this cooking process . In the second cooking stage that is sometimes performed , the pasta may be set aside to cool , and then cooked further in boiling water . Testaroli is sometimes referred to as a type of bread that is similar to focaccia , and is also sometimes referred to as a crêpe . The book The Italian Country Table refers to testaroli as a " near cousin to pasta " , and as a " great round pancake @-@ like bread no more than a quarter inch thick . " This book also states that when it is baked to a crisp texture , it can be consumed in the style of a bread , whereas when baked less , it may have a spongy and soft texture , like a pasta . Cooking methods vary in different areas of Italy , and some of these methods are traditional in nature . = = = Service = = = Testaroli is sometimes served with pesto sauce , which is a common addition to it in the Liguria and Tuscany regions of Italy . Another dressing method includes the addition of olive oil , Pecorino cheese , Parmigiano @-@ Reggiano , garlic and basil . Significant amounts of sauce may absorb into testaroli . = = Falsi testaroli al ragu = = A very similar dish is falsi testaroli al ragù ( English : " false testaroli in ragù " ) , which is prepared using sliced pasta dough and does not involve the use of a batter or cooking on a testo . It is served with a ragù , an Italian meat @-@ based sauce .
= Telecommunication = Telecommunication is the transmission of signs , signals , writings , images and sounds or intelligence of any nature by wire , radio , optical or other electromagnetic systems , as defined by the International Telecommunication Union ( ITU ) . Telecommunication occurs when the exchange of information between communication participants includes the use of technology . It is transmitted either electrically over physical media , such as cables , or via electromagnetic radiation . Such transmission paths are often divided into communication channels which afford the advantages of multiplexing . The term is often used in its plural form , telecommunications , because it involves many different technologies . Early means of communicating over a distance included visual signals , such as beacons , smoke signals , semaphore telegraphs , signal flags , and optical heliographs . Other examples of pre @-@ modern long @-@ distance communication included audio messages such as coded drumbeats , lung @-@ blown horns , and loud whistles . Modern technologies for long @-@ distance communication usually involve electrical and electromagnetic technologies , such as telegraph , telephone , and teleprinter , networks , radio , microwave transmission , fiber optics , and communications satellites . A revolution in wireless communication began in the first decade of the 20th century with the pioneering developments in radio communications by Guglielmo Marconi , who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1909 . Other notable pioneering inventors and developers in the field of electrical and electronic telecommunications include Charles Wheatstone and Samuel Morse ( telegraph ) , Alexander Graham Bell ( telephone ) , Edwin Armstrong , and Lee de Forest ( radio ) , as well as Vladimir K. Zworykin , John Logie Baird and Philo Farnsworth ( television ) . = = Etymology = = The word telecommunication was adapted from the French . It is a compound of the Greek prefix tele- ( τηλε- ) , meaning " distant " , and the Latin communicare , meaning " to share " in 1904 by the French engineer and novelist Édouard Estaunié . = = History = = = = = Beacons and pigeons = = = In the Middle Ages , chains of beacons were commonly used on hilltops as a means of relaying a signal . Beacon chains suffered the drawback that they could only pass a single bit of information , so the meaning of the message such as " the enemy has been sighted " had to be agreed upon in advance . One notable instance of their use was during the Spanish Armada , when a beacon chain relayed a signal from Plymouth to London . In 1792 , Claude Chappe , a French engineer , built the first fixed visual telegraphy system ( or semaphore line ) between Lille and Paris . However semaphore suffered from the need for skilled operators and expensive towers at intervals of ten to thirty kilometres ( six to nineteen miles ) . As a result of competition from the electrical telegraph , the last commercial line was abandoned in 1880 . Homing pigeons have occasionally been used throughout history by different cultures . Pigeon post is thought to have Persians roots and was used by the Romans to aid their military . Frontinus said that Julius Caesar used pigeons as messengers in his conquest of Gaul . The Greeks also conveyed the names of the victors at the Olympic Games to various cities using homing pigeons . In the early 19th century , the Dutch government used the system in Java and Sumatra . And in 1849 , Paul Julius Reuter started a pigeon service to fly stock prices between Aachen and Brussels , a service that operated for a year until the gap in the telegraph link was closed . = = = Telegraph and telephone = = = Sir Charles Wheatstone and Sir William Fothergill Cooke invented the electric telegraph in 1837 . Also , the first commercial electrical telegraph is purported to have been constructed by Wheatstone and Cooke and opened on 9 April 1839 . Both inventors viewed their device as " an improvement to the [ existing ] electromagnetic telegraph " not as a new device . Samuel Morse independently developed a version of the electrical telegraph that he unsuccessfully demonstrated on 2 September 1837 . His code was an important advance over Wheatstone 's signaling method . The first transatlantic telegraph cable was successfully completed on 27 July 1866 , allowing transatlantic telecommunication for the first time . The conventional telephone was invented independently by Alexander Bell and Elisha Gray in 1876 . Antonio Meucci invented the first device that allowed the electrical transmission of voice over a line in 1849 . However Meucci 's device was of little practical value because it relied upon the electrophonic effect and thus required users to place the receiver in their mouth to " hear " what was being said . The first commercial telephone services were set @-@ up in 1878 and 1879 on both sides of the Atlantic in the cities of New Haven and London . = = = Radio and television = = = In 1832 , James Lindsay gave a classroom demonstration of wireless telegraphy to his students . By 1854 , he was able to demonstrate a transmission across the Firth of Tay from Dundee , Scotland to Woodhaven , a distance of two miles ( 3 km ) , using water as the transmission medium . In December 1901 , Guglielmo Marconi established wireless communication between St. John 's , Newfoundland ( Canada ) and Poldhu , Cornwall ( England ) , earning him the 1909 Nobel Prize in physics ( which he shared with Karl Braun ) . However small @-@ scale radio communication had already been demonstrated in 1893 by Nikola Tesla in a presentation to the National Electric Light Association . On 25 March 1925 , John Logie Baird was able to demonstrate the transmission of moving pictures at the London department store Selfridges . Baird 's device relied upon the Nipkow disk and thus became known as the mechanical television . It formed the basis of experimental broadcasts done by the British Broadcasting Corporation beginning 30 September 1929 . However , for most of the twentieth century televisions depended upon the cathode ray tube invented by Karl Braun . The first version of such a television to show promise was produced by Philo Farnsworth and demonstrated to his family on 7 September 1927 . = = = Computers and the Internet = = = On 11 September 1940 , George Stibitz was able to transmit problems using teletype to his Complex Number Calculator in New York and receive the computed results back at Dartmouth College in New Hampshire . This configuration of a centralized computer or mainframe with remote dumb terminals remained popular throughout the 1950s . However , it was not until the 1960s that researchers started to investigate packet switching — a technology that would allow chunks of data to be sent to different computers without first passing through a centralized mainframe . A four @-@ node network emerged on 5 December 1969 ; this network would become ARPANET , which by 1981 would consist of 213 nodes . ARPANET development centered around the Request for Comment process and on 7 April 1969 , RFC 1 was published . This process is important because ARPANET eventually merged with other networks to form the Internet and many of the protocols the Internet relies upon today were specified through the Request for Comment process . In September 1981 , RFC 791 introduced the Internet Protocol v4 ( IPv4 ) and RFC 793 introduced the Transmission Control Protocol ( TCP ) — thus creating the TCP / IP protocol that much of the Internet relies upon today . However , not all important developments were made through the Request for Comment process . Two popular link protocols for local area networks ( LANs ) also appeared in the 1970s . A patent for the token ring protocol was filed by Olof Soderblom on 29 October 1974 and a paper on the Ethernet protocol was published by Robert Metcalfe and David Boggs in the July 1976 issue of Communications of the ACM . = = Key concepts = = A number of key concepts reoccur throughout the literature on modern telecommunication theory and systems . Some of these concepts are discussed below . = = = Basic elements = = = Telecommunications is primarily divided up between wired and wireless subtypes . Overall though , a basic telecommunication system consists of three main parts that are always present in some form or another : A transmitter that takes information and converts it to a signal . A transmission medium , also called the " physical channel " that carries the signal . An example of this is the " free space channel " . A receiver that takes the signal from the channel and converts it back into usable information for the recipient . For example , in a radio broadcasting station the station 's large power amplifier is the transmitter ; and the broadcasting antenna is the interface between the power amplifier and the " free space channel " . The free space channel is the transmission medium ; and the receiver 's antenna is the interface between the free space channel and the receiver . Next , the radio receiver is the destination of the radio signal , and this is where it is converted from electricity to sound for people to listen to . Sometimes , telecommunication systems are " duplex " ( two @-@ way systems ) with a single box of electronics working as both the transmitter and a receiver , or a transceiver . For example , a cellular telephone is a transceiver . The transmission electronics and the receiver electronics within a transceiver are actually quite independent of each other . This can be readily explained by the fact that radio transmitters contain power amplifiers that operate with electrical powers measured in watts or kilowatts , but radio receivers deal with radio powers that are measured in the microwatts or nanowatts . Hence , transceivers have to be carefully designed and built to isolate their high @-@ power circuitry and their low @-@ power circuitry from each other , as to not cause interference . Telecommunication over fixed lines is called point @-@ to @-@ point communication because it is between one transmitter and one receiver . Telecommunication through radio broadcasts is called broadcast communication because it is between one powerful transmitter and numerous low @-@ power but sensitive radio receivers . Telecommunications in which multiple transmitters and multiple receivers have been designed to cooperate and to share the same physical channel are called multiplex systems . The sharing of physical channels using multiplexing often gives very large reductions in costs . Multiplexed systems are laid out in telecommunication networks , and the multiplexed signals are switched at nodes through to the correct destination terminal receiver . = = = Analog versus digital communications = = = Communications signals can be sent either by analog signals or digital signals . There are analog communication systems and digital communication systems . For an analog signal , the signal is varied continuously with respect to the information . In a digital signal , the information is encoded as a set of discrete values ( for example , a set of ones and zeros ) . During the propagation and reception , the information contained in analog signals will inevitably be degraded by undesirable physical noise . ( The output of a transmitter is noise @-@ free for all practical purposes . ) Commonly , the noise in a communication system can be expressed as adding or subtracting from the desirable signal in a completely random way . This form of noise is called additive noise , with the understanding that the noise can be negative or positive at different instants of time . Noise that is not additive noise is a much more difficult situation to describe or analyze , and these other kinds of noise will be omitted here . On the other hand , unless the additive noise disturbance exceeds a certain threshold , the information contained in digital signals will remain intact . Their resistance to noise represents a key advantage of digital signals over analog signals . = = = Telecommunication networks = = = A telecommunications network is a collection of transmitters , receivers , and communications channels that send messages to one another . Some digital communications networks contain one or more routers that work together to transmit information to the correct user . An analog communications network consists of one or more switches that establish a connection between two or more users . For both types of network , repeaters may be necessary to amplify or recreate the signal when it is being transmitted over long distances . This is to combat attenuation that can render the signal indistinguishable from the noise . Another advantage of digital systems over analog is that their output is easier to store in memory , i.e. two voltage states ( high and low ) are easier to store than a continuous range of states . = = = Communication channels = = = The term " channel " has two different meanings . In one meaning , a channel is the physical medium that carries a signal between the transmitter and the receiver . Examples of this include the atmosphere for sound communications , glass optical fibers for some kinds of optical communications , coaxial cables for communications by way of the voltages and electric currents in them , and free space for communications using visible light , infrared waves , ultraviolet light , and radio waves . This last channel is called the " free space channel " . The sending of radio waves from one place to another has nothing to do with the presence or absence of an atmosphere between the two . Radio waves travel through a perfect vacuum just as easily as they travel through air , fog , clouds , or any other kind of gas . The other meaning of the term " channel " in telecommunications is seen in the phrase communications channel , which is a subdivision of a transmission medium so that it can be used to send multiple streams of information simultaneously . For example , one radio station can broadcast radio waves into free space at frequencies in the neighborhood of 94 @.@ 5 MHz ( megahertz ) while another radio station can simultaneously broadcast radio waves at frequencies in the neighborhood of 96 @.@ 1 MHz . Each radio station would transmit radio waves over a frequency bandwidth of about 180 kHz ( kilohertz ) , centered at frequencies such as the above , which are called the " carrier frequencies " . Each station in this example is separated from its adjacent stations by 200 kHz , and the difference between 200 kHz and 180 kHz ( 20 kHz ) is an engineering allowance for the imperfections in the communication system . In the example above , the " free space channel " has been divided into communications channels according to frequencies , and each channel is assigned a separate frequency bandwidth in which to broadcast radio waves . This system of dividing the medium into channels according to frequency is called " frequency @-@ division multiplexing " . Another term for the same concept is " wavelength @-@ division multiplexing " , which is more commonly used in optical communications when multiple transmitters share the same physical medium . Another way of dividing a communications medium into channels is to allocate each sender a recurring segment of time ( a " time slot " , for example , 20 milliseconds out of each second ) , and to allow each sender to send messages only within its own time slot . This method of dividing the medium into communication channels is called " time @-@ division multiplexing " ( TDM ) , and is used in optical fiber communication . Some radio communication systems use TDM within an allocated FDM channel . Hence , these systems use a hybrid of TDM and FDM . = = = Modulation = = = The shaping of a signal to convey information is known as modulation . Modulation can be used to represent a digital message as an analog waveform . This is commonly called " keying " – a term derived from the older use of Morse Code in telecommunications – and several keying techniques exist ( these include phase @-@ shift keying , frequency @-@ shift keying , and amplitude @-@ shift keying ) . The " Bluetooth " system , for example , uses phase @-@ shift keying to exchange information between various devices . In addition , there are combinations of phase @-@ shift keying and amplitude @-@ shift keying which is called ( in the jargon of the field ) " quadrature amplitude modulation " ( QAM ) that are used in high @-@ capacity digital radio communication systems . Modulation can also be used to transmit the information of low @-@ frequency analog signals at higher frequencies . This is helpful because low @-@ frequency analog signals cannot be effectively transmitted over free space . Hence the information from a low @-@ frequency analog signal must be impressed into a higher @-@ frequency signal ( known as the " carrier wave " ) before transmission . There are several different modulation schemes available to achieve this [ two of the most basic being amplitude modulation ( AM ) and frequency modulation ( FM ) ] . An example of this process is a disc jockey 's voice being impressed into a 96 MHz carrier wave using frequency modulation ( the voice would then be received on a radio as the channel " 96 FM " ) . In addition , modulation has the advantage that it may use frequency division multiplexing ( FDM ) . = = Society = = Telecommunication has a significant social , cultural and economic impact on modern society . In 2008 , estimates placed the telecommunication industry 's revenue at $ 4 @.@ 7 trillion or just under 3 percent of the gross world product ( official exchange rate ) . Several following sections discuss the impact of telecommunication on society . = = = Economic impact = = = = = = = Microeconomics = = = = On the microeconomic scale , companies have used telecommunications to help build global business empires . This is self @-@ evident in the case of online retailer Amazon.com but , according to academic Edward Lenert , even the conventional retailer Walmart has benefited from better telecommunication infrastructure compared to its competitors . In cities throughout the world , home owners use their telephones to order and arrange a variety of home services ranging from pizza deliveries to electricians . Even relatively poor communities have been noted to use telecommunication to their advantage . In Bangladesh 's Narshingdi district , isolated villagers use cellular phones to speak directly to wholesalers and arrange a better price for their goods . In Côte d 'Ivoire , coffee growers share mobile phones to follow hourly variations in coffee prices and sell at the best price . = = = = Macroeconomics = = = = On the macroeconomic scale , Lars @-@ Hendrik Röller and Leonard Waverman suggested a causal link between good telecommunication infrastructure and economic growth . Few dispute the existence of a correlation although some argue it is wrong to view the relationship as causal . Because of the economic benefits of good telecommunication infrastructure , there is increasing worry about the inequitable access to telecommunication services amongst various countries of the world — this is known as the digital divide . A 2003 survey by the International Telecommunication Union ( ITU ) revealed that roughly a third of countries have fewer than one mobile subscription for every 20 people and one @-@ third of countries have fewer than one land @-@ line telephone subscription for every 20 people . In terms of Internet access , roughly half of all countries have fewer than one out of 20 people with Internet access . From this information , as well as educational data , the ITU was able to compile an index that measures the overall ability of citizens to access and use information and communication technologies . Using this measure , Sweden , Denmark and Iceland received the highest ranking while the African countries Nigeria , Burkina Faso and Mali received the lowest . = = = Social impact = = = Telecommunication has played a significant role in social relationships . Nevertheless , devices like the telephone system were originally advertised with an emphasis on the practical dimensions of the device ( such as the ability to conduct business or order home services ) as opposed to the social dimensions . It was not until the late 1920s and 1930s that the social dimensions of the device became a prominent theme in telephone advertisements . New promotions started appealing to consumers ' emotions , stressing the importance of social conversations and staying connected to family and friends . Since then the role that telecommunications has played in social relations has become increasingly important . In recent years , the popularity of social networking sites has increased dramatically . These sites allow users to communicate with each other as well as post photographs , events and profiles for others to see . The profiles can list a person 's age , interests , sexual preference and relationship status . In this way , these sites can play important role in everything from organising social engagements to courtship . Prior to social networking sites , technologies like short message service ( SMS ) and the telephone also had a significant impact on social interactions . In 2000 , market research group Ipsos MORI reported that 81 % of 15- to 24 @-@ year @-@ old SMS users in the United Kingdom had used the service to coordinate social arrangements and 42 % to flirt . = = = Other impacts = = = In cultural terms , telecommunication has increased the public 's ability to access music and film . With television , people can watch films they have not seen before in their own home without having to travel to the video store or cinema . With radio and the Internet , people can listen to music they have not heard before without having to travel to the music store . Telecommunication has also transformed the way people receive their news . A survey led in 2006 by the non @-@ profit Pew Internet and American Life Project found that when just over 3 @,@ 000 people living in the United States were asked where they got their news " yesterday " , more people said television or radio than newspapers . The results are summarised in the following table ( the percentages add up to more than 100 % because people were able to specify more than one source ) . Telecommunication has had an equally significant impact on advertising . TNS Media Intelligence reported that in 2007 , 58 % of advertising expenditure in the United States was spent on mediums that depend upon telecommunication . The results are summarised in the following table . = = Government = = Many countries have enacted legislation which conforms to the International Telecommunication Regulations established by the International Telecommunication Union ( ITU ) , which is the " leading UN agency for information and communication technology issues . " In 1947 , at the Atlantic City Conference , the ITU decided to " afford international protection to all frequencies registered in a new international frequency list and used in conformity with the Radio Regulation . " According to the ITU 's Radio Regulations adopted in Atlantic City , all frequencies referenced in the International Frequency Registration Board , examined by the board and registered on the International Frequency List " shall have the right to international protection from harmful interference . " From a global perspective , there have been political debates and legislation regarding the management of telecommunication and broadcasting . The history of broadcasting discusses some debates in relation to balancing conventional communication such as printing and telecommunication such as radio broadcasting . The onset of World War II brought on the first explosion of international broadcasting propaganda . Countries , their governments , insurgents , terrorists , and militiamen have all used telecommunication and broadcasting techniques to promote propaganda . Patriotic propaganda for political movements and colonization started the mid @-@ 1930s . In 1936 , the BBC broadcast propaganda to the Arab World to partly counter similar broadcasts from Italy , which also had colonial interests in North Africa . Modern insurgents , such as those in the latest Iraq war , often use intimidating telephone calls , SMSs and the distribution of sophisticated videos of an attack on coalition troops within hours of the operation . " The Sunni insurgents even have their own television station , Al @-@ Zawraa , which while banned by the Iraqi government , still broadcasts from Erbil , Iraqi Kurdistan , even as coalition pressure has forced it to switch satellite hosts several times . " On 10 November 2014 , President Obama recommended the Federal Communications Commission reclassify broadband Internet service as a telecommunications service in order to preserve net neutrality . = = Modern media = = = = = Worldwide equipment sales = = = According to data collected by Gartner and Ars Technica sales of main consumer 's telecommunication equipment worldwide in millions of units was : = = = Telephone = = = In a telephone network , the caller is connected to the person they want to talk to by switches at various telephone exchanges . The switches form an electrical connection between the two users and the setting of these switches is determined electronically when the caller dials the number . Once the connection is made , the caller 's voice is transformed to an electrical signal using a small microphone in the caller 's handset . This electrical signal is then sent through the network to the user at the other end where it is transformed back into sound by a small speaker in that person 's handset . The landline telephones in most residential homes are analog — that is , the speaker 's voice directly determines the signal 's voltage . Although short @-@ distance calls may be handled from end @-@ to @-@ end as analog signals , increasingly telephone service providers are transparently converting the signals to digital signals for transmission . The advantage of this is that digitized voice data can travel side @-@ by @-@ side with data from the Internet and can be perfectly reproduced in long distance communication ( as opposed to analog signals that are inevitably impacted by noise ) . Mobile phones have had a significant impact on telephone networks . Mobile phone subscriptions now outnumber fixed @-@ line subscriptions in many markets . Sales of mobile phones in 2005 totalled 816 @.@ 6 million with that figure being almost equally shared amongst the markets of Asia / Pacific ( 204 m ) , Western Europe ( 164 m ) , CEMEA ( Central Europe , the Middle East and Africa ) ( 153 @.@ 5 m ) , North America ( 148 m ) and Latin America ( 102 m ) . In terms of new subscriptions over the five years from 1999 , Africa has outpaced other markets with 58 @.@ 2 % growth . Increasingly these phones are being serviced by systems where the voice content is transmitted digitally such as GSM or W @-@ CDMA with many markets choosing to depreciate analog systems such as AMPS . There have also been dramatic changes in telephone communication behind the scenes . Starting with the operation of TAT @-@ 8 in 1988 , the 1990s saw the widespread adoption of systems based on optical fibers . The benefit of communicating with optic fibers is that they offer a drastic increase in data capacity . TAT @-@ 8 itself was able to carry 10 times as many telephone calls as the last copper cable laid at that time and today 's optic fibre cables are able to carry 25 times as many telephone calls as TAT @-@ 8 . This increase in data capacity is due to several factors : First , optic fibres are physically much smaller than competing technologies . Second , they do not suffer from crosstalk which means several hundred of them can be easily bundled together in a single cable . Lastly , improvements in multiplexing have led to an exponential growth in the data capacity of a single fibre . Assisting communication across many modern optic fibre networks is a protocol known as Asynchronous Transfer Mode ( ATM ) . The ATM protocol allows for the side @-@ by @-@ side data transmission mentioned in the second paragraph . It is suitable for public telephone networks because it establishes a pathway for data through the network and associates a traffic contract with that pathway . The traffic contract is essentially an agreement between the client and the network about how the network is to handle the data ; if the network cannot meet the conditions of the traffic contract it does not accept the connection . This is important because telephone calls can negotiate a contract so as to guarantee themselves a constant bit rate , something that will ensure a caller 's voice is not delayed in parts or cut off completely . There are competitors to ATM , such as Multiprotocol Label Switching ( MPLS ) , that perform a similar task and are expected to supplant ATM in the future . = = = Radio and television = = = In a broadcast system , the central high @-@ powered broadcast tower transmits a high @-@ frequency electromagnetic wave to numerous low @-@ powered receivers . The high @-@ frequency wave sent by the tower is modulated with a signal containing visual or audio information . The receiver is then tuned so as to pick up the high @-@ frequency wave and a demodulator is used to retrieve the signal containing the visual or audio information . The broadcast signal can be either analog ( signal is varied continuously with respect to the information ) or digital ( information is encoded as a set of discrete values ) . The broadcast media industry is at a critical turning point in its development , with many countries moving from analog to digital broadcasts . This move is made possible by the production of cheaper , faster and more capable integrated circuits . The chief advantage of digital broadcasts is that they prevent a number of complaints common to traditional analog broadcasts . For television , this includes the elimination of problems such as snowy pictures , ghosting and other distortion . These occur because of the nature of analog transmission , which means that perturbations due to noise will be evident in the final output . Digital transmission overcomes this problem because digital signals are reduced to discrete values upon reception and hence small perturbations do not affect the final output . In a simplified example , if a binary message 1011 was transmitted with signal amplitudes [ 1 @.@ 0 0 @.@ 0 1 @.@ 0 1 @.@ 0 ] and received with signal amplitudes [ 0 @.@ 9 0 @.@ 2 1 @.@ 1 0 @.@ 9 ] it would still decode to the binary message 1011 — a perfect reproduction of what was sent . From this example , a problem with digital transmissions can also be seen in that if the noise is great enough it can significantly alter the decoded message . Using forward error correction a receiver can correct a handful of bit errors in the resulting message but too much noise will lead to incomprehensible output and hence a breakdown of the transmission . In digital television broadcasting , there are three competing standards that are likely to be adopted worldwide . These are the ATSC , DVB and ISDB standards ; the adoption of these standards thus far is presented in the captioned map . All three standards use MPEG @-@ 2 for video compression . ATSC uses Dolby Digital AC @-@ 3 for audio compression , ISDB uses Advanced Audio Coding ( MPEG @-@ 2 Part 7 ) and DVB has no standard for audio compression but typically uses MPEG @-@ 1 Part 3 Layer 2 . The choice of modulation also varies between the schemes . In digital audio broadcasting , standards are much more unified with practically all countries choosing to adopt the Digital Audio Broadcasting standard ( also known as the Eureka 147 standard ) . The exception is the United States which has chosen to adopt HD Radio . HD Radio , unlike Eureka 147 , is based upon a transmission method known as in @-@ band on @-@ channel transmission that allows digital information to " piggyback " on normal AM or FM analog transmissions . However , despite the pending switch to digital , analog television remains being transmitted in most countries . An exception is the United States that ended analog television transmission ( by all but the very low @-@ power TV stations ) on 12 June 2009 after twice delaying the switchover deadline , Kenya also ended analog television transmission in December 2014 after multiple delays . For analog television , there are three standards in use for broadcasting color TV ( see a map on adoption here ) . These are known as PAL ( German designed ) , NTSC ( North American designed ) , and SECAM ( French designed ) . ( It is important to understand that these are the ways of sending color TV , and they do not have anything to do with the standards for black & white TV , which also vary from country to country . ) For analog radio , the switch to digital radio is made more difficult by the fact that analog receivers are sold at a small fraction of the price of digital receivers . The choice of modulation for analog radio is typically between amplitude ( AM ) or frequency modulation ( FM ) . To achieve stereo playback , an amplitude modulated subcarrier is used for stereo FM . = = = Internet = = = The Internet is a worldwide network of computers and computer networks that communicate with each other using the Internet Protocol . Any computer on the Internet has a unique IP address that can be used by other computers to route information to it . Hence , any computer on the Internet can send a message to any other computer using its IP address . These messages carry with them the originating computer 's IP address allowing for two @-@ way communication . The Internet is thus an exchange of messages between computers . It is estimated that the 51 % of the information flowing through two @-@ way telecommunications networks in the year 2000 were flowing through the Internet ( most of the rest ( 42 % ) through the landline telephone ) . By the year 2007 the Internet clearly dominated and captured 97 % of all the information in telecommunication networks ( most of the rest ( 2 % ) through mobile phones ) . As of 2008 , an estimated 21 @.@ 9 % of the world population has access to the Internet with the highest access rates ( measured as a percentage of the population ) in North America ( 73 @.@ 6 % ) , Oceania / Australia ( 59 @.@ 5 % ) and Europe ( 48 @.@ 1 % ) . In terms of broadband access , Iceland ( 26 @.@ 7 % ) , South Korea ( 25 @.@ 4 % ) and the Netherlands ( 25 @.@ 3 % ) led the world . The Internet works in part because of protocols that govern how the computers and routers communicate with each other . The nature of computer network communication lends itself to a layered approach where individual protocols in the protocol stack run more @-@ or @-@ less independently of other protocols . This allows lower @-@ level protocols to be customized for the network situation while not changing the way higher @-@ level protocols operate . A practical example of why this is important is because it allows an Internet browser to run the same code regardless of whether the computer it is running on is connected to the Internet through an Ethernet or Wi @-@ Fi connection . Protocols are often talked about in terms of their place in the OSI reference model ( pictured on the right ) , which emerged in 1983 as the first step in an unsuccessful attempt to build a universally adopted networking protocol suite . For the Internet , the physical medium and data link protocol can vary several times as packets traverse the globe . This is because the Internet places no constraints on what physical medium or data link protocol is used . This leads to the adoption of media and protocols that best suit the local network situation . In practice , most intercontinental communication will use the Asynchronous Transfer Mode ( ATM ) protocol ( or a modern equivalent ) on top of optic fiber . This is because for most intercontinental communication the Internet shares the same infrastructure as the public switched telephone network . At the network layer , things become standardized with the Internet Protocol ( IP ) being adopted for logical addressing . For the World Wide Web , these " IP addresses " are derived from the human readable form using the Domain Name System ( e.g. 72 @.@ 14 @.@ 207 @.@ 99 is derived from www.google.com ) . At the moment , the most widely used version of the Internet Protocol is version four but a move to version six is imminent . At the transport layer , most communication adopts either the Transmission Control Protocol ( TCP ) or the User Datagram Protocol ( UDP ) . TCP is used when it is essential every message sent is received by the other computer whereas UDP is used when it is merely desirable . With TCP , packets are retransmitted if they are lost and placed in order before they are presented to higher layers . With UDP , packets are not ordered or retransmitted if lost . Both TCP and UDP packets carry port numbers with them to specify what application or process the packet should be handled by . Because certain application @-@ level protocols use certain ports , network administrators can manipulate traffic to suit particular requirements . Examples are to restrict Internet access by blocking the traffic destined for a particular port or to affect the performance of certain applications by assigning priority . Above the transport layer , there are certain protocols that are sometimes used and loosely fit in the session and presentation layers , most notably the Secure Sockets Layer ( SSL ) and Transport Layer Security ( TLS ) protocols . These protocols ensure that data transferred between two parties remains completely confidential . Finally , at the application layer , are many of the protocols Internet users would be familiar with such as HTTP ( web browsing ) , POP3 ( e @-@ mail ) , FTP ( file transfer ) , IRC ( Internet chat ) , BitTorrent ( file sharing ) and XMPP ( instant messaging ) . Voice over Internet Protocol ( VoIP ) allows data packets to be used for synchronous voice communications . The data packets are marked as voice type packets and can be prioritized by the network administrators so that the real @-@ time , synchronous conversation is less subject to contention with other types of data traffic which can be delayed ( i.e. file transfer or email ) or buffered in advance ( i.e. audio and video ) without detriment . That prioritization is fine when the network has sufficient capacity for all the VoIP calls taking place at the same time and the network is enabled for prioritization i.e. a private corporate style network , but the Internet is not generally managed in this way and so there can be a big difference in the quality of VoIP calls over a private network and over the public Internet . = = = Local area networks and wide area networks = = = Despite the growth of the Internet , the characteristics of local area networks ( LANs ) --computer networks that do not extend beyond a few kilometers — remain distinct . This is because networks on this scale do not require all the features associated with larger networks and are often more cost @-@ effective and efficient without them . When they are not connected with the Internet , they also have the advantages of privacy and security . However , purposefully lacking a direct connection to the Internet does not provide assured protection from hackers , military forces , or economic powers . These threats exist if there are any methods for connecting remotely to the LAN . Wide area networks ( WANs ) are private computer networks that may extend for thousands of kilometers . Once again , some of their advantages include privacy and security . Prime users of private LANs and WANs include armed forces and intelligence agencies that must keep their information secure and secret . In the mid @-@ 1980s , several sets of communication protocols emerged to fill the gaps between the data @-@ link layer and the application layer of the OSI reference model . These included Appletalk , IPX , and NetBIOS with the dominant protocol set during the early 1990s being IPX due to its popularity with MS @-@ DOS users . TCP / IP existed at this point , but it was typically only used by large government and research facilities . As the Internet grew in popularity and its traffic was required to be routed into private networks , the TCP / IP protocols replaced existing local area network technologies . Additional technologies , such as DHCP , allowed TCP / IP @-@ based computers to self @-@ configure in the network . Such functions also existed in the AppleTalk / IPX / NetBIOS protocol sets . Whereas Asynchronous Transfer Mode ( ATM ) or Multiprotocol Label Switching ( MPLS ) are typical data @-@ link protocols for larger networks such as WANs ; Ethernet and Token Ring are typical data @-@ link protocols for LANs . These protocols differ from the former protocols in that they are simpler , e.g. , they omit features such as quality of service guarantees , and offer collision prevention . Both of these differences allow for more economical systems . Despite the modest popularity of IBM Token Ring in the 1980s and 1990s , virtually all LANs now use either wired or wireless Ethernet facilities . At the physical layer , most wired Ethernet implementations use copper twisted @-@ pair cables ( including the common 10BASE @-@ T networks ) . However , some early implementations used heavier coaxial cables and some recent implementations ( especially high @-@ speed ones ) use optical fibers . When optic fibers are used , the distinction must be made between multimode fibers and single @-@ mode fibers . Multimode fibers can be thought of as thicker optical fibers that are cheaper to manufacture devices for , but that suffers from less usable bandwidth and worse attenuation – implying poorer long @-@ distance performance . = = Transmission capacity = = The effective capacity to exchange information worldwide through two @-@ way telecommunication networks grew from 281 petabytes of ( optimally compressed ) information in 1986 , to 471 petabytes in 1993 , to 2 @.@ 2 ( optimally compressed ) exabytes in 2000 , and to 65 ( optimally compressed ) exabytes in 2007 . This is the informational equivalent of two newspaper pages per person per day in 1986 , and six entire newspapers per person per day by 2007 . Given this growth , telecommunications play an increasingly important role in the world economy and the global telecommunications industry was about a $ 4 @.@ 7 trillion sector in 2012 . The service revenue of the global telecommunications industry was estimated to be $ 1 @.@ 5 trillion in 2010 , corresponding to 2 @.@ 4 % of the world ’ s gross domestic product ( GDP ) .
= Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) = " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Mariah Carey . It was released by Columbia Records on June 6 , 2000 , written by Carey and Diane Warren , and produced by Carey and Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis for Carey 's seventh studio album Rainbow ( 1999 ) . It was released as the album 's third single as a double A @-@ side with " Crybaby " . The song is a ballad , blending pop and R & B beats while incorporating its sound from several instruments including the violin , piano and organ . Lyrically , the song speaks of inner strength , and not allowing others to tear away your dreams . The song was well received by critics , many of whom complimented the lyrics , as well as Carey 's vocals . The song was not commercially successful due to its limited release and other factors . The song was the center of a very public controversy between Carey and her label Sony Music , based on what she perceived to be weak promotion of the single . It peaked at number 40 in Belgium Wallonia , number 45 in Italy and number 65 in the Netherlands . Stateside , due to Billboard rules at the time , it was not eligible to chart on the Hot 100 , only managing a peak of number six on the dance chart . Two music videos were filmed for " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " . Both feature personal videos left by five fans , re @-@ telling their stories of pain and emotional abuse and how the song had inspired them . Additionally , a large screen is shown next to Carey throughout the video , playing other inspirational stories from famous athletes . The ending alternates in both videos , with one climaxing on the balcony overlooking the city , while the other by a large indoor window . The song was performed on The Today Show and The View , as well as Carey 's Rainbow ( 2000 ) and Charmbracelet World Tours ( 2002 – 03 ) . = = Background = = According to Carey , writing " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " helped her get through rough emotional moments with her label 's management , and even times when she felt overwhelmed by others . During the early stages of the album , Carey said she felt pressured to complete the Rainbow album as quickly as possible , due to the fact that it was the last album under her contract with Columbia . During troubled times for the singer , as well as her divorce from record executive Tommy Mottola , she claimed writing and singing the song helped her get through troubled times and hoped her listeners would get the same message out of it . Carey thought it would become an anthem for fans and listeners who were going through difficult times in their life and could relate to the song . Additionally , during the taping of the Mariah Carey Homecoming Special , Carey told audience members that after the Columbine High School massacre in 1999 , she felt the song would help family members and friends of the victims during the tragedy , and hoped it would give them strength to get by the tragic event . For that reason , Carey included the song on the album , and campaigned for its radio release in mid @-@ 2000 . = = Composition and lyrical content = = " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " is a slow tempo song that blends pop and R & B beats . Additionally , it incorporates its sound from several instruments including the violin , piano and organ . The ballad is set in the signature of common time , with a slowly tempo of 52 beats per minute . It is written in the key of A major , with Carey 's vocals spanning almost three octaves , from the low note of A2 to the high note of F # 5 . Although the song was written by Carey and Diane Warren , the latter does not usually share songwriting credit . Although there were no conflicts during the recording process , the pair had minor disagreements during the songwriting stages : Carey said that Warren liked to repeat lyrical phrases often . The second song that Carey and Warren wrote together was " There for Me " which was released as a B @-@ side to the " Never Too Far / Hero Medley " charity single Carey recorded in late 2001 . The song 's protagonist details the struggles of dealing with people who put you down , and how to overcome these struggles through faith , courage , and the power of God . Carey explains in the song 's lyrics how although people can try to make her feel down and depressed , no matter what happens , she can 't let them win : " There 's a light in me that shines brightly . They can try but they can 't take that away from me . " = = Label dispute = = As with Butterfly two years prior , Rainbow became the center of a conflict in between Carey and her label . After Carey 's divorce with Sony record official and Columbia CEO Tommy Mottola , the working relationship with Carey and her label deteriorated . After the first two singles from Rainbow were released , Carey was gearing up for a third single to be released . She intended for " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " to be the next single , as it held very personal lyrical content . However , after getting wind of her plan , Sony made it clear that the album needed a more up @-@ beat and urban track to warm airwaves . These different opinions led to a very public feud in between them , as Carey began posting messages on her webpage during early and mid @-@ 2000 , telling fans inside information on the scandal , as well as instructing them to request " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " on radio stations . One of the messages Carey left on her page read : " Basically , a lot of you know the political situation in my professional career is not positive . It 's been really , really hard . I don 't even know if this message is going to get to you because I don 't know if they want you to hear this . I 'm getting a lot of negative feedback from certain corporate people . But I am not willing to give up . " Carey 's actions were given mixed reception , with critics and executives both commending her bold actions towards a song she felt needed to be heard , while others criticized her for publicizing the scandal further . Soon after , Sony involved themselves further , stripping Carey 's webpage of any messages and began trying to reach an agreement with her . Fearing to lose their label 's highest seller , and the best @-@ selling artist of the decade , Sony chose to release the song . Carey , initially content with the agreement , soon found out that the song had only been allowed a very limited and low @-@ promotion release , not allowing the song to chart on the official US chart , and making international charting extremely difficult and unlikely . = = Reception = = = = = Critical reception = = = " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " was generally commended by contemporary music critics . In his review for Rainbow , Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic named the song one of the album 's top three picks . Danyel Smith from Entertainment Weekly called the song the " emotional center of the album " and wrote " There 's a light in me / That shines brightly , she sings . The song ( co @-@ written with Diane Warren and co @-@ produced with Jam and Lewis ) resonates with new life experience — a kind of truth and uplift . " Elysa Gardner , editor from the Los Angeles Times , called the song " earnestly passionate " and felt Carey sounded her " most impressive " on the song . Amy Linden from Vibe also reviewed the song positively , calling Carey 's vocal performance in the song " emotional " and " graceful . " Additionally , Linden wrote " It could very well be Carey 's version of Nas ' " Hate Me Now " ; she makes it through all the trials and tribulations undaunted . " = = = Chart performance = = = The release of the song as a single was surrounded by conflict between Carey and Sony Music Entertainment . Due to Billboard rules at the time of the song 's release , charting credit was not given to " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " but to " Crybaby " , the song it shared a double A @-@ side with . The song managed to chart on the dance single in the United States , reaching the top ten on the Hot Dance Club Play chart . Due to the song 's weak promotional release , it was not released together with " Crybaby " outside the United States , where it performed poorly due to its radio @-@ only premiere . It charted for one week in Belgium ( Wallonia ) , where it peaked at number forty on the official singles chart . Similarly in the Netherlands , " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " peaked at number sixty @-@ five on the Dutch Singles Chart , however spending nine weeks fluctuating in the chart . = = Music videos and remixes = = Two music videos were shot for " Can 't Take That Away , " both directed by Sanaa Hamri in New York City . The creation of the video involved some of Carey 's fans : two weeks prior to filming , they were invited via her website to send in video clips of themselves , telling her of the hardships in their lives and how the song had inspired them to look at life differently , and had given them strength . A contest was held , and video clips from five fans were chosen for inclusion in the video . The clips were featured in the video 's introduction , where Carey reacts to her fan 's struggles which included personal insecurities , the problems of being part of a racial or social minority , and being victimized by verbal harassment . The original edit of the music video begins with a message to those fans that sent in their videos ; " Thank you to all those who chose to share their stories with the world . " Subsequently , a personal message left by Carey is shown , reading " After every storm , if you look hard enough , a rainbow appears ... " Five testimonials from fans are shown , each telling of their own personal problems and hardships . In her testimonial , the third girl says " I am fourteen years old , I 'm a high school student , there is not one day that goes by that people don 't make fun of me about my race . Its is about self @-@ confidence , don 't be afraid to dream . " After the last girl reads her message , Carey is shown lying on a sofa in her living room , watching a television . As she sadly sings , she watched as different empowering messages and events are shown on the screen . Of them , one shows Lance Armstrong riding a bicycle on the Tour de France , reading " Lance Armstrong overcame cancer and won the Tour de France in 1999 . " After the next scene , Carey is shown sitting on the sofa , with tears in her eyes , as they slowly escape her . During the end of the bridge , where she sings , " Certainly the Lord will guide me , " Carey stands from the floor , and exits onto a large balcony overlooking the city . Rain begins to fall while Carey waves her arms as she cries out . Her depression is resolved when the rain stops and a rainbow forms , prompting her to smile . The video was quickly pulled after its release because it contained some technical errors . The clips of the people on Carey 's television had their struggles captioned in dark text on a dark background , making it difficult to read . There were also continuity errors during the rainy balcony scene , as Carey 's shirt would alternate between being soaking wet and dry . Consequently , a new music video was completed , which retained the clips of Carey 's fans at the beginning but fixed the captions and replaced most of the interior shots of Carey with new footage . Carey , now in a new and more furnished apartment , does not go out into the rain but instead stays in her living room . She walks over to a large pair of windows aside a mural of large throw pillows and candles , singing and flailing her arms as she completes the song . As with the previous filming of the video , Carey 's pain and sadness is resolved with a rainbow , shown at the end of the video . Most remixes of " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " were released in the US only , although few were found in certain territories . David Morales produced the Morales club mix , which uses the song 's original vocals with similar chord progressions to those of the original , and the Morales Triumphant mix , which contains re @-@ recorded vocals and new lyrics which transform the song into a jazz @-@ like mix with harmonica sections . A spoken introduction was also added , featuring Carey 's spoken voice before the first verse . = = Live performances = = Although " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " was never fully released as a single , Carey felt very strongly about the song and therefore promoted it through several live television and award show appearances . Carey 's first live performance of the song was on The Today Show as part of a mini @-@ concert which aired live on November 2 , 1999 , from Rockefeller Center in New York . Following the concert on The Today Show , Carey performed the song live at the 2000 Blockbuster Entertainment Awards , where she was presented as a featured performer . After the release of " Against All Odds ( Take a Look at Me Now ) " , the album 's final single , Carey sang them both live on The View in mid @-@ 2000 . On October 30 , 1999 , Carey filmed a private concert held at her old high school in Huntington , Long Island , where she taped a special for the Fox Broadcasting Company titled Mariah Carey Homecoming Special , which aired in December of that year . Aside from television performances , the song was part of the set @-@ list on both the Rainbow World Tour , which coincided with the release and promotion of Rainbow , as well as the Charmbracelet World Tour in 2002 – 03 . She has performed the song recently in her last two concerts in Marrakech , Morocco , and at the Mawazine Festival , and Monaco . The remix version was the opening number for her concerts in Australia during January 2013 . = = Covers = = Bonnie ' Prince ' Billy covers the song on " Guilt by Association Vol . 1 " an album dedicated to indie musician covering pop and R & B songs . = = Formats and track listings = = = = Credits and personnel = = Credits adapted from the Rainbow liner notes . = = Charts = =
= Pennsylvania Route 115 = Pennsylvania Route 115 ( PA 115 ) is a 35 @.@ 7 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 57 @.@ 5 km ) north – south state highway in eastern Pennsylvania . It stretches from U.S. Route 209 ( US 209 ) in Brodheadsville , Monroe County to Interstate 81 ( I @-@ 81 ) and PA 309 near Wilkes @-@ Barre in Luzerne County . PA 115 passes through rural areas along its route , intersecting PA 903 in Tunkhannock Township , I @-@ 80 and PA 940 in Tobyhanna Township , and I @-@ 476 ( Pennsylvania Turnpike Northeast Extension ) in Bear Creek Township . The road serves as a connector between The Poconos and the Wyoming Valley . The road originated as the Sullivan Trail , a route that follows the path taken by General John Sullivan during his expedition in the American Revolutionary War . The Sullivan Trail later became known as the Easton and Wilkes @-@ Barre Turnpike , a turnpike that connected Easton and Wilkes @-@ Barre between 1815 and the 1850s . PA 115 was designated in 1928 to run from Montoursville east to Swiftwater ; the route was designated PA 15 for a year prior to that . In 1935 , the east end was realigned from Swiftwater to Saylorsburg . By 1937 , the termini were moved from Montoursville to Mausdale and from Saylorsburg to Easton . PA 115 was extended west to Milton by 1950 . The northern terminus was realigned to Hughesville by 1960 , the same time a portion of the route from Saylorsburg to Wind Gap was relocated to a freeway alignment . PA 115 's northern terminus was cut back to the Wilkes @-@ Barre area in 1961 . The southern terminus was rolled back to Brodheadsville by 1972 . PA 115 has had its northern terminus in various locations in the Wilkes @-@ Barre area from 1962 to 1990 ; finally being moved to its current location in 1990 . = = Route description = = PA 115 begins at a Y intersection with US 209 in the community of Brodheadsville in Chestnuthill Township , Monroe County . From this intersection , the route heads northwest as a two @-@ lane undivided road , passing through business areas before heading into a mix of farmland and woodland with some development . The road passes through the community of Effort and curves to the north . PA 115 gains a second northbound lane and continues into forested areas with residential neighborhoods , turning to the northwest and entering Tunkhannock Township . The route narrows back to two lanes and runs through more dense forests . The road passes to the southwest of Pocono Raceway before it curves more to the west and meets the northern terminus of PA 903 . PA 115 heads northwest again through more forested areas with some development prior to crossing into Tobyhanna Township . Here , the route immediately reaches an interchange with I @-@ 80 at exit 284 , at which point it widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway . After the interchange , PA 115 narrows back into a two @-@ lane undivided road and crosses Tobyhanna Creek . The route crosses PA 940 in the community of Blakeslee , at which point it passes a few businesses . Following this intersection , the road heads back through forests . PA 115 crosses the Lehigh River into Buck Township in Luzerne County , where the name of the road becomes Buck Boulevard . The route passes through more dense forest , curving more to the west and entering Bear Creek Township in the community of Shades Glen . The road becomes Bear Creek Boulevard and continues west , entering the borough of Bear Creek Village . Here , PA 115 gains a center left @-@ turn lane and heads through wooded areas of homes , passing to the south of Bear Creek Lake . The route heads northwest and becomes the border between Bear Creek Village to the northeast and Bear Creek Township to the southwest , with the turn lane disappearing and the road gaining a second southbound lane . The route fully enters Bear Creek Township again , where it turns back into a three @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane and passes near some residential neighborhoods , turning to the north . PA 115 curves northwest and comes to a ramp that provides access to I @-@ 476 ( Pennsylvania Turnpike Northeast Extension ) at exit 105 . The route becomes a wide two @-@ lane road and runs parallel to I @-@ 476 to the west as it descends Wyoming Mountain . The road curves northeast before a turn to the northwest , where it passes under I @-@ 476 . PA 115 continues north through forests with some homes , passing through Llewellyns Corners . The route enters Plains Township and passes over a Reading Blue Mountain and Northern Railroad line as it winds through more dense forests as a four @-@ lane divided highway . PA 115 turns to the west and passes south of commercial development before it comes to its northern terminus at an interchange with I @-@ 81 and PA 309 at exit 170 outside of Wilkes @-@ Barre . Past this interchange , the roadway continues west as the limited @-@ access North Cross Valley Expressway , which is part of PA 309 . = = History = = = = = Old roads = = = Most of what became PA 115 from Easton to Wilkes @-@ Barre was originally a pathway made by General John Sullivan and his forces in 1779 during the American Revolutionary War on their expedition from Easton to the Wyoming Valley . George Washington ordered Sullivan to march upstream the Susquehanna River to join General James Clinton 's brigade at the Bradford County town of Tioga ( now known as Athens ) . Soon after , Sullivan 's army departed to Newtown , New York where they defeated the Iroquois and Cayuga Indians living in Western New York . His campaign was one of the most important military movements in the American Revolution . The southernmost segment of General Sullivan 's path which became part of PA 115 centuries later from Knox Avenue in Easton to PA 512 in Wind Gap is currently designated as Sullivan Trail . At the turn of the 19th century , the population and economy of Luzerne County continued to grow and there was a necessity for new roads to improve communication between distant settlements . Most of the early merchandise transportation in the area was done by Durham boats on the Lehigh and Susquehanna Rivers . This led Arnold Colt , a Luzerne County clerk , to construct a turnpike directly connecting the Wyoming and Lehigh Valleys on Sullivan 's Trail . Colt then obtained a charter to incorporate the Easton and Wilkes @-@ Barre Turnpike on February 11 , 1803 . The first 46 miles ( 74 km ) of the turnpike from Wilkes @-@ Barre to Wind Gap were finished by 1807 . Colt then obtained a charter to incorporate the Easton and Wilkes @-@ Barre Turnpike on February 11 , 1803 . The road was completed by 1815 at a total expense of $ 75 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 970 thousand in 2016 ) . The turnpike was initially used as major thoroughfare for conveying grains and plaster during War of 1812 . When Northampton County farmers could not afford shipped plaster from the Eastern seaboard they became interested in New York plaster . The plaster was transported from New York via the Susquehanna River then onto the turnpike on wagons and sleds . Transporting this product became the turnpike 's legacy as it transformed the road into an important commercial line . By the 1850s , the transport industry heavily favored trains over wagons and sleds . In 1851 , the Lackawanna and Western Railroad was completed , connecting Scranton to upstate New York . The new railroad shortened the time required to ship goods between the two endpoints from ten days ( by way of roads ) to just one . The amount of traffic on the turnpike declined as a result . By the 1850s , the turnpike company had folded and the highway was abandoned . From Bear Creek to Tobyhanna Township the name Easton and Wilkes @-@ Barre Road is still marked on PA 115 . The former southern extension of PA 115 from Brodheadsville to Wind Gap is marked as the Wilkes @-@ Barre Turnpike . = = = Designation = = = When Pennsylvania began maintenance over roads by the way of the Sproul Road Bill in May 1911 , the Luzerne County portion of present @-@ day PA 115 was adopted as Legislative Route 169 ( LR 169 ) , the primary connector between Wilkes @-@ Barre and the Poconos . The former southernmost segment of the route from Saylorsburg to Easton was adopted as LR 166 . The first traffic routes were assigned in 1924 and by 1927 , the state had assigned LR 169 as PA 15 only to be renumbered the following year as PA 115 . When PA 115 was commissioned in 1928 , the road was mostly aligned east – west and stretched from US 220 in Montoursville to US 611 in Swiftwater near Mount Pocono . In April 1935 , the southern terminus of PA 115 was moved from Mount Pocono to PA 12 in Saylorsburg , following the Effort Mountain road connecting Wilkes @-@ Barre with Easton . The former alignment of PA 115 from Tobyhanna Township to Swiftwater was replaced by PA 940 , which is now PA 940 between Tobyhanna Township and Pocono Summit and PA 314 between Pocono Summit and Swiftwater . By 1937 , the southern terminus of PA 115 extended to US 611 in Easton . The new route followed the Sullivan Trail and replaced PA 102 between Easton and Stockertown . The same year , the northern terminus was moved from Montoursville to PA 54 in the Montour County community of Mausdale . The route replaced a part of PA 154 between Mausdale and Jerseytown , all of PA 439 between Jerseytown and Benton , and a part of PA 339 between Benton and Coles Creek . The former alignment of PA 115 between Montoursville and Coles Creek became PA 87 between Montoursville and Forksville and PA 154 between Forksville and Coles Creek . This alignment retains these designations today except that PA 154 has been removed between Laporte and Coles Creek . By 1950 , PA 115 was extended west to PA 14 ( currently PA 405 ) in Milton , replacing a portion of PA 154 between Milton and Mooresburg and a portion of PA 45 between Mooresburg and Mausdale . Also , a new alignment of PA 115 between Lehman and PA 415 in Dallas was proposed . The northern terminus was moved from Milton to US 220 in Hughesville during the 1950s ; this stretch replaced a portion of PA 642 . The former alignment of PA 115 between Milton and Red Rock became PA 642 between Milton and Jerseytown and PA 254 between Jerseytown and Red Rock . This alignment is now PA 642 , PA 254 between Jerseytown and Benton , and PA 487 between Benton and Red Rock . In addition , the route was moved to its new alignment between Lehman and Dallas , where it turned southeast and picked up a concurrency with US 309 . By 1960 , PA 115 was moved onto a freeway ( now PA 33 ) from Saylorsburg to PA 512 in Wind Gap . In April 1961 , the northern terminus of PA 115 was moved from Hughesville to US 309 ( now PA 309 Business ) in Wilkes @-@ Barre Township , with the route replaced by PA 118 between Hughesville and Dallas . This change was made in order to eliminate the concurrency with US 309 between Dallas and Wilkes @-@ Barre Township and to give the east @-@ west portion between Hughesville and Dallas an even route number . In Wilkes @-@ Barre , it used to follow Kidder Street , Butler Street , Main Street , Courtright Street , Carey Avenue , and crossed the Susquehanna River on Pierce Street . By 1972 , the southern terminus was truncated from Easton to its current location . The portion of PA 115 's former surface alignment in Northampton County between Center Square in Easton and PA 191 in Stockertown is now designated as State Route 2025 , an unsigned quadrant route . PA 115 was extended back to its former alignments by 1980 via Kidder , Scott , Butler , and Pierce Streets through Wilkes @-@ Barre and ended at US 11 in Kingston . The route was truncated to PA 309 at the intersection of Kidder and Spring Streets in Wilkes @-@ Barre by 1989 . A year later , the northern terminus was moved to its current location when the North Cross Valley Expressway ( PA 309 ) was completed . = = Major intersections = =

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