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= Seara ( newspaper ) =
Seara ( Romanian pronunciation : [ ˈse ̯ ara ] , meaning " The Evening " ) was a daily newspaper published in Bucharest , Romania , before and during World War I. Owned by politician Grigore Gheorghe Cantacuzino and , through most of its existence , managed by the controversial Alexandru Bogdan @-@ Pitești , it was an unofficial and unorthodox tribune for the Conservative Party . Its involvement in politics sparked numerous scandals , the longest of which came during the neutrality period ( 1914 – 1916 ) . Strongly anti @-@ Slavic , Seara stood out in that context for supporting the German Empire and Central Powers , and was widely alleged of having been financed by a German propaganda machine . In 1914 , it was purchased by German businessmen , but continued to register mediocre success in comparison with its pro @-@ Entente competitors . In late 1916 , after Romania decided in favor of the Entente , Seara was disestablished .
Noted for publishing the biting satirical pieces and art chronicles of Tudor Arghezi , Seara was closely associated with the Romanian Symbolist movement . Through Arghezi , Bogdan @-@ Pitești and other contributors , it campaigned in favor Symbolism and , after 1913 , popularized modern art . Although paying tribute to political conservatism throughout its existence , Seara was also home to anti @-@ establishment contributors , allies in the anti @-@ Entente cause . The newspaper sympathized with the Social Democratic Party , regularly hosting opinion pieces by socialists and anarchists .
= = Before 1914 = =
= = = Beginnings = = =
Like the daily Minerva , Seara was originally a creation of G. G. Cantacuzino , the Romanian magnate . Cantacuzino , who supported the Conservative Party inner faction of Alexandru Marghiloman , refrained from attaching his name to Seara , later entrusting Bogdan @-@ Pitești with the position of manager . In 1910 , the year of its foundation , Seara also followed the Conservative doyens Petre P. Carp and Nicolae Filipescu , supporting Carp 's strict monarchism and suggesting that the " Carpist @-@ Filipescan " line was one of moral superiority .
Early in its existence , Seara reported on various events agitating public opinion , such as the Romanian Orthodox Church division between the traditionalists and those who supported communion with Rome . In one of its first issues , it hosted a disclaimer by Roman Catholic chanoine Joseph Baud , who calmed enraged Orthodox believers by assuring them that their Metropolitan Bishop Iosif Gheorghian had not died a Catholic . Later , Seara gave significant coverage to what it called " scandals in the Vatican " , particularly so in the 1911 controversy surrounding Father Verdesi 's conversion to Methodism ; this prompted the Romanian Catholic press to list Seara among those newspapers " at odds with Christian ideas " .
At that stage in its history , Seara was also sympathetic to the cause of ethnic Romanians living abroad , in Transylvania and other regions of Austria @-@ Hungary : in August 1911 , it sent special correspondents to cover the congress of Romanian activist groups in Blußendref ( Blaj ) . The newspaper also reported with disapproval on the growth of nationalism among the Hungarians , covering for a Romanian public the division of Hungarian Socialists along pro- and anti @-@ nationalist politics , and accusing the Károly Khuen @-@ Héderváry administration of subverting the Romanian National Party ( PNR ) . Seara 's articles gave exposure to the PNR 's official reaction , as voiced by that party 's speaker Alexandru Vaida @-@ Voevod . It called Vaida @-@ Voevod " one of the [ PNR 's ] brilliant leaders " , responsible " to a great extent for the rescue of party discipline and national solidarity " .
In March of the next year , Seara published an homage to journalist and ideologue Constantin Stere , noted for having brought back together the two factions of the PNR , and concluded : " Mr. C. Stere , although involved in our country 's partisan politics , [ ... ] has transmitted to our quarrelsome brothers a peace message from all of us , proving that the foremost preoccupation of our minds is and will be national solidarity , the pure love for the holy cause of Romaniandom . " It later discussed the conflict between PNR politicians and Khuen @-@ Héderváry 's successor , László Lukács . In his reply to the PNR ( paraphrased by Seara ) , Lukács equated the Romanians ' political emancipation in Transylvania with militant irredentism , and prophesied that Transylvania was in real danger of being invaded by the Kingdom of Romania . Seara retorted by accusing Lukács of supporting " preemptive " Magyarization in " the multilingual Kingdom of Hungary " .
The paper was also taking an interest in the political affairs of the Balkans . Shortly before the Balkan Wars , it published the appeal of Simion , a Greek Romanian politician and editor of Bucharest 's Patris gazette , who gathered support for a Greco – Romanian alliance against the South Slavs . Simion posited that Romania and the Kingdom of Greece would eventually reach an understanding over the litigious issue of Aromanian nationhood , and blamed the conflict on " shrewd " Slavic meddling .
= = = Moderate Symbolism = = =
Seara also made known its artistic credo , placing itself in the margin of Romanian Symbolism . According to art historian Dan Grigorescu , its awareness of European literature and its cultural effervescence , like those of Facla , Viitorul and other Romanian periodicals with special cultural pages , were impressive . Up to April 1911 ( when he was made director of the National Theater Bucharest ) , Ioan Bacalbașa was Seara 's theater columnist . According to his colleagues in the Transylvanian press , Bacalbașa 's columns for Seara and Epoca were a courageous defense of national literature .
During his time at Seara , Bacalbașa was seconded by poet Dumitru Karnabatt , later a political chronicler for the same newspaper . Karnabatt introduced the stage work of Henry Bataille ( Issue 271 / 1910 ) and the Aestheticism of Oscar Wilde ( editorial piece , Issue 52 , 1910 ) . Elsewhere ( Issue 425 / 1911 ) , Seara covered the hitherto supposed discovery of an unknown novel by Honoré de Balzac . Around that time , Karnabatt 's own literary contributions for Seara were samples of Symbolist , Decadent and Impressionist travel writing , sometimes written together with his novelist wife Lucrezzia .
Lucrezzia stopped writing for the paper in 1911 , probably as a result of conflicts she had with Bogdan @-@ Pitești , her marriage to Dumitru on the brink of failure . Sometimes signing as " Don Ramiro " , Dumitru remained affiliated with Seara , and in charge of its artistic policies . The newspaper 's traditional conservatism was still being reflected in its artistic choices . During late 1910 , Karnabatt gave poor reviews to the more rebellious Symbolist painters to emerge from the Tinerimea Artistică salon , and deemed the primitivist sculptor Constantin Brâncuși a madman .
In January 1911 , the same author used the newspaper to publicize his dislike of Futurism , a modern art and anti @-@ establishment current originating in Italy . Reviewing the Futurist Manifesto , he called for " demented " author Filippo Tommaso Marinetti to be " tied down " . Karnabatt further proposed that Marinetti 's exacerbated modernism was an atavistic manifestation of the Barbarian Invasions : " an absurd heredity within the Italian people , this people of art and of idealism " . Closely following similar developments in French culture , Seara supported Jean Richepin 's protest against " excessive modernism " and the division of labor . The pro @-@ Richepin article , signed by Prince Constantin de Brancovan , saw print in Issue 53 / 1911 .
In Decadent spirit , Karnabatt 's essays in Seara advocate a reevaluation of Rococo and fête galante aesthetics . He was revolted by " the horrors of contemporary painting " — Pissarro , Monet , etc . — , citing as his reference " the fine and erudite art critic , the independent and courageous " Sâr Péladan ( who was , incidentally , Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's mentor ) . In a September issue , " Don Ramiro " Karnabatt declared himself horrified that some were proposing to honor the inveterate gambler Avrillon with a public monument , announcing that France had given in to " vice " . By then , he was giving positive reviews to " decadent poets " of the " dead cities " ( Georges Rodenbach , Dimitrie Anghel ) , and enthusiastic about the establishment of community theaters to promote a " noble and pure art " , away from " the platitudes and pettiness of modern life " .
In Seara , " Don Ramiro " was also contributing to the publicity campaigns mounted by Symbolist doyen Alexandru Macedonski and by Macedonski 's painter son , Alexis . For Karnabatt , their contribution to Symbolism was a horizon " of violent and tormented passion " . Seara 's support for Macedonski 's cosmopolitanism earned Karnabatt criticism from the anti @-@ Symbolist Transylvanians .
= = = Blackmail scandals = = =
During spring 1913 , Cantacuzino formally liquidated his business , and Bogdan @-@ Pitești was officially installed as manager of Seara . According to the rival satirical magazine Furnica , although Seara was " stillborn " when it came to commercial success , the move was intriguing for the reading public . The conservative principles stated by Cantacuzino seemed largely incompatible with the radical activism that had made Bogdan @-@ Pitești a mistrusted public figure . Bogdan @-@ Pitești , whose background was in French anarchism , announced that the new editorial line centered on some of Cantacuzino 's bugbears : universal suffrage , feminism , land reform , Jewish emancipation etc . In March of that year , Seara was also joined by a most fervent contributor , the poet and lampoonist Arghezi .
Although supporting the Conservative Party before and after that moment , Seara was focusing its efforts on attacking the Conservative @-@ Democratic Party of Take Ionescu , with whom the Conservative Premier Titu Maiorescu had formed a coalition ( one resented by Cantacuzino and Bogdan @-@ Pitești ) . In this context , critic Ion Vianu notes , Seara became " an aggressive publication , with a history of base attacks and blackmail . " The anti @-@ Ionescu discourse was notably outlined in an Arghezi article of September 11 , 1913 . It collectively and disparagingly identified the Conservative @-@ Democrats ( or Takists ) as ciocoi ( " upstarts " ) , accusing them of having repressed in blood the 1907 peasant revolt : " They are the symbol of 1907 , when , his arms , chest , shoulders and back loaded with ravens , with ciocoi , the peasant tore himself away from his field , split himself , fought to chase them away and [ ... ] fell down murdered by the claws that clutched down , tore down into his flesh and reached inside to his soul and killed it as well . These ciocoi , we will eradicate . " In a 1913 issue , Romanian Land Forces General Ștefan Stoica referred to Ionescu 's men as craii de Curtea @-@ Veche ( " the Old Court rakes " ) , another colloquialism for " upstarts " .
One of Seara 's prime targets was Public Works Minister Alexandru Bădărău , called " filthy con man " , accused of taking massive bribes from American investors in Romanian oil and of employing in his staff some 150 women in exchange for sexual favors . Nicolae Titulescu , the young Conservative Democrat politician and bureaucrat , was ridiculed for having acquired , through his foreign connections , an original tapestry from the Gobelins Manufactory . Notably , senior politician Nicolae Fleva lent his pen to these allegations , writing in Seara that Bădărău had serious psychiatric problems . Documenting Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's Catholic faith and Arghezi 's anticlericalism , Seara lampooned the Orthodox Church , and was discredited as the offshoot of " Papist propaganda " .
According to literary critics such as Barbu Cioculescu and Vianu , Seara may have had for its informant the Symbolist writer Mateiu Caragiale — a client of Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's , he had become a chief of staff for Bădărău . In diaries he kept after his split with Bogdan @-@ Pitești , Caragiale himself alleged that Seara 's publisher was being paid to harass " without pity , in biting manner , all those whom Cantacuzino would grace with his unfriendliness or antipathy " , in particular the Conservative @-@ Democrats . Although he never signed articles for Seara , Caragiale was by then receiving regular payments from its patrons .
At the peak of Cantacuzino 's negative campaign against the Conservative @-@ Democrats , Seara also attacked private enterprises , including the Marmorosch Blank Bank . Bogdan @-@ Pitești was taken to court by owner Aristide Blank , and N. Fleva organized his defense . According to the records kept by Caragiale , Blank effectively set a " trap " with the cooperation of Romanian Police , and Bogdan @-@ Pitești , found guilty of blackmail , was sentenced to nine months in prison . Seara fared badly during the period , and was out of print by autumn 1913 .
= = = Modernist platform = = =
Before and after the 1913 hiatus , with Bogdan @-@ Pitești and Arghezi at its helm , Seara expanded its range , encouraging the development of modernist literature , and playing a part in the transition from Romanian Symbolism to 20th century avant @-@ garde . Its art chronicles celebrated the international success of modern artists Constantin Brâncuși and Pascin , both of whom , Seara argued , were culturally tied to Romania . Revising its stance , the newspaper published Arghezi 's account of the new Tinerimea Artistică modern art exhibit ( April 1913 ) , mentioning Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's role as an art patron and instigator of change . The two intellectuals also promoted the works by young artist Theodor Pallady , most notably with a series of articles in which Arghezi spoke about Pallady paintings in the Bogdan @-@ Pitești collection . The magazine , already noted for publishing political cartoons by Nicolae Petrescu Găină , was also joined by Marcel Janco , known later for his work as a Dada and Constructivist artist .
During those years , Seara also enlisted two poets formerly affiliated with Simbolul review : the Imagist Adrian Maniu and the experimental Symbolist Ion Vinea . By summer 1914 , the latter 's articles included jibes against the moderate Symbolist figure Ovid Densusianu , ridiculing his disciples at Versuri și Proză magazine ( the beginning of a dispute which Vinea would pursue in more depth during his time at Chemarea magazine ) . In addition to poetry and prose fragments , Vinea was assigned a regular column about life in Bucharest . Also published by Seara was the Symbolist George Bacovia , with poetry pieces such as " Winter Lead " , " Autumn Nerves " and " Poem in the Mirror " — generally second editions , previously published in Noua Revistă Română and other reviews ; they were later included in Bacovia 's lionized collection Plumb .
Himself a literary chronicler , Tudor Arghezi investigated the cultural phenomena of the day . One of his articles denounced Edmond Rostand as a kitsch author , suited to the tastes of " chromolithograph buyers . " He also reviewed Wilde 's comedy An Ideal Husband ( Issue 1 / 1914 ) and , unusually , ridiculed the Symbolist poetry of Mateiu Caragiale . Under Arghezi , Seara popularized international modern art , notably by publishing the Fauvist drawings of André Derain .
Arghezi 's main focus was on satire , which he often directed at traditionalists and ethnic nationalists , particularly those arriving in from Transylvania . One such text attacked the poet laureate Octavian Goga , accusing him and other Transylvanian refugees of hoarding bureaucratic positions in the Kingdom of Romania . In a 1913 piece , Arghezi targeted scholar Ioan Bianu for allegedly mismanaging the Romanian Academy Library : " From his longjohns and his cleated boots , Mr. Bianu has jumped straight into the aristocracy and [ ... ] turned our library [ ... ] into his own , Transylvanian , empire . [ ... ] An impertinent voice submits one to a detailed interrogation . It is Mr. Bianu , a jaundiced liver with a moustache , with the evil gaze of a man who collects many salaries but is aware of his own voidness and dullness " .
As part of its emancipation agenda , Seara expressed sympathy for the Romanian Jews , and , in contrast to the antisemitism of more traditionalist reviews , accepted works sent in by Jewish writers . In October 1913 , Seara obtained and published a confidential order which gave Romanian Land Forces officers a free hand to discriminate against Jewish recruits . In September 1914 , it hosted the journalistic debut of Jewish avant @-@ garde author Jacques G. Costin , who was , with Vinea , caretaker of the cultural pages . Like Arghezi and Vinea , Costin experimented with satirical genres , his sketch story techniques borrowed from 19th century classic Ion Luca Caragiale ( Mateiu 's father ) . Some of the poems published in Seara were authored by Arghezi 's Jewish wife , Constanța Zissu . Seara was also receiving contributions from Grigore Goilav , the Armenian Romanian ethnographer and art historian .
= = Neutrality years = =
= = = Germanophilia and propaganda = = =
A final period in Seara 's history coincided with the start of World War I and Romania 's neutrality period . As public opinion divided itself between supporters of the Entente Powers and those who favored the Central Powers , Seara and Minerva stood for the latter group , the " Germanophiles " . The two papers reputedly entered this competition for the public eye with a handicap . An Ententist daily , Adevărul , claimed that , together , Seara and Minerva had consumed 481 tons of paper in printing from January 1 to August 31 , 1914 ( for itself and Dimineața , it claimed a figure of 1 @,@ 284 tons ) .
Like other samples of Germanophile media , Seara is widely alleged to have been the recipient of special propaganda funds from the German Empire and Austria @-@ Hungary . According to historian Lucian Boia , Germanophile newspapers had little room for maneuver , given their unpopular agenda : " of little interest , boycotted and with their offices once in a while assaulted by the ' indignant ' public , [ they ] could never have supported themselves without an infusion of German money . " Similarly , researcher Carmen Patricia Reneti argues : " Seara would [ never ] have been the paper most useful to German propaganda . [ ... ] Minerva and Seara were read by just about no one . " Claims of German payments focus on Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's shady political dealings , the target of controversy since 1915 . Boia notes that the patron , who had no reason for refusing German bribes , may have been genuinely committed to the Germanophile cause , regardless of such additional benefits . Boia also claims that , keeping in with a Romanian tradition of the " baksheesh " , the Francophile press may also have received funds from the Entente . Contrarily , historian Ion Bulei argues that " fraudulent wheeler @-@ dealer " Bogdan @-@ Pitești and his " money obsessed " patron were merely directing their support toward the highest bidder . According to various accounts , Bogdan @-@ Pitești was diverting much of his own political payments into increasing his prestigious art collection or supporting his retinue .
In contrast to other Germanophile mouthpieces , Seara stated its support for the Central Powers early on , before such financing could occur — even before its patron Cantacuzino decided which side he supported . In the months of strife which preceded the actual war , the Romanian daily published telegrams and concerned commentary about the effects of nationalism in Central Europe and the Balkans . These accused the Greek Kingdom and Northern Epirote militias of decimating the Aromanian community in Korçë during April 1914 , and urged Romanians to express their indignation . A month later , Seara was taking a stand against Romanian irredentism over Transylvania , as analyzed by the Transylvanian Germanophile Ioan Slavici . Slavici 's texts scandalized the nationalist press for supporting Vasile Mangra , the pro @-@ Hungarian priest and suspected agent of influence . However , the newspaper was also criticizing the Hungarian authorities for demanding the extradition of university student Măndăchescu . The latter , Seara reported , was wrongly accused of a bomb attack on the Diocese of Hajdúdorog , when the act was more likely attributable to the revolutionist Ilie Cătărău .
During June , Seara also circulated a rumor about secret talks between King Carol I and Nicholas II of the Russian Empire , in Constanța . Seara claimed that the two royals had agreed to oversee a shift of power , forcing a union between the Serbian and Montenegrin kingdoms against the Central Powers ' express wishes . Shortly after the Sarajevo Assassination , which offeered the Central Powers a casus belli , Seara circulated rumors about the contradictions between Austrians and Hungarian subjects of the double monarchy . It alleged that , instead of mourning , the Hungarian colony of Ploiești had organized " a very merry celebration " at the consulate .
In the weeks and months following the assassination , Arghezi 's articles blamed the push toward war on Serbian nationalism and the Balkans question at large : " Until such time as when Europe shall incorporate and enslave the Balkans , they will endure as the nest where all of Europe 's assassinations are being organized " ; " the Serbs have staged an attempt on Austria [ -Hungary ] ' s existence , in dastardly manner . " Arghezi had set his mind on continued neutrality , arguing that it could turn Romania into an arbiter and broker of peace . A similar position was held by Karnabatt .
In autumn 1914 , Seara and Minerva were both purchased by a German consortium , although Bogdan @-@ Pitești was probably still the former 's ( uncredited ) manager . The two papers were brought under a single umbrella , the publishing house Tiparul . Its board of directors included Bogdan @-@ Pitești , publicist Josef B. Brociner , banker Roselius , and investor Josef Hennenvogel . The acquisition , which reputedly followed an increase in German propaganda and espionage all over Romania , was described as scandalous by Acțiunea , an Ententist newspaper owned by Take Ionescu . In a September 24 piece called La mezat ( " On Public Sale " ) , it claimed that Minerva cost the Germans 3 million lei , and Seara only 400 @,@ 000 lei . This allegation was confirmed during later inquiries .
One account has it that the Germans paid Bogdan @-@ Pitești the cost of paper and printing , which had been hitherto provided , for free , by Cantacuzino . Bogdan @-@ Pitești ( and German funds ) were probably involved in financing a new platform , Cronica , launched by Arghezi and Gala Galaction in February 1915 . In October of that year , with probable German support , Bogdan @-@ Pitești , Arghezi and Galaction set up another Germanophile newspaper , Libertatea ( " Freedom " ) , presided upon , for a short while , by N. Fleva . According to one account , Fleva had earlier been approached to take over as Seara manager by German envoys Brociner and Hilmar von dem Bussche @-@ Haddenhausen , but , realizing the implications , had refused .
= = = Conservatives and socialists = = =
Cantacuzino ended his period of reflection in January 1915 , when he openly supported Alexandru Marghiloman in creating a pro @-@ German subgroup within the Conservative Party . Jeopardizing their standing in the party , both men cited irregularities in the Conservative caucus .
With many of its articles , Seara popularized Marghiloman 's views on conservatism and geopolitics . Conservative in outlook , the Russophobic and anti @-@ Slavic Karnabatt outlined his political vision in some detail , discussing the Entente 's imminent " bankruptcy " . Ilie Bărbulescu , a Slavist and Marghiloman Conservative who advocated pro @-@ German neutralism , also published articles in Seara during 1915 . Beyond this conservative core , Seara colored its pages in various shades of left @-@ wing advocacies , from socialism and social democracy to anarchism . According to literary historian Paul Cernat , the ideological ambiguity and conjectural alliances between socialists and conservatives was motivated by a common enemy , the pro @-@ Entente and " plutocratic " National Liberal Party .
The independent socialist Felix Aderca , later known as a novelist , expanded on his earlier theoretical articles for Noua Revistă Română , depicting the German Empire as the " progressive " actor in the war . Through the voice of another contributor , the old anarchist scholar Zamfir Arbore , Seara was focusing its criticism on Russia 's Tsarist autocracy , against whom Arbore had been fighting for decades . Similar ideals inspired Alexis Nour , who arrived to Seara from the home @-@ grown leftist current , Poporanism . Bogdan @-@ Pitești wrote with noted passion about his socialist allies , using the pseudonym Al . Dodan . On October 6 , 1914 , Dodan saluted the Social Democratic Party of Romania for organizing internationalist peace rallies , as " emerging from the mind and soul of the entire Romanian people " . According to legend , the Seara patron privately declared himself a Catholic anarchist , and was rather hostile to communism .
Avram Steuerman @-@ Rodion , a socialist based in Iași , contributed a special series of articles documenting the growth of Germanophila in that city , and throughout Moldavia region . Titled Scrisori din Iași ( " Letters from Iași " ) , it notably chronicled the conflicts between the enthusiastically Ententist University of Bucharest professors and their more skeptical University of Iași colleagues . Seara also enlisted contributions from physician Ottoi Călin , a member of the PSDR Executive Committee and author of its Zimmerwald pacifist manifesto . Despite this agenda , Ottoi was not employed as a political panelist , but , as a practicing physician , held Seara 's advice column .
= = = Bessarabia vs. Transylvania = = =
The national dilemma confronting Romanians during the neutrality period was not just a choice of sides , but also one of irredenta : while the National Liberal overtures toward the Entente were supposed to grant Romania Transylvania and some other Romanian @-@ inhabited regions of Austria @-@ Hungary , the Conservatives wished to recover Bessarabia , occupied by the Russian Empire — in 1916 , the two options seemed mutually exclusive . Seara and Minerva followed the principles of Marghiloman , who had reached the conclusion that the Entente did not in fact support the disestablishment of Austria @-@ Hungary , and who postulated that Russification in Bessarabia was more serious than Magyarization in Transylvania . Ilie Bărbulescu 's Seara articles , deemed " erudite and indigestible " by Boia , focused on the supposed indestructibility of Austria @-@ Hungary , and consoled Transylvanian Romanians with the option of greater devolution ( see United States of Greater Austria ) . Writer Ion Gorun , who hailed from an anti @-@ Hungarian community but was also a Habsburg loyalist , was a distinct presence at Seara . His articles favored the term " Austria " instead of " Austria @-@ Hungary " , and claimed that Romania could only find " triumph " as an Austrian ally . Gorun spoke of any alliance with Russia as dangerous and absurd ; the implication of such a move , he argued , caught Transylvanian Romanians in a pincer and also meant Romania 's subjugation to the Russian Empire .
The cause of Bessarabia was championed by Arbore , who at the time rejected all notion that the region could ever witness a Russian devolution , and expressed distress that Romanian intellectuals were more interested in the fate of France than in the freedoms of Bessarabian Romanians . Bogdan @-@ Pitești 's various articles also show his interest in the Bessarabian cause . Expressing regret that " most civilized " France stood by the world 's " most savage , most ignorant and bloodiest oligarchy " , " the Russia of pogroms and assassinations " , he deemed Romania 's overtures toward the Tsarist regime a " national crime " . Additionally , " Dodan " suggested that Austria @-@ Hungary was preferable as a friend , as Romania 's only guarantee against the " Slavic deluge " . Later , he argued that the cause of Transylvania was settled by , and within , Austria @-@ Hungary . He mapped out an alternative strategy : neutral until the end of the war , Romania would eventually march its troops into Bessarabia , with Austrian acquiescence . In October 1915 , Aderca added his voice to the Bessarabian chorus . He postulated that the Transylvanian cause was doomed , and , since the Germans were poised to win the war , constituted " a union of the losers " ; instead , he urged Romania to take Bessarabia as the spoils of war . Karnabatt 's own articles began by stating a minimalist objective in " the reincorporation of Bessarabia " . Later , he advocated the extension of Romanian territory eastward , into Transnistria and down to the Dnieper River ( as counterbalance to a foreseeable Greater Bulgaria ) .
An unusually vast and , according to Boia , naïve project was sketched by the Bessarabian @-@ born Nour , who claimed that , even if granted a military victory , Austria @-@ Hungary would still crumble into " developed nations " . Nour was confident that , with the return of peace , Romania would still have an option to annex its Austrian irredenta : Transylvania , Bukovina , the Banat , Crișana and Maramureș . He speculated that a late entry into the war could also bring Romania possession of Bessarabia , large swathes of the Ukraine , and Odessa harbor ; and even that , once victorious against the Entente , the Central Powers would award her an extra @-@ European colonial empire .
= = Disestablishment and legacy = =
On separate occasions in 1916 , Bogdan @-@ Pitești and Karnabatt toured the German Empire . Bogdan @-@ Pitești was the first to travel there , together with his concubine Domnica and his favorite Mateiu Caragiale . During his own journey , Karnabatt described Germany as unified by civic order and the determination to win , in several letters that were published by Seara in June 1916 . The newspaper 's wrong bet on a German victory on the Western Front was strained by Alexis Nour who , in April 1916 , wrote that a French capitulation would inevitably follow the Battle of Verdun .
Seara disappeared , together with Minerva , Libertatea , Steagul and most other Germanophile papers , in late summer 1916 , shortly after Romania declared war on the Central Powers . When the German and Austrian troops invaded southern Romania , forcing the Ententist government to flee for Iași , some of Seara 's former staff remained in Bucharest and chose the path of collaborationism . This was notably pursued by Arghezi , Galaction , Bărbulescu and Karnabatt , all of whom wrote for the propaganda tribune Gazeta Bucureștilor . According to popular rumors , Bogdan @-@ Pitești fell out of favor with the occupiers , who eventually discovered that he had been squandering their grants .
In contrast , several former Seara contributors silenced their criticism of the Entente throughout the rest of the war . Nicolae Petrescu Găină made some contributions to the Entente 's propaganda effort during the second half of 1916 . He was captured by the Germans in Bucharest , allegedly after being turned over to them by Bogdan @-@ Pitești . Avram Steuerman @-@ Rodion was drafted into the Romanian Land Forces as a medic , earning distinction , but returned to Germanophile journalism after Romania sealed the separate peace of 1918 ; the victim of clinical depression , he committed suicide in autumn . An Order of the Star of Romania for his work as a military physician , Călin died of typhus in early 1917 . Aderca too saw action on the front , and preserved his socialist @-@ inspired neutralism — it later surfaced in his various fiction writings .
After the November 1918 Armistice with Germany changed Romania 's fortunes , leading to the creation of Greater Romania , several former Seara journalists were prosecuted for treason . In March 1919 , a military tribunal sentenced Karnabatt to ten , Arghezi to five years imprisonment . They were however pardoned by King Ferdinand I , in winter 1920 . Bogdan @-@ Pitești had joined them in prison : according to some accounts , he was also held for collaborationism , while others record , in more detail , that he was serving an earlier sentence for fraud . A while after , some of Seara 's former contributors were retelling their encounters with Bogdan @-@ Pitești and his brand of journalism by the means of autofiction . The Seara affair is notably retold in novels by Lucrezzia Karnabatt ( Demoniaca , 1922 ) and Ion Vinea ( May Venom , 1971 ) .
Arghezi 's texts for Seara were largely unknown to later generations . They again saw print in 2003 , in a critical edition co @-@ edited by daughter Mitzura Arghezi ( Domnica Theodorescu ) and Traian Radu . According to philogist Gheorghe Pienescu , who collected and reedited the texts for printing in the 1960s , the copies were taken from him under false pretense by Mitzura Arghezi , and never returned . As an additional contribution to Romanian literature , Seara 's popularization of the expression craii de Curtea @-@ Veche may have inspired Mateiu Caragiale in writing his celebrated 1929 novel .
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= Can 't Get You Out of My Head =
" Can 't Get You Out of My Head " is a hit song recorded by Australian singer Kylie Minogue for her eighth studio album Fever ( 2001 ) . The song was released in Australia by Parlophone as the lead single from the album on 8 September 2001 . It was released on 17 September 2001 in the United Kingdom . In the United States , the single was released on 18 February 2002 . Written and produced by Cathy Dennis and Rob Davis , " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " is a midtempo dance @-@ pop song which lyrically details Minogue 's obsession towards her lover . The song is famous for its " la la la " hook .
In addition to positive reviews from music critics , " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " found commercial success on a large scale . It peaked at number one on the charts of Austria , Belgium , France , Germany , Italy , Poland , Switzerland , the United Kingdom , and every other European country excluding Finland . It also topped the charts of Minogue 's native country Australia , Canada and New Zealand . In the United States , the song peaked at number seven on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , becoming Minogue 's biggest hit in the region since " The Loco @-@ Motion " . " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " reportedly reached number one in 40 countries across the globe . It was certified triple @-@ platinum in Australia , double @-@ platinum in the United Kingdom , and gold in the United States . It became Minogue 's first single to sell in excess of one million copies in the United Kingdom , where it also stands as the 28th best @-@ selling single of the millennium . As of 2013 , the song is Minogue 's highest selling single and one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time , with worldwide sales exceeding seven million .
The accompanying music video for the song was directed by Dawn Shadforth , and features Minogue performing various dance routines in different futuristic backdrops . It became notable for the revealing hooded white jumpsuit Minogue wore during one of the scenes . The song has been performed by Minogue during all of her concert tours as of 2013 , with the exception of the Anti Tour . Following its release , " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " ranked on a number of decade @-@ end lists compiled by magazines such as the Rolling Stone , The Guardian , and NME . It is considered to be Minogue 's strongest commercial breakthrough in the United States and is said to have been the reason behind the success of its parent album Fever in the region . " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " is also recognised as Minogue 's signature song and was a defining point in her musical career . In 2012 , the song was re @-@ recorded for inclusion in Minogue 's orchestral compilation album The Abbey Road Sessions .
= = Background and recording = =
In 2000 , Minogue signed on to Parlophone and released her seventh studio album Light Years . The disco and Europop inspired album was a critical and commercial success , and was later certified four times @-@ platinum in Minogue 's native country Australia for shipment of 280 @,@ 000 units , and platinum in the United Kingdom for shipment of 300 @,@ 000 units . " Spinning Around " was released as the lead single off the album and was a commercial success , attaining a platinum certification in Australia for shipment of 70 @,@ 000 units , and a silver certification in the United Kingdom for shipment of 200 @,@ 000 units . She promoted the album by embarking on the On a Night Like This tour . Minogue premièred " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " by performing it during the tour and soon after discussion regarding the song " quickly set online messageboards alight " . " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " was chosen as the lead single from Minogue 's eighth studio album Fever , and it was released on 8 September 2001 by Parlophone in Australia , while in the United Kingdom and other European countries it was released on 17 September .
" Can 't Get You Out of My Head " was written and produced by Cathy Dennis and Rob Davis , who had been put together by British artist manager Simon Fuller , who wanted the duo to come up with a song for British pop group S Club 7 . The song was recorded using Cubase music software , which Davis ran on his Mac computer . Davis began playing an acoustic guitar and ran a 125 beats per minute drum loop , on which Dennis began singing the line " I just can 't get you out of my head " in the key of D minor . After three and a half hours , the demo was recorded and the vocals were laid afterwards . Dennis called their recording setup for the song " the most primitive set @-@ up you could imagine ! Different producers work in different ways . But it 's good to be reminded you don ’ t have to be reliant on equipment . A song is about melody and lyrics and being able to take something away in your memory that is going to haunt you " . She also regarded their production as a " very natural and fluid process " , saying " We know how hard we work sometimes to write songs and then spend months picking them to pieces , but this was the easiest process , the chemicals were all happy and working together " .
After Fuller heard the demo , he felt it wasn 't right for S Club 7 and rejected it ; English singer @-@ songwriter Sophie Ellis @-@ Bextor also turned down the offer to record it . Davis then met with Minogue 's A & R executive Jamie Nelson who , after hearing the demo cassette of the song , booked it for Minogue to record later that year . Nelson was impressed by the " vibe " of the song and felt it would please the " danceheads " . Although Davis was initially under the impression that the recording deal would be called off later , Minogue became enthusiastic to record the song after hearing 20 seconds of the demo . The whole song including Minogue 's vocals were recorded at Davis 's home studio in Surrey . The music , excluding the guitar part , was programmed using Korg Triton workstation via a MIDI . Dennis later remarked that " Even though Kylie wasn 't the first artist to be offered the song . I don 't believe it was meant to go to anyone other than Kylie , and I don 't believe anyone else would have done the incredible job she did with it , with the video , looking super @-@ hot ! " .
= = Composition = =
" Can 't Get You Out of My Head " is a " robotic " midtempo dance @-@ pop song , with a tempo of 126 beats per minute . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing , the song is written in the key of C major , with Minogue 's vocal range spanning from C4 to D5 . Minogue chants a " la la la " hook in the song , which is often heralded as its most appealing part . BBC Radio 2 noted that the composition of the song is " deceptively simple , but its veins run with the whole history of electronic music " . They described the song 's bassline as " pulsing , " and recognised influences of English rock band New Order and German electronic music band Kraftwerk . The song does not follow the common verse @-@ chorus structure and is instead composed of numerous " misplaced sections . " Dennis reasoned that these sections " somehow work together " as she and Davis " didn 't try to force any structure after the event . The seeds were watered and they very quickly sprouted into something bigger than any of us " . Likewise , Davis commented that " It breaks a few rules as it starts with a chorus and in comes the ' la 's ' – that is what confused my publisher [ Fuller ] when he first heard it " .
Through the lyrics of the song , Minogue expresses her obsession with an anonymous figure . Dorian Lynskey from The Guardian termed the song a " mystery " as Minogue never reveals the identity of her object of infatuation . The critic suggested that the person Minogue is referring to is either " a partner , an evasive one @-@ night stand or someone who doesn 't know she exists " . Writing for the same newspaper , Everett True identified a " darker element " in the simple lyrics and felt this sentiment was echoed in Minogue 's restrained vocals . Further , True emphasised that while Minogue 's 1987 single " I Should Be So Lucky " presented an optimistic romantic future , " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " focuses on an " unhealthy " and potentially destructive obsession . He also noted that in the former song , Minogue played " the wide @-@ eyed ingénue with alacrity , " but in the latter song she is aware of the harmful nature of her infatuation , calling it a " desire that is wholly dependent on her own self @-@ control . "
In late 2012 , " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " was re @-@ recorded by Minogue for inclusion in her orchestral compilation album The Abbey Road Sessions . On the album , Minogue reworked 16 of her past songs with an orchestra , which , according to Nick Levine from BBC Music , " re @-@ imagine them without the disco glitz and vocal effects " . The Abbey Road Sessions @-@ version of " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " features a " more dramatic , fully fleshed out " musical arrangement , and follows a pizzicato playing technique , in which the strings of a string instrument are continuously plucked .
= = Critical reception = =
The song was positively received by music critics . Chris True from AllMusic picked the song as a highlight of Fever , commenting that it " pulses and grooves like no other she 's [ Minogue 's ] recorded " . Jason Thompson from PopMatters described Minogue 's vocals as a " sexual come on " and called the song " trim and funky , certainly something that couldn 't miss anywhere " . Dominique Leone from Pitchfork Media praised the commercial prospect of the song , saying that it " exudes a catchiness that belies its inherent simplicity , so reassuring during an era when chart acts sound increasingly baroque and producers race to see who can ape electronic music trends first " . Jim Farber from Entertainment Weekly said that the song " fully lives up to its title " with " every sound a hook " , and compared it to the works of Andrea True . Michael Hubbard from MusicOMH labelled the song " one of 2001 's best singles " , saying that it " predictably beat off lesser ' competition ' " . In 2012 , The Guardian critic Everett True defined " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " as " one of those rare moments in pop : sleek and chic and stylish and damnably danceable , but with a darker element hidden in plain sight . "
The Abbey Road Sessions – version of the song received generally positive reviews . Tim Sendra from AllMusic felt that " most interesting reboot " in the album took place on ' Can 't Get You Out of My Head ' , saying that the " insistent strings push the song along with a tightly coiled electricity that is impossible to resist " . He also picked the song as a highlight on the album . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine chose the song as one of the " standouts " on the album , saying that its arrangement " compensate for the lack of synthetic dance beats and vocal effects " . Tania Zeine from ARIA Charts described the track as a " powerful violin ballad with the accompaniment of a large orchestra throughout the remainder " . Simon Price from The Independent said that while the original version of " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " would be " impossible to improve on " , the reworked version " turns it into a pizzicato thriller score " . Jude Rogers from The Quietus , however , felt that the song does not " respond well to this [ orchestral ] treatment " .
= = Commercial performance = =
In Minogue 's native country Australia , " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " entered and peaked at number one on the Australian Singles Chart , on the chart date of 23 September 2001 , and remained at the position for four weeks . During its last week on the chart , on 9 December 2001 , the song was at number 48 , and had spent a total of 12 weeks on the chart . In this region , it was certified triple @-@ platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association for shipments of 210 @,@ 000 units .
In both the Dutch @-@ speaking Flanders and French @-@ speaking Wallonia regions of Belgium , the song peaked at number one on the Ultratop chart , spending a total of 22 and 24 weeks on the charts , respectively . In Belgium , the song was certified double @-@ platinum for sales of 100 @,@ 000 units . In France , the song entered the French Singles Chart at number 14 and peaked at number one , spending a total of 41 weeks on the chart . In this region , it was certified platinum by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique for sales of 500 @,@ 000 units . As of August 2014 , the song was the 22nd best @-@ selling single of the 21st century in France , with 542 @,@ 000 units sold . In Germany , the song remained at number one for one week on the German Singles Chart . In this region , it was certified platinum by the Federal Association of Music Industry for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 units . In Ireland , the song entered and peaked at number one on the Ireland Singles Chart , spending a total of consecutive 19 weeks on the chart .
In the United Kingdom , the single faced competition in a hugely hyped chart battle with Victoria Beckham 's single " Not Such an Innocent Girl " . On the chart date of 29 September 2001 , " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart with first week sales of 306 @,@ 000 units , while " Not Such an Innocent Girl " debuted at number six with first week sales of 35 @,@ 000 units . It spent four weeks at number one , and a total of 25 weeks inside the top 40 on the chart . The song spent a record @-@ breaking eight weeks at number one on the airplay chart of the country and became the first to garner 3000 radio plays in a single week . Subsequently , it became the most @-@ played song of 2001 in the region . " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry for shipments of 600 @,@ 000 units in 2001 . The certification was upgraded to double @-@ platinum in 2015 , denoting shipments of 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 units .
In the United States , " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " peaked at number seven on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , becoming Minogue 's best selling single in the region since " The Locomotion " . Additionally , the song peaked at number one on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart , at number 23 on the Adult Top 40 chart , at number three on the Mainstream Top 40 ( Pop Songs ) chart , and number eight on the Radio Songs chart . In this region , the song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 units .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development and synopsis = = =
The accompanying music video for " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " was directed by Dawn Shadforth , and featured dance routines choreographed by Michael Rooney . Early in Minogue 's career , her youthful look , slim figure , and her " proportionally " large mouth attracted comments from various critics , with British red top newspaper News of the World speculating that the singer could possibly be an alien . Later while discussing the video , Shadforth and music critic Paul Morley took this " bizarre suggestion " into consideration to comment on Minogue as a " creative , experimental artist . " Shadforth blocked some shots of the initial driving scene based upon similar shots of Shirley Manson piloting an airplane in her award @-@ winning dogfight clip for Garbage 's " Special " .
The video was released on 11 August 2001 . It begins with Minogue driving a De Tomaso Mangusta sports car on a futuristic bridge , while singing the " la la la " hook of the song . The next scene consists of a number of dance couples performing a dance routine dressed in black and white costumes ; they are soon joined by Minogue , who is seen wearing a white tracksuit . The setting changes to a room where Minogue is seen striking various poses sporting bright crimson lipstick and a hooded white jumpsuit with a neckline plunging down to her navel . The outfit was designed by London @-@ based fashion designer Fee Doran , under the label of Mrs Jones . Minogue then performs a synchronised dance routine with several backup dancers , who are wearing red and black suits . As the video ends , she performs a similar routine on the top of a building during the night , this time wearing a lavender halter neck dress with ribbon tile trim . Various scenes in the video show Minogue 's face " unusually " close to the lens of the camera , thus it " subtly distorts , yet remains glamorous . " Shadforth felt the shot gave a " sort of sense of intimacy and as you say a sort of strangeness , " again drawing upon the suggestion of Minogue being an alien . Similarly , Morley opined that it was " the side of Kylie that suddenly reveals itself as being experimental , she is prepared to push herself into positions and shapes that might not be conventionally attractive [ ... ] She becomes alien Kylie as well . "
= = = Legacy = = =
At the 2002 MTV Video Music Awards ceremony , the music video was nominated for Best Dance Video , while Michael Rooney won the award for Best Choreography . The hooded white jumpsuit Minogue wore in the music video is often considered to be one of her most iconic looks , particularly due to its deep plunging neckline . British fashion designer and Minogue 's stylist William Baker described the choice of the outift , saying it was " it was pure but kind of slutty at the same time " . The outfit was put on display at Kylie : The Exhibition , an exhibition that featured " costumes and memorabilia collected over Kylie 's career " , held at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London , England , and at Kylie : an exhibition , a similar exhibition held at the Powerhouse Museum in Sydney , Australia . It was also included in Minogue 's official fashion photography book Kylie / Fashion , which was released on 19 November 2012 by Thames and Hudson to celebrate Minogue 's completion of 25 years in music .
The music video served as an inspiration for Morley while writing his book Words and Music : the history of pop in the shape of a city . In the book , Morley " turned the lonely drive she [ Minogue ] made in the song 's video towards a city [ ... ] into a fictional history of music , " referring to the opening sequence of the music video . The critic takes a ride with Minogue through a city and encounters various musicians and artists like the ghost of Elvis Presley , and Madonna , Kraftwerk , and [ Ludwig ] Wittgenstein . Academics Diane Railton and Paul Weston , in their 2005 essay Naughty Girls and Red Blooded Women ( Representations of Female Heterosexuality in Music Video ) , contrasted the music video of " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " with that of American singer Beyoncé 's 2003 single " Baby Boy " . Railton and Weston concluded that while both videos focus on two singers performing seductive dance routines , Minogue is presented in a calculated manner and " is always provisional , restricted , and contingent " , whereas Beyoncé displays a particular " primitive , feral , uncontrolled and uncontrollable " sexuality embodied by the black female body . The two felt that the videos were representative of the raced depictions of white and black women in colonial times and pop culture , respectively .
= = Live performances = =
On 2 August 2001 , Minogue performed " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " at the BBC Radio 1 One Big Sunday show held at Leicester , in the United Kingdom , along with " Spinning Around " ; for the performance , she wore a black trilby hat , sleeveless T @-@ shirt ( with a picture of Marilyn Monroe printed on it ) , knee length black boots , and trousers with open zips placed on both the thighs . She performed " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " on 8 November 2001 at the MTV Europe Music Awards ceremony in 2001 . At the 2002 Brit Awards held on 20 February 2002 , Minogue performed a mash @-@ up version of " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " and British band New Order 's 1983 song " Blue Monday " conceived by and also produced by Stuart Crichton . The mash @-@ up was soon released as the B @-@ side to " Love at First Sight " , the third single off Fever . The live performance of the mash @-@ up ranked at number 40 on The Guardian 's list of " 50 Key Events in the History of Dance Music " in 2011 . The mashup was dubbed " Can 't Get Blue Monday Out of My Head " during its inclusion as the B @-@ side to " Love at First Sight " and as a remix on Minogue 's remix album Boombox . On 16 March 2002 , Minogue performed " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " along with " In Your Eyes " , the second single off Fever , on Saturday Night Live . On 4 July 2012 , she sang " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " at the Diamond Jubilee Concert in front of the Buckingham Palace , held in honour of Elizabeth II 's completion of 60 years as Queen . Minogue wore a pearl @-@ studded black jacket and hat for the performance . Dance troupe Flawless , finalists of British television talent show Britain 's Got Talent , served as Minogue 's backup dancers . More recently , Minogue has performed a version of the song remixed by Steve Anderson . She performed the version during her " MasterCard Pricless Gig " and other mini @-@ concerts to promote her twelfth studio album Kiss Me Once . It was performed during her seven @-@ song set at the " 2014 Commonwealth Games closing ceremony , as the final song of her performance . She also performed on the French TV show " Le Grand Journal " along with " I Was Gonna Cancel " .
Following its release , " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " has been performed by Minogue during all of her concert tours as of 2013 , with the exception of the Anti Tour in 2012 . In 2001 , the song was included in the setlist of Minogue 's On a Night Like This tour , which was launched to promote Light Years , and according to Tim DiGravina from AllMusic , the performance was infused with an " almost tangible passion and fire " . The song was included in the encore segment of the KylieFever2002 tour , which was launched to promote Fever . In 2003 , she performed the song on the one @-@ night only concert Money Can 't Buy , which was used to promote Minogue ' ninth studio album Body Language and was held at major entertainment venue Hammersmith Apollo in London . During the performance , " a visual flurry of quasi @-@ Japanese symbols " was projected onto large digital screens set behind the stage , and dancers wearing bondage costumes carried out a " robotic " dance routine .
In 2005 , she performed the song on her Showgirl : The Greatest Hits Tour . Minogue was unable to complete the tour as she was diagnosed with early breast cancer and had to cancel the Australian leg of the tour . After undergoing treatment and recovery , she resumed the concert tour in the form of Showgirl : The Homecoming Tour in 2007 , and included " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " on the setlist . In 2008 , she performed the song on the KylieX2008 tour , which was launched to promote her tenth studio album X. The show was split into five acts and " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " was featured on the first act entitled " Xlectro Static " , in a mashup with the song " Boombox " . In 2009 , she performed the same version of the song on the For You , For Me tour , which was her first concert tour in North America . A more rock @-@ oriented version of the song was performed during the Aphrodite : Les Folies Tour , which was launched to promote her eleventh studio album Aphrodite . It was regarded as " seemingly inspired by the crunch of Janet Jackson 's " Black Cat . " During the performance , male back @-@ up dancers in " S & M dog collars " danced with female back @-@ up dancers , who were dressed in red ballroom gowns . In 2012 , Minogue promoted The Abbey Road Sessions by performing on the BBC Proms in the Park at Hyde Park , London . During the event , she also sang the orchestral version of " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " . More recently , the Steve Anderson remix was performed on Minogue 's Kiss Me Once Tour and Kylie Summer 2015 Tour . It followed a performance of " Sexercize " in the fourth section , and an interlude dubbed the " Sex Segue " .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Commercial impact = = =
Following its release , " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " peaked at number one on the charts of every European country ( except Finland ) and Australia . The song reportedly reached number one in 40 countries worldwide , and as of 2013 it has sold over five million copies . In the United Kingdom , the total sales of the song are accumulated to be around 1 @.@ 16 million units , thus making it the 75th best @-@ selling single in the United Kingdom of all time . It is Minogue 's highest selling single as of 2013 and also one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time . As of June 2015 , it is the 28th best @-@ selling single of the millennium in the United Kingdom . The song is notable for being Minogue 's biggest and strongest commercial breakthrough in the United States , a region in which Minogue previously had previously managed to achieve little success . The commercial success of " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " in the US is often considered to have piloted its parent album Fever to achieve similar success in the region . The album would later peak at number three on the Billboard 200 chart , and attain a platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America for shipments of 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 units . Fever reportedly sold over six million copies worldwide , becoming Minogue 's highest selling album as of 2013 .
= = = Cultural impact = = =
In 2011 , Rolling Stone magazine ranked " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " at number 45 on " 100 Best Songs of the 2000s " list , noting that Minogue " seduced the U.S. with this mirror @-@ ball classic " and that " we 've been hearing it at the gym ever since " . NME ranked the song at number 74 on their " 100 Best Track of the Noughties " list , saying it " encapsulated everything enviable in a well @-@ crafted song " and heralding it as Minogue 's best single . In 2012 , Priya Elan from NME ranked the song at number four on his " The Greatest Pop Songs in History " list , saying " it was unlike any song I remember hearing before " . In 2012 , The Guardian included the song in their list of " The Best Number One Records " , labelling it to be " sleek , Arctic @-@ blue minimalism , like an emotionally thwarted retelling of Donna Summer 's " I Feel Love " . In the same year , PRS for Music , a UK copyright collection society and performance rights organisation which collects royalties on behalf of songwriters and composers , named " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " the " Most Popular Song of the Decade " as it received the highest airplay and live covers in the 2000s ( decade ) .
In 2013 , a survey of 700 people was conducted as part of the Manchester Science Festival to find out which song they considered the " catchiest " , and " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " topped the poll . Lee Barron , in his essay The Seven Ages of Kylie Minogue : Postmodernism , Identity , and Performative Mimicry , noted that the song " further established Minogue 's cultural and commercial relevance in the new millennium " . He remarked that the song " with its hypnotic " la la la " refrain and the deceptively uncomplicated , catchily repetitive beats and synth @-@ sound , marked yet another clearly defined image transformation from the camp @-@ infused Light Years to an emphasis upon a cool , machine @-@ like sexuality , a trait clearly identifiable within the promotional video for " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " . Similarly , Everett True from The Guardian wrote that the song continued the " change in the marketing and public perception of Kylie " and her transition from the " homely girl @-@ next @-@ door " to " a much more flirtatious , sophisticated persona " that started with the release of " Spinning Around " in 2000 . True also felt that the success of " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " was one of the motivating factors behind " manufactured " pop music gaining a " new postmodern respectability " and marked a " clear shift in attitude towards pop music among the ' serious ' rock critic fraternity : the idea that ( manufactured , female ) pop music might well be the equal of ( organic , male ) rock music after all , that each has their high points and their low . " In 2011 , Minogue 's official website posted a special article marking the song 's 10th anniversary on 8 September , the release date of " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " in Australia . " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " is recognised as Minogue 's signature song .
" Can 't Get You Out of My Head " garnered Minogue a number of awards . At the 2001 Top of the Pops Awards ceremony , the song won the award for " Best Single " . At the 2002 ARIA Music Awards ceremony , " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " won the awards for " Single of the Year " and " Highest Selling Single " , and Minogue won the " Outstanding Achievement Award " . In 2002 , it won a Dutch Edison Award for " Single of the Year " . In the same year , Dennis and Davis won three awards at the 47th Ivor Novello Awards for their composition of the song ; they won the awards " The Ivors Dance Award " , " Most Performed Work " , and " International Hit of the Year " . At the inaugural Premios Oye ! in 2002 , the song received a nomination in the category of " Song of the Year " .
In the 2007 episode of The Simpsons , " Homerazzi " , the track is heard playing in a celebrity packed nightclub that Homer storms into .
The song is also featured in the films Bridget Jones : The Edge of Reason , Comme t 'y es belle ! , Holy Motors , and 20 @,@ 000 Days on Earth . The song is parodied as " Can 't Get Blue Monday Out of My Head " in the film Layer Cake .
= = Formats and track listings = =
These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " .
CD single
" Can 't Get You Out of My Head " – 3 : 50
" Boy " – 3 : 47
" Rendezvous at Sunset " – 3 : 23
Digital download
" Can 't Get You Out of My Head " – 3 : 52
" Boy " – 3 : 48
Other
" Can 't Get You Out of My Head " ( Kiss Me Once Tour studio version )
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Slender Man =
The Slender Man ( also known as Slenderman ) is a fictional supernatural character that originated as an Internet meme created by Something Awful forums user Eric Knudsen ( a.k.a. " Victor Surge " ) in 2009 . It is depicted as resembling a thin , unnaturally tall man with a blank and usually featureless face , wearing a black suit .
Stories of the Slender Man commonly feature him stalking , abducting or traumatizing people , particularly children . The Slender Man is not confined to a single narrative , but appears in many disparate works of fiction , mostly composed online . Fiction relating to the Slender Man encompasses many media , including literature , art and video series such as Marble Hornets . Outside of online fiction , the Slender Man has had impact on popular culture , having been referenced in the video game Minecraft and generated video games of his own , such as Slender : The Eight Pages and Slender : The Arrival .
Beginning in 2014 , a minor moral panic occurred over the Slender Man after readers of his fiction were connected to several violent acts , particularly a near @-@ fatal stabbing in Waukesha , Wisconsin .
= = Origin = =
The Slender Man was created on June 10 , 2009 on a thread in the Something Awful Internet forum . The thread was a photoshop contest in which users were challenged to edit everyday photographs to appear paranormal . A forum poster with the user name " Victor Surge " contributed two black and white images of groups of children , to which he added a tall , thin spectral figure wearing a black suit . Although previous entries had consisted solely of photographs , Surge supplemented his submission with snatches of text — supposedly from witnesses — describing the abductions of the groups of children , and giving the character the name " The Slender Man " :
The quote under the first photograph read :
We didn 't want to go , we didn 't want to kill them , but its persistent silence and outstretched arms horrified and comforted us at the same time …
The quote under the second photograph read :
One of two recovered photographs from the Stirling City Library blaze . Notable for being taken the day which fourteen children vanished and for what is referred to as “ The Slender Man ” . Deformities cited as film defects by officials . Fire at library occurred one week later . Actual photograph confiscated as evidence .
These additions effectively transformed the photographs into a work of fiction . Subsequent posters expanded upon the character , adding their own visual or textual contributions .
Victor Surge ( real name Eric Knudsen ) claimed that he was inspired to create the Slender Man by legends of the shadow people , the writings of H. P. Lovecraft , Zack Parsons , and Stephen King ( particularly The Mist ) , and the surrealism of William S. Burroughs . His intention was , he claimed , " to formulate something whose motivations can barely be comprehended , and [ which caused ] unease and terror in a general population . " In an interview with the Slender Nation podcast , Knudsen cited the Tall Man from the film series Phantasm as an inspiration for the Slender Man .
Other pre @-@ existing fictional or legendary creatures often thought to have inspired the Slender Man include : the Gentlemen , black @-@ suited , pale , bald demons from the Buffy the Vampire Slayer episode " Hush " ; Men in black , many accounts of which grant them an uncanny appearance with an unnatural walk and " oriental " features ; and The Question , a DC Comics superhero with a blank face , whose secret identity is " Victor Sage " , a name similar to Knudsen 's alias " Victor Surge " .
In her book , Folklore , Horror Stories , and the Slender Man : The Development of an Internet Mythology , Professor Shira Chess of the University of Georgia connected the Slender Man to ancient folklore about fairies . Like fairies , Slender Man is otherworldly , with motives that are often difficult to grasp ; like fairies , his appearance is vague and often shifts to reflect what the viewer wants or fears to see , and , like fairies , the Slender Man calls the woods and wild places his home and kidnaps children .
= = = Development = = =
The Slender Man soon went viral , spawning numerous works of fanart , cosplay , and online fiction known as " creepypasta " : scary stories told in short snatches of easily copyable text that spread from site to site . Divorced from its original creator , the Slender Man became the subject of myriad stories by multiple authors within an overarching mythos .
Many aspects of the Slender Man mythos first appeared on the original Something Awful thread . One of the earliest additions was added by a forum user named " Thoreau Up " , who created a folklore story set in 16th @-@ century Germany involving a character called Der Grossman , which was implied to be an early reference to the Slender Man . The first video series involving the Slender Man evolved from a post on the Something Awful thread by user " ce gars " . It tells of a fictional film school friend named Alex Kralie , who had stumbled upon something troubling while shooting his first feature @-@ length project , Marble Hornets . The video series , published in found footage style on YouTube , forms an alternate reality game describing the filmers ' fictional experiences with the Slender Man . The ARG also incorporates a Twitter feed and an alternate YouTube channel created by a user named " totheark " . As of 2013 , Marble Hornets now has over 250 @,@ 000 subscribers around the world , and 55 million views . Other Slender Man @-@ themed YouTube serials followed , including EverymanHYBRID and TribeTwelve .
In 2012 , the Slender Man was adapted into a video game titled Slender : The Eight Pages ; within its first month of release , the game was downloaded over 2 million times . Several popular variants of the game followed , including Slenderman 's Shadow and Slender Man for iOS , which became the second most @-@ popular app download . The sequel to Slender : The Eight Pages , Slender : The Arrival , was released in 2013 . Several independent films about the Slender Man have been released or are in development , including Entity and The Slender Man , released free online after a $ 10 @,@ 000 Kickstarter campaign . In 2013 , it was announced that Marble Hornets would become a feature film . In 2015 , the film adaptation , Always Watching : A Marble Hornets Story , was released on VOD . In 2016 , Sony Pictures subsidiary Screen Gems partnered with Mythology Entertainment to bring a Slender Man film into theatres .
= = Description = =
Because the Slender Man 's fictional " mythology " has evolved without an official " canon " for reference , his appearance , motives , habits , and abilities are not fixed , but change depending on the storyteller . He is most commonly described as very tall and thin with unnaturally long , tentacle @-@ like arms ( or merely tentacles ) , which he can extend to intimidate or capture prey . In most stories his face is white and featureless , but occasionally his face appears differently to anyone who sees it . He appears to be wearing a dark suit and tie . The Slender Man is often associated with the forest and / or abandoned locations and has the ability to teleport . Proximity to the Slender Man is often said to trigger a " Slender sickness " ; a rapid onset of paranoia , nightmares and delusions accompanied by nosebleeds .
Early stories featured him targeting children or young adults . Some featured young adults driven insane or to act on his behalf , while others did not , and others claim that investigating the Slender Man will draw his attention . The web series Marble Hornets established the idea of proxies ( humans who fall under the Slender Man 's influence ) though initially they were simply violently insane , rather than puppets of the Slender Man . Marble Hornets also introduced the idea that the Slender Man could interfere with video and audio recordings , as well as the " Slender Man symbol " , which became a common trope of Slender fiction . Graphic violence and body horror are uncommon in the Slender Man mythos , with many narratives choosing to leave the fate of his victims obscure . Shira Chess notes that " It is important to note that few of the retellings identify exactly what kind of monster the Slender Man might be , and what his specific intentions are- these points all remain mysteriously and usefully vague . "
= = = As folklore = = =
Several scholars have argued that , despite being a fictional work with an identifiable origin point , the Slender Man represents a form of digital folklore . Shira Chess argues that the Slender Man exemplifies the similarities between traditional folklore and the open source ethos of the Internet , and that , unlike those of traditional monsters such as vampires and werewolves , the fact that the Slender Man 's mythos can be tracked and signposted offers a powerful insight into how myth and folklore form . Chess identifies three aspects of the Slender Man mythos that tie it to folklore : collectivity ( meaning that it is created by a collective , rather than a single individual ) , variability ( meaning that the story changes depending on the teller ) , and performance ( meaning that the storyteller 's narrative changes to reflect the responses of his / her audience ) .
Andrew Peck also considers the Slender Man to be an authentic form of folklore and notes its similarity to emergent forms of offline legend performance . Peck suggests that digital folklore performance extends the dynamics of face @-@ to @-@ face performance in several notable ways , such as by occurring asynchronously , encouraging imitation and personalization while also allowing perfect replication , combining elements of oral , written , and visual communication , and generating shared expectations for performance that enact group identity despite the lack of a physically present group . He concludes that the Slender Man represents a digital legend cycle that combines the generic conventions and emergent qualities of oral and visual performance with the collaborative potential of networked communication .
Jeff Tolbert also accepts the Slender Man as folkloric and suggests it represents a process he calls “ reverse ostension . ” Ostension in folkloristics is the process of acting out a folk narrative . According to Tolbert , the Slender Man does the opposite by creating a set of folklore @-@ like narratives where none existed before . It is an iconic figure produced through a collective effort and deliberately modeled after an existing and familiar folklore genre . According to Tolbert , this represents two processes in one : it involves the creation of new objects and new disconnected examples of experience , and it involves the combination of these elements into a body of “ traditional ” narratives , modeled on existing folklore ( but not wholly indebted to any specific tradition ) .
Professor Thomas Pettitt of the University of Southern Denmark has described the Slender Man as being an exemplar of the modern age 's closing of the " Gutenberg Parenthesis " ; the time period from the invention of the printing press to the spread of the web in which stories and information were codified in discrete media , to a return to the older , more primal forms of storytelling , exemplified by oral tradition and campfire tales , in which the same story can be retold , reinterpreted and recast by different tellers , expanding and evolving with time .
= = Reasons for success = =
Media scholar and folklorist Andrew Peck attributes the success of the Slender Man to its highly collaborative nature . Because the character and its motives are shrouded in mystery , users can easily adapt existing Slender Man tropes and imagery to create new stories . This ability for users to tap into the ideas of others while also supplying their own helped inspire the collaborative culture that arose surrounding the Slender Man . Instead of privileging the choices of certain creators as canonical , this collaborative culture informally locates ownership of the creature across the community . In these respects , the Slender Man is similar to campfire stories or urban legends , and the character 's success comes from enabling both social interaction and personal acts of creative expression .
Although nearly all users understand that the Slender Man is not real , they suspend that disbelief in order to become more engrossed when telling or listening to stories . This adds a sense of authenticity to Slender Man legend performances and blurs the lines between legend and reality , keeping the creature as an object of legend dialectic . This ambiguity has led some to some confusion over the character 's origin and purpose . Only five months after his creation , George Noory 's Coast to Coast AM , a radio call @-@ in show devoted to the paranormal and conspiracy theories , began receiving callers asking about the Slender Man . Two years later , an article in the Minneapolis Star Tribune described his origins as " difficult to pinpoint . " Eric Knudsen has commented that many people , despite understanding that the Slender Man was created on the Something Awful forums , still entertain the possibility that he might be real .
Shira Chess describes the Slender Man as a metaphor for " helplessness , power differentials , and anonymous forces . " Peck sees parallels between the Slender Man and common anxieties about the digital age , such as feelings of constant connectedness and unknown third @-@ party observation . Similarly , Tye Van Horn , a writer for The Elm , has suggested that the Slender Man represents modern fear of the unknown ; in an age flooded with information , people have become so inured to ignorance that they now fear what they cannot understand . Troy Wagner , the creator of Marble Hornets , ascribes the terror of the Slender Man to its malleability ; people can shape it into whatever frightens them most . Tina Marie Boyer noted that " The Slender man is a prohibitive monster , but the cultural boundaries he guards are not clear . Victims do not know when they have violated or crossed them . "
= = Copyright = =
Despite his folkloric qualities , the Slender Man is not in the public domain . Several for @-@ profit ventures involving the Slender Man have unequivocally acknowledged Knudsen as the creator of this fictional character , while others were civilly blocked from distribution ( including the Kickstarter @-@ funded film ) after legal complaints from Knudsen and other sources . Though Knudsen himself has given his personal blessing to a number of Slender Man @-@ related projects , the issue is complicated by the fact that , while he is the character 's creator , a third party holds the options to any adaptations into other media , including film and television . The identity of this option holder has not been made public . Knudsen himself has argued that his enforcement of copyright has less to do with money than with artistic integrity : " I just want something amazing to come off it ... something that 's scary and disturbing and kinda different . I would hate for something to come out and just be kinda conventional . " As of May , 2016 , the media rights to Slender Man have been sold to production company Mythology Entertainment .
= = Related attacks = =
On May 31 , 2014 , two 12 @-@ year @-@ old girls in Waukesha , Wisconsin allegedly held down and stabbed a 12 @-@ year @-@ old classmate 19 times . When questioned later by authorities , they reportedly claimed that they wished to commit a murder as a first step to becoming proxies for the Slender Man , having read about it online . They also state that they were afraid that Slender Man would kill their families if they did not commit the murder . The victim was able to crawl from the woods , where she had been left , to reach a roadside . A passing cyclist intervened , and the victim survived the attack . The purported attackers were charged as adults and are each facing up to 65 years in prison . One of the girls reportedly said Slender Man watches her , can read minds , and could teleport . Experts testified in court she also said she conversed with Lord Voldemort and one of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles . On August 1 , 2014 , she was found incompetent to stand trial and her prosecution was suspended until her condition improved . On November 12 , 2014 , a doctor judged that her condition had improved enough for her to stand trial . On December 19 , 2014 , the judge ruled that both girls were competent to stand trial . In August 2015 , the presiding judge ruled that the girls would be tried as adults .
In a statement to the media , Eric Knudsen said , " I am deeply saddened by the tragedy in Wisconsin and my heart goes out to the families of those affected by this terrible act . " He stated he would not be giving interviews on the matter .
After hearing the story , an unidentified woman from Cincinnati , Ohio told a WLWT TV reporter her 13 @-@ year @-@ old daughter had attacked her with a knife , and had written macabre fiction , some involving the Slender Man , who the mother said motivated the attack .
On September 4 , 2014 , a 14 @-@ year @-@ old girl in Port Richey , Florida , allegedly set her family 's house on fire while her mother and nine @-@ year @-@ old brother were inside . Police reported that the teenager had been reading online stories about Slender Man as well as Atsushi Ōkubo 's manga Soul Eater . Eddie Daniels of the Pasco Sheriff 's Office said the girl " had visited the website that contains a lot of the Slender Man information and stories [ ... ] It would be safe to say there is a connection to that . "
During an early 2015 epidemic of suicide attempts by young people ages 12 to 24 on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation , Slender Man was cited as an influence ; the Oglala Sioux tribe president noted that many Native Americans traditionally believe in a " suicide spirit " similar to the Slender Man .
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= The Official Razzie Movie Guide =
The Official Razzie Movie Guide : Enjoying the Best of Hollywood 's Worst is a book about the Golden Raspberry Awards ( Razzies ) , written by John Wilson , founder of the awards ceremony . The book was published in 2005 by Warner Books , the same year as the 25th Golden Raspberry Awards .
The book includes an introduction by Rolling Stone film critic Peter Travers , a brief history of the Golden Raspberry Awards , and entries on films organized thematically which include plot summaries and reviews by Wilson . Wilson comments on and discusses his picks for the worst films of all time . The Official Razzie Movie Guide received a positive review in Library Journal , where it was compared to Golden Turkey Awards and The Fifty Worst Films of All Time . The book also received positive reception in Wilmington Star @-@ News the Associated Press and the Long Beach Press @-@ Telegram , but a more critical review in The Evening Standard .
= = Contents = =
The introduction is by Rolling Stone film critic Peter Travers , a voting member of the Golden Raspberry Awards Foundation . The book begins with selected quotes from the reviewers of such films as The Blue Lagoon , From Justin to Kelly , and Color of Night . The book also includes a brief history of the Golden Raspberry Awards . Wilson lists and discusses his picks of the 100 worst films of Hollywood .
The chapters all deal with bad movies , and are organized thematically with titles such as " Disasters ... In Every Sense . " and " Can 't Stop the Musicals " . Each movie entry includes credits of the cast and crew , excerpts of dialogue from the movie , and a plot summary and review by Wilson . Wilson 's picks of the ten worst films include The Adventurers ( 1970 ) , Battlefield Earth ( 2000 ) , Body of Evidence ( 1993 ) , Exorcist II : The Heretic ( 1977 ) , Glen or Glenda ( 1953 ) , The Lonely Lady ( 1983 ) , Mommie Dearest ( 1981 ) , The Oscar ( 1966 ) , Showgirls ( 1995 ) and Xanadu ( 1980 ) .
= = Marketing = =
Pat Nason of United Press International ( UPI ) wrote that marketing of the book " may have been somewhat complicated by the cover art " , which shows an actor in a gorilla costume with his middle finger raised . Wilson had originally wanted the gorilla picture to appear on the back cover of the book ; however , Warner Books stated it must appear on the book 's front cover . " It might stand as an apt emblem of the Razzies themselves , " commented Nason . " We are not PC . We do not pull punches . We do not pay attention to the basic rules of decorum . Hopefully the humor with which it is packaged takes a little of the sting out of it " , said Wilson to UPI . Christopher Borrelli of The Toledo Blade described the book as " a merchandising tie @-@ in " to the Golden Raspberry Awards . Wilson announced the nominees for the 25th Golden Raspberry Awards at a book signing for The Official Razzie Movie Guide at Brentano 's in Century City , Los Angeles , California .
= = Reception = =
The Official Razzie Movie Guide received generally positive reviews from critics .
Barry X. Miller reviewed the book for Library Journal , and wrote " Wilson 's text is a surfeit of saccharine Goobers and gooey Ju Ju Bees , empty calories but fun to eat . " Miller compared to the book to Golden Turkey Awards and The Fifty Worst Films of All Time . Miller commented that Wilson provides " a wonderfully droll review " for each film entry in the book . Ben Steelman of the Wilmington Star @-@ News called the book a " handy volume " , and commented " in loving detail , Mr. Wilson describes his 100 favorites among the Worst Movies Ever Made " , David Germain of the Associated Press wrote that Wilson discusses " his take on the 100 most awful — yet perversely fun — movies to watch " . Jenny Marder of the Long Beach Press @-@ Telegram noted " Wilson , creator of the Golden Raspberry Awards , or Razzies , has become the authority for all movies so dreadful , they 're laughable , so excruciating , they 're , well , award @-@ winning . "
Catherine Shoard of The Evening Standard took a less enthusiastic approach to the book , however , describing it as " a companion book to the annual Golden Raspberry awards " , and saying that " it 's a shame elderly duds get more space than recent winners , and Wilson 's style , though amusing , is never really more than descriptive . Still , that 's all some films require ... "
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= Zachary Taylor =
Zachary Taylor ( November 24 , 1784 – July 9 , 1850 ) was the 12th President of the United States , serving from March 1849 until his death in July 1850 . Before his presidency , Taylor was a career officer in the United States Army , rising to the rank of major general .
Taylor 's status as a national hero as a result of his victories in the Mexican @-@ American War won him election to the White House despite his vague political beliefs . His top priority as president was preserving the Union , but he died seventeen months into his term , before making any progress on the status of slavery , which had been inflaming tensions in Congress .
Taylor was born into a prominent family of planters who migrated westward from Virginia to Kentucky in his youth .
Taylor was commissioned as an officer in the U.S. Army in 1808 and made a name for himself as a captain in the War of 1812 . He climbed the ranks establishing military forts along the Mississippi River and entered the Black Hawk War as a colonel in 1832 . His success in the Second Seminole War attracted national attention and earned him the nickname " Old Rough and Ready " .
In 1845 , as the annexation of Texas was underway , President James K. Polk dispatched Taylor to the Rio Grande area in anticipation of a potential battle with Mexico over the disputed Texas – Mexico border . The Mexican – American War broke out in April 1846 . In May , Taylor defeated Mexican troops commanded by General Mariano Arista at the Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma , and managed to drive his troops out of Texas . Taylor subsequently led his troops into Mexico , where they once again defeated Mexican troops commanded by Pedro de Ampudia at the Battle of Monterrey in September . Taylor subsequently defied orders by moving his troops further south , where , despite being severely outnumbered , he dealt a crushing blow to Mexican forces under Antonio López de Santa Anna in February 1847 at the Battle of Buena Vista . After this , most of Taylor 's troops were transferred to the command of Major General Winfield Scott , but Taylor 's popularity remained significant .
The Whig Party convinced the reluctant Taylor to lead their ticket , despite his unclear platform and lack of interest in politics . He won the election alongside New York politician Millard Fillmore , defeating Democratic candidates Lewis Cass and William Orlando Butler , as well as a third party effort led by former President Martin Van Buren and Charles Francis Adams , Sr. of the Free Soil Party . As president , Taylor kept his distance from Congress and his cabinet , even as partisan tensions threatened to divide the Union . Debate over the slave status of the large territories claimed in the war led to threats of secession from Southerners .
Despite being a Southerner and a slaveholder himself , Taylor did not push for the expansion of slavery . To avoid the question , he urged settlers in New Mexico and California to bypass the territorial stage and draft constitutions for statehood , setting the stage for the Compromise of 1850 . Taylor died suddenly of a stomach @-@ related illness in July 1850 , so had little impact on the sectional divide that led to civil war a decade later .
= = Early life = =
Zachary Taylor was born on November 24 , 1784 , on a plantation in Orange County , Virginia , to a prominent family of planters of English ancestry . He is inconclusively believed to have been born at the home of his maternal grandfather , Hare Forest Farm . He was the third of five surviving sons in his family ( a sixth died in infancy ) and had three younger sisters . His mother was Sarah Dabney ( Strother ) Taylor . His father , Richard Taylor , had served as a lieutenant colonel in the American Revolution .
Taylor was a descendant of Elder William Brewster , the Pilgrim colonist leader of the Plymouth Colony , a Mayflower immigrant , and one of the signers of the Mayflower Compact ; and Isaac Allerton Jr . , a colonial merchant and colonel who was the son of Mayflower Pilgrim Isaac Allerton and Fear Brewster . Taylor 's second cousin through that line was James Madison , the fourth president .
Leaving exhausted lands , his family joined the westward migration out of Virginia and settled near what developed as Louisville , Kentucky , on the Ohio River . Taylor grew up in a small woodland cabin before his family moved to a brick house with increased prosperity . The rapid growth of Louisville was a boon for Taylor 's father , who came to own 10 @,@ 000 acres ( 40 km2 ) throughout Kentucky by the start of the 19th century ; he held 26 slaves to cultivate the most developed portion of his holdings . There were no formal schools on the Kentucky frontier , and Taylor had a sporadic formal education . A schoolmaster recalled Taylor as a quick learner . His early letters show a weak grasp of spelling and grammar , and his handwriting was later described as " that of a near illiterate " .
= = Marriage and family = =
In June 1810 , Taylor married Margaret Mackall Smith , whom he had met the previous autumn in Louisville . " Peggy " Smith came from a prominent family of Maryland planters ; she was the daughter of Major Walter Smith , who had served in the Revolutionary War . The couple had six children :
Ann Mackall Taylor ( 1811 – 1875 ) , married Robert C. Wood , a U.S. Army surgeon she had met while living Fort Snelling , in 1829 .
Sarah Knox " Knoxie " Taylor ( 1814 – 1835 ) , married Jefferson Davis in 1835 , whom she had met through her father at the end of the Black Hawk War ; she died at 21 of malaria in St. Francisville , Louisiana , shortly after her marriage .
Octavia Pannell Taylor ( 1816 – 1820 ) , died in early childhood .
Margaret Smith Taylor ( 1819 – 1820 ) , died in infancy along with Octavia when the Taylor family was stricken with a " bilious fever . "
Mary Elizabeth " Betty " Taylor ( 1824 – 1909 ) , married William Wallace Smith Bliss in 1848 ( he died 1853 ) , married Philip Pendleton Dandridge in 1858 .
Richard Scott " Dick " Taylor ( 1826 – 1879 ) , Confederate Army general , married Louise Marie Myrthe Bringier in 1851 .
= = Military career = =
= = = Initial commissions = = =
On May 3 , 1808 , Taylor joined the U.S. Army , receiving a commission as a first lieutenant of the Seventh Infantry Regiment . He was among the new officers commissioned by Congress in response to the Chesapeake – Leopard Affair , in which an American frigate had been boarded by the crew of a British warship , sparking calls for war . Taylor spent much of 1809 in the dilapidated camps of New Orleans and nearby Terre aux Boeufs . He was promoted to captain in November 1810 . His army duties were limited at this time , and he attended to his personal finances . Over the next several years , he began to purchase slaves and a good deal of bank stock in Louisville . He bought a plantation in Louisville for $ 95 @,@ 000 that had 83 slaves attached to it , as well as the Cypress Grove Plantation near Rodney , Jefferson County , Mississippi , bringing the total number of slaves under him above 200 . In July 1811 he was called to the Indiana Territory , where he assumed control of Fort Knox after the commandant fled . In only a few weeks , he was able to restore order in the garrison , for which he was lauded by Governor William Henry Harrison .
= = = War of 1812 = = =
During the War of 1812 , in which U.S. forces battled the British Empire and its Indian allies , Taylor successfully defended Fort Harrison in Indiana Territory from an Indian attack commanded by the Shawnee chief Tecumseh . Taylor gained recognition and received a brevet ( temporary ) promotion to the rank of major . Later that year he joined General Samuel Hopkins as an aide on two expeditions : the first into the Illinois Territory and the second to the Tippecanoe battle site , where they were forced to retreat in the Battle of Wild Cat Creek . Taylor moved his growing family to Fort Knox after the violence subsided . In spring 1814 , he was called back into action under Brigadier General Benjamin Howard . That October he supervised the construction of Fort Johnson near present @-@ day Warsaw , Illinois , the last toehold of the U.S. Army in the upper Mississippi River Valley . Upon Howard 's death a few weeks later , Taylor was ordered to abandon the fort and retreat to Saint Louis . Reduced to the rank of captain when the war ended in 1815 , he resigned from the army . He re @-@ entered it a year later after gaining a commission as a major .
= = = Commanded Fort Howard = = =
For two years , Taylor commanded Fort Howard at the Green Bay , Michigan Territory , settlement . He then returned to Louisville and his family . In April 1819 he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel and dined with President James Monroe . In late 1821 , Taylor took the 7th Infantry to Natchitoches , Louisiana , on the Red River . On the orders of General Edmund P. Gaines , they set out to locate a new post more convenient to the Sabine River frontier . By the following March , Taylor had established Fort Jesup , at the Shield 's Spring site southwest of Natchitoches . That November he was transferred to Fort Robertson at Baton Rouge , where he remained until February 1824 . He spent the next few years on recruiting duty . In late 1826 he was called to Washington , D.C. , to work on an Army committee to consolidate and improve military organization . In the meantime he acquired his first Louisiana plantation and decided to move with his family to Baton Rouge as their home .
= = = Black Hawk War = = =
In May 1828 , Taylor was called back to action , commanding Fort Snelling in Michigan Territory ( now Minnesota ) on the northern Mississippi River for a year , and nearby Fort Crawford for a year . After some time on furlough , when he expanded his landholdings , Taylor was promoted to colonel of the 1st Infantry Regiment in April 1832 . At that time , the Black Hawk War was beginning in the West . Taylor campaigned under General Henry Atkinson to pursue and later defend against Chief Black Hawk 's forces throughout the summer . The end of the war in August 1832 signaled the end of Indian resistance to U.S. expansion in the area , and the following years were relatively quiet . During this period Taylor resisted the courtship of his 17 @-@ year @-@ old daughter Sarah Knox Taylor and Lieutenant Jefferson Davis , the future President of the Confederate States of America . He respected Davis but did not approve of his daughter becoming a military wife , as he knew it was a hard life for families . Davis and Sarah Taylor married in June 1835 , but she died three months later of malaria contracted on a summer visit to Davis ' sister in St. Francisville , Louisiana .
= = = Second Seminole War = = =
By 1837 , the Second Seminole War was underway when Taylor was directed to Florida . He defeated the Seminole Indians in the Christmas Day Battle of Lake Okeechobee , which was among the largest U.S. – Indian battles of the nineteenth century . He was promoted to brigadier general in recognition of his success . In May 1838 , Brig. Gen. Thomas Jesup stepped down and placed Taylor in command of all American troops in Florida , a position he held for two years . His reputation as a military leader was growing , and with it , he began to be known as " Old Rough and Ready . " Taylor was criticized for using bloodhounds in order to track Seminole . After his long @-@ requested relief was granted , Taylor spent a comfortable year touring the nation with his family and meeting with military leaders . During this period , he began to be interested in politics and corresponded with President William Henry Harrison . He was made commander of the Second Department of the Army 's Western Division in May 1841 . The sizable territory ran from the Mississippi River westward , south of the 37th parallel north . Stationed in Arkansas , Taylor enjoyed several uneventful years , spending as much time attending to his land speculation as to military matters .
= = = Mexican – American War = = =
In anticipation of the annexation of the Republic of Texas , which had established independence in 1836 , Taylor was sent in April 1844 to Fort Jesup in Louisiana . He was ordered to guard against any attempts by Mexico to reclaim the territory . He served there until July 1845 , when annexation became imminent , and President James K. Polk directed him to deploy into disputed territory in Texas , " on or near the Rio Grande " near Mexico . Taylor chose a spot at Corpus Christi , and his Army of Occupation encamped there until the following spring in anticipation of a Mexican attack .
Taylor 's men advanced to the Rio Grande in March 1846 . Polk 's attempts to negotiate with Mexico had failed , and war appeared imminent . Violence broke out several weeks later , when some of Captain Seth B. Thornton 's men were attacked by Mexican forces north of the river . Polk , learning of the Thornton Affair , told Congress in May that a war between Mexico and the U.S. had begun . That same month , Taylor commanded American forces at the Battle of Palo Alto and the nearby Battle of Resaca de la Palma . Though greatly outnumbered , he defeated the Mexican force , which consisted of the Army of the North , commanded by General Mariano Arista , and forced the troops back across the Rio Grande . These victories made him a popular hero , and within weeks he received a brevet promotion to major general and a formal commendation from Congress . The national press compared him to George Washington and Andrew Jackson , both generals who had ascended to the presidency , although Taylor denied any interest in running for office . " Such an idea never entered my head , " he remarked in a letter , " nor is it likely to enter the head of any sane person . "
In September , Taylor , after crossing the Rio Grande , inflicted heavy casualties upon the Mexican defenders at the Battle of Monterrey . The city of Monterrey had been considered " impregnable " , but was captured in three days , forcing Mexican forces to retreat . Taylor was criticized for signing a " liberal " truce , rather than pressing for a large @-@ scale surrender . Afterwards , half of Taylor 's army was ordered to join General Winfield Scott 's soldiers as they besieged Veracruz . Mexican General Antonio López de Santa Anna discovered , through an intercepted letter from Scott , that Taylor had contributed all but 6 @,@ 000 of his men to the effort . His remaining force included only a few hundred regular army soldiers , and Santa Anna resolved to take advantage of the situation .
Santa Anna attacked Taylor with 20 @,@ 000 men at the Battle of Buena Vista in February 1847 , leaving around 700 Americans dead or wounded at a cost of over 1 @,@ 500 Mexican . Outmatched , the Mexican forces retreated , ensuring a " far @-@ reaching " victory for the Americans .
In recognition of his victory at Buena Vista , Taylor was elected an honorary member of the New York Society of the Cincinnati on July 4 , 1847 . Taylor 's father had been an Original Member of the Virginia Society of the Cincinnati . Unfortunately for the younger Taylor , the Virginia society had disbanded shortly before the elder Taylor 's death , which prevented him from succeeding to his father 's " seat " in the Society . Taylor was a member of the Aztec Club of 1847 , Military Society of the Mexican War .
Taylor remained at Monterrey until late November 1847 , when he set sail for home . While he would spend the following year in command of the Army 's entire western division , his active military career was over . In December he received a hero 's welcome in New Orleans and Baton Rouge , and his popular legacy set the stage for the 1848 presidential election .
= = Election of 1848 = =
In his capacity as a career officer , Taylor had never publicly revealed his political beliefs before 1848 nor voted before that time . He thought of himself as an independent , believing in a strong and sound banking system for the country , and thought that President Andrew Jackson , a Democrat , should not have allowed the Second Bank of the United States to collapse in 1836 . He believed it was impractical to talk about expanding slavery into the western areas of the U.S. , as he concluded that neither cotton nor sugar ( both were produced in great quantities as a result of slavery ) could be easily grown there through a plantation economy . He was also a firm nationalist , and due to his experience of seeing many people die as a result of warfare , he believed that secession was not a good way to resolve national problems . Taylor , although he did not agree with their stand in favor of protective tariffs and expensive internal improvements , aligned himself with Whig Party governing policies : the President should not be able to veto a law , unless that law was against the Constitution ; that the office should not interfere with Congress ; and that the power of collective decision @-@ making , as well as the Cabinet , should be strong .
Well before the American victory at Buena Vista , political clubs were formed which supported Taylor for President . His support was drawn from an unusually broad assortment of political bands , including Whigs and Democrats , Northerners and Southerners , allies and opponents of national leaders such as Henry Clay and James K. Polk . By late 1846 Taylor 's opposition to a presidential run began to weaken , and it became clear that his principles more closely resembled Whig orthodoxy . Still , he maintained that he would only accept election as a national , independent figure , rather than a partisan loyalist . Taylor declared , as the 1848 Whig Party convention approached , that he had always been a Whig in principle , but he did consider himself a Jeffersonian @-@ Democrat . Many southerners believed that Taylor supported slavery and its expansion into the new territory absorbed from Mexico , and some were angered when Taylor suggested that if he were elected President he would not veto the Wilmot Proviso , which proposed against such an expansion . This position did not enhance his support from activist antislavery elements in the Northern U.S. , as these wanted Taylor to speak out strongly in support of the Proviso , not simply fail to veto it . Most abolitionists did not support Taylor , since he was a slave @-@ owner . Many southerners also knew that Taylor supported states ' rights and was opposed to protective tariffs and government spending for internal improvements . The Whigs hoped that he put the federal union of the United States above all else .
Taylor received the Whig nomination for President in 1848 . For his Vice Presidential nominee the convention chose Millard Fillmore , a prominent New York Whig who had chaired the House Ways and Means Committee and had been a contender for Henry Clay 's Vice Presidential nominee in the 1844 election . Fillmore 's selection was largely an attempt at reconciliation with northern Whigs , who were furious at the election of a slaveowning southerner ; all factions of the party were dissatisfied with the final ticket . Taylor continued to minimize his role in the campaign , preferring not to directly meet with voters or correspond regarding his political views . His campaign was skillfully directed by Senator John J. Crittenden of Kentucky , a friend and early political supporter , and bolstered by a late endorsement from Senator Daniel Webster of Massachusetts . Taylor defeated Lewis Cass , the Democratic candidate , and Martin Van Buren , the Free Soil candidate .
Taylor ignored the Whig platform , as historian Michael F. Holt explains :
Taylor was equally indifferent to programs Whigs had long considered vital . Publicly , he was artfully ambiguous , refusing to answer questions about his views on banking , the tariff , and internal improvements . Privately , he was more forthright . The idea of a national bank " is dead , and will not be revived in my time . " In the future the tariff " will be increased only for revenue " ; in other words , Whig hopes of restoring the protective tariff of 1842 were vain . There would never again be surplus federal funds from public land sales to distribute to the states , and internal improvements " will go on in spite of presidential vetoes . " In a few words , that is , Taylor pronounced an epitaph for the entire Whig economic program .
= = Presidency ( 1849 – 1850 ) = =
= = = Transition and inauguration = = =
As president @-@ elect , Taylor kept his distance from Washington , not resigning his Western Division command until late January 1849 . He spent the months following the election formulating his cabinet selections . He was deliberate and quiet about his decisions , to the frustration of his fellow Whigs . While he despised patronage and political games , he endured a flurry of advances from office @-@ seekers looking to play a role in his administration .
While he would not appoint any Democrats , Taylor wanted his cabinet to reflect the nation 's diverse interests , and so apportioned the seats geographically . He also avoided choosing prominent Whigs , sidestepping such obvious selections as Clay . He saw Crittenden as a cornerstone of his administration , offering him the crucial seat of Secretary of State , but Crittenden insisted on serving out the Governorship of Kentucky to which he had just been elected . Taylor settled instead on Senator John M. Clayton of Delaware , a close associate of Crittenden 's .
Taylor began his trek to Washington in late January , a journey rife with bad weather , delays , injuries , sickness — and an abduction by a family friend . Taylor finally arrived in the nation 's capital on February 24 and soon met with the outgoing President Polk . The incumbent Democrat held a low opinion of Taylor , privately deeming him " without political information " and " wholly unqualified for the station " of President . Taylor spent the following week meeting with political elites , some of whom were unimpressed with his appearance and demeanor . With less than two weeks until his inauguration , he met with Clayton and hastily finalized his cabinet .
Taylor 's term as president began Sunday , March 4 , but his inauguration was not held until the following day out of religious concerns . His inauguration speech discussed the many tasks facing the nation , but presented a governing style of deference to Congress and sectional compromise instead of assertive executive action . Throughout the summer of 1849 , Taylor toured the northeastern U.S. , to familiarize himself with a region of which he had seen little . He spent much of the trip plagued by gastrointestinal illness and returned to Washington by September .
= = = Sectional crisis = = =
As Taylor took office , Congress faced a battery of questions related to the Mexican Cession , comprising three major territories acquired by the U.S. after the Mexican War : California , New Mexico , and Utah . It was unclear which of the acquisitions would achieve statehood and which would remain federal territories , while the question of their slave status threatened to bitterly divide Congress . While a southern slaveowner himself , Taylor had no particular bias toward the southern faction of Congress which sought to maintain its right to slavery . His major goal was sectional peace , preserving the Union through legislative compromise . As the threat of Southern secession grew , he sided increasingly with antislavery northerners such as Senator William H. Seward of New York , even suggesting that he would sign the Wilmot Proviso to ban slavery in federal territories should such a bill reach his desk .
In Taylor 's view , the best way forward was to admit California as a state rather than a federal territory , as it would leave the slavery question out of Congress 's hands . The timing for statehood was in Taylor 's favor , as the Gold Rush was well underway at the time of his inauguration , and California 's population was exploding . The administration dispatched Rep. Thomas Butler King to California , to test the waters and advocate on behalf of statehood , knowing that the Californians were certain to adopt an anti @-@ slavery constitution . King found that a constitutional convention was already underway , and by October 1849 , the convention unanimously agreed to join the Union — and to ban slavery within their borders .
The question of the New Mexico – Texas border was unsettled at the time of Taylor 's inauguration . The territory newly won from Mexico was under federal jurisdiction , but the Texans claimed a swath of land north of Santa Fe and were determined to include it within their borders , despite having no significant presence there . Taylor sided with the New Mexicans ' claim , initially pushing to keep it as a federal territory , but eventually supported statehood so as to further reduce the slavery debate in Congress . The Texas government , under newly instated governor P. Hansborough Bell , tried to ramp up military action in defense of the territory against the federal government , but was unsuccessful .
The Latter Day Saint settlers of modern @-@ day Utah had established a provisional State of Deseret , an enormous swath of territory which had little hope of recognition by Congress . The Taylor administration considered combining the California and Utah territories , but instead opted to organize the Utah Territory . To alleviate the Mormon population 's concerns over religious freedom , Taylor promised they would have relative independence from Congress despite being a federal territory .
Taylor sent his only State of the Union report to Congress in December 1849 . He recapped international events and suggested several adjustments to tariff policy and executive organization , but such issues were overshadowed by the sectional crisis facing Congress . He reported on California 's and New Mexico 's applications for statehood , and recommended that Congress approve them as written and " should abstain from the introduction of those exciting topics of a sectional character " . The policy report was prosaic and unemotional , but ended with a sharp condemnation of secessionists . It had no effect on Southern legislators , who saw the admission of two free states as an existential threat , and Congress remained stalled .
= = = Foreign affairs = = =
Taylor and his Secretary of State , John M. Clayton , both lacked diplomatic experience , and came into office at a relatively uneventful time in American – international politics . Their shared nationalism allowed Taylor to devolve foreign policy matters to Clayton with minimal oversight , although no decisive foreign policy was established under their administration . As opponents of the autocratic European order , they vocally supported German and Hungarian liberals in the revolutions of 1848 , although they offered little in the way of aid . A perceived insult from the French minister Guillaume Tell Poussin nearly led to a break in diplomatic relations until Poussin was replaced , and a reparation dispute with Portugal resulted in harsh words from the Taylor administration . In a more positive effort , the administration arranged for two ships to assist in the United Kingdom 's search for a team of British explorers , led by John Franklin , who had gotten lost in the Arctic . While previous Whig administrations had emphasized Pacific trade as an economic imperative , the Taylor administration took no major initiative in the Far East .
Throughout 1849 and 1850 , they contended with Narciso López , the Venezuelan radical who led repeated filibustering expeditions in an attempt to conquer the island of Cuba . While López made generous offers to American military leaders to support him , Taylor and Clayton saw the enterprise as illegal . They issued a blockade , and later , authorized a mass arrest of López and his fellows , although the group would eventually be acquitted . They also confronted Spain , which had arrested several Americans on the charge of piracy , but the Spaniards eventually surrendered them to maintain good relations with the U.S.
Arguably the Taylor administration 's definitive accomplishment in foreign policy was the Clayton – Bulwer Treaty of 1850 , regarding a proposed inter @-@ oceanic canal through Central America . While the U.S. and Britain were on friendly terms , and the construction of such a canal was decades away from reality , the mere possibility put the two nations in an uneasy position . For several years , Britain had been seizing strategic points , particularly the Mosquito Coast on the eastern coast of present @-@ day Nicaragua . Negotiations were held with Britain that resulted in the landmark Clayton – Bulwer Treaty . Both nations agreed not to claim control of any canal that might be built in Nicaragua . The treaty promoted development of an Anglo @-@ American alliance ; its completion was Taylor 's last action as president .
= = = Compromise attempts and final days = = =
Clay took a central role as Congress debated the slavery question . While his positions had some overlap with Taylor 's , the president always maintained his distance from Clay . Historians disagree on his motivations for doing so . With assistance from Daniel Webster , Clay developed his landmark proposal , the Compromise of 1850 . The proposal allowed statehood for California , giving it independence on the slavery question , while the other territories would remain under federal jurisdiction . This would include the disputed parts of New Mexico , although Texas would be reimbursed for the territory . Slavery would be retained in the District of Columbia , but the slave trade would be banned . Meanwhile , a strict Fugitive Slave Law would be enacted , bypassing northern legislation which had restricted Southerners from retrieving runaway slaves . Tensions flared as Congress negotiated and secession talks grew , culminating with a threat from Taylor to send troops into New Mexico to protect its border from Texas , with himself leading the army . Taylor also said that anyone " taken in rebellion against the Union , he would hang ... with less reluctance than he had hanged deserters and spies in Mexico . " The omnibus law was a major step forward but ultimately could not pass , due to extremists on both sides .
No great compromise reached Taylor 's desk during his presidency ; instead , his last days were overshadowed by the Galphin affair . Before joining the Taylor cabinet , Secretary of War George W. Crawford had served as a lawyer . He had been involved in a fifteen @-@ year case , representing the descendants of a colonial trader whose services to the British crown had not been repaid at the time of the American Revolution . The British debt to George Galphin was to be assumed by the federal government , but Galphin 's heirs only received payment on the debt 's principal after years of litigation , and were unable to win an interest payment from the Polk administration .
Taylor 's Treasury Secretary William M. Meredith , with the support of Attorney General Reverdy Johnson , finally signed off on the payment in April 1850 . To the president 's embarrassment , this payment included a legal compensation of nearly $ 100 @,@ 000 to Crawford ; two cabinet members had effectively offered a tremendous chunk of the public treasury to another . A House investigation cleared Crawford of any legal wrongdoing , but nonetheless expressed disapproval of his accepting the payment . Taylor , who had already been sketching out a re @-@ organization of his cabinet , now had an unfolding scandal to complicate the situation .
= = = Death = = =
On July 4 , 1850 , Taylor reportedly consumed raw fruit and iced milk while attending holiday celebrations and a fund @-@ raising event at the Washington Monument , which was then under construction . Over the course of several days , he became severely ill with an unknown digestive ailment . His doctor " diagnosed the illness as cholera morbus , a flexible mid @-@ nineteenth @-@ century term for intestinal ailments as diverse as diarrhea and dysentery but not related to Asiatic cholera , " the latter being a widespread epidemic at the time of Taylor 's death . The identity and source of Taylor 's illness are the subject of historical speculation ( see below ) , although it is known that several of his cabinet members had come down with a similar illness .
Fever ensued and Taylor 's chance of recovery was small . On July 8 , Taylor remarked to a medical attendant :
I should not be surprised if this were to terminate in my death . I did not expect to encounter what has beset me since my elevation to the Presidency . God knows I have endeavored to fulfill what I conceived to be an honest duty . But I have been mistaken . My motives have been misconstrued , and my feelings most grossly outraged .
Despite treatment , Taylor died at 10 : 35 p.m. on July 9 , 1850 . He was 65 years old . After his death , Vice President Millard Fillmore assumed the presidency and completed Taylor 's term , which ended on March 4 , 1853 .
Taylor was interred in the Public Vault of the Congressional Cemetery in Washington , D.C. , from July 13 , 1850 , to October 25 , 1850 . ( It was built in 1835 to hold remains of notables until either the grave site could be prepared or transportation arranged to another city . ) His body was transported to the Taylor Family plot where his parents were buried on the old Taylor homestead plantation known as " Springfield " in Louisville , Kentucky .
= = = Administration and Cabinet = = =
= = = Judicial appointments = = =
= = Historical reputation and memorials = =
Because of his short tenure , Taylor is not considered to have strongly influenced the office of the Presidency or the United States . Some historians believe that Taylor was too inexperienced with politics , at a time when officials needed close ties with political operatives . Despite his shortcomings , the Clayton – Bulwer Treaty affecting relations with Great Britain in Central America is " recognized as an important step in scaling down the nation 's commitment to Manifest Destiny as a policy . " While historical rankings of Presidents of the United States have generally placed Taylor in the bottom quarter of chief executives , most surveys tend to rank him as the most effective of the four Presidents from the Whig Party .
Taylor was the last President to own slaves while in office . He was the third of four Whig presidents , the last being Fillmore , his successor . Taylor was also the second president to die in office , preceded by William Henry Harrison who died while serving as President nine years earlier , as well as the only President elected from Louisiana .
In 1883 , the Commonwealth of Kentucky placed a 50 @-@ foot monument topped by a life @-@ sized statue of Taylor near his grave . By the 1920s , the Taylor family initiated the effort to turn the Taylor burial grounds into a national cemetery . The Commonwealth of Kentucky donated two adjacent parcels of land for the project , turning the half @-@ acre Taylor family cemetery into 16 acres ( 65 @,@ 000 m2 ) . On May 6 , 1926 , the remains of Taylor and his wife ( who died in 1852 ) were moved to the newly constructed Taylor mausoleum , made of limestone with a granite base and marble interior , nearby . The cemetery property has been designated as the Zachary Taylor National Cemetery .
The US Post Office released the first postage stamp issue honoring Zachary Taylor on June 21 , 1875 , 25 years after his death . In 1938 , Taylor would appear again on a US Postage stamp , this time on the 12 @-@ cent Presidential Issue of 1938 . Taylor 's last appearance ( to date , 2010 ) on a US postage stamp occurred in 1986 when he was honored on the AMERIPEX presidential issue . After Washington , Jefferson , Jackson and Lincoln , Zachary Taylor was the fifth American president to appear on US postage .
He is the namesake for several names and places throughout the United States , including :
Camp Taylor in Kentucky and Fort Taylor in Florida .
The SS Zachary Taylor , a World War II Liberty ship
Zachary Taylor Parkway in Louisiana and in Zachary Taylor Hall at Southeastern Louisiana University .
Taylor County in Georgia
Taylor County , Iowa
Taylor County , Kentucky The 100th county established in Kentucky and was named after Zachary Taylor .
Rough and Ready , California ; the historical origin of the town is depicted in a 1965 episode of the syndicated western television series , Death Valley Days .
Zachary Taylor Highway in Virginia
He was also the namesake for architect Zachary Taylor Davis .
= = Assassination theories = =
Almost immediately after his death , rumors began to circulate that Taylor was poisoned by pro @-@ slavery Southerners , and similar theories persisted into the 20th century . In 1978 , Hamilton Smith based his assassination theory on the timing of drugs , the lack of confirmed cholera outbreaks , and other material . In the late 1980s , Clara Rising , a former professor at University of Florida , persuaded Taylor 's closest living relative to agree to an exhumation so that his remains could be tested . The remains were exhumed and transported to the Office of the Kentucky Chief Medical Examiner on June 17 , 1991 . Samples of hair , fingernail , and other tissues were removed , and radiological studies were conducted . The remains were returned to the cemetery and reinterred , with appropriate honors , in the mausoleum .
Neutron activation analysis conducted at Oak Ridge National Laboratory revealed no evidence of poisoning , as arsenic levels were too low . The analysis concluded Taylor had contracted " cholera morbus , or acute gastroenteritis " , as Washington had open sewers , and his food or drink may have been contaminated . Any potential for recovery was overwhelmed by his doctors , who treated him with " ipecac , calomel , opium , and quinine ( at 40 grains per dose ) , and bled and blistered him too . " Political scientist Michael Parenti questions the traditional explanation for Taylor 's death . Relying on interviews and reports by forensic pathologists , he argues that the procedure used to test for arsenic poisoning was fundamentally flawed . A 2010 review concludes : " there is no definitive proof that Taylor was assassinated , nor would it appear that there is definitive proof that he was not . "
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= Bloc Party =
Bloc Party are an English indie rock band , currently composed of Kele Okereke ( lead vocals , rhythm guitar , keyboards , sampler ) , Russell Lissack ( lead guitar , keyboards ) , Justin Harris ( bass guitar , keyboards , saxophones , backing vocals ) and Louise Bartle ( drums ) . Former members Matt Tong and Gordon Moakes left the band in 2013 and 2015 respectively . Their brand of music , whilst rooted in rock , retains elements of other genres such as electronica and house music . The band was formed at the 1999 Reading Festival by Okereke and Lissack . They went through a variety of names before settling on Bloc Party in 2003 . Moakes joined the band after answering an advert in NME magazine , while Tong was picked via an audition . Bloc Party got their break by giving BBC Radio 1 DJ Steve Lamacq and Franz Ferdinand 's lead singer , Alex Kapranos , a copy of their demo " She 's Hearing Voices " .
In February 2005 , the band released their debut album Silent Alarm . It was critically acclaimed and was named Indie Album of the Year at the 2006 PLUG Awards and NME Album of the year which both honour indie music . That year , the record was also certified platinum in Britain . The band built on this success in 2007 with the release of their second studio album , A Weekend in the City , which reached a peak of number two in the UK Albums Chart and number twelve in the Billboard 200 . In August 2008 , Bloc Party released their third studio record , Intimacy which entered the UK Albums Chart at number eight and number eighteen on the Billboard 200 . The band went on a hiatus in October 2009 to focus on side projects . They reunited in September 2011 , and shortly thereafter released their fourth album , Four , which entered the UK Albums Chart at number three . In 2013 , Bloc Party released their third EP titled The Nextwave Sessions in August ; the band then began an indefinite hiatus to continue with their respective side projects . The band 's fifth studio album , Hymns , the first to involve Harris and Bartle , was released on 29 January 2016 . Bloc Party have sold over 3 million albums worldwide .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and rising popularity ( 1999 – 2004 ) = = =
Russell Lissack and Kele Okereke first met in 1998 in London . Lissack had attended Bancroft 's School , while Okereke attended Ilford County High School , then Trinity Catholic High School , Woodford Green for sixth form . They bumped into each other again in 1999 at Reading Festival and decided to form a band . Bassist Gordon Moakes joined after answering an advert in NME , and drummer Matt Tong joined after an audition . After going through a variety of names , such as Union , The Angel Range , and Diet , the band settled on Bloc Party in September 2003 , a play on block party . The band has said that the name was not intended to be an allusion to the Soviet Bloc or the Canadian political party Bloc Québécois . However , Moakes said on the group 's official Internet forum that it was more a merging of the eastern " Blocs " and the western " parties " , in the political sense . He also notes that the name was not explicitly driven by politics , but rather it " looked , sounded , seemed fine so we went with it . "
In November 2003 , Bloc Party had their track " The Marshals Are Dead " featured on a compilation CD called The New Cross released by Angular Recording Corporation . They then released their debut single " She 's Hearing Voices " on the then fledgling record label Trash Aesthetics . The band got their break after Okereke went to a Franz Ferdinand concert in 2003 , and gave a copy of " She 's Hearing Voices " to both lead singer Alex Kapranos and BBC Radio 1 DJ Steve Lamacq . Lamacq subsequently played the song on his radio show , labelling the track " genius " , and invited them to record a live session for the show . The buzz generated off the back of the single led to another release , " Banquet / Staying Fat " , this time through Moshi Moshi Records , and to the eventual signing with independent label Wichita Recordings in April 2004 .
= = = Silent Alarm ( 2004 – 2006 ) = = =
Bloc Party 's debut album , Silent Alarm , was released in February 2005 and was met with universal critical acclaim . It was voted ' Album of the Year ' for 2005 by NME , and reached number 3 on the UK Albums Chart before being certified platinum . The first single from the album , " So Here We Are / Positive Tension " , made the top 5 on the UK Top 40 chart . Further singles " Banquet " ( which reached number 13 in NME 's ' Top 50 Singles of 2005 ' ) , " Helicopter " , and " Pioneers " , whilst failing to repeat this success , still managed to reach the UK top 20 . The animated video for " Pioneers , " made by the Shoreditch @-@ based Minivegas design agency , was top of the NME video charts for four weeks . NME tagged them as " art @-@ rock " at that time but the band felt it was too limited .
The band received positive reviews from critics in the United States and they toured there heavily in the 18 months that followed the release of Silent Alarm . In early 2006 , they finished their tour with sold out shows in Los Angeles , Miami and Berkeley . The album went on to sell more than 350 @,@ 000 copies in North America and over a million worldwide . After this success , the established electronic group , The Chemical Brothers , soon collaborated with Okereke for " Believe " , a track on their Push the Button album . An album of remixes of tracks from Silent Alarm had also been released at the end of August 2005 in the UK . This remix album , entitled Silent Alarm Remixed , retained the album 's original track list and includes remixes from the likes of Ladytron , M83 , Death from Above 1979 , Four Tet , and Mogwai .
During July 2005 , Bloc Party recorded two new tracks with Silent Alarm producer Paul Epworth . The songs were released as a single with a B @-@ side , titled " Two More Years " , to coincide with the band 's October 2005 UK tour . The tour was also accompanied by a re @-@ issue of Silent Alarm , which included " Two More Years " and former single " Little Thoughts " as bonus tracks . A remix of " Banquet " by The Streets , as well as a music video for the song , were included in the " Two More Years " single . Bloc Party also contributed the track " The Present " to the Help ! : A Day in the Life compilation , the profits of which benefited the War Child charity .
= = = A Weekend in the City ( 2006 – 2008 ) = = =
Bloc Party 's second album , A Weekend in the City , was produced by Garret " Jacknife " Lee . It was released in February 2007 , although it was leaked in November 2006 . It became available for download on the UK iTunes Store before the physical release , and reached the number 2 spot on the UK Albums Chart . The album also reached number 2 on the Australian and Belgian charts , and debuted at number 12 in the Billboard 200 , with 48 @,@ 000 copies sold . The first single , " The Prayer " , was released on 29 January , and became the band 's highest charting single in the British Top 40 , reaching number 4 . In the buildup to the release of the album , BBC Radio 1 DJ Zane Lowe aired a live set by the band from Maida Vale studios on 30 January 2007 , featuring a mix of old and new songs . On 1 February 2007 , A Weekend in the City was made available to listen to for free through Bloc Party 's official MySpace page .
The next single , " I Still Remember " , was Bloc Party 's highest charting American single , peaking at number 24 on the Modern Rock Chart . The band released their third single , " Hunting for Witches " , with an accompanying video clip in August 2007 . The single became their only ARIA Chart entry , peaking at number 20 . In October 2007 , it was announced that Bloc Party would release a new single , " Flux " , on 13 November — ahead of their end of year gigs . The electronic song , also produced by Jacknife Lee , was very different from previous singles released by the band .
The band 's first gig following the release of A Weekend in the City was on 5 February 2007 , in Reading , and was broadcast live on BBC 6 Music . On 20 May 2007 , Bloc Party headlined on the In New Music We Trust stage at the BBC Radio 1 Big Weekend in Preston . They also performed at the UK leg of Live Earth on 7 July 2007 at Wembley Stadium . Furthermore , the band played sets at T in the Park and Oxegen 07 that same weekend , as well as Glastonbury and the Reading and Leeds Festivals later in 2007 . Bloc Party announced a tour of Australia and New Zealand in August 2007 , which would include a special appearance at the Splendour in the Grass Festival on 5 August . On 17 September 2007 , they recorded a set for the PBS show Austin City Limits a day after playing at the Austin City Limits Music Festival . On 27 October , the band performed a set at London 's The Roundhouse with the Exmoor Singers , a London @-@ based choir , as part of the BBC Electric Proms . The set included songs from both Silent Alarm and A Weekend in the City along with the first British live performance of " Flux " .
= = = Intimacy ( 2008 – 2009 ) = = =
" Mercury " was released as the first single from Bloc Party 's third album in August 2008 . Again produced by Jacknife Lee and Paul Epworth , Intimacy was rush @-@ released later that month , with the album available to download 3 days after an announcement in August 2008 . Later in the month the band played second on the bill at the Reading and Leeds Festivals before headlining the Hydro Connect Music Festival in Argyll , Scotland .
During the autumn of 2008 , the band went on a short tour of North America , which included an appearance at the Virgin Festival in Toronto , as well as the band 's first ever American college show at Syracuse University . They made their live return to the UK on 30 September 2008 with a special gig in London as part of Q Awards : The Gigs . They also played the Glasgow date of MTV2 's and Topman 's " Gonzo on Tour " on 19 October 2008 . A follow @-@ up single , " Talons " was released in October 2008 . The song was not part of the pre @-@ order album , but did feature on the full album CD release and was made freely available to people who already purchased the download @-@ only album . An album of remixes of all tracks on Intimacy , Intimacy Remixed , was released in May 2009 . The band undertook their first UK tour since December 2007 in October 2009 , dubbing it " Bloctober " .
= = = One More Chance and hiatus ( 2009 – 2011 ) = = =
In July 2009 , Okereke stated that the band did not have a current recording contract and had no obligation or pressure to release a new album in the foreseeable future ; he went on to suggest that the release of a fourth album was on an indefinite timescale . A new single , " One More Chance " , was released in August 2009 . The song did not appear on Intimacy and was produced by Jacknife Lee . After this , the group went on a hiatus , with the members unsure as to whether they would carry on .
During this period of hiatus Lissack revived his project Pin Me Down and joined the live line @-@ up of Irish rock @-@ band Ash as guitarist and synthesiser player on their touring for the A – Z Series . Moakes formed the group Young Legionnaire with Paul Mullen , vocalist & guitarist of The Automatic , and William Bowerman , drummer for La Roux , releasing a single , " Colossus " in August 2010 . Okereke released a solo album , The Boxer , in June 2010 . Produced by Hudson Mohawke and XXXChange , its release was preceded by the single " Tenderoni " . Rumours throughout 2011 suggested Okereke had left the group to focus on solo work , though these were denied by other band members .
= = = Four and The Nextwave Sessions ( 2011 – 2013 ) = = =
Bloc Party started writing material for a fourth album in 2011 , but decided not to play live . In the meantime Okereke finished an EP titled The Hunter . The group stated they intended to release a new album in 2012 . In May 2012 , Bloc Party announced Four , which was released on 20 August 2012 , after being made available to stream in its entirety for over a week preceding release . The album was recorded with Alex Newport , who had previously worked with At The Drive In and The Mars Volta , in New York City . Bloc Party released " Octopus " that July and later released another single entitled " Day Four " . The band released " Kettling " on 12 November 2012 , followed by " Truth " on 25 February 2013 . Four peaked at number three on the UK Albums Chart and at number 36 on the Billboard 200 .
The band debuted new material during their 2013 North American tour , including " Children of the Future " at Rams Head Live ! , " Ratchet " at The Pageant , " Montreal " at the Ogden Theatre and " X @-@ cutioner 's Song " at Mr. Smalls Theater in Pittsburgh . Lissack later confirmed the band 's plans to release a new EP in " northern hemisphere summer " . He told Marc Zanotti of Australian website MusicFeeds that the new material was " not like a continuation of the record we 've just made , it 's a completely separate thing [ ... ] the next step ; the next progression " . " French Exit " was given its debut live performance at Crystal Ballroom on 24 May . Some of the new material would feature on The Nextwave Sessions , an EP announced on 25 June and for release on 12 August via Frenchkiss Records .
= = = Hiatus and line @-@ up changes ( 2013 – 2015 ) = = =
During the summer tour of 2013 , drummer Matt Tong left the band . Lissack told a Canadian newspaper , the National Post that the band were planning to take an indefinite hiatus following their appearance at the Latitude Festival on 19 July . In October 2013 , Kele assembled a DJ Mix for ! K7 's Tapes mix series , released under the Bloc Party name . In September 2014 , Okereke stated that Bloc Party were working on a fifth album . In March 2015 , bassist Gordon Moakes tweeted he had parted ways with Bloc Party . Following the departure of their former members Okereke and Lissack started to work on new songs on their own in late 2014 .
Bloc Party unveiled their new line @-@ up at two intimate gigs in the Los Angeles area ( 19 August 2015 at The Glass House in Pomona and 20 August 2015 at The Roxy in Los Angeles ) . Following these performances , Bloc Party also subheadlined FYF Fest in Los Angeles on 22 August 2015 . At these shows , the band confirmed that they 've finished recording their next album . The shows marked the live debut for new bassist Justin Harris of the Portland , Oregon , indie rock outfit Menomena , who had previously opened several Bloc Party U.S. tour dates in April 2009 ; and Louise Bartle , who was accidentally announced a month earlier as Bloc Party 's drummer by instrument manufacturer Natal Drums in a since @-@ deleted tweet , leading to fan speculation regarding her membership that was ultimately proved correct . These shows also included the first performances of two new songs called " Eden " and " Exes " according to the setlist .
= = = Hymns ( 2015 @-@ present ) = = =
In a performance at Maida Vale , Bloc Party gave " The Good News " its live debut ; hours later , " The Love Within " was featured as " Hottest Record in the World " by Annie Mac on BBC Radio 1 . Okereke revealed the band 's upcoming fifth album is set to be titled Hymns . The album 's release was later confirmed on social media as 29 January 2016 .
= = Musical style = =
Bloc Party 's brand of guitar rock draws on influences such as The Chemical Brothers , The Cure , Manic Street Preachers , Joy Division , Sonic Youth , Blur , and The Smiths . Okereke has also stated that Mogwai 's album Mogwai Young Team changed his life by being his musical " year zero " . Okereke also cites Suede as a major influence , he says Dog Man Star was the first record he fell in love with . Particular parallels were made between Bloc Party and Gang of Four upon their arrival on the music scene , yet the band were " mildly infuriated " at such references , claiming they had never " particularly liked " Gang of Four . To achieve their unique style , numerous delay and other effects pedals are implemented . During the recording of second album A Weekend in the City , the band suggested it would contain " some truly R & B styled beats , a song where [ Tong ] and [ Moakes ] play drums simultaneously [ with ] both eggshell @-@ thin fragility and trouser @-@ flapping hugeness " , as opposed to their typical sound . The style has been compared to and inspired by such bands as Radiohead , U2 , Depeche Mode , and Björk . Some of the most noticeable changes between debut Silent Alarm and A Weekend in the City are that the songs became more layered and less raw due to inclusion of string arrangements .
With the release of " Flux " , Bloc Party 's style became even more diverse with the inclusion of electronic music . " Mercury " saw Bloc Party distance themselves even further from the traditional guitar band set @-@ up by experimenting with dark electronic sounds and a brass section inspired by Siouxsie and the Banshees . The band 's third album Intimacy also features synths , processed drum beats and loops , vocal manipulation , and choral arrangements . Even though the album was influenced by electronic music , the band still had not lost their feel for guitar music . For example , in an interview , Okereke said that the band was starting to miss their more traditional sound , and confirmed that may have been the way fourth album was headed . However , Tong contradicted this , stating : " There 's every chance we might go back to more orthodox arrangements or things that resemble a traditional band but I don 't think we 'll ever write songs like we did on Silent Alarm again . " A 2009 Vice Records mix lists the following songs Bloc Party are influenced by : Eagle Boston 's " Wild Wild Ost " , Pylon 's " Working Is No Problem " , Delta 5 's " Mind Your Own Business " , John Foxx 's " Underpass " , Prince 's " I Would Die 4 U " ( also covered live ) , Sonic Youth 's " Youth Against Fascism " , Dinosaur Jr . ' s " Freak Scene " , La Roux 's " Quicksand ( Nightrunners Edit ) " , and Bruce Springsteen 's " 57 Channels ( And Nothin ' On ) " .
= = Awards and nominations = =
Bloc Party have had several nominations from a number of different awarding bodies during their recording career . The band themselves were nominated for ' Best New Artist ' at the 2005 NME Awards , and were also up for the ' Best Alternative Act ' category at the 2005 MTV Europe Music Awards . In 2006 , Bloc Party were nominated for another NME Award , this time in the ' Best British Band ' category . They were also shortlisted for three PLUG Awards : ' New Artist of the Year ' in 2005 , and ' Artist of the Year ' and ' Live Act of the Year ' in 2006 . At the 19th GLAAD Media Awards in 2008 , they were nominated in the ' Music Artist ' category for their work on second album A Weekend in the City .
Their debut album Silent Alarm was nominated for the 2005 Mercury Music Prize and won the NME award for ' Best Album ' . It was also nominated as ' Album of the Year ' at three different ceremonies : the New Pantheon Music Award ( Shortlist Music Prize ) , the 2006 NME Awards , and the 2006 PLUG Awards , where " Helicopter " was also up for ' Best Music Video ' . The record won the award for ' Best Indie Rock Album ' at the 2006 PLUG Awards . At the 2008 NME Awards , " Flux " was nominated in three different categories : ' Best Track ' , ' Best Video ' and ' Best Dancefloor Filler ' .
= = Personnel = =
Current
Kele Okereke – lead vocals , rhythm guitar , sampler , electric piano ( 1999 – present )
Russell Lissack – lead guitar , sampler , synthesiser , programming ( 1999 – present )
Justin Harris – bass guitar , backing vocals , glockenspiel , saxophone ( 2015 – present )
Louise Bartle – drums , percussion , backing vocals ( 2015 – present )
Former
Gordon Moakes – bass guitar , backing vocals , occasional lead vocals , keyboards , synthesiser , drums , glockenspiel ( 2001 – 2015 )
Matt Tong – drums , percussion , backing vocals ( 2001 – 2013 )
Timeline
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= Emilia Baeyertz =
Emilia Louise Baeyertz ( née Aronson ; 29 March 1842 – 26 April 1926 ) was a Welsh Christian evangelist , born to a strict Jewish family in Wales , who described herself as " the Christian Jewess " . She was home schooled due to her poor health and suffered a breakdown when her fiancé was diagnosed with tuberculosis . Her family sent her to Australia to live with her sister to help her recovery , where she fell in love with and secretly married an Anglican Christian man .
Baeyertz did not intend to convert to Christianity when she married him , but she subsequently did for the sake of her children . Her husband died as a result of a shooting accident in 1871 , whereupon she experienced a full conversion to Christianity . She spent the following few years giving sermons and , by 1879 , she was featured speaker for a YWCA campaign of sermons , before spending a decade conducting Christian missions around Victoria .
Between 1890 and 1904 , Baeyertz conducted missions around the world , starting in New Zealand , then spending a few years in the US and Canada , before returning to the United Kingdom and Ireland .
= = Biography = =
Baeyertz was born as Emilia Louise Aronson on 29 March 1842 in Bangor , North Wales . Her family were wealthy orthodox Jews , and she was brought up to strict Jewish ideals . She attended school for a while but , by the time that she reached thirteen , her family removed her from formal education and she remained at home due to her ill health . Instead , she spent her time with her mother , who used to read Shakespeare to her , and would spend time in her family 's library practising reading aloud .
When she was old enough , she attended social events and soon met a young Jewish man . He asked her father for her hand in marriage , and the father agreed on the condition that the man take out life insurance . While Emilia was planning the wedding , her fiancé attended doctor 's appointments as part of the insurance underwriting process . There he was diagnosed with tuberculosis and told that he did not have long to live . The wedding was cancelled , and Baeyertz suffered a breakdown and ill health as a result .
In February 1864 , her family sent her and her brother to Melbourne to live with her sister , with the intention of helping to improve Baeyertz 's health . By the time that the siblings arrived by ship in Melbourne , Baeyertz had already recovered and she quickly integrated herself into the Australian social life . She soon met Charles Baeyertz , a bank manager at the Richmond branch of National Bank of Australasia and a practising Anglican . The couple started a relationship , keeping it secret from both their families .
Baeyertz agreed to marry Charles on the condition that he would never attempt to convert her to Christianity — indeed , that he would never mention his religion to her at all . The couple married in secret at Christ Church in Hawthorn , Victoria on 16 October 1865 . Soon after , the Baeyertz 's family discovered the marriage and disowned her for marrying a non @-@ Jewish man . They moved to Colac , Victoria where Charles found a new role as bank manager for the National Bank of Australasia , and they had two children , son Nalder who went on to be a journalist and establish a New Zealand magazine , and daughter Marion . Baeyertz started attending church with her husband , and she decided to convert to Christianity for her children 's sake towards the end of the 1860s , when Marion was baptised . She didn 't believe in the Christian tenets , so she had a friend fill in her baptism application to ensure that the answers were correct .
= = Evangelical work = =
Baeyertz 's husband died on 6 March 1871 at the age of 28 , two days after a shooting accident . She turned to the Anglican church to help her and she experienced a full conversion to the religion . She put her children into boarding school and became an evangelist , visiting jails and hospitals to spread the religion , as well as door @-@ to @-@ door preaching to the Jewish areas of Melbourne . She did not manage to convert anyone , and ended up with her life threatened .
Baeyertz joined the YWCA and was soon preaching to large crowds . By 1879 , she was the featured speaker for a campaign of sermons in Sandhurst , eventually converting 200 individuals . She then conducted a Christian mission to Ballarat , with crowds of 2 @,@ 300 assembling to hear her talk . Emilia conducted a number of further missions around Victoria between 1880 and 1890 . In 1890 , she went to New Zealand to preach , before moving on to North America . She arrived in San Francisco in October 1890 , and spent two years giving sermons in conjunction with the YMCA in Los Angeles , San Francisco , and Boston in USA as well as Toronto and Ottawa in Canada .
In 1892 , Baeyertz returned to the United Kingdom , preaching and conducting missions in Ireland , Scotland , and England . There she would preach to packed halls , sometimes to just women , earning £ 43 in a fortnight ( worth about £ 17 @,@ 000 in 2014 ) . She remained in her London base until 1904 , when she returned to Australia . Emilia arrived in Perth in May 1904 , remaining there for a year before returning to Victoria . Towards the end of her life , she returned to England . She conducted a few missions before her death on 26 April 1926 in Surrey .
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= Ragnar Nurkse 's balanced growth theory =
The balanced growth theory is an economic theory pioneered by the economist Ragnar Nurkse ( 1907 – 1959 ) . The theory hypothesises that the government of any underdeveloped country needs to make large investments in a number of industries simultaneously . This will enlarge the market size , increase productivity , and provide an incentive for the private sector to invest .
Nurkse was in favour of attaining balanced growth in both the industrial and agricultural sectors of the economy . He recognised that the expansion and inter @-@ sectoral balance between agriculture and manufacturing is necessary so that each of these sectors provides a market for the products of the other and in turn , supplies the necessary raw materials for the development and growth of the other .
Nurkse and Paul Rosenstein @-@ Rodan were the pioneers of balanced growth theory and much of how it is understood today dates back to their work .
Nurkse 's theory discusses how the poor size of the market in underdeveloped countries perpetuates its underdeveloped state . Nurkse has also clarified the various determinants of the market size and puts primary focus on productivity . According to him , if the productivity levels rise in a less developed country , its market size will expand and thus it can eventually become a developed economy . Apart from this , Nurkse has been nicknamed an export pessimist , as he feels that the finances to make investments in underdeveloped countries must arise from their own domestic territory . No importance should be given to promoting exports .
= = Size of market and inducement to invest = =
The size of a market assumes primary importance in the study of what induces investment in a country . Ragnar Nurkse referenced the work of Allyn A. Young to assert that inducement to invest is limited by the size of the market . The original idea behind this was put forward by Adam Smith , who stated that division of labour ( as against inducement to invest ) is limited by the extent of the market .
According to Nurkse , underdeveloped countries lack adequate purchasing power . Low purchasing power means that the real income of the people is low , although in monetary terms it may be high . If the money income were low , the problem could easily be overcome by expanding the money supply ; however , since the meaning in this context is real income , expanding the supply of money will only generate inflationary pressure . Neither real output nor real investment will rise . It is to be noted that a low purchasing power means that domestic demand for commodities is low . Apart from encompassing consumer goods and services , this includes the demand for capital as well .
The size of the market determines the incentive to invest irrespective of the nature of the economy . This is because entrepreneurs invariably take their production decisions by taking into consideration the demand for the concerned product . For example , if an automobile manufacturer is trying to decide which countries to set up plants in , he will naturally only invest in those countries where the demand is high . He would prefer to invest in a developed country , where though the population is lesser than in underdeveloped countries , the people are prosperous and there is a definite demand .
Private entrepreneurs sometimes resort to heavy advertising as a means of attracting buyers for their products . Although this may lead to a rise in demand for that entrepreneur 's good or service , it does not actually raise the aggregate demand in the economy . The demand merely shifts from one provider to another . Clearly , this is not a long @-@ term solution .
Ragnar Nurkse concluded ,
" The limited size of the domestic market in a low income country can thus constitute an obstacle to the application of capital by any individual firm or industry working for the market . In this sense the small domestic market is an obstacle to development generally . "
= = Determinants of size of market = =
According to Nurkse , expanding the size of the market is crucial to increasing the inducement to invest . Only then can the vicious circle of poverty be broken . He mentioned the following pertinent points about how the size of the market is determined :
= = = Money supply = = =
Nurkse emphasised that Keynesian theory shouldn 't be applied to underdeveloped countries because they don 't face a lack of effective demand in the way that developed countries do . Their problem is to do with a lack of real purchasing power due to low productivity levels . Thus , merely increasing the supply of money will not expand the market but will in fact cause inflationary pressure .
= = = Population = = =
Nurkse argued against the notion that a large population implies a large market . Though underdeveloped countries have a large population , their levels of productivity are low . This results in low levels of per capita real income . Thus , consumption expenditure is low , and savings are either very low or completely absent . On the other hand , developed countries have smaller populations than underdeveloped countries but by virtue of high levels of productivity , their per capita real incomes are higher and thus they create a large market for goods and services .
= = = Geographical area = = =
Nurkse also refuted the claim that if a country 's geographical area is large , the size of its market also ought to be large . A country may be extremely small in area but still have a large effective demand . For example , Japan . In contrast , a country may cover a huge geographical area but its market may still be small . This may occur if a large part of the country is uninhabitable , or if the country suffers from low productivity levels and thus has a low National Income .
= = = Transport cost and trade barriers = = =
The notion that transport costs and trade barriers hinder the expansion of the market is age @-@ old . Nurkse emphasised that tariff duties , exchange controls , import quotas and other non @-@ tariff barriers to trade are major obstacles to promoting international cooperation in exporting and importing . More specifically , due to high transport costs between nations , producers do not have an incentive to export their commodities . As a result , the amount of capital accumulation remains small . To address this problem , the United Nations produced a report in 1951 with solutions for underdeveloped countries . They suggested that they can expand their markets by forming customs unions with neighbouring countries . Also , they can adopt the system of preferential taxation or even abolish customs duties altogether . The logic was that once customs duties are removed , transport costs will fall . Consequently , prices will fall and thus the demand will rise . However , Nurkse , as an export pessimist , did not agree with this view . Export pessimism is a trade theory which is governed by the idea of " inward looking growth " as opposed to " outward looking growth " . ( See Import substitution industrialization )
= = = Sales promotion = = =
Often , it is true that a company 's private endeavour to increase the demand for its products succeeds due to the extensive use of advertisement and other sales promotion technique . However , Nurkse argues that such activities cannot succeed at the macro level to increase a country 's aggregate demand level . He calls this the " macroeconomic paradox " .
= = = Productivity = = =
Nurkse stressed productivity as the primary determinant of the size of the market . An increase in productivity ( defined as the output per unit input ) increases the flow of goods and services in the economy . As a response , consumption also rises . Hence , underdeveloped economies should aim to raise their productivity levels in all sectors of the economy , in particular agriculture and industry .
For example , in most underdeveloped economies , the technology used to carry out agricultural activities is backward . There is a low degree of mechanisation coupled with rain dependence . So while a large proportion of the population ( 70 @-@ 80 % ) may be actively employed in the agriculture sector , the contribution to the Gross Domestic Product may be as low as 40 % . This points to the need to increase output per unit input and output per head . This can be done if the government provides irrigation facilities , high @-@ yielding variety seeds , pesticides , fertilisers , tractors etc . The positive outcome of this is that farmers earn more income and have a higher purchasing power ( real income ) . Their demand for other products in the economy will rise and this will provide industrialists an incentive to invest in that country . Thus , the size of the market expands and improves the condition of the underdeveloped country .
Nurkse is of the opinion that Say 's Law of markets operates in underdeveloped countries . Thus , if the money incomes of the people rise while the price level in the economy stays the same , the size of the market will still not expand till the real income and productivity levels rise . To quote Nurkse ,
" In underdeveloped areas there is generally no ' deflationary gap ' through excessive savings . Production creates its own demand , and the size of the market depends on the volume of production . In the last analysis , the market can be enlarged only through all @-@ round increase in productivity . Capacity to buy means capacity to produce . "
= = Export pessimism = =
Citing the limited size of the market as the main impediment in economic growth , Nurkse reasons that an increase in productivity can create a virtuous circle of growth . Thus , a large scale investment programme in a wide array of industries simultaneously is the answer . The increase in demand for one industry will lead to an increase in demand for another industry due to complementarity of demands . As Say 's Law states , supply creates its own demand .
However , Nurkse clarified that the finance for this development must arise to as large an extent as possible from the underdeveloped country itself i.e. domestically . He stated that financing through increased trade or foreign investments was a strategy used in the past - the 19th century - and its success was limited to the case of the United States of America . In reality , the so @-@ called " new countries " of the United States of America ( which separated from the British empire ) were high income countries to begin with . They were already endowed with efficient producers , effective markets and a high purchasing power . The point Nurkse was trying to make was that USA was rich in resource endowment as well as labour force . The labour force had merely migrated from Britain to USA , and thus their level of skills were advanced to begin with . This situation of outward led growth was therefore unique and not replicable by underdeveloped countries .
In fact , if such a strategy of financing development from outside the home country is undertaken , it creates a number of problems . For example , the foreign investors may carelessly misuse the resources of the underdeveloped country . This would in turn limit that economy 's ability to diversify , especially if natural resources were plundered . This may also create a distorted social structure . Apart from this , there is also a risk that the foreign investments may be used to finance private luxury consumption . People would try to imitate Western consumption habits and thus a balance of payments crisis may develop , along with economic inequality within the population .
Another reason exports cannot be promoted is because in all likelihood , an underdeveloped country may only be skilled enough to promote the export of primary goods , say agricultural goods . However , since such commodities face inelastic demand , the extent to which they will sell in the market is limited . Although when population is at a rise , additional demand for exports may be created , Nurkse implicitly assumed that developed countries are operating at the replacement rate of population growth . For Nurkse , then , exports as a means of economic development are completely ruled out .
Thus , for a large @-@ scale development to be feasible , the requisite capital must be generated from within the country itself , and not through export surplus or foreign investment . Only then can productivity increase and lead to increasing returns to scale and eventually create virtuous circles of growth .
= = Role of state = =
After World War II , a debate about whether a country should introduce financial planning to develop itself or rely on private entrepreneurs emerged . Nurkse believed that the subject of who should promote development does not concern economists . It is an administrative problem . The crucial idea was that a large amount of well dispersed investment should be made in the economy , so that the market size expands and leads to higher productivity levels , increasing returns to scale and eventually the development of the country in question . However , it should be noted that most economists who favoured the balanced growth hypothesis believed that only the state has the capacity to take on the kind of heavy investments the theory propagates . Further , the gestation period of such lumpy investments is usually long and private sector entrepreneurs do not normally undertake such high risks .
= = Reactions = =
Ragnar Nurkse 's balanced growth theory too has been criticised on a number of grounds . His main critic was Albert O. Hirschman , the pioneer of the strategy of unbalanced growth . Hans W. Singer also criticised certain aspects of the theory .
Hirschman stressed the fact that underdeveloped economies are called underdeveloped because they face a lack of resources , maybe not natural resources , but resources such as skilled labour and technology . Thus , to hypothesise that an underdeveloped nation can undertake large scale investment in many industries of its economy simultaneously is unrealistic due to the paucity of resources . To quote Hirschman ,
" If a country were ready to apply the doctrine of balanced growth , then it would not be underdeveloped in the first place . "
Hans Singer asserted that the balanced growth theory is more applicable to cure an economy facing a cyclical downswing . Cyclical downswing is a feature of an advanced stage of sustained growth rather than of the vicious cycle of poverty . Hirschman also stated that during conditions of slack activity in developed countries , the stock of resources , machines and entrepreneurs are merely unemployed , and are present as idle capacity . So in this situation , simultaneous investment in a large number of sectors is a well @-@ suited policy . The various economic agents are temporarily unemployed and once the inducement to invest starts operating , the slump will be overcome . However , for an underdeveloped economy , where such resources are absent , this principle doesn 't fit .
Another contention was Nurkse 's approval of Say 's Law , which theorises that there is no overproduction or glut in the economy . Supply ( production of goods and services ) creates a matching demand for the output and this results in the entire output being sold and consumed . However , Keynes stated that Say 's Law is not operational in any country because people do not spend their entire income - a fraction of it is saved for future consumption . Thus , according to Nurkse 's critics , his assumption of Say 's Law being operational in underdeveloped countries needs greater justification . Even if the section of savers is few , the tenet of putting emphasis on supply rather than demand has been widely discredited .
Nurkse states that if demand for the output of one sector rises , due to the complementary nature of demand , the demand for the output of other industries will also experience a rise . Paul Rosenstein @-@ Rodan spoke of a similar concept called " indivisibility of demand " which hypothesises that if large investments are made in a large number of industries simultaneously , an underdeveloped economy can become developed due to the phenomenon of complementary demand . However , both Nurkse and Rosenstein @-@ Rodan only took into consideration the situation of industries that produce complementary goods . There are substitute goods too , which are in competition with each other . Thus if the state pumps in large investments into the car industry , for example , it will naturally lead to a rise in the demand for petrol . But if the state makes large scale investments in the coffee sector of a country , the tea sector will suffer .
Hans Singer suggested that Nurkse 's theory makes dubious assumptions about the underdeveloped economy . For example , Nurkse assumes that the economy starts with nothing at hand . However , an economy usually starts at a position which reflects the previous investment decisions undertaken in the country , and at any given moment , an imbalance already exists . So the logical step would be to take on those investment programmes which compliment the existing imbalance in the economy . Clearly , such an investment cannot be a balanced one . If an economy makes the mistake of setting out to make a balanced investment , a new imbalance is likely to appear which will require still another " balancing investment " to bring equilibrium , and so on and so forth .
Hirschman believed that Nurkse 's balanced growth theory wasn 't in fact a theory of growth . Growth implies the gradual transformation of an economy from one stage to the chronologically next stage . It entails the series of actions which leads the economy from a stage of infancy to that of maturity . However , the balanced growth theory involves the creation of a brand new , self @-@ sufficient modern industrial economy being laid over a stagnant , self @-@ sufficient traditional economy . Thus , there is no transformation . In reality , a dual economy will come into existence , where two separate economic sectors will begin to coexist in one country . They will differ on levels of development , technology and demand patterns . This may create inequality in the country .
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= 7th Army ( Kingdom of Yugoslavia ) =
The 7th Army was a Royal Yugoslav Army formation raised prior to the German @-@ led Axis invasion of the Yugoslavia in April 1941 , during World War II . It consisted of two divisions , two brigade @-@ strength mountain detachments , and a brigade @-@ strength infantry detachment . It formed part of the 1st Army Group , and was responsible for the defence of Yugoslavia 's north @-@ western frontier with Italy and the Third Reich .
Despite concerns over a possible Axis invasion , orders for the general mobilisation of the Royal Yugoslav Army were not issued by the government until 3 April 1941 , out of fear this would offend Adolf Hitler and precipitate war . When the invasion commenced on 6 April , the 7th Army was only partially mobilised , and on the first day the Germans seized several mountain passes and bridges over the Drava river . Slovene politicians formed a National Council of Slovenia with the intent of separating from Yugoslavia , and on the right flank of the 7th Army , the 4th Army was seriously weakened by Croat fifth column activities within its major units and higher headquarters from the outset . This alarmed the 7th Army commander , Divizijski đeneral Dušan Trifunović , but he was not permitted to withdraw from the border areas until the night of 7 / 8 April , and this was followed by the German capture of Maribor on 8 April as they continued to expand their bridgeheads , supported by the Luftwaffe .
On 10 April , the German 14th Panzer Division captured Zagreb . Italian offensive operations began the following day , with thrusts towards Ljubljana and down the Adriatic coast , and resulted in the capture of more than 30 @,@ 000 Yugoslav troops near Delnice . When fifth column supporters of the Croatian nationalist Ustaše movement arrested the headquarters staff of the 7th Army later that day , the formation effectively ceased to exist . On 12 April , the 14th Panzer Division linked up with the Italians near the Adriatic coast , encircling the remnants of the 7th Army , which offered no further resistance . Ceasefires were implemented from 15 April , and the Yugoslav Supreme Command surrendered unconditionally effective on 18 April .
= = Background = =
The Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( Kingdom of SCS ) was created with the merger of Serbia , Montenegro and the South Slav @-@ inhabited areas of Austria @-@ Hungary on 1 December 1918 , in the immediate aftermath of World War I. The Army of the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes was established at war 's end to defend the new state . It was formed around the nucleus of the victorious Royal Serbian Army , as well as armed formations raised in regions formerly controlled by Austria @-@ Hungary . Many former Austro @-@ Hungarian officers and soldiers became members of the new army . From the beginning , much like other aspects of public life in the new kingdom , the army was dominated by ethnic Serbs , who saw it as a means by which to secure Serb political hegemony .
The army 's development was hampered by the kingdom 's poor economy , and this continued through the 1920s . In 1929 , King Alexander changed the name of the country to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia , at which time the army was renamed the Royal Yugoslav Army ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Vojska Kraljevine Jugoslavije , VKJ ) . The army budget remained tight , and as tensions rose across Europe during the 1930s , it became difficult to secure weapons and munitions from other countries . Consequently , at the time World War II broke out in September 1939 , the VKJ had several serious weaknesses , which included reliance on draught animals for transport , and the large size of its formations . For example , infantry divisions had a wartime strength of 26 @,@ 000 – 27 @,@ 000 men , as compared to contemporary British infantry divisions of half that strength . These characteristics resulted in slow , unwieldy formations , and the inadequate supply of arms and munitions meant that even the very large Yugoslav formations had low firepower . Older generals better suited to the trench warfare of World War I were combined with an army that was not equipped or trained to resist the fast @-@ moving combined arms approach used by the Germans in their invasions of Poland and France .
The weaknesses of the VKJ in strategy , structure , equipment , mobility and supply were exacerbated to a significant degree by serious ethnic disunity within Yugoslavia that had resulted from two decades of Serb hegemony and the attendant lack of political legitimacy achieved by the central government . Attempts to address such disunity came too late to ensure that the VKJ was a cohesive force . Fifth column activity was also a serious concern , not only from the Croatian nationalist Ustaše but also from the country 's Slovene and ethnic German minorities .
= = Formation = =
Yugoslav war plans foresaw the headquarters of the 7th Army and its army @-@ level supporting units being created at the time of mobilisation . Unlike the other six Yugoslav armies , the 7th Army did not have a corresponding army district during peacetime , and would be allocated divisions when it was formed . Zagreb , Karlovac , Trebnje and Velike Lašče were key centres for the mobilisation and concentration of the 7th Army due to their good rail infrastructure .
Prior to the invasion , significant fortifications known as the Rupnik Line were constructed along the Italian and Reich borders , within what became the 7th Army 's area of operations . Along the frontier with Italy , mutually supporting bunkers were established on forward slopes of the mountain ranges behind a belt of obstacles . The main positions followed a line from Mount Blegoš south @-@ south @-@ east through Hlavče Njive , Žirovski Vrh , Vrh Svetih Treh Kraljev , Zaplana , Mount Slivnica , Grahovo , and Lož to Petičak . To the north of Mount Blegoš , positions ran behind the lines of the Selška Sora and Sava Bohinjka rivers . Fortifications were also established in the mountainous Gorski kotar region between Karlovac and Fiume on the upper Adriatic coast . Along the Reich border , the Yugoslavs concentrated on preparing to block the passes through the Karawank and Kamnik Alps , and built bunkers behind obstacles along the routes leading south from the border towards Dravograd , Maribor and Ptuj . Preparations were also made to block routes north of the Drava and along the southern banks of the Mura and Drava . These fortifications were to be manned by border guard units , and were not the responsibility of the 7th Army .
= = Composition = =
The 7th Army was commanded by Divizijski đeneral Dušan Trifunović , and his chief of staff was Pukovnik Vladimir Petrović . The 7th Army consisted of :
32nd Infantry Division Triglavski
38th Infantry Division Dravska
Mountain Detachment Triglavski ( brigade @-@ strength )
Mountain Detachment Rišnajaski ( brigade @-@ strength )
Detachment Lika ( infantry , brigade @-@ strength )
Army @-@ level support was provided by the 71st Army Artillery Regiment , the 7th Anti @-@ Aircraft Battalion , and the motorised 7th Army Anti @-@ Aircraft Company . The 6th Air Reconnaissance Group comprising sixteen Breguet 19s was attached from the Royal Yugoslav Air Force ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Vazduhoplovstvo vojske Kraljevine Jugoslavije , VVKJ ) and was based at Cerklje and Brege near Brežice .
= = Deployment plan = =
The 7th Army was part of the 1st Army Group , which was responsible for the defence of north @-@ western Yugoslavia , with the 7th Army along the Italian and Reich borders , and the 4th Army defending the eastern sector along the Hungarian border . The 1st Cavalry Division was to be held as the 1st Army Group reserve around Zagreb . On the left of the 7th Army was the Adriatic coast at Karlobag , and the boundary with the 4th Army on the right flank ran from Radgon on the Mura through Krapina and Karlovac to Otočac . The Yugoslav defence plan saw the 7th Army deployed in a cordon along the border region from the Adriatic in the west to Radgon in the east . Of the formations of the 7th Army , the mobilisation of the three detachments was largely complete , but the two divisions had only commenced mobilisation . All 7th Army formations were to be deployed in a cordon , although each formation was to create a second line of defence from its own troops . The headquarters of the 7th Army was to initially be located in Brežice . The planned deployment of the 7th Army from west to east was :
Detachment Lika on the upper Adriatic coast from Karlobag through Otočac to Ogulin
Mountain Detachment Rišnajaski around Delnice in the mountainous Gorski kotar region , with responsibility for the defence of the Italian border from Sušak on the upper Adriatic coast to Bičke
32nd Infantry Division Triglavski southwest of Ljubljana in the Julian Alps , allocated the western border with Italy from Bičke north to Mount Blegoš
Mountain Detachment Triglavski north @-@ west of Ljubljana around Kranj , tasked to defend the Italian border from Mount Blegoš to the triple border , then the Reich border east into the Savinja Alps
38th Infantry Division Dravska in the Pohorje mountains around Maribor , responsible for the frontier from the Savinja Alps in the west to Radgon in the east , including the roads running south through Ptuj , Maribor and Dravograd , with its main positions on the southern bank of the Dravinja
Army @-@ level and rear area troops were to be deployed in the area of Brežice , Zidani Most and Novo Mesto . Border guard units were to man fortifications along the Italian and Reich frontiers in the 7th Army area of responsibility , and consisted of :
the 554th and 555th Independent Battalions , in the sector of Detachment Lika
the 1st Border Regiment and an independent border battalion , supported by one border artillery battalion fielding three batteries , in the sector of Mountain Detachment Rišnajaski
the 2nd and 3rd Border Regiments supported by two border artillery battalions fielding eight batteries , in the sector of the 32nd Infantry Division Triglavski
the 4th and 5th Border Regiments supported by one border artillery battalion fielding three batteries , in the sector of Mountain Detachment Triglavski
the 6th , 7th and 8th Border Regiments supported by three border artillery battalions fielding a total of eight batteries , in the sector of the 38th Infantry Division Dravska
= = Mobilisation = =
After unrelenting pressure from Adolf Hitler , Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact on 25 March 1941 . On 27 March , a military coup d 'état overthrew the government that had signed the pact , and a new government was formed under the VVKJ commander , Armijski đeneral Dušan Simović . A general mobilisation was not called by the new government until 3 April 1941 , out of fear of offending Hitler and thus precipitating war . According to a post @-@ war U.S. Army study , by the time the invasion commenced , the three brigade @-@ sized detachments had mobilised , but the 32nd Infantry Division Triglavski and 38th Infantry Division Dravska had only commenced mobilisation . The Yugoslav historian Velimir Terzić describes the mobilisation of the 7th Army as a whole on 6 April as " only partial " , and states the headquarters of the 7th Army was mobilising in the Zagreb region .
= = = Detachment Lika = = =
Detachment Lika was an ad hoc formation consisting of the 44th Infantry Regiment and one battery of the 17th Artillery Regiment . On 6 April , it was concentrating in the Otočac region , but the poor response of personnel of the 44th Infantry Regiment to the mobilisation orders meant that it was only at 35 – 40 percent of its strength .
= = = Mountain Detachment Rišnajaski = = =
Mountain Detachment Rišnajaski was commanded by Pukovnik Stojadin Milenković . On 6 April , the detachment , consisting of a headquarters , the 2nd Mountain Regiment of three battalions , the 5th Mountain Artillery Battery and supporting units , was deployed between various towns and villages in the areas of Čabar , Delnice , Gornje Jelenje , Kamenjak and Lokve , as follows :
the 11th Mountain Battalion , with about 90 percent of its troops , in forward positions near the village of Klana
the 13th Mountain Battalion , with about 90 percent of its strength , in depth , between the villages of Kamenjak and Gornje Jelenje
the 12th Mountain Battalion , with about 96 percent of its planned strength , in reserve in Delnice
the 5th Mountain Artillery Battery , deployed in the villages of Gerovo , Mrzle Vodica and Lokve
an engineer company near Lokve
= = = 32nd Infantry Division Triglavski = = =
A significant part of the 32nd Infantry Division Triglavski was moving from its mobilisation areas to its concentration areas , while some elements were still mobilising . On 6 April , the division was located as follows :
the divisional commander Divizijski đeneral Dragiša Pandurović and his staff were mobilising in Ljubljana , and arrived in their concentration area at Grosuplje , just south of Ljubljana around noon on 6 April
the 32nd Infantry Regiment was moving from Celje to Ljubljana
the 39th Infantry Regiment was marching from Celje to Lepoglava to join Detachment Ormozki of the 4th Army
the 40th Infantry Regiment , with about 80 percent of its troops and 50 percent of its vehicles and animals , was located at its mobilisation centre in Ljubljana
the 110th Infantry Regiment , with about 60 percent of its troops and 50 percent of its animals , was on the move from Celje to Zagreb , where it was to join the 1st Army Group reserve , and had reached Zidani Most
the 32nd Artillery Regiment was marching from Ljubljana to Grosuplje
the 37th Infantry Regiment was moving from its mobilisation centres to divisional reserve positions around Ribnica , Sodražica , Bloke , Lašče and Novo Mesto
other divisional units were mobilising in Ribnica , Ljubljana and Celje
= = = Mountain Detachment Triglavski = = =
Mountain Detachment Triglavski was commanded by Brigadni đeneral Mihailo Lukić . It consisted of the 1st Mountain Infantry Regiment of three battalions , supported by one battery of mountain artillery and other units . About 80 percent of the formation had answered the mobilisation order , and it was deployed in the vicinity of the towns of Jezersko , Tržič , Radovljica , Škofja Loka and Kranj .
= = = 38th Infantry Division Dravska = = =
The 38th Infantry Division Dravska had only commenced mobilisation , and was largely in its mobilisation centres or moving to concentration areas . On 6 April , the elements of the division were located as follows :
the divisional commander Divizijski đeneral Čedomir Stanojlović and his headquarters staff were mobilising in Slovenska Bistrica
the 38th and 45th Infantry Regiments were mobilising around Maribor
the 112th Infantry Regiment ( less its 1st Battalion ) was marching north towards Slovenj Gradec from Slovenska Bistrica . The 1st Battalion of the 112th Infantry Regiment had already deployed near Dravograd , supporting the 6th Border Regiment
the 128th Infantry Regiment was concentrating near Ptuj
the 38th Artillery Regiment ( less one battery ) was near Ptuj , while one battery was marching from Maribor to its planned position at Slovenj Gradec
the divisional machine @-@ gun battalion , which had only 50 percent of its establishment of men and animals , was marching from Maribor to Ptuj
the remainder of the divisional units were mobilising in Slovenska Bistrica , Maribor , Ptuj and Ljubljana
= = = Overall condition of the 7th Army = = =
At the time of the invasion , both mountain detachments had completed mobilisation and concentration , and were in position . Detachment Lika was at its mobilisation centre , but the turn @-@ out of men for its infantry component was low . The 38th Infantry Division Dravska was completing its concentration . A large proportion of the 32nd Infantry Division Triglavski was moving from its mobilisation centres to its concentration areas . Across the 7th Army , around 80 percent of troops had answered the mobilisation order , but only 45 to 50 percent of vehicles and animals were available .
= = Operations = =
= = = 5 – 6 April = = =
The border between the Reich and Yugoslavia was unsuitable for motorised operations . Due to the short notice of the invasion , the elements of the invading German 2nd Army that would make up LI Infantry Corps and XLIX Mountain Corps had to be transported from Germany , German @-@ occupied France and the Nazi puppet Slovak Republic , and nearly all encountered difficulties in reaching their assembly areas . In the interim , the Germans formed a special force under the code name Feuerzauber ( Magic Fire ) . This force was initially intended to merely reinforce the 538th Frontier Guard Division , who were manning the border . On the evening of 5 April , one of the aggressive Feuerzauber detachment commanders , Hauptmann Palten , led his Kampfgruppe Palten across the Mura from Spielfeld and , having secured the bridge , began attacking bunkers and other Yugoslav positions on the high ground , and sent patrols deep into the Yugoslav border fortification system . Due to a lack of Yugoslav counter @-@ attacks , many of these positions remained in German hands into 6 April .
On the morning of 6 April , German aircraft conducted surprise attacks on Yugoslav airfields in the 7th Army area , including Ljubljana and Cerklje , where the 6th Air Reconnaissance Group was based . At 07 : 00 , Messerschmitt Bf 109E fighters of Jagdgeschwader 27 strafed Ljubljana airfield , attacking hangars and some Potez 25 biplanes .
LI Infantry Corps were tasked with attacking towards Maribor then driving towards Zagreb , while the XLIX Mountain Corps was to capture Dravograd then force a crossing on the Sava . At 05 : 00 on 6 April , LI Infantry Corps captured the Drava bridges at Mureck and Radkersburg ( opposite Gornji Radgona ) undamaged . In the sector of the 38th Infantry Division Dravska , one German column pushed towards Maribor from Mureck , and the other pushed on from Gornja Radgona through Lenart towards Ptuj . Some time later , other elements of LI Infantry Corps attacked the area between Sveti Duh and Dravograd . The 7th and 8th Border Regiments met these attacks with fierce resistance , but were forced to withdraw due to German pressure . The 183rd Infantry Division captured 300 prisoners , and a bicycle @-@ mounted detachment of the division reached Murska Sobota without striking any resistance . The 132nd Infantry Division also pushed south along the Sejanski valley towards Savci . By the end of the first day , LI Infantry Corps had occupied Gornja Radgona , Murska Sobota and Radenci , and had crossed the Drava near Sveti Duh . XLIX Mountain Corps captured border crossings on the approaches to Dravograd , but were held up by the 6th Border Regiment in mountain passes located further west at Ljubelj , Jezerski vrh and Korensko sedlo . Late that day , mountain pioneers destroyed some isolated Yugoslav bunkers in the area penetrated by Kampfgruppe Palten .
Later that day , German Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bombers of Sturzkampfgeschwader 77 , escorted by Messerschmitt Bf 109E fighters , caught the Breguet 19s of the 6th Air Reconnaissance Group on the ground at Cerklje and Brege , destroying most of them . This was followed by attacks by the Italian Air Force on Yugoslav troop concentrations of the 7th Army . The Yugoslav Air Force was unable to interdict the Axis air attacks because the Hawker Hurricanes and Ikarus IK @-@ 2 aircraft of its 4th Fighter Regiment were based 240 kilometres ( 150 mi ) away at Bosanski Aleksandrovac . After having been grounded for most of the day by poor weather , in the afternoon Bristol Blenheim Mk I light bombers of the Yugoslav 68th Bomber Group flew missions against airfields and railway stations across the Reich frontier at Graz , Fürstenfeld , Steyr and Wiener Neustadt .
By the close of the first day , the 7th Army was still largely mobilising and concentrating , and fifth column actions meant that nearly all the fighting was conducted by border troops . The 38th Infantry Division Dravska was deployed along the southern bank of the Drava , with the 128th Infantry Regiment and an artillery battalion around Ptuj , the 45th Infantry Regiment and an artillery battalion around Maribor and the 112th Infantry Regiment and an artillery battalion were at Slovenj Gradec and marching east towards Dravograd . German and Italian air attacks interfered with the deployment of troops and command was hampered by reliance on civilian telegraph and telephone services .
On that day , the governor of the Drava Banovina , Marko Natlačen met with representatives of the major Slovene political parties , and created the National Council of Slovenia ( Slovene : Narodni svet za Slovenijo , NszS ) , whose aim was to establish a Slovenia independent of Yugoslavia . When he heard the news of fifth @-@ column @-@ led revolts within the 4th Army , Trifunović was alarmed , and proposed withdrawal from the border areas , but this was rejected by the commander of the 1st Army Group , Armijski đeneral Milorad Petrović . The front along the border with Italy was relatively quiet , with some patrol clashes occurring , some sporadic artillery bombardments of border fortifications , and an unsuccessful raid by the Italians directed at Mount Blegoš .
= = = 7 April = = =
In the early hours of 7 April , three Blenheims of the Yugoslav 8th Bomber Regiment took off from Rovine to bomb the railway junction at Feldbach , but became disoriented in bad weather . Only one aircraft found a target in Austria , bombing a bridge and road near Steyr before continuing on to Wiener Neustadt where it was hit by anti @-@ aircraft fire and made an emergency landing .
Over the period 7 – 9 April , LI Infantry Corps held the lead elements of its two divisions back to some extent while the rest of each division detrained in Graz and made their way to the border . German forces along the front of the 7th Army continued to push towards Ptuj , Maribor and Dravograd on 7 April , against significant resistance from the 6th , 7th and 8th Border Regiments . The German thrusts towards Ptuj and Maribor broke through the Yugoslav defensive line Pesnica – Lenart – Sveta Trojica v Slovenskih Goricah – Kapelski Vrh , but those advancing towards Dravograd were held up by the 6th Border Regiment and a battalion of the 38th Infantry Division Dravska . Along the Italian border there were only skirmishes caused by Italian reconnaissance @-@ in @-@ force to a depth of 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) .
The Yugoslav Supreme Command ordered Petrović to use Mountain Detachment Rišnajaski to capture Fiume , across the Rječina river from Sušak , but the order was soon rescinded due to the deteriorating situation in the flanking 4th Army . In the afternoon of 7 April , Trifunović again pressed Petrović to order a withdrawal from the border . Petrović accepted that this might become necessary if the situation on the immediate right flank of the 7th Army deteriorated further , but the idea was opposed by the chief of staff of the headquarters of the 1st Army Group , Armijski đeneral Leon Rupnik , who suggested that Trifunović should personally lead night attacks to push the Germans back . At 19 : 30 , the Yugoslav Supreme Command advised Petrović that he had approval to withdraw endangered units on the right wing of the 7th Army . Morale in the 7th Army had started to decline due to fifth column elements encouraging soldiers to stop resisting the enemy .
= = = 8 April = = =
On the night of 7 / 8 April , Petrović ordered Trifunović to begin to withdraw , first to a line through the Dravinja river , Zidani Most bridge and the right bank of the Krka river . Later in the day this was moved back to the line of the Kupa river . This ended the successful defence of the 38th Infantry Division Dravska along the line of the Drava , and meant their withdrawal from Maribor . Disregarding orders from above , Palten exploited their withdrawal by leading his kampfgruppe south towards the town , and crossing the Pesnica river in inflatable boats , leaving his unit vehicles behind . In the evening , Palten and his force entered Maribor unopposed , taking 100 prisoners . For disregarding orders , Palten and his kampfgruppe were ordered to return to Spielfeld , and spent the rest of the invasion guarding the border . In the meantime , the forward elements of the two divisions consolidated their bridgeheads , with the 132nd Infantry Division securing Maribor , and the 183rd Infantry Division pushing past Murska Sobota , reaching Kapelski Vrh .
Some bridges over the Sava were blown before all elements of the 7th and 8th Border Regiments had withdrawn , but some soldiers were able to swim across , the rest being captured by the advancing Germans . German patrols reached the Drava at Ptuj , and further east at Ormož they found the bridge had been blown . Elements of the XLIX Mountain Corps had pushed forward to Poljana and Dravograd . The German troops received close air support from divebombers and fighters during their advance , while medium bombers hit targets throughout the 7th Army area . The 4th Fighter Regiment clashed several times with German aircraft on 8 April without result . Three Blenheims of the Yugoslav 8th Bomber Regiment again flew a mission to attack a target in southern Austria , escorted by 4th Fighter Regiment Hurricanes , but the rest of the 8th Bomber Regiment was awaiting orders to bomb a rebelling Yugoslav regiment of the neighbouring 4th Army in Bjelovar ; the orders were subsequently cancelled . During the day , the Italian 3rd Alpine Group captured Kranjska Gora at the headwaters of the Sava in the sector of Mountain Detachment Triglavski . The German orders for the following day were for LI Infantry Corps to force a crossing of the Drava near Varazdin and advance on Zagreb , while XLIX Mountain Corps were to drive towards Celje .
= = = 9 April = = =
On 9 April , the Germans continued their advance , and all elements of both divisions of LI Infantry Corps had finally unloaded in Graz . In view of German success , the Italian 2nd Army in north @-@ eastern Italy accelerated its preparations and issued orders for its V and XI Corps to conduct preliminary operations aimed at improving their starting positions for the planned attack on Yugoslavia . In the meantime , the 7th Army continued rapidly withdrawing its right wing , while withdrawing its centre and keeping the Mountain Detachment Rišnajaski in place on its left flank . The 38th Infantry Division Dravska continued to withdraw south from Ptuj through Krapina towards Zagreb , while the 32nd Infantry Division Triglavski and Mountain Detachment Triglavski fell back to the southern bank of the Krka river . Units of LI Infantry Corps crossed the Drava along the line Maribor — Ptuj and further east , and continued to expand their bridgehead south of Maribor . Elements of XLIX Mountain Corps secured the southern exit of the Karawanks railway tunnel near Jesenice and expanded their bridgehead at Dravograd . Italian units made several attacks on the weakened sector of the 32nd Infantry Division Triglavski and against Mountain Detachment Rišnajaski , and Detachment Lika took up positions on the coast . On the same day , the 6th Air Reconnaissance Group airfield at Cerklje was again attacked by German aircraft .
As the activities of Natlačen and his NszS were continuing , the Yugoslav Supreme Command ordered their arrest . However , Rupnik and the head of the operations staff of the headquarters of the 1st Army Group , Pukovnik Franjo Nikolić , hid the orders from Petrović and did not carry them out .
= = = 10 April = = =
On the evening of 9 April , the commander of the German 2nd Army , Generaloberst Maximilian von Weichs , ordered the XLVI Motorised Corps to break out of its bridgeheads in the 4th Army 's sector the following day . The thrust from the Gyékényes bridgehead was to drive straight west to Zagreb then continue west to cut off the withdrawing 7th Army . This attack was led by the 14th Panzer Division , supported by dive bombers , and was a resounding success . By 19 : 30 on 10 April , lead elements of the 14th Panzer Division had reached the outskirts of Zagreb , having covered nearly 160 kilometres ( 99 miles ) in a single day . Before it arrived , the Ustaše , supported by German agents , had proclaimed the creation of the Independent State of Croatia ( Croatian : Nezavisna Država Hrvatska , NDH ) . By the time it entered Zagreb , the 14th Panzer Division was met by cheering crowds , and had captured 15 @,@ 000 Yugoslav troops , including 22 generals .
In the 7th Army sector , about 09 : 45 , the LI Infantry Corps began crossing the Drava , but construction of a bridge near Maribor was suspended because the river was in flood . Despite this , the 183rd Infantry Division managed to secure an alternative crossing point , and established a bridgehead . This crossing point was a partially destroyed bridge , guarded by a single platoon of the 1st Bicycle Battalion of Detachment Ormozki , the far left formation of the 4th Army . This crossing , combined with the withdrawal of the 38th Infantry Division Dravska from the line from Slovenska Bistrica to Ptuj exposed the left flank of Detachment Ormozki . The Detachment attempted to withdraw south , but began to disintegrate during the night of 10 / 11 April .
That same night , the 1st Mountain Division , the most capable formation of XLIX Mountain Corps , had de @-@ trained , crossed the border near Bleiburg , and advanced southeast towards Celje , reaching a point about 19 km ( 12 mi ) from the town by evening . The rest of the XLIX Mountain Corps encountered little resistance , and by nightfall had reached the line Šoštanj – Mislinja . Luftwaffe reconnaissance sorties revealed that the main body of the 7th Army was withdrawing towards Zagreb , leaving behind light forces to maintain contact with the German bridgeheads . When it received this information , 2nd Army headquarters ordered LI Infantry Corps to form motorised columns to pursue the 7th Army south , but extreme weather conditions and flooding of the Drava at Maribor on 10 April slowed the German pursuit .
On 10 April , as the situation was becoming increasingly desperate throughout the country , Simović , who was both the Prime Minister and Chief of the General Staff , broadcast the following message :
All troops must engage the enemy wherever encountered and with every means at their disposal . Don 't wait for direct orders from above , but act on your own and be guided by your judgement , initiative , and conscience .
During the night of 10 / 11 April , XLIX Mountain Corps was ordered to bridge the Savinja river at Celje , then advance towards Brežice on the Sava , and LI Infantry Corps was directed to link up with the 14th Panzer Division which would then drive west to Karlovac . The Italians were expected to commence offensive action by attacking southwards to link up with the 14th Panzer Division in the vicinity of Karlovac .
= = = 11 April = = =
On 11 April , Ustaše elements captured the staff of the 7th Army at Topusko and handed them over to the Germans shortly thereafter , and the 7th Army effectively ceased to exist as a formation . Petrović and the staff of 1st Army Group headquarters were also captured by Ustaše at Petrinja . Chaos ensued throughout the 7th Army , whose Croat and Slovene soldiers could hear fifth column radio broadcasts telling them of their pending encirclement by the Germans and encouraging them to return to their homes and not fight against the Germans . This was reinforced by Natlačen and his NszS , who had distributed leaflets on the night of 10 / 11 April urging soldiers not to resist the Italians or Germans . To maintain public order , the NszS also formed a " Slovenian Legion " on 11 April , and encouraged Slovene nationalists among the 7th Army to join it . This force , split into a dozen units and totalling 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 men , then began to assist the Germans in disarming units of the Yugoslav Army on Slovene territory . The NszS authorised Natlačen to negotiate with the Germans for the creation of a Slovene client state along the lines of the NDH and the Slovak Republic , and Natlačen appointed the Ljubljana police chief Lovro Hacin to make contact with the Germans .
Proxies for the NszS approached Generalmajor Hubert Lanz , the commander of the 1st Mountain Division , when his formation approached Celje , but Lanz was not empowered to negotiate with civilians , and sought direction from higher headquarters . All German commanders were authorised to negotiate with the commanders of Yugoslav military formations so long as they agreed to surrender all weapons . Later that day , Lanz was authorised to meet with Natlačen the following day , and XLXI Mountain Corps took Celje . Held up by freezing weather and snow storms , LI Infantry Corps was approaching Zagreb from the north , and broke through a hastily established defensive line between Pregrada and Krapina . Bicycle @-@ mounted troops of the 183rd Infantry Division turned east to secure Ustaše @-@ controlled Varaždin . In the evening , LI Infantry Corps entered Zagreb and relieved the 14th Panzer Division but lead elements of that division had already thrust west from Zagreb into the rear of the withdrawing 7th Army and captured Karlovac .
Around 12 : 00 , the Italians went over to the offensive , with the 3rd Alpine Group tasked to advance to the line Selca – Radovljica , XI Corps to push via Logatec to Ljubljana , VI Corps to drive on Prezid , and V Corps to advance from Fiume towards Kraljevica and towards Lokve . While one Italian attack south of the Snežnik plateau was stopped by elements of the Mountain Detachment Rišnajaski and the Italian advance was held up by border troops in some areas , there was little significant resistance , and by the end of the day they had captured Sušak , Bakar , Delnice , Jesenice , Vrhnika , Logatec and Ljubljana . To assist the Italian advance , the Luftwaffe attacked Yugoslav troops in the Ljubljana region , and the 14th Panzer Division , which had captured Zagreb on 10 April , drove west to encircle the withdrawing 7th Army . The Italians faced little resistance , and captured about 30 @,@ 000 troops of the 7th Army waiting to surrender near Delnice . When the Italian 14th Infantry Division Isonzo entered Ljubljana , a delegate of the NszS greeted its commander , Generale di Divisione Federico Romero , and symbolically handed him the keys to the city . An official reception was held for Romero that evening , attended by Natlačen and most of the members of the NszS , but because Natlačen and the council preferred that the Germans occupy Ljubljana , he asked Romero for permission to travel to Celje the following day to meet with Lanz .
= = Fate = =
On 12 April , the 14th Panzer Division linked up with the Italians at Vrbovsko , closing the ring around the remnants of the 7th Army , which promptly surrendered , and the 1st Mountain Division pushed through Novo Mesto and Črnomelj without facing resistance , reaching Vinice by the end of the day . At Celje , Lanz received a delegation led by Natlačen which included Andrej Gosar . The meeting was very formal and cold , as Lanz had already received orders regarding the break @-@ up of Slovenia into Italian and German @-@ controlled territories , and the council and its goal of an independent Slovenia were superfluous from a German perspective .
Remnants of the 4th Army conducted a fighting withdrawal through Bosnia towards Sarajevo over the following days , pursued by the 14th Panzer Division and elements of LI Infantry Corps but a ceasefire was declared at noon on 15 April . After a delay in locating appropriate signatories for the surrender document , the Yugoslav Supreme Command unconditionally surrendered in Belgrade effective at 12 : 00 on 18 April . Yugoslavia was then occupied and dismembered by the Axis powers , with Germany , Italy , Hungary , Bulgaria and Albania all annexing parts of its territory .
= = = Books = = =
= = = Journals and papers = = =
= = = Web = = =
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= Frédéric Henri Walther =
Frédéric @-@ Louis @-@ Henri Walther ( 20 June 1761 – 24 November 1813 ) , was an Alsatian @-@ born general of division and a supporter of Napoleon Bonaparte . He fought for France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars .
He enlisted in 1781 and , in his 30 @-@ year career , he saw action at the major French defeats and victories in Europe . He fought in André Masséna 's Army of Switzerland , where he participated in the Winterthur and First and Second Battles of Zürich , the campaigns of 1806 against Prussia , and Napoleon 's invasion of Russia . After the Russian and Saxon campaign , while suffering from exhaustion , he contracted typhus and died in Kusel , in the Saarland . He was buried at the Panthéon , and his name is listed on the Arc de Triomphe in Paris .
= = Family = =
Walther was the son of Georges Henri Walther , a Lutheran pastor , and Marie Elisabeth Chatel of Montbéliard . He was born in Obenheim , in the Alsace region of the Bas @-@ Rhin . His cousins , Frédéric Cuvier and Georges Cuvier , were naturalists and zoologists . He married 20 @-@ year @-@ old Salome @-@ Louise Coulman on 12 April 1802 . They had two daughters , born 1803 and 1807 ; in 1810 , a third child was still @-@ born .
Initially he enlisted as a simple soldier in the Berchény Hussars . This unit was included in the 1791 reorganization , and became the 1st Regiment of Hussars . On 10 May 1792 , he received a commission as a lieutenant .
= = Military career = =
During the War of the First Coalition , he was active at the battle of Neerwinden and the campaign on the Piave River in northern Italy . During these campaigns , he proved equally adept at leading heavy or light cavalry , although some military analysts consider he was a better heavy cavalry leader . In 1793 , he was promoted to general of brigade .
In the War of the Second Coalition , he participated in the French defeats at Ostrach and Stockach in March 1799 , and served under the newly promoted Michel Ney on the forward line of defense of the Swiss city of Zürich . At the Battle of Winterthur , he directed the rear guard action covering Ney 's retreat through Winterthur , holding a key bridge cross of the Tōss River for 90 minutes against a larger Austrian force under command of Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze .
A few days later , he was present for the defeat at the First Battle of Zürich when André Masséna withdrew the entire French force across the Limmat river . In September 1799 , he was present at the Second Battle of Zürich when Masséna 's Army of Helvetia and Army of the Danube crushed Alexander Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's Russian force ; he actively harried the fleeing Russians . He later fought at the Battle of Messkirch in 1800 .
= = = Napoleonic Wars = = =
During the War of the Third Coalition , he participated in the Ulm Campaign , in which cavalry played an essential part . He participated in French victories at Hohenlinden and later at Austerlitz , where he commanded the 2nd Dragoon Division in Marshal Joachim Murat 's Cavalry Reserve . His division was a key to Soult 's successful attack on the Russian center . He suffered wounds at both these battles and after the latter , he received le Grand Aigle de la Légion d 'honneur ( Grand Eagle of the Legion of Honor ) , and appointed Chamberlain to the Emperor . Subsequently , he was decorated as a Commander of the Order of the Iron Crown , and appointed as Colonel of the Grenadiers à Cheval ( mounted grenadiers ) , of the Imperial Guard , in 1806 , a position he held until his death 1813 .
At the Battle of Eylau in February 1807 , he led his dragoons in Murat 's famous 10 @,@ 000 @-@ man cavalry charge depicted by Jean Antoine Siméon Fort , the 19th century history painter . At the Battle of Wagram ( July 1809 ) Walther commanded four squadrons of Grenadiers à Cheval of Jean @-@ Baptiste Bessières 's Imperial Guard Cavalry . As the battle was turning to the Austrians ' favour , Bessières launched a massive cavalry charge with the combined elements of the Cavalry Reserve Corps and the cavalry of the Imperial Guard . After a first , precipitated charge , Bessières was wounded and incapacitated , and the whole cavalry attack was suspended . Napoleon then launched a major infantry attack with Jacques MacDonald 's infantry and considerable cavalry support , including the Guard cavalry under Walther . After the battle , MacDonald accused Walther of failure to mobilize his cavalrymen quickly enough and not charging when the time was right . Walther accompanied Napoleon to Russia as a commander of the light cavalry of the Imperial Guard , part of which rotated duties as Napoleon 's honor guard .
During the Saxon campaign of 1813 , Walther continued command of the Guard Cavalry , and was present at the Battle of Lützen and Battle of Dresden , as commander of the Guard cavalry . At the Battle of Teplitz ( 17 September 1813 ) , he commanded the Imperial Guard Cavalry including the dragoons , Grenadiers à Cheval , and 1st ( Polish ) and 2nd ( Dutch ) Lancers . At the Battle of Leipzig , he commanded the 3rd Division of the cavalry of the Imperial Guard : The total cavalry of the Guard included 7 @,@ 903 men and 18 guns . After refitting and resupply at Erfurt , where Napoleon had stashed a large depot of arms and ammunition , the French army continued to withdraw through western Germany , toward the Rhine .
The Battle of Hanau , 30 – 31 October 1813 , was Walther 's last major action . He commanded the 3rd Division of the Young Guard , including the four squadrons of mounted grenadiers , the Dragoons , the Chasseurs à Cheval , and the mounted Polish Lancers ; he also had charge of Napoleon 's honor guard of five squadrons , and two field artillery battalions . By this time , Walther was suffering from exhaustion . He collapsed and died in the night of 24 November 1813 , in Kusel . Sources differ on whether he died of exhaustion or typhus , or a combination of both . His body was transported first to the cathedral in Metz and from there to Paris , escorted by a detachment of the Imperial Guard . He was buried in the Pantheon . His name appears on the Arc de Triomphe in Paris .
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= No. 1 Elementary Flying Training School RAAF =
No. 1 Elementary Flying Training School ( No. 1 EFTS ) was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) pilot training unit that operated during World War II . It was one of twelve elementary flying training schools employed by the RAAF to provide introductory flight instruction to new pilots as part of Australia 's contribution to the Empire Air Training Scheme . The unit was established in November 1939 as No. 2 Flying Training School at Melbourne , Victoria . It was relocated to Parafield , South Australia , in December 1939 and renamed No. 1 EFTS the following month . Training activities relocated to Tamworth , New South Wales , in May 1944 ; the school was disbanded in December that year .
= = History = =
Flying instruction in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) underwent major changes following the outbreak of World War II , in response to a vast increase in the number of aircrew volunteers and the commencement of Australia 's participation in the Empire Air Training Scheme ( EATS ) . The Air Force 's pre @-@ war pilot training facility , No. 1 Flying Training School at RAAF Station Point Cook , Victoria , was supplanted in 1940 – 41 by twelve elementary flying training schools ( EFTS ) and eight service flying training schools ( SFTS ) . The EFTS provided a twelve @-@ week introductory flying course to personnel who had graduated from one of the RAAF 's initial training schools . Flying training was undertaken in two stages : the first involved four weeks of instruction ( including ten hours of flying ) to determine trainees ' suitability to become pilots . Those that passed this grading process then received a further eight weeks of training ( including sixty @-@ five hours of flying ) at the EFTS . Pilots who successfully completed this course were posted to an SFTS in either Australia or Canada for the next stage of their instruction as military aviators .
No. 1 Elementary Flying Training School was formed as No. 2 Flying Training School in Melbourne on 6 November 1939 . Its inaugural commanding officer was Squadron Leader F.J.B. Wight . On 13 December , the school moved to Parafield , South Australia , after building work was completed there . Parafield was home to the South Australian Aero Club , and it was the airfield 's position as the hub of civilian flight instruction in the state that led to it becoming the base for the first flying school the RAAF raised during World War II . The same principle was followed in establishing No. 3 Flying Training School ( later renamed No. 2 Elementary Flying Training School ) at Archerfield , Queensland , No. 3 Elementary Flying Training School at Essendon , Victoria , and No. 4 Elementary Flying Training School at Mascot , New South Wales .
No. 2 Flying Training School 's first thirteen de Havilland Gipsy Moth training aircraft were delivered to Parafield on 16 – 17 December 1939 . The unit was renamed No. 1 Elementary Flying Training School ( No. 1 EFTS ) on 2 January 1940 . The first eight @-@ week flying training course began on 8 January with twenty @-@ three students ; another joined a week later . According to the unit operations book , limited flying was possible owing to the number of available parachutes but , on 19 January , " permission was granted to continue training without them until supplies were forthcoming " . The second flying course began on 5 February . An instructor and his cadet were killed in a crash on 19 March . No. 1 EFTS 's complement of aircraft was augmented on 20 April with the arrival of six de Havilland Tiger Moths .
The school 's inaugural EATS course , consisting of twenty @-@ four students , commenced on 29 April 1940 ; all but one of the students graduated . Five more Tiger Moths arrived on 25 June . On 22 July , three aircraft belonging to the South Australian Aero Club were pressed into service , and training by the club ceased . No. 1 EFTS received three CAC Wackett Trainers on 26 June 1941 . On 2 August 1941 , control of the school was transferred from Southern Area Command , which had been formed in March 1940 , to the newly established No. 1 ( Training ) Group . As of December 1942 , No.1 EFTS had 116 students under instruction ; a total of 1 @,@ 184 trainees — 81 air cadets and 1 @,@ 043 EATS students — had passed through the school . A year later No.1 EFTS had eighty @-@ five students under instruction and a total of 1 @,@ 628 had passed through .
No. 1 EFTS relocated to Tamworth , New South Wales , during 17 – 28 May 1944 , reportedly to allow for the expansion of civil aviation at Parafield . Training units in New South Wales came under the control of No. 2 ( Training ) Group . On 10 September , a student was killed when his Tiger Moth crashed south of Tamworth aerodrome . All flying training at No. 1 EFTS came to an end on 15 September , by which time a total of 1 @,@ 991 students had passed through the school . Pilots still undergoing instruction were posted to No. 8 Elementary Flying School at Narrendera , New South Wales , and No. 11 Elementary Flying School at Benalla , Victoria . The RAAF had ordered the school 's closure in August 1944 as part of a general reduction in aircrew training , after being informed by the British Air Ministry that it no longer required EATS graduates for the war in Europe . Significant reserves of trained Commonwealth aircrew had been built up in the UK early in 1944 prior to the invasion of Normandy , but lower @-@ than @-@ anticipated casualties had resulted in an over @-@ supply that by 30 June numbered 3 @,@ 000 Australians . No. 1 EFTS was officially disbanded on 12 December 1944 . Care and Maintenance Unit ( CMU ) Tamworth was formed the same day , utilising some of No. 1 EFTS 's staff . It was one of many CMUs that the RAAF raised for the storage and upkeep of surplus aircraft prior to their disposal after the war . CMU Tamworth was disbanded on 5 July 1947 .
= = Commanding officers = =
No. 1 EFTS was commanded by the following officers :
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= Vivah =
Vivah ( English : Marriage ) is a 2006 Indian romance film , written and directed by Sooraj R. Barjatya . Starring Amrita Rao and Shahid Kapoor , it was produced and distributed by Rajshri Productions . Vivah tells the story of two individuals , and relates their journey from engagement to marriage and aftermath .
Vivah is the fourth film to feature Shahid Kapoor opposite Amrita Rao . The film was released on 10 November 2006 , and became one of the biggest commercial successes of the year , grossing more than ₹ 650 million ( US $ 9 @.@ 7 million ) worldwide . Critical reception was mixed ; some reviewers found it dramatically lacking and bloated , but it also has been credited for triggering changes to the way marriage is depicted on film . It became an unexpected success , as well as Rao and Kapoor 's biggest commercial success at that point .
Kapoor 's performance earned him a nomination for Best Actor while Rao received Best Actress nomination at the Screen Awards . Vivah is the first Indian film to be simultaneously released in cinema and on the internet ( through the production company 's official site ) . The film was also dubbed into Telugu and released as Parinayam .
= = Plot = =
Poonam ( Amrita Rao ) is a middle class girl who lives in the small town of Madhupur . After the death of her parents , when she was very young , her uncle Krishnakant ( Alok Nath ) fulfilled the void of a father in her life . However , her aunt ( Seema Biswas ) is unable to accept Poonam as her own child , driven by the fact that her own daughter Rajni ( Amrita Prakash ) is dark in complexion and less beautiful than Poonam . Harishchandra ( Anupam Kher ) , a renowned businessman , from New Delhi has two sons , Sunil ( Samir Soni ) who has married Bhavna ( Lata Sabharwal ) and Prem ( Shahid Kapoor ) , who is a soft @-@ spoken and well @-@ educated person .
Poonam 's simple and affectionate demeanor impresses Bhagatji ( Manoj Joshi ) , a close friend of Krishnakant and a jeweller by profession . Bhagatji takes Poonam 's marriage proposal for Prem . When Harishchandra takes his opinion on the proposition , Prem is initially hesitant and feels he is too young for marriage and needs to focus on his career first . Harishchandra convinces Prem to meet Poonam before deciding about anything . Respecting father 's wishes , Prem agrees to meet Poonam , get to know better and then take a decision . They visit Krishnakant 's family and let Prem and Poonam get acquainted with each other . Though their first conversation is awkward , Prem and Poonam agree to get married , as they are instantly attracted to each other . Prem and Poonam gets engaged and set to be married in six months . Krishnakant invites Prem 's family to their summer residence in Som Sarovar , so Prem and Poonam get the opportunity to know each other better .
Prem and Poonam go through the most magical and romantic period of their lives . Coming from different sensibilities , both want their relationship to be very right for each other . Both realize the importance of the engagement rings that they have given to each other and the special right that they have got on each other in return . They begin to fall in love and become attached to each other , thanks to the gentle prodding of their respective siblings . After several days , Harishchandra and his family return home to attend their business , which leaves Poonam and Prem the choice to communicate via telephone and letter . Prem joins the family business and takes on a heavy presentation in Japan . Upon returning , the family brings Poonam as a surprise and they celebrate their engagement .
However , two days before the actual wedding , a fire breaks out at Krishnakant 's house . Although Poonam runs out of the house in time , she realizes that Rajni is still inside and goes to save her . Poonam gets heavily burnt in the process . The doctor informs her father that in such cases , even families disown their own . He broken heartedly calls Prem right as he is leaving for Madhapur . Right as he is about to sign the waiver allowing her surgery , he begins to cry and cannot do so . Looking up , he sees Prem has arrived , determined to marry Poonam despite her injuries and bringing with him the finest doctors from Delhi . He marries her informally before their surgery . With the aid of the Delhi doctors , the hospital successfully perform surgery on Poonam . After a one and half month prolonged stay at the hospital , Poonam and Prem are traditionally married and go home to their new life .
= = Cast = =
Shahid Kapoor as Prem
Amrita Rao as Poonam
Anupam Kher as Harischandra
Alok Nath as Krishnakant a.k.a. Uncle
Seema Biswas as Rama a.k.a. Aunt
Samir Soni as Sunil
Lata Sabharwal as Bhavna
Manoj Joshi as Bhagatji
Amrita Prakash as Rajni a.k.a. Chhoti
Ameya Pandya as Rahul
Additional minor parts were portrayed by : Dinesh Lamba as Munim and Mohnish Behl as Doctor Rashid Khan .
= = Production = =
Director / writer Sooraj Barjatya noted that the story of Vivah is based upon a newspaper article his father read in 1988 . Like in all of Sooraj R. Barjatya 's previous films , the male lead is called Prem . The story combined elements of Hindu tradition to set itself up as a film of cultural significance and was constructed differently than Barjatya 's earlier films . Barjatya hoped that the film would be remembered as the first to tackle the definitions and dynamics of a marriage . In an interview with Times of India Barjatya said , he kept in mind all the novels of Saratchandra Chatterjee while making Vivah . Barjatya felt that the film should possess a lyrical feel , since it was , according to him , " a lyrics oriented film . "
Filming took place during the first months of 2006 . The main hurdle came up with the location . Barjatya wanted to shoot film in an authentic way . He asked the film 's art director Sanjay Dhobade to create the entire town of Madhupur that can give a realistic look , particularly portions where water leaking takes place and portions where spit marks were visible on the walls of the buildings in the film . Later , the town was created in film city , Mumbai . Outdoor session of the film was done in Delhi , Lonavla , Ranikhet , Nainital and Almora .
Additional production credits include : Jay Borade – dance choreographer , Sound — Jitendra Chaudhary , Dialogue — Aash Karan Atal , Cinematography — Harish Joshi and Editor — V N Mayekar . Amrita Rao 's costumes were created by Indian designer Anna Singh and Shahid Kapoor 's clothes were created by Shabina Khan . To promote the film , Shahid Kapoor and Amrita Rao sold tickets at the Fame Theatre in Malad , Mumbai .
= = Soundtrack = =
The soundtrack ( songs and the background score ) and lyrics for Vivah was scored by Ravindra Jain . Vivah was seventh collaboration of Ravindra Jain with Rajshri Productions . It was produced under the Saregama label . The composer primarily gave special importance to " taal " and opted to keep two " antras " followed by a " mukhra " in the songs . The orchestra combines with classical Indian instruments , like the sitar , sarod , violin , dholak and tabla to produce a blend between classical western and classical Indian music . The complete film soundtrack album was released on 26 September 2006 .
The music has , however , been criticised due to its monotony choice of instruments and music arrangements being very similar to one another . Rediff.com wrote in its music review that , " Vivah 's music disappoints " . Nofil of Glamsham gave the album 2 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and noted that , " The music of Vivah fails to emerge as successful as other Rajshri family potboilers , Maine Pyar Kiya , Hum Aapke Hain Koun [ sic ] and Hum Saath @-@ Saath Hain . "
= = Reception = =
Kapoor 's performance earned him nomination for Best Actor , while Rao received Best Actress nomination at the Screen Awards .
= = = Box office = = =
Vivah premiered on 10 November 2006 across India . Like Hum Aapke Hain Koun .. ! , Rajshri Productions released limited number of prints for the film and eventually increased prints with increasing popularity . Early reviewers of Vivah predicted that it would be a huge disappointment . The film opened well and went on to become a commercially successful venture .
The film was declared a Blockbuster , after earning ₹ 222 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 3 million ) net gross after seven weeks of running . Made on a budget of around ₹ 90 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 3 million ) , the film went on to collect ₹ 350 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 2 million ) at the domestic box office . Vivah was released by Rajshri Media Limited on the production company 's official site . The film 's DVD was released by Rajshri Production .
= = = Critical response = = =
The comparison of Vivah with Sooraj Bartjatya 's previous films compelled it to receive generally mixed reviews . The film was a big success , but before its release , many journalists expected Vivah to be a flop . Ron Ahluwalia of Planet Bollywood gave it 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 wrote , " Sooraj Bartjatya comes up with the best , cheesiest family flick we ’ ve seen in a long time without sending us back to the 1940s . " Deepa Gahlot of Sify said , " Vivah is far less offensive and far more watchable . " Nikhat Kazmi from The Times of India called it a " simple documentation of something as banal as an engagement to a vivah " . Madhuparna Das of The Telegraph criticised Vivah for lacking plot , flat characters and mentioning that the story was " rather weak and improbable . " BBC described Vivah as " a didactic , worthy , and highly sanitised take on reality in keeping with the Rajshri tradition . " Rajeev Masand of CNN @-@ IBN gave only 1 out of 5 stars and condemned the screenplay , calling both Kapoor and Rao " insipid and boring . " A review carried by Anupama Chopra mentioned , " Sooraj Barjatya 's fantasy world is carefully constructed , but his conviction infuses his films with an emotional heft . " Business of Cinema defended the film stating , " Vivah is a film with beautiful moments , it promises to recreate the magic of Maine Pyar Kiya . "
= = Influence = =
Indian painter M. F. Husain , decided to create a series of paintings inspired by Amrita Rao and Vivah . He planned to create an entire exhibition around her . He organised a private screening for 150 friends and press attendees to " convey his interest for the film " at Dubai ’ s Plaza cinema . The Regent , a theater in Patna , Bihar , put up a festive banner to promote the movie . The banner reads Poonam weds Prem . Vivah inspired couples at that time to emulate the protagonists .
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= Edward Condon =
Edward Uhler Condon ( March 2 , 1902 – March 26 , 1974 ) was a distinguished American nuclear physicist , a pioneer in quantum mechanics , and a participant in the development of radar and nuclear weapons during World War II as part of the Manhattan Project . The Franck – Condon principle and the Slater – Condon rules are co @-@ named after him .
He was the director of the National Bureau of Standards ( now NIST ) from 1945 to 1951 . In 1946 , Condon was president of the American Physical Society , and in 1953 was president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science .
During the McCarthy period , when efforts were being made to root out communist sympathizers in the United States , Edward Condon was a target of the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee on the grounds that he was a ' follower ' of a ' new revolutionary movement ' , quantum mechanics ; Condon defended himself with a famous commitment to physics and science .
Condon became widely known in 1968 as principal author of the Condon Report , an official review funded by the United States Air Force that concluded that unidentified flying objects ( UFOs ) have prosaic explanations . The lunar crater Condon is named for him .
= = Early life and education = =
Edward Condon was born on March 2 , 1902 , in Alamogordo , New Mexico to William Edward Condon and Carolyn Uhler Condon . His father was supervising the construction of a narrow @-@ gauge railroad , many of which were built in the area by logging companies . After graduating from high school in Oakland , California in 1918 , he worked as a journalist for three years at the Oakland Inquirer and other papers .
He then attended the University of California , Berkeley , initially joining the College of Chemistry ; when he learned that his high school physics teacher had joined the faculty , he switched majors to take classes in theoretical physics . Condon earned his bachelor 's degree in three years and his doctorate in two . His Ph.D. thesis combined work by Raymond Thayer Birge on measuring and analyzing band spectral intensities and a suggestion by James Franck .
Thanks to a National Research Council fellowship , Condon studied at Göttingen under Max Born and at Munich under Arnold Sommerfeld . Under the latter , Condon rewrote his Ph.D. thesis using quantum mechanics , creating the Franck – Condon principle . After seeing an ad in Physical Review , Condon worked in public relations at Bell Telephone Laboratories in fall 1927 , in particular promoting their discovery of electron diffraction .
= = Early career = =
Condon taught briefly at Columbia University and was associate professor of physics at Princeton University from 1928 to 1937 , except for a year at the University of Minnesota . With Philip M. Morse , he wrote Quantum Mechanics , the first English @-@ language text on the subject in 1929 . With G.H. Shortley , he wrote the Theory of Atomic Spectra , " a bible on the subject from the moment of its 1935 publication " .
He was associate director of research at the Westinghouse Electric Company in Pittsburgh , beginning in 1937 , where he established research programs in nuclear physics , solid @-@ state physics , and mass spectroscopy . He then headed the company 's research on microwave radar development . He also worked on the equipment used to isolate uranium for use in atomic bombs . He served as a consultant to the National Defense Research Committee during World War II and helped organize MIT 's Radiation Laboratory .
In 1943 , Condon joined the Manhattan Project . Within six weeks , he resigned as a result of conflicts about security with General Leslie R. Groves , the project 's military leader . General Groves had objected when Condon 's superior J. Robert Oppenheimer held a discussion with the director of the project 's Metallurgical Lab at the University of Chicago . In his resignation letter , he explained :
The thing which upsets me the most is the extraordinary close security policy .... I do not feel qualified to question the wisdom of this since I am totally unaware of the extent of enemy espionage and sabotage activities . I only want to say that in my case I found that the extreme concern with security was morbidly depressing--especially the discussion about censoring mail and telephone calls .
From August 1943 to February 1945 , Condon worked as a part @-@ time consultant at Berkeley on the separation of U @-@ 235 and U @-@ 238 . Condon was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1944 . Following the war , Condon played a leading role in organizing scientists to lobby for civilian control of atomic energy rather than military control under strict security . He worked as science adviser to Senator Brien McMahon , chairman of the Senate Special Committee on Atomic Energy , which wrote the McMahon @-@ Douglas Act , enacted in August 1946 , that created the Atomic Energy Commission , placing atomic energy under civilian control . Adopting an internationalist viewpoint , Condon favored international scientific cooperation and joined the American @-@ Soviet Science Society .
= = Director of NIST = =
President Harry S. Truman nominated Condon to be director of the National Bureau of Standards ( now known as NIST ) in 1945 . He was confirmed by the Senate without opposition and served until 1951 . He was also president of the American Physical Society in 1946 . On May 29 , 1946 , FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover wrote a letter intended for President Truman that named several senior government officials as part of a Soviet network . It described Condon as " nothing more or less than an espionage agent in disguise . " Decades later Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan called it " baseless corridor talk " . The Truman administration ignored Hoover 's charges .
Over the next decade , Condon 's security clearance status was repeatedly questioned , reviewed , and re @-@ established . Congressman J. Parnell Thomas , head of the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee ( HUAC ) , furnished information to the Washington Times @-@ Herald that denigrated his loyalty in two articles published in March 1947 . Thomas had several reasons to make a prominent case of Condon . He had no sympathy for the scientific community 's international spirit in the first place and could use the ongoing controversy to argue for an increase in his committee 's appropriation , to bolster opposition to the Condon @-@ supported McMahon Act , and to attract favorable coverage during election season . The Department of Commerce cleared Condon of disloyalty charges on February 24 , 1948 . A HUAC report dated March 2 , 1948 said that " It appears that Dr. Condon is one of the weakest links in our atomic security " . Condon responded : " If it is true that I am one of the weakest links in atomic security that is very gratifying and the country can feel absolutely safe for I am completely reliable , loyal , conscientious and devoted to the interests of my country , as my whole life and career clearly reveal " .
Those who defended him included Albert Einstein and Harold Urey . The entire physics department of Harvard and numerous professional organizations wrote Truman on Condon 's behalf . The Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists held a dinner on April 12 , 1948 , to demonstrate support , with nine Nobel Prize winners among the sponsors . The National Academy of Sciences , by contrast , considered only a statement criticizing HUAC 's procedures rather than defending Condon . Despite widespread support among its members ( 275 to 35 ) , the National Academy of Sciences ' leadership did not release a statement , and instead opted to speak privately with Rep. Thomas . On July 15 , 1948 , the Atomic Energy Commission granted Condon a security clearance , allowing him to access classified information at NIST .
In September 1948 , at the Annual Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) , President Truman , with Condon sitting nearby on the dais , denounced Rep. Thomas and HUAC on the grounds that vital scientific research " may be made impossible by the creation of an atmosphere in which no man feels safe against the public airing of unfounded rumors , gossip and vilification " . He called HUAC 's activities " the most un @-@ American thing we have to contend with today . It is the climate of a totalitarian country " .
Condon opposed any cooperation with Congressional attempts to identify security risks within the scientific community . In June 1949 , in a sharply critical letter to Oppenheimer , who had provided information to HUAC about a colleague , he wrote : " I have lost a good deal of sleep trying to figure out how you could have talked this way about a man whom you have known for so long , and of whom you know so well what a good physicist and good citizen he is . " In July 1949 , he testified before a Senate subcommittee that was considering rules governing the operation of Senate committees . He criticized Thomas and the HUAC for holding closed hearings and then leaking information that denigrated his loyalty and that of other scientists . He said that the committee denied his and his colleagues ' requests for public hearings so they could respond .
= = Continued attacks = =
With his record finally cleared in 1951 , Condon left government to become head of research and development for the Corning Glass Works . He said his $ 14 @,@ 000 annual government salary was his reason for the move . President Truman issued a statement of praise : " You have served in a most critical position with continued and loyal attention to your duties as director , and by reason of your standing among scientists and the supervision you have given to the bureau 's activities , you have made of it a more important agency than it has ever been before " . Two Republican Congressmen asserted that Condon was being investigated as a security risk and was leaving " under fire " , a charge the Secretary of Commerce Charles Sawyer denied .
On December 27 , 1951 , Condon was elected to head the AAAS in 1953 . In September 1952 , Condon , in testimony before a Congressional committee , had his first opportunity to deny under oath all charges of disloyalty that had been made against him . The HUAC concluded in its annual report for 1952 that Condon was unsuited for a security clearance because of his " propensity for associating with persons disloyal or of questionable loyalty and his contempt for necessary security regulations " . On December 30 , 1952 , Condon assumed the presidency of the AAAS at its annual meeting , where , according to the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists , " The tremendous ovation by his fellow members accompanying his induction was a further affirmation of their faith in his loyalty and integrity " .
Five months later Condon 's clearance was revoked as was standard when someone left government service . He was granted a security clearance once more on July 12 , 1954 . It was announced on October 19 and then suspended by Secretary of the Navy Charles S. Thomas on October 21 . Vice President Nixon took credit for the suspension , and the Atomic Scientists of Chicago charged " political abuse of the national security system " , though Secretary Thomas denied Nixon had played a role . Condon withdrew his application for clearance and in December resigned from Corning because the company was seeking government research contracts and he lacked the clearance necessary for participating in military research . After citing the security reviews he had passed over the years , he said : " I am unwilling to continue a potentially indefinite series of reviews and re @-@ reviews " . Corning had paid Condon 's clearance @-@ related legal expenses while he worked there .
In 1958 , Condon wrote that his decision reflected his belief that the Eisenhower administration " was committed by policy to the persecution of scientists , or , at the very least , to a callous indifference toward what others were doing to attack and discredit them . I decided the situation was hopeless , and that I had done all that could be reasonably expected of me in having resisted these forces for seven long years " .
Years later , Carl Sagan reported how Condon described one encounter with a loyalty review board . A board member stated his concern : " Dr. Condon , it says here that you have been at the forefront of a revolutionary movement in physics called ... quantum mechanics . It strikes this hearing that if you could be at the forefront of one revolutionary movement ... you could be at the forefront of another " . Condon said he replied : " I believe in Archimedes ' Principle , formulated in the third century B.C. I believe in Kepler 's laws of planetary motion , discovered in the seventeenth century . I believe in Newton 's laws .... " and continued with a catalog of scientists from earlier centuries , including the Bernoulli , Fourier , Ampère , Boltzmann , and Maxwell . He once said privately : " I join every organization that seems to have noble goals . I don 't ask whether it contains Communists " .
= = Later career = =
Condon was professor of physics at Washington University in St. Louis from 1956 to 1963 and then at the University of Colorado Boulder from 1963 , where he was also a fellow of the Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics , until retiring in 1970 .
From 1966 to 1968 , Condon directed Boulder 's UFO Project , known as the Condon Committee . He was chosen for his eminence and his lack of any stated position on UFOs . He later wrote that he agreed to head the project " on the basis of appeals to duty to do a needed public service " on the part of the U.S. Air Force Office of Scientific Research . Its final report concluded that unidentified flying objects had prosaic explanations . It has been cited as a key factor in the generally low levels of interest in UFOs among mainstream scientists and academics .
Condon was also president of the American Institute of Physics and the American Association of Physics Teachers in 1964 . He was president of the Society for Social Responsibility in Science ( 1968 – 69 ) and was co @-@ chairman of the National Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy ( 1970 ) . He co @-@ edited the Handbook of Physics with Hugh Odishaw of the University of Arizona . He received the Frederic Ives Medal awarded by the Optical Society in 1968 . On his retirement , his colleagues honored him with the publication of a Festschrift .
Condon died on March 26 , 1974 , in Boulder Colorado Community Hospital . Atomic Structure , which Condon wrote with Halis Odabaşı , appeared several years later in 1980 . The National Institute of Standards and Technology ( NIST ) gives an annual award named for Condon . The Condon Award recognizes distinguished achievements in written exposition in science and technology at NIST . The award was initiated in 1974 . The crater Condon on the Moon is named in his honor .
= = Personal = =
Condon married Emilie Honzik . They had two sons and a daughter . The son , Joseph Henry Condon ( 15 February 1935 — 2 January 2012 ) was a physicist ( Ph.D. , Northwestern University ) and engineer , who worked at Bell Labs on digital telephone switches and co @-@ invented the Belle chess computer .
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= Kylie Platt =
Kylie Platt ( née Turner ) is a fictional character from the British soap opera Coronation Street , played by Paula Lane . She was introduced as Becky McDonald 's ( Katherine Kelly ) half @-@ sister , making her on @-@ screen debut on 26 August 2010 . Lane landed the role , with executive producer Phil Collinson describing her as a brilliant casting . He also revealed that Kylie would have " major storylines " during her first six months in the serial . Lane created her approach to her portrayal from her own past experiences whilst growing up . Lane impressed the producers and had her contract extended until July 2012 .
Kylie 's backstory includes growing up in a broken home , living below the poverty threshold , and weak relationships with her estranged mother and sister . Kylie is characterised through her " full on personality " and has a feisty attitude . She has often been described as a " gobby female " who wants a better life and ultimately she is driven by money . Kylie has a son , Max ( Harry McDermott ) , who was placed into foster care . She had the child at a young age and she was not ready for the responsibility . Becky helps Kylie retrieve custody of Max . In one of her first big storyline arcs , Kylie sells her son to Becky for £ 20 @,@ 000 . The storyline was branded controversial by media outlets and Lane found it hard to compress her emotions whilst filming the plot . Lane said Kylie 's sheer audacity was highlighted when she dared to blackmail her barren sister for more cash .
Kylie remained off @-@ screen for episodic blocks in her first six months . Producers devised a storyline to give her permanent residence on Coronation Street , when she was revealed as the fiancée of David Platt ( Jack P. Shepherd ) . The development was to offer viewers " something new " and both actors have praised their pairing as a positive move . The storyline played the resurgence of Kylie 's love of money . Kylie has also engaged in feuds with Gail and Tina McIntyre , played by ( Helen Worth ) and ( Michelle Keegan ) respectively . Gail 's attempt to sabotage her son 's wedding to Kylie proved unsuccessful . It was a change in direction for the character , with the lure of money insufficient for her to leave " someone she loves " . In February 2016 , Lane announced her decision to leave Coronation Street . She filmed her final scenes as Kylie in June 2016 and producers decided to kill off the character . Kylie was murdered by Clayton Hibbs ( Callum Harrison ) while trying to protect her friend Gemma Winter ( Dolly @-@ Rose Campbell ) in the episode broadcast on 15 July 2016 , Lane last appeared as Kylie on 20 July 2016 .
Kylie has been well received by most critics for her image as a " gobby chav " . The general reaction to her pairing with David has also been positive . However , the Daily Mail has criticised Kylie for her deceit and branded some of her material as " dull " . Lane won Best Newcomer at the 2011 National Television Awards for her portrayal . She also garnered other nominations in awards ceremonies oriented to magazines .
= = Character development = =
= = = Creation and characterisation = = =
Kylie was created as the " tearaway " half @-@ sister of established character Becky McDonald ( Katherine Kelly ) . Actress Paula Lane was cast in the role and immediately received praise from executive producer Phil Collinson who described her as " brilliant " . Lane has stated she draws inspiration from her own past , as an angle to portray Kylie . Lane 's first scenes aired on 26 August 2010 . Lane later signed a new contract with the serial , which was later extended and meant Kylie would stay into July 2012 . Lane was delighted because it gave her the chance to " go full throttle with the character . "
Kylie was initially described as having a " full on " personality , similar to Becky . She was also labelled a " firecracker " . Lane described her as a " messed up girl , dragged up by an alcoholic mother " . In her life she had to " fight for survival " . Lane has also expressed her admiration of Kylie 's " comedy " . She has also said Kylie is " quite witty " and amid confrontation is " quick off the mark and won 't let someone stamp her down . " Viewers of the serial later observed Kylie to be as evil as Tracy Barlow ( Kate Ford ) . Lane said that the comparison was taken too far because Kylie has not murdered anyone , although she acknowledged that Kylie comes across as evil . She also stated : " Kylie will be a thorn in Becky and Steve 's sides for a long time to come " .
Kylie and Becky 's characterisation and backstory are similar . Lane felt it was important to portray certain differences between the two . This was to prevent the audience becoming bored through repetition . This was done through Kylie making the opposite choice Becky would make . In April 2011 Lane further described her as " volatile " because " you never know what she 'll do next . " Kylie proved to be unpredictable . Lane admitted it was fun to play her because " It 's difficult to imagine how she will react to things . " Through her relationships she is shown to be a " chancer " who wants to have fun and has " the bottle for anything . " One of Kylie 's main motivations in life is money and she develops a taste for better things in life . Lane also predicted that Kylie would do anything " if the price was right . " Lane opined that everyone 's perception of Kylie is " she 's conniving and only out for what she can get . " Kylie gained such a reputation as a trouble @-@ maker that Lane was often asked by members of the public to behave herself . Lane describes Kylie 's redeeming qualities the fact she is " bright and she 's a grafter . "
= = = Introduction and selling Max = = =
Upon her introduction , Kylie was described as being a big character in her first six months of storylines . When she arrives she ruins Becky and Steve McDonald 's ( Simon Gregson ) plans for adoption . Kylie and Becky violently clash over the incident , and Lane received bruising from filming the scenes . The scenes were so violent that they were toned down before transmission . Lane said that the fight was her favourite set of scenes for Kylie . Kelly described Kylie and Becky as having a love @-@ hate relationship , but at the time Becky " wants to kill her " . Lane also sees Kylie as a " mixed @-@ up girl " , stating that she feels sorry for her . Lane herself stated that Kylie loves her sister but " feels resentful " that Becky left home when Kylie was only eight . " Becky was like a mother to Kylie . "
It is then revealed that Kylie has a son , Max ( Harry McDermott ) , who is in foster care . Lane said that this happened because Kylie " was drinking with his dad and not looking after him " . Kylie loves Max but is too " young and naive " too cope with motherhood . Kylie snatches Max while on a visit ; Lane opined it was a spur of the moment decision , but " she couldn 't bear to lose him " . Becky helps Kylie regain custody of him . The " turning point " in the storyline was attributed to scenes in which Kylie stands up in court and vows to change . Lane said that they were " touching " scenes , which included a rare moment in which Kylie applauds Becky for being " a great sister " . Lane stated that when she gets Max back , Kylie takes advantage of Becky . In another storyline Kylie makes a pass at Steve . Gregson who plays him opined that in Kylie 's mind she thought " that fat bald guy wants a bit " . He also said that Steve was " extremely shocked " but was not interested . Steve decides not to say anything to Becky because he doesn 't trust Kylie and knows that she will take Max away from Becky . Gregson said that in Steve 's opinion " she 's been trouble from the start and he 's sure that 's not going to change . "
Kylie plays on the fact that Becky is desperate for a child and offers to sell Max to her . Gregson said that he felt it immoral to buy a child , but stressed " Kylie isn 't an ordinary mother – she only cares about herself . " He said that Steve believes Max would be better off with Steve and Becky . Steve is the first to take Kylie seriously ; Gregson believed this was because Kylie has " proved herself ruthless " and " not the best mum " . Lane defended Kylie 's actions because she did " love her son " , but she makes the money @-@ making scam because she is " immature and irresponsible " . Lane herself was so shocked by the storyline that it made her over @-@ emotional on set , to the point where she had to take breaks from filming scenes . After selling Max for twenty thousand pounds , Kylie travels abroad , but later reappears during the serial 's live episode . She demands more money , which Becky has to steal .
= = = Marriage to David Platt = = =
In late 2010 Jack P. Shepherd , who plays fellow character David Platt , revealed his desire for more scenes with Lane as he thought that they worked well together . In January 2011 it was announced that Kylie would marry David in a " shock storyline " . Revealing the news whilst interviewed on talk show Loose Women , Lane said that the pair would meet off @-@ screen in Tenerife . Though she had not read the scripts , Lane thought they would be " a really good combination " . Coronation Street publicity said it would make " exciting viewing " for fans . They further stated : " Kylie and David are trouble as individuals so the thought of the two of them getting together is a nightmare prospect for both their families [ ... ] there is no end to the trouble they will cause for everyone . " Lane also revealed that the storyline was implemented because there was no other plausible way for Kylie to return . They did not carry on with the scenario with Becky and Steve , because the viewers needed " something new " . Lane was happy with the direction of the storyline because it paved the way for more " explosive " material . Kylie was also tipped to be the one in control of the relationship . She also acknowledged that certain aspects of their relationship would mirror Becky and Steve 's relationship , in the sense that when Kylie is with David , a " loved up " nicer side to Kylie surfaces .
David 's mother Gail McIntyre ( Helen Worth ) is shocked to learn the identity of his mystery fiancée , and disapproves of Kylie . The pair repeatedly clash in scenes that serve as comic relief . Gail dislikes Kylie because she " knows her type " , and the fact that she is related to Becky does not bode well . Lane said that Gail 's reaction was understandable because Kylie is not the epitome of " the perfect daughter @-@ in @-@ law . " She added that because Gail is so possessive of David , " it doesn 't bode well for the future . " Shepherd added that they are " the match made in hell " and revealed that David lets her do as she pleases because he is in love with her . He later said that David appeared obsessed and shared the similar dynamic he had with previous girlfriend Tina McIntyre ( Michelle Keegan ) . He concluded : " I think he 's keener on her than she is on him . " David fools Kylie into believing he owns a salon . Lane explained " Kylie sees an opportunity for a better life , but not in a money @-@ grubbing , scheming way . She does love David , and she 's not doing anything wrong . " Kylie sees the situation as an " added bonus " . After Kylie finds out the truth , the pair come up with a plan to " wheedle " his grandmother Audrey Roberts ' ( Sue Nicholls ) salon off her .
Gail tries to use the fact that Kylie gave Max up against her . Lane revealed that it did not work because Kylie revealed her past hardships and gained sympathy from David . The scenes also offered viewers the chance to gain a better perspective on who Kylie is and learn about her past . The night before their wedding , Gail unsuccessfully tries to pay Kylie one thousand pounds to leave for good . Lane said that Kylie had the audacity to come back after " £ 25K for Max " so " £ 1000 to give up a salon and someone she loves is nothing " , though she still keeps the money . Up until this point Kylie had been " playing the game with Gail " , but she was not on " Kylie 's radar " . Kylie then realises how determined Gail is to ruin her wedding . Lane said " Gail has taken a pretty intense disliking to Kylie , so of course Kylie is going to fight her corner - that 's the kind of girl she is . "
When the pair marry , Lane described them as still being on the " honeymoon period " , equating to more lust than love . She opined that the serial had developed a " lovely relationship " which had " explosive chemistry " . David decides Kylie should have Max back . Lane explained that it was not the right time because Kylie still wasn 't ready for responsibility . Kylie " doesn 't want to mess with the little boy 's head anymore " and accepts he is safe with Becky . However David is " inquisitive " about the situation , but Kylie " brushes over " the hurt she really feels .
= = = Affair with Nick Tilsley = = =
Producers created an infidelity story for the character which involved David 's half @-@ brother Nick Tilsley ( Ben Price ) . David discovers the truth but decides not to let Kylie know . Shepherd told Alison Gardner from What 's on TV that David thinks if he confronts Kylie their relationship will end . He has to decide who should be punished for the affair . He decides that Nick is too blame and if he is too get revenge on him then Kylie must remain oblivious . He then contemplates committing suicide and then vandalises Nick 's flat . The actor concluded that David could forgive Kylie for her infidelity .
David begins by sending poison pen letters to Nick 's wife Leanne Battersby ( Jane Danson ) , which state that Nick is having an affair . Nick realises David is behind the letters . Price told Kilkelly ( Digital Spy ) his character panics and becomes annoyed . Nick is arrogant to his actions and believes David will just forgive him because they are related . He then tells David that they should discuss the affair with Kylie and move on . Price explained that David is worried that Kylie will feel betrayed he knew all along and does not want her to leave him . He decides he must stop Nick and grabs the steering wheel and causes a car crash . Price believed David was not trying to murder Nick , just prevent him from contacting Kylie .
Kylie begins to suspect that David intentionally caused the crash out of revenge . Kylie gain evidence and confronts David over his scheming at Lily 's christening . Filipa Jodelka of The Guardian observed that " David 's family went on to pronounce him wicked and cast him out into darkness . " Writers kept the paternity of Kylie 's baby a secret up until birth . On @-@ screen the child , named Lily , has a paternity test taken in which it is revealed that David is her biological father . David then boasts about the result to Nick to cause further trouble . Producer Stuart Blackburn said that he used the story to " push Kylie to the edge " . It also created the opportunity for writers to revisit David 's bad persona . He said the revelation damages their relationship but his team were keeping the possibility of the pair reuniting . Kylie is angry at herself and David . Blackburn explained " in her head she 's a screw @-@ up , and she 'll be furious with herself for imagining she could ever have a normal life . If there 's hope for Kylie and David , they must accept each other for who they really are . "
= = = Prescription drug addiction = = =
In June 2014 , Lane announced that she was pregnant and Kylie would be written out of the show while the actress took maternity leave . Coronation Street producer Stuart Blackburn met with Lane and devised an exit storyline . He had already planned a story for the character and Lane said her departure added more scope and improved the story . Peter Dyke from the Daily Star announced that Kylie would become addicted to prescription medication . Her son Max is diagnosed with ADHD and prescribed medication to control the condition . Kylie struggles to cope with her home life and takes some of Max 's medication . Blackburn told Dyke that " Kylie hits a really low point . She is utterly ashamed and husband David is disgusted when he finds out . " He added called it the character 's worst ever decision and warned of troublesome consequences . Blackburn used the story to depict the effects of addictions to such medication . It has a " devastating effect " on Kylie and impacts on her health herself and the rest of the Platt family .
To prepare for the storyline Lane discussed her character 's backstory with directors . She recalled that Kylie had previously suffered addiction which adds to the drama . Writers devised " heavy scripts " for Lane and she had to thoroughly research the issue . Lane hoped the story would raise awareness and also convey that ADHD is not a disease . After the story was broadcast , Lane has explained that Kylie blamed herself for Max 's ADHD . She believes her past actions have contributed to his behavioural issues and she refuses to listen to reassurance from her family . The actress blamed Kylie 's " very low self @-@ esteem " as a mother and she thinks other residents are judging her . Kylie becomes stressed with managing Max 's condition and looking after Lily . She wants to feel calm after working herself into a " tired and frustrated " state . She takes his medication thinking it will calm her down but she regrets her actions .
Kylie locates Max 's father Callum Logan ( Sean Ward ) to find answers about his ADHD . She finds it exciting revisiting her old neighbourhood . After the Platt family block her access to Max 's medication , Kylie buys amphetamine from Callum . Lane told Kilkelly that the drug gives her a similar effect and she is after a quick drug fix following withdrawals from Max 's medication . Off @-@ screen , the actress met with a recovering drug addict and discussed the mental and psychological effects of amphetamine addition , which aided her portrayal of Kylie 's struggle . Lane explained that the addiction would intensify and result in " another downward spiral " for the character . She added " I think this is the darkest place that Kylie has ever found herself in . " Kylie 's addiction begins to effect her home life as she becomes " tired , grumpy and agitated " . David notices her strange behaviour and it causes problems . Kylie is caught taking drugs and given an ultimatum to chose her family or her addiction . She tries to abstain but Callum makes it difficult for her by offering her free drugs . He makes it clear he is not interested in Max and just wants Kylie . Lane described Callum as having " a very dark presence " in Kylie 's life .
Lane 's temporary departure scenes aired on Christmas Day 2014 . The festive episode included David witnessing Callum trying to give Kylie drugs . He is furious and throws her out of their home . She decides to leave the area and her family . Blackburn then announced that upon the character 's return she would need to change her ways . He explained that the consequences of Kylie 's drug taking cause a custody battle for Max between David and Callum . The producer added " she 's going to have to get her act together , she really is . " Lane returned to filming as Kylie in April 2015 . On @-@ screen Kylie returns and reunites with David to strengthen his claim of custody over Max .
= = = Callum Logan 's murder = = =
Coronation Street aired a special live episode to celebrate the sixtieth anniversary of ITV . In the episode Callum and Kylie 's sister @-@ in @-@ law Sarah Platt ( Tina O 'Brien ) argue inside the Platt 's home . Callum attacks Sarah , overpowers her and threatens her life . Kylie walks in on the struggle and hits Callum over the head with a wrench . Her actions left Callum bloody and dead on her kitchen floor . The live episode concluded with David returning home to the fatal scene . He decides to help Kylie and Sarah to conceal Callum 's murder . He wraps the body up and puts him down a manhole in their garage . The following episode features the trio plotting to dispose of Callum 's body in a public space . An ongoing conversion of the garage in a bedroom extention poses a problem and they need to move quickly . But a series of events ruin their plans . Kylie and David are physically sick when they first try to remove the body from the man hole . They are later interupted by a visit from the police who investigate Callum 's abandoned car . Gail then hires Jason Grimshaw ( Ryan Thomas ) to cover the manhole up with concrete , unaware Callum is concealed inside .
Lane assessed that her character " cracks " during the storyline and each character handles Callum 's murder differently . Sarah becomes hysterical , David stays calm and scheming , whereas Kylie remained in a state of shock and she had to " strip [ her performance ] right back " . The story played out with David attempting to help Sarah and Kylie move on . As Lane noted , the characters turn on each other and " it just becomes one big crazy fight for survival , it 's a mess . " They feel trapped with in the secret and the situation get out of control . Writers continued to play on the tense situation , using Kylie and Callum 's old friend Gemma Winter ( Dolly @-@ Rose Campbell ) . She arrives claiming to be in contact with Callum . Knowing she is lying , the Platts encourage Gemma 's gossip , knowing it will remove suspicions they were involved in Callum 's disappearance . But when they argue with Gemma , they fear she will uncover the truth behind Callum 's death .
The show planned a dramatic stunt which would lead to the discovery of Callum 's body . The scene featured Carla Connor ( Alison King ) causing a car accident , colliding with Tyrone Dobbs ' ( Alan Halsall ) pick @-@ up truck which smashes into the Platt 's home . This causes the floor to give way and a recovery team unearthing Callum 's body . Producers decided to conclude the story without Kylie being held accountable for the murder . Instead they used a character that had been recently killed off , Tony Stewart ( Terence Maynard ) , who had publicly feuded with Callum . When Sarah confesses the truth to Todd Grimshaw ( Bruno Langley ) , he decides to frame Tony for the crime - a scheme which proved successful .
= = = Departure = = =
In February 2016 , it was announced that Lane had decided to leave Coronation Street to concentrate on other aspects of her life . Lane said it was a difficult decision to make and expressed her enjoyment of her time with the show . The actress had long been open about her career aspirations away from the show . She explained that six years had been enough time to make an impact on the show but avoided her becoming typecast as Kylie Platt . Lane was pregnant and was scheduled to finish filming in June 2016 . Coronation Street 's producer Stuart Blackburn described Lane as " talented and dedicated " and expressed his view that she had created an " unforgettable Corrie character " . Lane later told Susan Hill from the Daily Star that she was happy with her character 's " very fitting " exit storyline . She refused to reveal the circumstances which lead into it . Lane finished filming on 22 June 2016 and documented the experience via social media .
On 2 July , the show publicised that the character would be killed off . The show 's producers decided to keep detail of how Kylie would die a secret . But Kilkelly of Digital Spy described it as " tragic " . Kylie decides she can no longer live in the house where Callum died and convinces David that they must move away . The reporter added that the Platt family would not succeed in their move because Kylie would die " storyline twist " . The following day Coronation Street released promotional images depicting David mourning Kylie over her open coffin . Lane described Kylie 's death as one of the " most shocking " ever featured on the show . Shepherd described it as a " harrowing exit " for the character which himself and Lane cry uncontrollably . He added that writers warned him in advance that it would be " very harrowing and emotional " . Newspaper photographs later revealed Kylie would die on Coronation Street . The picture showed her body being clutched in David 's arms . Kylie 's death scenes occurred following her decision to defend Gemma after she is attacked by Clayton Hibbs ( Callum Harrison ) . He turns on Kylie and stabs her and she dies in the street with David by her side . The death scene lead many viewers to mourn the on @-@ screen death of the fictional character , via social media website Twitter . Though some viewers complained about a bloody stabbing airing before the 21 : 00 broadcasting watershed .
= = Storylines = =
Becky confronts Kylie after a bad reference that she provided to an adoption agency . At first Kylie pretends that she has a privileged life in order to impress Becky but it soon emerges that she is on the streets . She then moves into the Rovers Return Inn and instantaneously sparks a conflict with Michelle Connor ( Kym Marsh ) . Becky and Steve soon discover that she has a four @-@ year @-@ old son called Max , whose custody she seeks . She sells Steve 's motorbike and tries to sleep with him . After visiting Max at the foster parents ' home , she takes him home . She sleeps with Gary Windass ( Mikey North ) . Kylie is awarded custody of her son . Later she steals money from the till at Roy 's Rolls , and jets off to Cyprus on holiday and leaves Max in Becky 's care . She returns a couple of weeks later with a new boyfriend , Demetri . She tells Becky that she has come back to take Max to live in Cyprus , leaving Becky heartbroken . Kylie sees Becky 's desperation as she cannot have children and offers to give Max to her in exchange for 20 @,@ 000 pounds . Becky complies and Kylie leaves .
Max goes missing when a tram crashes into Coronation Street . Becky is hysterical with worry , after hours of searching , Kylie turns up at the Rovers revealing that she had Max all along . Kylie reveals that she has already spent the £ 20 @,@ 000 in " investments " and that if they want to keep Max , they must pay her an extra £ 5 @,@ 000 . Becky goes behind Steve 's back by stealing the money from Dev Alahan 's Corner Shop . She gives the money to Kylie and tells her that if she goes anywhere near Becky or Max again , she will kill her . Kylie returns as the fiancée of David whom she met in Tenerife . Kylie enjoys winding his mother Gail up . Kylie is delighted when David 's grandmother Audrey agrees to sign her salon over to him . Later after a row with her mother @-@ in @-@ law Liz , Becky attacks and beats up both Kylie and her fiance David Platt in their own home .
On Kylie 's hen night , Gail pays her £ 1 @,@ 000 of Nick money to not marry David ; Gail thinks that it has worked when Kylie does not arrive for the wedding . Just as Gail is about to tell David that Kylie has " cold feet " , Kylie bursts into the room " dressed to the nines " in a red and black dress . She and David get married - much to Gail 's and Nick 's annoyance - and she becomes Mrs David Platt . She keeps the money that Gail has paid her and tells everyone that it was a gift from Gail to pay for her and David 's honeymoon . Kylie admits to social services that Becky and Steve paid her £ 25 @,@ 000 to keep Max . She later teases Tina because Graeme Proctor ( Craig Gazey ) dumped Tina for Xin Proctor ( Elizabeth Tan ) by playing Japanese music , noting Xin 's nationality , and Tina attacks Kylie . David goes on a hairdressing course and Kylie causes trouble for his family . She seduces a random man and begins feuding with Gail . She then blackmails Audrey because her boyfriend Marc Selby ( Andrew Hall ) is a transvestite .
Kylie changes her attitude and forms friendships with David 's family . She gets drunk and sleeps with David 's brother , Nick . When David discovers the truth he takes revenge by causing a car crash which leaves Nick with brain damage . When the truth is revealed Kylie throws David out and ends their relationship . David makes an effort to change , then proves to Kylie that he can be trusted and they reconcile . Kylie starts taking painkillers more often and begins taking drugs . Her behaviour becomes increasingly out of control and David confronts her . He issues her an ultimatum that she must choose between her family and drugs . Kylie decides to leave and stops all contact with David and her children . Max 's father Callum arrives and demands contact with his son . Kylie returns after months living away wanting to make amends and have access to Max and Lily . David lets her move back in to strengthen his claim to Max and prevent Callum from gaining custody . David later decides to forgive Kylie .
Callum 's presence causes countless problems for the Platt family . His court proceedings cause the feud to heighten to violence . He also manipulates David 's sister Sarah and gets her daughter Bethany into trouble with drugs . Callum attacks Sarah for framing him for a crime . Kylie hits Callum with a tool and kills him . She , Sarah and David bury Callum in a manhole under their home . They pretend to know nothing about Callum 's disappearance and try to continue with there lives . A car crash occurs and a large vehicle smashes into their home leading to the discovery of Callum 's body . Kylie and David try to convince Sarah to keep up their pretence and deny all knowledge of his murder . Tony Stewart , who had recently died , is blamed for the murder and David helps manipulate the situation so that police also believe the theory . Kylie decides that she cannot bring her children up in the home she killed Callum . She convinces David to permanently move to Barbados to be with her sister , Becky . To celebrate Kylie goes to the pub to collect champagne . She hears an argument and decides to investigate . She is shocked to find Gemma being attacked by Clayton and decides to intervene . He reacts by stabbing Kylie and she begins to bleed uncontrollably . David rushes to her aid and an ambulance is called . She acknowledges she is dying and says her goodbyes to David and Gail . She then dies and paramedics fail to resuscitate her .
= = Reception = =
Lane won Best Newcomer at the 2011 National Television Awards for her portrayal of Kylie . In February 2011 , she was nominated for Best Actress in the 2011 All About Soap Bubble Awards . Kylie was nominated in the category of " Villain of the Year " at the 2011 Inside Soap Awards . Digital Spy chose the moment Kylie reveals Max is her son as their " Picture of the day " . Sue Crawford of the Daily Mirror describes Kylie as a " seducer , brawler , thief and seller of her own son " and said that she is " one seriously troubled girl " . Tony Stewart of the same publication said that the Kylie and David pairing was " brilliant " . He also branded Kylie as " the ultimate chav " and a " gobby girl " . Susan Hill of the Daily Star similarly called her a " gobby chav " . Colin Robertson writing for The Sun labels Kylie as a " wild child " . When Tina and Graeme asked Kylie to keep their immigration scam a secret , Jaci Stephen of the Daily Mail quipped it was " a bit like asking Katie Price and Kerry Katona to stay out of the papers . " Stephen also disliked Kylie 's scenes during her fling with Gary . She said that they were " as interesting a double act as a kosher Pinky and Perky " and made the week 's episodes dull . Mandy Appleyard writing for television magazine Buzz said " conniving Kylie " has done some dreadful things since arriving . She added that between Kylie and David they had " seduced , brawled , lied , blackmailed , stolen and cheated . "
Julie Richardson writing for Orange U.K. said she " loves a good TV scrap " and the serial had " a corker " with Becky and Kylie 's fight . She also branded Kylie a " low @-@ life " . Tony Stewart of the Daily Mirror said that Kylie was right to taunt Tina as a loser . Though when Tina attacked her , he quipped that she should have kept " her chav trap shut and not wind up the fiery girl " . Hill also praised the fight , adding that it looked dramatic and was " one hell of a catfight " . Stewart 's Daily Mirror colleague Jim Shelley bemoaned Kylie 's return because it " absolutely ruined " Becky 's feud with Tracy .
Duncan Lndsay from Metro praised the Kylie 's departure and the on @-@ screen events that lead up to the moment . They branded the character 's death " harrowing , moving and memorable , the drama proved just how right soaps can get it . " Sophie Dainty ( Digital Spy ) said the scenes were some of the most heart @-@ breaking the show had ever aired . The Sun 's Louise Randell branded it a " horrifying knife drama " and " emotional farewell " . Jade Pike writing for the Liverpool Echo called it a highly anticpiated departure with viewers . They described " an emotional rollercoaster of a night as Kylie Platt appeared on the cobbles for the last time . "
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= The Altar and the Door =
The Altar and the Door is the third studio album by American Christian rock band Casting Crowns , released on August 28 , 2007 on Beach Street Records and Reunion Records . Produced by Mark A. Miller , the album was inspired by lead singer Mark Hall 's experience looking at the MySpace pages of his youth ministry students . The album 's main theme is the difference between how Christians feel in church and the compromises they make outside of it . Its musical tone , which Hall says is different and more progressive , incorporates more of a rock sound than their previous , more polished studio efforts .
The Altar and the Door received positive to mixed reviews from critics upon its release . Particular praise was given to the lyrics and the album 's overall concept , but some critics felt the album 's sound was mediocre and uninventive . The album received the award for Pop / Contemporary Album of the Year at the 39th GMA Dove Awards . It sold 129 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , a record for a Christian album with no secular media support , enabling a debut at number one on the Billboard Christian Albums chart and number two on the Billboard 200 and Digital Albums charts , only blocked on the latter charts by the soundtrack for High School Musical 2 . It later topped the Catalog Albums chart in 2010 . The 18th best @-@ selling Christian album of the 2000s , The Altar and the Door has sold 1 @.@ 2 million copies and has been certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . The lead single from The Altar and the Door , " East to West " , was one of the most successful Christian singles of the 2000s , spending a total of 19 weeks atop the Billboard Christian Songs chart and peaking at twenty @-@ five on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart . While not as successful as " East to West " , follow @-@ up singles " Every Man " and " Slow Fade " were both top five hits on the Christian Songs chart .
= = Background and recording = =
The main ideas for The Altar and the Door were inspired roughly eighteen months before the album 's release . Lead vocalist Mark Hall and his co @-@ youth pastor were encouraged by one of their students to look at MySpace . According to Hall , “ It wasn ’ t any major surprise , but we did see a lot of kids who had two worlds going on . MySpace can be Spring Break for the brain , this place you can go and not think anyone ’ s ever going to find out . Kids would be listed as Christians and then show their porn star name or what kind of kisser they are . They were just presenting so many contradictions on one page . The temptation was to just get upset and think that ’ s terrible . But MySpace isn ’ t really a big problem – it ’ s just revealing what the problem is " . He noted that this situation isn 't unique to teenagers and that while at church " we [ Christians ] want to serve [ God ] " but when " we get out there in the world ... it ’ s just different . We want to be accepted ; we want friends . The compromises start coming in small little increments until you ’ re just kind of out there . Church becomes more of a guilt activator than a place to go to be with the Lord . It ’ s a nasty place to live , and we all live there " . Hall says that " When we ’ re at the altar , everything ’ s clear , and it all makes perfect sense , and we know how to live . We know what ’ s right and what ’ s wrong . The struggle is getting this life at the altar out the door ... That ’ s the problem ; we ’ re finding ourselves somewhere in the middle " . Hall elaborated in a separate interview that " Somewhere between the altar and the door , it all leaks out and I 'm out here wondering what to do , rationalising things instead of living the life that 's in me . So the struggle that we have as believers is trying to get those truths ( that are ) in our heads and highlighted in our Bibles out to our hands and feet . The songs are all the things that happen in the middle of that " . Although Hall says that he " always think [ s ] lyrics first " , he felt that " Once we [ Casting Crowns ] got into the recording I knew we were in for something different , a more progressive approach to the music . These songs sounded different in my head ; they 've been a big challenge for us as a band . And the music definitely sets the tone for the whole project " .
The Altar and the Door was produced by Mark A. Miller . Most of the recording and all of the mixing for the album was done by Sam Hewitt at Zoo Studio in Franklin , Tennessee and My Refuge Studio in McDonough , Georgia ; additional recording was done by Michael Hewitt and Dale Oliver at those same locations . The strings on The Altar and the Door were arranged by Bernie Herms and recorded by Bill Whittington and Steve Beers at The Sound Kitchen in Franklin , Tennessee . The album was mastered by Richard Dodd .
= = Composition = =
Musically , The Altar and the Door has more influence from rock as compared to the group 's earlier efforts , which had influences from AC and pop . The album 's sound has been characterized as " flatter , rougher pop / rock " than the band 's previous , more polished efforts . The album mixes up @-@ tempo , guitar driven songs with " anthemic , arms in the air tracks " . " What This World Needs " demonstrates influences from rock music while the title track is driven by guitar . Tracks such as " The Word is Alive " and " Somewhere in the Middle " , the latter driven by piano , have a " huge " , anthemic sound . Ballads on the album include " Slow Fade " and " I Know You 're There " .
Lyrically , The Altar and the Door deals with Christian themes . " Slow Fade " deals with how moments of compromise and mistakes can lead to a " downward spiritual spiral " ; it urges listeners to make the right choices . " East to West " is about forgiveness and the skepticism with which humans accept it . " What This World Needs " calls the Christian church out for making Jesus ' message confusing by adding stuff to it ; it also looks at the current state of society . " Prayer for a Friend " is a " simple " song of intercession .
= = Critical reception and accolades = =
The Altar and the Door received positive to mixed reviews upon its release . Jared Johnson of Allmusic gave it four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars , saying it has a " slightly greater dose of rock " and " Casting Crowns gave fans no reason to be disappointed on Alter [ sic ] " . Deborah Evans @-@ Price of CCM Magazine gave it four out of five stars , commenting that " With this new set , [ Mark ] Hall and his companions again deliver songs that are musically engaging and lyrically insightful ... Few acts more eloquently capture the complexities of being a Christian in today ’ s tumultuous world , but these fine folks continue to help light the path for the rest of us " . Jennifer E. Jones of cbnmusic.com gave it four out of five spins , opining that " There ’ s a reason why Casting Crowns is one of the best Christian bands out today , and that reason is evident when you listen to The Altar and The Door . After three albums , lead singer / songwriter Mark Hall still knows how to speak for those who cannot ... The Altar and The Door leaves plenty of room for the sinners and the saints to come closer to Jesus " . Mark Lawrence of Cross Rhythms gave the album nine out of ten squares , saying " Traditionally album number three is a defining point in a band 's legacy : some bands self implode and produce an album high on production sheen but low on song quality ... other bands though go on to produce their masterpiece ... The Altar and the Door leans closer to the masterpiece than the flop but leaves you with a sense that they have even greater things to come ... The Altar And The Door ' is clearly a Casting Crowns album in sound , content and style but this is far from being a negative thing and will appeal to both existing fans as well as draw in new ones " . Brian Mansfield gave it two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of four stars , commenting that " [ Casting Crowns ] concern themselves with the space between the title ’ s two fixtures – that is , between intention and action , between doing good and getting in the way , or , as one song puts it , between “ the God we want and the God who is . ” That ’ s a space worth exploring , and the band ’ s motives may be the best , but their anthems are as predictable as a televangelist ’ s tears : start soft , build big , then cue the strings " .
Andree Farias of Christianity Today gave the album a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars , Farias praised Mark Hall 's lyrical style and the album 's lyrical concept and themes , but he criticized the music as being " meandering melodies and an all @-@ too @-@ solemn disposition " and said " core fans will undoubtedly support this album , but those expecting the vitality and radio @-@ friendliness of the band 's previous releases will find it a relatively challenging listening experience " . Justin Mabee of Jesus Freak Hideout gave it two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars , calling the lyrical content " slightly better [ than the band 's previous works ] " but deriding the music as " more of the same " .
At the 39th GMA Dove Awards , The Altar and the Door received the award for Pop / Contemporary Album of the Year . It was nominated for Best Pop / Contemporary Gospel Album at the 50th Grammy Awards . " East to West " received the awards for Song of the Year and Pop / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year at the 39th GMA Dove Awards and was nominated for Best Gospel Performance and Best Gospel Song at the 50th Grammy Awards ; it was also nominated for Best Gospel Performance at the 51st Grammy Awards .
= = Release and sales = =
The Altar and the Door was released on August 28 , 2007 . It sold 129 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , debuting at number two on the Billboard 200 , behind only the soundtrack to High School Musical 2 . It also debuted atop the Billboard Christian Albums chart and at number two on the Billboard Digital Albums chart . It was the band 's largest sales week and highest charting album to date , easily beating 2005 's Lifesong which debuted at number nine and sold 71 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . It was also the largest number of first @-@ week sales achieved by a Christian artist without support from secular media , with roughly 70 % of its first @-@ week sales coming from Christian stores . In its second week , The Altar and the Door sold 41 @,@ 000 copies . It topped the Billboard Christian Albums chart for 12 non @-@ consecutive weeks from 2007 – 2008 . As a result of the album being offered as a discount at Family Christian Stores , The Altar and the Door topped the Billboard Catalog Albums chart in 2010 ; it spent a total of five non @-@ consecutive weeks atop that chart . It has been certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , signifying shipments of more than 1 million copies . As of March 2014 , the album has sold 1 @.@ 2 million copies .
In the United States , The Altar and the Door ranked as the 144th best @-@ selling album and the fourth best @-@ selling Christian album of 2007 . It was the 95th best @-@ selling album and best @-@ selling Christian album of 2008 and the 25th best @-@ selling Christian album of 2009 . The Altar and the Door was the 18th best @-@ selling Christian album of the 2000s decade and has sold over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
= = Singles = =
Three singles were released from The Altar and the Door . Lead single " East to West " peaked at number one on the Billboard Christian Songs chart and spent nineteen weeks at the top spo , tied for the second @-@ longest run at the number one spot in the history of the chart . It also peaked at number twenty @-@ five on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart and ranked at number six on the decade @-@ end Christian Songs chart . The album 's second single " Every Man " , peaked at number two on the Christian Songs chart and at number one on the Radio & Records Soft AC / INSPO chart . " Slow Fade " , the album 's final single , peaked at number five on the Christian Songs chart .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits lifted from the album liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Chart procession and succession = = =
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= Tropical Storm Mekkhala ( 2015 ) =
Severe Tropical Storm Mekkhala , known in the Philippines as Tropical Storm Amang , was an early @-@ season tropical cyclone that made landfall over the Philippines in January 2015 . Mekkhala killed three people in the Bicol Region and caused light crop damage . Notably , the storm disturbed Pope Francis ’ visit to the country after the victims of Typhoon Haiyan on November 8 , 2013 . Although the storm also caused an airplane crash in Tacloban , nobody was hurt in the incident .
The system developed on January 13 between the Philippines and Guam . Moving west @-@ northwest for its duration , Mekkhala passed north of Yap State on January 14 while slowly intensifying due to moderate wind shear . Conditions became more favorable on January 16 , when the storm quickly strengthened to peak winds of at least 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) ; a ragged eye prompted the American @-@ based Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) to upgrade it to a typhoon . The storm weakened slightly and made landfall on the Philippine island of Samar on January 17 . Mekkhala weakened further over land , dissipating on January 21 east of Luzon .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical disturbance formed approximately 390 km ( 240 miles ) south @-@ southwest of Pohnpei early on January 9 . The system remained disorganized until the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert to it late on January 12 , when deepened convection with formative started to wrap into a slowly @-@ consolidating low @-@ level circulation center ( LLCC ) . Afterwards , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) upgraded the low @-@ pressure area to a tropical depression early on January 13 , as did the JTWC with the designation 01W Although deep convection was displaced to the northwest of an exposed LLCC early on January 14 , the JMA still upgraded the system to a tropical storm and named it Mekkhala , under moderate vertical wind shear offset by excellent poleward outflow . In post @-@ season analysis , the agency upgraded the storm at 12 : 00 UTC on the previous day . Late on January 14 , the PAGASA named the storm Amang right after it entered the Philippine Area of Responsibility .
Tracking west @-@ northwestward and then westward along the southern periphery of a subtropical ridge , Mekkhala was upgraded to a tropical storm by the JTWC early on January 15 , due to its slightly improved structure . Mekkhala quickly intensified on the next day due to improved conditions ; the wind shear became in @-@ phase with the storm 's motion while the robust divergent outflow persisted . Therefore , the JMA upgraded the system to a severe tropical storm at 06 : 00 UTC on January 16 , and later that day the JTWC upgraded it to a typhoon , when a central dense overcast has significantly deepened and totally obscured the LLCC . Later , a microwave imagery revealed that Mekkhala formed a ragged eyewall structure . The system reached peak intensity at 00 : 00 UTC on January 17 with ten @-@ minute maximum sustained winds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) , although operationally the JMA estimated typhoon @-@ force winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) .
After slightly weakening , Mekkhala tracked northwestward and made landfall over Dolores , Eastern Samar of the Philippines at around 15 : 00 Philippine Standard Time ( 07 : 00 UTC ) , where Typhoon Hagupit also made landfall the month before . Both the JMA and the JTWC downgraded Mekkhala to a tropical storm on January 17 , due to land interaction weakening the storm significantly . Mekkhala eroded further while crossing the Bicol Region on January 18 , leading the JTWC to downgrade it to a tropical depression when it turned northward and emerged into the Philippine Sea . Late on the same day , the JMA downgraded Mekkhala to a tropical depression , and shortly after the JTWC issued the final warning as strong wind shear exposed the LLCC . The tropical depression drifted northeastward and maintained its exposed low @-@ level circulation east of Luzon , until the system was completely absorbed by a stationary front early on January 21 .
= = Impact = =
During January 14 , Mekkhala passed about 95 km ( 60 mi ) to the north of Yap State and less than 45 km ( 30 mi ) to the south of the atoll Ulithi . A peak wind gust of 58 km / h ( 36 mph ) was recorded in Yap State , along with a rainfall total of around 13 mm ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) . On Ulithi a rainfall total of 100 mm ( 4 in ) was recorded , while there were no reports of any deaths or significant damage on either Ulithi or in Yap State .
Severe Tropical Storm Mekkhala , also known as Tropical Storm Amang , killed three people in the Bicol Region of the Philippines . Damage in the region amounted to ₱ 318 @.@ 7 million ( US $ 7 @.@ 1 million ) , stemming mostly from agriculture . In addition , the storm caused agricultural damage of ₱ 30 @.@ 3 million ( US $ 680 @,@ 000 ) in Samar . The crop damage and a subsequent drought caused rice shortages in the country , prompting the government to import the grain in May 2015 . Throughout the country , 48 homes were destroyed while a further 490 sustained damage . Infrastructural losses reached ₱ 49 @.@ 7 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 1 million ) ; repairs to roadways was quick and completed by January 21 . A volunteer from the Bicol Region , who worked for a Catholic Relief Services station in Salcedo , Eastern Samar , was hit by a soundbox due to a collapsed scaffolding caused by heavy winds during a papal Mass held in Daniel Z. Romualdez Airport in Tacloban , Leyte .
To comfort Tacloban people who suffered from the devastating disaster caused by Typhoon Haiyan in 2013 , and Typhoon Hagupit a month prior , Pope Francis visited the storm @-@ ravaged city on January 17 . However , the schedule is significantly impacted by Severe Tropical Storm Mekkhala , making thousands of pilgrims and even Pope himself have to wear a raincoat during the rain @-@ soaked Mass in the airport . Only several minutes after Pope Francis ’ own aircraft left the airport , a private jet was veered off the runway by strong winds of Mekkhala and eventually crashed . The 15 passengers on the plane were all safe , including many officials from the Cabinet of the Philippines .
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= Lollipop ( Param Pam Pam ) =
" Lollipop ( Param Pam Pam ) " is the debut song recorded by Romanian recording artist Alexandra Stan for her debut studio album , Saxobeats ( 2011 ) . The track was written by Marcel Prodan and Andrei Nemirschi , and produced by Prodan . It was first released in Romania in 2009 . Following the international success of Stan 's 2010 single " Mr. Saxobeat " , " Lollipop ( Param Pam Pam ) " was re @-@ released in Canada , Germany , and the United States in 2011 . The music video for " Lollipop ( Param Pam Pam ) " features Stan and other female dancers dancing to the song in front of a purple backdrop ; interspersed scenes portray Stan licking a lollipop . She herself described the song as " club @-@ friendly " and as featuring " funny lyrics " , while music critics praised it for being a " catchy pop song " and a " club sensation " . Commercially , the single peaked at number 18 on her native Romanian Top 100 .
= = Background , composition and reception = =
Before being signed to a record label , Stan participated in various music @-@ related contests , including the Mamaia Music Festival . In 2009 , she was discovered by Romanian producers and songwriters Marcel Prodan and Andrei Nemirschi at a karaoke bar . They offered her a record deal with their own label , Maan Records , through which she also released a promotional single called " Show Me The Way " . During one of Stan 's televised performances on Romanian TV show Acces Direct , she explained that " Lollipop ( Param Pam Pam ) " was produced " just for fun " after she arrived from a club one night . When interviewed by Urban.ro while premiering Saxobeats , Stan confessed that she expected positive and negative reception for the song , also saying that it emphasised more her image than her vocal abilities .
While Stan said that the track was " club @-@ friendly " and features " funny lyrics " , German magazine Klatsch Tratsch named it a " catchy pop song " . Celeste Rhoads , writing for AllMusic , praised " Lollipop ( Param Pam Pam ) " during his review for Saxobeats , calling it a " club sensation " along with 2011 singles " Mr. Saxobeat " and " Get Back ( ASAP ) " . Mike Schiller from PopMatters described the production of the track " generic " and its lyrics " crude " , while wishing " that it had been conveniently forgotten about [ on the album ] " .
= = Impact and promotion = =
The song reached number 18 on Stan 's native Romanian Top 100 , being extensively broadcast by domestic radio stations there . It also impacted mainstream radio stations from the United States in early 2010 . Meanwhile , the music video for " Lollipop ( Param Pam Pam ) " garnered 25 million views on YouTube a short time . Following this , various labels from the United Kingdom , Ireland , Canada , Czech Republic , Russia , Italy , France , Israel and the United States asked for license to release the song through their means . In order to promote the single , Stan was invited to perform the recording on various native TV shows , with her as well embarking on a tour in her native Romania . She also provided a live performance of the single during the 2012 Après Ski Hits event in Germany , and sang the song during the concert tours that promoted Saxobeats .
A low @-@ budget accompanying music video for " Lollipop ( Param Pam Pam ) " was posted onto Maan Studio 's YouTube channel on 22 December 2009 and filmed by Andrei Nemirschi in a restaurant . The whole clip portrays Stan and two fellow female dancers performing in front of a purple backdrop . It commences with Stan asking herself which sweets she likes the most , with the words " candy " , " chocolate " and " ice cream " appearing on the screen . Following this , the other females are presented wearing white underwear until one of them is shown with a saxophone . Next , Stan is shown blowing a bubble with bubble gum and , after she further dances to the song , the clip ends with the screen displaying the phrase " param pam pam " and finally becoming dark . Scenes interspersed through the main video portrayed Stan seductively licking a lollipop . The clip was not received well by the audience . Spanish @-@ language music station Los 40 Principales named the video for " Lollipop ( Param Pam Pam ) " as one of Stan 's best clips ever .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
Lollipop ( Param Pam Pam ) [ Radio Edit ] − 3 : 55
Lollipop ( Param Pam Pam ) [ Club Edit ] − 4 : 12
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Saxobeats and The Collection .
Maan Studio – recording studio
Marcel Prodan – songwriter , producer
Andrei Nemirschi – songwriter , photography , director
Alexandra Stan – lead vocals
= = Charts = =
= = Release = =
= = = Process = = =
" Lollipop ( Param Pam Pam ) " was released as Stan 's debut recording in her native Romania in late 2009 , charting early in the following year . After the international success of her breakthrough single " Mr. Saxobeat " ( 2011 ) , it was also made available for digital download on iTunes Store through Ultra Records on 31 May 2011 in Canada and the United States . In Germany , the single was launched digitally on 9 September 2011 through Prime Music , within the period of the release of its parent record , Saxobeats ( 2011 ) .
= = = History = = =
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= Army of the Danube =
The Army of the Danube ( French : Armée du Danube ) was a field army of the French Directory in the 1799 southwestern campaign in the Upper Danube valley . It was formed on 2 March 1799 by the simple expedient of renaming the Army of Observation , which had been observing Austrian movements on the border between French First Republic and the Holy Roman Empire . It was commanded by General Jean @-@ Baptiste Jourdan , 1st Comte Jourdan ( 1762 – 1833 ) .
The formation of the army was part of the French Directory 's long term strategy to undermine Habsburg influence in the Holy Roman Empire , and , conversely , to strengthen French hegemony in central Europe after the wars of the First Coalition and the Treaty of Campo Formio in 1797 . Despite the Treaty , Austria and France remained suspicious of each other 's motives , and the purpose of the Army of the Observation was to watch for Austrian border transgressions . Understanding that the negotiations at the Congress of Rastatt were going no @-@ where , the Army of Observation was instructed to cross the Rhine . Once across the Rhine , the Army of the Danube , was to secure strategic positions in southwestern Germany ( present day Baden @-@ Württemberg ) and engage Archduke Charles ' Austrian army . In the meantime , the Army of Helvetia , under command of André Masséna , would secure such strategic locations as St. Gotthard Pass , the Swiss Plateau , and upper Rhine basin .
The army participated in four battles . In the battles of Ostrach and first Stockach , the Army of the Danube withdrew after suffering heavy losses . After reorganization , in which elements of the army were combined with Massena 's Army of Switzerland , it withdrew after an engagement with Charles ' superior force at Zürich in early June 1799 ; only in the Second Battle of Zurich did the Army of the Danube secure an uncontested victory . In December 1799 , the Army of the Danube merged with the Army of the Rhine .
= = Background = =
Initially , such rulers of Europe as Joseph II , Holy Roman Emperor viewed the revolution in France as an event between the French king and his subjects , and not something in which they should interfere . As the rhetoric grew more strident , the monarchies started to view events with distrust . Leopold , who had succeeded Joseph as Emperor in 1791 , saw the situation surrounding his sister , Marie Antoinette , and her children , with greater and greater alarm . As the revolution grew more and more radical , he still sought to avoid war , but in the late summer , he , in consultation with French émigré nobles and Frederick William II of Prussia , issued the Declaration of Pillnitz , in which they declared the interest of the monarchs of Europe as one with the interests of Louis and his family . They threatened vague , but serious , consequences if anything should happen to the royal family .
By 1792 , the French republican position had become increasingly difficult . Compounding internal economic and social problems , French émigrés agitated abroad for support of a counter @-@ revolution that would restore an absolute monarchy . Chief among them were Louis Joseph , Prince of Condé ( cousin of Louis XVI ) , Condé 's son , Louis Henri , Duke of Bourbon , and Condé 's grandson , Louis Antoine , Duke of Enghien . From their base in Koblenz , immediately over the French border , they sought direct support for military intervention from the royal houses of Europe , and themselves raised a small army . The ascension of young and uncompromising Francis as Holy Roman Emperor @-@ elect on the death of his father in July 1792 also contributed to their unease .
On 20 April 1792 , the French National Convention declared war on Austria . In this War of the First Coalition ( 1792 – 98 ) , France ranged itself against most of the European states sharing land or water borders with her , plus Portugal and the Ottoman Empire . Although the Coalition forces achieved several victories at Verdun , Kaiserslautern , Neerwinden , Mainz , Amberg and Würzburg , the efforts of Napoleon Bonaparte in northern Italy pushed Austrian forces across the Italian @-@ Austrian border and resulted in the negotiation of the Peace of Leoben ( 17 April 1797 ) and the subsequent Treaty of Campo Formio ( October 1797 ) .
From October 1797 until the Army of the Danube crossed into Germany in March 1799 , the signatories of the Treaty of Campo Formio had avoided armed conflict . Despite their agreement at Campo Formio , the two primary combatants , France and Austria , remained suspicious of each other 's motives . Several diplomatic incidents undermined the agreement . The French demanded additional territory not mentioned in the Treaty . The Habsburgs were reluctance to hand over designated territories , much less additional ones . The Congress at Rastatt proved inept at orchestrating the transfer of territories to compensate the German princes for their losses . Ferdinand of Naples refused to pay tribute to France , followed by a general Neapolitan rebellion , the French suppression , and the subsequent establishment of the Parthenopean Republic . Republicans in the Swiss cantons , supported by the French army , overthrew the central government in Bern and established the Helvetic Republic .
Other factors contributed to the rising tensions . On his way to Egypt , Napoleon had stopped on Malta and forcibly removed the Hospitallers from their possessions , angering Paul , Tsar of Russia , who was the honorary head of the Order . The French Directory , furthermore , was convinced that the Austrians were conniving to start another war . Indeed , the weaker the French Republic seemed , the more seriously the Austrians , the Neapolitans , the Russians and the English actually discussed this possibility .
= = Purpose and formation = =
Military planners in Paris understood that the northern Rhine Valley , the south @-@ western German territories , and Switzerland were strategically important for the defense of the Republic . The Swiss passes commanded access to northern Italy ; consequently , the army that held those passes could move troops to and from northern and southern theaters quickly . The river was a formidable barrier to what the French perceived as Austrian aggression , and the state that controlled its crossings controlled the river itself . Finally , control of the Upper Danube would allow France to move its troops from Italy to the North Sea , or any point in between , offering immense strategic value .
Toward this end , in the early November 1798 , Jourdan arrived in Hüningen , near the Swiss city of Basel , to take command of the Army of Observation , so @-@ called because its function was to observe the security of the French border on the Rhine . Once there , Jourdan assessed the quality and disposition of the forces and identified needed supplies and manpower . He found the army woefully inadequate for its assignment . The Army , and its flanking armies , the Army of Helvetia ( Switzerland ) and the Army of Mayence , were equally short of manpower , supplies , ammunition , and training . Jourdan documented assiduously these shortages , pointing out in lengthy correspondence to the Directory the consequences of an under @-@ manned and under @-@ supplied army ; his petitions seemed to have little effect on the Directory , which sent neither significant additional manpower nor supplies .
Jourdan 's orders were to take the army into Germany and secure strategic positions , particularly on the roads through Stockach and Schaffhausen , at the western @-@ most border of Lake Constance . Similarly , as commander of the Army of Helvetia , André Masséna would acquire strategic positions in Switzerland , in particular the St. Gotthard Pass , the passes above Feldkirch , particularly Maienfeld ( St. Luciensteig ) , and hold the central plateau in and around Zürich and Winterthur . These positions would prevent the Allies of the Second Coalition from moving troops back and forth between the northern Italian and German theaters , and insure French access to these strategic passes . Ultimately , this positioning would allow the French to control all western roads leading to and from Vienna . Finally , to complete Vienna 's isolation , the army of Mayence would sweep through the north , blocking further access to and from Vienna from any of the northern Provinces , or from Britain .
= = Crossing the Rhine = =
On March 1 , 1799 , the Army of Observation , in an order of battle of approximately 30 @,@ 000 men in four divisions , crossed the Rhine at Kehl and Basel as units crossed , they took the name Army of the Danube .
Advance Guard , with approximately 9 @,@ 000 men under General François Joseph Lefebvre , and temporary commanded by Dominique Vandamme . This also included the detached left flank of 3 @,@ 000 Vandamme eventually took to Stuttgart .
I. Division , with approximately 8 @,@ 000 men under General Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino .
II . Division , with approximately 7 @,@ 000 men under General Joseph Souham .
III . Division , approximately 7 @,@ 000 men under Laurent Saint @-@ Cyr constituted the left flank .
Reserve , with approximately 3 @,@ 000 men under Jean @-@ Joseph Ange d 'Hautpoul .
The army advanced in four columns . First Division , the right wing , assembled at Hüningen , crossed at Basel and advanced eastward along the north shore of the Rhine toward Lake Constance . The Advanced Guard crossed at Kehl , and Vandamme led it north @-@ east through the mountains via Freudenstadt . This column eventually became the left flank . It was followed across the Rhine , also at Kehl , by the II . Division . The Third Division and the Reserve also crossed at Kehl , and then divided into two columns , III . Division traveling through the Black Forest via Oberkirch , and the Reserve , with most of the artillery and horse , further south via the valley at Freiburg im Breisgau , where they would find more forage , and then over the mountains past the Titisee to Löffingen and Hüfingen .
Although Jourdan could have established a position on the immediate eastern slope of the mountains — and indeed he might have been better advised to do so — he pushed eastward across the Danube plain , taking a temporary position between Rottweil and Tuttlingen . Eventually he directed the army to establish a line centered in Pfullendorf . He planned to engage the Austrian army under the Habsburg commander @-@ in @-@ chief Archduke Charles on the Ostrach plateau .
While this may have seemed like a good plan , Jourdan 's choice of ground created problems for him later . The plain below Pfullendorf was riddled with such streams and brooks as the Ostrach , a Danube tributary , which drained out of the marshes and swamps of Pfrungenried ; in the spring of most years , this was not the best choice of ground . Although from Pfullendorf and the more moderate heights to the north of the village of Ostrach , Jourdan could establish reasonable artillery positions , the softness of the marshland itself would diminish the impact of a cannonade on the Austrian line . The marsh was also prone to fogginess , which would hinder visual planning and tactics . Furthermore , the softness of the ground would make the use of cavalry difficult , and cavalry maneuvers would be made more difficult by the likelihood of fog . Finally , the major part of Charles ' army had wintered immediately east of the Lech , which Jourdan knew , because he had sent agents into Germany with instructions to identify the location and strength of his enemy . This was less than 64 kilometers ( 40 mi ) distant ; any passage over the Lech was facilitated by available bridges , both of permanent construction and temporary pontoons and a traverse through friendly territory .
= = Engagements = =
In March 1799 , the Army of the Danube engaged in two major battles , both in the southwestern German theater . At the Battle of Ostrach , 20 – 22 March 1799 , the first battle of the War of the Second Coalition , Austrian forces , under the command of Archduke Charles , defeated French forces . The French suffered significant losses and were forced to retreat from the region , taking up new positions at Messkirch ( also spelled Mößkirch or Meßkirch ) , and then at Stockach and Engen . At the second battle , in Stockach , on 25 March 1799 , the Austrian army achieved a decisive victory over the French forces , and again pushed the French army west . Jourdan instructed his generals to take up positions in the Black Forest , and he himself established a base at Hornberg . From there , General Jourdan relegated command of the army to his chief of staff , Jean Augustin Ernouf , and traveled to Paris to ask for more and better troops and , ultimately , when these were not forthcoming , to request a medical leave . The Army was reorganized , and a portion placed under the command of André Masséna and merged with the Army of Helvetia . Following the reorganization and change in command , the Army participated in the Battle of Winterthur and the First Battle of Zürich and , three months later , the Second Battle of Zürich .
= = = Battle of Ostrach = = =
The Battle of Ostrach , also called the Battle by Ostrach , occurred 20 – 23 March 1799 . In early March , the Army of the Danube pressed forward toward Pfullendorf and Ostrach , the former an imperial city in Upper Swabia and the latter a nearby village of 300 belonging to the Imperial Abbey of Salem . Their goal was to cut the Austrian line at Switzerland , preventing the Coalition use of Switzerland as an overland route between central and southern Europe . This would ostensibly isolate the armies of the Coalition in northern Italy and Germany , and prevent them from assisting one another ; furthermore , if the French held the interior passes in Switzerland , they could use the routes to move their own forces between the two theaters .
The battle occurred during Holy Week in 1799 , amid rain and dense fog , on the marsh southeast of the village . Initially , on 20 March , the French were able to take , and hold , the village of Ostrach and the nearby hamlet of Hoßkirch . On the morning of 21 March , as General Jourdan later wrote , as the Austrian army attacked , his men seemed to disappear in a cloud of redcoats , which referred to the Austrian Hussar and Grenadier uniforms . That evening , after more than 15 hours in general engagement , the Austrians flanked his left wing , and Saint Cyr 's force was pressed back to the Pfullendorf heights . In the early morning , as the fog lifted , Jourdan could see the Archduke 's formidable force arrayed on the plains below him . The archduke 's arrangements made it clear that Jourdan could not keep the heights of Pfullendorf . As he withdrew , a portion of his right flank was cut off from the main force .
Although casualties appeared even in numbers for both sides , the Austrians fielded a significantly larger fighting force of nearly 55 @,@ 000 at Ostrach , with another 60 @,@ 000 stretched along a line between Lake Constance and Ulm . French casualties amounted to more than 12 percent of their force , and Austrian , approximately four percent . The French were forced back to Stockach , where on 25 March the armies engaged again , this time with greater losses on both sides , and a decisive Austrian victory .
= = = Battle of Stockach = = =
At the Battle of Stockach , Jean @-@ Baptiste Jourdan and Archduke Charles again directed the French force of 40 @,@ 000 and the Austrian force of 80 @,@ 000 , respectively . While attempting to rally his troops , Jourdan was dismounted , nearly trampled to death by his soldiers , and barely escaped capture by the Austrians . Charles ' personal intervention was crucial for the Austrians , and he was in the thick of the fighting , buying time for reinforcements to arrive . The French were defeated and driven back upon the Rhine .
The general engagement was brutal and bloody . Before daybreak on 25 March , the French left wing launched a headlong attack on the Austrian right wing , coordinated with assaults on the Austrian left . The ferocious attack forced the Austrians out of the woods in which they had been positioned overnight , and pushed them to the village of Schwanndorf . Fearing that his forces would shortly be flanked , Charles directed reinforcements to back up the right wing . The Archduke himself led eight battalions of Hungarian grenadiers into the fight , and during this part of the action , both the Prince of Anhalt and Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg were killed by French case shot . The main French assault on the Austrian center was stalled by the superior numbers .
On the French right flank , General Ferino attempted to push the Austrians back , first with a cannonade , followed by an attack through the woods on both sides of the road between the hamlet of Asch and Stockach . A third charge succeeded in taking the road , but the Austrian forces reformed the line and the artillery , now at the head of a wedge , bombarded the French troops . In a bayonet charge , the French took the hamlet of Wahlweiss , but Ferino 's troops could not hold it and withdrew during the night . Jourdan then ordered a general withdrawal from the region , instructing his divisions to retreat along the lines of march they had followed into the region , and himself establishing a command post at Hornberg . He sent the cavalry to the western side of the Black Forest , where the horses could expect to find better forage .
= = = Battle of Winterthur = = =
By mid @-@ May , 1799 , the Austrians had wrested control of the eastern portions of the newly formed Helvetic Republic from the French as the forces of Hotze and pushed them out of the Grisons . Archduke Charles ' own sizable force — about 110 @,@ 000 strong — crossed the Rhine west of Schaffhausen , and prepared to join with the armies of Friedrich , Baron von Hotze and Friedrich Joseph , Count of Nauendorf on the Swiss Plateau by Zürich . The French Army of Switzerland and the Army of the Danube , now both under the command of André Masséna , tried to prevent this merger of the Austrian forces at the Winterthur crossroads .
Masséna sent the newly promoted General of Division Michel Ney and part of the Army of the Danube to Winterthur on 27 May 1799 to stop the Austrian advance from eastern Switzerland . If the Austrians succeeded in uniting Hotze 's army from the east with Nauendorf 's directly north of Zurich , and Archduke Charles ' which lay to the north and west , the French would be half encircled at Zurich and dangerously exposed .
On the morning of 27 May , Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze assembled his force into three columns and marched toward Winterthur . Opposite him , Michel Ney deployed his force around the heights , the so @-@ called Ober @-@ Winterthur , a ring of low @-@ lying hills some 6 kilometers ( 4 mi ) north of the city . The overall commander of the forward line , Jean Victor Tharreau , had informed Ney that he would send Jean @-@ de @-@ Dieu Soult 's division to support him ; Ney understood this to mean he was to make a stand along the entire outpost line , and that he would not be isolated . His small force would receive reinforcements from Soult 's division . Consequently , Ney directed the weakest brigade , under the command of Gazan , to move up a long valley toward Frauenfeld , and another brigade , under the command of Roget , to take the right , preventing any Austrian flanking maneuver .
By mid @-@ morning , Hotze 's advanced guard had encountered moderate French resistance first from the two brigades Ney had at his disposal . The Austrian advance troops quickly overran the weaker brigade and took possession of the woods surrounding the village of Islikon . After securing the villages of Gundeschwil , Schottikon , Wiesendangen , and Stogen , further west of Islikon , Hotze deployed two of his columns facing the French front , while a third angled to the French right , as Ney had expected he would . Soult never appeared ( he was later court martialed for insubordination ) , and Ney withdrew his forces through Winterthur , regrouping with Tharreau 's main force in the outskirts of Zurich . A day later , Hotze 's force united with the main Austrian force of Archduke Charles .
= = = First Battle of Zürich = = =
In the First Battle of Zürich , on 4 – 7 June 1799 , approximately 45 @,@ 000 French and 53 @,@ 000 Austrians clashed on the plains around the city . On the left wing , Hotze had 20 battalions of infantry , plus support artillery , and 27 squadrons of cavalry , in total , 19 @,@ 000 men . On the right wing , General Friedrich Joseph , Count of Nauendorf commanded another 18 @,@ 000 . The battle cost both sides dearly ; General of Brigade Cherin was killed , on the French side , and on the Austrian side , Feldzeugmeister ( General of Infantry ) Olivier , Count of Wallis , was killed . On the French side , 500 died , 800 were wounded and 300 captured ; on the Austrian side , 730 killed , 1 @,@ 470 wounded , and 2 @,@ 200 captured . When the Austrians took the French positions in the city , they also captured over 150 guns . Ultimately , French general André Masséna yielded the city to the Austrians , under Archduke Charles . Massena retreated beyond the Limmat , where he managed to fortify his positions . Hotze 's force harassed their retreat , and secured the river shoreline . Despite Hotze 's aggressive harassment of the French retreat , Charles did not follow up on the withdrawal ; Masséna established himself on the opposite bank of the Limmat without threat of pursuit from the main body of the Austrian Army , much to the annoyance of the Russian liaison officer , Alexander Ivanovich , Count Ostermann @-@ Tolstoy .
On 14 August 1799 , a Russian force of 6 @,@ 000 cavalry , 20 @,@ 000 infantry , and 1 @,@ 600 Cossacks , under Alexander Korsakov , joined Archduke Charles ' force in Schaffhausen . In a vice @-@ like operation , together with the Russians , they would surround André Masséna 's smaller army on the banks of the Limmat , where it had taken refuge the previous spring . To divert this attack , General Claude Lecourbe attacked the pontoon bridges over which the Austrians crossed the Rhine , destroying most of them , and making the rest unusable .
Before Charles could regroup , orders arrived from the Aulic Council , the imperial body in Vienna charged with conduct of war , to overset his plan ; Charles ' troops were to leave Zurich in the supposedly capable hands of Korsokov , re @-@ cross the Rhine and march north to Mainz . Charles stalled this operation as long as he could , but eventually he had to concede to Vienna 's orders . Consequently , the Russian troops under a novice general replaced the Austrian troops and their seasoned commander in the strategically important city . Charles withdrew his force to the north of the Rhine and marched slowly toward Mainz . In Italy , the Russian generalissimo , Alexander Suvorov , was horrified when he heard this : he depended upon a stable Austro @-@ Russian presence in Switzerland to protect his flank and he expected to join this army by September or October at the latest . Although the order to Charles to recross the Rhine and march north was eventually countermanded , by the time such instructions reached him , he had gone too far to return to Zurich in time .
= = = Second Battle of Zürich = = =
In the Second Battle of Zürich , the French regained control of the city , along with the rest of Switzerland . Notably , Masséna out @-@ generaled Korsakov ; surrounded him , tricked him , and then took more than half his army as a prisoner . Massena also captured the baggage train and most of Korsakov cannons , and inflicted over 8 @,@ 000 casualties . Most of the fighting took place on both banks of the river Limmat , up to the gates of Zürich , and in part within the city itself . Zürich had declared itself neutral , and was spared general destruction . General Oudinot commanded the French forces on the right bank and general Joseph Mortier , those on the left .
At the same time , Soult led a small force , some 150 musket @-@ men , across the river Linth — the men held their muskets over their heads and waded across , through water to their chests — and protected the crossing site for the remainder of the force . Baron von Hotze , commander of the Austrian force there , advanced on the position near Richterswil to direct its defense , and was killed by a French musket ball . His successor , Franz Petrasch , could not push the French back , and organized a retreat from the region , falling back to St. Gallen and losing another 8 @,@ 000 men and some guns . By the time Suvorov arrived in St. Gallen in early October , the Austrians and the Russians had been pushed out and he was forced to lead his men over the Alps to the Vorarlberg , resulting in additional losses .
= = Organizational and command problems = =
The French army experienced a variety of command problems , especially in its early operations in southwestern Germany . After the defeat at Stockach , the army withdrew into the Black Forest . Jourdan relinquished command provisionally to Ernouf , who was a capable staff officer but had insufficient experience to hold together a varied and demoralized force . Jourdan retired to Strasbourg , where he was , or claimed he was , indisposed . By the time Masséna arrived to take command , organization and discipline was in shambles . Only four divisional generals had remained at their posts : Klein , Ferino , Souham , and Vandamme . Decaen was under arrest in Strasbourg , pending a Courts @-@ martial , as was d 'Hautpoul , for his failure to organize a timely cavalry attack at Stockach . The others had disappeared to different parts of the southwest or had gone to France . No one knew where Bernadotte had gone , and Saint Cyr had retired to Mannheim . The latter was at least reachable . Lecourbe , who had been injured at Stockach , had withdrawn to Paris to recover ; in a strategically astute move , he remained there until late November , when he was able to offer Napoleon direct assistance in his coup , and thus acquired Bonaparte 's attention and gratitude .
= = = School for marshals = = =
Initially , the Army included five future Marshals of France : Jean @-@ Baptiste Jourdan , its commander @-@ in @-@ chief , François Joseph Lefebvre , Jean @-@ Baptiste Drouet , Laurent de Gouvion Saint @-@ Cyr , and Édouard Adolphe Casimir Joseph Mortier . After the defeat at Ostrach , the Army was reorganized and command shifted to another future marshal , André Masséna .
= = Subsequent variations = =
The Army of Switzerland and portions of the Army of the Danube merged in a joint command under André Masséna in April 1799 ; in June , portions of the Army of the Danube were used to strengthen the Army of the Rhine . Both the Army of the Rhine and the Army of the Danube subsequently merged in 24 November 1799 to form a new , enlarged army designated the Army of the Rhine .
= = Commanders = =
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= Libellus responsionum =
The Libellus responsionum ( Latin for " little book of answers " ) is a papal letter ( also known as a papal rescript or decretal ) written in 601 by Pope Gregory I to Augustine of Canterbury in response to several of Augustine 's questions regarding the nascent church in Anglo @-@ Saxon England . The Libellus was reproduced in its entirety by Bede in his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum , whence it was transmitted widely in the Middle Ages , and where it is still most often encountered by students and historians today . Before it was ever transmitted in Bede 's Historia , however , the Libellus circulated as part of several different early medieval canon law collections , often in the company of texts of a penitential nature .
The authenticity of the Libellus ( notwithstanding Boniface 's suspicions , on which see below ) was not called into serious question until the mid @-@ twentieth century , when several historians forwarded the hypothesis that the document had been concocted in England in the early eighth century . It has since been shown , however , that this hypothesis was based on incomplete evidence and historical misapprehensions . In particular , twentieth @-@ century scholarship focused on the presence in the Libellus of what appeared to be an impossibly lax rule regarding consanguinity and marriage , a rule that ( it was thought ) Gregory could not possibly have endorsed . It is now known that this rule is not in fact as lax as historians had thought , and moreover that the rule is fully consistent with Gregory 's style and mode of thought . Today , Gregory I 's authorship of the Libellus is generally accepted . The question of authenticity aside , manuscript and textual evidence indicates that the document was being transmitted in Italy by perhaps as early as the beginning of the seventh century ( i.e. shortly after Gregory I 's death in 604 ) , and in England by the end of the same century .
= = Creation = =
The Libellus is a reply by Pope Gregory I to questions posed by Augustine of Canterbury about certain disciplinary , administrative , and sacral problems he was facing as he tried to establish a bishopric amongst the Kentish people following the initial success of the Gregorian mission in 596 . Modern historians , including Ian Wood and Rob Meens , have seen the Libellus as indicating that Augustine had more contact with native British Christians than is indicated by Bede 's narrative in the Historia Ecclesia . Augustine 's original questions would have been sent to Rome around 598 , but Gregory 's reply was delayed some years due to illness , and was not composed until perhaps the summer of 601 . The Libellus may have been brought back to Augustine by Laurence and Peter , along with letters to the king of Kent and his wife and other items for the mission . However , some scholars have pointed out that the Libellus may in fact never have reached its intended recipient ( Augustine ) in Canterbury . Paul Meyvaert , for example , has noted that no early Anglo @-@ Saxon copy of the Libellus survives that is earlier than Bede 's Historia ecclesiastica ( ca 731 ) , and Bede 's copy appears to derive not from a Canterbury file copy but rather from a Continental canon law collection . This would be strange had the letter arrived in Canterbury in the first place . A document as important to the fledgling mission and to the history of the Canterbury church as the Libellus is likely to have been protected and preserved quite carefully by Canterbury scribes ; yet this seems not to have been the case . Meyvaert therefore suggested that the Libellus may have been waylaid on its journey north in 601 from Rome to England , and only later arrived in England , long after Augustine 's death . This theory is supported well by the surviving manuscript and textual evidence , which strongly suggests that the Libellus circulated widely on the Continent for perhaps nearly a century before finally arriving in England ( see below ) . Still , the exact time , place , and vector by which the Libellus arrived in England and fell into Bede 's hands is still far from certain , and scholars continue to explore these questions .
= = Title = =
Gregory does not appear to have provided the Libellus with a title . This is not unusual since the work is a letter and Gregory was not in the habit of titling his many letters . " Libellus responsionum " is the name given the letter by Bede in his Historia Ecclesiastica , and most modern commentators translate Bede 's nomenclature as " Little book of answers " or " Little book of responses " . " Libellus " can also be translated as " letter " ; thus " Letter of answers " is another possible translation .
= = Contents = =
The Libellus consists of a series of questions posed by Augustine and answered by Gregory . There are nine different questions that are asked , although some questions address multiple issues at once . Gregory 's first response addresses questions about the relationship of a bishop to his clergy and vice versa , how gifts from the laymen to the church should be divided amongst the clergy , and what the tasks of a bishop were . The second reply addresses why the various regional churches had differing customs and liturgies , and what Augustine should do when he encounters these differences . The third reply was in answer to questions about the proper punishment of church robbers . The fourth and fifth responses deal with who might marry whom , including whether it was allowed for two brothers to marry two sisters , or for a man to marry his step @-@ sister or step @-@ mother . The sixth response concerns whether it was acceptable for a bishop to be consecrated without other bishops present , if the distances involved prevented other bishops from attending the ceremony . The next question from Augustine dealt with the relations between the church in England and the church in Gaul . The eighth response concerns what a pregnant , newly delivered , or menstruating woman might do or not do , including whether or not she is allowed to enjoy sex with her husband and how long after child @-@ birth she has to wait to re @-@ enter a church . The last response deals with questions about whether men might have communion after a sexual dream or if priests might celebrate mass after similar dreams . An additional chapter , not included by Bede in his Historia is known as the " Obsecratio " : it contains a reply by Gregory to Augustine 's request for relics of the local martyr Sixtus . Gregory 's reply says that he is sending relics of Pope Sixtus II to replace the local saint 's remains , as Gregory has doubts about the actual saintly status of the local saint . Although the authenticity of the " Obsecratio " has occasionally been questioned , most modern historians accept that it is genuine .
= = Later use = =
In the early seventh century an augmented version of the Dionysian conciliar and decretal collections was assembled in Bobbio , in northern Italy . To this canon law collection — known today as the Collectio canonum Dionysiana Bobiensis — there was appended at some time a long series of additional papal documents and letters , including the Libellus responsionum and Libellus synodicus . Some scholars date the addition of this series of documents to as early as the seventh century . Klaus Zechiel @-@ Eckes has even suggested the first half of the seventh century as the date for when the addition was made , that is only shortly after the Bobiensis ’ s initial compilation and at most only fifty years after Gregory ’ s death . If Zechiel @-@ Eckes 's dating is correct , it would make the Collectio Bobiensis the earliest surviving witness by far to the Libellus .
How and when the Libellus eventually reached England is not clear . It is not known if the original letter ever reached Augustine , its intended recipient . Bede assumed that it had , though he is rather vague on specifics at this point . On the strength of Bede 's word alone many later historians have claimed that the Libellus reached Augustine in a timely fashion ; however , as mentioned above , recent scholarship has brought this assumption into serious question . In any event , some version of the letter seems to have been available in England by the late seventh century , for it was then that it was quoted by Archbishop Theodore of Tarsus in a series of judgments known today as the Paenitentiale Theodori . It is possible that Theodore found a copy of the Libellus at Canterbury ; however , given that no one in England previous to Theodore 's archiepiscopacy seems to have known of the Libellus , it seems more likely that the Libellus was one of the texts that Theodore brought to England from Italy . It is known that Theodore brought numerous books with him from Italy , and that at least one of these books was a canon law collection very much like the one prepared at Bobbio some decades earlier ( i.e. the Bobiensis ) . Elliot has speculated that Theodore introduced a Bobiensis @-@ type collection to Canterbury in the second half of the seventh century , and thereby finally delivered the Libellus ( as part of the Bobbiensis ) to its originally intended destination . This hypothesis is supported by the fact that it was only shortly after Theodore 's tenure at Canterbury that Anglo @-@ Saxons begin to demonstrate knowledge of the Libellus .
Bede inserted the entire text of the Libellus into book I of his Historia ( completed ca . 731 ) , where it makes up the bulk of chapter 27 . Bede also appears to have relied upon the Libellus while writing his prose Vita Sancti Cuthberti in about the year 720 . Where Bede acquired his copy of the Libellus is not known , but it seems that by the early eighth century it was beginning to be read widely throughout England .
In the later Middle Ages , the text of the Libellus was used to support the claims of the monks of the Canterbury Cathedral chapter that the chapter had always included monks , back to the founding of the cathedral by Augustine . But the Libellus does not explicitly say that the cathedral chapter should be composed of monks , only that the monks that were members of the chapter should live in common and have some other aspects of monastic life .
= = Controversy over authenticity = =
Twentieth @-@ century scholarship 's focus on the doubt expressed by Boniface regarding the authenticity of the Libellus has led to the widely held belief that a general atmosphere of suspicion surrounded the Libellus in the Middle Ages . In fact , Boniface appears to have been the only medieval personality to have ever expressed doubt about the authorship of this letter . As missionary to the Germanic peoples of Europe and legate of the papal see , Boniface spent much of his later life in Continental Europe , where he encountered many canonical traditions that were unfamiliar to the Anglo @-@ Saxons and that appeared to Boniface out of step with his knowledge of church tradition . The Libellus represented one such tradition . Boniface in fact had very practical reasons for questioning the Libellus . He had witnessed its recommendations being exploited by certain members of the Frankish nobility who claimed that the Libellus permitted them to enter into unions with their aunts , unions Boniface considered to be incestuous . Eager to get to the bottom of this controversy , in 735 Boniface wrote to Nothhelm , the Archbishop of Canterbury requesting Nothhelm send him Canterbury 's own copy of the Libellus ; presumably Boniface hoped that Canterbury ( being the one @-@ time residence of Augustine ) possessed an authentic copy of the Libellus , one that perhaps preserved more ancient readings than the copies then circulating in France and Bavaria , and would therefore serve as a corrective to the Continental copies and the incestuous nobles who relied upon them . Boniface also requested Nothhelm 's opinion on the document 's authenticity , for his own inquiries at the papal archives had failed to turn up an official " registered " copy of the letter there . His failed attempt to locate a " registered " papal copy of the Libellus presumably suggested to Boniface the possibility that the document was spurious and had in fact not been authored by Pope Gregory I.
Boniface had other concerns about the wording of the Libellus . At least three versions of the Libellus were circulating on the Continent during Boniface 's lifetime , all of these within collections of canonical and penitential documents . Boniface is known to have encountered ( perhaps even helped produce ) at least one canon law collection — the Collectio canonum vetus Gallica — that included the " Q / A " version of the Libellus , and it is also possible that he knew of the Collectio Bobiensis , with its appended " Capitula " version of the Libellus . A third version of the Libellus known as the " Letter " version may also have been known to Boniface . There are slight differences in wording and chapter order between the three versions , but for the most part they are the same , with one important exception : the " Q / A " and " Capitula " versions contain a passage that discusses how closely a man and a woman can be related before they are prohibited from being married ; the " Letter " version omits this passage . According to Karl Ubl and Michael D. Elliot , the passage in the " Q / A " and " Capitula " versions is authentic , and its absence from the " Letter " version represents a later modification of the text probably made in the mid @-@ seventh century . The passage in the " Q / A " and " Capitula " versions has Gregory saying that those related within the second degree of kinship ( including siblings , parents and their children , first cousins , and nephews / nieces and their aunts / uncles ) are prohibited from marrying each other , but that church tradition sets no prohibition against marrying a more distant relation . However , Gregory used a method of reckoning degrees of kinship ( or consanguinity ) that was unfamiliar to many living in the mid @-@ eighth century . Ubl has shown that Gregory 's method of reckoning degrees of kinship was one that would come to be known as the " scriptural " or " canonical " method . Boniface , the papacy , and apparently most of Western Europe ca . 750 followed a different method of reckoning , known as the " Roman " method , whereby a restriction within the second degree merely precluded siblings from marrying each other and parents from marrying their children , and implicitly allowed all unions beyond these . Thus , Boniface came to misunderstand this passage in the Libellus to mean that Gregory permitted first cousins to marry each other and nephews / nieces to marry their aunts / uncles — an opinion that Boniface ( rightly ) believed Gregory would not have held .
Boniface seems to have been unable to correct his misunderstanding of the meaning of the Libellus on this point . But this was perhaps due as much to a general interpretative error prevailing among eighth @-@ century readers of the text , as to the fact that Boniface 's authorities so frequently conflicted on this subject . In a long series of letters written to subsequent bishops of Rome — Pope Gregory II , Pope Gregory III , Pope Zachary — Boniface periodically brought up the issue of consanguinity and marriage , and each time he received a slightly different answer as to what was permitted and what was prohibited . Suspicion about the authenticity of the Libellus seems to have ended with Boniface 's death in 754 , though misinterpretation of its chapter on consanguinity continued for long after that . Nevertheless , no medieval authority except Boniface is on record as ever having questioning the authenticity of the Libellus and its marriage chapter . In fact , there arose a vigorous tradition of forged documents that defended the authenticity of the Libellus and attempted to explain why it contained the supposed lax ruling on marriage .
Boniface 's doubts about the Libellus were revived in the twentieth century by several modern historians . In 1941 Suso Brechter made a study of the historical sources for Gregory the Great 's Anglo @-@ Saxon mission . Among other things , Brechter attempted to prove that the Libellus was an eighth @-@ century forgery by Nothhelm . Brechter thought that the Libellus contained too much that was only relevant in terms of eighth @-@ century theological concerns . He argued that the forgery was completed in 731 and was foisted on Bede by Nothhelm in that year , making it a late insertion into Bede 's Historia . Brechter 's work did not attract much scholarly interest until 1959 , when Margaret Deanesly and Paul Grosjean wrote a joint journal article refuting or modifying most of Brechter 's arguments about the Libellus . Deanesly and Grosjean thought that Nothhelm had taken genuine Gregorian letters , added information on theological questions current at Canterbury , and presented the finished product to Bede as a " Gregorian " work . They further argued that Nothhelm did this in two stages , a first stage that they named the Capitula version , which they considered was best exemplified by a manuscript now in Copenhagen ; and a second version , which was rearranged in the form of questions paired with answers . In their view , this second version was the work sent to Bede by Nothhelm . The upshot of Deanesly and Grosjean 's research was that the Libellus was quasi @-@ authentic : while not a genuine work of Gregory I , it was nevertheless based extensively on authentic Gregorian writings .
Deanesly and Grosjean 's thesis was successfully refuted by the textual work of Paul Meyvaert , following whose work most scholars have come to accept the Libellus as a genuine letter of Gregory . The only portion of the Libellus that Meyvaert could not accept as genuine was the chapter on marriage , which Meyvaert ( like Boniface before him ) believed could not have been written by Gregory . Meyvaert therefore pronounced this chapter to be the single interpolation in an otherwise genuine document . All subsequent scholarship up until the year 2008 has followed him on this point . In 2008 Ubl not only showed that the marriage chapter was in fact authored by Gregory , but he also explained exactly how it was the Boniface and later historians came to misunderstand its meaning .
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= Mary II of England =
Mary II ( 30 April 1662 – 28 December 1694 ) was joint monarch of England , Scotland , and Ireland with her husband and first cousin , William of Orange , from 1689 until her death . William and Mary , both Protestants , became king and queen regnant following the Glorious Revolution , which resulted in the adoption of the English Bill of Rights and the deposition of her Roman Catholic father , James II and VII . William became sole ruler upon her death in 1694 . Popular histories usually refer to their joint reign as that of " William and Mary " .
Mary wielded less power than William when he was in England , ceding most of her authority to him , though he heavily relied on her . She did , however , act alone when William was engaged in military campaigns abroad , proving herself to be a powerful , firm , and effective ruler .
= = Early life = =
Mary , born at St. James 's Palace in London on 30 April 1662 , was the eldest daughter of James , Duke of York ( the future James II & VII ) , and his first wife , Anne Hyde . Mary 's uncle was King Charles II , who ruled the three kingdoms of England , Scotland and Ireland ; her maternal grandfather , Edward Hyde , 1st Earl of Clarendon , served for a lengthy period as Charles 's chief advisor . She was baptised into the Anglican faith in the Chapel Royal at St. James 's , and was named after her ancestor , Mary , Queen of Scots . Her godparents included her father 's cousin , Prince Rupert of the Rhine . Although her mother bore eight children , all except Mary and her younger sister Anne died very young , and King Charles II had no legitimate children . Consequently , for most of her childhood , Mary was second in line to the throne after her father .
The Duke of York converted to Roman Catholicism in 1668 or 1669 , but Mary and Anne were brought up as Anglicans , pursuant to the command of Charles II . They were moved to their own establishment at Richmond Palace , where they were raised by their governess Lady Frances Villiers , with only occasional visits to see their parents at St. James 's or their grandfather Lord Clarendon at Twickenham . Mary 's education , from private tutors , was largely restricted to music , dance , drawing , French , and religious instruction . Her mother died in 1671 , and her father remarried in 1673 , taking as his second wife Mary of Modena , a Catholic who was only four years older than Mary .
From about the age of nine until her marriage , Mary wrote passionate letters to an older girl , Frances Apsley , the daughter of courtier Sir Allen Apsley . In time , Frances became uncomfortable with the correspondence , and replied more formally . At the age of fifteen , Mary became betrothed to her cousin , the Protestant Stadtholder of Holland , William of Orange . William was the son of the King 's late sister , Mary , Princess Royal , and thus fourth in the line of succession after James , Mary , and Anne . At first , Charles II opposed the alliance with the Dutch ruler — he preferred that Mary wed the heir to the French throne , the Dauphin Louis , thus allying his realms with Catholic France and strengthening the odds of an eventual Catholic successor in Britain ; but later , under pressure from Parliament and with a coalition with the Catholic French no longer politically favourable , he approved the proposed union . The Duke of York agreed to the marriage , after pressure from chief minister Lord Danby and the King , who incorrectly assumed that it would improve James 's popularity among Protestants . When James told Mary that she was to marry her cousin , " she wept all that afternoon and all the following day " .
= = Marriage = =
William and a tearful Mary were married in St. James 's Palace by Bishop Henry Compton on 4 November 1677 . Mary accompanied her husband on a rough sea crossing back to the Netherlands later that month , after a delay of two weeks caused by bad weather . Rotterdam was inaccessible because of ice , and they were forced to land at the small village of Ter Heijde , and walk through the frosty countryside until met by coaches to take them to Huis Honselaarsdijk . On 14 December , they made a formal entry to The Hague in a grand procession .
Mary 's animated and personable nature made her popular with the Dutch people , and her marriage to a Protestant prince was popular in Britain . She became devoted to her husband , but he was often on campaign , which led to Mary 's family supposing him to be cold and neglectful . Within months of the marriage Mary was pregnant ; however , on a visit to her husband at the fortified city of Breda , she suffered a miscarriage , which may have permanently impaired her ability to have children . She suffered further bouts of illness that may have been miscarriages in mid @-@ 1678 , early 1679 , and early 1680 . Her childlessness would be the greatest source of unhappiness in her life .
From May 1684 , the King 's illegitimate son , James Scott , Duke of Monmouth , lived in the Netherlands , where he was fêted by William and Mary . Monmouth was viewed as a rival to the Duke of York , and as a potential Protestant heir who could supplant James in the line of succession . William , however , did not consider him a viable alternative and correctly assumed that Monmouth had insufficient support .
= = James 's reign = =
Upon the death of Charles II without legitimate issue in February 1685 , the Duke of York became king as James II in England and Ireland and James VII in Scotland . Mary was playing cards when her husband informed her of her father 's accession , and that she was heir presumptive . When Charles 's illegitimate son Monmouth assembled an invasion force at Amsterdam , and sailed for Britain , William informed James of Monmouth 's departure , and ordered English regiments in the Low Countries to return to Britain . To William 's relief , Monmouth was defeated , captured and executed , but both he and Mary were dismayed by James 's subsequent actions .
James had a controversial religious policy ; his attempt to grant freedom of religion to non @-@ Anglicans by suspending acts of Parliament by royal decree was not well received . Mary considered such action illegal , and her chaplain expressed this view in a letter to the Archbishop of Canterbury , William Sancroft , on her behalf . She was further dismayed when James refused to help when the Catholic King of France , Louis XIV , invaded Orange and persecuted Huguenot refugees there . In an attempt to damage William , James encouraged his daughter 's staff to inform her that William was having an affair with Elizabeth Villiers . Acting on the information , Mary waited outside Villiers 's room and caught her husband leaving it late at night . William denied adultery , and Mary apparently believed and forgave him . Possibly , Villiers and William were not meeting as lovers but to exchange diplomatic intelligence . Mary 's staff was dismissed and sent back to Britain .
= = Glorious Revolution = =
Disgruntled Protestant politicians and noblemen were in contact with Mary 's husband as early as 1686 . After James took the step of forcing Anglican clergymen to read the Declaration of Indulgence — the proclamation granting religious liberty to Catholics and dissenters — from their churches in May 1688 , his popularity plunged further . Alarm amongst Protestants increased when his wife , Mary of Modena , gave birth to a son — James Francis Edward — in June 1688 , for the son would , unlike Mary and Anne , be raised a Roman Catholic . Some charged that the boy was " supposititious " , having been secretly smuggled into the Queen 's room in a bed @-@ warming pan as a substitute for her stillborn baby . Seeking information , Mary sent a pointed list of questions to her sister , Anne , regarding the circumstances of the birth . Anne 's reply , and continued gossip , seemed to confirm Mary 's suspicions that the child was not her natural brother , and that her father was conspiring to secure a Catholic succession .
On 30 June , the " Immortal Seven " secretly requested William — then in the Netherlands with Mary — to come to England with an army to depose James . At first , William was reluctant ; possibly he was jealous of his wife 's position as the heiress to the English Crown and feared she would become more powerful than he was . According to Gilbert Burnet , however , Mary convinced her husband that she did not care for political power , and told him " she would be no more but his wife , and that she would do all that lay in her power to make him King for life " . She would , she assured him , always obey her husband as she had promised to do in her marriage vows .
William agreed to invade and issued a declaration which referred to James 's newborn son as the " pretended Prince of Wales " . He also gave a list of grievances of the English people and stated that his proposed expedition was for the sole purpose of having " a free and lawful Parliament assembled " . William and the Dutch army , without Mary who stayed behind in the Netherlands , finally landed on 5 November 1688 , having been turned back by storms in October . The disaffected English Army and Navy went over to William , and on 11 December the defeated King James attempted to flee , but was intercepted . A second attempt at flight , on 23 December , was successful ; William deliberately allowed James to escape to France , where he lived in exile until his death .
Mary was upset by the circumstances surrounding the deposition of her father , and was torn between concern for him and duty to her husband , but was convinced that her husband 's actions , however unpleasant , were necessary to " save the Church and State " . When Mary travelled to England after the New Year , she wrote of her " secret joy " at returning to her homeland , " but that was soon checked with the consideration of my father 's misfortunes " . William ordered her to appear cheerful on their triumphant arrival in London . As a result , she was criticised for appearing cold to her father 's plight . James , too , wrote a diatribe against her criticising her disloyalty , an action which deeply affected the pious Mary .
In January 1689 , a Convention Parliament summoned by the Prince of Orange assembled , and much discussion relating to the appropriate course of action ensued . A party led by Lord Danby held that Mary should be sole monarch , as the rightful hereditary heir , while William and his supporters were adamant that a husband could not be subject to his wife . William wished to reign as a king , rather than function as a mere consort of a queen . For her part , Mary did not wish to be queen regnant , believing that women should defer to their husbands , and " knowing my heart is not made for a kingdom and my inclination leads me to a retired quiet life " .
On 13 February 1689 , Parliament passed the Declaration of Right , in which it deemed that James , by attempting to flee on 11 December 1688 , had abdicated the government of the realm , and that the Throne had thereby become vacant . Parliament offered the Crown not to James 's eldest son , James Francis Edward ( who would have been the heir apparent under normal circumstances ) , but to William and Mary as joint sovereigns . The only precedent for a joint monarchy dated from the sixteenth century : when Queen Mary I married Philip of Spain , it was agreed that the latter would take the title of king , but only during his wife 's lifetime , and restrictions were placed on his power . William , however , would be king even after his wife 's death , and " the sole and full exercise of the regal power [ would be ] executed by the said Prince of Orange in the names of the said Prince and Princess during their joint lives . " The declaration was later extended to exclude not only James and his heirs ( other than Anne ) from the throne , but all Catholics , since " it hath been found by experience that it is inconsistent with the safety and welfare of this Protestant kingdom to be governed by a papist prince " .
The Bishop of London , Henry Compton , crowned William and Mary together at Westminster Abbey on 11 April 1689 . Normally , the Archbishop of Canterbury performs coronations , but the incumbent Archbishop , William Sancroft , although an Anglican , refused to recognise the validity of James II 's removal . Neither William nor Mary enjoyed the ceremony ; she thought it " all vanity " and William called it " Popish " . On the same day , the Convention of the Estates of Scotland — which was much more divided than the English Parliament — finally declared that James was no longer King of Scotland , that " no Papist can be King or Queen of this Realm " , that William and Mary would be joint sovereigns , and that William would exercise sole and full power . The following day , they were proclaimed king and queen in Edinburgh . They took the Scottish coronation oath in London on 11 May .
Even after the declaration , there was still substantial support for James in Scotland . Viscount Dundee raised an army in the Scottish Highlands and won a convincing victory at Killiecrankie on 27 July . The huge losses suffered by Dundee 's troops , however , coupled with his fatal wounding at the start of the battle , served to remove the only effective resistance to William and the uprising was quickly crushed , suffering a resounding defeat the next month at the Battle of Dunkeld .
= = Reign = =
In December 1689 , Parliament passed one of the most important constitutional documents in English history , the Bill of Rights . This measure — which restated and confirmed many provisions of the earlier Declaration of Right — established restrictions on the royal prerogative ; it declared , among other things , that the Sovereign could not suspend laws passed by Parliament , levy taxes without parliamentary consent , infringe the right to petition , raise a standing army during peacetime without parliamentary consent , deny the right to bear arms to Protestant subjects , unduly interfere with parliamentary elections , punish members of either House of Parliament for anything said during debates , require excessive bail , or inflict cruel or unusual punishments . The Bill of Rights also confirmed the succession to the throne . Following the death of either William III or Mary II , the other was to continue to reign . Next in the line of succession would be any children of the couple , to be followed by Mary 's sister Anne and her children . Last in the line of succession stood any children William III might have had from any subsequent marriage .
From 1690 onwards , William was often absent from England on campaign , each year generally from the spring until the autumn . In 1690 , he fought Jacobites ( who supported James ) in Ireland , and whilst her husband was away , Mary administered the government of the realm with the advice of a nine @-@ member Cabinet Council . She was not keen to assume power and felt " deprived of all that was dear to me in the person of my husband , left among those that were perfect strangers to me : my sister of a humour so reserved that I could have little comfort from her . " Anne had quarrelled with William and Mary over money , and the relationship between the two sisters had soured . William had crushed the Irish Jacobites by 1692 , but he continued with campaigns abroad in order to wage war against France in the Netherlands . When her husband was away , Mary acted on her own if his advice was not available ; whilst he was in England , Mary completely refrained from interfering in political matters , as had been agreed in the Declaration and Bill of Rights , and as she preferred . She proved a firm ruler , ordering the arrest of her own uncle , Henry Hyde , 2nd Earl of Clarendon , for plotting to restore James II to the throne . In January 1692 , the influential John Churchill , 1st Earl of Marlborough , was dismissed on similar charges ; the dismissal somewhat diminished her popularity and further harmed her relationship with her sister Anne ( who was strongly influenced by Churchill 's wife , Sarah ) . Anne appeared at court with Sarah , obviously supporting the disgraced Churchill , which led to Mary angrily demanding that Anne dismiss Sarah and vacate her lodgings . Mary fell ill with a fever in April , and missed Sunday church service for the first time in 12 years . She also failed to visit Anne , who was suffering a difficult labour . After Mary 's recovery and the death of Anne 's baby soon after it was born , Mary did visit her sister , but chose the opportunity to berate Anne for her friendship with Sarah . The sisters never saw each other again . Marlborough was arrested and imprisoned , but then released after his accuser was revealed to be an impostor . Mary recorded in her journal that the breach between the sisters was a punishment from God for the " irregularity " of the Revolution . She was extremely devout , and attended prayers at least twice a day . Many of her proclamations focus on combating licentiousness , insobriety and vice . She often participated in the affairs of the Church — all matters of ecclesiastical patronage passed through her hands . On the death of Archbishop of Canterbury John Tillotson in December 1694 , Mary was keen to appoint Bishop of Worcester Edward Stillingfleet to the vacancy , but William overruled her and the post went to Bishop of Lincoln Thomas Tenison .
Mary was tall ( 5 foot 11 inches ; 180 cm ) and apparently fit ; she would regularly walk between her palaces at Whitehall and Kensington . In late 1694 , however , she contracted smallpox . She sent away anyone who had not previously had the disease , to prevent the spread of infection . Anne , who was once again pregnant , sent Mary a letter saying she would run any risk to see her sister again , but the offer was declined by Mary 's groom of the stole , the Countess of Derby . Mary died at Kensington Palace shortly after midnight on the morning of 28 December . William , who had grown increasingly to rely on Mary , was devastated by her death , and told Burnet that " from being the happiest " he was " now going to be the miserablest creature on earth " . While the Jacobites considered her death divine retribution for breaking the fifth commandment ( " honour thy father " ) , she was widely mourned in Britain . During a cold winter , in which the Thames froze , her embalmed body lay in state in Banqueting House , Whitehall . On 5 March , she was buried at Westminster Abbey . Her funeral service was the first of any royal attended by all the members of both Houses of Parliament . For the ceremony , composer Henry Purcell wrote Music for the Funeral of Queen Mary .
= = Legacy = =
Mary endowed the College of William and Mary ( in the present day Williamsburg , Virginia ) in 1693 , supported Thomas Bray , who founded the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge , and was instrumental in the foundation of the Royal Hospital for Seamen , Greenwich , after the Anglo @-@ Dutch victory at the Battle of La Hogue . She is credited with influencing garden design at Het Loo and Hampton Court Palaces , and with popularising blue and white porcelain and the keeping of goldfish as pets .
Mary was depicted by Jacobites as an unfaithful daughter who destroyed her father for her own and her husband 's gain . In the early years of their reign , she was often seen as completely under the spell of her husband , but after she had temporarily governed alone during his absences abroad , she was portrayed as capable and confident . Nahum Tate 's A Present for the Ladies ( 1692 ) compared her to Queen Elizabeth I. Her modesty and diffidence were praised in works such as A Dialogue Concerning Women ( 1691 ) by William Walsh , which compared her to Cincinnatus , the Roman general who took on a great task when called to do so , but then willingly abandoned power .
A week before her death , Mary went through her papers , weeding out some which were burnt , but her journal survives , as do her letters to William and to Frances Apsley . The Jacobites lambasted her , but the assessment of her character that came down to posterity was largely the vision of Mary as a dutiful , submissive wife , who assumed power reluctantly , exercised it with considerable ability when necessary , and willingly deferred it to her husband .
= = = In film and television = = =
Mary is portrayed by :
Lisa Daniely in the 1969 mini @-@ series The First Churchills
Sarah Crowden in the 1992 film Orlando
Rebecca Front in the 1995 film England , My England
Victoria Wood in the 2005 film The League of Gentlemen 's Apocalypse
= = Title , styles , honours and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
30 April 1662 – 13 February 1689 : Her Highness The Lady Mary
4 November 1677 – 13 February 1689 : Her Highness The Princess of Orange
( England ) 13 February 1689 – 28 December 1694 : Her Majesty The Queen
( Scotland ) 11 April 1689 – 28 December 1694 : Her Majesty The Queen
The joint style of William III and Mary II was " William and Mary , by the Grace of God , King and Queen of England , France and Ireland , Defenders of the Faith , etc . " when they ascended the Throne . From 11 April 1689 — when the Estates of Scotland recognised them as Sovereigns — the royal couple used the style " William and Mary , by the Grace of God , King and Queen of England , Scotland , France and Ireland , Defenders of the Faith , etc . " .
= = = Arms = = =
The coat of arms used by the King and Queen were : Quarterly , I and IV Grandquarterly , Azure three fleurs @-@ de @-@ lis Or ( for France ) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or ( for England ) ; II Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory @-@ counter @-@ flory Gules ( for Scotland ) ; III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent ( for Ireland ) ; overall an escutcheon Azure billetty a lion rampant Or ( for the House of Orange @-@ Nassau ) .
= = Ancestry = =
= = = Family tree = = =
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= Stephen Crane =
Stephen Crane ( November 1 , 1871 – June 5 , 1900 ) was an American poet , novelist , and short story writer . Prolific throughout his short life , he wrote notable works in the Realist tradition as well as early examples of American Naturalism and Impressionism . He is recognized by modern critics as one of the most innovative writers of his generation .
The ninth surviving child of Protestant Methodist parents , Crane began writing at the age of four and had published several articles by the age of 16 . Having little interest in university studies , he left college in 1891 to work as a reporter and writer . Crane 's first novel was the 1893 Bowery tale Maggie : A Girl of the Streets , generally considered by critics to be the first work of American literary Naturalism . He won international acclaim in 1895 for his Civil War novel The Red Badge of Courage , which he wrote without having any battle experience .
In 1896 , Crane endured a highly publicized scandal after appearing as a witness in the trial of a suspected prostitute , an acquaintance named Dora Clark . Late that year he accepted an offer to travel to Cuba as a war correspondent . As he waited in Jacksonville , Florida , for passage , he met Cora Taylor , with whom he began a lasting relationship . En route to Cuba , Crane 's vessel the SS Commodore , sank off the coast of Florida , leaving him and others adrift for 30 hours in a dinghy . Crane described the ordeal in " The Open Boat " . During the final years of his life , he covered conflicts in Greece ( accompanied by Cora , recognized as the first woman war correspondent ) and later lived in England with her . He was befriended by writers such as Joseph Conrad and H. G. Wells . Plagued by financial difficulties and ill health , Crane died of tuberculosis in a Black Forest sanatorium in Germany at the age of 28 .
At the time of his death , Crane was considered an important figure in American literature . After he was nearly forgotten for two decades , critics revived interest in his life and work . Crane 's writing is characterized by vivid intensity , distinctive dialects , and irony . Common themes involve fear , spiritual crises and social isolation . Although recognized primarily for The Red Badge of Courage , which has become an American classic , Crane is also known for his poetry , journalism , and short stories such as " The Open Boat " , " The Blue Hotel " , " The Bride Comes to Yellow Sky " , and The Monster . His writing made a deep impression on 20th @-@ century writers , most prominent among them Ernest Hemingway , and is thought to have inspired the Modernists and the Imagists .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Stephen Crane was born on November 1 , 1871 , in Newark , New Jersey , to Jonathan Townley Crane , a minister in the Methodist Episcopal church , and Mary Helen Peck Crane , daughter of a clergyman , George Peck . He was the fourteenth and last child born to the couple . At 45 , Helen Crane had suffered the early deaths of her previous four children , each of whom died within one year of birth . Nicknamed " Stevie " by the family , he joined eight surviving brothers and sisters — Mary Helen , George Peck , Jonathan Townley , William Howe , Agnes Elizabeth , Edmund Byran , Wilbur Fiske , and Luther .
The Cranes were descended from Jaspar Crane , a founder of New Haven Colony , who had migrated there from England in 1639 . Stephen was named for a putative founder of Elizabethtown , New Jersey , who had , according to family tradition , come from England or Wales in 1665 , as well as his great @-@ great @-@ grandfather Stephen Crane ( 1709 – 1780 ) , a Revolutionary War patriot who served as New Jersey delegate to the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia . Crane later wrote that his father , Dr. Crane , " was a great , fine , simple mind , " who had written numerous tracts on theology . Although his mother was a popular spokeswoman for the Woman 's Christian Temperance Union and a highly religious woman , Crane wrote that he did not believe " she was as narrow as most of her friends or family . " The young Stephen was raised primarily by his sister Agnes , who was 15 years his senior . The family moved to Port Jervis , New York , in 1876 , where Dr. Crane became the pastor of Drew Methodist Church , a position that he retained until his death .
As a child , Stephen was often sickly and afflicted by constant colds . When the boy was almost two , his father wrote in his diary that his youngest son became " so sick that we are anxious about him . " Despite his fragile nature , Crane was an intelligent child who taught himself to read before the age of four . His first known inquiry , recorded by his father , dealt with writing ; at the age of three , while imitating his brother Townley 's writing , he asked his mother , " how do you spell O ? " In December 1879 , Crane wrote a poem about wanting a dog for Christmas . Entitled " I 'd Rather Have – " , it is his first surviving poem . Stephen was not regularly enrolled in school until January 1880 , but he had no difficulty in completing two grades in six weeks . Recalling this feat , he wrote that it " sounds like the lie of a fond mother at a teaparty , but I do remember that I got ahead very fast and that father was very pleased with me . "
Dr. Crane died on February 16 , 1880 , at the age of 60 ; Stephen was eight years old . Some 1 @,@ 400 people mourned Dr. Crane at his funeral , more than double the size of his congregation . After her husband 's death , Mrs. Crane moved to Roseville , near Newark , leaving Stephen in the care of his older brother Edmund , with whom the young boy lived with cousins in Sussex County . He next lived with his brother William , a lawyer , in Port Jervis for several years .
His older sister Helen took him to Asbury Park to be with their brother Townley and his wife , Fannie . Townley was a professional journalist ; he headed the Long Branch department of both the New @-@ York Tribune and the Associated Press , and also served as editor of the Asbury Park Shore Press . Agnes , another Crane sister , joined the siblings in New Jersey . She took a position at Asbury Park 's intermediate school and moved in with Helen to care for the young Stephen .
Within a couple of years , the Crane family suffered more losses . First , Townley and his wife lost their two young children . His wife Fannie died of Bright 's disease in November 1883 . Agnes Crane became ill and died on June 10 , 1884 , of meningitis at the age of 28 .
= = = Schooling = = =
Crane wrote his first known story , " Uncle Jake and the Bell Handle " , when he was 14 . In late 1885 , he enrolled at Pennington Seminary , a ministry @-@ focused coeducational boarding school 7 miles ( 11 km ) north of Trenton . His father had been principal there from 1849 to 1858 . Soon after her youngest son left for school , Mrs. Crane began suffering what the Asbury Park Shore Press reported as " a temporary aberration of the mind . " She had apparently recovered by early 1886 , but later that year , her son , 23 @-@ year @-@ old Luther Crane , died after falling in front of an oncoming train while working as a flagman for the Erie Railroad . It was the fourth death in six years among Stephen 's immediate family .
After two years , Crane left Pennington for Claverack College , a quasi @-@ military school . He later looked back on his time at Claverack as " the happiest period of my life although I was not aware of it . " A classmate remembered him as a highly literate but erratic student , lucky to pass examinations in math and science , and yet " far in advance of his fellow students in his knowledge of History and Literature " , his favorite subjects . While he held an impressive record on the drill field and baseball diamond , Crane generally did not excel in the classroom . Not having a middle name , as was customary among other students , he took to signing his name " Stephen T. Crane " in order " to win recognition as a regular fellow " . Crane was seen as friendly , but also moody and rebellious . He sometimes skipped class in order to play baseball , a game in which he starred as catcher . He was also greatly interested in the school 's military training program . He rose rapidly in the ranks of the student battalion . One classmate described him as " indeed physically attractive without being handsome " , but he was aloof , reserved and not generally popular at Claverack . Although academically weak , Crane gained experience at Claverack that provided background ( and likely some anecdotes from the Civil War veterans on the staff ) that proved useful when he came to write The Red Badge of Courage .
In mid @-@ 1888 , Crane became his brother Townley 's assistant at a New Jersey shore news bureau , working there every summer until 1892 . Crane 's first publication under his byline was an article on the explorer Henry M. Stanley 's famous quest to find the Scottish missionary David Livingstone in Africa . It appeared in the February 1890 Claverack College Vidette . Within a few months , Crane was persuaded by his family to forgo a military career and transfer to Lafayette College in Easton , Pennsylvania , in order to pursue a mining engineering degree . He registered at Lafayette on September 12 , and promptly became involved in extracurricular activities ; he took up baseball again and joined the largest fraternity , Delta Upsilon . He also joined both rival literary societies , named for ( George ) Washington and ( Benjamin ) Franklin . Crane infrequently attended classes and ended the semester with grades for four of the seven courses he had taken .
After one semester , Crane transferred to Syracuse University , where he enrolled as a non @-@ degree candidate in the College of Liberal Arts . He roomed in the Delta Upsilon fraternity house and joined the baseball team . Attending just one class ( English Literature ) during the middle trimester , he remained in residence while taking no courses in the third semester .
Concentrating on his writing , Crane began to experiment with tone and style while trying out different subjects . He published his fictional story , " Great Bugs of Onondaga , " simultaneously in the Syracuse Daily Standard and the New York Tribune . Declaring college " a waste of time " , Crane decided to become a full @-@ time writer and reporter . He attended a Delta Upsilon chapter meeting on June 12 , 1891 , but shortly afterward left college for good .
= = = Full @-@ time writer = = =
In the summer of 1891 , Crane often camped with friends in the nearby area of Sullivan County , New York , where his brother Edmund owned a house . He used this area as the geographic setting for several short stories , which were posthumously published in a collection under the title Stephen Crane : Sullivan County Tales and Sketches . Crane showed two of these works to Tribune editor Willis Fletcher Johnson , a friend of the family , who accepted them for the publication . " Hunting Wild Dogs " and " The Last of the Mohicans " were the first of fourteen unsigned Sullivan County sketches and tales that were published in the Tribune between February and July 1892 . Crane also showed Johnson an early draft of his first novel , Maggie : A Girl of the Streets .
Later that summer , Crane met and befriended author Hamlin Garland , who had been lecturing locally on American literature and the expressive arts ; on August 17 he gave a talk on novelist William Dean Howells , which Crane wrote up for the Tribune . Garland became a mentor for and champion of the young writer , whose intellectual honesty impressed him . Their relationship suffered in later years , however , because Garland disapproved of Crane 's alleged immorality , related to his living with a woman married to another man .
Stephen moved into his brother Edmund 's house in Lakeview , a suburb of Paterson , New Jersey , in the fall of 1891 . From here he made frequent trips into New York City , writing and reporting particularly on its impoverished tenement districts . Crane focused particularly on The Bowery , a small and once prosperous neighborhood in the southern part of Manhattan . After the Civil War , Bowery shops and mansions had given way to saloons , dance halls , brothels and flophouses , all of which Crane frequented . He later said he did so for research . He was attracted to the human nature found in the slums , considering it " open and plain , with nothing hidden " . Believing nothing honest and unsentimental had been written about the Bowery , Crane became determined to do so himself ; this was the setting of his first novel . On December 7 , 1891 , Crane 's mother died at the age of 64 , and the 20 @-@ year @-@ old appointed Edmund as his guardian .
Despite being frail , undernourished and suffering from a hacking cough , which did not prevent him from smoking cigarettes , in the spring of 1892 Crane began a romance with Lily Brandon Munroe , a married woman who was estranged from her husband . Although Munroe later said Crane " was not a handsome man " , she admired his " remarkable almond @-@ shaped gray eyes . " He begged her to elope with him , but her family opposed the match because Crane lacked money and prospects , and she declined . Their last meeting likely occurred in April 1898 , when he again asked her to run away with him and she again refused .
Between July 2 and September 11 , 1892 , Crane published at least ten news reports on Asbury Park affairs . Although a Tribune colleague stated that Crane " was not highly distinguished above any other boy of twenty who had gained a reputation for saying and writing bright things , " that summer his reporting took on a more skeptical , hypocrisy @-@ deflating tone . A storm of controversy erupted over a report he wrote on the Junior Order of United American Mechanics ' American Day Parade , entitled " Parades and Entertainments " . Published on August 21 , the report juxtaposes the " bronzed , slope @-@ shouldered , uncouth " marching men " begrimed with dust " and the spectators dressed in " summer gowns , lace parasols , tennis trousers , straw hats and indifferent smiles " . Believing they were being ridiculed , some JOUAM marchers were outraged and wrote to the editor . The owner of the Tribune , Whitelaw Reid , was that year 's Republican vice @-@ presidential candidate , and this likely increased the sensitivity of the paper 's management to the issue . Although Townley wrote a piece for the Asbury Park Daily Press in his brother 's defense , the Tribune quickly apologized to its readers , calling Stephen Crane 's piece " a bit of random correspondence , passed inadvertently by the copy editor " . Hamlin Garland and biographer John Barry attested that Crane told them he had been dismissed by the Tribune , although Willis Fletcher Johnson later denied this . The paper did not publish any of Crane 's work after 1892 .
= = = Life in New York = = =
Crane struggled to make a living as a free @-@ lance writer , contributing sketches and feature articles to various New York newspapers . In October 1892 , he moved into a rooming house in Manhattan whose boarders were a group of medical students . During this time , he expanded or entirely reworked Maggie : A Girl of the Streets , which is about a girl who " blossoms in a mud @-@ puddle " and becomes a pitiful victim of circumstance . In the winter of 1893 , Crane took the manuscript of Maggie to Richard Watson Gilder , who rejected it for publication in The Century Magazine .
Crane decided to publish it privately , with money he had inherited from his mother . The novel was published in late February or early March 1893 by a small printing shop that usually printed medical books and religious tracts . The typewritten title page for the Library of Congress copyright application read simply : " A Girl of the Streets , / A Story of New York . / — By — / Stephen Crane . " The name " Maggie " was added to the title later . Crane used the pseudonym " Johnston Smith " for the novel 's initial publication , later telling friend and artist Corwin Knapp Linson that the nom de plume was the " commonest name I could think of . I had an editor friend named Johnson , and put in the " t " , and no one could find me in the mob of Smiths . " Hamlin Garland reviewed the work in the June 1893 issue of The Arena , calling it " the most truthful and unhackneyed study of the slums I have yet read , fragment though it is . " Despite this early praise , Crane became depressed and destitute from having spent $ 869 for 1 @,@ 100 copies of a novel that did not sell ; he ended up giving a hundred copies away . He would later remember " how I looked forward to publication and pictured the sensation I thought it would make . It fell flat . Nobody seemed to notice it or care for it ... Poor Maggie ! She was one of my first loves . "
In March 1893 , Crane spent hours lounging in Linson 's studio while having his portrait painted . He became fascinated with issues of the Century that were largely devoted to famous battles and military leaders from the Civil War . Frustrated with the dryly written stories , Crane stated , " I wonder that some of those fellows don 't tell how they felt in those scraps . They spout enough of what they did , but they 're as emotionless as rocks . " Crane returned to these magazines during subsequent visits to Linson 's studio , and eventually the idea of writing a war novel overtook him . He would later state that he " had been unconsciously working the detail of the story out through most of his boyhood " and had imagined " war stories ever since he was out of knickerbockers . " This novel would ultimately become The Red Badge of Courage .
From the beginning , Crane wished to show how it felt to be in a war by writing " a psychological portrayal of fear . " Conceiving his story from the point of view of a young private who is at first filled with boyish dreams of the glory of war and then quickly becomes disillusioned by war 's reality , Crane borrowed the private 's surname , " Fleming " , from his sister @-@ in @-@ law 's maiden name . He later said that the first paragraphs came to him with " every word in place , every comma , every period fixed . " Working mostly nights , he wrote from around midnight until four or five in the morning . Because he could not afford a typewriter , he wrote carefully in ink on legal @-@ sized paper , seldom crossing through or interlining a word . If he did change something , he would rewrite the whole page .
While working on his second novel , Crane remained prolific , concentrating on publishing stories to stave off poverty ; " An Experiment in Misery " , based on Crane 's experiences in the Bowery , was printed by the New York Press . He also wrote five or six poems a day . In early 1894 , he showed some of his poems , or " lines " as he called them , to Hamlin Garland , who said he read " some thirty in all " with " growing wonder . " Although Garland and William Dean Howells encouraged him to submit his poetry for publication , Crane 's free verse was too unconventional for most . After brief wrangling between poet and publisher , Copeland & Day accepted Crane 's first book of poems , The Black Riders and Other Lines , although it would not be published until after The Red Badge of Courage . He received a 10 percent royalty , and the publisher assured him that the book would be in a form " more severely classic than any book ever yet issued in America . "
In the spring of 1894 , Crane offered the finished manuscript of The Red Badge of Courage to McClure 's Magazine , which had become the foremost magazine for Civil War literature . While McClure 's delayed giving him an answer on his novel , they offered him an assignment writing about the Pennsylvania coal mines . " In the Depths of a Coal Mine " , a story with pictures by Linson , was syndicated by McClure 's in a number of newspapers , heavily edited . Crane was reportedly disgusted by the cuts , asking Linson : " Why the hell did they send me up there then ? Do they want the public to think the coal mines gilded ball @-@ rooms with the miners eating ice @-@ cream in boiled shirt @-@ fronts ? "
Sources report that following an encounter with a male prostitute that spring , Crane began a novel on the subject entitled Flowers of Asphalt , which he later abandoned . The manuscript has never been recovered .
After discovering that McClure 's could not afford to pay him , Crane took his war novel to Irving Bacheller of the Bacheller @-@ Johnson Newspaper Syndicate , which agreed to publish The Red Badge of Courage in serial form . Between the third and the ninth of December 1894 , The Red Badge of Courage was published in some half @-@ dozen newspapers in the United States . Although it was greatly cut for syndication , Bacheller attested to its causing a stir , saying " its quality [ was ] immediately felt and recognized . " The lead editorial in the Philadelphia Press of December 7 said that Crane " is a new name now and unknown , but everybody will be talking about him if he goes on as he has begun " .
= = = Travels and fame = = =
At the end of January 1895 , Crane left on what he called " a very long and circuitous newspaper trip " to the west . While writing feature articles for the Bacheller syndicate , he traveled to Saint Louis , Missouri , Nebraska , New Orleans , Galveston , Texas and then Mexico City . Irving Bacheller would later state that he " sent Crane to Mexico for new color " , which the author found in the form of Mexican slum life . Whereas he found the lower class in New York pitiful , he was impressed by the " superiority " of the Mexican peasants ' contentment and " even refuse [ d ] to pity them . "
Returning to New York five months later , Crane joined the Lantern ( alternately spelled " Lanthom " or " Lanthorne " ) Club organized by a group of young writers and journalists . The Club , located on the roof of an old house on William Street near the Brooklyn Bridge , served as a drinking establishment of sorts and was decorated to look like a ship 's cabin . There Crane ate one good meal a day , although friends were troubled by his " constant smoking , too much coffee , lack of food and poor teeth " , as Nelson Greene put it . Living in near @-@ poverty and greatly anticipating the publication of his books , Crane began work on two more novels : The Third Violet and George 's Mother .
The Black Riders was published by Copeland & Day shortly before his return to New York in May , but it received mostly criticism , if not abuse , for the poems ' unconventional style and use of free verse . A piece in the Bookman called Crane " the Aubrey Beardsley of poetry , " and a commentator from the Chicago Daily Inter @-@ Ocean stated that " there is not a line of poetry from the opening to the closing page . Whitman 's Leaves of Grass were luminous in comparison . Poetic lunacy would be a better name for the book . " In June , the New York Tribune dismissed the book as " so much trash . " Crane was pleased that the book was " making some stir " .
In contrast to the reception for Crane 's poetry , The Red Badge of Courage was welcomed with acclaim after its publication by Appleton in September 1895 . For the next four months the book was in the top six on various bestseller lists around the country . It arrived on the literary scene " like a flash of lightning out of a clear winter sky " , according to H. L. Mencken , who was about 15 at the time . The novel also became popular in Britain ; Joseph Conrad , a future friend of Crane , wrote that the novel " detonated ... with the impact and force of a twelve @-@ inch shell charged with a very high explosive . " Appleton published two , possibly three , printings in 1895 and as many as eleven more in 1896 . Although some critics considered the work overly graphic and profane , it was widely heralded for its realistic portrayal of war and unique writing style . The Detroit Free Press declared that The Red Badge would give readers " so vivid a picture of the emotions and the horrors of the battlefield that you will pray your eyes may never look upon the reality . "
Wanting to capitalize on the success of The Red Badge , McClure Syndicate offered Crane a contract to write a series on Civil War battlefields . Because it was a wish of his to " visit the battlefield — which I was to describe — at the time of year when it was fought " , Crane agreed to take the assignment . Visiting battlefields in Northern Virginia , including Fredericksburg , he would later produce five more Civil War tales : " Three Miraculous Soldiers " , " The Veteran " , " An Indiana Campaign " , " An Episode of War " and The Little Regiment .
= = = Scandal = = =
At the age of 24 , Crane , who was reveling in his success , became involved in a highly publicized case involving a suspected prostitute named Dora Clark . At 2 a.m. on September 16 , 1896 , he escorted two chorus girls and Clark from New York City 's Broadway Garden , a popular " resort " where he had interviewed the women for a series he was writing . As Crane saw one woman safely to a streetcar , a plainclothes policeman named Charles Becker arrested the other two for solicitation ; Crane was threatened with arrest when he tried to interfere . One of the women was released after Crane confirmed her erroneous claim that she was his wife , but Clark was charged and taken to the precinct . Against the advice of the arresting sergeant , Crane made a statement confirming Dora Clark 's innocence , stating that " I only know that while with me she acted respectably , and that the policeman 's charge was false . " On the basis of Crane 's testimony , Clark was discharged . The media seized upon the story ; news spread to Philadelphia , Boston and beyond , with papers focusing on Crane 's courage . The Stephen Crane story , as it became known , soon became a source for ridicule ; the Chicago Dispatch in particular quipped that " Stephen Crane is respectfully informed that association with women in scarlet is not necessarily a ' Red Badge of Courage ' " .
A couple of weeks after her trial , Clark pressed charges of false arrest against the officer who had arrested her . The next day , the officer physically attacked Clark in the presence of witnesses for having brought charges against him . Crane , who initially went briefly to Philadelphia to escape the pressure of publicity , returned to New York to give testimony at Becker 's trial despite advice given to him from Theodore Roosevelt , who was Police Commissioner at the time and a new acquaintance of Crane . The defense targeted Crane : police raided his apartment and interviewed people who knew him , trying to find incriminating evidence in order to lessen the effect of his testimony . A vigorous cross @-@ examination took place that sought to portray Crane as a man of dubious morals ; while the prosecution proved that he frequented brothels , Crane claimed this was merely for research purposes . After the trial ended on October 16 , the arresting officer was exonerated , but Crane 's reputation was ruined .
= = = Cora Taylor and the Commodore shipwreck = = =
Given $ 700 in Spanish gold by the Bacheller @-@ Johnson syndicate to work as a war correspondent in Cuba as the Spanish – American War was pending , the 25 @-@ year @-@ old Crane left New York on November 27 , 1896 , on a train bound for Jacksonville , Florida . Upon arrival in Jacksonville , he registered at the St. James Hotel under the alias of Samuel Carleton to maintain anonymity while seeking passage to Cuba . While waiting for a boat , he toured the city and visited the local brothels . Within days he met 31 @-@ year @-@ old Cora Taylor , proprietor of the downtown bawdy house Hotel de Dream . Born into a respectable Boston family , Taylor ( whose legal name was Cora Ethel Stewart ) had already had two brief marriages ; her first husband , Vinton Murphy , divorced her on grounds of adultery . In 1889 , she had married British Captain Donald William Stewart . She left him in 1892 for another man , but was still legally married . By the time Crane arrived , Taylor had been in Jacksonville for two years . She lived a bohemian lifestyle , owned a hotel of assignation , and was a well @-@ known and respected local figure . The two spent much time together while Crane awaited his departure . He was finally cleared to leave for the Cuban port of Cienfuegos on New Year 's Eve aboard the SS Commodore .
The ship sailed from Jacksonville with 27 or 28 men and a cargo of supplies and ammunition for the Cuban rebels . On the St. Johns River and less than 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) from Jacksonville , Commodore struck a sandbar in a dense fog and damaged its hull . Although towed off the sandbar the following day , it was beached again in Mayport and again damaged . A leak began in the boiler room that evening and , as a result of malfunctioning water pumps , the ship came to a standstill about 16 miles ( 26 km ) from Mosquito Inlet . As the ship took on more water , Crane described the engine room as resembling " a scene at this time taken from the middle kitchen of hades . " Commodore 's lifeboats were lowered in the early hours of the morning on January 2 , 1897 and the ship ultimately sank at 7 a.m. Crane was one of the last to leave the ship in a 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) dinghy . In an ordeal that he recounted in the short story " The Open Boat " , Crane and three other men ( including the ship 's Captain ) floundered off the coast of Florida for a day and a half before trying to land the dinghy at Daytona Beach . The small boat overturned in the surf , forcing the exhausted men to swim to shore ; one of them died . Having lost the gold given to him for his journey , Crane wired Cora Taylor for help . She traveled to Daytona and returned to Jacksonville with Crane the next day , only four days after he had left on the Commodore .
The disaster was reported on the front pages of newspapers across the country . Rumors that the ship had been sabotaged were widely circulated but never substantiated . Portrayed favorably and heroically by the press , Crane emerged from the ordeal with his reputation enhanced , if not restored , after the battering he had received in the Dora Clark affair . Meanwhile , Crane 's affair with Taylor blossomed .
Three seasons of archaeological investigation were conducted in 2002 @-@ 04 to examine and document the exposed remains of a wreck near Ponce Inlet , FL conjectured to be that of the SS Commodore . The collected data , and other accumulated evidence , finally substantiated the identification of the Commodore beyond a reasonable doubt .
= = = Greco @-@ Turkish War = = =
Despite contentment in Jacksonville and the need for rest after his ordeal , Crane became restless . He left Jacksonville on January 11 for New York City , where he applied for a passport to Cuba , Mexico and the West Indies . Spending three weeks in New York , he completed " The Open Boat " and periodically visited Port Jervis to see family . By this time , however , blockades had formed along the Florida coast as tensions rose with Spain , and Crane concluded that he would never be able to travel to Cuba . He sold " The Open Boat " to Scribner 's for $ 300 in early March . Determined to work as a war correspondent , Crane signed on with William Randolph Hearst 's New York Journal to cover the impending Greco @-@ Turkish conflict . He brought along Taylor , who had sold the Hotel de Dream in order to follow him .
On March 20 , they sailed first to England , where Crane was warmly received . They arrived in Athens in early April ; between April 17 ( when Turkey declared war on Greece ) and April 22 , Crane wrote his first published report of the war , " An Impression of the ' Concert ' " . When he left for Epirus in the northwest , Taylor remained in Athens , where she became the Greek war 's first woman war correspondent . She wrote under the pseudonym " Imogene Carter " for the New York Journal , a job that Crane had secured for her . They wrote frequently , traveling throughout the country separately and together . The first large battle that Crane witnessed was the Turks ' assault on General Constantine Smolenski 's Greek forces at Velestino . Crane wrote , " It is a great thing to survey the army of the enemy . Just where and how it takes hold upon the heart is difficult of description . " During this battle , Crane encountered " a fat waddling puppy " that he immediately claimed , dubbing it " Velestino , the Journal dog " . Greece and Turkey signed an armistice on May 20 , ending the 30 @-@ day war ; Crane and Taylor left Greece for England , taking two Greek brothers as servants and Velestino the dog with them .
= = = England and Spanish – American War = = =
After staying in Limpsfield , Surrey , for a few days , Crane and Taylor settled in Ravensbrook , a plain brick villa in Oxted . Referring to themselves as Mr. and Mrs. Crane , the couple lived openly in England , but Crane concealed the relationship from his friends and family in the United States . Admired in England , Crane thought himself attacked back home : " There seem so many of them in America who want to kill , bury and forget me purely out of unkindness and envy and — my unworthiness , if you choose " , he wrote . Velestino the dog sickened and died soon after their arrival in England , on August 1 . Crane , who had a great love for dogs , wrote an emotional letter to a friend an hour after the dog 's death , stating that " for eleven days we fought death for him , thinking nothing of anything but his life . " The Limpsfield @-@ Oxted area was home to members of the socialist Fabian Society and a magnet for writers such as Edmund Gosse , Ford Madox Ford and Edward Garnett . Crane also met the Polish @-@ born novelist Joseph Conrad in October 1897 , with whom he would have what Crane called a " warm and endless friendship " .
Although Crane was confident among peers , strong negative reviews of the recently published The Third Violet were causing his literary reputation to dwindle . Reviewers were also highly critical of Crane 's war letters , deeming them self @-@ centered . Although The Red Badge of Courage had by this time gone through fourteen printings in the United States and six in England , Crane was running out of money . To survive financially , he worked at a feverish pitch , writing prolifically for both the English and the American markets . He wrote in quick succession stories such as The Monster , " The Bride Comes to Yellow Sky " , " Death and the Child " and " The Blue Hotel " . Crane began to attach price tags to his new works of fiction , hoping that " The Bride " , for example , would fetch $ 175 .
As 1897 ended , Crane 's money crisis worsened . Amy Leslie , a reporter from Chicago and a former lover , sued him for $ 550 . The New York Times reported that Leslie gave him $ 800 in November 1896 but that he 'd repaid only a quarter of the sum . In February he was summoned to answer Leslie 's claim . The claim was apparently settled out of court , because no record of adjudication exists . Meanwhile , Crane felt " heavy with troubles " and " chased to the wall " by expenses . He confided to his agent that he was $ 2 @,@ 000 in debt but that he would " beat it " with more literary output .
Soon after the USS Maine exploded in Havana Harbor on February 15 , 1898 , under suspicious circumstances , Crane was offered a £ 60 advance by Blackwood 's Magazine for articles " from the seat of war in the event of a war breaking out " between the United States and Spain . His health was failing , and it is believed that signs of his pulmonary tuberculosis , which he may have contracted in childhood , became apparent . With almost no money coming in from his finished stories , Crane accepted the assignment and left Oxted for New York . Taylor and the rest of the household stayed behind to fend off local creditors . Crane applied for a passport and left New York for Key West two days before Congress declared war . While the war idled , he interviewed people and produced occasional copy .
In early June , he observed the establishment of an American base in Cuba when Marines seized Guantánamo Bay . He went ashore with the Marines , planning " to gather impressions and write them as the spirit moved . " Although he wrote honestly about his fear in battle , others observed his calmness and composure . He would later recall " this prolonged tragedy of the night " in the war tale " Marines Signaling Under Fire at Guantanamo " . After showing a willingness to serve during fighting at Cuzco , Cuba , by carrying messages to company commanders , Crane was officially cited for his " material aid during the action " .
He continued to report upon various battles and the worsening military conditions and praised Theodore Roosevelt 's Rough Riders , despite past tensions with the Commissioner . In early July , Crane was sent to the United States for medical treatment for a high fever . He was diagnosed with yellow fever , then malaria . Upon arrival in Old Point Comfort , Virginia , he spent a few weeks resting in a hotel . Although Crane had filed more than twenty dispatches in the three months he had covered the war , the World 's business manager believed that the paper had not received its money 's worth and fired him . In retaliation , Crane signed with Hearst 's New York Journal with the wish to return to Cuba . He traveled first to Puerto Rico and then to Havana . In September , rumors began to spread that Crane , who was working anonymously , had either been killed or disappeared . He sporadically sent out dispatches and stories ; he wrote about the mood in Havana , the crowded city sidewalks , and other topics , but he was soon desperate for money again . Taylor , left alone in England , was also penniless . She became frantic with worry over her lover 's whereabouts ; they were not in direct communication until the end of the year . Crane left Havana and arrived in England on January 11 , 1899 .
= = = Death = = =
Rent on Ravensbrook had not been paid for a year . Upon returning to England , Crane secured a solicitor to act as guarantor for their debts , after which Crane and Taylor relocated to Brede Place . This manor in Sussex , which dated to the 14th century and had neither electricity nor indoor plumbing , was offered to them by friends at a modest rent . The relocation appeared to give hope to Crane , but his money problems continued . Deciding that he could no longer afford to write for American publications , he concentrated on publishing in English magazines .
Crane pushed himself to write feverishly during the first months at Brede ; he told his publisher that he was " doing more work now than I have at any other period in my life " . His health worsened , and by late 1899 he was asking friends about health resorts . The Monster and Other Stories was in production and War Is Kind , his second collection of poems , was published in the United States in May . None of his books after The Red Badge of Courage had sold well , and he bought a typewriter to spur output . Active Service , a novella based on Crane 's correspondence experience , was published in October . The New York Times reviewer questioned " whether the author of ' Active Service ' himself really sees anything remarkable in his newspapery hero . "
In December , the couple held an elaborate Christmas party at Brede , attended by Conrad , Henry James , H. G. Wells and other friends ; it lasted several days . On December 29 Crane suffered a severe pulmonary hemorrhage . In January 1900 he 'd recovered sufficiently to work on a new novel , The O 'Ruddy , completing 25 of the 33 chapters . Plans were made for him to travel as a correspondent to Gibraltar to write sketches from Saint Helena , the site of a Boer prison , but at the end of March and in early April he suffered two more hemorrhages . Taylor took over most of Crane 's correspondence while he was ill , writing to friends for monetary aid . The couple planned to travel on the continent , but Conrad , upon visiting Crane for the last time , remarked that his friend 's " wasted face was enough to tell me that it was the most forlorn of all hopes . "
On May 28 , the couple arrived at Badenweiler , Germany , a health spa on the edge of the Black Forest . Despite his weakened condition , Crane continued to dictate fragmentary episodes for the completion of The O 'Ruddy . He died on June 5 , 1900 , at the age of 28 . In his will he left everything to Taylor , who took his body to New Jersey for burial . Crane was interred in Evergreen Cemetery in what is now Hillside , New Jersey .
= = Fiction and poetry = =
= = = Style and technique = = =
Stephen Crane 's fiction is typically categorized as representative of Naturalism , American realism , Impressionism or a mixture of the three . Critic Sergio Perosa , for example , wrote in his essay , " Stephen Crane fra naturalismo e impressionismo , " that the work presents a " symbiosis " of Naturalistic ideals and Impressionistic methods . When asked whether or not he would write an autobiography in 1896 , Crane responded that he " dare not say that I am honest . I merely say that I am as nearly honest as a weak mental machinery will allow . " Similarities between the stylistic techniques in Crane 's writing and Impressionist painting — including the use of color and chiaroscuro — are often cited to support the theory that Crane was not only an Impressionist but also influenced by the movement . H. G. Wells remarked upon " the great influence of the studio " on Crane 's work , quoting a passage from The Red Badge of Courage as an example : " At nightfall the column broke into regimental pieces , and the fragments went into the fields to camp . Tents sprang up like strange plants . Camp fires , like red , peculiar blossoms , dotted the night .... From this little distance the many fires , with the black forms of men passing to and fro before the crimson rays , made weird and satanic effects . " Although no direct evidence exists that Crane formulated a precise theory of his craft , he vehemently rejected sentimentality , asserting that " a story should be logical in its action and faithful to character . Truth to life itself was the only test , the greatest artists were the simplest , and simple because they were true . "
Poet and biographer John Berryman suggested that there were three basic variations , or " norms " , of Crane 's narrative style . The first , being " flexible , swift , abrupt and nervous " , is best exemplified in The Red Badge of Courage , while the second ( " supple majesty " ) is believed to relate to " The Open Boat " , and the third ( " much more closed , circumstantial and ' normal ' in feeling and syntax " ) to later works such as The Monster . Crane 's work , however , cannot be determined by style solely on chronology . Not only does his fiction not take place in any particular region with similar characters , but it varies from serious in tone to reportorial writing and light fiction . Crane 's writing , both fiction and nonfiction , is consistently driven by immediacy and is at once concentrated , vivid and intense . The novels and short stories contain poetic characteristics such as shorthand prose , suggestibility , shifts in perspective and ellipses between and within sentences . Similarly , omission plays a large part in Crane 's work ; the names of his protagonists are not commonly used and sometimes they are not named at all .
Crane was often criticized by early reviewers for his frequent incorporation of everyday speech into dialogue , mimicking the regional accents of his characters with colloquial stylization . This is apparent in his first novel , in which Crane ignored the romantic , sentimental approach of slum fiction ; he instead concentrated on the cruelty and sordid aspects of poverty , expressed by the brashness of the Bowery 's crude dialect and profanity , which he used lavishly . The distinct dialect of his Bowery characters is apparent at the beginning of the text ; the title character admonishes her brother saying : " Yeh knows it puts mudder out when yes comes home half dead , an ' it 's like we 'll all get a poundin ' . "
= = = Major themes = = =
Crane 's work is often thematically driven by Naturalistic and Realistic concerns , including ideals versus realities , spiritual crises and fear . These themes are particularly evident in Crane 's first three novels , Maggie : A Girl of the Streets , The Red Badge of Courage and George 's Mother . The three main characters search for a way to make their dreams come true , but ultimately suffer from crises of identity . Crane was fascinated by war and death , as well as fire , disfigurement , fear and courage , all of which inspired him to write many works based on these concepts . In The Red Badge of Courage , the main character both longs for the heroics of battle but ultimately fears it , demonstrating the dichotomy of courage and cowardice . He experiences the threat of death , misery and a loss of self .
Extreme isolation from society and community is also apparent in Crane 's work . During the most intense battle scenes in The Red Badge of Courage , for example , the story 's focus is mainly " on the inner responses of a self unaware of others " . In " The Open Boat " , " An Experiment in Misery " and other stories , Crane uses light , motion and color to express degrees of epistemological uncertainty . Similar to other Naturalistic writers , Crane scrutinizes the position of man , who has been isolated not only from society , but also from God and nature . " The Open Boat " , for example , distances itself from Romantic optimism and affirmation of man 's place in the world by concentrating on the characters ' isolation .
While he lived , Stephen Crane was denominated by critical readers a realist , a naturalist , an impressionist , symbolist , Symboliste , expressionist and ironist ; his posthumous life was enriched by critics who read him as nihilistic , existentialist , a neo @-@ Romantic , a sentimentalist , protomodernist , pointilliste , visionist , imagist and , by his most recent biographer , a “ bleak naturalist . ” At midcentury he was a “ predisciple of the New Criticism ” ; by its end he was “ a proto @-@ deconstructionist anti @-@ artist hero ” who had “ leapfrogged modernism , landing on postmodernist ground . ” Or , as Sergio Perosa wrote in 1964 , “ The critic wanders in a labyrinth of possibilities , which every new turn taken by Crane ’ s fiction seems to explode or deny . ”
One undeniable fact about Crane 's work , as Anthony Splendora noted in 2015 , is that Death haunts it ; like a threatening eclipse it overshadows his best efforts , each of which features the signal demise of a main character . Allegorically , " The Blue Hotel , " at the pinnacle of the short story form , may even be an autothanatography , the author 's intentional exteriorization or objectification , in this case for the purpose of purgation , of his own impending death . Crane 's " Swede " in that story can be taken , following current psychoanalytical theory , as a surrogative , sacrificial victim , ritually to be purged .
Transcending this " dark circumstance of composition , " Crane had a particular telos and impetus for his creation : beyond the tautologies that all art is alterity and to some formal extent mimesis , Crane sought and obviously found " a form of catharsis " in writing . This view accounts for his uniqueness , especially as operative through his notorious " disgust " with his family 's religion , their " vacuous , futile psalm @-@ singing " . His favorite book , for example , was Mark Twain 's Life on the Mississippi , in which God is mentioned only twice — once as irony and once as " a swindle . " Not only did Crane call out God specifically with the lines " Well then I hate thee / righteous image " in " The Black Riders " ( 1895 ) , but even his most hopeful tropes , such as the " comradeship " of his " Open Boat " survivors , make no mention of deity , specifying only " indifferent nature . " His antitheism is most evident in his characterization of the human race as " lice clinging to a space @-@ lost bulb , " a climax @-@ nearing speech in " The Blue Hotel , " Ch . VI . It is possible that Crane utilized religion 's formal psychic space , now suddenly available resulting from the recent " Death of God , " as a milieu for his compensative art .
= = = Novels = = =
Beginning with the publication of Maggie : A Girl of the Streets in 1893 , Crane was recognized by critics mainly as a novelist . Maggie was initially rejected by numerous publishers because of its atypical and true @-@ to @-@ life depictions of class warfare , which clashed with the sentimental tales of that time . Rather than focusing on the very rich or middle class , the novel 's characters are lower @-@ class denizens of New York 's Bowery . The main character , Maggie , descends into prostitution after being led astray by her lover . Although the novel 's plot is simple , its dramatic mood , quick pace and portrayal of Bowery life have made it memorable . Maggie is not merely an account of slum life , but also represents eternal symbols . In his first draft , Crane did not give his characters proper names . Instead , they were identified by epithets : Maggie , for example , was the girl who " blossomed in a mud @-@ puddle " and Pete , her seducer , was a " knight " . The novel is dominated by bitter irony and anger , as well as destructive morality and treacherous sentiment . Critics would later call the novel " the first dark flower of American Naturalism " for its distinctive elements of naturalistic fiction .
Written thirty years after the end of the Civil War and before Crane had any experience of battle , The Red Badge of Courage was innovative stylistically as well as psychologically . Often described as a war novel , it focuses less on battle and more on the main character 's psyche and his reactions and responses in war . It is believed that Crane based the fictional battle in the novel on that of Chancellorsville ; he may also have interviewed veterans of the 124th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment , commonly known as the Orange Blossoms , in Port Jervis , New York . Told in a third @-@ person limited point of view , it reflects the private experience of Henry Fleming , a young soldier who flees from combat . The Red Badge of Courage is notable in its vivid descriptions and well @-@ cadenced prose , both of which help create suspense within the story . Similarly , by substituting epithets for characters ' names ( " the youth " , " the tattered soldier " ) , Crane injects an allegorical quality into his work , making his characters point to a specific characteristic of man . Like Crane 's first novel , The Red Badge of Courage has a deeply ironic tone which increases in severity as the novel progresses . The title of the work is ironic ; Henry wishes " that he , too , had a wound , a red badge of courage " , echoing a wish to have been wounded in battle . The wound he does receive ( from the rifle butt of a fleeing Union soldier ) is not a badge of courage but a badge of shame .
The novel expresses a strong connection between humankind and nature , a frequent and prominent concern in Crane 's fiction and poetry throughout his career . Whereas contemporary writers ( Ralph Waldo Emerson , Nathaniel Hawthorne , Henry David Thoreau ) focused on a sympathetic bond on the two elements , Crane wrote from the perspective that human consciousness distanced humans from nature . In The Red Badge of Courage , this distance is paired with a great number of references to animals , and men with animalistic characteristics : people " howl " , " squawk " , " growl " , or " snarl " .
Since the resurgence of Crane 's popularity in the 1920s , The Red Badge of Courage has been deemed a major American text . The novel has been anthologized numerous times , including in Ernest Hemingway 's 1942 collection Men at War : The Best War Stories of All Time . In the introduction , Hemingway wrote that the novel " is one of the finest books of our literature , and I include it entire because it is all as much of a piece as a great poem is . "
Crane 's later novels have not received as much critical praise . After the success of The Red Badge of Courage , Crane wrote another tale set in the Bowery . George 's Mother is less allegorical and more personal than his two previous novels , and it focuses on the conflict between a church @-@ going , temperance @-@ adhering woman ( thought to be based on Crane 's mother ) and her single remaining offspring , who is a naive dreamer . Critical response to the novel was mixed . The Third Violet , a romance that he wrote quickly after publishing The Red Badge of Courage , is typically considered as Crane 's attempt to appeal to popular audiences . Crane considered it a " quiet little story . " Although it contained autobiographical details , the characters have been deemed inauthentic and stereotypical . Crane 's second to last novel , Active Service , revolves around the Greco @-@ Turkish War of 1897 , with which the author was familiar . Although noted for its satirical take on the melodramatic and highly passionate works that were popular of the nineteenth century , the novel was not successful . It is generally accepted by critics that Crane 's work suffered at this point due to the speed which he wrote in order to meet his high expenses . His last novel , a suspenseful and picaresque work entitled The O 'Ruddy , was finished posthumously by Robert Barr and published in 1903 .
= = = Short fiction = = =
Crane wrote many different types of fictional pieces while indiscriminately applying to them terms such as " story " , " tale " and " sketch " . For this reason , critics have found clear @-@ cut classification of Crane 's work problematic . While " The Open Boat " and " The Bride Comes to Yellow Sky " are often considered short stories , others are variously identified .
In an 1896 interview with Herbert P. Williams , a reporter for the Boston Herald , Crane said that he did " not find that short stories are utterly different in character from other fiction . It seems to me that short stories are the easiest things we write . " During his brief literary career , he wrote more than a hundred short stories and fictional sketches . Crane 's early fiction was based in camping expeditions in his teen years ; these stories eventually became known as The Sullivan County Tales and Sketches . He considered these " sketches " , which are mostly humorous and not of the same caliber of work as his later fiction , to be " articles of many kinds , " in that they are part fiction and part journalism .
The subject matter for his stories varied extensively . His early New York City sketches and Bowery tales accurately described the results of industrialization , immigration and the growth of cities and their slums . His collection of six short stories , The Little Regiment , covered familiar ground with the American Civil War , a subject for which he became famous with The Red Badge of Courage . Although similar to Crane 's noted novel , The Little Regiment was believed to lack vigor and originality . Realizing the limitations of these tales , Crane wrote : " I have invented the sum of my invention with regard to war and this story keeps me in internal despair . "
The Open Boat and Other Tales of Adventure ( 1898 ) contains thirteen short stories that deal with three periods in Crane 's life : his Asbury Park boyhood , his trip to the West and Mexico in 1895 , and his Cuban adventure in 1897 . This collection was well received and included several of his most critically successful works . His 1899 collection , The Monster and Other Stories , was similarly well received .
Two posthumously published collections were not as successful . In August 1900 The Whilomville Stories were published , a collection of thirteen stories that Crane wrote during the last year of his life . The work deals almost exclusively with boyhood , and the stories are drawn from events occurring in Port Jervis , where Crane lived from the age of six to eleven . Focusing on small @-@ town America , the stories tend toward sentimentality , but remain perceptive of the lives of children . Wounds in the Rain , published in September 1900 , contains fictional tales based on Crane 's reports for the World and the Journal during the Spanish – American War . These stories , which Crane wrote while desperately ill , include " The Price of the Harness " and " The Lone Charge of William B. Perkins " and are dramatic , ironic and sometimes humorous .
Despite Crane 's prolific output , only four stories-- " The Open Boat " , " The Blue Hotel " , " The Bride Comes to Yellow Sky " , and The Monster — have received extensive attention from scholars . H. G. Wells considered " The Open Boat " to be " beyond all question , the crown of all his work " , and it is one of the most frequently discussed of Crane 's works .
= = = Poetry = = =
Crane 's poems , which he preferred to call " lines " , are typically not given as much scholarly attention as his fiction ; no anthology contained Crane 's verse until 1926 . Although it is not certain when Crane began to write poetry seriously , he once said that his overall poetic aim was " to give my ideas of life as a whole , so far as I know it " . The poetic style used in both of his books of poetry , The Black Riders and Other Lines and War is Kind , was unconventional for the time in that it was written in free verse without rhyme , meter , or even titles for individual works . They are typically short in length ; although several poems , such as " Do not weep , maiden , for war is kind " , use stanzas and refrains , most do not . Crane also differed from his peers and poets of later generations in that his work contains allegory , dialectic and narrative situations .
Critic Ruth Miller claimed that Crane wrote " an intellectual poetry rather than a poetry that evokes feeling , a poetry that stimulates the mind rather than arouses the heart " . In the most complexly organized poems , the significance of the states of mind or feelings is ambiguous , but Crane 's poems tend to affirm certain elemental attitudes , beliefs , opinions and stances toward God , man and the universe . The Black Riders in particular is essentially a dramatic concept and the poems provide continuity within the dramatic structure . There is also a dramatic interplay in which there is frequently a major voice reporting an incident seen ( " In the desert / I saw a creature , naked , bestial " ) or experienced ( " A learned man came to me once " ) . The second voice or additional voices represent a point of view which is revealed to be inferior ; when these clash , a dominant attitude emerges .
= = Legacy = =
In four years , Crane published five novels , two volumes of poetry , three short story collections , two books of war stories , and numerous works of short fiction and reporting . Today he is mainly remembered for The Red Badge of Courage , which is regarded as an American classic . The novel has been adapted several times for the screen , including John Huston 's 1951 version . By the time of his death , Crane had become one of the best known writers of his generation . His eccentric lifestyle , frequent newspaper reporting , association with other famous authors , and expatriate status made him somewhat of an international celebrity . Although most stories about his life tended toward the romantic , rumors about his alleged drug use and alcoholism persisted long after his death .
By the early 1920s , Crane and his work were nearly forgotten . It was not until Thomas Beer published his biography in 1923 , which was followed by editor Wilson Follett 's The Work of Stephen Crane ( 1925 – 1927 ) , that Crane 's writing came to the attention of a scholarly audience . Crane 's reputation was then enhanced by faithful support from writer friends such as Joseph Conrad , H. G. Wells and Ford Madox Ford , all of whom either published recollections or commented upon their time with Crane . John Berryman 's 1950 biography of Crane further established him as an important American author . Since 1951 there has been a steady outpouring of articles , monographs and reprints in Crane scholarship .
Today , Crane is considered one of the most innovative writers of the 1890s . His peers , including Conrad and James , as well as later writers such as Robert Frost , Ezra Pound and Willa Cather , hailed Crane as one of the finest creative spirits of his time . His work was described by Wells as " the first expression of the opening mind of a new period , or , at least , the early emphatic phase of a new initiative . " Wells said that " beyond dispute " , Crane was " the best writer of our generation , and his untimely death was an irreparable loss to our literature . " Conrad wrote that Crane was an " artist " and " a seer with a gift for rendering the significant on the surface of things and with an incomparable insight into primitive emotions " . Crane 's work has proved inspirational for future writers ; not only have scholars drawn similarities between Hemingway 's A Farewell to Arms and The Red Badge of Courage , but Crane 's fiction is thought to have been an important inspiration for Hemingway and his fellow Modernists . In 1936 , Hemingway wrote in The Green Hills of Africa that " The good writers are Henry James , Stephen Crane , and Mark Twain . That 's not the order they 're good in . There is no order for good writers . " Crane 's poetry is thought to have been a precursor to the Imagist movement , and his short fiction has also influenced American literature . " The Open Boat " , " The Blue Hotel " , The Monster and " The Bride Comes to Yellow Sky " are generally considered by critics to be examples of Crane 's best work .
Several institutions and places have endeavored to keep Crane 's legacy alive . Badenweiler and the house where he died became something of a tourist attraction for its fleeting association with the American author ; Alexander Woollcott attested to the fact that , long after Crane 's death , tourists would be directed to the room where he died . Columbia University Rare Book and Manuscript Library has a collection of Crane and Taylor 's personal correspondence dating from 1895 to 1908 . Near his brother Edmund 's Sullivan County home in New York , where Crane stayed for a short time , a pond is named after him . The Stephen Crane House in Asbury Park , New Jersey , where the author lived with his siblings for nine years , is operated as a museum dedicated to his life and work . Syracuse University has an annual Stephen Crane Lecture Series which is sponsored by the Dikaia Foundation .
Columbia University purchased much of the Stephen Crane materials held by Cora Crane at her death . The Crane Collection is one of the largest in the nation of his materials . Columbia University had an exhibit : ' The Tall Swift Shadow of a Ship at Night ' : Stephen and Cora Crane , November 2 , 1995 through February 16 , 1996 , about the lives of the couple , featuring letters and other documents and memorabilia .
= = Selected list of works = =
Maggie : A Girl of the Streets ( 1893 )
The Red Badge of Courage ( 1895 )
The Black Riders and Other Lines ( 1895 )
George 's Mother ( 1896 )
The Open Boat and Other Tales of Adventure ( 1898 )
War is Kind ( 1899 )
Active Service ( 1899 )
The Monster and Other Stories ( 1899 )
Wounds in the Rain ( 1900 )
Great battles of the world ( 1901 )
The O 'Ruddy ( 1903 )
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= Arizona State Route 347 =
State Route 347 ( SR 347 ) , also known as John Wayne Parkway , is a 28 @.@ 69 miles ( 46 @.@ 17 km ) long , north – south state highway in central Arizona . The route begins at SR 84 and heads north . It passes through Maricopa , meeting SR 238 . The route ends at an interchange with Interstate 10 ( I @-@ 10 ) south of Chandler . It primarily serves as the major road to Maricopa ; much of the road lies within the Gila River Indian Community , with another short stretch through the Ak @-@ Chin Indian Community . The road was built in the late 1930s and established as a state highway in the 1990s . On average , between 4 @,@ 000 and 35 @,@ 000 vehicles use the roadway daily .
= = Route description = =
The route begins at an intersection with SR 84 west of Stanfield . SR 347 then heads northward as John Wayne Parkway , a four @-@ lane expressway , which SR 347 is for its entirety , through a desert landscape . After intersecting Meadowview Road and crossing a canal , SR 347 meets Carefree Place , where a farm appears to the west part of the road . At Clayton Road , the east side of the road becomes farmland as well . John Wayne Parkway enters the Ak @-@ Chin Indian Community , passing the Harrah 's Ak @-@ Chin Casino , and intersects BIA Route 14 within this community . At Route 14 , the route becomes Maricopa Road , but retains its name as John Wayne Parkway , as it heads toward Maricopa . Continuing on its northerly path , the road exits the Indian community with a residential area to the west and desert to the east . Past Bowlin road , this orientation switches , as the residential area is located on the east side of Maricopa Road . The arrangement of the landscape switches again at Desert Cedars Road , where the road passes the Maricopa First Baptist Church . Before meeting the Maricopa @-@ Casa Grande Highway , the road passes Maricopa High School . It also meets an at @-@ grade intersection with a rail line , owned by Union Pacific .
North of this highway , SR 347 passes Honeycutt Road and passes by the Pinal County Justice Court . After an intersection with Edison Road , SR 347 passes several businesses before intersecting SR 238 , named Smith Enke Road . The route then enters another residential area before abruptly passing into the desert . The road turns more northeasterly , heading through the Gila River Indian Community . Turning back north and slightly northeast again , the road crosses from Pinal County into Maricopa County . After intersecting Riggs Road , Maricopa Road veers away from John Wayne Parkway , which SR 347 follows . Now as Queen Creek Road , which serves as another name , SR 347 heads east for a small distance , ending at a diamond interchange at I @-@ 10 's exit 164 . Queen Creek Road continues toward Chandler Municipal Airport .
The route is maintained by the Arizona Department of Transportation ( ADOT ) , which is responsible for maintaining highways in the state . As part of this role , the department periodically conducts surveys to measure traffic on highways in Arizona . These surveys are most often presented in the form of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is the number of vehicles that use a highway on any average day during the year . In 2009 , ADOT calculated that around 4 @,@ 500 vehicles used the road daily near the SR 84 intersection and about 33 @,@ 000 vehicles used the route near the I @-@ 10 interchange on an average day . No part of the highway has been listed in the National Highway System , a system of roads in the United States important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
The section north of Maricopa , toward present day I @-@ 10 , was built by 1939 . The road headed north toward Tempe to U.S. Route 80 . Between 1951 and 1958 , the road was extended south to its current terminus at SR 84 ; at this time , I @-@ 10 had still not been built , nor had the route become a numbered route . By 1971 , I @-@ 10 was finished through the south and east edges of the Phoenix area . In 1989 , ADOT made preparations to establish the number along Maricopa Road and reserved the right @-@ of @-@ way along the parkway . This may have been because of a controversy over the name of John Wayne Parkway , which the road was dubbed at the time . The Gila River Native Americans , whose reservation the parkway ran on , did not want this name , as John Wayne , the actor who formerly owned a ranch on the road , had appeared in several movies in which he had killed Native Americans . In 1997 , the route was officially established as a state highway with its current routing . SR 347 was widened from a two @-@ lane road to the four @-@ lane expressway that it is today .
= = Junction list = =
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= Heart of a Woman ( Etta James album ) =
Heart of a Woman is an album by Etta James , released in June 1999 through RCA Records . The album consists of eleven love songs from James ' favorite female singers , as well as a recording of her most popular song " At Last " . Recorded in March 1999 , Heart of a Woman was produced by James and John Snyder , with Lupe DeLeon serving as executive producer . James ' two sons Donto and Sametto served as assistant producers , among other contributions ; guest musicians appearing on the album include Mike Finnigan on organ , Red Holloway and Jimmy Zavala on tenor saxophone , and Lee Thornburg on multiple instruments . Following its release , critical reception of Heart of a Woman was mixed . The album reached a peak position of number four on Billboard 's Top Blues Albums chart .
= = Background and composition = =
Heart of a Woman was released during a period of James ' career in which she parted from singing blues to experiment with country , jazz , and pop music , with mixed reception . Rolling Stone grouped the album in a " trifecta " with James ' previous ( not counting the 1998 holiday album 12 Songs of Christmas ) , and following studio albums , Life , Love & the Blues ( 1998 ) and Matriarch of the Blues ( 2000 ) .
Categorized by Rolling Stone as a jazz pop album , Heart of a Woman contains " cool , sensuous arrangements " between four and seven minutes in length . It consists of eleven love songs by James ' favorite female singers , including Billie Holiday , Carmen McRae , Sarah Vaughan , and Dinah Washington , along with a new recording of her most famous song " At Last " . The album was recorded in March 1999 , and produced by James and John Snyder , with Lupe DeLeon serving as executive producer . James ' two sons , Donto and Sametto , served as assistant producers , among other contributions . Guest musicians appearing on the album included : Mike Finnigan on organ , Red Holloway and Jimmy Zavala on tenor saxophone , and Lee Thornburg on multiple instruments .
Gene de Paul and Don Raye 's " You Don 't Know What Love Is " opens the album , followed by " Good Morning Heartache " , written by Ervin Drake , Dan Fisher , and Irene Higginbotham . The bossa nova arrangement of Sam Coslow and Arthur Johnston 's " My Old Flame " contains a saxophone solo by Red Holloway . Irving Berlin 's " Say It Isn 't So " is followed by James ' signature song " At Last " , written originally by Mack Gordon and Harry Warren .
Other love songs on the album include " Tenderly " by Walter Gross and Jack Lawrence , and " I Only Have Eyes for You " by Al Dubin . James ' vocals on Duke Ellington and Paul Francis Webster 's " I Got It Bad ( and That Ain 't Good ) " are " barely audible " as she sings " ... I ... can 't ... live without him . " " I Got It Bad " is followed by a cover of John Frederick Coots and Haven Gillespie 's 1933 popular song " You Go to My Head " . Mike Finnigan performs the Hammond organ solo on " A Sunday Kind of Love " and throughout the album , filling the gap between blues and jazz music . Closing the album are Sammy Cahn and Saul Chaplin 's " If It 's the Last Thing I Do " , and Alice Cooper 's " Only Women Bleed " . James had recorded " Only Women Bleed " previously .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception of the album was mixed . PopMatters ' review concluded that , given proper arrangements and material , James delivered jazz standards " with the same devastating power " demonstrated on past blues performances . Staff wrote that James combined jazz and blues elements successfully , " [ creating ] the sense of loneliness and desperation in which James has always excelled in expressing " . PopMatters ' review was positive overall , claiming James ' rough voice made her appear to be " in tune with the woeful nature " of the songs , though it insisted that her cover of " Only Women Bleed " was a " miscalculation of major proportions " . Allmusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine called James one of the best blues performers of the twentieth century and wrote in his review of the album that " she still possesses an exceptionally strong voice , robust and filled with passion . " However , Erlewine also wrote that Heart of a Woman " never has the emotional impact James intended it to have " . Music critic Robert Christgau 's review simply reads " Torching cocktail cool " and recommended the tracks " My Old Flame " , and " I Only Have Eyes for You " . The Advocate 's Andrew Velez felt that " I Got It Bad ( and That Ain 't Good ) " was the album 's best track . " Steve Knopper of the Chicago Tribune thought the arrangements were " tinkly " and " meandering " , with James sounding as through " she 's learning a foreign language " . Knopper considered " Only Women Bleed " to be the album 's most soulful track .
= = Track listing = =
" You Don 't Know What Love Is " ( Gene de Paul , Don Raye ) – 5 : 28
" Good Morning Heartache " ( Ervin Drake , Dan Fisher , Irene Higgenbotham ) – 5 : 28
" My Old Flame " ( Sam Coslow , Arthur Johnston ) – 6 : 20
" Say It Isn 't So " ( Irving Berlin ) – 4 : 55
" At Last " ( Mack Gordon , Harry Warren ) – 4 : 40
" Tenderly " ( Walter Gross , Jack Lawrence ) – 5 : 27
" I Only Have Eyes for You " ( Al Dubin , Warren ) – 6 : 35
" I Got It Bad ( and That Ain 't Good ) " ( Duke Ellington , Paul Francis Webster ) – 6 : 25
" You Go to My Head " ( John Frederick Coots , Haven Gillespie ) – 4 : 21
" A Sunday Kind of Love " ( Barbara Belle , Anita Leonard , Louis Prima , Stan Rhodes ) – 6 : 00
" If It 's the Last Thing I Do " ( Sammy Cahn , Saul Chaplin ) – 5 : 47
" Only Women Bleed " ( Alice Cooper , Dick Wagner ) – 4 : 48
Track listing adapted from Allmusic .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from Allmusic .
= = Chart history = =
Heart of a Woman reached a peak position of number four on Billboard 's Top Blues Albums chart . By November 1999 , the album had remained on the chart for seventeen weeks , and remained at number twelve . In 1999 , James had five albums chart in the United States : Life , Love & the Blues , Heart of a Woman , 12 Songs of Christmas ( 1998 ) , as well as two compilation albums : Best of Etta James , and Her Best ( 1997 ) .
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= William Warelwast =
William Warelwast , sometimes known as William de Warelwast ( died 1137 ) , was a medieval Norman cleric and Bishop of Exeter in England . Warelwast was a native of Normandy , but little is known about his background before 1087 , when he appears as a royal clerk for King William II of England . Most of his royal service to William was as a diplomatic envoy , as he was heavily involved in the king 's dispute with Anselm , the Archbishop of Canterbury , which constituted the English theatre of the Investiture Controversy . He went several times to Rome as an emissary to the papacy on business related to Anselm , one of whose supporters , the medieval chronicler Eadmer , alleged that Warelwast bribed the pope and the papal officials to secure favourable outcomes for King William .
Possibly present at King William 's death in a hunting accident , Warelwast served as a diplomat to the king 's successor , Henry I. After the resolution of the Investiture Controversy , Warelwast was rewarded with the bishopric of Exeter in Devon , but he continued to serve Henry as a diplomat and royal judge . He began the construction of a new cathedral at Exeter , and he probably divided the diocese into archdeaconries . Warelwast went blind after 1120 , and after his death in 1137 was succeeded by his nephew , Robert Warelwast .
= = Early life = =
Little is known of Warelwast 's background or family before 1087 . Later in life he was involved in founding Augustinian houses of canons , which – according to historian D. W. Blake – implies that he was an Augustinian canon or spent some of his early years in a house of such canons . Several medieval chroniclers hostile to Warelwast , including Eadmer , claim that he was illiterate , but his career suggests otherwise , as it involved the extensive use of written documents . He must also have been an accomplished speaker , given the number of times he was used as a diplomat . He was possibly educated at Laon , where later in life he sent his nephew , Robert Warelwast , to school . Another nephew , William , became the bishop 's steward .
Warelwast may have been a clerk for King William I of England , as a confirmation charter from the time of King Stephen ( reigned 1135 – 1154 ) records that a grant of churches in Exeter was given to Warelwast by " Willelmus , avus meus " , or " William , my grandfather / ancestor " ; Stephen was a grandson of William I , who reigned 1066 – 1087 . But this charter may be a forgery , or the Willelmus referred to may have been William II rather than William I. The charter itself is insufficient evidence to confidently assert that Warelwast served William I , even though most such grants were made as a reward for royal service . It may have been that Warelwast was awarded land by William I not because he was a royal servant but because he was a relative ; certainly the late @-@ medieval writer William Worcester claimed that Warelwast was related to the king .
= = Royal clerk under King William II = =
The first reliable mentions of Warelwast occur early in the reign of King William II , when Warelwast appears as authorizing writs for the king . As well as being a royal clerk , Warelwast acted as a judge in a legal case between St Florent Abbey in Saumur and Fécamp Abbey , heard before King William II some time between 1094 and 1099 at Foucarmont .
Warelwast served the king as an envoy to Pope Urban II in 1095 , when the king was seeking to have the newly appointed Archbishop of Canterbury , Anselm of Canterbury , removed from office . He visited the pope with another royal clerk , Gerard , with orders to recognize Urban as pope in return for Anselm 's deposition , at least according to Eadmer , an Anselm partisan . The two clerks travelled very quickly , as they did not leave before 28 February 1095 and were back in England by 13 May 1095 . Eadmer claimed that the ambassadors were supposed to acquire a pallium , the symbol of an archbishop 's authority , for the king to give to his new choice as archbishop . But although the king may have instructed his envoys to attempt to secure these objects , he was probably willing to negotiate and to settle for less . The two clerks returned with a papal legate , Walter of Albano , who accepted the king 's recognition of Urban but refused to allow Anselm 's deposition . The king did nevertheless manage to secure recognition of his royal rights in the church , and a concession that no papal legates or communications would be sent without his approval . It may well be that the king always regarded Anselm 's deposition as unlikely .
Warelwast was probably sent as an envoy to Urban in 1096 to bribe the pope into recalling the papal legate Jarento , who had been sent to England to protest the king 's conduct towards the church . In addition to his ambassadorial duties Warelwast acted as a royal justice under King William ; the records of one case have survived .
Shortly before Anselm went into exile in 1097 Warelwast searched his baggage , probably looking for communications to the pope , either from Anselm or other English bishops rather than for valuables , and in particular for any letters of complaint . Warelwast was the king 's envoy at Rome when during his exile Anselm petitioned to have the king excommunicated , which according to Eadmer , who was also present , Warelwast succeeded in preventing by bribing the pope and papal officials . The king had sent Warelwast to Urban at Christmas 1098 , with his reply to a letter the pope had written ordering the restoration of Anselm 's estates .
= = Royal service for King Henry I = =
Warelwast may have been with the hunting party on 2 August 1100 in which King William was accidentally killed , as he was one of the witnesses to the letter sent on 5 August 1100 from William IIs brother , the new King Henry I to Anselm recalling the archbishop . King Henry continued to use Warelwast as an ambassador , sending him to Rome in 1101 to bring back Pope Paschal II 's reply to a letter written by Henry immediately after his accession . Henry was seeking a reconciliation with the papacy , and confirmed to the pope the rights and obedience which his father had rendered , but he also requested the same rights within the Church as his father had enjoyed , chiefly the lay investiture of bishops and the granting of the symbols of episcopal authority by laymen . Paschal declined to grant Henry those rights .
It was Warelwast who told Anselm in 1103 that the king would not permit his return to England . This came after a failed joint mission by Warelwast and Anselm to Paschal attempting to resolve the dispute between Henry and the archbishop over the king 's investiture of bishops , a dispute generally known as the Investiture Controversy . It is quite likely that the king had given instructions that if the mission failed , Warelwast was to inform Anselm that he should only to return to England if he agreed with the king 's position in the dispute . In 1106 Warelwast was the king 's negotiator in the discussions that led to the settlement of the Investiture Controversy in England . The king ultimately lost little , relinquishing the right to actually give the symbols of episcopal authority to a newly elected bishop in return for continuing to receive homage from the bishops . Early in 1106 Warelwast was sent to Bec Abbey , where Anselm was residing in exile , to inform him of the settlement and deliver to the archbishop the king 's invitation to return to England . In May 1107 Warelwast acted as the king 's envoy at Paschal 's council at Troyes , where Paschal was attempting to secure support for Bohemond of Antioch 's proposed campaign against Byzantium . Warelwast probably relayed to the pope the news that King Henry would make no contribution to Bohemond 's efforts .
Henry had reserved the episcopal see of Exeter for Warelwast since the death of Osbern FitzOsbern in 1103 , but the controversy over investiture meant that his election and consecration were not possible before a settlement was reached . Instead the king gave Warelwast the office of Archdeacon of Exeter after Osbern 's death . The medieval chronicler William of Malmesbury records that Warelwast had earlier tried to remove Osbern from office , but this story probably originates with Eadmer and is of dubious veracity . While archdeacon , Warelwast is recorded as being present at the transfer of a Devon church to Bath Cathedral . He was elected Bishop of Exeter , and was consecrated on 11 August 1107 , by Anselm at the royal palace of Westminster . Other bishops consecrated at the same time included William Giffard to Winchester , Roger of Salisbury to Salisbury , Reynelm to Hereford , and Urban to Llandaff . Warelwast 's elevation was a reward for his diplomatic efforts in the investiture crisis . The mass consecration signalled the end of the investiture crisis in England .
After his consecration Warelwast continued to serve the king , often appearing on documents or in accounts of the royal court . The bishop served the king as a messenger , once more carrying messages to Anselm in 1108 . He also served as a royal judge , hearing a case at Tamworth in 1114 and another at Westbourne the same year . He was with the king in Normandy in 1111 , 1113 , and 1118 , and may have been in Normandy more frequently . During Henry 's reign Warelwast was a witness to 20 of the king 's charters .
In 1115 Henry sent Warelwast back to Rome to negotiate with Paschal , who was angry that the king was prohibiting papal legates in England , not allowing clerics to appeal to the papal court , and was failing to secure papal sanction for church councils or the translation of bishops . Warelwast was unable to change the pope 's mind , but he did manage to prevent sanctions against the king . Henry also employed Warelwast as a papal envoy during the Canterbury – York disputes over the primacy in the English Church , with visits in 1119 , 1120 , and possibly also in 1116 .
= = Work as bishop = =
As a bishop , Warelwast attended the Council of Reims in 1119 along with three other bishops from England , as well as the Council of Rouen in 1118 , a provincial synod for Normandy . In his diocese of Exeter he began the construction of a new cathedral in about 1114 ; it was consecrated in 1133 . The existing two towers in the transepts date from that period . He also replaced the secular clergy staffing collegiate churches with regular canons : at Plympton in 1121 with canons from Aldgate in London , and in 1127 at the church in Launceston in Cornwall . In addition he founded a house of regular canons at Bodmin . Royal charters survive that granted several churches in Cornwall , Devon , and Exeter to Warelwast .
Warelwast 's relations with his cathedral chapter were good , and no disputes arose during his episcopate . It was not until late in his bishopric that the diocese was split into multiple archdeaconries , which appears to have happened in 1133 . Warelwast instituted the two offices of treasurer and precentor for the cathedral chapter , as well as the first sub @-@ archdeacons , who were under the archdeacons . Sub @-@ archdeacons are not attested again at Exeter until the episcopate of Bartholomew Iscanus , who was bishop from 1161 – 1184 . William of Malmesbury felt that during Warelwast 's episcopate the cathedral chapter relaxed its communal living , which previously had been strong . It is likely that during Warelwast 's episcopate the canons of the cathedral chapter quit living in a communal dormitory .
Warelwast went blind in his later years , starting in about 1120 , which William of Malmesbury regarded as a fitting punishment for Warelwast 's alleged attempts to remove his predecessor from office early . He died about 26 September 1137 , and was buried in the priory at Plympton . He may have resigned his see prior to his death . The 16th @-@ century antiquary John Leland thought that Warelwast resigned his see before 1127 , became a canon at Plympton , and died in 1127 . Although Leland 's year of death is incorrect , it is possible that Warelwast became a canon shortly before his death . The Annales Plymptonienses records that Robert of Bath , the Bishop of Bath , gave Warelwast his last rites on 26 September 1137 , and records that the dying bishop was made a member of the collegiate church at Plympton . Warelwast 's nephew Robert Warelwast succeeded as Bishop at Exeter in 1138 ; Robert had been appointed archdeacon of Exeter by his uncle .
The historian C. Warren Hollister described William Warelwast as a " canny and devoted royal servant " .
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= Carry Out =
" Carry Out " is a song recorded by American rapper and producer Timbaland for his third studio album Shock Value II ( 2009 ) . The song features guest vocals from longtime collaborator , American recording artist Justin Timberlake . Timbaland and Timberlake co @-@ wrote the song with Timothy " Attitude " Clayton , Jim Beanz and Jerome " J @-@ Roc " Harmon ; with Harmon co @-@ producing the song with Timbaland . Mosley Music Group , together with Blackground and Interscope Records , serviced the song to contemporary hit radio on December 1 , 2009 in the United States , as the third single from Shock Value II .
" Carry Out " received a mixed response from contemporary music critics , with many being divided on the song 's composition and lyrical content . " Carry Out " s lyrics use the term ' carry out ' as metaphor for sex . Most found the song to be one of the album 's best tracks , but criticized the use of food @-@ sex metaphors and deemed the song to be lacking in creativity . The song also received comparisons to The Lonely Island 's 2006 single " Dick in a Box " , in which Timberlake was featured . " Carry Out " peaked within the top ten of the charts in Canada , the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom . The song 's accompanying music video , directed by Bryan Barber , features Timbaland and Timberlake surrounded by women , which they attempt to seduce while dressed in fast @-@ food restaurant themed costumes .
= = Writing and recording = =
" Carry Out " is one of twelve songs written and produced by Timbaland and J @-@ Roc for Timbaland 's third studio album Shock Value II ( 2009 ) . Justin Timberlake , Attitude and Jim Beanz , notable collaborators with Timbaland , also assisted in the writing of the song . Timbaland , in an interview with MTV 's Shaheem Reed and Gil Kaufman , stated that he favored this song over other recordings because the process for creating the song was similar to those of other collaborations they have done . Timberlake would come in to the studio and listen to the track . Afterwards , he would then compose the lyrics in his head . Upon explaining their method of making music , Timbaland stated that : " We got a chemistry that cannot be described . People ask , ' Well , what are you and Justin like ? ' Can 't tell you what it 's like — it 's a chemistry that can 't be described . Something you would have to see for yourself and be , like , ' Them two got magic ' . " Timbaland stated that that the song resembles a " 2010 version " of Snoop Dogg 's " Drop It Like It 's Hot " , produced by The Neptunes . He also revealed that the intention of the song was to provide a different slang for women : " Instead of ' Your phat butt ' or ' Your big breasts , ' we say , ' Oh , I need you . Can I be your carry out ? Be my carry out . I want you to be my dinner , my leftovers , my everything . ' It 's a different slang . We 're grown men , I wanna be subliminal to females . Like , ' Oooh , carry out ? That 's kinda sexy ' . "
Recording and mix engineer Demacio " Demo " Castellon , notable for recording and mixing nearly all of Timbaland 's second studio album Shock Value ( 2007 ) , worked with Chris Godbey on recording the track , while providing additional recording for The Demolition Crew and mixing the song ; all of this took place at No Excuses Studios in Santa Monica , California . Chris Kasych and Brian Morton were signed as assistant mix engineers for the song while Beanz , in addition to writing the song , contributed additional vocals and vocal production . Musician and songwriter Mike Hartnett performed on the guitars .
= = Composition = =
" Carry Out " is 3 minutes and 52 seconds ( 3 : 52 ) long . It contains an electro @-@ funk backing beat . The song moves through a Middle Eastern inspired groove and is built over a " pinging " syncopated beat . Timbaland performs the song in a spoken and sung style , while Timberlake performs his verses with a " seductive " lower register coupled with his falsetto vocals . The song contains many metaphors using food in place of sex . According to the digital music sheet published at Musicnotes.com by Alfred Publishing Co . , Inc . , the song was written in a key of E ♭ minor . Riding a moderate hip hop groove , it is set in common time with a beat rate of 110 beats per minute . Timbaland and Timberlake 's vocals range from the high note of B3 to the low note of D5 .
= = Critical response = =
" Carry Out " received a generally mixed response from music critics . Ben Norman of About.com praised it as a " fantastic fast food euphamism " [ sic ] and as an example of Timbaland 's ability to craft " top @-@ notch pop " . Calling it a " radio smash " , Luke Gibson of HipHop DX in his review of the single commented on the noticeable chemistry between Timbaland and Timberlake and deemed it will " have bodies moving " . Gibson concluded , writing , " The song itself captures what ’ s wrong or maybe right with the entire project . " Jason Lipshutz of Billboard remarked that " Carry Out " competes with " Morning After Dark " to " burn up dancefloors " . In his review of the album , David Balls of Digital Spy called " Carry Out " and " Meet in Tha Middle " , " pretty irresistible " . David E. Gray of Yahoo ! Voices said that the song " shows how much Timberlake can add to a track when he 's in his element . " August Brown of Los Angeles Times commented that album fares better with the collaborations with artists Timbaland has worked with previously , saying that Timberlake has a " goofy good time " on " Carry Out " .
Will Hines of Consequence of Sound found the lyrical focus on the food metaphor for sex as " unerotic " and commented that Timberlake sounds " a little less invincible " on the track . Henry Yanney of Soul Culture labeled it a safe collaboration , noting it as a revival of Timbaland and Timberlake 's " successful chemistry " . Robert Copsey , in the review of the single itself , found the recording to be lacking in creativity , leaving him to comment that " ' Carry Out ' is one of Timbaland 's least shocking efforts to date " . Jon Parales of New York Times said the song and " Morning After Dark " were less effective than the collaboration by Timberlake and Nelly Furtado on " Give It to Me " ( Shock Value , 2007 ) and called the food @-@ to @-@ sex metaphor " unamusing " .
Andy Kellman of Allmusic called " Carry Out " the dirtiest track on the album and noted that the two artist aim for a contemporary form of The Lonely Island 's " Dick in a Box " ( Incredibad , 2009 ) , on which Timberlake was featured . Brian Linder of IGN commented that the production on the song is tight , but panned the single for its food @-@ sex metaphors , calling it " unforgivably stupid " and " such a joke that we half expected Andy Samberg to show up with his dick in a happy meal box , " making reference to " Dick in a Box " , which premiered on Saturday Night Live in 2006 . Jesse Cataldo of Slant Magazine called the collaboration and " Say Something " " admirable turns " on the album , but comments that they are " forced to operate with unenviably tepid production . " Cataldo concludes , writing , " The overall laziness of that facet is even more inexcusable coming from one of the most renowned producers of the last decade . " Hugh Montgomery of The Observer noted it as one of the album 's best track but called it " merely passable " and said it was " weighed down by his own leaden rapping and with nothing new to add to the familiar , futurist R & B formula . "
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , the song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number seventy five on December 19 , 2009 . It rose to number eleven on the chart more than two months later on March 27 , 2010 . The song also appeared on the Pop Songs and Radio Songs charts , where it peaked at number eight and number ten respectively . The song spent twenty @-@ six weeks on the Hot 100 . In Canada , the song debuted on the Canadian Hot 100 at number thirty @-@ six , being the week 's second highest debut behind Jason Derülo 's " In My Head " . It fell to number seventy @-@ six in the following week . The song eventually reached a peak of number seven and charted for three months more .
The song experienced similar success in international territories . In New Zealand , the song debuted at number thirty nine on the New Zealand Singles Chart on March 22 , 2010 . It reached a peak at number fifteen in it fifth week on the chart . In the United Kingdom , the song entered at number ninety @-@ seven on the UK Singles Chart and rose sixty @-@ eight places to twenty @-@ nine in the following week . It peaked at number six two weeks later and stayed inside the top ten for almost a month . In the Republic of Ireland , " Carry Out " peaked at number three on the Irish Singles Chart . The song experienced a quick chart run in the Netherlands , where it debuted at number thirty nine on the Dutch Top 40 and rose to its peak at number nineteen two weeks later . It ultimately lasted a total of seven weeks on the chart . " Carry Out " was not successful in Austria and Switzerland , where it peaked at number fifty seven and number eighty on the Austrian Singles Chart and Swiss Singles Chart respectively , lasting only one to two weeks within the charts .
= = Music video = =
Two music videos for " Carry Out " were shot . The first video , shot in December 2009 , consisted of live performance footage of Timbaland and Timberlake . The video was due to be released in January 2010 . In late January 2010 , it was announced that a new video is going to be shot with director Bryan Barber . The video made its premiere on February 18 , 2010 . The video begins with sequences of several women dancing in underwear in front of light sing saying " Drive In " and " Hot Cakes " . Scenes of Timbaland and Timberlake in front of the signs are also shown . Scenes are intercut showing Timbaland and his brother in a car watching girls skating around it . During the chorus the performers are dancing in front of the sings along girl dancers . Scenes are intercut and show separate scenes of Timbaland and Timberlake sitting on a throne chairs while girls with plates full of food are around them . The video ends with several girls seductively eating cakes .
= = Formats and track listings = =
Digital EP
" Carry Out " ( New version ) – 3 : 52
" Carry Out " ( Chew Fu No MSG Fix Extended ) – 4 : 25
" Carry Out " ( Chew Fu No MSG Fix Radio ) – 3 : 33
" Carry Out " ( Chew Fu No MSG Fix Instrumental ) – 3 : 54
" Carry Out " ( Instrumental ) – 3 : 55
CD single
" Carry Out ( Album version ) – 3 : 53
" Carry Out " ( Chew Fu No MSG Fix Remix ) – 3 : 34
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording and mixing
Recorded and mixed at No Excuses Studios in Santa Monica , California .
Personnel
Credits taken from the liner notes of Shock Value II , Mosley Music Group , Blackground Records , Interscope Records .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Tiger =
The tiger ( Panthera tigris ) is the largest cat species , most recognisable for their pattern of dark vertical stripes on reddish @-@ orange fur with a lighter underside . The largest tigers have reached a total body length of up to 3 @.@ 38 m ( 11 @.@ 1 ft ) over curves and have weighed up to 388 @.@ 7 kg ( 857 lb ) in the wild . The species is classified in the genus Panthera with the lion , leopard , jaguar and snow leopard . Tigers are apex predators , primarily preying on ungulates such as deer and bovids . They are territorial and generally solitary but social animals , often requiring large contiguous areas of habitat that support their prey requirements . This , coupled with the fact that they are indigenous to some of the more densely populated places on Earth , has caused significant conflicts with humans .
Tigers once ranged widely across Asia , from Turkey in the west to the eastern coast of Russia . Over the past 100 years , they have lost 93 % of their historic range , and have been extirpated from southwest and central Asia , from the islands of Java and Bali , and from large areas of Southeast and Eastern Asia . Today , they range from the Siberian taiga to open grasslands and tropical mangrove swamps . The remaining six tiger subspecies have been classified as endangered by IUCN . The global population in the wild is estimated to number between 3 @,@ 062 and 3 @,@ 948 individuals , down from around 100 @,@ 000 at the start of the 20th century , with most remaining populations occurring in small pockets isolated from each other , of which about 2 @,@ 000 exist on the Indian subcontinent . A 2016 global census estimated the population of wild tigers at approximately 3 @,@ 890 individuals . Major reasons for population decline include habitat destruction , habitat fragmentation and poaching . The extent of area occupied by tigers is estimated at less than 1 @,@ 184 @,@ 911 km2 ( 457 @,@ 497 sq mi ) , a 41 % decline from the area estimated in the mid @-@ 1990s . In 2016 , wildlife conservation group at WWF declared that world 's count of wild tigers has risen for the first time in a century .
Tigers are among the most recognisable and popular of the world 's charismatic megafauna . They have featured prominently in ancient mythology and folklore , and continue to be depicted in modern films and literature . They appear on many flags , coats of arms , and as mascots for sporting teams . The tiger is the national animal of Bangladesh , India , Malaysia and South Korea .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
In 1758 , Linnaeus described the tiger in his work Systema Naturae and gave it the scientific name Felis tigris . In 1929 , the British taxonomist Reginald Innes Pocock subordinated the species under the genus Panthera using the scientific name Panthera tigris .
The word Panthera is probably of Oriental origin and retraceable to the Ancient Greek word panther , the Latin word panthera , the Old French word pantere , most likely meaning " the yellowish animal " , or from pandarah meaning whitish @-@ yellow . The derivation from Greek pan- ( " all " ) and ther ( " beast " ) may be folk etymology .
The specific epithet , tigris , as well as the common name , tiger , come from the Middle English tigre and the Old English tigras ( a plural word ) , both used for the animal . These derive from the Old French tigre , itself a derivative of the Latin word tigris and the Greek word tigris . The original source may have been the Persian tigra meaning pointed or sharp and the Avestan tigrhi meaning an arrow , perhaps referring to the speed with which a tiger launches itself at its prey .
= = = Evolution = = =
The tiger 's closest living relatives were previously thought to be the lion , leopard and jaguar , all of which are classified under the genus Panthera . Genetic analysis indicates that the tiger and the snow leopard diverged from the other Panthera species about 2 @.@ 88 million years ago , and that both species may be more closely related to each other than to the lion , leopard and jaguar .
The oldest remains of an extinct tiger relative , called Panthera zdanskyi or the Longdan tiger , have been found in the Gansu province of northwestern China . This species is considered to be a sister taxon to the extant tiger and lived about 2 million years ago , at the beginning of the Pleistocene . It was smaller than the modern tiger , being the size of a jaguar , and probably did not have the same coat pattern . Despite being considered more " primitive " , the Longdan tiger was functionally and possibly ecologically similar to its modern cousin . As Panthera zdanskyi lived in northwestern China , that may have been where the tiger lineage originated . Tigers grew in size , possibly in response to adaptive radiations of prey species like deer and bovids which may have occurred in Southeast Asia during the early Pleistocene .
The earliest fossils of true tigers are from Java , and are between 1 @.@ 6 and 1 @.@ 8 million years old . Distinct fossils are known from the early and middle Pleistocene deposits in China and Sumatra . A subspecies called the Trinil tiger ( Panthera tigris trinilensis ) lived about 1 @.@ 2 million years ago and is known from fossils found at Trinil in Java .
Tigers first reached India and northern Asia in the late Pleistocene , reaching eastern Beringia ( but not the American Continent ) , Japan , and Sakhalin . As evidenced by Sandra Herrington , some fossil skulls that are morphologically distinct from lion skulls could indicate however that tigers might have been present in Alaska within the last 100 @,@ 000 years during the last glaciation . Fossils found in Japan indicate the local tigers were , like the surviving island subspecies , smaller than the mainland forms , an example of insular dwarfism . Until the Holocene , tigers also lived in Borneo , as well as on the island of Palawan in the Philippines .
The tiger 's full genome sequence was published in 2013 . It and other cat genomes were found to have similar repeat composition and an appreciably conserved synteny .
= = = Subspecies = = =
There are 10 recognised tiger subspecies . One , the Trinil , became extinct in prehistoric times . The remaining subspecies all survived at least into the mid @-@ 20th century ; three of these are also considered extinct . Their historical range in Bangladesh , Siberia , Iran , Afghanistan , India , China , and southeast Asia , including three Indonesian islands , is severely diminished today . The modern subspecies are :
An analysis of craniodental and pelage morphology , ecology , and molecular biology of the tiger subspecies indicates that they have many traits in common and that the genetic diversity between them is low . The authors of this analysis suggest to group the Bengal , Indochinese , Malayan , South China , and Siberian tiger subspecies to the Continental tiger Panthera tigris tigris ; and the Sumatran , Javan and Bali tiger subspecies to the Sunda tiger Panthera tigris sondaica . This classification is intended to facilitate tiger conservation management , both regarding breeding programmes in zoos and future translocations in the wild . The classification is criticised by several geneticists , who maintain that the currently recognised nine subspecies can be distinguished genetically .
= = = Hybrids = = =
Lions have been known to breed with tigers ( most often the Amur and Bengal subspecies ) to create hybrids called ligers and tigons . Such hybrids were once commonly bred in zoos , but this is now discouraged due to the emphasis on conservation . Hybrids are still bred in private menageries and in zoos in China .
The liger is a cross between a male lion and a tigress . Because the lion sire passes on a growth @-@ promoting gene , but the corresponding growth @-@ inhibiting gene from the female tiger is absent , ligers grow far larger than either parent . They share physical and behavioural qualities of both parent species ( spots and stripes on a sandy background ) . Male ligers are sterile , but female ligers are often fertile . Males have about a 50 % chance of having a mane , but , even if they do , their manes will be only around half the size of that of a pure lion . Ligers are typically between 10 and 12 feet in length , and can weigh between 800 and 1 @,@ 000 pounds or more .
The less common tigon is a cross between a lioness and a male tiger . Because the male tiger does not pass on a growth @-@ promoting gene and the lioness passes on a growth inhibiting gene , tigons are often relatively small , only weighing up to 150 kg ( 350 lb ) , which is about 10 – 20 % smaller than lions . Like ligers , they have physical and behavioural traits from both parental species , and males are sterile . Females are sometimes fertile and have occasionally given birth to litigons when mated to a lion .
= = Description = =
Tigers have muscular bodies with powerful forelimbs , large heads and long tails . The pelage is dense and heavy ; colouration varies between shades of orange and brown with white ventral areas and distinctive vertical black stripes , whose patterns are unique to each individual . Their function is likely for camouflage in vegetation such as long grass with strong vertical patterns of light and shade . The tiger is one of only a few striped cat species ; it is not known why spotted patterns and rosettes are the more common camouflage pattern among felids . The tiger 's stripes are also found on the skin , so that if it were to be shaved , its distinctive coat pattern would still be visible . They have a mane @-@ like heavy growth of fur around the neck and jaws and long whiskers , especially in males . The pupils are circular with yellow irises . The small , rounded ears have a prominent white spot on the back , surrounded by black . These false " eyespots " , called ocelli , apparently play an important role in intraspecies communication .
The skull is similar to that of the lion , though the frontal region is usually not as depressed or flattened , with a slightly longer postorbital region . The skull of a lion has broader nasal openings . However , due to variation in skulls of the two species , the structure of the lower jaw is a more reliable indicator of species . The tiger also has fairly stout teeth ; the somewhat curved canines are the longest among living felids with a crown height of up to 90 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) .
The oldest recorded captive tiger lived for 26 years . A wild specimen , having no natural predators , could in theory live to a comparable age .
= = = Size = = =
Tigers are the most variable in size of all big cats , much more so than lions . The Bengal and Siberian subspecies are the tallest at the shoulder and thus considered the largest living felids , ranking with the extinct Caspian tiger among the biggest that ever existed . An average adult male tiger from Northern India or Siberia outweighs an average adult male lion by around 45 @.@ 5 kg ( 100 lb ) . Males vary in total length from 250 to 390 cm ( 98 to 154 in ) and weigh between 90 to 306 kg ( 198 to 675 lb ) with skull length ranging from 316 to 383 mm ( 12 @.@ 4 to 15 @.@ 1 in ) . Females vary in total length from 200 to 275 cm ( 79 to 108 in ) , weigh 65 to 167 kg ( 143 to 368 lb ) with skull length ranging from 268 to 318 mm ( 10 @.@ 6 to 12 @.@ 5 in ) . In either sex , the tail represents about 0 @.@ 6 to 1 @.@ 1 m ( 24 to 43 in ) of total length .
Body size of different populations seems to be correlated with climate — Bergmann 's rule — and can be explained by thermoregulation . Large male Siberian tigers can reach a total length of more than 3 @.@ 5 m ( 11 @.@ 5 ft ) over curves and 3 @.@ 3 m ( 10 @.@ 8 ft ) between pegs , and can weigh up to 306 kg ( 675 lb ) . This is considerably larger than the weight of 75 to 140 kg ( 165 to 309 lb ) reached by the smallest living subspecies , the Sumatran tiger . At the shoulder , tigers may variously stand 0 @.@ 7 to 1 @.@ 22 m ( 2 @.@ 3 to 4 @.@ 0 ft ) tall . The current record weight in the wild was 389 kg ( 858 lb ) for a Bengal tiger shot in 1967 .
They are a notably sexually dimorphic species , females being consistently smaller than males . The size difference between males and females is proportionally greater in the larger tiger subspecies , with males weighing up to 1 @.@ 7 times more than females . Males also have wider forepaw pads than females , enabling gender to be told from tracks .
= = = Colour variations = = =
A well @-@ known allele found only in the Bengal subspecies produces the white tiger , a colour variant first recorded in the early 19th century and found in an estimated one in 10 @,@ 000 natural births . Genetically , whiteness is recessive : a cub is white only when both parents carry the allele for whiteness . It is not albinism , pigment being evident in the white tiger 's stripes and in their blue eyes . The causative mutation changes a single amino acid in the transporter protein SLC45A2 .
White tigers are more frequently bred in captivity , where the comparatively small gene pool can lead to inbreeding . This has given white tigers a greater likelihood of being born with physical defects , such as cleft palate , scoliosis ( curvature of the spine ) , and strabismus ( squint ) . Even apparently healthy white tigers generally do not live as long as their orange counterparts . Attempts have been made to cross white and orange tigers to remedy this , often mixing with other subspecies in the process .
Another recessive gene creates the " golden " or " golden tabby " colour variation , sometimes known as " strawberry " . Golden tigers have thicker than usual light @-@ gold fur , pale legs , and faint orange stripes . Few golden tigers are kept in captivity ; they are invariably at least part Bengal . Some golden tigers carry the white tiger gene , and when two such tigers are mated , they can produce some stripeless white offspring . Although a " pseudo @-@ melanistic " effect — wide stripes that partially obscure the orange background — has been seen in some pelts , no true black tigers have been authenticated , with the possible exception of one dead specimen examined in Chittagong in 1846 . These wholly or partially melanistic tigers , if they exist , are assumed to be intermittent mutations rather than a distinct species . There are further unconfirmed reports of a " blue " or slate @-@ coloured variant , the Maltese tiger . However , while some felids do exhibit this colouration as a solid coat , there is no known genetic configuration that would result in black stripes on a blue @-@ gray background .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
In the past , tigers were found throughout Asia , from the Caucasus and the Caspian Sea to Siberia and the Indonesian islands of Java , Bali and Sumatra . Fossil remains indicate tigers were also present in Borneo and Palawan in the Philippines during the late Pleistocene and Holocene .
During the 20th century , tigers became extinct in western Asia and were restricted to isolated pockets in the remaining parts of their range . They were extirpated on the island of Bali in the 1940s , around the Caspian Sea in the 1970s , and on Java in the 1980s . This was the result of habitat loss and the ongoing killing of tigers and tiger prey . Today , their fragmented and partly degraded range extends from India in the west to China and Southeast Asia . The northern limit of their range is close to the Amur River in southeastern Siberia . The only large island they still inhabit is Sumatra . Since the beginning of the 20th century , tigers ' historical range has shrunk by 93 % . In the decade from 1997 to 2007 , the estimated area known to be occupied by tigers has declined by 41 % .
Tigers can occupy a wide range of habitat types , but will usually require sufficient cover , proximity to water , and an abundance of prey . Compared to the lion , the tiger prefers denser vegetation , for which its camouflage colouring is ideally suited , and where a single predator is not at a disadvantage compared with the multiple felines in a pride . A further habitat requirement is the placement of suitably secluded den locations , which may consist of caves , large hollow trees , or dense vegetation . Bengal tigers in particular live in many types of forests , including wet , evergreen , and the semievergreen of Assam and eastern Bengal ; the swampy mangrove forest of the Ganges Delta ; the deciduous forest of Nepal , and the thorn forests of the Western Ghats . In various parts of their range they inhabit or have inhabited additionally partially open grassland and savanna as well as taiga forests and rocky habitats .
= = Biology and behaviour = =
= = = Social activity = = =
Adult tigers lead largely solitary lives . They establish and maintain territories but have much wider home ranges within which they roam . Resident adults of either sex generally confine their movements to their home ranges , within which they satisfy their needs and those of their growing cubs . Individuals sharing the same area are aware of each other 's movements and activities . The size of the home range mainly depends on prey abundance , and , in the case of males , on access to females . A tigress may have a territory of 20 km2 ( 7 @.@ 7 sq mi ) , while the territories of males are much larger , covering 60 to 100 km2 ( 23 to 39 sq mi ) . The range of a male tends to overlap those of several females , providing him with a large field of prospective mating partners .
Unlike many felids , tigers are strong swimmers and often deliberately bathe in ponds , lakes and rivers as a means of keeping cool in the heat of the day . Among the big cats , only the jaguar shares a similar fondness for water . They may cross rivers up to 7 km ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) across and can swim up to 29 km ( 18 mi ) in a day . They are able to carry prey through or capture it in the water .
Young female tigers establish their first territories close to their mother 's . The overlap between the female and her mother 's territory reduces with time . Males , however , migrate further than their female counterparts and set out at a younger age to mark out their own area . A young male acquires territory either by seeking out an area devoid of other male tigers , or by living as a transient in another male 's territory until he is older and strong enough to challenge the resident male . Young males seeking to establish themselves thereby comprise the highest mortality rate ( 30 – 35 % per year ) amongst adult tigers .
To identify his territory , the male marks trees by spraying urine and anal gland secretions , as well as marking trails with scat and marking trees or the ground with their claws . Females also use these " scrapes " , as well as urine and scat markings . Scent markings of this type allow an individual to pick up information on another 's identity , sex and reproductive status . Females in oestrus will signal their availability by scent marking more frequently and increasing their vocalisations .
Although for the most part avoiding each other , tigers are not always territorial and relationships between individuals can be complex . An adult of either sex will sometimes share its kill with others , even those who may not be related to them . George Schaller observed a male share a kill with two females and four cubs . Unlike male lions , male tigers allow females and cubs to feed on the kill before the male is finished with it ; all involved generally seem to behave amicably , in contrast to the competitive behaviour shown by a lion pride . This quotation is from Stephen Mills ' book Tiger , describing an event witnessed by Valmik Thapar and Fateh Singh Rathore in Ranthambhore National Park :
A dominant tigress they called Padmini killed a 250 kg ( 550 lb ) male nilgai – a very large antelope . They found her at the kill just after dawn with her three 14 @-@ month @-@ old cubs and they watched uninterrupted for the next ten hours . During this period the family was joined by two adult females and one adult male , all offspring from Padmini 's previous litters , and by two unrelated tigers , one female the other unidentified . By three o 'clock there were no fewer than nine tigers round the kill .
Occasionally , male tigers participate in raising cubs , usually their own , but this is extremely rare and not always well understood . In May 2015 , Amur tigers were photographed by camera traps in the Sikhote @-@ Alin Bioshpere Reserve . The photos show a male Amur tiger pass by , followed by a female and three cubs within the span of about two minutes . In Ranthambore , a male Bengal tiger raised and defended two orphaned female cubs after their mother had died of illness . The cubs remained under his care , he supplied them with food , protected them from his rival and sister , and apparently also trained them .
Male tigers are generally more intolerant of other males within their territories than females are of other females . Territory disputes are usually solved by displays of intimidation rather than outright aggression . Several such incidents have been observed in which the subordinate tiger yielded defeat by rolling onto its back and showing its belly in a submissive posture . Once dominance has been established , a male may tolerate a subordinate within his range , as long as they do not live in too close quarters . The most aggressive disputes tend to occur between two males when a female is in oestrus , and may rarely result in the death of one of the males .
Facial expressions include the " defense threat " , where an individual bares its teeth , flattens its ears and its pupils enlarge . Both males and females show a flehmen response , a characteristic grimace , when sniffing urine markings but flehmen is more often associated with males detecting the markings made by tigresses in oestrus . Like other Panthera , tigers roar , particularly in aggressive situations , during the mating season or when making a kill . There are two different roars : the " true " roar is made using the hyoid apparatus and forced through an open mouth as it progressively closes , and the shorter , harsher " coughing " roar is made with the mouth open and teeth exposed . The " true " roar can be heard at up to 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) away and is sometimes emitted three or four times in succession . When tense , tigers will moan , a sound similar to a roar but more subdued and made when the mouth is partially or completely closed . Moaning can be heard 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) away . Chuffing , soft , low @-@ frequency snorting similar to purring in smaller cats , is heard in more friendly situations . Other vocal communications include grunts , woofs , snarls , miaows , hisses and growls .
Tigers have been studied in the wild using a variety of techniques . The populations of tigers have been estimated using plaster casts of their pugmarks , although this method was criticised as being inaccurate . More recent attempts have been made using camera trapping and studies on DNA from their scat , while radio collaring has been used to track tigers in the wild . Tiger spray has been found to be just as good , or better , as a source of DNA as scat .
= = = Hunting and diet = = =
In the wild , tigers mostly feed on large and medium @-@ sized animals , preferring native ungulates weighing at least 90 kg ( 200 lb ) . They typically have little or no deleterious effect on their prey populations . Sambar deer , chital , barasingha , wild boar , gaur , nilgai and both water buffalo and domestic buffalo , in descending order of preference , are the tiger 's favoured prey in Tamil Nadu , India , while gaur and sambar are the preferred prey and constitute the main diet of tigers in other parts of India . They also prey on other predators , including dogs , leopards , pythons , sloth bears , and crocodiles . In Siberia , the main prey species are Manchurian wapiti and wild boar ( the two species comprising nearly 80 % of the prey selected ) followed by sika deer , moose , roe deer , and musk deer . Asiatic black bears and Ussuri brown bears may also fall prey to tigers , and they constitute up to 40 @.@ 7 % of the diet of Siberian tigers depending on local conditions and the bear populations . In Sumatra , prey include sambar deer , muntjac , wild boar , Malayan tapir and orangutan . In the former Caspian tiger 's range , prey included saiga antelope , camels , Caucasian wisent , yak , and wild horses . Like many predators , tigers are opportunistic and may eat much smaller prey , such as monkeys , peafowl and other ground @-@ based birds , hares , porcupines , and fish .
Tigers generally do not prey on fully grown adult Asian elephants and Indian rhinoceros but incidents have been reported . More often , it is the more vulnerable small calves that are taken . Tigers have been reported attacking and killing elephants ridden by humans during tiger hunts in the 19th century . When in close proximity to humans , tigers will also sometimes prey on such domestic livestock as cattle , horses , and donkeys . Old or wounded tigers , unable to catch wild prey , can become man @-@ eaters ; this pattern has recurred frequently across India . An exception is in the Sundarbans , where healthy tigers prey upon fishermen and villagers in search of forest produce , humans thereby forming a minor part of the tiger 's diet . Although almost exclusively carnivorous , tigers will occasionally eat vegetation for dietary fibre such as fruit of the slow match tree .
Tigers are thought to be mainly nocturnal predators , but in areas where humans are typically absent , they have been observed via remote @-@ controlled , hidden cameras , hunting in daylight . They generally hunt alone and ambush their prey as most other cats do , overpowering them from any angle , using their body size and strength to knock the prey off balance . Successful hunts usually require the tiger to almost simultaneously leap onto its quarry , knock it over , and grab the throat or nape with its teeth . Despite their large size , tigers can reach speeds of about 49 – 65 km / h ( 30 – 40 mph ) but only in short bursts ; consequently , tigers must be close to their prey before they break cover . If the prey catches wind of the tiger 's presence before this , the tiger usually abandons the hunt rather than chase prey or battle it head @-@ on . Horizontal leaps of up to 10 m ( 33 ft ) have been reported , although leaps of around half this distance are more typical . One in 2 to 20 hunts , including stalking near potential prey , ends in a successful kill .
When hunting larger animals , tigers prefer to bite the throat and use their powerful forelimbs to hold onto the prey , often simultaneously wrestling it to the ground . The tiger remains latched onto the neck until its target dies of strangulation . By this method , gaurs and water buffaloes weighing over a ton have been killed by tigers weighing about a sixth as much . Although they can kill healthy adults , tigers often select the calves or infirm of very large species . Healthy adult prey of this type can be dangerous to tackle , as long , strong horns , legs and tusks are all potentially fatal to the tiger . No other extant land predator routinely takes on prey this large on their own . Whilst hunting sambars , which comprise up to 60 % of their prey in India , tigers have reportedly made a passable impersonation of the male sambar 's rutting call to attract them . With smaller prey , such as monkeys and hares , the tiger bites the nape , often breaking the spinal cord , piercing the windpipe , or severing the jugular vein or common carotid artery . Though rarely observed , some tigers have been recorded to kill prey by swiping with their paws , which are powerful enough to smash the skulls of domestic cattle , and break the backs of sloth bears .
During the 1980s , a tiger named " Genghis " in Ranthambhore National Park was observed frequently hunting prey through deep lake water , a pattern of behaviour that had not previously been witnessed in over 200 years of observations . Moreover , he appeared to be unusually successful , with 20 % of hunts ending in a kill .
After killing their prey , tigers sometimes drag it to conceal it in vegetative cover , usually pulling it by grasping with their mouths at the site of the killing bite . This , too , can require great physical strength . In one case , after it had killed an adult gaur , a tiger was observed to drag the massive carcass over a distance of 12 m ( 39 ft ) . When 13 men simultaneously tried to drag the same carcass later , they were unable to move it . An adult tiger can go for up to two weeks without eating , then gorge on 34 kg ( 75 lb ) of flesh at one time . In captivity , adult tigers are fed 3 to 6 kg ( 6 @.@ 6 to 13 @.@ 2 lb ) of meat a day .
= = = Interaction with other predators = = =
Tigers usually prefer to eat prey they have caught themselves , but are not above eating carrion in times of scarcity and may even pirate prey from other large carnivores . Although predators typically avoid one another , if a prey item is under dispute or a serious competitor is encountered , displays of aggression are common . If these are not sufficient , the conflicts may turn violent ; tigers may kill competitors as leopards , dholes , striped hyenas , wolves , bears , pythons and crocodiles on occasion . Tigers may also prey on these competitors . Attacks on smaller predators , such as badgers , lynxes , and foxes , are almost certainly predatory . Crocodiles , bears and large packs of dholes may win conflicts against tigers and in some cases even kill them .
The considerably smaller leopard avoids competition from tigers by hunting at different times of the day and hunting different prey . In India 's Nagarhole National Park , most prey selected by leopards were from 30 to 175 kg ( 66 to 386 lb ) against a preference for prey weighing over 176 kg ( 388 lb ) in the tigers . The average prey weight in the two respective big cats in India was 37 @.@ 6 kg ( 83 lb ) against 91 @.@ 5 kg ( 202 lb ) . With relatively abundant prey , tigers and leopards were seen to successfully coexist without competitive exclusion or interspecies dominance hierarchies that may be more common to the African savanna ( where the leopard may coexist with the lion ) . Lone golden jackals expelled from their pack have been known to form commensal relationships with tigers . These solitary jackals , known as kol @-@ bahl , will attach themselves to a particular tiger , trailing it at a safe distance to feed on the big cat 's kills .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Mating can occur all year round , but is more common between November and April . A female is only receptive for three to six days . Mating is frequent and noisy during that time . Gestation can range from 93 to 112 days , the average being 105 days . The litter is usually two or three cubs , occasionally as few as one or as many as six . Cubs weigh from 680 to 1 @,@ 400 g ( 1 @.@ 50 to 3 @.@ 09 lb ) each at birth , and are born blind and helpless . The females rear them alone , with the birth site and maternal den in a sheltered location such as a thicket , cave or rocky crevice . The father generally takes no part in rearing them . Unrelated wandering male tigers may kill cubs to make the female receptive , since the tigress may give birth to another litter within five months if the cubs of the previous litter are lost . The mortality rate of tiger cubs is about 50 % in the first two years . Few other predators attack tiger cubs due to the diligence and ferocity of the mother tiger . Apart from humans and other tigers , common causes of cub mortality are starvation , freezing , and accidents .
A dominant cub emerges in most litters , usually a male . This cub is more active than its siblings and takes the lead in their play , eventually leaving its mother and becoming independent earlier . The cubs open their eyes at six to fourteen days old . By eight weeks , the cubs make short ventures outside the den with their mother , although they do not travel with her as she roams her territory until they are older . The cubs are nursed for three to six months . Around the time they are weaned , they start to accompany their mother on territorial walks and they are taught how to hunt . The cubs often become capable ( and nearly adult size ) hunters at eleven months old . The cubs become independent around eighteen months of age , but it is not until they are around two to two and a half years old that they fully separate from their mother . Females reach sexual maturity at three to four years , whereas males do so at four to five years .
= = Conservation efforts = =
The tiger is an endangered species . Poaching for fur and body parts and destruction of habitat have simultaneously greatly reduced tiger populations in the wild . At the start of the 20th century , it is estimated there were over 100 @,@ 000 tigers in the wild , but the population has dwindled outside of captivity to between 1 @,@ 500 and 3 @,@ 500 . Major reasons for population decline include habitat destruction , habitat fragmentation and poaching . Demand for tiger parts for use in traditional Chinese medicine has also been cited as a major threat to tiger populations . Some estimates suggest that there are fewer than 2 @,@ 500 mature breeding individuals , with no subpopulation containing more than 250 mature breeding individuals . The global wild tiger population was estimated by the World Wide Fund for Nature at 3 @,@ 200 in 2011 and 3 @,@ 890 in 2015 — Vox reported that this was the first increase in a century . The exact number of wild tigers is unknown , as many estimates are outdated or are educated guesses ; few estimates are based on reliable scientific censuses . The table shows estimates per country according to IUCN and range country governments . The Wildlife Conservation Society and Panthera Corporation formed the collaboration Tigers Forever , with field sites including the world 's largest tiger reserve , the 21 @,@ 756 km2 ( 8 @,@ 400 sq mi ) Hukaung Valley in Myanmar . Other reserves were in the Western Ghats in India , Thailand , Laos , Cambodia , the Russian Far East covering in total about 260 @,@ 000 km2 ( 100 @,@ 000 sq mi ) .
India is home to the world 's largest population of wild tigers but only 11 % of the original Indian tiger habitat remains , and it has become fragmented . From 1973 , India 's Project Tiger , started by Indira Gandhi , established over 25 tiger reserves in reclaimed land , where human development was forbidden . The project was credited with tripling the number of wild Bengal tigers from some 1 @,@ 200 in 1973 to over 3 @,@ 500 in the 1990s , but a 2007 census showed that numbers had dropped back to about 1 @,@ 400 tigers because of poaching . Following the report , the Indian government pledged $ 153 million to the initiative , set up measures to combat poaching , promised funds to relocate up to 200 @,@ 000 villagers in order to reduce human @-@ tiger interactions , and set up eight new tiger reserves . India also reintroduced tigers to the Sariska Tiger Reserve and by 2009 it was claimed that poaching had been effectively countered at Ranthambore National Park . A 2014 census estimated a population of 2 @,@ 226 , a 30 % increase since 2011 .
In the 1940s , the Siberian tiger was on the brink of extinction with only about 40 animals remaining in the wild in Russia . As a result , anti @-@ poaching controls were put in place by the Soviet Union and a network of protected zones ( zapovedniks ) were instituted , leading to a rise in the population to several hundred . Poaching again became a problem in the 1990s , when the economy of Russia collapsed . The major obstacle in preserving the species is the enormous territory individual tigers require ( up to 450 km2 needed by a single female and more for a single male ) . Current conservation efforts are led by local governments and NGO 's in concert with international organisations , such as the World Wide Fund for Nature and the Wildlife Conservation Society . The competitive exclusion of wolves by tigers has been used by Russian conservationists to convince hunters to tolerate the big cats . Tigers have less impact on ungulate populations than do wolves , and are effective in controlling the latter 's numbers . In 2005 , there were thought to be about 360 animals in Russia , though these exhibited little genetic diversity . However , in a decade later , the Siberian tiger census was estimated from 480 to 540 individuals .
Having earlier rejected the Western @-@ led environmentalist movement , China changed its stance in the 1980s and became a party to the CITES treaty . By 1993 it had banned the trade in tiger parts , and this diminished the use of tiger bones in traditional Chinese medicine . After this , the Tibetan people 's trade in tiger skins became a relatively more important threat to tigers . The pelts were used in clothing , tiger @-@ skin chuba being worn by singers and participants in horse racing festivals , and had become status symbols . In 2004 , international conservation organizations launched successful environmental propaganda campaigns in China against the Tibetan tiger skin trade . There was outrage in India , where many Tibetans live , and the 14th Dalai Lama was persuaded to take up the issue . Since then there has been a change of attitude , with some Tibetans publicly burning their chubas .
In 1994 , the Indonesian Sumatran Tiger Conservation Strategy addressed the potential crisis that tigers faced in Sumatra . The Sumatran Tiger Project ( STP ) was initiated in June 1995 in and around the Way Kambas National Park in order to ensure the long @-@ term viability of wild Sumatran tigers and to accumulate data on tiger life @-@ history characteristics vital for the management of wild populations . By August 1999 , the teams of the STP had evaluated 52 sites of potential tiger habitat in Lampung Province , of which only 15 these were intact enough to contain tigers . In the framework of the STP a community @-@ based conservation programme was initiated to document the tiger @-@ human dimension in the park in order to enable conservation authorities to resolve tiger @-@ human conflicts based on a comprehensive database rather than anecdotes and opinions .
= = = Rewilding and reintroducing = = =
In 1978 , the Indian conservationist Billy Arjan Singh attempted to rewild a tiger in Dudhwa National Park ; this was the captive @-@ bred tigress Tara . Soon after the release , numerous people were killed and eaten by a tigress that was subsequently shot . Government officials claimed it was Tara , though Singh disputed this . Further controversy broke out with the discovery that Tara was partly Siberian tiger .
The organisation Save China 's Tigers has attempted to rewild the South China tigers , with a breeding and training programme in a South African reserve known as Laohu Valley Reserve ( LVR ) and eventually reintroduce them to the wild of China .
A future rewilding project was proposed for Siberian tigers set to be reintroduced to northern Russia 's Pleistocene park . The Siberian tigers sent to Iran for a captive breeding project in Tehran are set to be rewilded and reintroduced to the Miankaleh peninsula to replace the now extinct Caspian tigers .
= = Relation with humans = =
= = = Tiger as prey = = =
The tiger has been one of the big five game animals of Asia . Tiger hunting took place on a large scale in the early 19th and 20th centuries , being a recognised and admired sport by the British in colonial India as well as the maharajas and aristocratic class of the erstwhile princely states of pre @-@ independence India . A single maharaja or English hunter could claim to kill over a hundred tigers in their hunting career . Tiger hunting was done by some hunters on foot ; others sat up on machans with a goat or buffalo tied out as bait ; yet others on elephant @-@ back .
= = = Man @-@ eating tigers = = =
Wild tigers that have had no prior contact with humans actively avoid interactions with humans . However , tigers cause more human deaths through direct attack than any other wild mammal . Attacks are occasionally provoked , as tigers lash out after being injured while they themselves are hunted . Attacks can be provoked accidentally , as when a human surprises a tiger or inadvertently comes between a mother and her young , or as in a case in rural India when a postman startled a tiger , used to seeing him on foot , by riding a bicycle . Occasionally tigers come to view people as prey . Such attacks are most common in areas where population growth , logging , and farming have put pressure on tiger habitats and reduced their wild prey . Most man @-@ eating tigers are old , are missing teeth , and are unable to capture their preferred prey . For example , the Champawat Tiger , a tigress found in Nepal and then India , had two broken canines . She was responsible for an estimated 430 human deaths , the most attacks known to be perpetrated by a single wild animal , by the time she was shot in 1907 by Jim Corbett . According to Corbett , tiger attacks on humans are normally in daytime , when people are working outdoors and are not keeping watch . Early writings tend to describe man @-@ eating tigers as cowardly because of their ambush tactics .
Man @-@ eaters have been a particular problem in recent decades in India and Bangladesh , especially in Kumaon , Garhwal and the Sundarbans mangrove swamps of Bengal , where some healthy tigers have hunted humans . Because of rapid habitat loss attributed to climate change , tiger attacks have increased in the Sundarbans . The Sundarbans area had 129 human deaths from tigers from 1969 to 1971 . In the 10 years prior to that period , about 100 attacks per year in the Sundarbans , with a high of around 430 in some years of the 1960s . Unusually , in some years in the Sundarbans , more humans are killed by tigers than vice versa . In 1972 , India 's production of honey and beeswax dropped by 50 % when at least 29 people who gathered these materials were devoured . In 1986 in the Sundarbans , since tigers almost always attack from the rear , masks with human faces were worn on the back of the head , on the theory that tigers usually do not attack if seen by their prey . This decreased the number of attacks only temporarily . All other means to prevent attacks , such as providing more prey or using electrified human dummies , worked less well .
At least 27 people were killed or seriously injured by captive tigers in the United States from 1998 to 2001 .
In some cases , rather than being predatory , tiger attacks on human seem to be territorial in nature . At least in one case , a tigress with cubs killed eight people entering her territory without consuming them at all .
= = = Commercial hunting and traditional medicine = = =
Historically , tigers have been hunted at a large scale so their famous striped skins could be collected . The trade in tiger skins peaked in the 1960s , just before international conservation efforts took effect . By 1977 , a tiger skin in an English market was considered to be worth $ 4 @,@ 250 US dollars .
Many people in China and other parts of Asia have a belief that various tiger parts have medicinal properties , including as pain killers and aphrodisiacs . There is no scientific evidence to support these beliefs . The use of tiger parts in pharmaceutical drugs in China is already banned , and the government has made some offences in connection with tiger poaching punishable by death . Furthermore , all trade in tiger parts is illegal under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora and a domestic trade ban has been in place in China since 1993 .
However , the trading of tiger parts in Asia has become a major black market industry and governmental and conservation attempts to stop it have been ineffective to date . Almost all black marketers engaged in the trade are based in China and have either been shipped and sold within in their own country or into Taiwan , South Korea or Japan . The Chinese subspecies was almost completely decimated by killing for commerce due to both the parts and skin trades in the 1950s through the 1970s . Contributing to the illegal trade , there are a number of tiger farms in the country specialising in breeding the cats for profit . It is estimated that between 5 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 captive @-@ bred , semi @-@ tame animals live in these farms today . However , many tigers for traditional medicine black market are wild ones shot or snared by poachers and may be caught anywhere in the tiger 's remaining range ( from Siberia to India to the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra ) . In the Asian black market , a tiger penis can be worth the equivalent of around $ 300 U.S. dollars . In the years of 1990 through 1992 , 27 million products with tiger derivatives were found . In July 2014 at an international convention on endangered species in Geneva , Switzerland , a Chinese representative admitted for the first time his government was aware trading in tiger skins was occurring in China .
= = = In captivity = = =
In Ancient Roman times , tigers were kept in menageries and amphitheatres to be exhibited , trained and paraded , and were often provoked to fight humans and exotic beasts . Since the 17th century , tigers , being rare and ferocious , were sought after to keep at European castles as symbols of their owners ' power . Tigers became central zoo and circus exhibits in the 18th century : a tiger could cost up to 4 @,@ 000 francs in France ( for comparison , a professor of the Beaux @-@ Arts at Lyons earned only 3 @,@ 000 francs a year ) , or up to $ 3 @,@ 500 in the United States where a lion cost no more than $ 1 @,@ 000 .
China ( 2007 ) had over 4 @,@ 000 captive tigers , of which 3 @,@ 000 were held by about twenty larger facilities , with the rest held by some 200 smaller facilities . The USA ( 2011 ) had 2 @,@ 884 tigers in 468 facilities . Nineteen states have banned private ownership of tigers , fifteen require a license , and sixteen states have no regulation . Genetic ancestry of 105 captive tigers from fourteen countries and regions showed that forty @-@ nine animals belonged distinctly to five subspecies ; fifty @-@ two animals had mixed subspecies origins . As such , " many Siberian tigers in zoos today are actually the result of crosses with Bengal tigers . "
The Tiger Species Survival Plan has condemned the breeding of white tigers , alleging they are of mixed ancestry and of unknown lineage . The genes responsible for white colouration are represented by 0 @.@ 001 % of the population . The disproportionate growth in numbers of white tigers points to inbreeding among homozygous recessive individuals . This would lead to inbreeding depression and loss of genetic variability .
= = Cultural depictions = =
Tigers and their superlative qualities have been a source of fascination for mankind since ancient times , and they are routinely visible as important cultural and media motifs . They are also considered one of the charismatic megafauna , and are used as the face of conservation campaigns worldwide . In a 2004 online poll conducted by cable television channel Animal Planet , involving more than 50 @,@ 000 viewers from 73 countries , the tiger was voted the world 's favourite animal with 21 % of the vote , narrowly beating the dog .
= = = In myth and legend = = =
In Chinese myth and culture , the tiger is one of the 12 animals of the Chinese zodiac . In Chinese art , the tiger is depicted as an earth symbol and equal rival of the Chinese dragon – the two representing matter and spirit respectively . The Southern Chinese martial art Hung Ga is based on the movements of the tiger and the crane . In Imperial China , a tiger was the personification of war and often represented the highest army general ( or present day defense secretary ) , while the emperor and empress were represented by a dragon and phoenix , respectively . The White Tiger ( Chinese : 白虎 ; pinyin : Bái Hǔ ) is one of the Four Symbols of the Chinese constellations . It is sometimes called the White Tiger of the West ( 西方白虎 ) , and it represents the west and the autumn season .
The tiger 's tail appears in stories from countries including China and Korea , it being generally inadvisable to grasp a tiger by the tail .
In Buddhism , the tiger is one of the Three Senseless Creatures , symbolising anger , with the monkey representing greed and the deer lovesickness . The Tungusic peoples considered the Siberian tiger a near @-@ deity and often referred to it as " Grandfather " or " Old man " . The Udege and Nanai called it " Amba " . The Manchu considered the Siberian tiger as Hu Lin , the king . In Hinduism , the god Shiva wears and sits on tiger skin . The ten @-@ armed warrior goddess Durga rides the tigress ( or lioness ) Damon into battle . In southern India the god Ayyappan was associated with a tiger .
The weretiger replaces the werewolf in shapeshifting folklore in Asia ; in India they were evil sorcerers , while in Indonesia and Malaysia they were somewhat more benign . As per Hindu epic Mahabharata , tiger is more fiercer and ruthless than lion .
= = = In literature and film = = =
In William Blake 's poem in the Songs of Experience , titled " The Tyger , " the tiger is a menacing and fearful animal . In Yann Martel 's 2001 Man Booker Prize winning novel Life of Pi , the protagonist , surviving shipwreck for months in a small boat , somehow avoids being eaten by the other survivor , a large Bengal tiger . The story was adapted in Ang Lee 's 2012 feature film of the same name . Jim Corbett 's 1944 Man @-@ Eaters of Kumaon tells ten true stories of his tiger @-@ hunting exploits in what is now the northern Uttarakhand region of India . The book has sold over four million copies , and has been the basis of both fictional and documentary films . In Rudyard Kipling 's 1894 The Jungle Book , the tiger , Shere Khan , is the mortal enemy of the human protagonist , Mowgli ; the book has formed the basis of both live @-@ action and animated films . Other tiger characters aimed at children tend to be more benign , as for instance Tigger in A. A. Milne 's Winnie @-@ the @-@ Pooh and Hobbes of the comic strip Calvin and Hobbes , both of whom are represented as simply stuffed animals come to life .
= = = As a symbol = = =
The tiger is one of the animals displayed on the Pashupati seal of the Indus Valley Civilisation . The tiger was the emblem of the Chola Dynasty and was depicted on coins , seals and banners . The seals of several Chola copper coins show the tiger , the Pandyan emblem fish and the Chera emblem bow , indicating that the Cholas had achieved political supremacy over the latter two dynasties . Gold coins found in Kavilayadavalli in the Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh have motifs of the tiger , bow and some indistinct marks . The tiger symbol of Chola Empire was later adopted by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam and the tiger became a symbol of the unrecognised state of Tamil Eelam and Tamil independence movement .
The Bengal tiger is the national animal of India and Bangladesh . The Malaysian tiger is the national animal of Malaysia . The Siberian tiger is the national animal of South Korea . Since the successful economies of South Korea , Taiwan , Hong Kong and Singapore were described as the Four Asian Tigers , a tiger economy is a metaphor for a nation in rapid development . Tiger are also mascots for various sports teams around the world . Tony the Tiger is a famous mascot for Kellogg 's breakfast cereal Frosted Flakes . The Esso ( Exxon ) brand of petrol was advertised from 1969 onwards with the slogan ' put a tiger in your tank ' , and a tiger mascot ; more than 2 @.@ 5 million synthetic tiger tails were sold to motorists , who tied them to their petrol tank caps .
The tiger appears in heraldry but is distinct from the heraldic beast tyger , a wolflike , snouted creature which has its roots in European Medieval bestiaries .
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= Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki =
The United States , with the consent of the United Kingdom as laid down in the Quebec Agreement , dropped nuclear weapons on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 , during the final stage of World War II . The two bombings , which killed at least 129 @,@ 000 people , remain the only use of nuclear weapons for warfare in history .
In the final year of the war , the Allies prepared for what was anticipated to be a very costly invasion of the Japanese mainland . This was preceded by a U.S. firebombing campaign that obliterated many Japanese cities . The war in Europe had concluded when Nazi Germany signed its instrument of surrender on May 8 , 1945 . The Japanese , facing the same fate , refused to accept the Allies ' demands for unconditional surrender and the Pacific War continued . Together with the United Kingdom and China , the United States called for the unconditional surrender of the Japanese armed forces in the Potsdam Declaration on July 26 , 1945 — the alternative being " prompt and utter destruction " . The Japanese response to this ultimatum was to ignore it .
In July 1945 , the Allied Manhattan Project successfully detonated an atomic bomb in the New Mexico desert and by August had produced atomic weapons based on two alternate designs . The 509th Composite Group of the United States Army Air Forces was equipped with the specialized Silverplate version of the Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress , that could deliver them from Tinian in the Mariana Islands .
On August 6 , the U.S. dropped a uranium gun @-@ type atomic bomb ( Little Boy ) on the city of Hiroshima . American President Harry S. Truman called for Japan 's surrender 16 hours later , warning them to " expect a rain of ruin from the air , the like of which has never been seen on this earth " . Three days later , on August 9 , the U.S. dropped a plutonium implosion @-@ type bomb ( Fat Man ) on the city of Nagasaki . Within the first two to four months of the bombings , the acute effects of the atomic bombings killed 90 @,@ 000 – 146 @,@ 000 people in Hiroshima and 39 @,@ 000 – 80 @,@ 000 in Nagasaki ; roughly half of the deaths in each city occurred on the first day . During the following months , large numbers died from the effect of burns , radiation sickness , and other injuries , compounded by illness and malnutrition . In both cities , most of the dead were civilians , although Hiroshima had a sizable military garrison .
On August 15 , six days after the bombing of Nagasaki and the Soviet Union 's declaration of war , Japan announced its surrender to the Allies . On September 2 , it signed the instrument of surrender , effectively ending World War II . The bombings ' role in Japan 's surrender and their ethical justification are still debated .
= = Background = =
= = = Pacific War = = =
In 1945 , the Pacific War between the Empire of Japan and the Allies entered its fourth year . The Japanese fought fiercely , ensuring that U.S. victory would come at an enormous cost . Of the 1 @.@ 25 million battle casualties incurred by the United States in World War II , including both military personnel killed in action and wounded in action , nearly one million occurred in the twelve @-@ month period from June 1944 to June 1945 . December 1944 saw American battle casualties hit an all @-@ time monthly high of 88 @,@ 000 as a result of the German Ardennes Offensive . In the Pacific , the Allies returned to the Philippines , recaptured Burma , and invaded Borneo . Offensives were undertaken to reduce the Japanese forces remaining in Bougainville , New Guinea and the Philippines . In April 1945 , American forces landed on Okinawa , where heavy fighting continued until June . Along the way , the ratio of Japanese to American casualties dropped from 5 : 1 in the Philippines to 2 : 1 on Okinawa .
As the Allied advance moved inexorably towards Japan , conditions became steadily worse for the Japanese people . Japan 's merchant fleet declined from 5 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 gross tons in 1941 to 1 @,@ 560 @,@ 000 tons in March 1945 , and 557 @,@ 000 tons in August 1945 . Lack of raw materials forced the Japanese war economy into a steep decline after the middle of 1944 . The civilian economy , which had slowly deteriorated throughout the war , reached disastrous levels by the middle of 1945 . The loss of shipping also affected the fishing fleet , and the 1945 catch was only 22 % of that in 1941 . The 1945 rice harvest was the worst since 1909 , and hunger and malnutrition became widespread . U.S. industrial production was overwhelmingly superior to Japan 's . By 1943 , the U.S. produced almost 100 @,@ 000 aircraft a year , compared to Japan 's production of 70 @,@ 000 for the entire war . By the summer of 1944 , the U.S. had almost a hundred aircraft carriers in the Pacific , far more than Japan 's twenty @-@ five for the entire war . In February 1945 , Prince Fumimaro Konoe advised the Emperor Hirohito that defeat was inevitable , and urged him to abdicate .
= = = Preparations to invade Japan = = =
Even before the surrender of Nazi Germany on May 8 , 1945 , plans were underway for the largest operation of the Pacific War , Operation Downfall , the invasion of Japan . The operation had two parts : Operation Olympic and Operation Coronet . Set to begin in October 1945 , Olympic involved a series of landings by the U.S. Sixth Army intended to capture the southern third of the southernmost main Japanese island , Kyūshū . Operation Olympic was to be followed in March 1946 by Operation Coronet , the capture of the Kantō Plain , near Tokyo on the main Japanese island of Honshū by the U.S. First , Eighth and Tenth Armies , as well as a Commonwealth Corps made up of Australian , British and Canadian divisions . The target date was chosen to allow for Olympic to complete its objectives , for troops to be redeployed from Europe , and the Japanese winter to pass .
Japan 's geography made this invasion plan obvious to the Japanese ; they were able to predict the Allied invasion plans accurately and thus adjust their defensive plan , Operation Ketsugō , accordingly . The Japanese planned an all @-@ out defense of Kyūshū , with little left in reserve for any subsequent defense operations . Four veteran divisions were withdrawn from the Kwantung Army in Manchuria in March 1945 to strengthen the forces in Japan , and 45 new divisions were activated between February and May 1945 . Most were immobile formations for coastal defense , but 16 were high quality mobile divisions . In all , there were 2 @.@ 3 million Japanese Army troops prepared to defend the home islands , backed by a civilian militia of 28 million men and women . Casualty predictions varied widely , but were extremely high . The Vice Chief of the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff , Vice Admiral Takijirō Ōnishi , predicted up to 20 million Japanese deaths .
A study from June 15 , 1945 , by the Joint War Plans Committee , who provided planning information to the Joint Chiefs of Staff , estimated that Olympic would result in between 130 @,@ 000 and 220 @,@ 000 U.S. casualties , of which U.S. dead would be in the range from 25 @,@ 000 to 46 @,@ 000 . Delivered on June 15 , 1945 , after insight gained from the Battle of Okinawa , the study noted Japan 's inadequate defenses due to the very effective sea blockade and the American firebombing campaign . The Chief of Staff of the United States Army , General of the Army George Marshall , and the Army Commander in Chief in the Pacific , General of the Army Douglas MacArthur , signed documents agreeing with the Joint War Plans Committee estimate .
The Americans were alarmed by the Japanese buildup , which was accurately tracked through Ultra intelligence . Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson was sufficiently concerned about high American estimates of probable casualties to commission his own study by Quincy Wright and William Shockley . Wright and Shockley spoke with Colonels James McCormack and Dean Rusk , and examined casualty forecasts by Michael E. DeBakey and Gilbert Beebe . Wright and Shockley estimated the invading Allies would suffer between 1 @.@ 7 and 4 million casualties in such a scenario , of whom between 400 @,@ 000 and 800 @,@ 000 would be dead , while Japanese fatalities would have been around 5 to 10 million .
Marshall began contemplating the use of a weapon which was " readily available and which assuredly can decrease the cost in American lives " : poison gas . Quantities of phosgene , mustard gas , tear gas and cyanogen chloride were moved to Luzon from stockpiles in Australia and New Guinea in preparation for Operation Olympic , and MacArthur ensured that Chemical Warfare Service units were trained in their use . Consideration was also given to using biological weapons against Japan .
= = = Air raids on Japan = = =
While the United States had developed plans for an air campaign against Japan prior to the Pacific War , the capture of Allied bases in the western Pacific in the first weeks of the conflict meant that this offensive did not begin until mid @-@ 1944 when the long @-@ ranged Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress became ready for use in combat . Operation Matterhorn involved India @-@ based B @-@ 29s staging through bases around Chengdu in China to make a series of raids on strategic targets in Japan . This effort failed to achieve the strategic objectives that its planners had intended , largely because of logistical problems , the bomber 's mechanical difficulties , the vulnerability of Chinese staging bases , and the extreme range required to reach key Japanese cities .
United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) Brigadier General Haywood S. Hansell determined that Guam , Tinian , and Saipan in the Mariana Islands would better serve as B @-@ 29 bases , but they were in Japanese hands . Strategies were shifted to accommodate the air war , and the islands were captured between June and August 1944 . Air bases were developed , and B @-@ 29 operations commenced from the Marianas in October 1944 . These bases were easily resupplied by cargo ships . The XXI Bomber Command began missions against Japan on November 18 , 1944 .
The early attempts to bomb Japan from the Marianas proved just as ineffective as the China @-@ based B @-@ 29s had been . Hansell continued the practice of conducting so @-@ called high @-@ altitude precision bombing , aimed at key industries and transportation networks , even after these tactics had not produced acceptable results . These efforts proved unsuccessful due to logistical difficulties with the remote location , technical problems with the new and advanced aircraft , unfavorable weather conditions , and enemy action .
Hansell 's successor , Major General Curtis LeMay , assumed command in January 1945 and initially continued to use the same precision bombing tactics , with equally unsatisfactory results . The attacks initially targeted key industrial facilities but much of the Japanese manufacturing process was carried out in small workshops and private homes . Under pressure from USAAF headquarters in Washington , LeMay changed tactics and decided that low @-@ level incendiary raids against Japanese cities were the only way to destroy their production capabilities , shifting from precision bombing to area bombardment with incendiaries .
Like most strategic bombing during World War II , the aim of the USAAF offensive against Japan was to destroy the enemy 's war industries , kill or disable civilian employees of these industries , and undermine civilian morale . Civilians who took part in the war effort through such activities as building fortifications and manufacturing munitions and other war materials in factories and workshops were considered combatants in a legal sense and therefore liable to be attacked .
Over the next six months , the XXI Bomber Command under LeMay firebombed 67 Japanese cities . The firebombing of Tokyo , codenamed Operation Meetinghouse , on March 9 – 10 killed an estimated 100 @,@ 000 people and destroyed 16 square miles ( 41 km2 ) of the city and 267 @,@ 000 buildings in a single night . It was the deadliest bombing raid of the war , at a cost of 20 B @-@ 29s shot down by flak and fighters . By May , 75 % of bombs dropped were incendiaries designed to burn down Japan 's " paper cities " . By mid @-@ June , Japan 's six largest cities had been devastated . The end of the fighting on Okinawa that month provided airfields even closer to the Japanese mainland , allowing the bombing campaign to be further escalated . Aircraft flying from Allied aircraft carriers and the Ryukyu Islands also regularly struck targets in Japan during 1945 in preparation for Operation Downfall . Firebombing switched to smaller cities , with populations ranging from 60 @,@ 000 to 350 @,@ 000 . According to Yuki Tanaka , the U.S. fire @-@ bombed over a hundred Japanese towns and cities . These raids were also devastating .
The Japanese military was unable to stop the Allied attacks and the country 's civil defense preparations proved inadequate . Japanese fighters and antiaircraft guns had difficulty engaging bombers flying at high altitude . From April 1945 , the Japanese interceptors also had to face American fighter escorts based on Iwo Jima and Okinawa . That month , the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service and Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service stopped attempting to intercept the air raids in order to preserve fighter aircraft to counter the expected invasion . By mid @-@ 1945 the Japanese only occasionally scrambled aircraft to intercept individual B @-@ 29s conducting reconnaissance sorties over the country , in order to conserve supplies of fuel . By July 1945 , the Japanese had stockpiled 1 @,@ 156 @,@ 000 US barrels ( 137 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 l ; 36 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 US gal ; 30 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 imp gal ) of avgas for the invasion of Japan . While the Japanese military decided to resume attacks on Allied bombers from late June , by this time there were too few operational fighters available for this change of tactics to hinder the Allied air raids .
= = = Atomic bomb development = = =
The discovery of nuclear fission by German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in 1938 , and its theoretical explanation by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch , made the development of an atomic bomb a theoretical possibility . Fears that a German atomic bomb project would develop atomic weapons first , especially among scientists who were refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries , were expressed in the Einstein @-@ Szilard letter . This prompted preliminary research in the United States in late 1939 . Progress was slow until the arrival of the British MAUD Committee report in late 1941 , which indicated that only 5 – 10 kilograms of isotopically enriched uranium @-@ 235 was needed for a bomb instead of tons of un @-@ enriched uranium and a neutron moderator ( e.g. heavy water ) .
Working in collaboration with the United Kingdom and Canada , with their respective projects Tube Alloys and Chalk River Laboratories , the Manhattan Project , under the direction of Major General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers , designed and built the first atomic bombs . Groves appointed J. Robert Oppenheimer to organize and head the project 's Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico , where bomb design work was carried out . Two types of bombs were eventually developed . Little Boy was a gun @-@ type fission weapon that used uranium @-@ 235 , a rare isotope of uranium separated at the Clinton Engineer Works at Oak Ridge , Tennessee . The other , known as a Fat Man , was a more powerful and efficient , but more complicated , implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon that used plutonium created in nuclear reactors at Hanford , Washington . A test implosion weapon , the gadget , was detonated at Trinity Site , on July 16 , 1945 , near Alamogordo , New Mexico .
There was a Japanese nuclear weapon program , but it lacked the human , mineral and financial resources of the Manhattan Project , and never made much progress towards developing an atomic bomb .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Organization and training = = =
The 509th Composite Group was constituted on December 9 , 1944 , and activated on December 17 , 1944 , at Wendover Army Air Field , Utah , commanded by Colonel Paul Tibbets . Tibbets was assigned to organize and command a combat group to develop the means of delivering an atomic weapon against targets in Germany and Japan . Because the flying squadrons of the group consisted of both bomber and transport aircraft , the group was designated as a " composite " rather than a " bombardment " unit .
Working with the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos , Tibbets selected Wendover for his training base over Great Bend , Kansas , and Mountain Home , Idaho , because of its remoteness . Each bombardier completed at least 50 practice drops of inert or conventional explosive pumpkin bombs and Tibbets declared his group combat @-@ ready .
The 509th Composite Group had an authorized strength of 225 officers and 1 @,@ 542 enlisted men , almost all of whom eventually deployed to Tinian . In addition to its authorized strength , the 509th had attached to it on Tinian 51 civilian and military personnel from Project Alberta , known as the 1st Technical Detachment . The 509th Composite Group 's 393d Bombardment Squadron was equipped with 15 Silverplate B @-@ 29s . These aircraft were specially adapted to carry nuclear weapons , and were equipped with fuel @-@ injected engines , Curtiss Electric reversible @-@ pitch propellers , pneumatic actuators for rapid opening and closing of bomb bay doors and other improvements .
The ground support echelon of the 509th Composite Group moved by rail on April 26 , 1945 , to its port of embarkation at Seattle , Washington . On May 6 the support elements sailed on the SS Cape Victory for the Marianas , while group materiel was shipped on the SS Emile Berliner . The Cape Victory made brief port calls at Honolulu and Eniwetok but the passengers were not permitted to leave the dock area . An advance party of the air echelon , consisting of 29 officers and 61 enlisted men flew by C @-@ 54 to North Field on Tinian , between May 15 and May 22 .
There were also two representatives from Washington , D.C. , Brigadier General Thomas Farrell , the deputy commander of the Manhattan Project , and Rear Admiral William R. Purnell of the Military Policy Committee , who were on hand to decide higher policy matters on the spot . Along with Captain William S. Parsons , the commander of Project Alberta , they became known as the " Tinian Joint Chiefs " .
= = = Choice of targets = = =
In April 1945 , Marshall asked Groves to nominate specific targets for bombing for final approval by himself and Stimson . Groves formed a Target Committee , chaired by himself , that included Farrell , Major John A. Derry , Colonel William P. Fisher , Joyce C. Stearns and David M. Dennison from the USAAF ; and scientists John von Neumann , Robert R. Wilson and William Penney from the Manhattan Project . The Target Committee met in Washington on April 27 ; at Los Alamos on May 10 , where it was able to talk to the scientists and technicians there ; and finally in Washington on May 28 , where it was briefed by Tibbets and Commander Frederick Ashworth from Project Alberta , and the Manhattan Project 's scientific advisor , Richard C. Tolman .
The Target Committee nominated five targets : Kokura , the site of one of Japan 's largest munitions plants ; Hiroshima , an embarkation port and industrial center that was the site of a major military headquarters ; Yokohama , an urban center for aircraft manufacture , machine tools , docks , electrical equipment and oil refineries ; Niigata , a port with industrial facilities including steel and aluminum plants and an oil refinery ; and Kyoto , a major industrial center . The target selection was subject to the following criteria :
The target was larger than 3 mi ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) in diameter and was an important target in a large urban area .
The blast would create effective damage .
The target was unlikely to be attacked by August 1945 .
These cities were largely untouched during the nightly bombing raids and the Army Air Forces agreed to leave them off the target list so accurate assessment of the weapon could be made . Hiroshima was described as " an important army depot and port of embarkation in the middle of an urban industrial area . It is a good radar target and it is such a size that a large part of the city could be extensively damaged . There are adjacent hills which are likely to produce a focusing effect which would considerably increase the blast damage . Due to rivers it is not a good incendiary target . "
The Target Committee stated that " It was agreed that psychological factors in the target selection were of great importance . Two aspects of this are ( 1 ) obtaining the greatest psychological effect against Japan and ( 2 ) making the initial use sufficiently spectacular for the importance of the weapon to be internationally recognized when publicity on it is released . Kyoto had the advantage of being an important center for military industry , as well an intellectual center and hence a population better able to appreciate the significance of the weapon . The Emperor 's palace in Tokyo has a greater fame than any other target but is of least strategic value . "
Edwin O. Reischauer , a Japan expert for the U.S. Army Intelligence Service , was incorrectly said to have prevented the bombing of Kyoto . In his autobiography , Reischauer specifically refuted this claim :
... the only person deserving credit for saving Kyoto from destruction is Henry L. Stimson , the Secretary of War at the time , who had known and admired Kyoto ever since his honeymoon there several decades earlier .
On May 30 , Stimson asked Groves to remove Kyoto from the target list due to its historical , religious and cultural significance , but Groves pointed to its military and industrial significance . Stimson then approached President Harry S. Truman about the matter . Truman agreed with Stimson , and Kyoto was temporarily removed from the target list . Groves attempted to restore Kyoto to the target list in July , but Stimson remained adamant . On July 25 , Nagasaki was put on the target list in place of Kyoto . Orders for the attack were issued to General Carl Spaatz on July 25 under the signature of General Thomas T. Handy , the acting Chief of Staff , since Marshall was at the Potsdam Conference with Truman . That day , Truman noted in his diary that :
This weapon is to be used against Japan between now and August 10th . I have told the Sec. of War , Mr. Stimson , to use it so that military objectives and soldiers and sailors are the target and not women and children . Even if the Japs are savages , ruthless , merciless and fanatic , we as the leader of the world for the common welfare cannot drop that terrible bomb on the old capital [ Kyoto ] or the new [ Tokyo ] . He and I are in accord . The target will be a purely military one .
= = = Proposed demonstration = = =
In early May 1945 , the Interim Committee was created by Stimson at the urging of leaders of the Manhattan Project and with the approval of Truman to advise on matters pertaining to nuclear energy . During the meetings on May 31 and June 1 , scientist Ernest Lawrence had suggested giving the Japanese a non @-@ combat demonstration . Arthur Compton later recalled that :
It was evident that everyone would suspect trickery . If a bomb were exploded in Japan with previous notice , the Japanese air power was still adequate to give serious interference . An atomic bomb was an intricate device , still in the developmental stage . Its operation would be far from routine . If during the final adjustments of the bomb the Japanese defenders should attack , a faulty move might easily result in some kind of failure . Such an end to an advertised demonstration of power would be much worse than if the attempt had not been made . It was now evident that when the time came for the bombs to be used we should have only one of them available , followed afterwards by others at all @-@ too @-@ long intervals . We could not afford the chance that one of them might be a dud . If the test were made on some neutral territory , it was hard to believe that Japan 's determined and fanatical military men would be impressed . If such an open test were made first and failed to bring surrender , the chance would be gone to give the shock of surprise that proved so effective . On the contrary , it would make the Japanese ready to interfere with an atomic attack if they could . Though the possibility of a demonstration that would not destroy human lives was attractive , no one could suggest a way in which it could be made so convincing that it would be likely to stop the war .
The possibility of a demonstration was raised again in the Franck Report issued by physicist James Franck on June 11 and the Scientific Advisory Panel rejected his report on June 16 , saying that " we can propose no technical demonstration likely to bring an end to the war ; we see no acceptable alternative to direct military use . " Franck then took the report to Washington , D.C. , where the Interim Committee met on June 21 to re @-@ examine its earlier conclusions ; but it reaffirmed that there was no alternative to the use of the bomb on a military target .
Like Compton , many U.S. officials and scientists argued that a demonstration would sacrifice the shock value of the atomic attack , and the Japanese could deny the atomic bomb was lethal , making the mission less likely to produce surrender . Allied prisoners of war might be moved to the demonstration site and be killed by the bomb . They also worried that the bomb might be a dud since the Trinity test was of a stationary device , not an air @-@ dropped bomb . In addition , only two bombs would be available at the start of August , although more were in production , and they cost billions of dollars , so using one for a demonstration would be expensive .
= = = Leaflets = = =
For several months , the U.S. had dropped more than 63 million leaflets across Japan warning civilians of air raids . Many Japanese cities suffered terrible damage from aerial bombings ; some were as much as 97 % destroyed . LeMay thought that leaflets would increase the psychological impact of bombing , and reduce the international stigma of area @-@ bombing cities . Even with the warnings , Japanese opposition to the war remained ineffective . In general , the Japanese regarded the leaflet messages as truthful , but anyone who was caught in possession of one was arrested . Leaflet texts were prepared by recent Japanese prisoners of war because they were thought to be the best choice " to appeal to their compatriots " .
In preparation for dropping an atomic bomb on Hiroshima , U.S. military leaders decided against a demonstration bomb , and against a special leaflet warning , in both cases because of the uncertainty of a successful detonation , and the wish to maximize psychological shock . No warning was given to Hiroshima that a new and much more destructive bomb was going to be dropped . Various sources give conflicting information about when the last leaflets were dropped on Hiroshima prior to the atomic bomb . Robert Jay Lifton writes that it was July 27 , and Theodore H. McNelly that it was July 3 . The USAAF history notes eleven cities were targeted with leaflets on July 27 , but Hiroshima was not one of them , and there were no leaflet sorties on July 30 . Leaflet sorties were undertaken on August 1 and August 4 . It is very likely that Hiroshima was leafleted in late July or early August , as survivor accounts talk about a delivery of leaflets a few days before the atomic bomb was dropped . One such leaflet lists twelve cities targeted for firebombing : Otaru , Akita , Hachinohe , Fukushima , Urawa , Takayama , Iwakuni , Tottori , Imabari , Yawata , Miyakonojo , and Saga . Hiroshima was not listed .
= = = Potsdam Declaration = = =
Truman delayed the start of the summit by two weeks in the hope that the bomb could be tested before the start of negotiations with Stalin . The successful Trinity Test of July 16 exceeded expectations . On July 26 , Allied leaders issued the Potsdam Declaration outlining terms of surrender for Japan . It was presented as an ultimatum and stated that without a surrender , the Allies would attack Japan , resulting in " the inevitable and complete destruction of the Japanese armed forces and just as inevitably the utter devastation of the Japanese homeland " . The atomic bomb was not mentioned in the communiqué . On July 28 , Japanese papers reported that the declaration had been rejected by the Japanese government . That afternoon , Prime Minister Suzuki Kantarō declared at a press conference that the Potsdam Declaration was no more than a rehash ( yakinaoshi ) of the Cairo Declaration and that the government intended to ignore it ( mokusatsu , " kill by silence " ) . The statement was taken by both Japanese and foreign papers as a clear rejection of the declaration . Emperor Hirohito , who was waiting for a Soviet reply to non @-@ committal Japanese peace feelers , made no move to change the government position . Japan 's willingness to surrender remained conditional on the preservation of the imperial institution ; that Japan not be occupied ; that the Japanese armed forces be disbanded voluntarily ; and that war criminals be prosecuted by Japanese courts .
Under the 1943 Quebec Agreement with the United Kingdom , the United States had agreed that nuclear weapons would not be used against another country without mutual consent . In June 1945 the head of the British Joint Staff Mission , Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson , agreed that the use of nuclear weapons against Japan would be officially recorded as a decision of the Combined Policy Committee . At Potsdam , Truman agreed to a request from Winston Churchill that Britain be represented when the atomic bomb was dropped . William Penney and Group Captain Leonard Cheshire were sent to Tinian , but found that LeMay would not let them accompany the mission . All they could do was send a strongly worded signal back to Wilson .
= = = Bombs = = =
The Little Boy bomb , except for the uranium payload , was ready at the beginning of May 1945 . The uranium @-@ 235 projectile was completed on June 15 , and the target on July 24 . The target and bomb pre @-@ assemblies ( partly assembled bombs without the fissile components ) left Hunters Point Naval Shipyard , California , on July 16 aboard the cruiser USS Indianapolis , arriving July 26 . The target inserts followed by air on July 30 .
The first plutonium core , along with its polonium @-@ beryllium urchin initiator , was transported in the custody of Project Alberta courier Raemer Schreiber in a magnesium field carrying case designed for the purpose by Philip Morrison . Magnesium was chosen because it does not act as a tamper . The core departed from Kirtland Army Air Field on a C @-@ 54 transport aircraft of the 509th Composite Group 's 320th Troop Carrier Squadron on July 26 , and arrived at North Field July 28 . Three Fat Man high @-@ explosive pre @-@ assemblies , designated F31 , F32 , and F33 , were picked up at Kirtland on July 28 by three B @-@ 29s , from the 393d Bombardment Squadron , plus one from the 216th Army Air Force Base Unit , and transported to North Field , arriving on August 2 .
= = Hiroshima = =
= = = Hiroshima during World War II = = =
At the time of its bombing , Hiroshima was a city of both industrial and military significance . A number of military units were located nearby , the most important of which was the headquarters of Field Marshal Shunroku Hata 's Second General Army , which commanded the defense of all of southern Japan , and was located in Hiroshima Castle . Hata 's command consisted of some 400 @,@ 000 men , most of whom were on Kyushu where an Allied invasion was correctly anticipated . Also present in Hiroshima were the headquarters of the 59th Army , the 5th Division and the 224th Division , a recently formed mobile unit . The city was defended by five batteries of 7 @-@ cm and 8 @-@ cm ( 2 @.@ 8 and 3 @.@ 1 inch ) anti @-@ aircraft guns of the 3rd Anti @-@ Aircraft Division , including units from the 121st and 122nd Anti @-@ Aircraft Regiments and the 22nd and 45th Separate Anti @-@ Aircraft Battalions . In total , an estimated 40 @,@ 000 Japanese military personnel were stationed in the city .
Hiroshima was a minor supply and logistics base for the Japanese military , but it also had large stockpiles of military supplies . The city was also a communications center , a key port for shipping and an assembly area for troops . It was also the second largest city in Japan after Kyoto that was still undamaged by air raids , due to the fact that it lacked the aircraft manufacturing industry that was the XXI Bomber Command 's priority target . On July 3 , the Joint Chiefs of Staff placed it off limits to bombers , along with Kokura , Niigata and Kyoto .
The center of the city contained several reinforced concrete buildings and lighter structures . Outside the center , the area was congested by a dense collection of small timber @-@ made workshops set among Japanese houses . A few larger industrial plants lay near the outskirts of the city . The houses were constructed of timber with tile roofs , and many of the industrial buildings were also built around timber frames . The city as a whole was highly susceptible to fire damage .
The population of Hiroshima had reached a peak of over 381 @,@ 000 earlier in the war but prior to the atomic bombing , the population had steadily decreased because of a systematic evacuation ordered by the Japanese government . At the time of the attack , the population was approximately 340 @,@ 000 – 350 @,@ 000 . Residents wondered why Hiroshima had been spared destruction by firebombing . Some speculated that the city was to be saved for U.S. occupation headquarters , others thought perhaps their relatives in Hawaii and California had petitioned the U.S. government to avoid bombing Hiroshima . More realistic city officials had ordered buildings torn down to create long , straight firebreaks , beginning in 1944 . Firebreaks continued to be expanded and extended up to the morning of August 6 , 1945 .
= = = Bombing of Hiroshima = = =
Hiroshima was the primary target of the first nuclear bombing mission on August 6 , with Kokura and Nagasaki as alternative targets . Having been fully briefed under the terms of Operations Order No. 35 , the 393d Bombardment Squadron B @-@ 29 Enola Gay , piloted by Tibbets , took off from North Field , Tinian , about six hours ' flight time from Japan . The Enola Gay ( named after Tibbets ' mother ) was accompanied by two other B @-@ 29s . The Great Artiste , commanded by Major Charles Sweeney , carried instrumentation , and a then @-@ nameless aircraft later called Necessary Evil , commanded by Captain George Marquardt , served as the photography aircraft .
After leaving Tinian the aircraft made their way separately to Iwo Jima to rendezvous with Sweeney and Marquardt at 05 : 55 at 9 @,@ 200 feet ( 2 @,@ 800 m ) , and set course for Japan . The aircraft arrived over the target in clear visibility at 31 @,@ 060 feet ( 9 @,@ 470 m ) . Parsons , who was in command of the mission , armed the bomb during the flight to minimize the risks during takeoff . He had witnessed four B @-@ 29s crash and burn at takeoff , and feared that a nuclear explosion would occur if a B @-@ 29 crashed with an armed Little Boy on board . His assistant , Second Lieutenant Morris R. Jeppson , removed the safety devices 30 minutes before reaching the target area .
During the night of August 5 – 6 , Japanese early warning radar detected the approach of numerous American aircraft headed for the southern part of Japan . Radar detected 65 bombers headed for Saga , 102 bound for Maebashi , 261 en route to Nishinomiya , 111 headed for Ube and 66 bound for Imabari . An alert was given and radio broadcasting stopped in many cities , among them Hiroshima . The all @-@ clear was sounded in Hiroshima at 00 : 05 . About an hour before the bombing , the air raid alert was sounded again , as Straight Flush flew over the city . It broadcast a short message which was picked up by Enola Gay . It read : " Cloud cover less than 3 / 10th at all altitudes . Advice : bomb primary . " The all @-@ clear was sounded over Hiroshima again at 07 : 09 .
At 08 : 09 Tibbets started his bomb run and handed control over to his bombardier , Major Thomas Ferebee . The release at 08 : 15 ( Hiroshima time ) went as planned , and the Little Boy containing about 64 kg ( 141 lb ) of uranium @-@ 235 took 44 @.@ 4 seconds to fall from the aircraft flying at about 31 @,@ 000 feet ( 9 @,@ 400 m ) to a detonation height of about 1 @,@ 900 feet ( 580 m ) above the city . Enola Gay traveled 11 @.@ 5 mi ( 18 @.@ 5 km ) before it felt the shock waves from the blast .
Due to crosswind , the bomb missed the aiming point , the Aioi Bridge , by approximately 800 ft ( 240 m ) and detonated directly over Shima Surgical Clinic at 34 @.@ 39468 ° N 132 @.@ 45462 ° E / 34 @.@ 39468 ; 132 @.@ 45462 . It created a blast equivalent to 16 kilotons of TNT ( 67 TJ ) , ± 2 kt . The weapon was considered very inefficient , with only 1 @.@ 7 % of its material fissioning . The radius of total destruction was about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , with resulting fires across 4 @.@ 4 square miles ( 11 km2 ) .
People on the ground reported seeing a pika or brilliant flash of light followed by a don , a loud booming sound . Some 70 @,@ 000 – 80 @,@ 000 people , of whom 20 @,@ 000 were Japanese soldiers and 20 @,@ 000 Korean slave laborers , or around 30 % of the population of Hiroshima , were killed by the blast and resultant firestorm , and another 70 @,@ 000 injured .
Enola Gay stayed over the target area for two minutes and was ten miles away when the bomb detonated . Only Tibbets , Parsons , and Ferebee knew of the nature of the weapon ; the others on the bomber were only told to expect a blinding flash and given black goggles . " It was hard to believe what we saw " , Tibbets told reporters , while Parsons said " the whole thing was tremendous and awe @-@ inspiring ... the men aboard with me gasped ' My God ' " . He and Tibbets compared the shockwave to " a close burst of ack @-@ ack fire " .
= = = Events on the ground = = =
Some of the reinforced concrete buildings in Hiroshima had been very strongly constructed because of the earthquake danger in Japan , and their framework did not collapse even though they were fairly close to the blast center . Since the bomb detonated in the air , the blast was directed more downward than sideways , which was largely responsible for the survival of the Prefectural Industrial Promotional Hall , now commonly known as the Genbaku ( A @-@ bomb ) dome . This building was designed and built by the Czech architect Jan Letzel , and was only 150 m ( 490 ft ) from ground zero . The ruin was named Hiroshima Peace Memorial and was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996 over the objections of the United States and China , which expressed reservations on the grounds that other Asian nations were the ones who suffered the greatest loss of life and property , and a focus on Japan lacked historical perspective .
The Americans estimated that 4 @.@ 7 square miles ( 12 km2 ) of the city were destroyed . Japanese officials determined that 69 % of Hiroshima 's buildings were destroyed and another 6 – 7 % damaged . The bombing started fires that spread rapidly through timber and paper homes . As in other Japanese cities , the firebreaks proved ineffective .
Eizō Nomura was the closest known survivor , who was in the basement of a reinforced concrete building ( it remained as the Rest House after the war ) only 170 metres ( 560 ft ) from ground zero ( the hypocenter ) at the time of the attack . He lived into his 80s . Akiko Takakura was among the closest survivors to the hypocenter of the blast . She had been in the solidly built Bank of Hiroshima only 300 meters ( 980 ft ) from ground @-@ zero at the time of the attack .
Over 90 % of the doctors and 93 % of the nurses in Hiroshima were killed or injured — most had been in the downtown area which received the greatest damage . The hospitals were destroyed or heavily damaged . Only one doctor , Terufumi Sasaki , remained on duty at the Red Cross Hospital . Nonetheless , by early afternoon , the police and volunteers had established evacuation centres at hospitals , schools and tram stations , and a morgue was established in the Asano library .
Most elements of the Japanese Second General Army headquarters were at physical training on the grounds of Hiroshima Castle , barely 900 yards ( 820 m ) from the hypocenter . The attack killed 3 @,@ 243 troops on the parade ground . The communications room of Chugoku Military District Headquarters that was responsible for issuing and lifting air raid warnings was in a semi @-@ basement in the castle . Yoshie Oka , a Hijiyama Girls High School student who had been mobilized to serve as a communications officer had just sent a message that the alarm had been issued for Hiroshima and Yamaguchi when the bomb exploded . She used a special phone to inform Fukuyama Headquarters that " Hiroshima has been attacked by a new type of bomb . The city is in a state of near @-@ total destruction . "
Since Mayor Senkichi Awaya had been killed while eating breakfast with his son and granddaughter at the mayoral residence , Field Marshal Hata , who was only slightly wounded , took over the administration of the city , and coordinated relief efforts . Many of his staff had been killed or fatally wounded , including a Korean prince of the Joseon Dynasty , Yi Wu , who was serving as a lieutenant colonel in the Japanese Army . Hata 's senior surviving staff officer was the wounded Colonel Kumao Imoto , who acted as his chief of staff . Hiroshima Ujina Harbor was undamaged , and soldiers from there used suicide boats intended to repel the American invasion , collected the wounded and took them down the rivers to the military hospital at Ujina . Trucks and trains brought in relief supplies and evacuated survivors from the city .
Twelve American airmen were imprisoned at the Chugoku Military Police Headquarters located about 1 @,@ 300 feet ( 400 m ) from the hypocenter of the blast . Most died instantly , although two were reported to have been executed by their captors , and two prisoners badly injured by the bombing were left next to the Aioi Bridge by the Kempei Tai , where they were stoned to death . Later reports indicated that 8 US prisoners of war held in Hiroshima Castle and executed as part of a medical experiments program prior to the bombing were reported by Japanese authorities as having been killed in the atomic blast .
= = = Japanese realization of the bombing = = =
The Tokyo control operator of the Japan Broadcasting Corporation noticed that the Hiroshima station had gone off the air . He tried to re @-@ establish his program by using another telephone line , but it too had failed . About 20 minutes later the Tokyo railroad telegraph center realized that the main line telegraph had stopped working just north of Hiroshima . From some small railway stops within 16 km ( 10 mi ) of the city came unofficial and confused reports of a terrible explosion in Hiroshima . All these reports were transmitted to the headquarters of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff .
Military bases repeatedly tried to call the Army Control Station in Hiroshima . The complete silence from that city puzzled the General Staff ; they knew that no large enemy raid had occurred and that no sizable store of explosives was in Hiroshima at that time . A young officer was instructed to fly immediately to Hiroshima , to land , survey the damage , and return to Tokyo with reliable information for the staff . It was felt that nothing serious had taken place and that the explosion was just a rumor .
The staff officer went to the airport and took off for the southwest . After flying for about three hours , while still nearly 160 km ( 100 mi ) from Hiroshima , he and his pilot saw a great cloud of smoke from the bomb . After circling the city in order to survey the damage they landed south of the city , where the staff officer , after reporting to Tokyo , began to organize relief measures . Tokyo 's first indication that the city had been destroyed by a new type of bomb came from President Truman 's announcement of the strike , sixteen hours later .
= = Events of August 7 – 9 = =
After the Hiroshima bombing , Truman issued a statement announcing the use of the new weapon . He stated , " We may be grateful to Providence " that the German atomic bomb project had failed , and that the United States and its allies had " spent two billion dollars on the greatest scientific gamble in history — and won " . Truman then warned Japan : " If they do not now accept our terms , they may expect a rain of ruin from the air , the like of which has never been seen on this earth . Behind this air attack will follow sea and land forces in such numbers and power as they have not yet seen and with the fighting skill of which they are already well aware . "
The Japanese government did not react . Emperor Hirohito , the government , and the war council considered four conditions for surrender : the preservation of the kokutai ( Imperial institution and national polity ) , assumption by the Imperial Headquarters of responsibility for disarmament and demobilization , no occupation of the Japanese Home Islands , Korea , or Formosa , and delegation of the punishment of war criminals to the Japanese government .
The Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov informed Tokyo of the Soviet Union 's unilateral abrogation of the Soviet – Japanese Neutrality Pact on August 5 . At two minutes past midnight on August 9 , Tokyo time , Soviet infantry , armor , and air forces had launched the Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation . Four hours later , word reached Tokyo of the Soviet Union 's official declaration of war . The senior leadership of the Japanese Army began preparations to impose martial law on the nation , with the support of Minister of War Korechika Anami , in order to stop anyone attempting to make peace .
On August 7 , a day after Hiroshima was destroyed , Dr. Yoshio Nishina and other atomic physicists arrived at the city , and carefully examined the damage . They then went back to Tokyo and told the cabinet that Hiroshima was indeed destroyed by an atomic bomb . Admiral Soemu Toyoda , the Chief of the Naval General Staff , estimated that no more than one or two additional bombs could be readied , so they decided to endure the remaining attacks , acknowledging " there would be more destruction but the war would go on " . American Magic codebreakers intercepted the cabinet 's messages .
Purnell , Parsons , Tibbets , Spaatz , and LeMay met on Guam that same day to discuss what should be done next . Since there was no indication of Japan surrendering , they decided to proceed with dropping another bomb . Parsons said that Project Alberta would have it ready by August 11 , but Tibbets pointed to weather reports indicating poor flying conditions on that day due to a storm , and asked if the bomb could be readied by August 9 . Parsons agreed to try to do so .
= = Nagasaki = =
I realize the tragic significance of the atomic bomb ... It is an awful responsibility which has come to us ... We thank God that it has come to us , instead of to our enemies ; and we pray that He may guide us to use it in His ways and for His purposes .
= = = Nagasaki during World War II = = =
The city of Nagasaki had been one of the largest seaports in southern Japan , and was of great wartime importance because of its wide @-@ ranging industrial activity , including the production of ordnance , ships , military equipment , and other war materials . The four largest companies in the city were Mitsubishi Shipyards , Electrical Shipyards , Arms Plant , and Steel and Arms Works , which employed about 90 % of the city 's labor force , and accounted for 90 % of the city 's industry . Although an important industrial city , Nagasaki had been spared from firebombing because its geography made it difficult to locate at night with AN / APQ @-@ 13 radar .
Unlike the other target cities , Nagasaki had not been placed off limits to bombers by the Joint Chiefs of Staff 's July 3 directive , and was bombed on a small scale five times . During one of these raids on August 1 , a number of conventional high @-@ explosive bombs were dropped on the city . A few hit the shipyards and dock areas in the southwest portion of the city , and several hit the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works . By early August , the city was defended by the IJA 134th Anti @-@ Aircraft Regiment of the 4th Anti @-@ Aircraft Division with four batteries of 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns and two searchlight batteries .
In contrast to Hiroshima , almost all of the buildings were of old @-@ fashioned Japanese construction , consisting of timber or timber @-@ framed buildings with timber walls ( with or without plaster ) and tile roofs . Many of the smaller industries and business establishments were also situated in buildings of timber or other materials not designed to withstand explosions . Nagasaki had been permitted to grow for many years without conforming to any definite city zoning plan ; residences were erected adjacent to factory buildings and to each other almost as closely as possible throughout the entire industrial valley . On the day of the bombing , an estimated 263 @,@ 000 people were in Nagasaki , including 240 @,@ 000 Japanese residents , 10 @,@ 000 Korean residents , 2 @,@ 500 conscripted Korean workers , 9 @,@ 000 Japanese soldiers , 600 conscripted Chinese workers , and 400 Allied prisoners of war in a camp to the north of Nagasaki .
= = = Bombing of Nagasaki = = =
Responsibility for the timing of the second bombing was delegated to Tibbets . Scheduled for August 11 against Kokura , the raid was moved earlier by two days to avoid a five @-@ day period of bad weather forecast to begin on August 10 . Three bomb pre @-@ assemblies had been transported to Tinian , labeled F @-@ 31 , F @-@ 32 , and F @-@ 33 on their exteriors . On August 8 , a dress rehearsal was conducted off Tinian by Sweeney using Bockscar as the drop airplane . Assembly F @-@ 33 was expended testing the components and F @-@ 31 was designated for the August 9 mission .
At 03 : 49 on the morning of August 9 , 1945 , Bockscar , flown by Sweeney 's crew , carried Fat Man , with Kokura as the primary target and Nagasaki the secondary target . The mission plan for the second attack was nearly identical to that of the Hiroshima mission , with two B @-@ 29s flying an hour ahead as weather scouts and two additional B @-@ 29s in Sweeney 's flight for instrumentation and photographic support of the mission . Sweeney took off with his weapon already armed but with the electrical safety plugs still engaged .
During pre @-@ flight inspection of Bockscar , the flight engineer notified Sweeney that an inoperative fuel transfer pump made it impossible to use 640 US gallons ( 2 @,@ 400 l ; 530 imp gal ) of fuel carried in a reserve tank . This fuel would still have to be carried all the way to Japan and back , consuming still more fuel . Replacing the pump would take hours ; moving the Fat Man to another aircraft might take just as long and was dangerous as well , as the bomb was live . Tibbets and Sweeney therefore elected to have Bockscar continue the mission .
This time Penney and Cheshire were allowed to accompany the mission , flying as observers on the third plane , Big Stink , flown by the group 's operations officer , Major James I. Hopkins , Jr . Observers aboard the weather planes reported both targets clear . When Sweeney 's aircraft arrived at the assembly point for his flight off the coast of Japan , Big Stink failed to make the rendezvous . According to Cheshire , Hopkins was at varying heights including 9 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) higher than he should have been , and was not flying tight circles over Yakushima as previously agreed with Sweeney and Captain Frederick C. Bock , who was piloting the support B @-@ 29 The Great Artiste . Instead , Hopkins was flying 40 @-@ mile ( 64 km ) dogleg patterns . Though ordered not to circle longer than fifteen minutes , Sweeney continued to wait for Big Stink , at the urging of Ashworth , the plane 's weaponeer , who was in command of the mission .
After exceeding the original departure time limit by a half @-@ hour , Bockscar , accompanied by The Great Artiste , proceeded to Kokura , thirty minutes away . The delay at the rendezvous had resulted in clouds and drifting smoke over Kokura from fires started by a major firebombing raid by 224 B @-@ 29s on nearby Yahata the previous day . Additionally , the Yawata Steel Works intentionally burned coal tar , to produce black smoke . The clouds and smoke resulted in 70 % of the area over Kokura being covered , obscuring the aiming point . Three bomb runs were made over the next 50 minutes , burning fuel and exposing the aircraft repeatedly to the heavy defenses of Yawata , but the bombardier was unable to drop visually . By the time of the third bomb run , Japanese antiaircraft fire was getting close , and Second Lieutenant Jacob Beser , who was monitoring Japanese communications , reported activity on the Japanese fighter direction radio bands .
After three runs over the city , and with fuel running low because of the failed fuel pump , they headed for their secondary target , Nagasaki . Fuel consumption calculations made en route indicated that Bockscar had insufficient fuel to reach Iwo Jima and would be forced to divert to Okinawa , which had become entirely Allied @-@ occupied territory only six weeks earlier . After initially deciding that if Nagasaki were obscured on their arrival the crew would carry the bomb to Okinawa and dispose of it in the ocean if necessary , Ashworth ruled that a radar approach would be used if the target was obscured .
At about 07 : 50 Japanese time , an air raid alert was sounded in Nagasaki , but the " all clear " signal was given at 08 : 30 . When only two B @-@ 29 Superfortresses were sighted at 10 : 53 , the Japanese apparently assumed that the planes were only on reconnaissance and no further alarm was given .
A few minutes later at 11 : 00 , The Great Artiste dropped instruments attached to three parachutes . These instruments also contained an unsigned letter to Professor Ryokichi Sagane , a physicist at the University of Tokyo who studied with three of the scientists responsible for the atomic bomb at the University of California , Berkeley , urging him to tell the public about the danger involved with these weapons of mass destruction . The messages were found by military authorities but not turned over to Sagane until a month later . In 1949 , one of the authors of the letter , Luis Alvarez , met with Sagane and signed the document .
At 11 : 01 , a last @-@ minute break in the clouds over Nagasaki allowed Bockscar 's bombardier , Captain Kermit Beahan , to visually sight the target as ordered . The Fat Man weapon , containing a core of about 6 @.@ 4 kg ( 14 lb ) of plutonium , was dropped over the city 's industrial valley at 32 @.@ 77372 ° N 129 @.@ 86325 ° E / 32 @.@ 77372 ; 129 @.@ 86325 . It exploded 47 seconds later at 1 @,@ 650 ± 33 ft ( 503 ± 10 m ) , above a tennis court halfway between the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works in the south and the Nagasaki Arsenal in the north . This was nearly 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) northwest of the planned hypocenter ; the blast was confined to the Urakami Valley and a major portion of the city was protected by the intervening hills . The resulting explosion had a blast yield equivalent to 21 ± 2 kt ( 87 @.@ 9 ± 8 @.@ 4 TJ ) . The explosion generated heat estimated at 3 @,@ 900 ° C ( 7 @,@ 050 ° F ) and winds that were estimated at 1 @,@ 005 km / h ( 624 mph ) .
Big Stink spotted the explosion from a hundred miles away , and flew over to observe . Because of the delays in the mission and the inoperative fuel transfer pump , Bockscar did not have sufficient fuel to reach the emergency landing field at Iwo Jima , so Sweeney and Bock flew to Okinawa . Arriving there , Sweeney circled for 20 minutes trying to contact the control tower for landing clearance , finally concluding that his radio was faulty . Critically low on fuel , Bockscar barely made it to the runway on Okinawa 's Yontan Airfield . With enough fuel for only one landing attempt , Sweeney and Albury brought Bockscar in at 150 miles per hour ( 240 km / h ) instead of the normal 120 miles per hour ( 190 km / h ) , firing distress flares to alert the field of the uncleared landing . The number two engine died from fuel starvation as Bockscar began its final approach . Touching the runway hard , the heavy B @-@ 29 slewed left and towards a row of parked B @-@ 24 bombers before the pilots managed to regain control . The B @-@ 29 's reversible propellers were insufficient to slow the aircraft adequately , and with both pilots standing on the brakes , Bockscar made a swerving 90 @-@ degree turn at the end of the runway to avoid running off the runway . A second engine died from fuel exhaustion by the time the plane came to a stop . The flight engineer later measured fuel in the tanks and concluded that less than five minutes total remained .
Following the mission , there was confusion over the identification of the plane . The first eyewitness account by war correspondent William L. Laurence of The New York Times , who accompanied the mission aboard the aircraft piloted by Bock , reported that Sweeney was leading the mission in The Great Artiste . He also noted its " Victor " number as 77 , which was that of Bockscar , writing that several personnel commented that 77 was also the jersey number of the football player Red Grange . Laurence had interviewed Sweeney and his crew , and was aware that they referred to their airplane as The Great Artiste . Except for Enola Gay , none of the 393d 's B @-@ 29s had yet had names painted on the noses , a fact which Laurence himself noted in his account . Unaware of the switch in aircraft , Laurence assumed Victor 77 was The Great Artiste , which was in fact , Victor 89 .
= = = Events on the ground = = =
Although the bomb was more powerful than the one used on Hiroshima , the effect was confined by hillsides to the narrow Urakami Valley . Of 7 @,@ 500 Japanese employees who worked inside the Mitsubishi Munitions plant , including mobilized students and regular workers , 6 @,@ 200 were killed . Some 17 @,@ 000 – 22 @,@ 000 others who worked in other war plants and factories in the city died as well . Casualty estimates for immediate deaths vary widely , ranging from 22 @,@ 000 to 75 @,@ 000 . In the days and months following the explosion , more people died from bomb effects . Because of the presence of undocumented foreign workers , and a number of military personnel in transit , there are great discrepancies in the estimates of total deaths by the end of 1945 ; a range of 39 @,@ 000 to 80 @,@ 000 can be found in various studies .
Unlike Hiroshima 's military death toll , only 150 soldiers were killed instantly , including thirty @-@ six from the IJA 134th AAA Regiment of the 4th AAA Division . At least eight known POWs died from the bombing and as many as 13 may have died , including a British citizen , Royal Air Force Corporal Ronald Shaw , and seven Dutch POWs . One American POW , Joe Kieyoomia , was in Nagasaki at the time of the bombing but survived , reportedly having been shielded from the effects of the bomb by the concrete walls of his cell . There were 24 Australian POWs in Nagasaki , all of whom survived .
The radius of total destruction was about 1 mi ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , followed by fires across the northern portion of the city to 2 mi ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south of the bomb . About 58 % of the Mitsubishi Arms Plant was damaged , and about 78 % of the Mitsubishi Steel Works . The Mitsubishi Electric Works suffered only 10 % structural damage as it was on the border of the main destruction zone . The Nagasaki Arsenal was destroyed in the blast .
= = Plans for more atomic attacks on Japan = =
Groves expected to have another atomic bomb ready for use on August 19 , with three more in September and a further three in October . On August 10 , he sent a memorandum to Marshall in which he wrote that " the next bomb ... should be ready for delivery on the first suitable weather after 17 or 18 August . " On the same day , Marshall endorsed the memo with the comment , " It is not to be released over Japan without express authority from the President . " Truman had secretly requested this on August 10 . This modified the previous order that the target cities were to be attacked with atomic bombs " as made ready " .
There was already discussion in the War Department about conserving the bombs then in production for Operation Downfall . " The problem now [ August 13 ] is whether or not , assuming the Japanese do not capitulate , to continue dropping them every time one is made and shipped out there or whether to hold them ... and then pour them all on in a reasonably short time . Not all in one day , but over a short period . And that also takes into consideration the target that we are after . In other words , should we not concentrate on targets that will be of the greatest assistance to an invasion rather than industry , morale , psychology , and the like ? Nearer the tactical use rather than other use . "
Two more Fat Man assemblies were readied , and scheduled to leave Kirtland Field for Tinian on August 11 and August 14 , and Tibbets was ordered by LeMay to return to Albuquerque , New Mexico , to collect them . At Los Alamos , technicians worked 24 hours straight to cast another plutonium core . Although cast , it still needed to be pressed and coated , which would take until August 16 . Therefore , it could have been ready for use on August 19 . However , unable to reach Marshall , Groves ordered on his own authority on August 13 that the core should not be shipped .
= = Surrender of Japan and subsequent occupation = =
Until August 9 , Japan 's war council still insisted on its four conditions for surrender . On that day Hirohito ordered Kōichi Kido to " quickly control the situation ... because the Soviet Union has declared war against us . " He then held an Imperial conference during which he authorized minister Shigenori Tōgō to notify the Allies that Japan would accept their terms on one condition , that the declaration " does not comprise any demand which prejudices the prerogatives of His Majesty as a Sovereign ruler . "
On August 12 , the Emperor informed the imperial family of his decision to surrender . One of his uncles , Prince Asaka , then asked whether the war would be continued if the kokutai could not be preserved . Hirohito simply replied , " Of course . " As the Allied terms seemed to leave intact the principle of the preservation of the Throne , Hirohito recorded on August 14 his capitulation announcement which was broadcast to the Japanese nation the next day despite a short rebellion by militarists opposed to the surrender .
In his declaration , Hirohito referred to the atomic bombings :
Moreover , the enemy now possesses a new and terrible weapon with the power to destroy many innocent lives and do incalculable damage . Should we continue to fight , not only would it result in an ultimate collapse and obliteration of the Japanese nation , but also it would lead to the total extinction of human civilization .
Such being the case , how are We to save the millions of Our subjects , or to atone Ourselves before the hallowed spirits of Our Imperial Ancestors ? This is the reason why We have ordered the acceptance of the provisions of the Joint Declaration of the Powers .
In his " Rescript to the Soldiers and Sailors " delivered on August 17 , he stressed the impact of the Soviet invasion on his decision to surrender , omitting any mention of the bombs . Hirohito met with General MacArthur on September 27 , saying to him that " [ t ] he peace party did not prevail until the bombing of Hiroshima created a situation which could be dramatized " . Furthermore , the " Rescript to the Soldiers and Sailors " speech he told MacArthur about was just personal , not political , and never stated that the Soviet intervention in Manchuria was the main reason for surrender . In fact , a day after the bombing of Nagasaki and the Soviet invasion of Manchuria , Hirohito ordered his advisers , primarily Chief Cabinet Secretary Hisatsune Sakomizu , Kawada Mizuho , and Masahiro Yasuoka , to write up a surrender speech . In Hirohito 's speech , days before announcing it on radio on August 15 , he gave three major reasons for surrender : Tokyo 's defenses would not be complete before the American invasion of Japan , Ise Shrine would be lost to the Americans , and atomic weapons deployed by the Americans would lead to the death of the entire Japanese race . Despite the Soviet intervention , Hirohito did not mention the Soviets as the main factor for surrender .
= = Depiction , public response , and censorship = =
During the war " annihilationist and exterminationalist rhetoric " was tolerated at all levels of U.S. society ; according to the British embassy in Washington the Americans regarded the Japanese as " a nameless mass of vermin " . Caricatures depicting Japanese as less than human , e.g. monkeys , were common . A 1944 opinion poll that asked what should be done with Japan found that 13 % of the U.S. public were in favor of " killing off " all Japanese men , women , and children .
After the Hiroshima bomb detonated successfully , Robert Oppenheimer addressed an assembly at Los Alamos " clasping his hands together like a prize @-@ winning boxer " . The Vatican was less enthusiastic ; its newspaper L 'Osservatore Romano expressed regret that the bomb 's inventors did not destroy the weapon for the benefit of humanity . Rev. Cuthbert Thicknesse , the Dean of St Albans , prohibited using St Albans Abbey for a thanksgiving service for the war 's end , calling the use of atomic weapons " an act of wholesale , indiscriminate massacre " . Nonetheless , news of the atomic bombing was greeted enthusiastically in the U.S. ; a poll in Fortune magazine in late 1945 showed a significant minority of Americans ( 22 @.@ 7 % ) wishing that more atomic bombs could have been dropped on Japan . The initial positive response was supported by the imagery presented to the public ( mainly the powerful images of the mushroom cloud ) and the censorship of photographs that showed corpses and maimed survivors .
Wilfred Burchett was the first journalist to visit Hiroshima after the atom bomb was dropped , arriving alone by train from Tokyo on September 2 , the day of the formal surrender aboard the USS Missouri . His Morse code dispatch was printed by the Daily Express newspaper in London on September 5 , 1945 , entitled " The Atomic Plague " , the first public report to mention the effects of radiation and nuclear fallout . Burchett 's reporting was unpopular with the U.S. military . The U.S. censors suppressed a supporting story submitted by George Weller of the Chicago Daily News , and accused Burchett of being under the sway of Japanese propaganda . Laurence dismissed the reports on radiation sickness as Japanese efforts to undermine American morale , ignoring his own account of Hiroshima 's radiation sickness published one week earlier .
A member of the U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey , Lieutenant Daniel McGovern , used a film crew to document the results in early 1946 . The film crew 's work resulted in a three @-@ hour documentary entitled The Effects of the Atomic Bombs Against Hiroshima and Nagasaki . The documentary included images from hospitals showing the human effects of the bomb ; it showed burned out buildings and cars , and rows of skulls and bones on the ground . It was classified " secret " for the next 22 years . During this time in America , it was a common practice for editors to keep graphic images of death out of films , magazines , and newspapers . The total of 90 @,@ 000 ft ( 27 @,@ 000 m ) of film shot by McGovern 's cameramen had not been fully aired as of 2009 . According to Greg Mitchell , with the 2004 documentary film Original Child Bomb , a small part of that footage managed to reach part of the American public " in the unflinching and powerful form its creators intended " .
Motion picture company Nippon Eigasha started sending cameramen to Nagasaki and Hiroshima in September 1945 . On October 24 , 1945 , a U.S. military policeman stopped a Nippon Eigasha cameraman from continuing to film in Nagasaki . All Nippon Eigasha 's reels were then confiscated by the American authorities . These reels were in turn requested by the Japanese government , declassified , and saved from oblivion . Some black @-@ and @-@ white motion pictures were released and shown for the first time to Japanese and American audiences in the years from 1968 to 1970 . The public release of film footage of the city post attack , and some research about the human effects of the attack , was restricted during the occupation of Japan , and much of this information was censored until the signing of the San Francisco Peace Treaty in 1951 , restoring control to the Japanese .
Only the most sensitive and detailed weapons effects information was censored during this period . There was no censorship of the factually written accounts . For example , the book Hiroshima written by Pulitzer Prize winner John Hersey , which was originally published in article form in the popular magazine The New Yorker , on August 31 , 1946 , is reported to have reached Tokyo in English by January 1947 , and the translated version was released in Japan in 1949 . The book narrates the stories of the lives of six bomb survivors from immediately prior , to months after , the dropping of the Little Boy bomb .
= = Post @-@ attack casualties = =
In the spring of 1948 , the Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission ( ABCC ) was established in accordance with a presidential directive from Truman to the National Academy of Sciences – National Research Council to conduct investigations of the late effects of radiation among the survivors in Hiroshima and Nagasaki . One of the early studies conducted by the ABCC was on the outcome of pregnancies occurring in Hiroshima and Nagasaki , and in a control city , Kure , located 18 mi ( 29 km ) south of Hiroshima , in order to discern the conditions and outcomes related to radiation exposure . Dr. James V. Neel led the study which found that the number of birth defects was not significantly higher among the children of survivors who were pregnant at the time of the bombings . The National Academy of Sciences questioned Neel 's procedure which did not filter the Kure population for possible radiation exposure . Among the observed birth defects there was a higher incidence of brain malformation in Nagasaki and Hiroshima , including microencephaly and anencephaly , about 2 @.@ 75 times the rate seen in Kure .
In 1985 , Johns Hopkins University human geneticist James F. Crow examined Neel 's research and confirmed that the number of birth defects was not significantly higher in Hiroshima and Nagasaki . Many members of the ABCC and its successor Radiation Effects Research Foundation ( RERF ) were still looking for possible birth defects or other causes among the survivors decades later , but found no evidence that they were common among the survivors . Despite the insignificance of birth defects found in Neel 's study , historian Ronald E. Powaski wrote that Hiroshima experienced " an increase in stillbirths , birth defects , and infant mortality " following the atomic bomb . Neel also studied the longevity of the children who survived the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , reporting that between 90 and 95 percent were still living 50 years later .
Around 1 @,@ 900 cancer deaths can be attributed to the after @-@ effects of the bombs . An epidemiology study by the RERF states that from 1950 to 2000 , 46 % of leukemia deaths and 11 % of solid cancer deaths among the bomb survivors were due to radiation from the bombs , the statistical excess being estimated at 200 leukemia and 1 @,@ 700 solid cancers .
= = Hibakusha = =
The survivors of the bombings are called hibakusha ( 被爆者 , Japanese pronunciation : [ çiβa ̠ kɯ ̥ ᵝɕʲa ̠ ] ) , a Japanese word that literally translates to " explosion @-@ affected people " . As of March 31 , 2015 , 183 @,@ 519 hibakusha were recognized by the Japanese government , most living in Japan . The government of Japan recognizes about 1 % of these as having illnesses caused by radiation . The memorials in Hiroshima and Nagasaki contain lists of the names of the hibakusha who are known to have died since the bombings . Updated annually on the anniversaries of the bombings , as of August 2015 the memorials record the names of more than 460 @,@ 000 hibakusha ; 297 @,@ 684 in Hiroshima and 168 @,@ 767 in Nagasaki .
Hibakusha and their children were ( and still are ) victims of severe discrimination in Japan due to public ignorance about the consequences of radiation sickness , with much of the public believing it to be hereditary or even contagious . This is despite the fact that no statistically demonstrable increase of birth defects or congenital malformations was found among the later conceived children born to survivors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . A study of the long @-@ term psychological effects of the bombings on the survivors found that even 17 – 20 years after the bombings had occurred survivors showed a higher prevalence of anxiety and somatization symptoms .
= = = Double survivors = = =
On March 24 , 2009 , the Japanese government officially recognized Tsutomu Yamaguchi as a double hibakusha . He was confirmed to be 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) from ground zero in Hiroshima on a business trip when Little Boy was detonated . He was seriously burnt on his left side and spent the night in Hiroshima . He arrived at his home city of Nagasaki on August 8 , the day before Fat Man was dropped , and he was exposed to residual radiation while searching for his relatives . He was the first officially recognized survivor of both bombings . He died on January 4 , 2010 , at the age of 93 , after a battle with stomach cancer .
The 2006 documentary Twice Survived : The Doubly Atomic Bombed of Hiroshima and Nagasaki documented 165 nijū hibakusha ( lit. double explosion @-@ affected people ) , and was screened at the United Nations .
= = = Korean survivors = = =
During the war , Japan brought as many as 670 @,@ 000 Korean conscripts to Japan to work as forced labor . Between 40 @,@ 000 and 50 @,@ 000 Koreans were killed by the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings . For many years , Koreans had a difficult time fighting for recognition as atomic bomb victims and were denied health benefits . Most issues have been addressed in recent years through lawsuits .
= = Debate over bombings = =
The atomic bomb was more than a weapon of terrible destruction ; it was a psychological weapon .
The role of the bombings in Japan 's surrender and the U.S. ' s ethical justification for them has been the subject of scholarly and popular debate for decades . J. Samuel Walker wrote in an April 2005 overview of recent historiography on the issue , " the controversy over the use of the bomb seems certain to continue . " He wrote that " The fundamental issue that has divided scholars over a period of nearly four decades is whether the use of the bomb was necessary to achieve victory in the war in the Pacific on terms satisfactory to the United States . "
Supporters of the bombings generally assert that they caused the Japanese surrender , preventing casualties on both sides during Operation Downfall . One figure of speech , " One hundred million [ subjects of the Japanese Empire ] will die for the Emperor and Nation " , served as a unifying slogan , although that phrase was intended as a figure of speech along the lines of the " ten thousand years " phrase . In Truman 's 1955 Memoirs , " he states that the atomic bomb probably saved half a million U.S. lives — anticipated casualties in an Allied invasion of Japan planned for November . Stimson subsequently talked of saving one million U.S. casualties , and Churchill of saving one million American and half that number of British lives . " Scholars have pointed out various alternatives that could have ended the war without an invasion , but these alternatives could have resulted in the deaths of many more Japanese . Supporters also point to an order given by the Japanese War Ministry on August 1 , 1944 , ordering the execution of Allied prisoners of war when the POW camp was in the combat zone .
Those who oppose the bombings cite a number of reasons for their view , among them : a belief that atomic bombing is fundamentally immoral , that the bombings counted as war crimes , that they were militarily unnecessary , that they constituted state terrorism , and that they involved racism against and the dehumanization of the Japanese people . Another popular view among critics of the bombings , originating with Gar Alperovitz in 1965 and becoming the default position in Japanese school history textbooks , is the idea of atomic diplomacy : that the United States used nuclear weapons in order to intimidate the Soviet Union in the early stages of the Cold War . The bombings were part of an already fierce conventional bombing campaign . This , together with the sea blockade and the collapse of Germany ( with its implications regarding redeployment ) , could also have led to a Japanese surrender . At the time the United States dropped its atomic bomb on Nagasaki on August 9 , 1945 , the Soviet Union launched a surprise attack with 1 @.@ 6 million troops against the Kwantung Army in Manchuria . " The Soviet entry into the war " , argued Japanese historian Tsuyoshi Hasegawa , " played a much greater role than the atomic bombs in inducing Japan to surrender because it dashed any hope that Japan could terminate the war through Moscow 's mediation " .
= = = Archives = = =
" Order from General Thomas Handy to General Carl Spaatz authorizing the dropping of the first atomic bomb " . Wikisource . 2015 .
" Documents on the Decision to Drop the Atomic Bomb " . Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum . Retrieved January 3 , 2012 .
" The Effects of the Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki " . U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey . Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum . 1946 . Retrieved January 3 , 2012 .
" President Truman Defends Use of Atomic Bomb , 1945 : Original Letters " . Shapell Manuscript Foundation . Retrieved February 8 , 2014 .
" Scientific Data of the Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Disaster " . Atomic Bomb Disease Institute , Nagasaki University . Retrieved January 3 , 2012 .
" Correspondence Regarding Decision to Drop the Bomb " . Nuclear Age Peace Foundation . Retrieved January 3 , 2012 .
" Tale of Two Cities : The Story of Hiroshima and Nagasaki " . National Science Digital Library . Retrieved January 3 , 2012 .
" The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki " . Atomic Archive . 1946 . Retrieved January 3 , 2012 .
" The Atomic Bomb and the End of World War II " ( PDF ) . National Security Archive . Retrieved January 3 , 2012 .
" Nagasaki Archive " . Google Earth mapping of Nagasaki bombing archives . Retrieved January 3 , 2012 .
" Hiroshima Archive " . Google Earth mapping of Hiroshima bombing archives . Retrieved January 3 , 2012 .
" Annotated bibliography for atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki " . Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues . Retrieved January 3 , 2012 .
The short film Children of Hiroshima ( Reel 1 of 2 ) ( 1952 ) is available for free download at the Internet Archive
The short film Children of Hiroshima ( Reel 2 of 2 ) ( 1952 ) is available for free download at the Internet Archive
" Photo gallery of aftermath pictures " . Time @-@ Life . Retrieved February 8 , 2014 .
Video footage of the bombing of Nagasaki ( silent ) on YouTube
The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima & Nagasaki public domain audiobook at LibriVox
= = = Commemoration = = =
An Unrecognized Loss – Message From Hiroshima ( film )
Hiroshima National Peace Memorial Hall For The Atomic Bomb Victims
Nagasaki National Peace Memorial Hall For The Atomic Bomb Victims
Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum
Hiroshima and Nagasaki : A Look Back at the US Atomic Bombing 64 Years Later – video by Democracy Now !
Hiroshima & Nagasaki Remembered 2005 website commemorating 60th anniversary
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= Hurricane Charlie ( 1951 ) =
Hurricane Charlie was the deadliest tropical cyclone of the 1951 Atlantic hurricane season . The third named storm , second hurricane , and second major hurricane of the season , it developed from a tropical wave east of the Lesser Antilles . It moved briskly west @-@ northwest , passing between the islands of Dominica and Guadeloupe . It strengthened to a hurricane in the eastern Caribbean Sea , and it struck Jamaica with winds near Category 3 intensity . It strengthened to a peak intensity of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) prior to landfall on Quintana Roo , Yucatán Peninsula . It weakened over land , and it re @-@ strengthened over the Gulf of Mexico before it made a final landfall near Tampico .
In its path , Charlie caused more than 250 deaths . The hurricane produced Jamaica 's deadliest natural disaster of the 20th century , causing more than 152 deaths and $ 50 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in damages . The hurricane was described as Tampico 's worst tropical cyclone since 1936 , and it caused more than 100 fatalities in the surrounding areas . Many bodies were not recovered after flooding . The hurricane produced peak gusts of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) at the airport , and its strongest sustained winds were unmeasured in mainland Mexico , suggesting that it may have been a Category 4 hurricane at landfall .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 12 , a tropical wave organized to a tropical depression about 930 miles ( 1 @,@ 495 km ) east @-@ southeast of the island of Barbados . Operationally , the system was not detected until August 14 , and it was believed to have been an area of low pressure when it moved through the eastern Caribbean . It moved to the west @-@ northwest , and it slowly organized to a minimal tropical storm on August 14 . Although Hurricane hunters reported winds of hurricane force in squalls , the system was discounted as an easterly wave . On August 15 , Tropical Storm Charlie quickly intensified , attaining maximum sustained winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) after passing through the Lesser Antilles . The small center of circulation passed between Dominica and Guadeloupe in the early morning hours .
On August 16 , the hurricane moved steadily west @-@ northwest 140 miles ( 225 km ) south @-@ southwest of San Juan , Puerto Rico . Hurricane Charlie continued to strengthen , and it reached Category 2 status on August 17 as it moved quickly westward across the Caribbean Sea . The cyclone intensified as it made landfall south of Kingston , Jamaica with 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) sustained winds . The city reported peak winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) as the center passed 8 miles ( 10 km ) to the southwest , so Charlie may have been a Category 3 hurricane in Jamaica . On August 18 , the hurricane left the island as a Category 1 hurricane , and it quickly re @-@ intensified over water . It passed south of the Cayman Islands with 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) sustained winds . Grand Cayman reported gusts of 92 mph ( 150 km / h ) . Later , it attained major hurricane status on August 19 . The hurricane peaked at 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) just before hitting near Cozumel during the night , and it weakened as it crossed the Yucatán Peninsula on August 20 .
Upon reaching the Gulf of Mexico , Charlie had weakened to a 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) hurricane . On August 21 , it remained a Category 2 hurricane while crossing the Gulf of Mexico until 18 hours before landfall . On August 22 , Charlie rapidly intensified , and it strengthened to a second peak of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) off the mainland Mexican coast . Later , Charlie made landfall near Tampico with 125 mph ( 200 km / h ) sustained winds . The strongest winds were believed to have been north of the eye , and were unrecorded . The storm quickly weakened over land , and it dissipated on August 23 in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas .
= = Preparations = =
On August 15 , the Weather Bureau office in San Juan issued hurricane warnings for the eastern Caribbean from Martinique to Antigua , while storm warnings were released for the rest of the Leeward Islands . Later , hurricane warnings were also issued for the northern Leeward Islands , and northeast storm warnings were released for Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands . In advance of the hurricane , flights ' scheduled departures for the Barbados region were delayed . On August 17 , the Weather Bureau noted that the hurricane would affect Jamaica , though it was not expected to strengthen significantly ; the agency also reported that the probabilities were equal for the cyclone to pass north or south of the island . Later , the cyclone was forecast to pass " over or just south " of the island ; Jamaica was urged to prepare for the cyclone , and the hurricane was expected to strengthen as the forward motion decreased . On August 20 , the cyclone was expected to affect the northern Yucatán Peninsula between Mérida and Campeche , and " extreme caution " was advised for the area .
The hurricane was also expected to re @-@ strengthen prior to its second landfall in Mexico , though the Weather Bureau also noted that there was a chance for the storm to affect Texas . Although the possibility never materialized , the agency expected rain bands and rough seas to affect southern Texas , and small watercraft were urged to remain in ports until the hurricane moved inland . On August 21 , the cyclone was expected to move ashore between Nautla and Tuxpan , though it eventually made landfall further north near Tampico . Local officials expressed concerns about residents in huts and other vulnerable structures . In the Harlingen Valley region of southern Texas , precautionary measures were taken and Red Cross divisions organized a meeting at the local city hall . City departments and facilities were ready for disposal if the cyclone moved closer to the area . The cyclone 's rains were also expected to impact unpicked cotton plants in the region . In advance of the storm , a Coast Guard plane dropped messages from the air to several vessels , advising them to seek shelter . In Tampico , oil industries erected barriers to protect fields , and authorities planned to evacuate residents from the surrounding low @-@ lying areas . Thousands of residents stayed in refugee centers on elevated ground .
= = Impact = =
The cyclone was compact when it moved through the Lesser Antilles , and the strongest winds on land in the eastern Caribbean islands did not exceed 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . In Jamaica , the hurricane produced heavy rainfall , peaking at 17 inches ( 430 mm ) in Kingston , which caused numerous landslides across eastern sections of the island . Peak gusts were estimated near 125 mph ( 200 km / h ) across the island . A hangar and installations were destroyed at Palisadoes Airport , and the facility received " extensive damage . " Consequently , " At Memphis , Tenn , Chicago & Southern Airline headquarters here reported that its north and southbound Constellation flights were unable to land at Kingston , bypassing the airport there on flights between Chicago and Caracas . " Several ships were sunk or overturned during the storm . Communications and power services were disrupted , suspending information from the island 's interior . The hurricane also cut communications from the island to radio stations in the United States . 70 – 80 percent of the island 's banana crops were destroyed , in addition to 30 percent of other crops . 70 convicted felons also escaped from a jail when winds blew down walls . Flooding was expected in the island 's mountainous interior because of heavy precipitation . Heavy rains caused rock slides , damaging roads , railroads , and other sources of tourism . In Kingston , electricity was initially restored to essential services , including " hospitals , refrigerating plants , pumping stations and newspaper plants . " Charlie caused around $ 50 million ( 1951 USD , $ 380 million 2005 USD ) in crop and property damage , 152 deaths , injured 2 @,@ 000 , and left 25 @,@ 000 homeless .
On the Yucatán Peninsula , Charlie destroyed up to 70 % of the crops , though no loss of life was reported in the area . Unofficially , one person was reportedly killed on the peninsula . Mérida reported winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . The winds toppled several thatched homes on Cozumel . A wind gust of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) was measured at the airport near Tampico , though peak gusts in the city did not exceed 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) . The storm was reported to be the worst in Tampico since 1936 . The winds uprooted trees and destroyed telephone poles , and damages to corn crops were believed to exceed $ 500 @,@ 000 . At least 300 residences were " damaged or destroyed . " Outside the city , Charlie 's heavy rain led to bursting dams and flooded rivers , where upward of 100 people died . In the city , four people died , and property losses were estimated near $ 1 @,@ 160 @,@ 000 .
The hurricane 's outer fringes produced swells along the Texas coast , and swimmers were advised to be cautious because of hazardous conditions . The area was also experiencing rough swells and strong winds from an unrelated weather system , which produced peak gusts of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . The conditions snarled marine operations in the area , and three fishermen were missing during the squall . On August 23 , Brownsville experienced gusts of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) when the hurricane struck the coast further south .
= = Aftermath = =
In the wake of this storm , Jamaica formed a new governmental entity known as the Hurricane Housing Organization . In 1956 , this organization merged with the Central Housing Authority to become the Department of Housing .
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= Me Haces Falta =
" Me Haces Falta " ( English : I Need You ) is a song recorded by American singer Jennifer Lopez for her fifth studio album , Como Ama una Mujer ( 2007 ) . It was written and produced by Marc Anthony and Estéfano . The song was released on March 23 , 2007 by Epic Records as the second and final single from the album . " Me Haces Falta " is a latin pop song about self @-@ loathing . Its instrumentation consists of drums , cello , bass and guitar .
Music critics were complimentary to the song 's lyrics and to Lopez 's vocals , but dismissed its production . An accompanying music video for the song was directed by Sanji . The video portrays Lopez as an undercover FBI agent who surrenders her lover to the police and has regrets afterwards . " Me Haces Falta " was included in the set list of Lopez 's co @-@ headling tour with Anthony in 2007 .
= = Background = =
Plans for Lopez to release a Spanish language album materialized in 2004 , when Lopez 's then @-@ husband Marc Anthony was finishing up production of his ninth studio album Amar Sin Mentiras ( 2004 ) with Estéfano and Julio Reyes . Lopez went into the recording studio with them to record a song entitled " Escapémonos " , as a duet with Anthony . She enjoyed working on the song so much that she decided to record a full @-@ length Spanish album ; something she had wanted to do for years . Prior to breaking out into the music scene in May 1999 with her single " If You Had My Love " , Lopez always pictured her music career to be in Spanish . According to Lopez : " My life took a different turn , which was great for me . But my heart was always kind of on the Spanish side . " Before recording began for her first Spanish album , Lopez recorded and released her fourth English studio album Rebirth ( 2005 ) .
In early 2006 it was announced that Lopez would release her first Spanish album and her fifth studio album Como Ama una Mujer later that year . The album was produced by Anthony , Estéfano and Reyes over a span of three years . According to Estéfano , Como Ama una Mujer will " prove critics wrong " from its " big songs that require a voice " ; referring to the critics about Lopez having a " limited " vocal tone . The album was released on March 27 , 2007 in the United States , preceding the release of its lead single " Qué Hiciste " in January . Como Ama una Mujer received mixed reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 45 , based on 7 reviews , which indicates " mixed or average reviews " . " Me Haces Falta " was announced to be the album 's second single and was released digitally in select countries on March 23 , 2007 , such as Austria , Canada and Italy . It was then serviced to radio on the week of June 29 , 2007 . The song was later included as a B @-@ side to " Do It Well " , the lead single from Lopez 's sixth studio album Brave ( 2007 ) , in September 2007 .
= = Music and lyrics = =
" Me Haces Falta " is a latin pop ballad , with a length of three minutes and thirty @-@ seven seconds ( 3 : 37 ) . Its instrumentation consists of drums , cello , bass and guitar . Estéfano wrote the lyrics to " Me Haces Falta " , while Anthony composed its music . Both co @-@ produced the song together , while Julio Reyes provided the arrangement . Bruce Swedien and Peter Wade recorded Lopez 's vocals for the song at Midnight Blue Studios in Miami , Florida , while its mixing was done by Reyes and Swedien .
According to Lopez , the song is about missing someone terribly ; " someone who is missing someone so much and has done something so wrong to the person that they know they can 't fix it . So they just hate themselves right in that moment , they can 't stand [ it ] , they regret everything that they did and they wish they could change things . " James Reed of The Boston Globe noted the chorus of " Me Haces Falta " to be self @-@ loathing , with the lines : " Tú me haces falta / Sí , me arrepiento / Me odio / Estoy desesperada " ( English : " I miss you / Yes , I repent / I hate myself / I 'm desperate " ) . Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly praised the song 's lyrics , but dismissed the song 's production , stating that it does not live up the song 's " florid , romance @-@ novel lyrics " .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Me Haces Falta " was shot over a period of two days in Los Angeles , California by Sanji with the production company Reactor Films . During an interview with MTV News , Lopez described the video by saying : " Basically they are getting to know each other and kind of falling for each other , and in this video , it 's not a good thing , as you 'll see how it ends up . " The music video was made available for purchase on the iTunes Store on July 17 , 2007 .
The clip opens with Lopez and her love interest conversing on the side walk in front of a shop window . These scenes are intercut with that of suspicious men in a van , observing Lopez and her lover . Later , Lopez and her lover split and she starts singing as she walks down the street . She goes inside a boutique and enters through at a secret door . As she enters , she takes off a wig and changes her clothing . She enters in a room where there are pictures of her lover scattered across a table . These scenes are intercut with scenes of Lopez and her lover laying in a grass . As the video progresses , Lopez is seen sad , accompanied with her love interest and his friend in an apartment ; they are observing from a window with binoculars . It is revealed that the men from the beginning of the video are FBI officers and they are entering the building abruptly . They break into Lopez and her lover 's apartment and arrest him . In the end , it is revealed that Lopez is an undercover FBI agent who surrenders her boyfriend .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Como Ama una Mujer .
Technical
" Me Haces Falta " was recorded at Midnight Blue Studios in Miami , Florida .
Personnel
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= Tropical Storm Chris ( 1982 ) =
Tropical Storm Chris caused minor flooding along the Gulf Coast of the United States in September 1982 . The fifth tropical cyclone and third named storm of the 1982 Atlantic hurricane season , Chris developed from a surface low @-@ pressure area in the northern Gulf of Mexico on September 9 . Although initially displaying subtropical characteristics , the low pressure area gradually acquired tropical characteristics , and was reclassified as Tropical Depression Four within 24 hours of development . The depression then began to intensify and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Chris on September 10 . Thereafter , the storm turned north @-@ northeastward and strengthened further . On September 11 , Chris peaked as a 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) tropical storm . Later that day , it made landfall near Sabine Pass , Port Arthur , Texas . By September 13 , Chris dissipated over Arkansas .
When Chris moved ashore , it caused high waves and tides along the shores of the Gulf of Mexico . Though the storm made landfall in Texas , minimal impact was recorded in that state , though a restaurant suffered significant damage . Much of the impact occurred to the east , in Louisiana . Rainfall was relatively light in that state , though a few isolated areas experienced precipitation amounts higher than 15 inches ( 380 mm ) . The storm caused steady rainfall in parts of the Midwestern United States . Outside of Louisiana , there were rainfall totals higher than 10 inches ( 250 mm ) in western Tennessee and slightly less as the storm progressed northward . Due to minor flooding , damage in Louisiana was around $ 1 million ( 1982 USD ) . Elsewhere , impact was limited to mostly light to moderate rainfall , though local flooding was reported in Tennessee and Kentucky . Overall , Chris caused $ 2 million ( 1982 USD ) in damage and no fatalities .
= = Meteorological history = =
An upper @-@ low pressure system formed in the Gulf of Mexico on September 6 , with the circulation heading westward . Initially , minimal development occurred , though by September 8 , the system became a surface low . It is estimated that the surface low became a subtropical depression by 0000 UTC on the following day . Over the next 24 hours , the low began acquiring tropical characteristics , mainly from developing deep convection on its north and east sides . By early on September 10 , observations from oil rigs , radars , and Air Force reconnaissance flights indicated that the subtropical system had transitioned into Tropical Depression Four . However , the National Hurricane Center did not operationally issue advisories until 1900 UTC on September 10 , at which time Chris was already a tropical storm .
In post @-@ season analysis , it was indicated that Tropical Depression Five strengthened into Tropical Storm Chris at 1200 UTC on September 10 . Due to a large low pressure trough over the Southwestern United States , Chris immediately curved northward . Later that day , the National Hurricane Center noted that " even though conditions do not favor rapid strengthening ... winds could approach hurricane force before the center moves inland Saturday " . As it approached closer to the Gulf Coast of the United States , Chris curved slightly east of north . Shortly before 1200 UTC Chris made landfall near Sabine Pass , Port Arthur , Texas with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . At 1200 UTC on September 11 , Chris attained its peak intensity with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 994 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) . Chris weakened quickly , and was downgraded to a tropical depression by early on September 12 while centered over west @-@ central Louisiana . The storm deteriorated further , and dissipated in Arkansas at 0000 UTC on September 13 . The remnants were last noted over the Midwestern United States .
= = Preparations = =
As Chris approached the Gulf Coast , at least 6 @,@ 500 people were evacuated from the Louisiana coast . Offshore evacuations were also completed , with many oil rig workers were taken off of rigs in the Gulf of Mexico .
Along with the evacuations , multiple watches and warnings were issued in accordance with Tropical Storm Chris . The first was on September 9 , when a gale warning was released for the Louisiana area east of Port Arthur , Texas . Fifteen hours afterwords , a gale warning was released for Port Arthur to Port O 'Connor , Texas . The next day , the gale warnings in Texas were extended as far south as Brownsville . A hurricane watch was released at 2200 UTC on September 10 for Morgan City , Louisiana to Port O 'Connor , Texas . All watches and warnings were discontinued by 2200 UTC on September 11 , which was about 10 hours after Chris made landfall .
= = Impact = =
At an offshore oil rig , a wind gust up to 81 mph ( 130 km / h ) was reported . In addition , several boats in the Gulf of Mexico sustained heavy damage . About 9 miles ( 14 km ) southeast of Sabine Pass , a 65 feet ( 20 m ) utility boat sunk . Minimal rainfall was reported in Texas , reaching about 1 inch ( 25 mm ) . Winds were light , remaining below tropical storm force in eastern Texas . However , a restaurant on Pleasure Island suffered an estimated $ 200 @,@ 000 in damage ( 1982 USD ) . In addition , minimal damage occurred at Sea Rim State Park , totaling to only $ 1 @,@ 000 ( 1982 USD ) . In the Port Arthur area , numerous power outages were reported . Flooded roads and power outages were reported in Beaumont , though damage was not significant in that city .
Along the southwestern coast of Louisiana , tides between 4 and 7 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 and 2 @.@ 1 m ) were reported . On land , Chris produced tropical storm force winds in a few areas and light to moderate rainfall . Throughout the state , precipitation was generally between 5 and 10 inches ( 130 and 250 mm ) , though peaking at more than 16 inches ( 410 mm ) in Delhi . Elsewhere in Louisiana , about 5 inches ( 130 mm ) of rainfall was reported in Lake Charles . Street flooding in Lake Charles was severe , though only a few houses suffered flood damage . To the south of Lake Charles , minor damage was reported in Cameron Parish , totaling to about $ 500 @,@ 000 ( 1982 USD ) . However , due to high tides , damage along the coastal areas of that parish was considerable . A Cameron Parish official noted " There 's power out all over the place , and we understand there was quite a bit of damage at Holly Beach " . In Evangeline Parish , an F2 tornado on the Fujita Scale destroyed four buildings and damaged seven other structures . In northeastern Louisiana , wind damage was " spotty " and limited to downed trees and powerlines . As a result of heavy rainfall in that portion of the state , low @-@ lying areas flooded , and bayous overflowed . A tornado , rated at F3 , destroyed eleven houses and one church in Clayton . In addition , the tornado knocked down trees and powerlines in the area . Overall , damage in Louisiana was near $ 1 million ( 1982 USD ) .
Throughout Louisiana and Mississippi , a combined total of nine tornadoes were reported . One of the tornadoes in Mississippi damaged several homes and businesses in Cleveland , and at least four injuries were reported . Another tornado spawned in a rural area overturned a mobile home in Eden . Two other twisters in the state caused minimal damage . In Mississippi , rains peaked at about 10 inches ( 250 mm ) in the northwest section of the state . The rest of state reported widespread rains of 1 – 7 inches ( 25 – 178 mm ) . Rainfall in Alabama peaked at 3 inches ( 76 mm ) in some areas , and similar amounts were observed in Georgia . In Florida , rainfall peaked at 7 inches ( 180 mm ) in an extremely southern part of the Panhandle . Precipitation was also recorded in Lake Okeechobee , with 1 inch ( 25 mm ) reported there . The northeastern section of the state reported 5 inches ( 130 mm ) of rain . No rain was reported in the Florida Keys .
In Arkansas , only 1 inch ( 25 mm ) of rain was reported , which were in several portions of the state . Missouri reported a peak of 5 inches ( 130 mm ) of precipitation , in the southeastern portion of the state . Other rains in the state include 1 – 3 inches ( 25 – 76 mm ) , which was widespread . Illinois reported mainly 1 inch ( 25 mm ) of precipitation , with one area of 3 inches ( 76 mm ) , all in the southern half of the state . Very little rain was reported in Indiana , with only 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) on the southern border of the state . In Tennessee and Kentucky , rains of 10 – 16 inches ( 250 – 410 mm ) were reported with locally heavy flooding . The western portions of Tennessee reported flood waters at least waist high in some city streets . In addition , schools in Milan were closed , while portions of U.S. Routes 70 and 79 were submerged into water . A few businesses in the city of Huntington suffered flood damage . Others rains include 1 inch ( 25 mm ) in the Carolinas , New York , Michigan , Virginia and Ohio . Overall , damage from Tropical Storm Chris was slightly less than $ 2 million ( 1982 USD ) , and no fatalities were reported .
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= Roy Paul =
Roy Paul ( 18 April 1920 – 21 May 2002 ) was a Welsh footballer who played as a half @-@ back for Swansea Town and Manchester City . He also represented the Welsh national team over 30 times and is regarded as one of Wales ' best ever players .
Brought up in the Rhondda Valley , Paul became a miner after leaving school , but an offer of a professional contract from Swansea gave him the opportunity to leave the colliery . His football career was then disrupted by Second World War , during which he was a physical training instructor . After the war , Paul made his League debut , and spent four years playing first team football for Swansea , winning the Third Division South championship in 1948 – 49 . Transfer listed after an abortive move to Colombian club Millonarios , Paul joined Manchester City for £ 19 @,@ 500 in June 1950 .
At Manchester City Paul spent seven years as captain , leading the club to successive FA Cup finals in 1955 and 1956 , losing the first and winning the second . In 1957 he became player @-@ manager of Worcester City , and subsequently wound down his career in his native South Wales , becoming a lorry driver . He died in 2002 aged 82 .
= = Early career = =
Paul was born on 18 April 1920 in Ton Pentre , Glamorgan , in the valleys of South Wales , and was one of 12 children . He attended Bronllwyn School in Gelli . Paul left school at 15 , and like many boys from the Rhondda Valley he became a miner . While playing football for Ton Boys Club he was spotted by Swansea Town , for whom he signed first as an amateur , and then a month later as a professional . The Swansea captain was Bill Imrie , a former Scotland international . Paul named Imrie as a strong influence in his early career , particularly for instructing him in the fundamentals of good wing @-@ half play . Paul played for Swansea 's junior sides , but just as he was approaching the fringes of the first team , the league was suspended due to the outbreak of the Second World War .
At the start of the war Paul returned to the mines . He continued to represent Swansea in wartime leagues , and played for the senior team for the first time in 1939 . Paul struggled to readapt to mining life , and volunteered for the Marines in 1940 . He served as a sergeant physical training instructor , primarily in Devon , though he also spent part of the war in India . When in Devon he played football as a guest for Exeter City , and when in Wales he played wartime football for Swansea . Once the war was over Paul finally made his League debut for Swansea , having lost six years of his career to the war .
The Swansea coach in the immediate post @-@ war period was Frank Barson , a notoriously aggressive character who was known as " the centre @-@ forward 's graveyard " in his playing days . Barson instructed Paul in the art of tackling during lengthy practise sessions , and made him aware of the tricks that a wily opponent could use to gain the upper hand in a physical battle . Paul went on to make 159 league appearances for Swansea in a four @-@ year period , winning the Third Division South championship in 1948 – 49 . An impressive appearance against top @-@ flight club Arsenal in a 1950 FA Cup match resulted in the Londoners making an offer for the player , but Swansea turned it down .
Later that year , Paul received an offer of a trial with Colombian club Millonarios . Colombian clubs , who were not required to pay transfer fees as their governing body was not affiliated with FIFA , made similar offers to several British players . Paul was one of seven to make the trip to South America . Millonarios offered him a £ 3 @,@ 000 signing on fee and £ 150 per month , far in excess of the £ 12 per week maximum wage in British football . Once in Colombia , Paul found himself unimpressed by the conditions . He remarked in his autobiography that seeing football pitches surrounded by barbed wire put him in mind of " a concentration camp , or maybe the monkey @-@ house in the zoo " . Paul stayed in Bogota for only ten days , without playing a single match . Swansea were angered by Paul 's trip , and transfer @-@ listed him upon his return . As a result , he transferred to Manchester City for £ 19 @,@ 500 , a British record for a half @-@ back . Ken Barnes joined the club on the same day . The two became close friends ; Paul was best man at Barnes ' wedding .
= = Manchester City = =
Paul joined a Manchester City side which had just been relegated to the Second Division , and were thus playing at the same level as Swansea . Paul made his debut for the club on the opening day of the 1950 – 51 season , a 4 – 2 victory against a Preston North End side featuring Tom Finney . Manchester City went ten matches unbeaten at the start of the season , until a 4 – 3 defeat at Doncaster Rovers , where City blew a 3 – 0 half @-@ time lead . Paul played in all but one match that season , becoming club captain and helping his club win promotion , as runners @-@ up behind champions Preston . Writer HD Davies , under his pen name Old International , attributed much of City 's cohesive play over the season to the addition of Paul to the side .
Promotion meant Paul was playing club football at the highest level for the first time . For the next three seasons , his club languished in the lower reaches of the league table . During one spell of particularly poor form in 1953 , newspapers wrote of a feud between Paul and his team @-@ mate Ivor Broadis . Paul was critical of Broadis , a talented inside @-@ forward , but one who in Paul 's view did not exert sufficient effort when defending . In the 1954 – 55 pre @-@ season a new tactic was introduced which would change the direction of the club . Inspired by the Hungary team which had beaten England 6 – 3 the previous year , the club 's reserves had used a tactical system in which Johnny Williamson was used as a deep @-@ lying centre @-@ forward , resulting in a lengthy unbeaten run . Manchester City manager Les McDowall decided to try the system at first team level , using Don Revie in the centre @-@ forward role . Henceforth the system became known as The Revie Plan . The opening match of the season resulted in a 5 – 0 defeat at the hands of Preston North End . The following match the system was tweaked with Ken Barnes picked in place of John McTavish . City beat Sheffield United 5 – 2 , and the system was retained for the remainder of the season . Paul 's tactical role was relatively unchanged compared to that of some of his team @-@ mates , but as captain he was responsible for retaining the cohesion of his players . The Manchester Guardian regarded Paul to be well suited to the system , calling it " a strategy which shows off to perfection the strength and maturity of Paul among his younger defenders " .
Using the new system , results improved . In September 1954 City beat Arsenal to go top of the league , though not without personal cost for Paul , as an elbow from Arsenal 's Tommy Lawton resulted in the loss of four teeth . City could not sustain their title challenge , finishing seventh , but Paul 's team enjoyed a successful run in the FA Cup , reaching the final , where they faced Newcastle United . An early goal by Jackie Milburn and an unfortunate injury to Jimmy Meadows on 18 minutes left City playing with 10 men and gave them an uphill task . Paul took the responsibility of changing tactics : " Like certain generals I believe that in dire emergency it is often better to attack . I clapped my hands and yelled " Let 's show these Geordies the stuff that 's taken us to Wembley " " . The performance in the remainder of the first half was improved , resulting in an equalising goal by Bobby Johnstone , but in the second half Newcastle scored twice to win 3 – 1 . Publicly , Paul vowed to take his team to Wembley again , but privately he blamed himself for the defeat , questioning whether he had failed as captain .
The following season the club surpassed the achievements of the previous season , finishing fourth in the league and again reaching the FA Cup final , this time facing Birmingham City . Conscious that early nerves had affected his team in 1955 , in the dressing room he focussed on instilling each member of his team with confidence . This time it was Manchester City who scored an early goal , and with City leading in the second half Paul told his men to keep the ball in play as much as possible in order to tire out the Birmingham players . Then German goalkeeper Bert Trautmann badly hurt his neck in a collision with Peter Murphy . Paul instructed Roy Little to take Trautmann 's place , but Trautmann insisted that he would keep playing . Then Manchester City held on for the victory , and Paul collected the trophy from Queen Elizabeth II . X @-@ rays later revealed that Trautmann had played on with a broken neck . Paul took the match ball from the final as a souvenir , and gave it to his son .
After the cup win Paul played one more season for Manchester City . In the summer of 1957 he was offered a new contract , but instead retired from the professional game aged 37 , citing loss of pace due to age as the deciding factor . His final appearance for the club came on 22 April 1957 against Everton . In total he made 293 appearances for Manchester City , scoring 9 goals .
Upon finishing his professional career , Paul returned to the Rhondda Valley , and settled in Gelli . He continued to play at semi @-@ professional level , joining Worcester City , who paid him £ 20 a week and loaned him a car . Paul made 124 appearances for Worcester between 1957 and 1960 , including a three @-@ month spell as player @-@ manager . In 1959 he was part of the Worcester side which knocked Liverpool out of the FA Cup . He then moved to Brecon Corinthians , and later Garw Athletic , where he ended his career . After the end of his football career , he became a lorry driver . He died in May 2002 aged 82 , following a long illness with Alzheimer 's disease , leaving a wife , Beryl , and two children , Robert and Christine . He is buried in Treorchy Cemetery .
= = International career = =
Paul gained 33 caps for Wales . He did not gain any under @-@ age caps , as in his era Wales did not field an under @-@ 23 team . He received his first cap in October 1948 , in a 3 – 1 defeat against Scotland . His only international goal came in a 5 – 1 win against Belgium in November 1949 . In October 1955 Paul was part of the Wales team that beat England 2 – 1 , the first Welsh victory against England in 18 years . Six months later Wales faced Ireland in their final match of that season 's British Home Championship . Wales were leading 1 – 0 when a handball by Danny Blanchflower gave Wales a penalty . Paul took the kick , but it was saved by Norman Uprichard . Paul 's failure cost Wales victory , as Jimmy Jones equalised in the second half and the match finished 1 – 1 . A draw in the remaining fixture between Scotland and England meant that the miss also denied Wales victory in the tournament . Instead , for the first and only time there was a four @-@ way tie . Paul did not play for Wales again .
= = Playing style = =
Roy Paul played as a half @-@ back , with the exact position varying during his career . At Swansea he was primarily used as a right @-@ half , but when he joined Manchester City manager Les McDowall switched him to the left , a position which Paul preferred despite being right @-@ footed . Internationally , he represented Wales in all three half @-@ back positions over the course of his career .
Paul had a reputation as a physically tough player and inspirational captain . Team @-@ mate Ken Barnes described him as a player who was " more about power than guile " , and called him a " born leader " who was " brilliant in the air " . Paul 's approach to captaincy was to ensure that every player gave as much effort as possible , mixing the respect of his colleagues with the occasional attempt to frighten them into action ; in the tunnel prior to the 1956 FA Cup Final his last action before leading out his team was to hold up his fist and shout " If we don 't fucking win , you 'll get some of this " .
At Manchester City he was occasional penalty taker , but his success rate was not high and he was relieved when Don Revie joined the club and took the responsibility for penalties , commenting that " the only reason I took them was because no @-@ one else fancied it " .
= = Honours = =
Manchester City F.C.
FA Cup : 1956
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= Tropical Storm Zelda ( 1991 ) =
Severe Tropical Storm Zelda was the last storm of the 1991 Pacific typhoon season . A disturbance formed near the International Date Line , and strengthened into a tropical depression on November 27 . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) reported that the depression had reached tropical storm intensity , thus naming it Zelda . The storm quickly strengthened into a Category 1 typhoon on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale near the Marshall Islands on November 29 . It reached peak of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) , with a barometric pressure of 975 mbar ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) . The tropical storm traveled northwestward , and later northeastward . Zelda soon weakened into a tropical storm , and then a tropical depression . The JTWC discontinued warnings on December 4 , while the Japanese Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) continued to track the storm until it crossed the International Date Line again on December 7 .
Zelda caused significant damage to the Marshall Islands . Operations at Kwajalein Missile Range were disrupted severely . About 60 percent of homes were destroyed in Ebeye , leaving 6 @,@ 000 people without residence . Nearly all crops on the islands were destroyed , and food and other supplies were contaminated by salt . No deaths or injuries were reported . Later in December , President George H. W. Bush declared the storm to be a major disaster , allowing the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) to assist . The Marshall Islands also requested funds from other countries .
= = Meteorological history = =
In late November , a circulation was generated near the International Date Line by westerly winds . It was included in the Significant Tropical Weather Advisory at 0600 UTC on November 25 . Vertical wind shear prevented strengthening at first , but the disturbance later continued to develop . A tropical cyclone formation alert soon followed from the JTWC . JMA started tracking the disturbance at 0600 UTC on November 27 , and JTWC issued their first warning 18 hours later on the depression , naming it 31W . The depression quickly intensified , and it became a tropical storm at 0000 UTC on November 28 for JTWC , with winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . Operationally , the storm was upgraded twenty @-@ four hours later , after Kwajalein received stronger winds than expected . JMA upgraded the storm at 0300 UTC on November 29 . The tropical storm received the name Zelda . JMA upgraded Zelda to a severe tropical storm eighteen hours later . Zelda rapidly intensified into a Category 1 typhoon on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale at 1200 UTC of November 29 , with winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , near the Marshall Islands . At that time , JMA kept it as a tropical storm with winds of 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) , with a pressure reading of 990 mbar ( 29 inHg ) .
JMA estimated Zelda has reached peak around 0600 UTC on November 30 at 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) , with a barometric pressure of 975 mbar ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) . Six hours later , JTWC reported the storm has reached the peak of 145 km / h ( 90 mph ) , west of Enewetak . Later , a trough created by Typhoon Yuri caused the subtropical ridge to weaken , allowing Zelda to move northward . By December 1 , the storm began to weaken and turned northeast . On December 2 , JMA reported the storm had weaken to 100 km / h ( 60 mph ) , and JTWC weakened it to 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) . The storm weakened below Category 1 typhoon strength on 1800 UTC of the same day , with winds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) . Upper @-@ level winds soon increased , and Zelda 's central convection became sheared . JMA downgraded Zelda to a tropical storm on December 3 , and to a tropical depression later that day . A few hours later , JTWC downgraded the storm to a tropical depression , as it turned slightly northwestward , something they did not expect . The circulation detached from the frontal cloud line , and JTWC issued the last warning of the year . The depression turned back northeastward , and JMA stopped tracking just past the International Date Line on December 7 .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
The storm affected Marshall Islands around November 28 , producing winds as high as 160 km / h ( 100 mph ) . The storm impacted islands of Kwajalein , Majuro , Lae , Wotho , and Eniwetok . Kwajalein Missile Range caught stronger winds than expected from the storm , and operations in the missile range were affected severely . Zelda also produced a pressure of 990 @.@ 1 hPa ( 29 @.@ 24 inHg ) , which was the lowest pressure ever recorded on Kwajalein . Later , In Ebeye , 60 percent of homes were destroyed , and 6 @,@ 000 people were left homeless . Food and water supplies were contaminated from salt in surge waves , and the water desalination plant became inoperable . Fresh water production records since 1989 were lost during the storm . The local hospital was still intact , but a few power lines were cut . There were no deaths or significant injuries . Other islands in the nation had their water contaminated by saltwater , and 95 percent of the crops were destroyed by the storm surge . Coral reefs were also damaged when the storm came nearby .
The U.S. Army engaged in cleanup and repairing in the country . On December 6 , the 834th Airlift Division sent six C @-@ 130s to Kwajalein with supplies . On the same day , President George H. W. Bush declared a major disaster , allowing federal funding to be sent to Arno , Aur , Kwajalein , Lae , Lib , Namu and Ujae islands . Despite already getting funding from the United States , Marshall Islands requested for aid via United Nations Disaster Relief Organization ( UNDRO ) on December 18 .
By March 26 , 1992 , about $ 98 @,@ 000 ( 1991 USD ) worth of relief goods were sent to the Marshall Islands , from UNDRO , United Nations Development Programme ( UNDP ) , and Australia . FEMA sent $ 1 @.@ 518 million ( 1991 USD ) to affected families .
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= Banksia menziesii =
Banksia menziesii , commonly known as firewood banksia , is a species of flowering plant in the genus Banksia . It is a gnarled tree up to 10 m ( 33 ft ) tall , or a lower spreading 1 – 3 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 9 @.@ 8 ft ) shrub in the more northern parts of its range . The serrated leaves are dull green with new growth a paler grey green . The prominent autumn and winter inflorescences are often two @-@ coloured red or pink and yellow , and their colour has given rise to more unusual common names such as port wine banksia and strawberry banksia . Yellow blooms are rarely seen .
First described by the botanist Robert Brown in the early 19th century , no separate varieties of Banksia menziesii are recognised . It is found in Western Australia , from the Perth ( 32 ° S ) region north to the Murchison River ( 27 ° S ) , and generally grows on sandy soils , in scrubland or low woodland . Banksia menziesii provides food for a wide array of invertebrate and vertebrate animals ; birds and in particular honeyeaters are prominent visitors . A relatively hardy plant , Banksia menziesii is commonly seen in gardens , nature strips and parks in Australian urban areas with Mediterranean climates , but its sensitivity to dieback from the soil @-@ borne water mould Phytophthora cinnamomi makes it short @-@ lived in places with humid summers , such as Sydney . Banksia menziesii is widely used in the cut flower industry both in Australia and overseas .
= = Description = =
Banksia menziesii grows either as a gnarled tree to 10 m ( 33 ft ) , or a lower spreading 1 – 3 metres ( 3 @.@ 3 – 9 @.@ 8 ft ) shrub , generally encountered at its northern limits in the vicinity of Eneabba @-@ Mount Adams ; thus , it declines steadily in size as the climate becomes warmer and dryer further north . In the shrub form , several stems arise from the woody base known as the lignotuber . The trunk is greyish , sometimes with shades of brown or pink , and the 2 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 – 1 @.@ 18 in ) thick rough bark breaks away easily . The new growth is covered in fine brownish hair , which wears away after two or three years , leaving smooth stems and leaves . Stems that will bear flower spikes the following year are generally thicker and longer . Oblong in shape and somewhat truncate at the tips , the leaves are grey @-@ green in colour , 8 – 25 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 – 9 @.@ 8 in ) long and up to 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) wide . The new leaves are paler and finely downy . The leaf margins are serrated with many small 1 – 2 mm long triangular teeth . The lower surface of the leaf has a midrib covered in fine pale brown hair .
Flowering occurs in autumn and winter , peaking from May to July . Overall the inflorescences , or flower spikes , take around eight months to development from the first microscopic changes in late spring . Ovoid to cylindrical in shape , the flower spikes can be up to 7 – 8 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) wide and 4 – 12 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) high . They are composed of numerous individual flowers ; one field study south of Perth recorded an average of 1043 per flower spike , while another on plants in cultivation in South Australia recorded an average of 720 . B. menziesii has more flower colour variants than any other Banksia species , with flower spikes occurring in a wide range of pinks , as well as chocolate , bronze , yellow and white , and greenish variants . They are particularly striking closeup but can look indistinct from a distance . They are most attractive in late bud , the styles contrasting well to the body of the inflorescence , the whole looking like a red- or pink @-@ and white vertical candy striped bloom . The inflorescences are generally a deeper red after colder weather and further into the winter . Anthocyanin pigments are responsible for the red and pink shades in the flowers .
Old flowers usually fall off the spikes quickly , with up to 25 large beaked follicles developing . A mottled dark brown and grey in colour , these can be prominent and quite attractively patterned when newly developed . Oval shaped , they are 2 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 – 1 @.@ 38 in ) long by 1 – 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 – 0 @.@ 59 in ) high and 1 – 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 – 0 @.@ 59 in ) wide . Overall , only a small fraction of flowers develop into follicles ; the proportion is as low as one in a thousand . The plant is dependent on fire to reproduce as the follicles only open after being burnt , each one producing one or two viable wedge @-@ shaped ( cuneate ) seeds , on either side of a woody separator . The colour and level of pigmentation in the seeds foreshadows the eventual colour of the inflorescences . Kevin Collins of the Banksia Farm recalled that for many years pale seeds were discarded by seed collectors who thought they were infertile . Later , he learnt that pale seeds yielded yellow @-@ coloured blooms , dark grey the usual red @-@ coloured , and black a distinctive bronze @-@ coloured bloom .
Seedlings have obovate cotyledons 1 – 1 @.@ 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 – 0 @.@ 55 in ) long by 1 – 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 – 0 @.@ 59 in ) wide , and the leaves that develop immediately afterward are crowded and very hairy . They have serrate margins . Evidence of thickening to form a future lignotuber , as well as minute buds , has been detected from the bases of seedlings at five months of age .
= = Taxonomy = =
The common name of firewood banksia was a result of its quick @-@ burning properties . Other names recorded include Menzies banksia , firewheel banksia , port wine banksia , flame banksia , and in the cut flower industry , strawberry banksia and raspberry frost banksia . The Beeloo Whadjuk Noongar people of the Perth region knew it as the Mungyt . Despite its variation across its range , George noted that B. menziesii was a clearly defined species , and no formal division into subspecies was warranted .
= = = History = = =
Specimens of B. menziesii were first collected by the botanist Charles Fraser during Captain ( later Admiral Sir ) James Stirling 's March 1827 exploration of the Swan River . The following year , Alexander Macleay sent some of Fraser 's specimens to Robert Brown . Brown formally published the species in his 1830 Supplementum Primum Prodromi Florae Novae Hollandiae , giving it the specific epithet in honor of Archibald Menzies , surgeon @-@ naturalist on the HMS Discovery under George Vancouver , who discovered King George Sound in 1791 . Thus the species ' full name is Banksia menziesii R.Br. Neither Brown nor Menzies ever saw the plant growing .
Under Brown 's taxonomic arrangement , B. menziesii was placed in subgenus Banksia verae , the " True Banksias " , because its inflorescence is a typical Banksia flower spike . Banksia verae was renamed Eubanksia by Stephan Endlicher in 1847 , and demoted to sectional rank by Carl Meissner in his 1856 classification . Meissner further divided Eubanksia into four series , with B. menziesii placed in series Salicinae . When George Bentham published his 1870 arrangement in Flora Australiensis , he discarded Meissner 's series , replacing them with four sections . B. menziesii was placed in Orthostylis , a somewhat heterogeneous section containing 18 species . This arrangement would stand for over a century .
In 1891 , German botanist Otto Kuntze challenged the generic name Banksia L.f. , on the grounds that the name Banksia had previously been published in 1775 as Banksia J.R.Forst & G.Forst , referring to the genus now known as Pimelea . Kuntze proposed Sirmuellera as an alternative , republishing B. menziesii as " Sirmuellera menziesii " . The challenge failed , Banksia L.f. was formally conserved , and Sirmuellera menziesii ( R.Br. ) Kuntze is now a nomenclatural synonym of B. menziesii .
= = = Current placement = = =
Alex George published a new taxonomic arrangement of Banksia in his classic 1981 monograph The genus Banksia L.f. ( Proteaceae ) . Endlicher 's Eubanksia became B. subg . Banksia , and was divided into three sections . B. menziesii was placed in B. sect . Banksia , and this was further divided into nine series , with B. menziesii placed in B. ser . Banksia . He thought its closest relatives to be Banksia speciosa and B. baxteri , and that it also formed a link with eastern species , particularly Banksia serrata . Since Brown 's original publication had treated all of Fraser 's specimens as syntypes for the species , George also chose a lectotype , selecting a tree that Fraser had received from Macleay in May 1828 .
In 1996 , Kevin Thiele and Pauline Ladiges published a new arrangement for the genus , after cladistic analyses yielded a cladogram significantly different from George 's arrangement . Thiele and Ladiges ' arrangement retained B. menziesii in series Banksia , placing it in B. subser . Cratistylis along with nine other species . This arrangement stood until 1999 , when George effectively reverted to his 1981 arrangement in his monograph for the Flora of Australia series .
Under George 's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia , B. menziesii 's taxonomic placement may be summarised as follows :
Genus Banksia
Subgenus Banksia
Section Banksia
Series Banksia
B. serrata
B. aemula
B. ornata
B. baxteri
B. speciosa
B. menziesii
B. candolleana
B. sceptrum
B. menziesii 's inflorescences resemble those of no other banksia ; its closest relatives were felt by George to be B. speciosa ( showy banksia ) and B. baxteri ( bird 's nest banksia ) , which differs from B. menziesii in having yellow flowers and leaves with deep triangular lobes . In 2002 , a molecular study by Austin Mast showed its closest relatives to be the members of the series Crocinae .
In 2005 , Mast , Eric Jones and Shawn Havery published the results of their cladistic analyses of DNA sequence data for Banksia . They inferred a phylogeny greatly different from the accepted taxonomic arrangement , including finding Banksia to be paraphyletic with respect to Dryandra . A new taxonomic arrangement was not published at the time , but early in 2007 Mast and Thiele initiated a rearrangement by transferring Dryandra to Banksia , and publishing B. subg . Spathulatae for the species having spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons ; in this way they also redefined the autonym B. subg . Banksia . They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete . In the meantime , if Mast and Thiele 's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement , then B. menziesii is placed in B. subg . Banksia .
As B. menziesii is not similar to any other Banksia , hybrids are unlikely to occur . The only reported hybrid is a sterile hybrid with B. hookeriana ( Hooker 's Banksia ) , found north of Badgingarra by Greg Keighery . Manual cross @-@ fertilisation with B. attenuata has resulted in germination , indicating that these two species are genetically compatible , but natural hybrids are extremely unlikely because the two species flower at different times .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Banksia menziesii grows primarily in deep sandy soils of the Swan Coastal Plain and Geraldton Sandplains , extending from Waroona in the south to Kalbarri in the north . However , It is uncommon south of Mandurah . It is generally limited to the east by the heavy soils of the Darling Scarp , but does grow on isolated patches of sand in the Jarrah Forest and Avon Wheatbelt regions , such as occur near Beverley , Toodyay and Wongan Hills . The easternmost known occurrence is a specimen collected by Roger Hnatiuk in 1979 from north @-@ east of Brookton , about 125 km ( 78 mi ) from the coast . Much of its range on the Swan Coastal Plain coincides with Perth 's expanding metropolitan area , and much habitat has been lost to clearing .
Together with B. attenuata ( candlestick banksia ) , B. menziesii is a dominant component in a number of widespread vegetation complexes of the Swan Coastal Plain , including Banksia low woodland and Jarrah @-@ Banksia woodland . These complexes only occur on deep , well @-@ draining sand ; in shallower , seasonally wet soils , B. menziesii and B. attenuata give way to other Banksia species such as B. littoralis ( swamp banksia ) or B. telmatiaea ( swamp fox banksia ) . On the Geraldton Sandplains to the north , B. menziesii usually occurs as a shrub or small tree emergent above low heath .
= = Ecology = =
Like many members of the family Proteaceae , Banksia menziesii is largely self @-@ incompatible ; that is , inflorescences require pollinators to be fertilised and produce seed . One mechanism by which the species promotes cross @-@ pollination with other plants is protandry , whereby the male parts release pollen that becomes non @-@ viable before the female parts become receptive on the same flower spike . The individual flowers are uniform , and it is unclear why so few go on to develop follicles . Published in 1988 , a field study conducted in banksia woodland near Perth noted that anthesis occurred on an inflorescence at an average rate of 40 to 60 florets opening per day , although this varied widely between different flowerheads . Foraging by honeyeaters would cause the florets to open , but bees would not .
Banksia menziesii provides an important food source , as flowers and seeds , for the threatened short @-@ billed black cockatoo ( Calyptorhynchus latirostris ) . Other bird species that have been observed feeding on B. menziesii include the red @-@ capped parrot ( Purpureicephalus spurius ) , western rosella ( Platycercus icterotis ) , red @-@ tailed black cockatoo ( Calyptorhynchus banksii ) , Australian ringneck ( Barnardius zonarius ) , western gerygone ( Gerygone fusca ) and several honeyeater species , the New Holland honeyeater ( Phylidonyris novaehollandiae ) , white @-@ cheeked honeyeater ( P. nigra ) , brown honeyeater ( Lichmera indistincta ) , singing honeyeater ( Lichenostomus virescens ) , western spinebill ( Acanthorhynchus superciliosus ) , red wattlebird ( Anthochaera carunculata ) and western wattlebird ( A. lunulata ) . Insects recorded include ants and bees , as well as rove beetles ( family Staphylinidae ) . A field study south of Perth noted that Banksia menziesii appeared particularly popular with the brown honeyeater and western spinebill , compared with other banksias .
Twenty @-@ one species from several orders of slime molds ( myxomycetes ) have been isolated from the bark of Banksia menziesii . Over half ( 13 ) were from the order Stemonitales , and Echinosteliales and Liceales were also common . The abundance of the first two orders may be due to the acidity of the bark . Another order , the Physarales , was unusually rare — other studies have demonstrated that the order is typically abundant on the bark of various species of tree around the world .
Banksia menziesii regenerates after bushfire by resprouting from its woody lignotuber , or from epicormic buds on the trunk . It is generally only weakly serotinous in the southern part of its range , that is , it lacks a canopy seed bank as follicles on old flower spikes in the canopy release their seed after two years , but populations retain more seed as populations move north . Lower canopies and drier climates predispose to hotter fires that are more likely to kill plants and effect seed release , and thus facilitate seedling recruitment .
All banksias have developed proteoid or cluster roots in response to the nutrient poor conditions of Australian soils ( particularly lacking in phosphorus ) . The plant develop masses of fine lateral roots that form a mat @-@ like structure underneath the soil surface , and enable it to extract nutrients as efficiently possible out of the soil . A study of three co @-@ occurring species in banksia woodland in southwestern Australia — Banksia menziesii , B. attenuata and B. ilicifolia — found that all three develop fresh roots in September after winter rainfall , and that the bacteria populations associated with the root systems of B. menziesii differ from the other two , and that they also change depending on the age of the roots .
Along with Banksia attenuata , Banksia menziesii is a facultative phreatophyte . The two species are less strictly tied to the water table and hence able to grow in a wider variety of places within banksia woodland habitat around Perth than the co @-@ occurring Banksia ilicifolia and Banksia littoralis . Recent falls of the water table on the Swan Coastal Plain from use of the Gnangara Mound aquifer for Perth 's water supply as well as years of below average rainfall have caused a drop in the population and vigour of Banksia menziesii since the mid @-@ 1960s . A 2009 Spanish study showed Banksia menziesii seedlings to be moderately sensitive to salinity . It is also sensitive to sulfur dioxide . A 1994 study by Byron Lamont and colleagues from Curtin University found that Banksia menziesii plants within 50 metres ( 160 feet ) of road verges had crowns two and a half times bigger , and set three times as many seeds as plants further away from the road , and that this was likely due to increased availability of nutrients and water from runoff .
= = Cultivation = =
Banksia menziesii has several horticultural features including patterned buds and follicles , attractive pinkish new growth , and showy flowerheads . A dwarf form is commonly sold in nurseries . Byron Lamont has observed that dwarf plants may grow into taller single @-@ trunked plants in cultivation .
The plant is fairly easy to grow in a mediterranean climate with good drainage and a light ( sandy ) soil ; however , with medium to high susceptibility to Phytophthora cinnamomi dieback , it is unreliable in conditions that favour the growth of the soil @-@ borne water mould , such as summer humidity or poor drainage . The use of phosphite fungicides does reduce the spread of Phytophthora . It generally does poorly in eastern Australia , although it is grown commercially in southeastern South Australia as a cut flower crop . It is also grown in California and Hawaii .
Seeds do not require any treatment prior to planting , and take 26 to 40 days to germinate . Seeds that grow into yellow @-@ flowered plants are pale and unpigmented , while future bronze- and red @-@ flowered plants are dark greyish and black respectively . It generally takes about five to seven years to flower from seed . The plant favours sandy well @-@ drained soils and a sunny position and can be heavily pruned if necessary , as new growth can arise from the lignotuber . Although it is readily propagated by seed , experiments with in vitro propagation found Banksia menziesii to be more difficult than other species trialled .
= = Art and culture = =
The nectar of Banksia menziesii was used in a drink by the Beeloo Whadjug Nyoongar , who were also called the Mungyt people . Along with beverages from other species , it was drunk at special sweet water festivals . Banksia menziesii was the subject of a book by botanical artist Philippa Nikulinsky , which showed the progress of an inflorescence from bud through flowering to fruiting and seed release over 22 watercolour plates . Noted wildflower artist Ellis Rowan also painted it . It was one of several wildflowers depicted on a series of plates produced by the British pottery firm Wedgwood in the early 1990s .
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= History of aspirin =
The history of aspirin ( also known as acetylsalicylic acid or ASA ) and the medical use of it and related substances stretches back to antiquity , though pure ASA has only been manufactured and marketed since 1899 .
Medicines made from willow and other salicylate @-@ rich plants appear in Egyptian pharonic pharmacology papyri from the second millennium BC . Hippocrates referred to their use of salicylic tea to reduce fevers around 400 BC , and were part of the pharmacopoeia of Western medicine in classical antiquity and the Middle Ages . Willow bark extract became recognized for its specific effects on fever , pain and inflammation in the mid @-@ eighteenth century . Lewis and Clark allegedly used willow bark tea in 1803 – 1806 as a remedy for fever for members of the famous expedition . By the nineteenth century pharmacists were experimenting with and prescribing a variety of chemicals related to salicylic acid , the active component of willow extract .
In 1853 , chemist Charles Frédéric Gerhardt treated acetyl chloride with sodium salicylate to produce acetylsalicylic acid for the first time ; in the second half of the nineteenth century , other academic chemists established the compound 's chemical structure and devised more efficient methods of synthesis . In 1897 , scientists at the drug and dye firm Bayer began investigating acetylsalicylic acid as a less @-@ irritating replacement for standard common salicylate medicines . By 1899 , Bayer had dubbed this drug Aspirin and was selling it around the world . The word Aspirin was Bayer 's brand name , rather than the generic name of the drug ; however , Bayer 's rights to the trademark were lost or sold in many countries . Aspirin 's popularity grew over the first half of the twentieth century leading to fierce competition with the proliferation of aspirin brands and products .
Aspirin 's popularity declined after the development of acetaminophen / paracetamol in 1956 and ibuprofen in 1962 . In the 1960s and 1970s , John Vane and others discovered the basic mechanism of aspirin 's effects , while clinical trials and other studies from the 1960s to the 1980s established aspirin 's efficacy as an anti @-@ clotting agent that reduces the risk of clotting diseases . Aspirin sales revived considerably in the last decades of the twentieth century , and remain strong in the twenty @-@ first with widespread use as a preventive treatment for heart attacks and strokes .
= = Early history of salicylates = =
Medicines derived from willow trees and other salicylate @-@ rich plants have been part of pharmacopoeias at least dating back to ancient Sumer . The earliest specific reference to willow and myrtle ( another salicylate @-@ rich plant ) being used for conditions that would likely be affected by their analgesic , anti @-@ pyretic , and anti @-@ inflammatory properties comes from the Ebers Papyrus , an Egyptian medical text from ca . 1543 BC , likely a copy of a text from around the time of the Ur tablet .
Willow bark preparations became a standard part of the materia medica of Western medicine beginning at least with the Greek physician Hippocrates in the fifth century BC ; he recommended it to ease the pain of child @-@ bearing and to reduce fever . The Roman encyclopedist Celsus , in his De Medicina of ca . 30 AD , suggested willow leaf extract to treat the four signs of inflammation : redness , heat , swelling and pain . Willow treatments also appeared in Dioscorides 's De Materia Medica , and Pliny the Elder 's Natural History . By the time of Galen , willow was commonly used throughout the Roman and Arab worlds , as a small part of a large , growing botanical pharmacopoeia .
= = 18th and 19th centuries = =
The major turning point for salicylate medicines came in 1763 , when a letter from English chaplain Edward Stone was read at a meeting of the Royal Society , describing the dramatic power of willow bark extract to cure ague — an ill @-@ defined constellation of symptoms , including intermittent fever , pain , and fatigue , that primarily referred to malaria . Inspired by the doctrine of signatures to search for a treatment for agues near the brackish waters that were known to cause it , Stone had tasted the bark of a willow tree in 1758 and noticed an astringency reminiscent of the standard — and expensive — ague cure of Peruvian bark . He collected , dried , and powdered a substantial amount of willow bark , and over the next five years tested it on a number of people sick with fever and agues . In his letter , Stone reported consistent success , describing willow extract 's effects as identical to Peruvian bark , though a little less potent . ( In fact , the active ingredient of Peruvian bark was quinine , which attacked the infectious cause of malaria , while the active ingredient of willow extract , salicin , relieved the symptoms of malaria but could not cure it . ) Stone 's letter ( mistakenly attributed to Edmund rather than Edward Stone ) was printed in Philosophical Transactions , and by the end of the 18th century willow was gaining popularity as an inexpensive substitute for Peruvian bark .
In the 19th century , as the young discipline of organic chemistry began to grow in Europe , scientists attempted to isolate and purify the active components of many medicines , including willow bark . After unsuccessful attempts by Italian chemists Brugnatelli and Fontana in 1826 , Joseph Buchner obtained relatively pure salicin crystals in 1828 ; the following year , Henri Leroux developed a better procedure for extracting modest yields of salicin . In 1834 , Swiss pharmacist Johann Pagenstecher discovered what he thought was a new pain @-@ reducing substance , isolated from the common remedy of meadowsweet ( Spiraea ulmaria ) . By 1838 , Italian chemist Raffaele Piria found a method of obtaining a more potent acid form of willow extract , which he named salicylic acid . The German chemist who had been working to identify the Spiraea extract , Karl Jacob Löwig , soon realized that it was in fact the same salicylic acid that Piria had found .
Through the middle decades of the 19th century , the use of salicylate medicines — including salicin , salicylic acid , and sodium salicylate — grew considerably , and physicians increasingly knew what to expect from these medicines : reduction of pain , fever , and inflammation . However , the unpleasant side effects , particularly gastric irritation , limited their usefulness . By the 1880s , the German chemical industry , jump @-@ started by the lucrative development of dyes from coal tar , was branching out to investigate the potential of new tar @-@ derived medicines . The turning point was the advent of Kalle & Company 's Antifebrine , the branded version of the well @-@ known dye derivative acetanilide — the fever @-@ reducing properties of which were discovered by accident in 1886 . Antifebrine 's success inspired Carl Duisberg , the head of research at the small dye firm Friedrich Bayer & Company , to start a systematic search for other chemical fever @-@ reducers . Bayer chemists soon developed Phenacetin , followed by the sedatives Sulfonal and Trional .
= = = Synthesis of ASA = = =
Upon taking control of Bayer 's overall management in 1890 , Duisberg began to expand the company 's drug research program . He created a pharmaceutical group for creating new drugs , headed by former university chemist Arthur Eichengrün , and a pharmacology group for testing the drugs , headed by Heinrich Dreser ( beginning in 1897 , after periods under Wilhelm Siebel and Hermann Hildebrandt ) . In 1894 , the young chemist Felix Hoffmann joined the pharmaceutical group . Dreser , Eichengrün and Hoffmann would be the key figures in the development of acetylsalicylic acid as the drug Aspirin ( though their respective roles have been the subject of some contention ) .
In 1897 , Hoffmann started working to find a less irritating substitute for salicylic acid . It is generally accepted that he turned to this idea because his father was suffering the side effects of taking sodium salicylate for rheumatism . Other chemists had attempted this before as well , by acetylating salicylic acid to make acetylsalicylic acid ( ASA ) . Charles Frédéric Gerhardt was the first to prepare acetylsalicylic acid in 1853 . In the course of his work on the synthesis and properties of various acid anhydrides , he mixed acetyl chloride with a sodium salt of salicylic acid ( sodium salicylate ) . A vigorous reaction ensued , and the resulting melt soon solidified . Since no structural theory existed at that time Gerhardt called the compound he obtained " salicylic @-@ acetic anhydride " ( wasserfreie Salicylsäure @-@ Essigsäure ) . When Gerhardt tried to dissolve the solid in a diluted solution of sodium carbonate it immediately decomposed to sodium salts of salicylic and acetic acids . In 1859 , von Gilm produced ASA ( which he called " acetylirte Salicylsäure " , acetylated salicylic acid ) by a different method , the reaction of salicylic acid and acetyl chloride . In 1869 Schröder , Prinzhorn and Kraut repeated both Gerhardt 's ( from sodium salicylate ) and von Gilm 's ( from salicylic acid ) syntheses and concluded that both reactions gave the same compound — acetylsalicylic acid . ( Prinzhorn is credited in the paper with conducting the experiments . ) They were first to assign to it the correct structure with the acetyl group connected to the phenolic oxygen . Kraut 's procedure was even being used by the drug company Heyden to make unbranded ASA . However , the published methods did not produce pure ASA — although Kraut 's method was efficient enough to be useful . It is likely that Hoffmann started by recreating the published methods . On October 10 , 1897 ( according to his laboratory notebooks ) , Hoffmann found a better method for making ASA , from salicylic acid refluxed with acetic anhydride .
Eichengrün sent ASA to Dreser 's pharmacology group for testing , and the initial results were very positive . The next step would normally have been clinical trials , but Dreser opposed further investigation of ASA because of salicylic acid 's reputation for weakening the heart — possibly a side effect of the high doses often used to treat rheumatism . Dreser 's group was soon busy testing Felix Hoffmann 's next chemical success : diacetylmorphine ( which the Bayer team soon branded as heroin because of the heroic feeling it gave them ) . Eichengrün , frustrated by Dreser 's rejection of ASA , went directly to Bayer 's Berlin representative Felix Goldmann to arrange low @-@ profile trials with doctors . Though the results of those trials were also very positive , with no reports of the typical salicylic acid complications , Dreser still demurred . However , Carl Duisberg intervened and scheduled full testing . Soon , Dreser admitted ASA 's potential and Bayer decided to proceed with production . Dreser wrote a report of the findings to publicize the new drug ; in it , he omitted any mention of Hoffmann or Eichengrün . He would also be the only one of the three to receive royalties for the drug ( for testing it ) , since it was ineligible for any patent the chemists might have taken out for creating it . For many years , however , he attributed Aspirin 's discovery solely to Hoffmann .
The controversy over who was primarily responsible for aspirin 's development spread through much of the twentieth century and into the twenty @-@ first . Although aspirin 's origin was in academic research and Bayer was not the first to produce it commercially , Bayer insists that " The active ingredient in Aspirin , acetylsalicylic acid , was synthesized for the first time in a chemically pure and thus stable form in 1897 by a young chemist working for Bayer , Dr. Felix Hoffmann . " Historians and others have also challenged Bayer 's early accounts of Bayer 's synthesis , in which Hoffmann was primarily responsible for the Bayer breakthrough . In 1949 , shortly before his death , Eichengrün wrote an article , " Fifty Years of Asprin " , claiming that he had not told Hoffmann the purpose of his research , meaning that Hoffmann merely carried out Eichengrün 's research plan , and that the drug would never have gone to the market without his direction . This claim was later supported by research conducted by historian Walter Sneader . Axel Helmstaedter , General Secretary of the International Society for the History of Pharmacy , subsequently questioned the novelty of Sneader ’ s research , noting that several earlier articles discussed the Hoffmann – Eichengrün controversy in detail . Bayer countered Sneader in a press release stating that according to the records , Hoffmann and Eichengrün held equal positions , and Eichengrün was not Hoffmann 's supervisor . Hoffmann was named on the US Patent as the inventor , which Sneader did not mention . Eichengrün , who left Bayer in 1908 , had multiple opportunities to claim the priority and had never before 1949 done it ; he neither claimed nor received any percentage of the profit from aspirin sales .
= = = Naming the drug = = =
The name Aspirin was derived from the name of the chemical ASA — Acetylspirsäure in German . Spirsäure ( salicylic acid ) was named for the meadowsweet plant , Spirea ulmaria , from which it could be derived . Aspirin took a- for the acetylation , -spir- from Spirsäure , and added -in as a typical drug name ending to make it easy to say . In the final round of naming proposals that circulated through Bayer , it came down to Aspirin and Euspirin ; Aspirin , they feared , might remind customers of aspiration , but Arthur Eichengrün argued that Eu- ( meaning " good " ) was inappropriate because it usually indicated an improvement over an earlier version of a similar drug . Since the substance itself was already known , Bayer intended to use the new name to establish their drug as something new ; in January 1899 they settled on Aspirin .
= = = Rights and sale = = =
Under Carl Duisberg 's leadership , Bayer was firmly committed to the standards of ethical drugs , as opposed to patent medicines . Ethical drugs were drugs that could be obtained only through a pharmacist , usually with a doctor 's prescription . Advertising drugs directly to consumers was considered unethical and strongly opposed by many medical organizations ; that was the domain of patent medicines . Therefore , Bayer was limited to marketing Aspirin directly to doctors .
When production of Aspirin began in 1899 , Bayer sent out small packets of the drug to doctors , pharmacists and hospitals , advising them of Aspirin 's uses and encouraging them to publish about the drug 's effects and effectiveness . As positive results came in and enthusiasm grew , Bayer sought to secure patent and trademark wherever possible . It was ineligible for patent in Germany ( despite being accepted briefly before the decision was overturned ) , but Aspirin was patented in Britain ( filed December 22 , 1898 ) and the United States ( US Patent 644 @,@ 077 issued February 27 , 1900 ) . The British patent was overturned in 1905 , the American patent was also besieged but was ultimately upheld .
Faced with growing legal and illegal competition for the globally marketed ASA , Bayer worked to cement the connection between Bayer and Aspirin . One strategy it developed was to switch from distributing Aspirin powder for pharmacists to press into pill form to distributing standardized tablets — complete with the distinctive Bayer cross logo . In 1903 the company set up an American subsidiary , with a converted factory in Rensselaer , New York , to produce Aspirin for the American market without paying import duties . Bayer also sued the most egregious patent violators and smugglers . The company 's attempts to hold onto its Aspirin sales incited criticism from muckraking journalists and the American Medical Association , especially after the 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act that prevented trademarked drugs from being listed in the United States Pharmacopeia ; Bayer listed ASA with an intentionally convoluted generic name ( monoacetic acid ester of salicylic acid ) to discourage doctors referring to anything but Aspirin .
= = World War I and Bayer = =
By the outbreak of World War I in 1914 , Bayer was facing competition in all its major markets from local ASA producers as well as other German drug firms ( particularly Heyden and Hoechst ) . The British market was immediately closed to the German companies , but British manufacturing could not meet the demand — especially with phenol supplies , necessary for ASA synthesis , largely being used for explosives manufacture . On February 5 , 1915 , Bayer 's UK trademarks were voided , so that any company could use the term aspirin . The Australian market was taken over by Aspro , after the makers of Nicholas @-@ Aspirin lost a short @-@ lived exclusive right to the aspirin name there . In the United States , Bayer was still under German control — though the war disrupted the links between the American Bayer plant and the German Bayer headquarters — but phenol shortage threatened to reduce aspirin production to a trickle , and imports across the Atlantic Ocean were blocked by the Royal Navy .
= = = Great Phenol Plot = = =
To secure phenol for aspirin production , and at the same time indirectly aid the German war effort , German agents in the United States orchestrated what became known as the Great Phenol Plot . By 1915 , the price of phenol rose to the point that Bayer 's aspirin plant was forced to drastically cut production . This was especially problematic because Bayer was instituting a new branding strategy in preparation of the expiry of the aspirin patent in the United States . Thomas Edison , who needed phenol to manufacture phonograph records , was also facing supply problems ; in response , he created a phenol factory capable of pumping out twelve tons per day . Edison 's excess phenol seemed destined for trinitrophenol production .
Although the United States remained officially neutral until April 1917 , it was increasingly throwing its support to the Allies through trade . To counter this , German ambassador Johann Heinrich von Bernstorff and Interior Ministry official Heinrich Albert were tasked with undermining American industry and maintaining public support for Germany . One of their agents was a former Bayer employee , Hugo Schweitzer . Schweitzer set up a contract for a front company called the Chemical Exchange Association to buy all of Edison 's excess phenol . Much of the phenol would go to the German @-@ owned Chemische Fabrik von Heyden 's American subsidiary ; Heyden was the supplier of Bayer 's salicylic acid for aspirin manufacture . By July 1915 , Edison 's plants were selling about three tons of phenol per day to Schweitzer ; Heyden 's salicylic acid production was soon back on line , and in turn Bayer 's aspirin plant was running as well .
The plot only lasted a few months . On July 24 , 1915 , Heinrich Albert 's briefcase , containing details about the phenol plot , was recovered by a Secret Service agent . Although the activities were not illegal — since the United States was still officially neutral and still trading with Germany — the documents were soon leaked to the New York World , an anti @-@ German newspaper . The World published an exposé on August 15 , 1915 . The public pressure soon forced Schweitzer and Edison to end the phenol deal — with the embarrassed Edison subsequently sending his excess phenol to the U.S. military — but by that time the deal had netted the plotters over two million dollars and there was already enough phenol to keep Bayer 's Aspirin plant running . Bayer 's reputation took a large hit , however , just as the company was preparing to launch an advertising campaign to secure the connection between aspirin and the Bayer brand .
= = = Bayer loses foreign holdings = = =
Beginning in 1915 , Bayer set up a number of shell corporations and subsidiaries in the United States , to hedge against the possibility of losing control of its American assets if the U.S. should enter the war and to allow Bayer to enter other markets ( e.g. , army uniforms ) . After the U.S. declared war on Germany in April 1917 , alien property custodian A. Mitchell Palmer began investigating German @-@ owned businesses , and soon turned his attention to Bayer . To avoid having to surrender all profits and assets to the government , Bayer 's management shifted the stock to a new company , nominally owned by Americans but controlled by the German @-@ American Bayer leaders . Palmer , however , soon uncovered this scheme and seized all of Bayer 's American holdings . After the Trading with the Enemy Act was amended to allow sale of these holdings , the government auctioned off the Rensselaer plant and all Bayer 's American patents and trademarks , including even the Bayer brand name and the Bayer cross logo . It was bought by a patent medicine company , Sterling Products , Inc . The rights to Bayer Aspirin and the U.S. rights to the Bayer name and trademarks were sold back to Bayer AG in 1994 for US $ 1 billion .
= = Interwar years = =
With the coming of the deadly Spanish flu pandemic in 1918 , aspirin — by whatever name — secured a reputation as one of the most powerful and effective drugs in the pharmacopeia of the time . Its fever @-@ reducing properties gave many sick patients enough strength to fight through the infection , and aspirin companies large and small earned the loyalty of doctors and the public — when they could manufacture or purchase enough aspirin to meet demand . Despite this , some people believed that Germans put the Spanish flu bug in Bayer aspirin , causing the pandemic as a war tactic .
The U.S. ASA patent expired in 1917 , but Sterling owned the aspirin trademark , which was the only commonly used term for the drug . In 1920 , United Drug Company challenged the Aspirin trademark , which became officially generic for public sale in the U.S. ( although it remained trademarked when sold to wholesalers and pharmacists ) . With demand growing rapidly in the wake of the Spanish flu , there were soon hundreds of " aspirin " brands on sale in the United States .
Sterling Products , equipped with all of Bayer 's U.S. intellectual property , tried to take advantage of its new brand as quickly as possible , before generic ASAs took over . However , without German expertise to run the Rensselaer plant to make aspirin and the other Bayer pharmaceuticals , they had only a finite aspirin supply and were facing competition from other companies . Sterling president William E. Weiss had ambitions to sell Bayer aspirin not only in the U.S. , but to compete with the German Bayer abroad as well . Taking advantage of the losses Farbenfabriken Bayer ( the German Bayer company ) suffered through the reparation provisions of the Treaty of Versailles , Weiss worked out a deal with Carl Duisberg to share profits in the Americas , Australia , South Africa and Great Britain for most Bayer drugs , in return for technical assistance in manufacturing the drugs .
Sterling also took over Bayer 's Canadian assets as well as ownership of the Aspirin trademark which is still valid in Canada and most of the world . Bayer bought Sterling Winthrop in 1994 restoring ownership of the Bayer name and Bayer cross trademark in the US and Canada as well as ownership of the Aspirin trademark in Canada .
= = = Diversification of market = = =
Between World War I and World War II , many new aspirin brands and aspirin @-@ based products entered the market . The Australian company Nicholas Proprietary Limited , through the aggressive marketing strategies of George Davies , built Aspro into a global brand , with particular strength in Australia , New Zealand , and the U.K. American brands such as Burton 's Aspirin , Molloy 's Aspirin , Cal @-@ Aspirin and St. Joseph Aspirin tried to compete with the American Bayer , while new products such Cafaspirin ( aspirin with caffeine ) and Alka @-@ Seltzer ( a soluble mix of aspirin and bicarbonate of soda ) put aspirin to new uses . In 1925 , the German Bayer became part of IG Farben , a conglomerate of former dye companies ; IG Farben 's brands of Aspirin and , in Latin America , the caffeinated Cafiaspirina ( co @-@ managed with Sterling Products ) competed with less expensive aspirins such as Geniol .
= = Competition from new drugs = =
After World War II , with the IG Farben conglomerate dismantled because of its central role in the Nazi regime , Sterling Products bought half of Bayer Ltd , the British Bayer subsidiary — the other half of which it already owned . However , Bayer Aspirin made up only a small fraction of the British aspirin market because of competition from Aspro , Disprin ( a soluble aspirin drug ) and other brands . Bayer Ltd began searching for new pain relievers to compete more effectively . After several moderately successful compound drugs that mainly utilized aspirin ( Anadin and Excedrin ) , Bayer Ltd 's manager Laurie Spalton ordered an investigation of a substance that scientists at Yale had , in 1946 , found to be the metabolically active derivative of acetanilide : acetaminophen . After clinical trials , Bayer Ltd brought acetaminophen to market as Panadol in 1956 .
However , Sterling Products did not market Panadol in the United States or other countries where Bayer Aspirin still dominated the aspirin market . Other firms began selling acetaminophen drugs , most significantly , McNeil Laboratories with liquid Tylenol in 1955 , and Tylenol pills in 1958 . By 1967 , Tylenol was available without a prescription . Because it did not cause gastric irritation , acetaminophen rapidly displaced much of aspirin 's sales . Another analgesic , anti @-@ inflammatory drug was introduced in 1962 : ibuprofen ( sold as Brufen in the U.K. and Motrin in the U.S. ) . By the 1970s , aspirin had a relatively small portion of the pain reliever market , and in the 1980s sales decreased even more when ibuprofen became available without prescription .
Also in the early 1980s , several studies suggested a link between children 's consumption of aspirin and Reye 's syndrome , a potentially fatal disease . By 1986 , the U.S. Food and Drug Administration required warning labels on all aspirin , further suppressing sales . The makers of Tylenol also filed a lawsuit against Anacin aspirin maker American Home Products , claiming that the failure to add warning labels before 1986 had unfairly held back Tylenol sales , though this suit was eventually dismissed .
= = Investigating how aspirin works = =
The mechanism of aspirin 's analgesic , anti @-@ inflammatory and antipyretic properties was unknown through the drug 's heyday in the early- to mid @-@ twentieth century ; Heinrich Dreser 's explanation , widely accepted since the drug was first brought to market , was that aspirin relieved pain by acting on the central nervous system . In 1958 Harry Collier , a biochemist in the London laboratory of pharmaceutical company Parke Davis , began investigating the relationship between kinins and the effects of aspirin . In tests on guinea pigs , Collier found that aspirin , if given beforehand , inhibited the bronchoconstriction effects of bradykinin . He found that cutting the guinea pigs ' vagus nerve did not affect the action of bradykinin or the inhibitory effect of aspirin — evidence that aspirin worked locally to combat pain and inflammation , rather than on the central nervous system . In 1963 , Collier began working with University of London pharmacology graduate student Priscilla Piper to determine the precise mechanism of aspirin 's effects . However , it was difficult to pin down the precise biochemical goings @-@ on in live research animals , and in vitro tests on removed animal tissues did not behave like in vivo tests .
After five years of collaboration , Collier arranged for Piper to work with pharmacologist John Vane at the Royal College of Surgeons of England , in order to learn Vane 's new bioassay methods , which seemed like a possible solution to the in vitro testing failures . Vane and Piper tested the biochemical cascade associated with anaphylactic shock ( in extracts from guinea pig lungs , applied to tissue from rabbit aortas ) . They found that aspirin inhibited the release of an unidentified chemical generated by guinea pig lungs , a chemical that caused rabbit tissue to contract . By 1971 , Vane identified the chemical ( which they called " rabbit @-@ aorta contracting substance , " or RCS ) as a prostaglandin . In a June 23 , 1971 paper in the journal Nature , Vane and Piper suggested that aspirin and similar drugs ( the non @-@ steroidal anti @-@ inflammatory drugs or NSAIDs ) worked by blocking the production of prostaglandins . Later research showed that NSAIDs such as aspirin worked by inhibiting cyclooxygenase , the enzyme responsible for converting arachidonic acid into a prostaglandin .
= = Revival as heart drug = =
Aspirin 's effects on blood clotting ( as an antiplatelet agent ) were first noticed in 1950 by Lawrence Craven . Craven , a family doctor in California , had been directing tonsillectomy patients to chew Aspergum , an aspirin @-@ laced chewing gum . He found that an unusual number of patients had to be hospitalized for severe bleeding , and that those patients had been using very high amounts of Aspergum . Craven began recommending daily aspirin to all his patients , and claimed that the patients who followed the aspirin regimen ( about 8 @,@ 000 people ) had no signs of thrombosis . However , Craven 's studies were not taken seriously by the medical community , because he had not done a placebo @-@ controlled study and had published only in obscure journals .
The idea of using aspirin to prevent clotting diseases ( such as heart attacks and strokes ) was revived in the 1960s , when medical researcher Harvey Weiss found that aspirin had an anti @-@ adhesive effect on blood platelets ( and unlike other potential antiplatelet drugs , aspirin had low toxicity ) . Medical Research Council haematologist John O 'Brien picked up on Weiss 's finding and , in 1963 , began working with epidemiologist Peter Elwood on aspirin 's anti @-@ thrombosis drug potential . Elwood began a large @-@ scale trial of aspirin as a preventive drug for heart attacks . Nicholas Laboratories agreed to provide aspirin tablets , and Elwood enlisted heart attack survivors in a double @-@ blind controlled study — heart attack survivors were statistically more likely to suffer a second attack , greatly reducing the number of patients necessary to reliably detect whether aspirin had an effect on heart attacks . The study began in February 1971 , though the researchers soon had to break the double @-@ blinding when a study by American epidemiologist Herschel Jick suggested that aspirin either prevented heart attacks or made them more deadly . Jick had found that fewer aspirin @-@ takers were admitted to his hospital for heart attacks than non @-@ aspirin @-@ takers , and one possible explanation was that aspirin caused heart attack sufferers to die before reaching the hospital ; Elwood 's initial results ruled out that explanation . When the Elwood trial ended in 1973 , it showed a modest but not statistically significant reduction in heart attacks among the group taking aspirin .
Several subsequent studies put aspirin 's effectiveness as a heart drug on firmer ground , but the evidence was not incontrovertible . However , in the mid @-@ 1980s , with the relatively new technique of meta @-@ analysis , statistician Richard Peto convinced the U.S. FDA and much of the medical community that the aspirin studies , in aggregate , showed aspirin 's effectiveness with relative certainty . By the end of the 1980s , aspirin was widely used as a preventive drug for heart attacks and had regained its former position as the top @-@ selling analgesic in the U.S.
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= Canadian comics =
Canadian comics refers to comics and cartooning by citizens of Canada or permanent residents of Canada regardless of residence . Canada has two official languages , and distinct comics cultures have developed in English and French Canada . The English tends to follow American trends , and the French Franco @-@ Belgian ones , with little crossover between the two cultures . Canadian comics run the gamut of comics forms , including editorial cartooning , comic strips , comic books , graphic novels , and webcomics , and are published in newspapers , magazines , books , and online . They have received attention in international comics communities and have received support from the federal and provincial governments , including grants from the Canada Council for the Arts . There are a comics publishers throughout the country , as well as large small press , self @-@ publishing , and minicomics communities .
In English Canada many cartoonists , from Hal Foster to Todd McFarlane , have sought to further their careers by moving to the United States ; since the late 20th century increasing numbers have gained international attention while staying in Canada . During World War II , trade restrictions led to the flourishing of a domestic comic book industry , whose black @-@ and @-@ white " Canadian Whites " contained original stories of heroes such as Nelvana of the Northern Lights as well as American scripts redrawn by Canadian artists . The war 's end saw American imports and domestic censorship lead to the death of this industry . The alternative and small press communities grew in the 1970s , and by the end of the century Dave Sim 's Cerebus and Chester Brown 's comics , amongst others , gained international audiences and critical acclaim , and Drawn and Quarterly became a leader in arts @-@ comics publishing . In the 21st century , comics have gained wider audiences and higher levels of recognition , especially in the form of graphic novels and webcomics .
In French Canada indigenous comics are called BDQ or bande dessinée québécoise ( French pronunciation : [ bɑ ̃ d dɛ.si.ne ke.be.kwaz ] ) Cartoons with speech balloons in Quebec date to the late 1700s . BDQ have alternately flourished and languished throughout Quebec 's history as the small domestic market has found it difficult to compete with foreign imports . Many cartoonists from Quebec have made their careers in the United States . Since the Springtime of BDQ in the 1970s native comics magazines , such as Croc and Safarir , and comics albums have become more common , though they account for only 5 % of total sales in the province . Since the turn of the 21st century cartoonists such as Michel Rabagliati , Guy Delisle , and the team of Dubuc and Delaf have seen international success in French @-@ speaking Europe and in translation . Éditions Mille @-@ Îles and La Pastèque are amongst the domestic publishers that have become increasingly common .
= = History = =
= = = English Canada = = =
= = = = Early history ( 1759 – 1910s ) = = = =
Brigadier @-@ General George Townshend 's cartoons lampooning General James Wolfe in 1759 are recognized as the first examples of political cartooning in Canadian history . Cartoons did not have a regular forum in Canada until John Henry Walker 's short @-@ lived weekly Punch in Canada débuted in Montreal in 1849 . The magazine was a Canadian version of Britain 's humorous Punch and featured cartoons by Walker . It paved the way for a number of similar short @-@ lived publications , until the success of the more straight @-@ laced Canadian Illustrated News , published by George @-@ Édouard Desbarats beginning in 1869 , soon after Canadian Confederation .
In 1873 , John Wilson Bengough founded Grip , a humour magazine in the style of Punch and the American Harper 's Weekly . It featured a large number of cartoons , especially Bengough 's own . The cartoons tended to be political , and Prime Minister John A. Macdonald and Métis rebel leader Louis Riel were favourite targets . The Pacific Scandal in the early 1870s gave Bengough much fodder to raise his reputation as a political caricaturist . According to historian John Bell , while Bengough was probably the most significant pre @-@ 20th @-@ century Canadian cartoonist , Henri Julien was likely the most accomplished . Published widely both at home and abroad , Julien 's cartoons appeared in periodicals such as Harper 's Weekly and Le Monde illustré . In 1888 , he gained employment at the Montreal Star and became the first full @-@ time newspaper cartoonist in Canada .
Palmer Cox , a Canadian expatriate in the United States , at this time created The Brownies , a popular , widely merchandised phenomenon whose first book collection sold over a million copies . Cox began a Brownies comic strip in 1898 that was one of the earliest English @-@ language strips , and had begun to use speech balloons by the time it ended in 1907 .
= = = = Age of comic strips ( 1920s – 1930s ) = = = =
Canadian cartoonists often found it hard to succeed in the field of comic strips without moving to the US , but in 1921 , Jimmy Frise , one of Ernest Hemingway 's drinking buddies during the journalist 's days in Toronto , sold Life 's Little Comedies to the Toronto Star 's Star Weekly . This strip was later retitled Birdseye Center , and became the longest @-@ running strip in English Canadian history . In 1947 , Frise brought the strip to the Montreal Standard , where it was renamed Juniper Junction . Nova Scotia @-@ born artist J. R. Williams single @-@ panel strip about rural and small @-@ town life , Out Our Way , began in 1922 and was syndicated in 700 newspapers at its peak .
Two new comic strips appeared on the same day in 1929 in American newspapers and fed the public 's desire for escapist entertainment at the dawn of the Great Depression . They were the first non @-@ humorous adventure strips , and both were adaptations . One was Buck Rogers ; the other , Tarzan , by Halifax native Hal Foster , who had worked as illustrator for catalogues from Eaton 's and the Hudson 's Bay Company before moving to the US in his late 20s . Other adventure strips soon followed and paved the way for the genre diversity that was seen in comic strips in the 1930s . In 1937 , Foster began his own strip , Prince Valiant , which has become his best @-@ known work for Foster 's dextrous , realistic artwork . After struggling to support himself at various Toronto @-@ based publications , Richard Taylor , under the pen name " Ric " , became a regular at The New Yorker and relocated to the US , where the pay and opportunities for cartoonists were better .
The Toronto Telegram began to run Men of the Mounted in 1933 , the first home @-@ grown adventure strip , written by Ted McCall and drawn by Harry Hall . McCall later penned the strip Robin Hood and Company , which made its appearance in comic books when McCall founded Anglo @-@ American Publishing in 1941 .
= = = = Golden age : Canadian Whites ( 1940s ) = = = =
The Golden Age of Comic Books and subsequent superhero boom began with the release in June 1938 of Action Comics # 1 . The cover story was the first appearance of Superman , drawn by Toronto @-@ born Joe Shuster . Shuster modeled Superman 's Metropolis after his memories of Toronto , and the newspaper Clark Kent worked for after the Toronto Daily Star , which he had delivered as a child . These comics crossed the border and quickly gained Canadian fans as well .
In December 1940 , the War Exchange Conservation Act was passed . It restricted the importation of goods from the US that were deemed non @-@ essential to combat the trade deficit Canada had with its neighbours to the south . American comic books were casualties of the Act . In 1941 , to fill the void , a number of Canadian comic book publishers sprang up , starting in March with Anglo @-@ American Publishing in Toronto and Maple Leaf Publishing in Vancouver . Adrian Dingle 's Hillborough Studios and Bell Features soon joined them . The comics printed by these companies had colour covers , but the innards were in black @-@ and @-@ white , and thus collectors collectors to call them Canadian Whites . Superheroes stories were prominent , and the " Whites " often relied on serials to keep readers coming back for more .
Better Comics from Maple Leaf and Robin Hood and Company from Anglo @-@ American were the first titles to hit the stands . Robin Hood was a tabloid @-@ sized comic strip reprint magazine , while Better was made up of original material in traditional comic @-@ book format , and thus can be said to be the first true Canadian comic book . It included the appearance of the first Canadian superhero , Vernon Miller 's Iron Man . John Stables , under the pen name John St. Ables , was responsible for Brok Windsor 's debut in Better in the spring of 1944 — a fantasy @-@ adventure set far in the " land beyond the mists " in the Canadian North . The success of Better led to a proliferation of titles from Maple Leaf .
The driving creative forces behind Anglo @-@ American were Ted McCall , the writer of the Men of the Mounted and Robin Hood strips , and artist Ed Furness . The pair created a number of heroes with such names as Freelance , Purple Rider , Red Rover , and Commander Steel . Anglo @-@ American also published stories based on imported American scripts bought from Fawcett Publications , with fresh artwork by Canadians to bypass trade restrictions . Captain Marvel and Bulletman were amongst the characters that had Canadian adaptations . Anglo @-@ American published a large number of titles , including Freelance , Grand Slam , Three Aces , Whiz , Captain Marvel and Atom Smasher , but relied less on serials , and was less patriotically Canadian than its rival publishers . It employed a number of talented artists , but they were kept to a " house style " of drawing , in the vein of Captain Marvel 's C. C. Beck .
In August 1941 , three unemployed artists , Adrian Dingle and André and René Kulbach , formed Hillborough Studios to publish their own work . They started with Triumph @-@ Adventure Comics , whose star was Canada 's first female superhero , Nelvana of the Northern Lights , who appeared several months before Wonder Woman did in the US . Nelvana was inspired by tribal stories brought back from the Arctic Group of Seven painter Franz Johnston . The popular fur @-@ miniskirted superheroine was a powerful Inuit mythological figure , daughter of a mortal woman and Koliak the Mighty , King of the Northern Lights . She had telepathic powers and was able to ride the Northern Lights at the speed of light , turn invisible , and melt metal .
In March 1942 , Dingle and most of the Hillborough staff moved with Nelvana to Toronto @-@ based Bell Features , which had begun publishing comics in September 1941 with the first issue of the successful Wow Comics — in colour at first , but Bell soon switched to the familiar " White " format . Bell was the most prolific of the Canadian comic @-@ book publishers . Its comics were drawn by a large pool of artists , including freelancers , adolescents , and women , and were unabashedly Canadian . Aside from Nelvana , there were Edmund Legault 's Dixon of the Mounted , Jerry Lazare 's Phantom Rider , and Fred Kelly 's Doc Stearne . Leo Bachle 's Johnny Canuck was the second Canadian national hero , and debuted in Bell 's Dime Comics in February 1942 .
The new Canadian comics were successful ; Bell reached accumulated weekly sales of 100 @,@ 000 by 1943 . By this time , Educational Projects of Montréal had joined , selling comics in the " White " format . Educational specialized in a different sort of fare : biographies of prime ministers , cases of the RCMP , and historical tales , drawn by accomplished artists including George M. Rae and Sid Barron . Educational 's Canadian Heroes earned endorsements from cabinet ministers and appealed to parents and educators , but was not as appealing to the kids it was aimed at until Rae convinced publisher Harry J. Halperin to allow him to include a fictional character , Canada Jack — a hero who battled Nazis .
With the end of World War II in 1945 , Canadian comic @-@ book publishing faced competition from American publishers again . Educational and latecomer Feature Publications folded immediately . Maple Leaf tried to compete by switching to colour and by trying to break into the British market . Anglo @-@ American and another newcomer , Al Rucker Publications , tried to compete directly with the Americans , and even achieved distribution in the US . By the end of 1946 it was clear that the remaining publishers could not compete , and for the time being original comic @-@ book publishing came to an end in Canada , although some publishers survived by republishing American books until the War Exchange Conservation Act was officially abolished in 1951 . The cartoonists who insisted on drawing for a living faced several choices : some moved across the border to attempt to make it with the American publishers , and some moved into illustration work , as Jerry Lazare , Vernon Miller , Jack Tremblay , and Harold Bennett did . Another avenue was the route Sid Barron followed into political cartooning . By 1949 , out of 176 comics titles on the newsstand , only 23 were Canadian .
= = = = Post @-@ war ( late 1940s – early 1970s ) = = = =
With the end of most original Canadian comic book publishing in 1947 , Canada 's superheroes disappeared , and the country entered a phase of foreign comic book domination . In the late 1940s , a crime comics scare hit the country when a pair of voracious comic book readers in Dawson Creek , British Columbia , shot at a random car while playing highwaymen , fatally wounding a passenger . When authorities discovered their taste for comic books , media attention focused on the emerging crime comics genre as an influence on juvenile delinquency . A bill to amend Section 207 of the Criminal Code was drafted , and passed unanimously , making it an offence to make , print , publish , distribute , sell , or own " any magazine , periodical or book which exclusively or substantially comprises matter depicting pictorially the commission of crimes , real or fictitious " , on 10 December 1949 . Comics publishers across Canada banded together to create the Comic Magazine Industry Association of Canada ( CMIAC ) , a Canadian industry self @-@ censoring body similar to the American Comics Code Authority that would be formed a few years later in response to a similar crime comics scare in the U.S.
Superior Publishers , however , defied the ban , while also moving into the U.S. market . Watchdogs turned up the heat , and in 1953 a distributor was found guilty of distributing obscenities . Some of Superior 's titles found themselves in Fredric Wertham 's notorious and influential diatribe on the influence comics had on juvenile delinquency , Seduction of the Innocent , published in 1954 . The United States Senate Subcommittee on Juvenile Delinquency , established in 1953 , had public hearings a few months later , and called upon Kamloops . BC Member of Parliament E. Davie Fulton , one of Superior publisher William Zimmerman 's most outspoken enemies , as a witness . The Comics Code Authority was soon formed , and Superior , like fellow American publisher EC Comics , saw their sales dwindle throughout 1955 . Prosecutions increased throughout Canada , with Superior successfully defending themselves in one , and another supposedly comics @-@ related murder was reported in Westville , Nova Scotia . Superior shut its doors in 1956 , and until the 1970s , English Canadian newsstand comic book publishing was no more , although a number of " giveaway " comics continued to be produced by Orville Ganes ' Ganes Productions and Owen McCarron 's Comic Book World , who produced the educational and cautionary comics for governments and corporations , aimed at kids and teens .
The crackdown was not aimed at comic strips , however , and several notable new ones appeared , like Lew Saw 's One @-@ Up , Winslow Mortimer 's Larry Brannon and Al Beaton 's Ookpik . After Jimmy Frise 's death in 1948 , Juniper Junction was taken over by Doug Wright , " one of Canada 's best post @-@ war comic @-@ strip artists " . He would continue with the strip until 1968 , while also working on his own Nipper from 1949 . In 1967 , Nipper became Doug Wright 's Family when Wright moved from Montreal to Ontario , and the popular strip continued until 1980 . The Doug Wright Awards were inaugurated in his honour in 2005 . From 1948 to 1972 , James Simpkins ' cartoon Jasper the Bear appeared continuously in Maclean 's magazine . Jasper was hugely popular across Canada and was used , and is still today , as the symbol for Jasper National Park .
To express his anger at the US military 's nuclear tests in the Bikini Atoll in 1946 English @-@ born artist Laurence Hyde produced a wordless novel in 1951 called Southern Cross . In 118 silent pages , the book depicts atomic testing by the US military and its effects Polynesian island inhabitants . While it had no direct effect on comics at the time , it has come to be seen as a precursor to the Canadian graphic novel .
Early editorial cartooning lacked a local flavour , tending to be a pale imitation of American examples . It tended to be cheery , non @-@ confrontational , and supported good causes . Following the War it broke from typical American clichés and took on more of a savage bite , especially compared to the more allegorical tendencies of American editorial cartoons . At Le Devoir , Robert Lapalme was the first to cartoon in this particularly Canadian idiom , and in 1963 organized an International Salon of Caricature and Cartoon in Montreal . Lapalme was later followed by Duncan Macpherson at the Toronto Star , Leonard Norris at the Vancouver Sun and Ed McNally at the Montreal Star . These cartoonists frequently took political positions contrary to those of the papers in which they were published . Macpherson drew a cartoon of John Diefenbaker as Marie Antoinette saying " Let them eat cake " in response to the Prime Minister 's cancelling the Avro Arrow project , which historian Pierre Burton has called the beginning of Canadians ' disillusionment with Diefenbaker 's government . Macpherson in particular fought fiercely for editorial independence , challenging his editors and threatening to quit the Star if not given his way , which paved a new path for other cartoonists to follow .
In 1967 , Canada saw its first comic shop open its doors . Memory Lane in Toronto , established by George Henderson , inspired pioneering retailer Harry Kremer and Bill Johnson to open Now & Then Books in Kitchener , Ontario . Its newsletter , the Now and Then Times , published early work by the young Dave Sim in its inaugural issue in 1972 , and later employed him from 1976 to 1977 .
In the late 1960s , along with the countercultural movement , a new form of comic art appeared from the avant @-@ garde and literary scenes — underground comics ( or " comix " ) aimed at an adult audience . Early examples appeared in certain magazines , but an early precursor of Canadian underground comic books was Scraptures , as a special issue of the Toronto avant @-@ garde literary magazine grOnk in 1967 . In 1969 , Canada saw its first true underground comics , with SFU Komix and Snore Comix . These comix drew their inspiration from the American underground movement that exploded after the release of Robert Crumb 's Zap in early 1968 . Martin Vaugh @-@ James produced an early graphic novel when he had Elephant released by Press Porcépic in 1970 . The underground movement paralleled that of the US , in that it peaked from 1970 to 1972 with the peak of the counterculture , and witnessed a sharp decline afterward . Saskatoon , Saskatchewan 's Dave Geary and Vancouver , BC 's Rand Holmes were key figures , Holmes being the creator of the Harold Hedd comic strip .
Humour magazine Fuddle Duddle , named after a famous euphemism by then @-@ Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau , was a short lived attempt at a Canadian Mad @-@ style satirical magazine . It was the first comic book of Canadian content to be available on newsstands since 1956 . Two of its contributors , Peter Evans and Stanley Berneche , would soon go on to bring superheroes back to Canada for the first time since the demise of Nelvana in 1947 , with Captain Canuck .
The fan press and fandom grew throughout this period , and was bolstered when Patrick Loubert and Michael Hirsh , the founders of the animation company Nelvana , published of The Great Canadian Comic Books in 1971 , a book @-@ length study of the Bell Features comics , and the touring of a related exhibition mounted by the National Gallery of Canada , Comic Art Traditions in Canada , 1941 @-@ 45 , which together served to introduce English @-@ Canadian comics creators and fans to their lost heritage .
Towards the middle of the 1970s , comics aimed at children gradually disappeared . The new breed of underground , alternative and independent comics was aimed at a more mature audience , which ran counter to the public 's perception , as well as to legal restrictions . The first wave of alternative comics in the seventies was largely made up of science fiction and fantasy comics , made by budding cartoonists like Gene Day , Dave Sim , Augustine Funnell , Jim Craig , Ken Steacy , Dean Motter , and Vincent Marchesano .
= = = = New wave ( mid @-@ 1970s – 1980s ) = = = =
The mid @-@ 1970s saw the beginning of a new wave of Canadian comics , one in which the creators chose to remain in Canada , rather than seeking their fortunes south of the border . Richard Comely 's Captain Canuck appeared in July 1975 , the first appearance of a non @-@ satirical superhero in Canada since the 1940s . During the 1950s and 1960s , the idea of native comics seemed unattainable to Canadian kids , and the appearance of Captain Canuck gave these kids the optimism to make their own . This was followed up with James Waley 's more professional , newsstand @-@ distributed Orb , which featured a number of talents that would later take part in the North American comics scene .
The comics magazines showing up in Canada at the time suffered from promotion and distribution problems , however , getting most of their support from the fan press . Phil Seuling 's California @-@ based comics distributor Bud Plant was supportive of these underground and alternative comics , though , and helped get them into stores . Eventually , distributors like Bud Plant and the emergence of specialty comic shops would form a distribution network for small press comics that would thrive independently of the traditional newsstands .
The world of comic strips saw a number of works pop up . Ben Wicks was doing The Outsiders and Wicks , Jim Unger 's Herman debuted in 1975 , and Ted Martin 's Pavlov in 1979 . In 1978 , Lynn Johnston , living in Lynn Lake , Manitoba , began For Better or For Worse , which was noted for following the lives of the Patterson family as they grew older in real time , and dealt with real @-@ life issues . The strip based a number of its storylines on Johnston 's real @-@ life experiences with her own family , as well as social issues such as the midlife crisis , divorce , the coming out of a gay character , child abuse , and death . In 1985 , she became the first female cartoonist to win a Reuben Award , and the Friends of Lulu added her to the Women Cartoonists Hall of Fame in 2002 . The strip was very popular , appearing in over 2000 newspapers in 25 countries .
Editorial cartoonists held considerable sway between the 1950s through the 1970s . Former Prime Minister Joe Clark has been quoted that he lost votes in the election of 1980 due to political cartoons about him . They have also experienced the fear of censorship through the courts , or " libel chill " . In 1979 , Robert Bierman and the Victoria Times was the subject of a libel suit when he criticized the policies of William Vander Zalm , the British Columbia Minister of Human Resources , with a cartoon of the Minister pulling the wings off flies . When the courts ruled in Vander Zalm 's favour , newspapers across the nation ran their own versions of the cartoon in support , until the BC Court of Appeal reversed the ruling in 1980 , deeming the cartoon " fair comment " . It was later acquired by the National Archives of Canada .
Captain Canuck and Orb both folded by 1976 , but in Kitchener , Ontario in December 1977 , Dave Sim 's independent comic book Cerebus debuted , and would become the longest @-@ lived original Canadian comic book . Benefiting from distribution in the emerging comic shop market , it started as a Howard the Duck @-@ like parody of Barry Windsor @-@ Smith 's Conan the Barbarian comics . The story eventually grew to fit Sim 's expanding ambitions , both in content and technique , with its earth @-@ pig protagonist getting embroiled in politics , becoming prime minister of a powerful city @-@ state , then a Pope who ascends to the moon — all within the first third of its projected 300 @-@ issue run . Sim came to conceive the series as a self @-@ enclosed story , which itself would be divided into novels — or graphic novels , which were gaining in prominence in the North American comic book world in the 1980s and 1990s . While Sim and his partner Gerhard 's technical achievements impressed and influenced his peers , Sim also spoke out for creators ' rights , promoted his peers and up @-@ and @-@ coming creators , and fiercely promoted self @-@ publishing as an ideal . Americans Jeff Smith with Bone and Terry Moore with Strangers in Paradise took Sim 's cue , as did Canadian M 'Oak ( Mark Oakley ) with his long @-@ running Thieves and Kings . Eddie Campbell took Sim 's personal advice to self @-@ publish the collected From Hell at the turn of the century . Sim also stirred considerable controversy , sometimes with the content of Cerebus , and sometimes with his editorials and personal interactions .
David Boswell was amongst those in the 1980s who made the jump from the fanzine world when he began self @-@ publishing Reid Fleming , World 's Toughest Milkman in 1980 . From out of the same scene , Bill Marks started publishing the anthology Vortex in Toronto in 1982 . Marks ' Vortex Comics expanded into publishing other comics . The publisher gained publicity for Mister X , which employed the talents of Dean Motter , Gilberto and Jaime Hernandez and , later , Torontonians Seth and Jeffrey Morgan . Most notably , Marks picked up Chester Brown 's Yummy Fur , a taboo @-@ breaking series which started in 1983 as a self @-@ published , photocopied minicomic . It had generated some buzz , and Vortex started publishing it professionally at the end of 1986 . Yummy Fur 's stories were a mix of genres , with the improvised , surreal Ed the Happy Clown , straight adaptations of the Gospels , and revealing , bare @-@ all autobiographical stories . Brown would become a major figure in Canadian comics .
As the content of comics matured throughout the 1980s , they became the subject of increasing scrutiny . In 1986 , Calgary comic shop Comic Legends was raided and charged with obscenity . In response , Derek McCulloch and Paul Stockton of Strawberry Jam Comics established the Comic Legends Legal Defense Fund to help retailers , distributors , publishers , and creators fight against obscenity charges . To raise funds , they published two True North anthologies of Canadian talent .
During this time , large numbers of Canadian artists were making waves in the American comic book market as well , such as John Byrne , Gene Day and his brother Dan , Jim Craig , Rand Holmes , Geof Isherwood , Ken Steacy , Dean Motter , George Freeman and Dave Ross . Byrne was particularly popular for his work on X @-@ Men , and also originated Alpha Flight , about a team of Canadian superheroes .
= = = = 1990s = = = =
In 1990 , Montreal @-@ based publisher Drawn and Quarterly began with an anthology title also named Drawn and Quarterly . It quickly picked up a number of other titles , such as Julie Doucet 's semi @-@ autobiographical , bilingual Dirty Plotte , which , like Yummy Fur , had started out as a minicomic ; Seth 's Palookaville ; illegal resident from the US Joe Matt 's Peepshow ; and Yummy Fur , which made the jump with its twenty @-@ fifth issue . At the time , an autobiographical comics trend took place . Brown , Seth and Matt in particular were thought of as a Toronto comics rat pack , depicting one another in their comics and doing signings and interviews together .
Drawn and Quarterly was at the forefront of the maturation comic books saw in the 1990s , publishing and promoting the works of adult @-@ oriented Canadian and international artists . The publisher avoided genres like superheroes , which publisher Chris Oliveros saw as stifling comics ' growth . These comics had artistic aspirations , and graphic novels became increasingly prominent , with Brown 's autobiographical The Playboy and I Never Liked You , and Seth 's faux @-@ autobiographical It 's a Good Life , If You Don 't Weaken garnering considerable attention .
Todd McFarlane from Calgary had been making waves since the late 1980s illustrating comics for DC and Marvel Comics , becoming a fan favourite writer / artist for Spider @-@ Man . He eventually left to co @-@ found the creator @-@ owned comics publishing collective Image Comics , where he debuted the enormously successful Spawn . Spawn holds the record for most copies sold of an independent comic , and was the most financially successful comics franchise of the decade .
= = = = 21st century = = = =
At the dawn of the 21st Century , the comics industry had changed considerably . The graphic novel had come into its own , and traditional comics sales dropped significantly . Louis Riel , who had been a major target of John Bengough 's caricatures in the early days of Confederation , was the protagonist in Chester Brown 's award @-@ winning , best @-@ selling " comic @-@ strip biography " . With his graphic novels and book collections , he gained a wider audience than he had with his serial comic books , and he abandoned serial comics entirely to focus on original graphic novels after Louis Riel . Greater appreciation of the artform was shown when Brown and Seth became recipients of grants from the Canada Council for the Arts . Dave Sim 's Cerebus completed its planned 26 @-@ year , 300 @-@ issue run in 2004 .
Foreign comics , especially Japanese , became quite successful in Canada , and stood out for gaining large numbers of female fans , who had traditionally stayed away from comic books . They also had a significant influence on artists such as Bryan Lee O 'Malley and his Scott Pilgrim series . Due to differing social norms , the content of these comics are sometimes censored or ran afoul of Canadian customs officials . Incidental nudity could be interpreted by them as child pornography and result in jail terms .
Drawn and Quarterly has become known as a house for art comics , translations of non @-@ English works , like Montrealer Michel Rabagliati 's Paul series , and archive editions of classic comics , such as Wright 's Little Nipper . The publisher has earned a reputation for the special attention they put into book design , and has played a pivotal rôle in shaping comics ' rise in artistic prominence , and in getting comics into mainstream book stores in both Canada and the US . D & Q publisher Chris Oliveros , along with Art Spiegelman , lobbied bookstores to include a section for graphic novels , which would be subdivided by subject .
Webcomics , such as Kate Beaton 's Hark ! A Vagrant , Ryan Sohmer and Lar deSouza 's Looking for Group , and Karl Kerschl 's The Abominable Charles Christopher , became an increasingly popular outlet for Canadian cartoonists . The popularity of Beaton 's work has led to it being published in book form , with Time magazine placing it in the top 10 fiction books of 2011 .
The comics community in Canada has grown , and has grown appreciative of its talent , celebrating it with awards such as the Doug Wrights and Joe Shusters , as well as with classy events such as the international Toronto Comic Arts Festival , which has been cosponsored by the Toronto Public Library since 2009 .
= = = French Canada = = =
The comics of Québec , also known as " BDQ " ( bande dessinée québécoise ) , have followed a different path than those of English Canada . While newspapers tend to populate their funny pages with syndicated American comic strips , in general comics there have followed Franco @-@ Belgian comics , with The Adventures of Tintin and Asterix being particularly popular and influential . Comics also tend to be printed in the comic album format that is popular in Europe . Aside from humorous parodies , there is no superhero tradition in Québec comics .
= = = = Early history ( 1790s – 1960s ) = = = =
Québec comics have alternately flourished and languished , seeing several brief periods of intense activity followed by long periods of inundation with foreign content . Comics first appeared in the humour pages of newspapers in the 19th century , following the trends coming from Europe . In the late 19th Century , Henri Julien published two books of political caricatures , L ’ album drolatique du journal Le Farceur , after which the number of cartoonists began to increase in newspapers in Québec City and Montreal . 1904 saw , in the newspaper La Patrie , the publication of Les Aventures de Timothée ( The Adventures of Timothée ) by Albéric Bourgeois . This is said to be the first French @-@ language comic to feature speech balloons . Joseph Charlebois 's comic @-@ strip adaptation of Le Père Ladébauche ( Father Debauchery ) also debuted in 1904 , in La Presse , a popular strip that would last until 1957 .
Raoul Barré had the first comic strip to appear in a Québec daily newspaper in 1902 , called " Pour un dîner de Noël " ( " For a Christmas Dinner " ) . In 1912 , he created a strip called Noahzark Hotel for the New York @-@ based McClure Syndicate , which he brought to La Patrie in French the next year . Soon after he moved into animation , becoming an innovative pioneer in the field .
Québécois cartoonists would propose a number of strips to compete with the American strips that dominated the Sundays and dailies . The native Québec presence on those pages would become more dominant after 1940 , however , with the introduction of the War Exchange Conservation Act , which restricted the import of foreign strips . Albert Chartier created the comical character Onésime in 1943 , a strip that would have the longest run of any in Québec . After World War II , during the Great Darkness , comics publication became dominated with religious comics , most of which were imported from the US . Native Québec comics did flourish for a brief period between 1955 and 1960 , however , but were soon replaced again with American content , while also facing competition from the new Franco @-@ Belgian publications , which appeared in full @-@ colour , and by the mid @-@ 1960s had put the local Catholic publications out of business .
= = = = Springtime of BDQ ( 1970s – present ) = = = =
The revolutionary 1960s and the Quiet Revolution in Québéc saw a new vigour in BDQ . What Georges Raby called the Spring of Québécois comics ( printemps de la BD québécoise ) is said to have begun in 1968 with the creation of the group Chiendent , who published in La Presse and Dimanche @-@ Magazine . Jacques Hurtubise ( Zyx ) , Réal Godbout , Gilles Thibault , and Jacques Boivin were particularly notable cartoonists , and numerous short @-@ lived publications with strange names appeared , like Ma ® de in Québec and L 'Hydrocéphale illustré . The comics no longer focused on younger audiences , instead seeking confrontation or experimenting with graphics , drawing influence from French comics for mature audiences like those published in Pilote magazine , as well as translations of American undergrounds , translations of which were published in the journal Mainmise . During the 1970s , BDQ were sometimes called " BDK " , bande dessinée kébécoise .
In 1979 , Jacques Hurtubise , Pierre Huet and Hélène Fleury would establish the long @-@ lived , satirical Croc , which published many leading talents of the era , many of whom were able to launch their careers through the magazine 's help . Croc begat another magazine , Titanic , dedicated to comic strips , and in 1987 , Safarir , a Mad @-@ like publication patterned after the French Hara @-@ Kiri , rose in competition with Croc . By the mid @-@ 1980s , a number of professional comics publishers began to flourish .
In Montreal in the 1980s and 1990s , in parallel to mainstream humour magazines , a healthy underground scene developed , and self @-@ published fanzines proliferated . Julie Doucet , Henriette Valium , Luc Giard , Éric Thériault , Gavin McInnes and Siris were among the names that were discovered in the small press publications .
In the 21st Century , Michel Rabagliati and his semi @-@ autobiographical Paul series has seen Tintin @-@ like sales levels in Québec , and his books have been published in English by Drawn and Quarterly .
Around the turn of the century , the government of Québec mandated La Fondation du 9e art ( " The 9th Art Foundation " ) to promote francophone cartoonists in North America . There have also emerged events such as the Festival de la bande dessinée francophone de Québec in Québec City and la Zone internationale du neuvième art ( ZINA ) .
= = Publication , promotion and distribution = =
As in the US , large Canadian newspapers typically have a page of comic strips in their daily editions and a full @-@ colour Sunday comics section on Saturdays or Sundays . Editorial cartoonists are also common ; the Association of Canadian Editorial Cartoonists is a professional association founded in 1988 to promote their interests .
There are a number of English- and French @-@ language publishers active in Canadian comics . Drawn and Quarterly is a Montreal @-@ based English @-@ language publisher of arts comics , translations , and classic comic reprints . Founded by Chris Oliveros in 1990 , Drawn and Quarterly is one of the most influential publishers in alternative comics . Arcana Studio of British Columbia publishes a large number of titles , and Koyama Press joined the fray in 2007 . In French , Les 400 coups , Mécanique Générale , La Pastèque and the Québec arm of Glénat are amongst the active publishers . The small press has played an important rôle ; self @-@ publishing is a common means of putting out comics , largely influenced by the success of Dave Sim 's Cerebus . Minicomics is another form that has remained popular since the 1980s , when Chester Brown and Julie Doucet got started by distributing self @-@ published photocopied comics . The minicomics scene has been spurred on by Broken Pencil , a magazine dedicated to promoting the zines .
A number of fan conventions are held throughout Canada , including the Central Canada Comic Con , Fan Expo Canada , Montreal Comiccon , Paradise Comics Toronto Comicon , Ottawa Comiccon , and Toronto Comicon . The Toronto Comic Arts Festival ( TCAF ) , modeled after European festivals such as Angoulême and the American Small Press Expo , has grown since 2003 , and since 2009 has enjoyed the support of the Toronto Public Library .
= = = Awards = = =
A number of awards for Canadian comics and cartooning have appeared , especially since the beginning of the 21st Century .
The National Newspaper Awards was established in 1949 with a category for Editorial Cartooning honouring those that " embody an idea made clearly apparent , good drawing , and striking pictorial effect in the public interest " . The award 's first recipient was Jack Booth of the Globe and Mail .
The Bédélys Prize ( French : Prix Bédélys ) has been awarded to French @-@ language comics since 2000 . It comes with bursaries for the Prix Bédélys Québec ( for Best Book from Québec ) and Prix Bédélys Fanzine .
Since 2005 the Joe Shuster Awards have been handed out by the Canadian Comic Book Creator Awards Association , named after the Toronto @-@ born co @-@ creator of Superman . It is open to all Canadians , including those living abroad , as well as permanent residents , for comics in any language . Along with awards for Outstanding Cartoonist , Outstanding Writer , Outstanding Artist and others , it also features the Joe Shuster Hall of Fame , and the Harry Kremer Retailer Award , named after the founder of Canada 's oldest surviving comic shop .
The Doug Wright Awards also began in 2005 . Awards are given for Best Book , Best Emerging Talent , and since 2008 the Pigskin Peters Award for non @-@ narrative ( or nominally @-@ narrative ) comics ; Pigskin Peters was a character in Jimmy Frise 's Birdseye Center . The Doug Wright Awards also inducts cartoonists into Giants of the North : The Canadian Cartoonist Hall of Fame .
= = Academia = =
From the 1990s onward an increasing amount of literature on Canadian comics has appeared , in both official languages . Books such as Guardians of the North ( 1992 ) and Invaders from the North ( 2006 ) appeared by comics historian John Bell , who became senior archivist at Library and Archives Canada in Ottawa . American magazine Alter Ego ran a special issue on Canadian comics in 2004 . In French , Michel Viau wrote a book on francophone comics called BDQ : Répertoire des publications de bandes dessinées au Québec des origines à nos jours ( 2000 ) . Bart Beaty and Jeet Heer have been writing about comics academically and professionally , and regularly have articles educating the public on comics published in newspapers such as the National Post and the Boston Globe , as well as comics and literary magazines . Canadian feminist scholars such as Mary Louise Adams , Mona Gleason , and Janice Dickin McGinnis have done research into the anti @-@ crime comics campaigns of the late 1940s and 1950s , from the point of view of the moral panic and social and legal history of the era , and the sociology of sexuality .
= = = English = = =
Bell , John ( 1992 ) . Guardians of the North : The National Superhero in Canadian Comic @-@ Book Art . National Archives of Canada . ISBN 0 @-@ 662 @-@ 19347 @-@ 4 .
Bell , John ( 1986 ) . Canuck Comics : A Guide to Comic Books Published in Canada . Matrix Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 921101 @-@ 00 @-@ 7 .
Desbarats , Peter ; Mosher , Terry ( 1979 ) . The Hecklers : A History of Canadian Political Cartooning . McClelland and Stewart . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7710 @-@ 2686 @-@ 7 .
Hirsh , Michael ; Loubert , Patrick ( 1971 ) . The Great Canadian Comic Books . Peter Martin Associates . ISBN 0 @-@ 88778 @-@ 065 @-@ 2 .
Theaker , Dan ( 1986 ) . An Introduction to Canadian Comic Books : A Bibliography and Price Guide to Canadian Comic Books , 1941 @-@ 1985 . Aurora Books .
= = = French = = =
Dubois , B. ( 1996 ) . Bande dessinée québécoise : répertoire bibliographique à suivre ( in French ) . Sillery : éditions D.B.K.
Falardeau , Mira ( 1994 ) . La Bande dessinée au Québec ( in French ) . Boréal .
Falardeau , Mira ( 2008 ) . Histoire de la bande dessinée au Québec ( in French ) . Montreal : VLB éditeur , collection Études québécoises .
Giguère , Michel ( 2005 ) . La bande dessinée , populaire et méconnue ( in French ) . Cahier de référence du programme de perfectionnement professionnel ALQ .
Viau , Michel ( 1999 ) . BDQ : Répertoire des publications de bandes dessinées au Québec des origines à nos jours ( in French ) . Éditions Mille @-@ Îles . ISBN 2 @-@ 920993 @-@ 38 @-@ 0 .
Viau , Michel ( 2007 ) . " Grande presse et petits bonhommes , la naissance de la BDQ " . Formule Un ( in French ) . Mécanique Générale .
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= The Goldberg Variation ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" The Goldberg Variation " is the sixth episode of the seventh season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network in the United States on December 12 , 1999 . It was written by Jeffrey Bell , directed by Thomas J. Wright , and featured guest appearances by Willie Garson and Shia LaBeouf . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " The Goldberg Variation " earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 8 , being watched by 14 @.@ 49 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mixed @-@ to @-@ positive reviews .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Mulder and Scully investigate a mysterious man named Henry Weems , who appears to be the luckiest man in the world . The title is a dual reference to Rube Goldberg machines and the Goldberg Variations by Johann Sebastian Bach .
Bell 's original draft of the episode opened with a man falling thirty @-@ thousand feet from an airplane and walking away unharmed . Due to budgetary reasons , the intro was later changed to a man falling out of a building . Willie Garson — who had appeared in the third season episode " The Walk " — was cast as Henry Weems , breaking a " long @-@ standing rule " on the show to not recast previous actors . The first cut of the episode was four minutes under @-@ time , and so various insert shots and new scenes had to be filmed in order to compensate .
= = Plot = =
In Chicago , a man by the name of Henry Weems wins $ 100 @,@ 000 playing poker against a mobster named Joe Cutrona , though Weems appears ignorant of the basic rules of poker . Suspecting that Weems cheated , Cutrona attempts to kill him by throwing him off the 29th story of the building they are in . After Weems lands in an access hatch to a basement , he stands right back up and walks away , completely uninjured . Two agents in a car stationed outside witness the event and eventually tell Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , who promptly take the case . Mulder initially believes the man has the ability to cure himself , but Scully thinks he may just be very lucky by landing in a pile of laundry that was right under the access hatch .
The agents track down Weems , a handyman at an apartment building . He refuses to testify against Cutrona . Weems has a fascination with Rube Goldberg machines . As such , his apartment is filled with them . After meeting with Weems , Scully concludes that there is no X @-@ File , but Mulder believes that his luck is the X @-@ File in question . As the agents begin to leave the complex , one of Cutrona 's enforcers comes to kill Weems . However , the assassin dies in an improbable cascade of events reminiscent of a Rube Goldberg machine : after being distracted when Mulder buzzes the intercom ( when he forgot the car keys ) , he accidentally shoots a lamp that knocks over an ironing board , then trips over the ironing board and ends up getting strangled in a fan . The two agents rush back up stairs and find Weems unscathed . Weems notes he was also the sole survivor of a commuter jet crash that killed 20 people in December 1989 , where he was placed in Seat 13 of Flight 7 : lucky numbers .
Weems picks up a lottery ticket and wins $ 100 @,@ 000 but learns that it would take 12 months to get the money , so he throws the ticket away . A man picks the ticket out of the trash and is then hit by a truck after Weems warned him ( to no avail ) that " something bad will happen . " Later , Mulder comes to question Weems again and another one of Cutrona 's enforcers comes to kill Weems but his bullet ricochets off Weems ' pocket knife , barely grazes Mulder 's arm , and hits and kills the enforcer . Weems confesses that he 's been trying to find a way to get $ 100 @,@ 000 to pay for an expensive medical treatment for the serious illness of a boy in his apartment building named Richie ( Shia LaBeouf ) . Weems attempts at getting the money , however , have brought him above the radar . Later , after Weems is hit by a car , it appears that Henry 's lucky streak has reached its end . Cutrona kidnaps Richie 's mom , Maggie , to stop Henry from testifying against him . Weems turns himself in to Cutrona so he would let Maggie go ; instead , they plan to kill him . As they are about to execute Weems in the basement ( where Maggie is also being held ) , Cutrona and his mobster partner , Dominic , are killed in a bizarre turn of events , whereas Weems and Maggie are unharmed as Mulder arrives with backup . In the end , it turns out by surprise that Cutrona is an organ donor and a perfect match for Richie , who gets the treatment and lives . Weems then activates a toy Goldberg machine that he made for Richie earlier .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The episode 's title is a pun . It refers to both cartoonist Rube Goldberg , who was famous for his drawings of incredibly complex machines made out of everyday objects that performed rudimentary tasks , as well as the harpsichord piece , the " Goldberg Variations " , by Johann Sebastian Bach . The elaborate contraptions Henry Weems created are physical examples of such machines . Episode writer Jeffrey Bell noted that he wanted the episode to function " as a Rube Goldberg device " and so he wrote the story to revolve around the ideas of good luck and bad luck . Originally , the episode 's opening scene was to have featured Weems falling thirty thousand feet from an airplane and walking away unscathed . Although Bell 's pitch was met with enthusiasm , many writers and producers for the show were cautious , because they realized the episode would have several humorous moments . Executive producer Frank Spotnitz explained : " The episode had a lot of humorous moments that we were afraid of doing because as many people who like the funny ones hate the funny ones . " Eventually , the episode was green @-@ lighted , but pushed to later in the season because , according to Spotnitz , " we wanted to scare the hell out of everybody during the first few episodes . "
Bell began crafting his script , adding a mafia @-@ related sub @-@ plot and replacing the airplane drop with a fall from a building , for budgetary reasons . The biggest hurdle for the episode , however , was crafting the Rube Goldberg machine . However , because Bell had " extra time " to write his script , the art department was given a head start on crafting the contraption . Gillian Anderson later explained that working with the machines required a lot of patience , because multiple takes had to be filmed in order to make sure everything went as planned . Rick Millikan , the show 's casting director , broke a " long @-@ standing rule " on the show and re @-@ cast Willie Garson — who had appeared in the third season episode " The Walk " — as Henry Weems . Millikan noted that Garson was " literally the best person for the job . "
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
After the episode was finished filming , the footage entered into a long period of editing . Series creator Chris Carter noted that the episode " wasn 't cutting together well and that there were things that just didn 't work . " Once the resultant footage was reworked into an acceptable episode , it was four minutes under time . In order to compensate for this , additional inserts of the Rube Goldberg Machine were filmed as well as a scene featuring Mulder and Scully discussing the episode 's back @-@ story . The latter , which was filmed several months after the rest of the episode , required Anderson to wear a wig because her hair style had substantially changed .
When the episode was finally finished and aired , it was highly enjoyed by The X @-@ Files cast and crew . Carter called the entry " tight , funny , touching , and quirky . " Series writer Vince Gilligan was impressed with the episode , and noted that the episode represented the seventh season of the show as whole . He explained : " The seventh season , for my money , was one of our best because we took more storytelling risks than in previous years . "
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Goldberg Variation " first aired in the United States on December 12 , 1999 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 8 , with a 13 share , meaning that roughly 8 @.@ 8 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 13 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 14 @.@ 49 million viewers . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on April 23 , 2000 and received 0 @.@ 78 million viewers , making it the fifth most watched episode that week .
The episode received mixed @-@ to @-@ positive reviews . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , gave the episode a largely positive review . He favorably compared the episode to the sixth season episode " The Rain King " and noted that " ' The Rain King ' [ written by Jeff Bell ] was quite simply one of the joys of season six . So it hardly came as a surprise to me that I enjoyed Bell 's ' The Goldberg Variation " entry for [ season seven ] . It was cute , light @-@ hearted , and a little kooky , with a happy ending to boot . " Den of Geek writer Juliette Harrisson named the episode the " finest stand @-@ alone episode " of Season Seven and wrote , " Since ' The X @-@ Files ’ roots are in horror , feel @-@ good episodes are few and far between , and something to be treasured when they appear . The Goldberg Variation is the perfect feel @-@ good X @-@ Files episode ; not too soppy , not too harsh , but just the right mix of ludicrous gangster deaths and saving the cute kid . " Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a moderately positive review and awarded it three stars out of four . She called the episode a " charmer " and praised Willie Garson 's characterization of Harry Weems . Kenneth Silber from Space.com wrote positively of the episode , writing , " ' The Goldberg Variation ' is a clever , witty standout from the recent middling run of X @-@ Files episodes . " Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B + " and called it a " fun " entry that shows off the series ' " emotional palette " . He felt that the episode successfully managed to convey a " clever and whimsical " feel , but that the conceit of a " good man " as the monster of the episode does not make it particularly scary . All @-@ in @-@ all , he felt that it " all works out in the end " .
Other reviews were more mixed . Rich Rosell from Digitally Obsessed awarded the episode 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and noted that despite the episode being " Funny stuff , " it was ultimately " a little uneven overall . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three stars out of five . Despite calling the episode " a likeable piece of work " , the two explained that the story itself was fine , but that the episode 's set piece did not work with the plot . Shearman and Pearson , however , ultimately concluded that the premise was " such a well @-@ meaning little bauble that you want to applaud it for its intent if nothing else . "
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= Eagle ( British comics ) =
Eagle was a seminal British children 's British comics periodical , first published from 1950 to 1969 , and then in a relaunched format from 1982 to 1994 . It was founded by Marcus Morris , an Anglican vicar from Lancashire . Morris edited a Southport parish magazine called The Anvil , but felt that the church was not communicating its message effectively . Simultaneously disillusioned with contemporary children 's literature , he and Anvil artist Frank Hampson created a dummy comic based on Christian values . Morris solicited the idea to several Fleet Street publishers , with little success , until Hulton Press took it on .
Following a huge publicity campaign , the first issue of Eagle was released in April 1950 . Revolutionary in its presentation and content , it was enormously successful ; the first issue sold about 900 @,@ 000 copies . Featured in colour on the front cover was its most recognisable story , Dan Dare , Pilot of the Future , created by Hampson with meticulous attention to detail . Other popular stories included Riders of the Range and P.C. 49 . Eagle also contained news and sport sections , and educational cutaway diagrams of sophisticated machinery . A members club was created , and a range of related merchandise was licensed for sale .
Amidst a takeover of the periodical 's publisher and a series of acrimonious disputes , Morris left in 1959 ; Hampson followed shortly thereafter . Although Eagle continued in various forms , a perceived lowering of editorial standards preceded plummeting sales , and it was eventually subsumed by its rival , Lion , in 1969 . Eagle was relaunched in 1982 and ran for over 500 issues before being dropped by its publisher in 1994 .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Eagle was founded by John Marcus Harston Morris ( 1915 – 1989 ) . Morris was born in the Lancashire town of Preston , and in 1918 moved to Southport . He graduated from Brasenose College , Oxford with a second @-@ class degree in Literae Humaniores , and at Wycliffe Hall gained a second in theology in 1939 . He became a priest the following year , and served as a chaplain in the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve from 1941 to 1943 .
In 1945 he became vicar of St. James ' Church in Birkdale . Morris had long felt that the Anglican church was not publicising its message effectively enough ; four years earlier he had written an unpublished article , intended for the Yarmouth Mercury and entitled Christian Hypocrisy , in which he questioned the difference that the Christian church had made to society in general . Morris also felt that the church was completely out of touch with the people whom it was supposed to represent . He gradually expanded the parish magazine — printed on four pages of cheap paper — into The Anvil , a widely circulated Christian magazine based on Lilliput . Morris managed to employ several notable contributors on Anvil , such as C. S. Lewis , and Harold Macmillan . In 1948 he employed young artist Frank Hampson , a war veteran who had enrolled at the Southport School of Arts and Crafts , where he was described by his tutor as an " outstanding draughtsman ' prepared to go to endless trouble to get a thing right ' " . He worked as the illustrator on Anvil , and later became the full @-@ time artist for Interim , a Christian publicity society formed during a conference of diocesan editors , with ambitions to produce a strip cartoon magazine aimed at children .
Children 's comics such as The Rover , The Hotspur , Schoolgirls ' Own , The Magnet and Adventure usually contained a mixture of adventure stories , presented as text rather than strip cartoons , and some British boys were buying American horror comics produced for G.I.s. Morris was impressed by the high standard of artwork in the US magazines , but disgusted by their content , which he described as " deplorable , nastily over @-@ violent and obscene , often with undue emphasis on the supernatural and magical as a way of solving problems . " He realised that a market existed for a children 's comics periodical which featured action stories in cartoon form , but which also would convey to children the standards and morals he advocated . Morris was instrumental in launching the short @-@ lived Society for Christian Publicity , formed to take control of The Anvil and to perhaps produce further Christian publications , and in January 1949 the Daily Mirror published an optimistic piece about the rumoured publication by the Society of a " new children 's comic " . This intrigued local journalist Norman Price , and the following month he met Morris , and helped him express his desire to see such a magazine by co @-@ writing with him " Comics that bring horror to the nursery " , published in the Sunday Despatch . Morris 's article provoked a strong reaction from its readers ; letters of support flooded into his home .
Morris envisioned a character called Lex Christian , " a tough , fighting parson in the slums of the East End of London " , whose adventures would be told in strip cartoon form , illustrated by Hampson . The idea gained the support of Terence Horsley , editor of the Sunday Empire News , but Horsley was killed in a gliding accident shortly thereafter . Morris met Hampson and proposed instead an entirely new children 's publication . Hampson was enthusiastic about the idea , and in May that year the two began work on a dummy of it . Lex Christian became Chaplain Dan Dare of the Inter @-@ Planet Patrol , and featured on the cover . On the inside , two pages of Secret City featured a character named Jimmy Swift , and on the back page was a religious story about Saint Paul . Short strips included Joe from Strawberry Farm , and Ernie , Always Unlucky . Other features included Morris 's Editor 's Letter , as well as a range of news articles . Three photocopies of the dummy were made , each hand @-@ coloured by Hampson .
By then deeply in debt from the publication of The Anvil and the production costs of the dummy , Morris formed Anvil Productions Ltd . Its prospectus declared " The Company proposes to publish a new children 's coloured ' comic ' paper , which will be of a much higher and more mature quality than anything published in England and in appearance and format will be modelled more on the American comic papers which are so far in advance of our own . " Initially he sought to keep the project under his control , but his escalating debts forced him to try to sell the idea . To that end , he made several trips to London , where — armed with the dummy — he pitched his idea to several Fleet Street publishers . He met John Myers at Hulton Press , who referred him to Montague Haydon at Amalgamated Press . He then met Neville Pearson at George Newnes , Ltd . , whose executives claimed that the publication was " not an economic proposition " . The US comics reprinter Boardmans was next , followed by Mike Wardell of the Sporting Record . Neither The Times nor The Daily Telegraph were interested , and at The Sunday Times the personal assistant to Gomer Berry , 1st Viscount Kemsley , presumed that Morris was asking for a charitable donation . In autumn 1949 however , Hulton Press contacted Morris with the instruction " definitely interested do not approach any other publisher " .
= = = 1950 – 1969 = = =
In October that year Morris sold The Anvil — by then selling about 3 @,@ 560 copies monthly — for £ 1 @,@ 250 , plus a £ 200 annual contract to continue as editor . Morris wanted to produce a comic the pages of which would be filled with role models whose behaviour and moral outlook he felt was socially desirable . Foreigners would not be depicted as either enemies or villains , and at least one child in any group of children would be from an ethnic minority . Religious values would not be imposed upon the reader , although their underlying moral tones would be made obvious on each page . These were innovative but somewhat risky ideas , as nothing similar existed in the market , and Hulton therefore commissioned extensive research into the new comic , which by then , inspired by the design of her church lectern , had been christened Eagle by Hampson 's wife . Layout and typography were designed by Morris 's friend , Ruari McLean , assisted by Charles Green , and faced with an initial print run of 1 million copies , Aintree printer Eric Bemrose designed and built a new ten @-@ unit rotogravure machine in about twelve weeks . The comic was heavily publicised before its release ; copies were mailed direct to several hundred thousand people who worked with children , and a " Hunt the Eagle " scheme was launched , whereby large papier @-@ mâché golden eagles were set on top of several Humber Hawk cars , and toured across the UK . Those who spotted an eagle were offered tokens worth 3d , which could be exchanged at newsagents for a free copy of Eagle .
Despite its relatively high price , the comic was an immediate success ; released on 14 April 1950 , and despite government paper quotas , the first issue sold about 900 @,@ 000 copies . Eight of its twenty pages were presented in four @-@ colour rotogravure . Eagle was designed to entertain and educate its readers ; although a typical issue might contain such characters as Cavendish Brown , Harris Tweed , Jack O 'Lantern , Storm Nelson and Luck of the Legion , it also included a special news section , a sports page , and school stories . Each issue also featured a centre @-@ spread full @-@ colour cutaway illustration of a piece of machinery — the first detailed the inner workings of the British Rail 18000 locomotive . Such high quality strips as Riders of the Range and P.C. 49 helped ensure a weekly circulation of almost a million copies , but it was the adventures of Dan Dare , Pilot of the Future , which most captivated readers . Created by Hampson — now a full @-@ time staff artist with his own team — Dan Dare was the UK 's first science @-@ fiction comic strip of any significance . Readers were thrilled by the square @-@ jawed British spaceman 's weekly exploits , and his struggles with The Mekon .
While Morris ( who by now had resigned from St James ) edited the magazine from Hulton 's premises at Shoe Lane in London , the comic was created in a converted bakery in the Churchtown district of Southport . The building was described by Eagle artist Greta Tomlinson as " very basic , a flagstone floor and a tin roof ; there was cold running water in the corner . It was freezing cold in the winter and boiling hot in the summer " . Working to a tight schedule , Hampson created each Dan Dare episode first in pencil , and then in ink and colour . He and his team of artists posed for photographs , in the positions drawn in his pencil sketches ( Hampson usually posed for Dan Dare ) . These photographs were combined with the rough sketches , and his colleagues then worked on the strip while he tackled the opening frame of each week 's story . His drawings of the technology Dan Dare employed were meticulous , and were based on a large body of research and reference material , as well as space ship models , plaster heads , mocked @-@ up space suits , and a complete model of a space station . He also wrote the dialogue for several of the comic 's pages . Hampson was assisted in his work by expert consultants , among them Arthur C. Clarke ( then an aspiring young science fiction writer ) . Scriptwriters included Anglican priest Chad Varah ( founder of Samaritans ) . Varah also accompanied Morris on tours of Cathedrals often filled with Eagle readers keen to meet the comic 's creators . Peter Ling and Macdonald Hastings were contributors , as was Harris Tweed 's creator John Ryan , who was also responsible for Captain Pugwash , printed in the first 19 issues .
Children were encouraged to submit their good deeds to the comic ; those that had their stories printed were called MUGs , a not @-@ so @-@ subtle dig at the " spivs " who made fun of them . The best of these stories were awarded the title of " MUG of the Month " , or " MUG of the Year " . Readers were also invited to join an Eagle club . Upon payment of a subscription , members would be given a gilt Eagle badge , a rulebook , and a list of privileges . The club proved extremely popular , attracting within months a membership of about 100 @,@ 000 , but it also served as a research tool for Hulton ; questionnaires were sent to a random selection of members , asking each to rate certain aspects of the comic . Eagle 's production costs were funded partly by advertising revenue , although advertisers were required to integrate their designs so as to match the comic 's high standards . Another of Hampson 's strips , Tommy Walls , was the first commercial cartoon in any comic , and an obvious advertisement for Wall 's ice cream . Eagle also spawned a large range of merchandise , which included toothpaste , pyjamas , and toy ray guns . Several annuals were printed ; the first was announced in a September 1951 issue , in Morris 's regular letter to his readers .
Eagle became immensely popular with people of all ages and walks of life . Copies brought into school regularly found their way into the hands of staff , who enjoyed them almost as much as the children they taught . The Lancet reported on one doctor who read Eagle on his rounds . It was sent to soldiers in Korea , to refugee camps , and was praised by Geoffrey Grigson on the BBC Home Service . Wolf Mankowitz proclaimed Dan Dare a " Hero of Our Time " , and the Earl of Jellicoe was reported to have read the comic in the library of Westminster Palace . Lord Mountbatten supposedly placed a subscription order for his nephew , Prince Charles , and on one occasion rang Hulton to complain that the comic had not arrived ; a replacement was quickly despatched . Years later Morris sent the prince a copy of The Best of Eagle ( 1977 ) ; Charles replied and thanked him for the " fond memories " . The comic was not universally popular , however , as it was quickly banned in South Africa .
Despite settling some of his debts , Morris once again found himself in financial trouble , with unexpected tax bills and arguments with Hulton over payments . In 1955 he sold the copyright of his signature to Hulton for £ 7 @,@ 250 ( a portion of which was a loan ) . 45 % of his £ 5 @,@ 000 per annum salary was paid to the taxman . With only one other profit @-@ making magazine ( Farmers Weekly ) , Hulton sought to curb Eagle 's costs , complaining about the use of taxis , expensive stationery , electricity and telephone bills , restaurant bills , and staff expenses . At their 1957 AGM Hulton 's Chairman reported a fall in profits , from £ 298 @,@ 000 to £ 36 @,@ 000 , blaming reduced revenue from another of their magazines , Picture Post , and increased production costs . Several of Morris 's friends later left the company , and following a short period of internal turmoil Morris gave up the editor 's chair in 1959 . The following year Eagle was taken over by Odhams Press . Hampson 's studio ( by then in Epsom ) was disbanded , and following creative differences he retired from the comic . His duties on Dan Dare were taken up by Frank Bellamy , described by Morris as " a most fastidious artist and scrupulous draftsman , and like Hampson at his best , often consumed with anxiety . " With Keith Watson and Don Harley , the three worked from a studio in Fleet Street . The front cover was redesigned , the Eagle name appearing across the top of the page rather than in one corner , coinciding with a new @-@ look Dare . Many readers found Bellamy 's changes to Dare ( made at the behest of Eagle 's publisher ) objectionable . Bellamy was succeeded by Harley , who in 1962 was followed by Watson , who had returned from a short stint working on Eagle 's rival , Lion . Watson stopped drawing Dan Dare in 1967 , and was succeeded by Bruce Cornwell . Following Hampson 's departure , the emphasis on Dan Dare 's exploration of the Solar System had changed instead to include interstellar travel . Continuity became strained , and production on Dan Dare ceased in 1967 , when it was replaced by reprints from earlier editions .
Eagle continued to be published through the 1960s , under a succession of editors ( Morris was succeeded by his deputy , Clifford Makins ) . Regular changes in emphasis , including an increasing number of features on contemporary music and sport , were not enough to ensure the comic 's continued survival . Although in 1961 its circulation was still about 500 @,@ 000 , under IPC , then Eagle 's owners , the comic suffered a drastic fall in quality . The centre spreads were replaced with the historically inaccurate Last of The Saxon Kings , and letters of complaint poured in to the comic . Within months the comic 's circulation fell to 150 @,@ 000 , and continued to drop . By 1966 it was in decline . IPC continued production until the comic 's last issue , on 26 April 1969 . Nine issues short of its 1,000th edition , the comic was merged with its rival , IPC 's Lion .
= = = 1982 – 1994 = = =
A modified Dan Dare was briefly featured in IPC Media 's 2000 AD ( 1977 – 1979 ) . The public reaction to this , along with news of a planned television series , persuaded IPC 's comic arm Fleetway to relaunch Eagle in 1982 , as a weekly pulp comic . The original Dan Dare was no longer a feature of the comic , his eponymous great @-@ great grandson taking on the mantle of space explorer instead . Drawn by Gerry Embleton , and later Ian Kennedy , and set 200 years after the original story , the first story @-@ arc featured the return of Dan Dare 's earliest nemesis , The Mekon . IPC were unable to recreate the popularity of the original strip , and in 1989 the original Dan Dare returned to the comic , in a six @-@ part story illustrated by original Eagle artist Keith Watson .
In an attempt to emulate the success that Fleetway had had with girls ' magazines , the relaunched Eagle initially contained a large number of photo stories such as Doomlord , Sgt. Streetwise and Manix , but this style was soon replaced by the more traditional comic @-@ strip format . Along with IPC 's entire comics line , Eagle was sold to Robert Maxwell in 1987 . Although not as successful as its predecessor , over 500 issues were published . A change to a monthly anthology caused by falling sales was a portent of the comic 's future . Toward the end of its life issues contained reprints of earlier work , alongside new Dan Dare stories written by Tom Tully and illustrated by David Pugh . The relaunched Eagle was dropped in 1994 .
= = Legacy = =
Eagle inspired several imitators , such as Valiant , Tiger , and Lion ( which featured a Dan Dare clone , " Captain Condor " ) but such adventure tales were less palatable for girls . Female characters like Dan Dare 's Professor Peabody ( one of only two female main characters in the strip ) , were generally given less important roles than the men , and as a result a trend developed toward producing comics aimed specifically at either boys or girls . Girl , a sister title to Eagle , appeared in November 1951 , and featured youthful capers in boarding schools , and tales of equestrian adventure . Later comics such as Jackie , descended from contemporary women 's magazines , were more cosmopolitan in flavour . Girl was followed in 1953 by Robin , which was aimed at younger children , and in March 1954 by Swift , for older readers .
Eagle 's previously unheard @-@ of circulation figures helped define the content of most comics produced during the 1950s , including war . In contrast to other , earlier publications , Eagle attempted to educate the reader with factual , text @-@ based historical stories , such as the life of Winston Churchill , as presented in " The Happy Warrior . " A detailed account of the Second World War was given , while one strip lambasted German paratroopers , who on seeing British infantry below them , shouted " Donner und Blitzen ! Der Englander ! " During the mid @-@ 1950s however , comics began sensationalising their covers with war imagery , and Eagle followed suit in the 1960s .
Morris went on to become editorial director of the National Magazine Company , and later its managing director and editor @-@ in @-@ chief . He launched Cosmopolitan in the UK , and with Condé Nast he formed COMAG , one of the UK 's largest media distribution companies . He was appointed OBE in 1983 , retired the following year , and died in March 1989 . Despite his later work however , he is best remembered as the founder of Eagle . His memorial service at St Bride 's Church in Fleet Street was filled to overflowing .
Hampson was embittered by his departure from Eagle . Although he created Dan Dare , he and Morris had signed contracts which made the space adventurer the copyright of its publisher . This made it difficult for him to get hold of his original artwork , and excluded him from any profits Hulton made from the huge range of Dan Dare and Eagle merchandise it licensed . He called Odhams , the comic 's owner after 1960 , " Treens " . Hampson later worked on various advertising commissions , and illustrated seven Ladybird books . He recovered from cancer to become a graphics technician at Ewell Technical College , and in 1975 at the Lucca comics convention was declared as the best writer and illustrator of strip cartoons since the end of the Second World War . At the 1976 Comics 101 British comics convention he was given the Ally Sloper Award , as the best British strip cartoon artist . He died at Epsom in July 1985 . His original Dan Dare drawings now command high prices , and have inspired a range of modern artists ;
Gerald Scarfe and David Hockney were first published in Eagle . X @-@ Men comic scriptwriter Chris Claremont read and enjoyed Eagle , and cites Hampson 's work as influential on his career . Watchmen co @-@ creator Dave Gibbons has also praised Hampson 's work , and the author Tim Rice , in his foreword to Living with Eagles ( 1998 ) , cites the stories printed in Eagle as helping " me in my story @-@ telling efforts through musicals many years on . " Professor Stephen Hawking , when asked about the influence Dan Dare had on him , replied : " Why am I in cosmology ? " , and the entertainer Kenny Everett chose an Eagle Annual as his book on Desert Island Discs .
The comic industry 's Eagle Awards , first presented in the late 1970s , are named after Eagle , and a fan club , the Eagle Society , regularly publishes the quarterly Eagle Times .
= = Related publications = =
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= Veloz and Yolanda =
Frank Veloz ( 1902 – 1981 ) and Yolanda Casazza ( 1911 – 1995 ) were a self @-@ taught American ballroom dance team , husband and wife , who became stars in the 1930s and 1940s . They were among the highest paid dance acts during this period . They performed on stage in productions such as Hot @-@ Cha ! , which ran for 119 shows on Broadway in 1932 . They also appeared in popular films such as Under the Pampas Moon ( 1935 ) , The Pride of the Yankees ( 1942 ) , Honeymoon Lodge ( 1943 ) , Brazil ( 1944 ) and The Thrill of Brazil ( 1946 ) , the latter of which is credited as being of major importance to the growth in popularity of Samba in America .
Veloz and Yolanda specialized in Latin ballroom dance styles , and opened their own chain of dance studios , where many middle @-@ class people learned the art of ballroom dancing . The studios closed down in the mid @-@ 1950s as new forms of dance became popular . Veloz and Yolanda did much to legitimize ballroom dance as a performance art and invented the " Cobra Tango " , a dance which interpreted a fight between a snake and a tiger . A full @-@ length ballet written by their son Guy Veloz , An American Tango , is based on their life story .
= = Early years = =
Frank Veloz was born in Washington , D.C. in 1902 to a Spanish father and a Dutch mother . Yolanda Bianca was born in 1911 . One of six sisters , Yolanda was from an Italian family . They met at a high school sorority dance in the Collegiate Club on 84th street , Manhattan ; Yolanda was sixteen and a student at Washington Irving High School while Veloz was an office boy . They danced in public dance contests , at first without success , but then won forty competitions , with prizes of US $ 5 or US $ 10 . In 1927 , they won the New York City and State Championship . After this they lost their amateur status and could no longer enter the competitions .
At first , Veloz and Yolanda struggled as a professional team . Many of their engagements turned into disasters . Veloz and Yolanda featured in the 1927 Broadway show Artists and Models , starring Ted Lewis and Jack Pearl . In 1929 they were in Pleasure Bound , another revue , with Aileen Stanley , Jack Pearl and Phil Baker . The New York Times critic Brooks Atkinson described Pleasure Bound as a " rough @-@ and @-@ ready " revue , but called the act of Frank Veloz and Yolanda Casazza a has @-@ to @-@ be @-@ seen " centrifugal dance spinning feminine heels in the air " . The couple married in 1929 and soon began arguing over each other 's mistakes , even considering divorce .
= = Star performers = =
In the 1930s , Veloz and Yolanda performed at first in small night clubs in New York , and later at expensive supper clubs . They appeared as specialty dancers in the Broadway musical comedy Hot @-@ Cha ! which ran for 119 performances at the Ziegfeld Theatre between 8 March and 18 June 1932 . They got their break when they were performing at the Everglades in Manhattan and were spotted by the Shubert brothers . This led to a highly successful career on the stage , in films and in supper clubs . Veloz and Yolanda choreographed the dance sequences in the film Rumba ( Paramount , 1935 ) starring George Raft , and in some sequences Veloz doubled for Raft . The film Under the Pampas Moon ( Fox , 1935 ) starring Warner Baxter featured tango . Rita Cansino , later to achieve fame as Rita Hayworth , performed an exuberant blend of flamenco and tango . The high point of the movie was a performance of a " cobra @-@ tango " by Veloz and Yolanda .
As the leading ballroom dance team in the United States , Veloz and Yolanda made US $ 8 @,@ 500 in one week in Chicago in 1939 . They appeared on the cover of Life magazine on 30 October 1939 , which called them , " The greatest dance couple in America . " They were the first to give a recital of ballroom dance at Carnegie Hall They appeared at the Chicago Palmer House and then at the Cocoanut Grove in Hollywood . Veloz and Yolanda moved to Southern California in the 1940s . The Cocoanut Grove performances led to movie contracts , including Honeymoon Lodge , Cavalcade of Dance , The Pride of the Yankees , and The Thrill of Brazil . Samuel Goldwyn had insisted on having a nightclub sequence with Veloz and Yolanda in The Pride of the Yankees to give some interest for women in what was otherwise a baseball movie . They performed in Dancing with the Stars at the Hollywood Bowl in 1942 , 1944 and 1946 .
= = Other activities = =
Both Frank and Yolanda were Christian Scientists . Yolanda always carried a knitted bag with her that held the Bible and Science and Health . She attended the same Christian Science church as Ginger Rogers for many years . Off stage , she was quiet and modest , and wore plain clothes , saying that " pretty " clothes were for her performances . Her stage dresses , all designed by Frank , were exquisite . Their first child , Frank Jr . , was born in 1940 . They had four children in all , called the " million dollar babies " because of the amount of income the couple lost while Yolanda was pregnant and then nursing a newborn . Two of these children died in their twenties .
In 1938 , Veloz and Yolanda published a dance manual , Tango and Rumba : The Dances of Today and Tomorrow ( New York : Harper & Brothers ) , co @-@ written with Willard Hall . They hosted a TV show , The Veloz and Yolanda Hour , for several years . They opened a nightclub in Florida , The Iris . From the 1940s , the Veloz and Yolanda Dance Studios gave lessons in ballroom dancing for twelve hours each day , with the slogan " Walk In – Dance Out " . The studios taught the Rhumba , Waltz , Fox Trot , Smooth Swing , Tango , Samba and Mambo . With each style , the student had to learn a series of steps or combinations . They would progress through the grades of " ruby " and " emerald " to the ultimate " diamond " level .
In 1949 , when Yolanda was pregnant , Frank Veloz danced with Jean Davi ( born Jean Phelps ) on the first Academy of Television Arts & Sciences awards . Jean was a Hollywood Lindy dancer who trained in ballroom dancing at one of the Veloz and Yolanda dance schools . After Yolanda retired , Jean became Frank 's partner in stage and TV performances .
When the fashion for ballroom dancing declined , replaced by new forms of dance , the Veloz and Yolanda schools began to close . The marriage broke up in the mid @-@ 1950s . In 1956 Yolanda sued Veloz for maintenance , accusing him of infidelity with Jean Davi , his dancing partner . The suit was dismissed the next year . In 1962 Veloz , now aged sixty , sued for divorce on the basis of extreme cruelty by his wife . Yolanda , aged fifty , was to have custody of their minor children . Their children were Nicholas , 21 ; Anthony , 18 ; Yolanda , 16 and Guy , 12 . Frank later married his former dance partner , Jean , twenty years his younger .
Frank Veloz died in 1981 . Yolanda Casazza died in 1995 . A full @-@ length ballet written by their son Guy Veloz , An American Tango , is based on their life story .
= = Style and influence = =
Veloz and Yolanda did much to legitimize ballroom dance as a performance art . Veloz and Yolanda were interested in the way that animals move and were said to have studied horses to learn change of stride and tempo . They created the " Cobra Tango " , a dance that interpreted a fight between a snake and a tiger . Veloz and Yolanda were known in particular for their interpretations of Latin Dance . With the Columbia film The Thrill of Brazil they made the Samba popular in America . Their signature dance was the " Yolanda Tango " , written by Frank , with which they ended their dance performances . William Teaford and Elizabeth Talbot @-@ Martin said this dance epitomized their style and performance . They wrote , " There was one lift that was truly spectacular – Frank would pick up Yolanda , spin her with her head down , then throw her out where she landed on one knee in a low lunge , back leg extended . They never did any thing acrobatic , but this lift was spectacular . "
For Your Pleasure , a " dance vaudeville " featuring Veloz and Yolanda , opened at New York 's Mansfield Theater on 5 February 1943 and ran for eleven performances . They performed five dances , with Yolanda in a different gown for each . After seeing the show George Jean Nathan said , " ... it is my notion that this Veloz and Yolanda team is merely of the current average skill , not nearly so good as the De Marcos , that is , if it is Renée and not the present Sally who serves as Tony 's partner , yet somewhat better than some of the couples publicized in the floor shows . However The Billboard said of the show :
Smoothness is their trademark , and inventiveness of routines , excellent musical arrangements and impeccable grooming are the other attributes that make them outstanding . Avoiding aerial lifts , they depend for effectiveness on an effortless grace , the suggestion of the perfectly mated pair , and an apparent thoro [ sic ] enjoyment of their work .
= = Films = =
Veloz and Yolanda performed as dancers in :
1934 Many Happy Returns Specialty Dancers
1935 Under the Pampas Moon Café Dancers - The Cobra Tango ( as Veloz and Yolanda )
1937 Champagne Waltz ( as Veloz & Yolanda )
1942 The Pride of the Yankees ( Goldwyn ) Specialty Dancers
1943 Cavalcade of Dance ( Warner Bros. Short )
1943 Honeymoon Lodge ( Universal ) Dancers
1944 Brazil Veloz and Yolanda
1946 The Thrill of Brazil ( Columbia )
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= Neverwinter Nights 2 : Storm of Zehir =
Neverwinter Nights 2 : Storm of Zehir is an expansion pack for the role @-@ playing video game Neverwinter Nights 2 , developed by Obsidian Entertainment and published by Atari . It was released in late 2008 in North America , Europe , and Australia . Like previous entries in the Neverwinter Nights series , Storm of Zehir is based on the paper and pencil fantasy role @-@ playing game Dungeons & Dragons , and uses the game 's 3 @.@ 5 edition ruleset .
Storm of Zehir was inspired by older video games like the Baldur 's Gate and Icewind Dale franchises . The storyline foreshadows the events of the fourth edition of Dungeons & Dragons and follows the adventures of a group of merchants in the Samarach and Sword Coast areas of the Forgotten Realms campaign setting .
Storm of Zehir received mixed reviews from critics . Reviewers were pleased with new features introduced in the game , like more options for party customization and an overland map , but were not impressed with the game 's storyline and technical achievements .
= = Gameplay = =
Storm of Zehir is an expansion of Neverwinter Nights 2 and continues the formula of a role @-@ playing video game played from an overhead third @-@ person perspective . Players first create a character along the lines of the Dungeons & Dragons 3 @.@ 5 rules by selecting a variety of traits , such as a race , class , and feats . New character creation options include the yuan @-@ ti pureblood and gray orc races , the swashbuckler class , and the hellfire warlock and doomguide of Kelemvor prestige classes . The rest of the player 's party can also be created , unlike Neverwinter Nights 2 , but pre @-@ made characters are available if the player is not interested in complete customization . The party can then explore several regions on the Forgotten Realms continent of Faerûn . The game provides an overland map that is used to move between different areas like towns and dungeons . While on the map , characters can use various skills to identify treasure , monsters , and other points of interest , such as side quests and secret locations . The party can rest while on the map , but doing so puts them at risk of random encounters in the form of wandering monsters .
In combat , players have access to a variety of abilities and magic spells , based on the makeup of the party . Storm of Zehir uses the dice @-@ based d20 System of Dungeons & Dragons and each action requires a random number generated by a die roll . The player can control a character individually by selecting specific actions to be taken against enemies , or allow the game 's artificial intelligence to fight by using a pre @-@ selected set of behaviors for each character . Defeating monsters and completing quests bestows experience points on the party , which are used to gain levels and become more powerful .
The player character can engage in other activities outside of combat , such as completing quests and interacting with non @-@ player characters . While in conversation with other characters , the player character can influence them by using several skills , such as " Intimidate " or " Diplomacy " . The entire party can assist in this process if they have the appropriate skills . Characters can create weapons , armor , and other goods with raw materials through a system of skill @-@ based crafting . Storm of Zehir also includes a regional economy whereby players can establish trading outposts in various towns and create caravan routes between them , providing merchandise to consumers along each route . The caravans can be personally observed and managed by the player , such as providing security if attacked by bandits .
= = Plot = =
The plot events and characters are described , below , using in @-@ universe tone .
= = = Setting = = =
Like other games in the Neverwinter Nights series , Storm of Zehir takes place in the Forgotten Realms campaign setting , on the continent of Faerûn on the planet Abeir @-@ Toril . It is set mostly in the Samarach and Sword Coast regions , with visits to locations featured in previous games such as Crossroad Keep and the city of Neverwinter . Since the Shadow War depicted in Neverwinter Nights 2 and the subsequent disappearance of the game 's protagonist , the Knight – Captain , Neverwinter and the surrounding area have been declining economically . Several merchant companies have been attempting to establish a foothold in the region , with limited success .
= = = Story = = =
Storm of Zehir 's story begins with the player character escorting a ship called the Vigilant , sailing from the Sword Coast to Samarach . Halfling captain Lastri Kassireh quickly advises the party to go below decks in anticipation of an impending storm . The violent storm , coupled with a possible act of sabotage , culminates in the Vigilant becoming shipwrecked on the shores of the xenophobic nation of Samarach . The captain is missing , but the party quickly sets to work organizing the survivors , such as finding defensible positions nearby and salvaging equipment from the wreckage . Before long , a tribe of goblins discovers the group , and their leader issues a challenge in an unknown language . One of the other passengers of the Vigilant , the bard Volothamp " Volo " Geddarm , claims to speak the goblin tongue but inadvertently insults the goblins and instigates a battle . After the goblins are defeated , a group of humans approaches and arrests the party on suspicion of treachery , escorting them to the Open Palm market in the nearby city of Samargol . There , a local merchant named Sa 'Sani intervenes on the party 's behalf , revealing herself to be the recipient of the goods traveling aboard the waylaid Vigilant . She subsequently recruits the party to investigate the ship 's demise and the whereabouts of Captain Kassireh .
After rescuing the captain from goblins , investigating the wreckage of the Vigilant , and recovering some of Sa 'Sani 's goods , the merchant offers the characters employment in her trading corporation . The party undertakes various missions throughout Samarach for her , establishing trade routes through the jungles of Chult and protecting caravans along them . As the group continues to expand their trading operation , they eventually discover a large plot involving followers of the new yuan @-@ ti god , Zehir . They learn that the yuan @-@ ti , evil serpentine humanoids , have been infiltrating human settlements from their temples in the jungles of Chult and posing as merchants . After Sa 'Sani commits an act of murder at Crossroad Keep , the party learns that she is a yuan @-@ ti priestess of Sseth who has adopted this guise . The characters are given the option of aiding Sa 'Sani against a powerful yuan @-@ ti House Se 'Sehen that shifted its attention to the new god , Zehir . In order to stop the House Se 'Sehen 's plot to conquer Sword Coast , the party has to infiltrate the House 's stronghold , the Temple of the World Serpent , and assassinate N 'Safa , the high priest , and a powerful being called the " Herald of Zehir " , which is a gift from the God himself . Afterwards , the party has the opportunity to slay Sa 'Sani as well .
= = Development = =
Development of Storm of Zehir began during the end of development of Neverwinter Nights 2 's first expansion , Mask of the Betrayer , and was initially referred to as " NX2 " by its designers . The game was formally announced by Atari in June 2008 . It would be developed by Obsidian Entertainment , creators of Neverwinter Nights 2 and Mask of the Betrayer , and was given a release date of the fourth quarter of 2008 . Despite being released after the fourth edition of Dungeons & Dragons , Storm of Zehir would continue to use the 3 @.@ 5 edition rules . The design team for Storm of Zehir was smaller than that of Mask of the Betrayer and was given a shorter development period .
Like Neverwinter Nights 2 , Obsidian was inspired by older role @-@ playing video games for Storm of Zehir , such as Fallout and the Baldur 's Gate series . Assistant producer Rob McGinnis said " [ The game ] plays more like a classic CRPG " . The game was intended to be " more authentic " to pencil and paper Dungeons & Dragons by offering players a light @-@ hearted approach to adventuring and a focus on exploration . The designers included a party system they felt was more teamwork @-@ oriented , such as the ability to custom @-@ make the entire party and allowing party members to collaborate on social interactions . The game 's programmers were instructed to include the ability to change party members whenever the player wished .
Storm of Zehir 's storyline occurs concurrently with Mask of the Betrayer , which was set in the Rashemen region of Faerûn . The story was shaped by lead designer Tony Evans and written by Obsidian designer Annie Carlson . The team leads decided to create an adventure that they considered more in line with the roots of Dungeons & Dragons by departing from the more serious , epic stories presented in Neverwinter Nights 2 and Mask of the Betrayer . Evans said " This direction for the title can be seen throughout - finding random ( and not random ) goodies while searching the overland map , the addition of the Swashbuckler class , the variety of personalities in the cohorts ... " The game 's music was composed with this in mind ; Evans wanted themes that would portray the feel of a " light @-@ hearted adventure " . Audio director Alexander Brandon collaborated with composers of games like the Heroes of Might and Magic series and Primal , as well as " rookie composers " from Rogue Dao Studios . Brandon had the option of using a live orchestra , but decided against it to include more music in the game .
Obsidian implemented an overland map feature to allow players the opportunity to explore the areas of the game in great detail . Designer Nathaniel Chapman said " Furthermore , it provided an opportunity to increase the effectiveness of various skills that , frankly , were underutilized in previous Neverwinter Nights titles " . Obsidian created the map with a design philosophy centered on " interstitial space " . Chapman explains :
" It 's essentially the term for the space that exists between the things you are mainly concerned with in your study . So , if you ’ re interested in looking at cells in the body , the goo that surrounds the cells is referred to as interstitial space . If you 're designing a building , the space between each floor is interstitial space . That , in a way , is the space that Overland Maps in games like Fallout , Baldur 's Gate , Final Fantasy , Darklands , and , of course , Storm of Zehir are conveying - those monster @-@ filled roads , boundless plains and spooky forests you travel through on your way to meet interesting people ( and possibly kill and loot them ) . "
The map 's first prototype was inspired by the map seen in the Indiana Jones films . It behaved similarly to normal gameplay , and Obsidian decided to revamp it to create a " more dynamic and reactive interstitial space " . Characters would be able to avoid monsters by having a high enough Survival skill and could find hidden items and locations with high Search skills . Groups of adventuring NPCs could be observed and interacted with by players , including helping them fight aggressive monsters . Trade caravans created within the game 's economic subplot are visible and the player can actively protect their own investments . The overland map feature was created with the modding community in mind , and players using the Neverwinter Nights 2 toolset can modify the map 's options on an individual basis .
Storm of Zehir was ready for mass production on November 1 , 2008 and was released on November 18 , 2008 in North America , November 21 in Europe , and December 11 in Australia . It was also made available for download on digital distribution service Direct2Drive .
= = Reception = =
Storm of Zehir received mixed reviews . Critics were generally pleased with the departure from previous games in the series in terms of open @-@ ended gameplay and its similarities to " old school " role @-@ playing video games , but they criticized the game 's story and frequency of random encounters . It was a runner @-@ up in the RPG category for IGN 's Best of E3 Awards at the Electronic Entertainment Expo video game convention in 2008 .
Reviewers were in favor of Storm of Zehir 's focus on exploration and the ability to postpone or ignore the game 's main storyline , and they compared the gameplay to older role @-@ playing video games such as Icewind Dale II and Fallout . GameZone 's reviewer said " This is a game that harkens back to the good old days of adventure D & D video @-@ gaming " , and IGN said " this feels like an homage to the old school D & D games of the past " . The ability to handcraft an entire party instead of just the main character was welcomed , with GameSpot 's reviewer noting " Rather than playing as a solo hero chosen for some great destiny , you roll up a party of four average joes just like you did way back when in D & D classics like the Baldur 's Gate and Icewind Dale franchises , " ( It should be noted that Baldur 's Gate did not actually contain the ability to create the entire party in single player mode ; however , in multiplayer , this was possible ) and IGN saying " There 's a strange kind of nerd joy when it comes to creating a D & D party " . Reviewers also appreciated the " Party Conversation System " , which allows typically underutilized social skills to be used by the entire party during conversation . GameSpy said " It 's a terrific convention in which the game responds not to one but to every member of an adventuring party . [ Characters ] have the option to interject some special comment into a conversation that might open up otherwise unavailable avenues " . Reviewers were grateful that the time @-@ based , " spirit @-@ eating " gameplay mechanic of Mask of the Betrayer was not included .
Reviewers generally praised Storm of Zehir 's use of the Dungeons & Dragons 3 @.@ 5 edition rules with the exception of GameSpy , who expressed skepticism of the ruleset in a preview of the game . The game 's handling of character death was not well received , despite being more faithful to the pencil and paper version than previous Dungeons & Dragons video games . Unlike Neverwinter Nights 2 and Mask of the Betrayer where defeated characters would be automatically revived after a battle , Storm of Zehir requires a powerful spell or a " Coin of Waukeen " to resurrect dead allies . Reviewers considered this requirement unforgiving ; GameSpy said " This merely forces the player to troop back to town through a zillion meaningless random encounters . This may be " realistic " ( whatever that means in a world where players fight against newborn gods and sentient snakes ) , but it 's simply not fun . Baldur 's Gate had this all worked out over a decade ago . Why do we need to re @-@ invent the wheel ? "
Critics gave the game 's technical achievements a lukewarm reception . Several reviewers described the Electron engine as aging ; IGN Australia said " The two year @-@ old engine is surprisingly sluggish for something that looks dated . The simplistic Overhead Map adds nothing to the visual attractiveness , but this isn 't a bad @-@ looking game " . GameZone referred to the graphics as " serviceable " , and IGN said " The world map is a bit ugly , but otherwise Storm of Zehir looks slightly better than its predecessors " . Critics widely panned the voice acting , but praised the music .
The focal point of criticism was Storm of Zehir 's story . Critics considered its focus on trade and economics shallow compared to the epic adventures presented in Neverwinter Nights 2 and Mask of the Betrayer . GameSpy referred to the storyline as a " boringly generic adventure " , and GameSpot said " The quests reflect this mundane storyline . You run a lot of lame errands to kill specific monsters and recover lost or stolen merchandise , and you clean out a bunch of formulaic dungeons , caves , graveyards , and the like " . Other complaints included the presence of random encounters on the overland map , which were considered excessive , as well as long load times .
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= Washington Doctrine of Unstable Alliances =
The Washington Doctrine of Unstable Alliances , sometimes called the " caution against entangling alliances " , is a contemporary term used to describe an early realist United States foreign policy guiding its interaction with other nations . According to the policy , the United States should consider external alliances as temporary measures of convenience and freely abandon them when national interest dictates . It has been cited as a rare example of an explicit policy endorsement of what , in international relations , is known as renversement des alliances ( " reversal of alliances " ) : a state abandoning an ally for an alliance with a recent enemy , sometimes against the former ally .
The policy was promulgated by Thomas Jefferson in 1801 , in reference to a 1792 address by George Washington . Despite its enduring influence on U.S. foreign @-@ policy discussions , Washington said privately that the view on which his pronouncements were based would probably be irrelevant in 20 years due to a changing geopolitical situation .
= = Background = =
= = = Prelude = = =
By 1792 , the end of George Washington 's eighth year as president of the United States , the United States ' strategic position was dire . Interstate rivalries , violent insurrections ( such as the Whiskey Rebellion ) , and solidifying opposition to the national government in the form of the Anti @-@ Federalist Party combined with its dependence on trade with Europe to weaken the new nation . During this time , the country 's increasingly @-@ brittle government was held together almost entirely by Washington 's charismatic authority .
Receiving counsel from Alexander Hamilton , who cautioned the president that " we forget how little we can annoy " , Washington became convinced that the United States could not further antagonize Great Britain ; he feared the possibility of British @-@ imposed commercial isolation , which would precipitate an economic catastrophe that would " overturn the constitution and put into an overwhelming majority the anti @-@ national forces " . At the same time , radical government elements led by Thomas Jefferson had all but declared their support for U.S. aid to the beleaguered French First Republic ( then at war with the United Kingdom ) . The Anglophile Hamilton , Jefferson mused , was " panic @-@ struck if we refuse our breach to every kick which Great Britain may choose to give it " .
In his valedictory Farewell Address , in which Washington announced his decision to step down from the presidency ( due in part to his increasing weariness with public life ) , he included a short passage defending his policy of ignoring French requests for American assistance . In an attempt to keep his remarks apolitical , Washington defended his policy by framing it as generic guidance for the future and did not mention the French by name :
The great rule of conduct for us , in regard to foreign nations , is in extending our commercial relations , to have with them as little political connection as possible . Europe has a set of primary interests , which to us have none , or a very remote relation . Hence she must be engaged in frequent controversies the causes of which are essentially foreign to our concerns . Hence , therefore , it must be unwise in us to implicate ourselves , by artificial ties , in the ordinary vicissitudes of her politics , or the ordinary combinations and collisions of her friendships or enmities ... it is our true policy to steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world ; so far , I mean , as we are now at liberty to do it ; for let me not be understood as capable of patronizing infidelity to existing engagements .
However , in private correspondence about his address Washington wrote that the geopolitical situation inspiring his advice would disappear in " not ... probably more than twenty years " .
= = = Formalization = = =
The rise of Napoleon Bonaparte in France muted the " revolutionary romanticism " of Thomas Jefferson and his Democratic @-@ Republican Party by the time he became president in 1800 . Jefferson came to see the war between France and Britain as a battle between the " tyrant of the land " and the " tyrant of the ocean " , perceiving each state 's military objective as the moral equivalent of the other . ( The president was denounced by the 14 @-@ year @-@ old William Cullen Bryant , who called him " Napoleon 's slave " and a " willing vassal to imperious France " . ) Jefferson 's developing view of international politics led him to observe that the United States should retreat from intercession in European affairs ( for which he had been a lukewarm advocate ) and pursue a more @-@ modest , less @-@ committed course . He believed that American commercial power would allow it to pursue an independent course unfettered by conventional diplomacy , writing to a protégé :
The day is within my time as well as yours , when we may say by what laws other nations treat us on the sea . And we will say it . In the meantime , we wish to let every treaty we have drop off without renewal . We call in our diplomatic missions , barely keeping up those to the more important nations .
Outlined by Jefferson in his 1801 inaugural address , the Washington Doctrine of Unstable Alliances asserted that the U.S. should consider its external military alliances temporary arrangements of convenience and freely abandon ( or reverse ) them as indicated by the national interest . Citing Washington 's Farewell Address as his inspiration , Jefferson described the doctrine as " peace , commerce , and honest friendship with all nations — entangling alliances with none . "
The results of this policy during Jefferson 's presidency have been generally criticized . According to historian Doron Ben @-@ Atar , " Jefferson gambled [ that ] commerce could be used as an instrument for forcing the belligerent nations to do America justice and to respect the republic 's honor " . The Embargo Act of 1807 , which virtually sealed the U.S. off from the outside world , has been cited as the most dramatic example of the failure of Jefferson 's " inflated assessment " of American power — a failure the president never fully grasped , and which helped lead the nation into the War of 1812 .
= = Significance = =
The Washington Doctrine of Unstable Alliances is a rare example of a policy endorsement of what is known in international relations as renversement des alliances ( " reversal of alliances " ) : a state abandons an ally for an alliance with a recent enemy , possibly in opposition to the former ally . The Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact between the Soviet Union and Germany has been cited as an example .
Despite Washington 's private view that his advice should only be followed short @-@ term ( until the geopolitical situation stabilized ) , the doctrine has endured as a central argument for American non @-@ interventionism . It would be 165 years after the 1778 Treaty of Alliance with France before the U.S. would negotiate the nation 's second permanent military alliance , during World War II . In the interim , the United States engaged in transient alliances of convenience ( as with Sweden during the Barbary Wars and the European powers during the Boxer Rebellion ) . After the U.S. Congress enacted the 1941 Lend @-@ Lease program , Senator Arthur Vandenburg said : " We have torn up 150 years of traditional foreign policy . We have tossed Washington 's farewell address into the discard . "
According to a critical 1898 New York Times editorial , " The policy ... suggested by Jefferson in his first inaugural address has been so faithfully maintained during the century which has since intervened that many of our people regard it as a policy as fixed as the stars in their courses " . American economist Steven Rosefielde noted the doctrine 's influence on current U.S. policy : " Our nation seeks coalitions and alliances with other nations for tactical purposes when at war , and reserves our overall strategy @-@ making to ourselves . "
= = = Misattribution = = =
The phrase " entangling alliances , " which forms the basis of the Washington Doctrine of Unstable Alliances , has been misattributed in the popular press to Washington rather than Jefferson . A 2011 post on the conservative website Breitbart was entitled " George Washington Said to Avoid Entangling Alliances " , and the Independent American Party website attributed Jefferson 's " honest friendship with all nations , entangling alliances with none " to Washington .
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= Raiders of the Lost Ark =
Raiders of the Lost Ark ( later marketed as Indiana Jones and the Raiders of the Lost Ark ) is a 1981 American action adventure film directed by Steven Spielberg , with a screenplay written by Lawrence Kasdan , from a story by George Lucas and Philip Kaufman . It was produced by Frank Marshall for Lucasfilm Ltd . , with Lucas and Howard Kazanjian as executive producers . Starring Harrison Ford , it was the first installment in the Indiana Jones film franchise to be released , though it is the second in internal chronological order . It pits Indiana Jones ( Ford ) against a group of Nazis who are searching for the Ark of the Covenant , which Adolf Hitler believes will make his army invincible . The film co @-@ stars Karen Allen as Indiana 's former lover , Marion Ravenwood ; Paul Freeman as Indiana 's nemesis , French archaeologist René Belloq ; John Rhys @-@ Davies as Indiana 's sidekick , Sallah ; Ronald Lacey as Gestapo agent Arnold Toht ; and Denholm Elliott as Indiana 's colleague , Marcus Brody .
The film originated from Lucas ' desire to create a modern version of the serials of the 1930s and 1940s . Production was based at Elstree Studios , England ; but filming also took place in La Rochelle , France , Tunisia , Hawaii , and California from June to September 1980 .
Released on June 12 , 1981 , Raiders of the Lost Ark became the year 's top @-@ grossing film and remains one of the highest @-@ grossing films ever made . It was nominated for nine Academy Awards in 1982 , including Best Picture , and won four for Best Art Direction , Film Editing , Sound , and Visual Effects with a fifth Academy Award : a Special Achievement Award for Sound Effects Editing . The film 's critical and popular success led to three additional films , Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom ( 1984 ) , Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade ( 1989 ) , and Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull ( 2008 ) , with a fifth slated for 2019 ; the television series The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles ( 1992 – 1996 ) , and 15 video games as of 2009 . In 1999 , the film was included in the U.S. Library of Congress ' National Film Registry as having been deemed " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " .
Raiders of the Lost Ark is often ranked as one of the greatest films of all time , both in the action @-@ adventure genre , and in general . The film also ranks # 2 on Empire 's 2008 list of the 500 greatest movies of all time .
= = Plot = =
In 1936 , archaeologist Indiana Jones braves an ancient booby @-@ trapped temple in Peru and retrieves a golden idol . He is confronted by rival archaeologist René Belloq and the indigenous Hovito people . Surrounded and outnumbered , Indy surrenders the idol to Belloq and escapes aboard a waiting floatplane .
Jones returns to his teaching position at Marshall College , where he is interviewed by two Army Intelligence agents . They inform him that the Nazis are searching for his old mentor , Abner Ravenwood , under whom Jones studied at the University of Chicago . The Nazis know that Ravenwood is the leading expert on the ancient city of Tanis in Egypt , and that he possesses the headpiece of the Staff of Ra . Jones deduces that the Nazis are searching for the Ark of the Covenant ; the Nazis believe that if they acquire the Ark their armies will become invincible . The Staff of Ra is the key to finding the Well of Souls , a secret chamber in which the Ark is buried .
The agents authorize Jones to recover the Ark to prevent the Nazis from obtaining it . He travels to Nepal and discovers that Abner has died , and the headpiece is in the possession of Ravenwood 's daughter Marion . Jones visits Marion at her tavern , where she reveals her bitter feelings toward him from a previous romantic affair . She physically rebuffs his offer to buy the headpiece , and Jones leaves . Shortly after , a group of thugs arrive with their Nazi commander , Arnold Toht . Toht threatens Marion to get the headpiece , but when Jones returns to the bar to fight the Nazis and save Marion , her bar is accidentally set on fire ; during the fight , the headpiece ends up in the fire and Toht severely burns his hand trying to take the hot headpiece , and flees the tavern screaming . Indy and Marion escape with the headpiece , and Marion decides to accompany Indy in his search for the Ark so he can repay his debt to her .
The pair travels to Cairo , where they meet up with Indy 's friend Sallah , a skilled excavator . Sallah informs them that Belloq and the Nazis are digging for the Well of Souls with a replica of the headpiece ( created from the scar on Toht 's hand ) . They quickly realize the Nazi headpiece is incomplete and that the Nazis are digging in the wrong place . The Nazis kidnap Marion and it appears to Jones that she is killed in an exploding truck . After a confrontation with Belloq in a local bar , Indy and Sallah infiltrate the Nazi dig site and use their staff to correctly locate the Ark . Indy discovers Marion is alive , bound and gagged in a tent , but does not release her for fear of blowing his cover . Indy , Sallah , and a small group of diggers unearth the Well of Souls and acquire the Ark . Belloq and Nazi officer Colonel Dietrich arrive , seize the Ark from Jones , throwing Marion into the Well of Souls with him before sealing it back up . Jones and Marion escape to a local airstrip , where Jones has a fistfight with a Nazi mechanic and destroys the flying wing that was to transport the Ark to Berlin . The panicked Nazis remove the Ark in a truck and set off for Cairo , but Jones catches them and retakes it . He makes arrangements to take the Ark to London aboard a tramp steamer .
The next day , a Nazi U @-@ boat appears and intercepts the ship . Belloq and Dietrich seize the Ark and Marion but cannot locate Jones , who stows away aboard the boat and travels with them to an island in the Aegean Sea . Once there , Belloq plans to test the power of the Ark before presenting it to Hitler . Jones reveals himself and threatens to destroy the Ark with a panzerfaust , but Belloq calls his bluff and Jones surrenders rather than destroy such an important historical artifact . The Nazis take Indy and Marion to an area where the Ark will be opened and tie them to a post to observe . Belloq performs a ceremonial opening of the Ark , which appears to contain nothing but sand . Suddenly , angelic ghost @-@ like beings emerge from the Ark . Indy cautions Marion to keep her eyes closed and not to observe what happens next . Belloq and the others look on in astonishment as the apparitions are suddenly revealed to be angels of death . A vortex of flame forms above the Ark and shoots bolts of fiery energy into the gathered Nazi soldiers , killing them all . As Belloq , Toht and Dietrich all scream in terror , the Ark turns its fury on them : Dietrich 's head shrivels up , Toht 's face is melted off his skull and Belloq 's head explodes . Flames then engulf the remains of the doomed assembly , save for Indy and Marion , and the pillar of fire rises into the sky . The Ark 's lid is blasted high into the air before dropping back down onto the Ark and sealing it . Jones and Marion find their ropes burned off and embrace .
In Washington , D.C. , the Army Intelligence agents inform Jones and Marcus Brody that the Ark is someplace safe and will be studied by " top men " . The Ark is shown being stored in a giant government warehouse among countless similar crates .
= = Cast = =
Harrison Ford stars as Indiana Jones , an archaeology professor who often embarks on perilous adventures to obtain rare artifacts . Jones claims that he has no belief in the supernatural , only to have his skepticism challenged when he discovers the Ark . Spielberg suggested casting Ford as Jones , but Lucas objected , stating that he did not want Ford to become his " Bobby De Niro " or " that guy I put in all my movies " - a reference to Martin Scorsese , who often worked with Robert De Niro . Desiring a lesser known actor , Lucas persuaded Spielberg to help him search for a new talent . Among the actors who auditioned were Tim Matheson , Peter Coyote , John Shea , and Tom Selleck . Selleck was originally offered the role , but became unavailable for the part because of his commitment to the television series Magnum , P.I .. In June 1980 , three weeks away from filming , Spielberg persuaded Lucas to cast Ford after producers Frank Marshall and Kathleen Kennedy were impressed by his performance as Han Solo in The Empire Strikes Back .
Paul Freeman as Dr. René Belloq , Jones ' nemesis . Belloq is also an archaeologist after the Ark , but he is working for the Nazis . He intends to harness the Ark 's power himself before Hitler can , but he is killed by the Ark 's supernatural powers . Spielberg cast Freeman after seeing him in Death of a Princess .
Karen Allen as Marion Ravenwood , a spirited , tough former lover of Indiana 's . She is the daughter of Abner Ravenwood , Indiana Jones ' mentor , and owns a bar in Nepal . Allen was cast after auditioning with Matheson and John Shea . Spielberg was interested in her , as he had seen her performance in National Lampoon 's Animal House . Sean Young had previously auditioned for the part , while Debra Winger turned it down .
John Rhys @-@ Davies as Sallah , " the best digger in Cairo " , who has been hired by the Nazis to help them excavate Tanis . He is an old friend of Indiana Jones , and agrees to help him obtain the Ark , although he fears disturbing it . Spielberg initially approached Danny DeVito to play Sallah , but he could not play the part due to scheduling conflicts . Spielberg cast Rhys @-@ Davies after seeing his performance in Shogun .
Ronald Lacey as Major Arnold Toht , an interrogator for the Gestapo , who tries to torture Marion Ravenwood for the headpiece of the Staff of Ra . He is killed by the Ark 's supernatural powers . Lacey was cast as he reminded Spielberg of Peter Lorre . Spielberg had originally offered the role to Roman Polanski , who was intrigued at the opportunity to work with Spielberg but decided to turn down the role because he wouldn 't be able to make the trip to Tunisia . Klaus Kinski was also offered the role , but he hated the script , calling it " moronically shitty " .
Denholm Elliott as Dr. Marcus Brody , a museum curator , who buys the artifacts Indiana obtains for display in his museum . The U.S. government agents approach him with regard to the Ark 's recovery , and he sets up a meeting between them and Indiana Jones . Spielberg hired Elliott as he was a big fan of the actor , who had performed in some of his favorite British and American films .
Wolf Kahler as Colonel Dietrich , a ruthless Nazi officer leading the operation to secure the Ark . He is killed by the Ark 's supernatural powers .
Alfred Molina , in his film debut , as Satipo , one of Jones ' guides through the South American jungle . He betrays Jones and steals the golden idol , but is killed by traps before he can leave the temple .
George Harris as Simon Katanga , captain of the Bantu Wind .
Anthony Higgins as Major Gobler , Dietrich 's right @-@ hand @-@ man .
Vic Tablian as Barranca and the Monkey Man
Don Fellows as Colonel Musgrove
William Hootkins as Major Eaton
Producer Frank Marshall played a pilot in the airplane fight sequence . The stunt team was ill , so he took the role instead . The result was three days in a hot cockpit , which he joked was over " 140 degrees " . Pat Roach plays the Nazi mechanic with whom Jones brawls in this sequence , as well as a massive sherpa who battles Jones in Marion 's bar . He had the rare opportunity to be killed twice in one film . Special @-@ effects supervisor Dennis Muren made a cameo as a Nazi spy on the seaplane Jones takes from San Francisco to Manila .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In 1973 , George Lucas wrote The Adventures of Indiana Smith . Like Star Wars , which he also wrote , it was an opportunity to create a modern version of the film serials of the 1930s and 1940s . Lucas discussed the concept with Philip Kaufman , who worked with him for several weeks and came up with the Ark of the Covenant as the plot device . Kaufman was told about the Ark by his dentist when he was a child . The project stalled when Clint Eastwood hired Kaufman to direct The Outlaw Josey Wales . Lucas shelved the idea , deciding to concentrate on his outer space adventure that would become Star Wars . In late May 1977 , Lucas was in Hawaii , trying to escape the enormous success of Star Wars . Friend and colleague Steven Spielberg was also there , on vacation from work on Close Encounters of the Third Kind . While building a sand castle at the Mauna Kea Beach Hotel , Spielberg expressed an interest in directing a James Bond film . Lucas convinced his friend Spielberg that he had conceived a character " better than James Bond " and explained the concept of Raiders of the Lost Ark . Spielberg loved it , calling it " a James Bond film without the hardware " , although he told Lucas that the surname ' Smith ' was not right for the character . Lucas replied , " OK . What about ' Jones ' ? " Indiana was the name of Lucas ' Alaskan Malamute , whose habit of riding in the passenger seat as Lucas drove was also the inspiration for Star Wars ' Chewbacca . Spielberg was at first reluctant to sign on , as Lucas had told him that he would want Spielberg for an entire trilogy , and Spielberg did not want to work on two more scripts . Lucas told him , however , that he already had the next two movies written , so Spielberg agreed . But when the time came for the first sequel , it was revealed that Lucas had nothing written for either sequel .
The following year , Lucas focused on developing Raiders and the Star Wars sequel The Empire Strikes Back , during which Lawrence Kasdan and Frank Marshall joined the project as screenwriter and producer respectively . Between January 23 – 27 , 1978 , for nine hours a day , Lucas , Kasdan , and Spielberg discussed the story and visual ideas . Spielberg came up with Jones being chased by a boulder , which was inspired by Carl Barks ' Uncle Scrooge comic " The Seven Cities of Cibola " . Lucas later acknowledged that the idea for the idol mechanism in the opening scene and deadly traps later in the film were inspired by several Uncle Scrooge comics . Lucas came up with a submarine , a monkey giving the Hitler salute , and Marion punching Jones in Nepal . Kasdan used a 100 @-@ page transcript of their conversations for his first script draft , which he worked on for six months . Ultimately , some of their ideas were too grand and had to be cut : a mine chase , an escape in Shanghai using a rolling gong as a shield , and a jump from an airplane in a raft , all of which made it into the prequel , Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom .
Spielberg and Lucas disagreed on the character : although Spielberg saw him as a Bondian playboy , Lucas felt the character 's academic and adventurer elements made him complex enough . Spielberg had a darker vision of Jones , interpreting him as an alcoholic similar to Humphrey Bogart 's character Fred C. Dobbs in The Treasure of the Sierra Madre ( 1948 ) . This characterization fell away during the later drafts , though elements survive in Jones 's reaction when he believes Marion to be dead . Costume designer Deborah Nadoolman credits Secret of the Incas ( 1954 ) , starring Charlton Heston , as an influence on the development of the character , noting that the crew watched the film together several times . Nadoolman based the look of Ford 's costume on that of Heston 's , and observed that Indiana is a " kinder and gentler " Harry Steele .
Initially , the film was rejected by every major studio in Hollywood , mostly due to the $ 20 million budget and the deal Lucas was offering . Eventually Paramount agreed to finance the film , with Lucas negotiating a five @-@ picture deal . By April 1980 , Kasdan 's fifth draft was produced , and production was getting ready to shoot at Elstree Studios , with Lucas trying to keep costs down . With four illustrators , Raiders of the Lost Ark was Spielberg 's most storyboarded film of his career to date , further helping the film economically . He and Lucas agreed on a tight schedule to keep costs down and to follow the " quick and dirty " feel of the old Saturday matinée serials . Special effects were done using puppets , miniature models , animation , and camera trickery . " We didn 't do 30 or 40 takes ; usually only four . It was like silent film--shoot only what you need , no waste " , Spielberg said . " Had I had more time and money , it would have turned out a pretentious movie . "
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began on June 23 , 1980 , at La Rochelle , France , with scenes involving the Nazi submarine , which had been rented from the production of Das Boot . The U @-@ boat pen was a real one from World War II . The crew moved to Elstree Studios for the Well of Souls scenes , the opening sequence temple interiors and Marion Ravenwood 's bar . The Well of Souls scene required 7 @,@ 000 snakes . The only venomous snakes were the cobras , but one crew member was bitten on set by a python . The bulk of the snakes numbers were made up with giant but harmless legless lizards known as Scheltopusiks ( Pseudopus apodus ) which occur from the Balkan Peninsula of southeastern Europe to Central Asia . Growing to 1 @.@ 3 m they are the largest legless lizards in the world and are often mistaken for snakes despite some very obvious differences such as the presence of eyelids and external ear openings , which are both absent from all snakes , and a notched rather than forked tongue . In the finished film , during the scene in which Indiana comes face @-@ to @-@ face with the cobra , a reflection in glass screen that protected Ford from the snake was seen , an issue that was corrected in the 2003 digitally @-@ enhanced re @-@ release . Unlike Indiana , neither Ford nor Spielberg has a fear of snakes , but Spielberg said that seeing all the snakes on the set writhing around made him " want to puke " .
The opening scene in the Peruvian jungle was filmed on the island of Kauai , one of the islands of Hawaii , to where Spielberg would return for Jurassic Park . The " temple " location is on the Huleia River , on the Kipu Ranch , south from Kaumualii Highway on the east coast , just south of Lihue , the island 's main town . Kipu is a working cattle ranch , not generally open to the public . The Peruvian section ( but actually filmed in Hawaii ) featured live tarantulas of a Mexican species ( Brachypelma ) on Harrison ford and Alfred Molina , and are harmless to humans , and in fact of a species which are commonly kept as exotic pets . A fiberglass boulder 22 feet ( 7 m ) in diameter was made for the scene where Indiana escapes from the temple ; Spielberg was so impressed by production designer Norman Reynolds ' realization of his idea that he gave the boulder a more prominent role in the film and told Reynolds to let the boulder roll another 50 feet ( 15 m ) .
The scenes set in Egypt were filmed in Tunisia , and the canyon where Indiana threatens to blow up the Ark was shot in Sidi Bouhlel , just outside Tozeur . The canyon location had been used for the Tatooine scenes from 1977 's Star Wars ( many of the location crew members were the same for both films ) where R2 @-@ D2 was attacked by Jawas . The Tanis scenes were filmed in nearby Sedala , a harsh place due to heat and disease . Several cast and crew members fell ill and Rhys @-@ Davies defecated in his costume during one shot . Spielberg averted disease by eating only canned foods from England , but did not like the area and quickly condensed the scheduled six @-@ week shoot to four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half weeks . Much was improvised : the scene where Marion puts on her dress and attempts to leave Belloq 's tent was improvised as was the entire plane fight . During that scene 's shooting , a wheel went over Ford 's knee and tore his left leg 's cruciate ligament , but he refused local medical help and simply put ice on it .
The fight scenes in the town were filmed in Kairouan , while Ford was suffering from dysentery . Stuntman Terry Richards had practiced for weeks with his sword to create the scripted fight scene , choreographing a fight between the swordsman and Jones 's whip . However , after filming the initial shots of the scene , after lunch due to Ford 's dysentery , Ford and Spielberg agreed to cut the scene down to a gunshot , with Ford saying to Spielberg " Let 's just shoot the sucker " . It was later voted in a No.5 on Playboy magazine 's list of best all time scenes . Most of the truck chase was shot by second unit director Michael D. Moore following Spielberg 's storyboards , including Indiana being dragged by the truck ( performed by stuntman Terry Leonard ) , in tribute to a famous Yakima Canutt stunt . Spielberg then filmed all the shots with Ford himself in and around the truck cab . Lucas directed a few other second unit shots , in particular the monkey giving the Nazi salute .
The interior staircase set in Washington , D.C. was filmed in San Francisco 's City Hall . The University of the Pacific 's campus in Stockton , California , stood in for the exterior of the college where Jones works , while his classroom and the hall where he meets the American intelligence agents was filmed at the Royal Masonic School for Girls in Rickmansworth , Hertfordshire , England , which was again used in The Last Crusade . His home exteriors were filmed in San Rafael , California . Opening sequence exteriors were filmed in Kauai , Hawaii , with Spielberg wrapping in September in 73 days , finishing under schedule in contrast to his previous film , 1941 . The Washington , D.C. coda , although it appeared in the script 's early drafts , was not included in early edits but was added later when it was realized that there was no resolution to Jones 's relationship with Marion . Shots of the Douglas DC @-@ 3 Jones flies on to Nepal were taken from Lost Horizon , and a street scene was from a shot in The Hindenburg . Filming of Jones boarding a Boeing Clipper flying @-@ boat was complicated by the lack of a surviving aircraft . Eventually , a post @-@ war British Short Solent flying @-@ boat formerly owned by Howard Hughes was located in California and substituted .
= = = Visual effects and sound design = = =
The special visual effects for Raiders were provided by Industrial Light & Magic and include : a matte shot to establish the Pan Am flying boat in the water and miniature work to show the plane taking off and flying , superimposed over a map ; animation effects for the beam in the Tanis map room ; and a miniature car and passengers superimposed over a matte painting for a shot of a Nazi car being forced off a cliff . The bulk of effects shots were featured in the climactic sequence wherein the Ark of the Covenant ( which was designed by Brian Muir and Keith Short ) is opened and God 's wrath is unleashed . This sequence featured animation , a woman to portray a beautiful spirit 's face , rod puppet spirits moved through water to convey a sense of floating , a matte painting of the island , and cloud tank effects to portray clouds . The melting of Toht 's head was done by exposing a gelatine and plaster model of Ronald Lacey 's head to a heat lamp with an under cranked camera , while Dietrich 's crushed head was a hollow model from which air was withdrawn . When the film was originally submitted to the Motion Picture Association of America , it received an R rating because of the scene in which Belloq 's head explodes . The filmmakers were able to receive a PG rating when they added a veil of fire over the exploding head scene . ( PG @-@ 13 rating was not created until 1984 . ) The firestorm that cleanses the canyon at the finish was a miniature canyon filmed upside down .
Ben Burtt , the sound effects supervisor , made extensive use of traditional foley work in yet another of the production 's throwbacks to days of the Republic serials . He selected a .30 @-@ 30 Winchester rifle for the sound of Jones ' pistol . Sound effects artists struck leather jackets and baseball gloves with a baseball bat to create a variety of punching noises and body blows . For the snakes in the Well of Souls sequence , fingers running through cheese casserole and sponges sliding over cement were used for the slithering noises . The sliding lid on a toilet cistern provided the sound for the opening of the Ark , and the sound of the boulder in the opening is a car rolling down a gravel driveway in neutral . Burtt also used , as he did in many of his films , the ubiquitous Wilhelm scream when a Nazi falls from a truck . In addition to his use of such time @-@ honored foley work , Burtt also demonstrated the modern expertise honed during his award @-@ winning work on Star Wars . He employed a synthesizer for the sounds of the Ark , and mixed dolphins ' and sea lions ' screams for those of the spirits within .
= = = Music = = =
John Williams composed the score for Raiders of the Lost Ark , which was the only score in the series performed by the London Symphony Orchestra , the same orchestra that performed the scores for the Star Wars saga . The score most notably features the well @-@ known " Raiders March " . This piece came to symbolize Indiana Jones and was later used in the scores for the other three films . Williams originally wrote two different candidates for Jones 's theme , but Spielberg enjoyed them so much that he insisted that both be used together in what became the " Raiders March " . The alternately eerie and apocalyptic theme for the Ark of the Covenant is also heard frequently in the score , with a more romantic melody representing Marion and , more broadly , her relationship with Jones . The score as a whole received an Oscar nomination for Best Original Score , but lost to the score to Chariots of Fire composed by Vangelis .
= = Release = =
= = = Merchandise = = =
The only video game based exclusively on the film is Raiders of the Lost Ark , released in 1982 by Atari for their Atari 2600 console . The first third of the video game Indiana Jones ' Greatest Adventures , released in 1994 by JVC for Nintendo 's Super Nintendo Entertainment System , is based entirely on the film . Several of the film 's sequences are reproduced ( the boulder run and the showdown with the Cairo Swordsman among them ) ; however , several inconsistencies with the film are present in the game , such as Nazi soldiers and bats being present in the Well of Souls sequence , for example . The game was developed by LucasArts and Factor 5 . In the 1999 game Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine , a bonus level brings Jones back to the Peruvian temple of the film 's opening scene . In 2008 , to coincide with the release of Kingdom of the Crystal Skull , Lego released the Lego Indiana Jones line — which included building sets based on Raiders of the Lost Ark — and LucasArts published a video game based on the toyline , Lego Indiana Jones : The Original Adventures , which was developed by Traveller 's Tales .
Marvel Comics published a comic book adaptation of the film by writer Walt Simonson and artists John Buscema and Klaus Janson . It was published as Marvel Super Special # 18 and as a three @-@ issue limited series . This was followed with the comic book series The Further Adventures of Indiana Jones which was published monthly from January 1983 through March 1986 .
In 1981 , Kenner released a 12 @-@ inch ( 30 cm ) doll of Indiana Jones , and the following year they released nine action figures of the film 's characters , three playsets , as well as toys of the Nazi truck and Jones ' horse . They also released a board game . In 1984 , miniature metal versions of the characters were released for a role playing game , The Adventures of Indiana Jones , and in 1995 Micro Machines released die @-@ cast toys of the film 's vehicles . Hasbro released action figures based on the film , ranging from 3 to 12 inches ( 7 @.@ 6 to 30 @.@ 5 cm ) , to coincide with Kingdom of the Crystal Skull on May 1 , 2008 . Later in 2008 , and in 2011 , two high @-@ end sixth scale ( 1 : 6 ) collectible action figures were released by Sideshow Collectibles , and Hot Toys , Ltd. respectively . A novelization by Ryder Windham was released in April 2008 by Scholastic to tie in with the release of Kingdom of the Crystal Skull . A previous novelization by Scottish author Campbell Armstrong ( under the pseudonym Campbell Black ) was concurrently released with the film in 1981 . A book about the making of the film was also released , written by Derek Taylor .
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released on VHS , Betamax and VideoDisc in pan and scan only , and on laserdisc in both pan and scan and widescreen . For its 1999 VHS re @-@ issue , the film was remastered in THX and made available in widescreen . The outer package was retitled Indiana Jones and the Raiders of the Lost Ark for consistency with the film 's prequel and sequel . The subsequent DVD release in 2003 features this title as well . The title in the film itself remains unchanged , even in the restored DVD print . In the DVD , two subtle digital revisions were added . First , a connecting rod from the giant boulder to an offscreen guidance track in the opening scene was removed from behind the running Harrison Ford ; second , a reflection in the glass partition separating Ford from the cobra in the Well of Souls was removed . Shortly before the theatrical release of " Kingdom of the Crystal Skull " , Raiders ( along with The Temple of Doom and The Last Crusade ) was re @-@ released on DVD with additional extra features not included on the previous set on May 13 , 2008 . The film was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc in September 2012 . Previously , only Kingdom of the Crystal Skull had been available on Blu @-@ ray .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Raiders of the Lost Ark opened at # 14 and grossed $ 1 @,@ 673 @,@ 731 from 267 theaters ( $ 6 @,@ 269 theater average ) during its opening weekend . In total , the IMAX release grossed $ 3 @,@ 125 @,@ 613 domestically . The film , made on an $ 18 million budget , grossed $ 384 million worldwide throughout its theatrical releases . In North America , it was by some distance the highest @-@ grossing film of 1981 , and remains one of the top twenty @-@ five highest @-@ grossing films ever made when adjusted for inflation . Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold more than 70 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The film was subsequently nominated for nine Academy Awards , including Best Picture , in 1982 and won four ( Best Sound , Best Film Editing , Best Visual Effects , and Best Art Direction @-@ Set Decoration ( Norman Reynolds , Leslie Dilley , and Michael D. Ford ) . It also received a Special Achievement Award for Sound Effects Editing . It won numerous other awards , including a Grammy Award and Best Picture at the People 's Choice Awards . Spielberg was also nominated for a Golden Globe Award .
The film was acclaimed by critics and audiences alike . In his review for The New York Times , Vincent Canby praised the film , calling it , " one of the most deliriously funny , ingenious and stylish American adventure movies ever made . " Roger Ebert in his review for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times wrote , " Two things , however , make Raiders of the Lost Ark more than just a technological triumph : its sense of humor and the droll style of its characters [ ... ] We find ourselves laughing in surprise , in relief , in incredulity at the movie 's ability to pile one incident upon another in an inexhaustible series of inventions . " He later added it to his list of " Great Movies " . Rolling Stone said the film was " the ultimate Saturday action matinee – a film so funny and exciting it can be enjoyed any day of the week . " Bruce Williamson of Playboy claimed : " There 's more excitement in the first ten minutes of Raiders than any movie I have seen all year . By the time the explosive misadventures end , any movie @-@ goer worth his salt ought to be exhausted . " Stephen Klain of Variety also praised the film . Yet , making an observation that would revisit the franchise with its next film , he felt that the film was surprisingly violent and bloody for a PG @-@ rated film .
There were some dissenting voices : Sight & Sound described it as an " expensively gift @-@ wrapped Saturday afternoon pot @-@ boiler " , and New Hollywood champion Pauline Kael , who once contended that she only got " really rough " on large films that were destined to be hits but were nonetheless " atrocious " , found the film to be a " machine @-@ tooled adventure " from a pair of creators who " think just like the marketing division " . ( Lucas later named a villain , played by Raiders Nazi strongman Pat Roach , in his 1988 fantasy film Willow after Kael . ) The film is considered to be a classic of the action and adventure genres by many contemporary critics , and carries a 96 % " Certified Fresh " rating on Rotten Tomatoes , as well as a 85 % rating on Metacritic , indicating " universal acclaim " .
= = = Accolades = = =
American Film Institute
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies — No. 60
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Thrills — No. 10
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains :
Indiana Jones — No. 2 Hero
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes :
" Snakes ! Why did it have to be snakes ? " — Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years of Film Scores — Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition ) — No. 66
= = Impact = =
Following the success of Raiders , a prequel , The Temple of Doom , and two sequels , The Last Crusade and Kingdom of the Crystal Skull , were produced , with a third sequel set for release in 2019 . A television series , entitled The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles , was also spun off from this film , and details the character 's early years . Numerous other books , comics , and video games have also been produced .
In 1998 , the American Film Institute placed the film at number 60 on its top 100 films of the first century of cinema . In 2007 , AFI updated the list and placed it at number 66 . They also named it as the 10th most thrilling film , and named Indiana Jones as the second greatest hero . In 1999 , the film was deemed " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " by the U.S. Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry . Indiana Jones has become an icon , being listed as Entertainment Weekly 's third favorite action hero , while noting " some of the greatest action scenes ever filmed are strung together like pearls " in this film .
An amateur , near shot @-@ for @-@ shot remake was made by Chris Strompolos , Eric Zala , and Jayson Lamb , then children in Ocean Springs , Mississippi . It took the boys seven years to finish , from 1982 to 1989 . After production of the film , called Raiders of the Lost Ark : The Adaptation , it was shelved and forgotten until 2003 , where it was discovered by Eli Roth and acclaimed by Spielberg himself , who congratulated the boys on their hard work and said he looked forward to seeing their names on the big screen . Scott Rudin and Paramount Pictures purchased the trio 's life rights with the goal of producing a film based on their adventures making their remake .
In 2014 , film director Steven Soderbergh published an experimental black @-@ and @-@ white version of the film , with the original soundtrack and dialogue replaced by an electronic soundtrack . Soderbergh said his intention was to encourage viewers to focus on Spielberg 's extraordinary staging and editing : " This filmmaker forgot more about staging by the time he made his first feature than I know to this day . "
Assessing the film 's legacy in 1997 , Bernard Weinraub , film critic for The New York Times , which had initially reviewed the film as " deliriously funny , ingenious , and stylish " , maintained that " the decline in the traditional family G @-@ rated film , for ' general ' audiences , probably began " with the appearance of Raiders of the Lost Ark . " Whether by accident or design , " found Weinraub , " the filmmakers made a comic nonstop action film intended mostly for adults but also for children . " Eight years later , in 2005 , viewers of Channel 4 in the U.K. rated the film as the 20th @-@ best family film of all time , with Spielberg taking best over @-@ all director honors .
On Empire magazine 's list of the 500 Greatest Movies of All Time , Raiders ranked second , beaten only by The Godfather .
In conjunction with the Blu @-@ ray release , a limited one @-@ week release in IMAX theaters was announced for September 7 , 2012 . Steven Spielberg and sound designer Ben Burtt supervised the format conversion . No special effects or other visual elements were altered , but the audio was enhanced for surround sound .
= = = 2012 replica mystery = = =
In December 2012 , the University of Chicago 's admissions department received a package in the mail addressed to Henry Walton Jones , Jr . , Indiana Jones ' full name . The address on the stamped package was listed for a hall that was the former home of the university 's geology and geography department . Inside the manila envelope was a detailed replica journal similar to the one Jones used in the movie , as well as postcards and pictures of Marion Ravenwood . The admissions department posted pictures of the contents on its Internet blog , looking for any information about the package . It was discovered that the package was part of a set to be shipped from Guam to Italy that had been sold on eBay . The package with the journal had fallen out in transit and a postal worker had sent it to the university , as it had a complete address and postage , which turned out to be fake . All contents were from a Guam " prop replicator " who sells them all over the world . The university will display its replica in the main lobby of the Oriental Institute .
= = = Fortress of Kuelap = = =
In the opening jungle scene , Indy retrieves the Golden Idol and the famed action of the boulder chase and pursuit by the deadly Hovitos ( fictional descendants of the Chachapoyans ) commences . An ancient structure called Kuelap may have inspired the booby @-@ trapped temple . The novelization of the film explains that Jones was looking for the Temple of the Chachapoyan Warriors in the Andes of Northern Peru . The Chachapoyans , which means “ People of the Clouds " , were an actual South American people , and have left behind scores of ruins ; most notably Kuelap , “ The Fortress of the Clouds " . The fortress of Kuelap remains with its long , high walls ( 600 meters in length , 110 meters in width , and 19 meters high ) and remnants of more than four hundred buildings . Radiocarbon dating indicates the site was constructed as early as the 6th century AD and was used throughout the pre @-@ Columbian period . Similar to the temple seen in the film , the entryway to Kuelap is long and very narrow . Archaeologists believe the entrance was designed this way so that it could be easily defended , as only one person could fit through the entrance at a time . Many Chachapoyan grave sites and mummies have also been located amongst the ruins of Kuelap .
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= K @-@ 44 ( Kansas highway ) =
K @-@ 44 is a state highway in the U.S. state of Kansas . It begins at K @-@ 2 in Anthony and passes through Harper and Sumner counties in the south @-@ central portion of the state , ending at K @-@ 49 north of Caldwell . The highway is 24 @.@ 674 miles ( 39 @.@ 709 km ) long , and it was designated around 1932 . Its alignment has not undergone a major change since then .
= = Route description = =
K @-@ 44 begins at a junction with K @-@ 2 in Anthony , the county seat of Harper County ; within the city limits of Anthony , K @-@ 44 is known as Main Street . From its western terminus , the route heads east as a two @-@ lane road , coming to another highway junction , the northern terminus of K @-@ 179 , approximately 1 ⁄ 2 mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) east of K @-@ 2 . K @-@ 44 then leaves Anthony , continuing east through hilly farmland in eastern Harper County , before crossing into Sumner County approximately thirteen miles ( 21 km ) east of Anthony . The highway crosses the Chikaskia River north of Caldwell . Just east of the river crossing , the route curves slightly to the southeast and comes to an intersection with K @-@ 49 , where it ends .
K @-@ 44 is maintained by the Kansas Department of Transportation ( KDOT ) . In 2013 , KDOT measured traffic counts in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) on K @-@ 44 ranging from a high of 729 vehicles in Anthony to a low of 313 vehicles in western Sumner County .
= = History = =
K @-@ 44 first appeared on the 1932 Kansas state highway map . Its alignment when it was designated is identical to that which it follows today ; however , the road was not yet paved . This did not happen until sometime between 1948 and 1950 , and the highway has not been majorly modified since then .
= = Junction list = =
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= Jack Charlton =
John " Jack " Charlton , OBE , DL ( born 8 May 1935 ) is an English former footballer and manager . He was part of the England team that won the 1966 World Cup . He is the elder brother of former Manchester United forward Bobby Charlton , who was also a teammate in England 's World Cup final victory . He spent his entire club career with Leeds United from 1950 to 1973 , helping the club to the Second Division title ( 1963 – 64 ) , First Division title ( 1968 – 69 ) , FA Cup ( 1972 ) , League Cup ( 1968 ) , Charity Shield ( 1969 ) , Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup ( 1968 and 1971 ) , as well as one other promotion from the Second Division ( 1955 – 56 ) and five second @-@ place finishes in the First Division , two FA Cup final defeats and one Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup final defeat . His 629 league and 762 total competitive appearances are club records . In 2006 , Leeds United supporters voted Charlton into the club 's greatest ever XI .
Called up to the England team days before his 30th birthday , Charlton went on to score six goals in 35 international games and to appear in two World Cups and one European Championship . He played in the World Cup final victory over West Germany in 1966 , and also helped England to finish third in Euro 1968 and to win four British Home Championship tournaments . He was named FWA Footballer of the Year in 1967 .
After retiring as a player he worked as a manager , and led Middlesbrough to the Second Division title in 1973 – 74 , winning the Manager of the Year award in his first season as a manager . He kept Boro as a stable top @-@ flight club before he resigned in April 1977 . He took charge of Sheffield Wednesday in October 1977 , and led the club to promotion out of the Third Division in 1979 – 80 . He left the Owls in May 1983 , and went on to serve Middlesbrough as caretaker @-@ manager at the end of the 1983 – 84 season . He worked as Newcastle United manager for the 1984 – 85 season . He took charge of the Republic of Ireland national team in February 1986 , and led them to their first ever World Cup in 1990 , where they reached the quarter @-@ finals . He also led the nation to successful qualification to Euro 1988 and the 1994 World Cup . He resigned in January 1996 and went into retirement . He is married with three children .
= = Early life = =
Born into a footballing family in Ashington , Northumberland on 8 May 1935 , Charlton was initially overshadowed by his younger brother Bobby , who was taken on by Manchester United while Jack was doing his National Service with the Household Cavalry . His uncles were Jack Milburn ( Leeds United and Bradford City ) , George Milburn ( Leeds United and Chesterfield ) , Jim Milburn ( Leeds United and Bradford Park Avenue ) and Stan Milburn ( Chesterfield , Leicester City and Rochdale ) , and legendary Newcastle United and England footballer Jackie Milburn was his mother 's cousin .
The economy of the village of Ashington was based entirely around coal mining , and though his family had a strong footballing pedigree , his father was a miner . The eldest of four brothers – Bobby , Gordon and Tommy – the tight finances of the family meant that all four siblings shared the same bed . His father , Bob , had no interest in football , but his mother , Cissie , played football with her children and later coached the local schools team . As a teenager she took them to watch Ashington and Newcastle United play , and Charlton remained a lifelong Newcastle supporter .
At the age of 15 he was an offered a trial at Leeds United , where his uncle Jim was left back , but turned it down and instead joined his father in the mines . He worked in the mines for a short time but handed in his notice after finding out just how difficult and unpleasant it was to work deep underground . He applied to join the police and reconsidered the offer from Leeds United . His trial game for Leeds clashed with his police interview , and Charlton chose to play in the game ; the trial was a success and he joined the ground staff at Elland Road .
" This part of the world produced its fair share of footballers , and nobody was particularly impressed if a lad went away to play professional football . In fact we never used to say going away to play football , we just used to say ' going away ' . "
= = Club career = =
Charlton played for Leeds United 's youth team in the Northern Intermediate League and then for the third team in the Yorkshire League ; playing in the physically demanding Yorkshire League at the age of 16 impressed the club 's management , and he was soon promoted to the reserve team . Manager Raich Carter handed him his first professional contract when Charlton turned 17 . He made his debut on 25 April 1953 against Doncaster Rovers , taking John Charles ' place at centre @-@ half after Charles was moved up to centre @-@ forward . As he had not been given any specific instructions before the game Charlton asked Carter what he was expected to do in the match ; Carter replied " See how fast their centre forward can limp " . It was the final Second Division game of the 1952 – 53 season , and ended in a 1 – 1 draw . He then had to serve two years National Service with the Household Cavalry , and captained the Horse Guards to victory in the Cavalry Cup in Hanover . His National Service limited his contribution to Leeds , and he made only one appearance in the 1954 – 55 season .
Charlton returned to the first team in September 1955 , and kept his place for the rest of the 1955 – 56 season , helping the " Whites " to win promotion into the First Division after finishing second to Sheffield Wednesday . He was dropped in the second half of the 1956 – 57 campaign , partly due to his habit of partying late at night and losing focus on his football . He regained his place in the 1957 – 58 season , and stopped his partying lifestyle as he settled down to married life . In October 1957 he was picked to represent the Football League in a game against the League of Ireland .
Leeds struggled after Raich Carter left the club in 1958 , and Willis Edwards and then Bill Lambton took charge in the 1958 – 59 season as Leeds finished nine points above the relegation zone . Jack Taylor was appointed manager , and failed to keep Leeds out of the relegation zone by the end of the 1959 – 60 campaign . During this time Charlton began taking his coaching badges , and took part in the Football Association 's coaching courses at Lilleshall .
Leeds finished just five points above the Second Division relegation zone in the 1960 – 61 season and Taylor resigned ; his replacement , Don Revie , was promoted from the United first team , and initially he was not fond of Charlton . Revie played Charlton up front at the start of the 1961 – 62 season , but he soon moved him back to centre @-@ half after he proved ineffective as a centre @-@ forward . He soon became frustrated and difficult to manage , feeling in limbo playing for a club seemingly going nowhere whilst his younger brother was enjoying great success at Manchester United . Revie told Charlton that he was prepared to let him go in 1962 , but never actually transfer listed him . Liverpool manager Bill Shankly failed to meet the £ 30 @,@ 000 Leeds demanded for Charlton and though Manchester United manager Matt Busby was initially willing to pay the fee he eventually decided to instead try an untested youngster at centre @-@ half . During these discussions Charlton refused to sign a new contract at Leeds , but felt frustrated by Busby 's hesitance and so signed a new contract with Leeds whilst making a promise to Revie to be more professional in his approach .
The 1962 – 63 season was the beginning of a new era for Leeds United as Revie began to mould the team and the club into his own liking . In a game against Swansea Town in September , Revie dropped many senior players and played Charlton in a young new defensive line @-@ up : Gary Sprake ( goalkeeper ) , Paul Reaney ( right @-@ back ) , Norman Hunter and Charlton ( centre @-@ back ) , and Rod Johnson ( left @-@ back ) . With the exception of Johnson , this defensive line @-@ up would remain consistent for much of the rest of the decade . Charlton took charge of the defence that day , and insisted upon a zonal marking system ; Revie agreed to allow Charlton to become the key organiser in defence . Aided by new midfield signing Johnny Giles , the " Peacocks " put in a strong promotion challenge and finished fifth , before securing promotion as champions in the 1963 – 64 campaign , topping the table two points ahead of Sunderland . Other players that began to make their mark on the first team included Billy Bremner , Paul Madeley and Peter Lorimer , who would all remain with Leeds right up until the end of the 1970s .
Leeds made an immediate impact on their first season back in the top flight , however the team gained a reputation for rough play , and Charlton admitted in his autobiography that " the way we achieved that success made me feel uncomfortable " . They went 25 games unbeaten before losing to Manchester United at Elland Road – their title race meant that the two clubs built up an intense rivalry . Leeds needed a win in their final game of the season to secure the title but could only manage a 3 – 3 draw with Birmingham City at St Andrew 's – Charlton scored the equalising goal on 86 minutes but they could not push on for a winner . They gained some measure of revenge over Man United by beating them 1 – 0 in the replay of the FA Cup semi @-@ finals . Leeds met Liverpool in the final at Wembley , and the game went into extra @-@ time after a goalless draw . Roger Hunt opened the scoring three minutes into extra @-@ time , but seven minutes later Charlton headed on a cross for Bremner to volley into the net for the equaliser ; with seven minutes left Ian St. John scored for Liverpool to win the game 2 – 1 .
United again competed for honours in the 1965 – 66 season , finishing second to Liverpool in the league and reaching the semi @-@ finals of the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup . It was the club 's first season in European competition , and they beat Italian side Torino , East German club SC Leipzig , Spanish club Valencia and Hungarian outfit Újpest , before they were beaten 3 – 1 by Spanish side Real Zaragoza at Elland Road in a tiebreaker game following a 2 – 2 aggregate draw . Charlton caused controversy against Valencia after he and defender Vidagany began fighting after Vidagany kicked Charlton in an off the ball incident – Charlton never actually struck the Spaniard , who hid behind his teammates .
The 1966 – 67 season proved frustrating for United , despite the introduction of another club great in the form of Eddie Gray . Leeds finished fourth , five points behind champions Manchester United , and exited the FA Cup at the semi @-@ finals after defeat to Chelsea . They made progress in the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup , beating DWS ( Netherlands ) , Valencia , Bologna ( Italy ) and Kilmarnock ( Scotland ) to reach the final , where they were beaten 2 – 0 on aggregate by Yugoslavian outfit Dinamo Zagreb . At the end of the season he was named as the Footballer of the Year , succeeding his brother who had won it the previous year . During the award ceremony he told a number of amusing stories and won a standing ovation from the crowd , this started him on a successful sideline as an after @-@ dinner speaker .
Charlton developed a new ploy for the 1967 – 68 season by standing next to the goalkeeper during corners to prevent him from coming out to collect the ball ; this created havoc for opposition defences and is still a frequently used tactic in the modern era . However , for the second successive season Leeds finished fourth and exited the FA Cup at the semi @-@ finals , this time losing 1 – 0 to Everton at Old Trafford . They finally won major honours though by beating Arsenal 1 – 0 in the final of the League Cup ; Terry Cooper scored the only goal of the game despite allegations that Charlton pushed goalkeeper Jim Furnell in the build up to the goal . Leeds then went on to lift the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup after beating CA Spora Luxembourg , FK Partizan ( Yugoslavia ) , Hibernian ( Scotland ) , Rangers ( Scotland ) and Dundee ( Scotland ) to reach the final with Hungarian club Ferencvárosi . They won 1 – 0 at Elland Road and drew 0 – 0 in Budapest to claim their first European trophy .
Charlton helped Leeds to their first ever Football League title in 1968 – 69 , as they lost just two games to finish six points clear of second @-@ place Liverpool . They secured the title with a goalless draw at Anfield on 28 April , and Charlton later recalled the Liverpool supporters affectionately called him " big dirty giraffe " and that manager Bill Shankly went into the Leeds dressing room after the match to tell them they were " worthy champions " .
United opened the 1969 – 70 campaign by winning the Charity Shield with a 2 – 1 win over Manchester City , and went on to face realistic possibility of winning the treble – the league , FA Cup and European Cup . However they missed out on all three trophies as the games built up towards the end of the season , and the league title was the first to slip out of their hands as Everton went on to build an insurmountable lead . They then bowed out of the European Cup after a 3 – 1 aggregate defeat to Celtic , including a 2 – 1 loss at Hampden Park in front of a UEFA record crowd of 136 @,@ 505 . They took two replays to overcome Manchester United in the FA Cup semi @-@ finals ( Bremner scored the only goal in 300 minutes of football ) , but lost 2 – 1 in the replayed final to Chelsea after the original 2 – 2 draw , in which Charlton opened the scoring . Charlton took responsibility for Peter Osgood 's goal in the replay as he was distracted from marking duties as he was trying to get revenge on a Chelsea player who had kicked him .
Charlton caused controversy early in the 1970 – 71 season as in an October appearance on the Tyne Tees football programme , he said he 'd once had a " little black book " of names of players whom he intended to hurt or exact some form of revenge upon during his playing days . He was tried by the Football Association and was found not guilty of any wrongdoing after arguing that the press had misquoted him . He admitted that though he never actually had a book of names he had a short list of names in his head of players who had made nasty tackles on him and that he intended to put in a hard but fair challenge on those players if he got the opportunity in the course of a game . Leeds ended the season in second place yet again , as Arsenal overtook them with a late series of 1 – 0 wins despite Leeds beating Arsenal in the penultimate game of the season after Charlton scored the winning goal . The final tally of 64 points was a record high for a second @-@ placed team . In the last ever season of the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup they beat Sarpsborg FK ( Norway ) , Dynamo Dresden ( Germany ) , Sparta Prague ( Czechoslovakia ) , Vitória ( Portugal ) and Liverpool to secure a place in the final against Italian club Juventus . They drew 2 – 2 at the Stadio Olimpico and 1 – 1 at Elland Road to win the cup on the away goals rule . They had the opportunity to win the cup permanently , but lost 2 – 1 to Barcelona at Camp Nou in the trophy play @-@ off game .
Leeds finished second in the 1971 – 72 season for the third successive time , this time ending up just one point behind champions Derby County after losing to Wolverhampton Wanderers at Molineux on the final day of the season . However Charlton managed to complete his list of domestic honours as Leeds beat Arsenal 1 – 0 in the FA Cup final ; he kept Charlie George to a very quiet game as Leeds successfully defended their slender lead .
Charlton was limited to 25 appearances in the 1972 – 73 campaign and suffered an injury in the FA Cup semi @-@ final against Wolves which ended his season . After failing to regain his fitness for the final , he announced his retirement . Madeley played in his place but Gordon McQueen had been signed as his long @-@ term replacement . He played his testimonial against Celtic , and was given £ 28 @,@ 000 of the £ 40 @,@ 000 matchday takings .
= = International career = =
With Charlton approaching his 30th birthday , he was called up by Alf Ramsey to play for England against Scotland at Wembley on 10 April 1965 . The game ended 2 – 2 despite England being forced to end the game with nine men after picking up two injuries ; he assisted his brother Bobby for England 's first goal . Ramsey later said that he picked Charlton to play alongside Bobby Moore as he was a conservative player able to provide cover to the more skilful Moore , who could get caught out if he made a rare mistake . The defence remained relatively constant in the build up to the 1966 FIFA World Cup : Gordon Banks ( goalkeeper ) , Ray Wilson ( left @-@ back ) , Charlton and Moore ( centre @-@ backs ) , and George Cohen ( right @-@ back ) . After playing in a 1 – 0 win over Hungary the following month , Charlton joined England for a tour of Europe as they drew 1 – 1 with Yugoslavia and beat West Germany 1 – 0 and Sweden 2 – 1 . He played in a 0 – 0 draw with Wales and a 2 – 1 win over Northern Ireland to help England win the British Home Championship , though sandwiched between these two games was a 3 – 2 defeat to Austria – the first of only two occasions he was on the losing side in an England shirt . He played all nine England games in 1965 , the final one being a 2 – 0 win over Spain at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium .
England opened the year of 1966 on 5 January with a 1 – 1 draw with Poland at Goodison Park ; Ramsey 's managerial ability was demonstrated during the game as the equalising goal came from Bobby Moore , who was allowed to surge forward as Charlton covered the gap he left behind in defence . Charlton played in six of the next seven international victories as England prepared for the World Cup . The run started with impressive victories over West Germany and then Scotland in front of 133 @,@ 000 fans at Hampden Park . He scored his first international goal with a deflected shot on 26 June , as England recorded a 3 – 0 victory over Finland at the Helsinki Olympic Stadium . He missed the match against Norway but returned to action with a headed goal in a 2 – 0 win over Denmark at Idrætsparken .
England drew 0 – 0 in their opening group game of the World Cup against Uruguay after the South Americans came to play for a draw . They then beat Mexico 2 – 0 after a " tremendous goal " from Bobby Charlton opened up the game shortly before the half @-@ time whistle . England beat France 2 – 0 in the final group game , with Charlton assisting Roger Hunt after heading the ball onto the post . England eliminated Argentina in the quarter finals with a 1 – 0 win – their efforts were greatly aided after Argentine centre @-@ half Antonio Rattín was sent off for dissent , after which Argentina stopped attacking the ball and concentrated of holding out for a draw with their aggressive defending . England 's opponents in the semi @-@ finals were Portugal , who had giant centre @-@ forward José Augusto Torres to compete with Charlton for aerial balls . Late in the game Charlton gave away a penalty by sticking out a hand to stop Torres from scoring ; Eusébio scored the penalty but was largely contained by Nobby Stiles , and England won the game 2 – 1 after two goals from Bobby Charlton .
West Germany awaited in the final at Wembley , and they took the lead through Helmut Haller on 12 minutes ; Charlton felt that he could have blocked the shot but at the time he believed that Banks had it covered , though it was Wilson who was at fault for allowing Haller the chance to shoot . England came back and took the lead , but with only a few minutes left in the game Charlton gave away a free kick after fouling Uwe Seeler whilst competing for an aerial ball ; Wolfgang Weber scored the equalising goal from a goalmouth scramble created from the free kick . Geoff Hurst scored two goals in extra @-@ time to win the game 4 – 2 .
After the World Cup England lost the annual Home Championship to Scotland after a 3 – 2 defeat in April 1967 , Charlton scored for the second successive international game running after also finding the net against Wales the previous November . He injured his foot during the game as he broke two sesamoid bones in his big toe . As his career went on he began to miss England games with niggling injuries so as to avoid friendly games in favour of playing important matches for Leeds ; Brian Labone would take his place in the England team during Charlton 's absences . He was named in the squad for UEFA Euro 1968 , but did not feature in either of England 's games . He won five caps in 1969 , helping England to a memorable 5 – 0 win over France and scoring in a 1 – 0 win over Portugal from a corner taken by his brother Bobby .
In the summer of 1970 , Ramsey named Charlton in his squad of 22 for the 1970 World Cup in Mexico . However , he favoured Labone over Charlton and only picked Charlton for his 35th and final England game in the 1 – 0 group win over Czechoslovakia at the Estadio Jalisco . England lost in the quarter finals to West Germany , and on the flight home , Charlton asked Ramsey not to be considered for international duty again . Charlton agonised over how to break the news to Ramsey , and eventually said : " Great times ... absolute privilege ... getting older ... slowing down ... not sure I am up to it any more ... time to step down . " Ramsey listened , then agreed with him . " Yes , I had reached that conclusion myself . "
= = Management career = =
= = = Middlesbrough = = =
He was offered the job as manager of Second Division club Middlesbrough on his 38th birthday in 1973 . He declined to be interviewed for the position , and instead handed the club a list of responsibilities he expected to take , which if agreed to would give him total control of the running of the club . He refused a contract , and would never sign a contract throughout his managerial career . He took a salary of £ 10 @,@ 000 a year despite the chairman being willing to pay a lot more ; his only stipulations were a gentleman 's agreement that he would not be sacked , assurances that he would have no interference from the board in team affairs , and three days off a week for fishing and shooting . He decided to first repaint Ayresome Park and to publicise the upcoming league campaign so as to generate higher attendance figures .
Charlton took advice from Celtic manager Jock Stein , who allowed him to sign right @-@ sided midfielder Bobby Murdoch on a free transfer . Besides Murdoch the club already had ten players who Charlton moulded into a championship winning side : Jim Platt ( goalkeeper ) , John Craggs ( right @-@ back ) , Stuart Boam and Willie Maddren ( centre @-@ backs ) , Frank Spraggon ( left @-@ back ) , David Armstrong ( left midfield ) , Graeme Souness ( central midfield ) , Alan Foggon ( attacking midfield ) , John Hickton and David Mills ( forwards ) . Some of these players were already settled at the club and in their positions , whilst Charlton had to work with some of the other players . He moved Souness from left midfield to central midfield to compensate for his lack of pace and coached him to play the ball forward rather than side to side as was his instinct . Foggon was played in a new role which Charlton created to break the offside trap set by opposition defenders , an extremely fast player he was instructed to run behind defenders and latch on to the long ball to find himself one @-@ on @-@ one with the goalkeeper .
The " Boro " secured promotion with seven games still to play of the 1973 – 74 season , and Charlton actually told his team to settle for a point away at Luton Town so they could win the title at home but his players ignored his instruction to concede a goal and the title was secured with a 1 – 0 win at Kenilworth Road . They won the title by a 15 @-@ point margin ( at the time only two points were awarded for a win ) ; in contrast promoted Carlisle United ( 3rd ) finished only 15 points ahead of Crystal Palace ( 20th ) , who were relegated . He was named Manager of the Year , the first time that a manager outside of the top @-@ flight had been given such an honour .
He continued to manage and change every aspect of the club , and took the decision to disassemble the club 's scouting network to instead focus on local talent in Northumberland and Durham . His only major new signing of the 1974 – 75 season was Terry Cooper , a former Leeds United teammate . They adapted well to the First Division , finishing in seventh place , but would have finished fourth and qualified for Europe had Derby County not scored a last second goal against them on the last day of the season .
Building for the 1975 – 76 campaign he signed Phil Boersma from Liverpool to replace Murdoch , but Boersma never settled at the club and was frequently injured . They finished in 13th place , and went on to win the Anglo @-@ Scottish Cup with a 1 – 0 win over Fulham . They also reached the semi @-@ finals of the League Cup , and took a 1 – 0 lead over Manchester City into the second leg at Maine Road , where they were soundly beaten 4 – 0 . However teams had begun to learn how to combat Charlton 's attack strategy and left their centre @-@ backs on the outside of the penalty box to neutralise the threat of Foggon . Despite the team 's steady progress the club 's board voted to sack Charlton in July 1976 after becoming increasingly concerned that he was overstepping his authority in negotiating business deals on behalf of the club and choosing the club 's strip . However , the club chairman overruled the decision and Charlton remained in charge .
With Hickton coming to the end of his career Charlton tried to sign David Cross as a replacement but refused to go above £ 80 @,@ 000 and Cross instead went to West Ham United for £ 120 @,@ 000 . Middlesbrough finished the 1976 – 77 campaign in 12th place and Charlton left the club at the end of the season on the belief that four years was an optimum time with one group of players and that he had reached his peak with them – he later regretted his decision and stated that he could have led the club to a league title if he had stayed and signed two more top quality players . He applied for the job of England manager after Don Revie quit the role and after Brian Clough was ruled out by the Football Association but did not receive a reply to his application , and he vowed never to apply for another job again and instead wait until he was approached .
= = = Sheffield Wednesday = = =
In October 1977 , he replaced Len Ashurst as manager at Sheffield Wednesday , who were then bottom of the Third Division . He appointed as his assistant Maurice Setters , who had experience managing at that level but had effectively ruled himself out of another management job after taking Doncaster Rovers to court for unfair dismissal . The two agreed that while the standard of football in the division was low the work rates were high and so the best way to make progress would be to play long balls into the opposition penalty area whilst recruiting big defenders to avoid being caught out by opposition teams with similar tactics . He took the " Owls " to mid @-@ table safety with a 14th @-@ place finish in the 1977 – 78 season , though they did suffer embarrassment by being knocked out of the FA Cup by Northern Premier League side Wigan Athletic .
His priority in summer 1978 was to find a target man for Tommy Tynan to play alongside and he found it in 6 ft 2 in ( 1 @.@ 88 m ) Andrew McCulloch , who arrived from Brentford for a £ 70 @,@ 000 fee . He signed Terry Curran as a winger but eventually moved him up front to play alongside McCulloch . He sold goalkeeper Chris Turner to Sunderland and replaced him with the bigger Bob Bolder . He further raised the average height of the team by signing uncompromising centre @-@ half Mick Pickering from Southampton . The team failed to advance in the league , finishing the 1978 – 79 season again in 14th spot . They did make their mark on the FA Cup in the Third Round by taking eventual winners Arsenal to four replays before they eventually succumbed to a 2 – 0 defeat .
Charlton 's major acquisition for the 1979 – 80 campaign was signing Yugoslavia international midfielder Ante Miročević for a £ 200 @,@ 0000 fee from FK Budućnost Podgorica . Miročević proved unable to handle the British winter but otherwise added flair to the team in fairer weather . Wednesday went on to secure promotion with a third @-@ place finish and Curran finished as the division 's top @-@ scorer .
As the 1980 – 81 season came around Wednesday had young talent such as Mark Smith , Kevin Taylor , Peter Shirtliff and Mel Sterland breaking into the first team . The club were comfortable in the Second Division , finishing in tenth position .
Wednesday pushed for promotion in the 1981 – 82 season but ended just one place and one point outside the promotion places and would have actually been promoted under the old two points for a win system that was replaced by the three points for a win system at the beginning of the campaign .
In building for the 1982 – 83 campaign , Charlton signed experienced defender Mick Lyons from Everton and by Christmas Wednesday were top of the table . The club had a limited squad and successful cup runs took their toll , as did injuries to McCulloch and Brian Hornsby as they drifted down to sixth place by the close of the season . They reached the semi @-@ finals of the FA Cup , losing 2 – 1 to Brighton & Hove Albion at Highbury with key player Gary Megson out injured . Charlton announced his departure from Hillsborough in May 1983 despite pleas from the directors for him to stay .
In March 1984 , Malcolm Allison left Middlesbrough and Charlton agreed to manage the club until the end of the 1983 – 84 to help steer the club away from the Second Division relegation zone . He was unpaid except for expenses and only took the job as a favour to his friend Mike McCullagh , who was the club 's chairman . He kept " Boro " safely in 17th place , seven points clear of the relegation zone .
= = = Newcastle United = = =
Charlton was appointed manager of Newcastle United in June 1984 after being persuaded to take the job by Jackie Milburn . Arthur Cox had left the club after leading the " Magpies " to the First Division and key player Kevin Keegan announced his retirement . His first action was to release Terry McDermott from his contract , who refused to agree to Charlton 's offer of a new contract . He had little money to spend in preparation for the 1984 – 85 season , though he did have young talents in Chris Waddle and Peter Beardsley . He signed midfielder Gary Megson and big striker George Reilly . The " Toon " finished safely in 14th place , and a teenage Paul Gascoigne was on the verge of breaking into the first team .
Charlton resigned at the end of pre @-@ season training for the 1985 – 86 campaign after fans at St James ' Park started calling for his dismissal after the club failed to secure the signing of Eric Gates , who instead joined Lawrie McMenemy at Sunderland .
= = = Republic of Ireland = = =
Charlton was approached by the FAI to manage the Republic of Ireland in December 1985 . He was the first foreigner to be appointed to the role . In May 1986 , Ireland won the Iceland Triangular Tournament at Laugardalsvöllur , in Iceland 's capital of Reykjavík , with a 2 – 1 victory over Iceland and a 1 – 0 win over Czechoslovakia . By this time Charlton had developed his tactics , which were based on the traditional British 4 – 4 – 2 system , as opposed to the continental approach of using deep @-@ lying midfielders , as he noted that most of the Ireland international players plied their trade in England . Crucially he instructed all members of his team to pressure opposition players and in particular force ball @-@ playing defenders into mistakes .
Qualification for Euro 1988 meant winning a group containing Bulgaria , Luxembourg and Scotland . The campaign opened with Belgium at the Heysel Stadium , and though Ireland contained danger man Nico Claesen , they had to settle for a 2 – 2 draw after conceding twice from corner @-@ kicks ; Frank Stapleton and Liam Brady scored the goals for Ireland . They then dominated Scotland at Lansdowne Road , but failed to find the net and instead drew 0 – 0 . In the return fixture at Hampden Park Mark Lawrenson scored an early goal and another clean sheet won the Irish their first win of qualification . The campaign faltered with a 2 – 1 loss in Bulgaria , though Charlton was furious with referee Carlos Silva Valente as he felt that both of Lachezar Tanev 's goals should not have counted as Nasko Sirakov allegedly pushed Mick McCarthy in the build @-@ up to the first and he felt that Sirakov was outside the penalty box when he was fouled by Kevin Moran – Valente instead gave a penalty . They picked up another point after a 0 – 0 draw with Belgium in Dublin . Despite not particularly impressing Ireland then picked up six points with two victories over Luxembourg . They ended the campaign with a 2 – 0 home win over Bulgaria , Paul McGrath and Kevin Moran the scorers , though Liam Brady ( an ever @-@ present in qualification ) picked up a two match suspension after lashing out late in the game after being kicked by a Bulgarian . Despite the victory the Irish had to rely on a favour from the Scots in order to qualify , who duly obliged with a 1 – 0 victory in Sofia to keep Bulgaria one point behind Ireland in the table .
The build up to Euro 1988 in West Germany was far from ideal , as key player Mark Lawrenson was forced to retire after injuring his Achilles tendon , Liam Brady picked up a serious knee injury and Mark Kelly was also injured . The first match of the tournament was against England at the Neckarstadion , and Charlton reasoned that the threat posed by English wingers Chris Waddle and John Barnes could be nullified by allowing the English defence to feel comfortable on the ball without allowing them a pass ; this made the build @-@ up play slow and containable . His game @-@ plan worked and Ireland claimed a 1 – 0 win after Ray Houghton secured an early lead . He then compensated for a series of injuries by playing Ronnie Whelan and Kevin Sheedy in central midfield , and was rewarded with a great performance and a good point in a 1 – 1 draw with the Soviet Union at the Niedersachsenstadion , Whelan scoring the goal . To qualify they only needed a point against the Netherlands at the Parkstadion , and Charlton devised a time @-@ wasting plan with goalkeeper Packie Bonner that he was forced to abandon after referee Horst Brummeier was less than impressed . Ireland lost the game 1 – 0 after Wim Kieft scored an 82nd @-@ minute goal . England and Ireland were eliminated whilst Netherlands and the Soviet Union qualified – both teams would go on to contest the final .
Qualification for the 1990 World Cup required Charlton to mastermind a top two finish in a group consisting of Spain , Hungary , Northern Ireland and Malta . The campaign started on hostile ground at Belfast 's Windsor Park , and he had stand @-@ in goalkeeper Gerry Peyton to thank for the point gained from a goalless draw with Northern Ireland . A series of injuries left only a skeleton squad to face Spain at the Estadio Benito Villamarín , leaving a recall for defender David O 'Leary , and Ireland were well beaten 2 – 0 . They then left Budapest 's Népstadion with a point from another goalless draw , though they were criticised for not taking all three points after dominating the game . The next four fixtures would be played at Lansdowne Road , and all four games ended in victory . First they beat Spain 1 – 0 after an own goal from Míchel , then they overcame Malta and Hungary with 2 – 0 wins , before beating Northern Ireland 3 – 0 . Qualification for Ireland 's first World Cup was assured at the Ta ' Qali National Stadium after John Aldridge scored both goals in another 2 – 0 victory .
Ireland 's group opponents in Italia ' 90 were England , Egypt and the Netherlands . Charlton felt that England 's four @-@ man midfield of Waddle , Barnes , Bryan Robson and Paul Gascoigne did not offer enough protection to the back four , and he was proved correct when Kevin Sheedy cancelled out Gary Lineker 's opener to secure a 1 – 1 draw in the group opener at the Stadio Sant 'Elia . A poor performance against a negative Egyptian side at the Stadio La Favorita meant that neither side scored a goal in a dour draw . They ended the group with a 1 – 1 draw with the Dutch , Niall Quinn cancelling out Ruud Gullit 's opener in the 71st minute , after which both sides settled for a stalemate as a draw meant that both qualified ahead of Egypt . Ireland then defeated Romania in the Second Round match at the Stadio Luigi Ferraris which went to penalties after a 0 – 0 draw , before the whole team had a meeting Pope John Paul II at the Vatican . Ireland eventually went out to the hosts , Italy , 1 – 0 in the quarter @-@ finals at the Stadio Olimpico . A lapse of concentration meant that Italy 's Salvatore Schillaci scored on 38 minutes , and Ireland failed to build up enough chances to find the equalising goal . After returning to Dublin over 500 @,@ 000 people turned out to welcome the team back .
Qualification for Euro 92 in Sweden left Ireland facing a group of England , Poland and Turkey . They opened in style with a 5 – 0 home win over the Turks and then drew 1 – 1 home and away with the English ; Ireland were the better team than England in both encounters and Charlton said that they " twice let them off the hook " after Houghton missed easy chances in both games . A 0 – 0 draw at home with Poland followed , and they were then leading 3 – 1 in the return fixture in Poznań but conceded two late goals to end the match at 3 – 3 . Ireland beat Turkey 3 – 1 in Istanbul despite the intimidating atmosphere of the İnönü Stadium , but were denied a place in the tournament as England scored a late equalizing goal in Poland to secure the point that would take them above Ireland in the group .
In order to qualify for the 1994 World Cup in the United States , Ireland had to finish first or second in a seven team group of Spain , Denmark , Northern Ireland , Lithuania , Latvia , and Albania . Lithuania , Latvia and Albania proved to be little threat to the Irish , and both home and away fixtures against these three teams earned Ireland the maximum two points . The two most difficult fixtures – Denmark and Spain away – ended in goalless draws , and John Aldridge had a goal disallowed for offside against the Spanish which even Spain manager Javier Clemente said should have stood . Ireland then beat Northern Ireland 3 – 0 at home before settling for a 1 – 1 draw with Denmark . The qualification campaign was then derailed in the opening 26 minutes of the home tie with Spain as the Spanish took a three @-@ goal lead ; the game ended 3 – 1 , with John Sheridan 's late consolation eventually proving crucial at the end of the campaign . The final game was in Belfast against Northern Ireland during a tense period of The Troubles . Jimmy Quinn put Northern Ireland into the lead on 74 minutes , but four minutes later Alan McLoughlin scored the equalising goal to allow the Republic of Ireland to secure second place in the group due to their superior goals scored tally over Denmark . When Quinn scored Northern Ireland assistant manager Jimmy Nicholl shouted " Up yours ! " to his counterpart Maurice Setters ( Charlton 's assistant ) ; in response to this Charlton approached Northern Ireland manager Billy Bingham at the final whistle and told him " Up yours too , Billy " .
In the build up to the World Cup Charlton gave out first caps to Gary Kelly , Phil Babb and Jason McAteer ; he had difficulty convincing McAteer to join Ireland as he first had to turn down an approach by the FA to play for the England under @-@ 21s . He scheduled difficult matches before the tournament and Ireland picked up positive results by beating both the Netherlands and Germany away from home . Ireland opened the group stage of the tournament by beating Italy 1 – 0 at the Giants Stadium , Ray Houghton scoring the winning goal on 11 minutes . They then fell to a 2 – 1 defeat to Mexico at the Florida Citrus Bowl Stadium , during which Charlton had a pitch @-@ side argument with an official who was preventing substitute John Aldridge ( who went on to score the consolation goal ) from taking the pitch minutes after his teammate Tommy Coyne had left the pitch and sat down on the bench . For his arguing , Charlton was suspended by FIFA for the final group game against Norway , and had to watch from the commentary box as Ireland qualified with a 0 – 0 draw . They faced the Netherlands in the Round of 16 ; Dennis Bergkamp put the Dutch ahead on 11 minutes after Marc Overmars took advantage of a mistake by Terry Phelan , and Wim Jonk scored the second and final goal of the game from 30 yards after Packie Bonner fluffed an otherwise routine save . For his achievements Charlton was awarded the Freedom of the City of Dublin in 1994 by Lord Mayor Tomás Mac Giolla , the first Englishman to be given the honour since 1854 .
Ireland failed to qualify for Euro 96 , despite a strong start to the group , when they won their opening three games , including a 4 – 0 win against Northern Ireland . The Republic 's next game was also against Northern Ireland , although the result was a 1 – 1 draw . From that point onwards the Republic stuttered badly as injuries struck down key players such as Roy Keane , Andy Townsend , John Sheridan and Steve Staunton . After beating the highly fancied Portugal , the Irish then endured an embarrassing 0 – 0 draw to Liechtenstein ( this was Liechtenstein 's only point in their ten matches ) , before losing twice to Austria , on both occasions by three goals to one . Although they defeated Latvia , Ireland needed to beat Portugal in Lisbon to qualify outright , but lost 3 – 0 . They finished second in the group , ahead of Northern Ireland on goal difference , but as the worst performing runners @-@ up they had to win a play @-@ off game at Anfield against the Netherlands ; Ireland lost 2 – 0 after a brace from Patrick Kluivert . Charlton resigned shortly after the game .
" In my heart of hearts , I knew I 'd wrung as much as I could out of the squad I 'd got – that some of my older players had given me all they had to give . "
= = Personal life = =
Charlton married Pat Kemp on 6 January 1958 , and his brother Bobby acted as his best man . They have three children : John ( born in January 1959 ) , Deborah ( born 1961 ) and Peter , who was born just after Charlton senior played in the 1966 World Cup final . During the 1960s he ran two clothes shops in Leeds , and he also later operated the souvenir shop at Elland Road . Charlton is a keen amateur fisherman and also takes part in field sports .
He was appointed an OBE in 1974 . In 1996 he was awarded honorary Irish citizenship . The honour amounts to full Irish citizenship ; it is the highest honour the Irish state gives and is rarely granted . In 1994 , he was made a Freeman of the city of Dublin , and was given a honorary doctorate by the University of Limerick . In 1997 , he was appointed a Deputy Lieutenant of Northumberland . Charlton was inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame in 2005 in recognition of his contribution to the English game . There is a life @-@ size statue of him at Cork Airport in Ireland , representing him sitting in his fishing gear and displaying a salmon .
He revealed in his 1996 autobiography that he had a strained relationship with his brother Bobby . Though the pair had different personalities , Jack felt that Bobby began to drift away from the Charlton family following his marriage to Norma , who did not get along with their mother . Bobby did not see his mother after 1992 until her death on 25 March 1996 as a result of the feud , though he and Norma did attend her funeral . Though the two brothers remained distant , Jack presented Bobby with his BBC Sports Personality of the Year Lifetime Achievement Award on 14 December 2008 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = As a player = = =
= = = As a manager = = =
= = Honours = =
= = = Player = = =
Leeds United
Football League First Division champion : 1968 – 69 ; runner @-@ up 1964 – 65 , 1965 – 66 , 1969 – 70 , 1970 – 71 , 1971 – 72
Football League Second Division champion : 1963 – 64 ; runner @-@ up 1955 – 56
FA Cup winner : 1972 ; runner @-@ up 1965 , 1970
Football League Cup winner : 1968
FA Charity Shield winner : 1969
Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup winner : 1968 , 1971 ; runner @-@ up 1967
England
British Home Championship winner : 1964 – 65 , 1965 – 66 , 1967 – 68 , 1968 – 69 ; runner @-@ up 1966 – 67
FIFA World Cup winner : 1966
UEFA European Championship third @-@ place : 1968
Individual
FWA Footballer of the Year winner : 1967
English Football Hall of Fame : 2005
PFA Team of the Century ( 1907 @-@ 1976 ) : 2007
= = = Manager = = =
Middlesbrough
Football League Second Division winner : 1973 – 74
Anglo @-@ Scottish Cup winner : 1976
Sheffield Wednesday
Football League Third Division third @-@ place promotion : 1979 – 80
Republic of Ireland
Iceland Triangular Tournament winner : 1986
Individual
English Manager of the Year winner : 1974
Philips Sports Manager of the Year : 1987 , 1988 , 1989 , 1993
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= Vénus de Quinipily =
The Vénus de Quinipily ( French pronunciation : [ venys də kinipili ] , Breton : Ar groareg Houarn / Groah Hoart , English : The Iron Lady ) is an ancient statue of uncertain origins , located southeast of Baud , Morbihan , Brittany , in north – western France . It is approximately 2 @.@ 2 metres ( 7 @.@ 2 ft ) in height and carved from granite . The statue represents a naked woman and stands in front of a fountain on a 2 @.@ 75 m high granite pedestal . The large basin beneath the statue is also carved out of a single granite block . It is believed that the statue may be of Greek , Roman or Egyptian origin . There is similar uncertainty about its subject ; it may be a Celtic deity , the Roman Mother goddess Cybele , or an Egyptian Isis statue .
It was originally erected at the site of a former Roman camp in Castennec in Bieuzy @-@ les @-@ Eaux , a commune in the Morbihan department in Brittany . It was the centre of superstitious rites in Brittany for centuries and became an object of a pagan veneration . At the request of the Bishop of Vannes , the statue was thrown into the Blavet river twice ; first in 1661 and then again in 1670 , but recovered both times , first in 1664 and then in 1695 by Pierre de Lannion , the Lord of Blavet Quinipily . In 1701 , the statue was substantially altered and placed in its present position at Quinipily where a garden has been created to showpiece the ancient monument .
The statue is classified under Monument historique – a National Heritage Site of France on August 24 , 1993 . The heritage protection was made applicable from November 18 , 1943 . It is indexed in the Base Mérimée – a database of architectural heritage maintained by the French Ministry of Culture .
= = History = =
= = = Origin = = =
The origins of the Vénus de Quinipily are uncertain , but it is believed to have been sculpted around 49 BC . It was originally erected at the site of a former Roman camp in Castennec in Bieuzy @-@ les @-@ Eaux , a commune in the Morbihan department in Brittany in northwestern France . Various origins of the statue have been proposed , including Greek , Roman or Egyptian ; a Celtic deity , the Roman Mother goddess Cybele , or an Egyptian Isis statue . It has also been proposed that the statue did not survive its restoration in 1696 by Pierre de Lannion , the Lord of Blavet Quinipily , and that he secretly replaced it with a new one . According to the French archaeologist Monsieur de Penhouët , the statue was built by Moorish soldiers in the Roman army .
= = = Names = = =
During the seventeenth century , the statue was worshiped by pregnant women and had various names in the Breton language such as Er Groach Couard , the " Cowardly Old Woman " , or as the " Good Woman " , Groah @-@ Goard , la Couarde , or la Gward . The color of the stone from which it was carved also inspired the name Gronech Houarn – The Iron Woman . The statue has also been called Groah Hoart ( The Old Guardian ) . It is said that as the statue stood in the Roman guard house , it was called as Hroech @-@ ar @-@ Gouard , the Old Woman ( or Witch ) of the Guard @-@ House . The inscriptions on the pedestal say that it is called the Venus Armoricorum Oraculum . The inscriptions also claim that after the Romans conquered Gaul , it was dedicated to Venus Victrix . According to Macquoid , however , the statue could never have been meant to represent a Venus .
= = = Related superstitions and rites = = =
The statue was an object of superstitious rites in Brittany for centuries . It was believed that sick people would be cured by touching the statue . Childless people would often pay a visit to the statue in the hope of producing offspring . It is said that during seventeenth century " foul " , " indecent and obscene " rites were also practiced at the statue , and that many couples performed " erotic " acts near the statue . The statue was also credited with being a sorcerer who would help those who approached her with dignity but would avenge herself on those who neglected to treat her with due honour .
The rituals performed at the statue by pregnant women involved walking round three times , reciting charms and touching one 's abdomen . Women would also carry a band which would either be touched to the statue and then tied around their waist , or half of the band would be tied to the statue while the remaining half would be kept on the woman 's body until the child was born . After the childbirth , the basin in front of the statue was used by women to bathe in . The rites performed in the honour of the statue were said to be similar to those performed by Phoenicians in the worship of their Venus .
= = = Demolition and restoration = = =
As the statue became an object of a pagan veneration , missionaries and the Bishop of Vannes Charles de Rosmadec asked Claude de Lannion , Lord of Blavet Quinipily , to destroy the statue . In 1661 , Lannion ordered the statue to be thrown into the Blavet river . Abundant rain destroyed the harvest soon after , which peasantry and devotees interpreted as an act of anger by their insulted idol . In 1664 , the statue was drawn from the river and restored to its original location .
In 1670 , Rosmadec approached Claude de Lannion again and requested him to break the statue into pieces . Lannion ordered this to be done . However , the workmen , for fear of the peasants and devotees , only mutilated one of her breasts and one arm and again threw the statue into the same river . Soon after this , Claude de Lannion fell from his horse and died , which devotees considered as " a judgement from heaven for his having consented to destroy the idol . " The statue remained in the river for 25 years until Bishop Rosmadec decided to root out paganism in his diocese and asked Pierre de Lannion , son of Claude de Lannion , to destroy the statue . As Pierre was an antiquarian , he pulled the statue up from the river in 1695 but did not destroy it . The events associated with the demolition and restoration became a local cause célèbre .
= = = Modification and ownership = = =
In 1696 , Pierre de Lannion transported the statue to his château at Quinipily . It is said that it took forty yoke of oxen to drag the statue and the large granite basin there . Soldiers posted along the route from Castennec to Quinipily came to blows with peasants furious at the loss of their idol . Residents of Castennec protested against the " abduction " of the statue and with the help of Duke of Rohan sued Lannion to regain the possession . However , in 1701 , the court confirmed the ownership as Lannion 's by virtue of his saving it from the river . Supposedly , Pierre damaged the statue during the restoration and secretly replaced it with a new one on a pedestal .
= = Design = =
The seven @-@ foot tall " Venus " statue represents a naked woman standing in front of a huge but dilapidated fountain on a nine foot high granite pedestal . Her arms are wrapped around her belly , and the lower part of the body consists of straight legs placed slightly apart . The breasts are damaged , and the hair is straight . The statue wears two bands as her only ornamentation . The first band is tied around head whereas the other is around the neck , with the ends hanging down in front of the body , reaching down to the thighs , and broad enough to cover the genital area .
The statue wears a fillet with three large letters ; either " I. I. T. " , " I. T. T. " , " J. I. T. " or " L. I. T. " engraved on it . These letters may have been engraved when Pierre de Lannion re @-@ chiseled the statue and may have originally read " ILITHYIA " , the Greek goddess of childbirth . It is also speculated that these letters were carved later by one of the young Roman officers to amuse himself by carving his initials on the forehead . The fingers and toes of " Venus " are represented by lines and the facial expression has distinct similarities to those of Egyptian idols .
The large cistern beneath the statue is carved out of a single granite block , filled with water . It is believed that Pierre de Lannion was " deceived " by the nature of the worship paid to the statue , thus he placed the statue above a pedestal with Latin inscriptions , one on each side of it . It is believed that the design has oriental influences , but it may not be a Gallo @-@ Roman design .
The statue was classified under Monument historique – a National Heritage Site of France on August 24 , 1993 with the identification number 88378 . The heritage protection was made applicable from November 18 , 1943 . It is indexed in the Base Mérimée – a database of architectural heritage maintained by the French Ministry of Culture , under the reference PA00091021 .
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= Manuel Erotikos Komnenos =
Manuel Erotikos Komnenos ( Greek : Μανουήλ Ἐρωτικός Κομνηνός ; 955 / 960 – ca . 1020 ) was a Byzantine military leader under Basil II , and the first fully documented ancestor of the Komnenos dynasty . His origin and parentage is obscure . He is only mentioned in the sources as leading the defence of Nicaea in 978 against the rebel Bardas Skleros , and as an imperial envoy to him 11 years later . He had three children , late in life . The eldest , Isaac , became emperor in 1057 – 1059 , and the youngest , John , was the progenitor of the Komnenian dynasty as the father of Alexios I Komnenos .
= = Biography = =
Nothing is known of Manuel 's early life . From the fact that he was militarily active in 978 , and given that he was able to have children as late as ca . 1015 , a date of birth of ca . 955 / 960 has been suggested and generally accepted by modern scholars . His parents ' identity is obscure : as Manuel 's own firstborn son was named Isaac ( Isaakios ) , the Greek scholar Konstantinos Varzos considered it likely that his father had the same name , since according to Greek custom the eldest male child is named after its paternal grandfather . Nothing is known otherwise about his life and career . According to Varzos , Manuel inherited his surname of " Komnenos " from his father , while his equally obscure mother was an unnamed lady of the Erotikos family , possibly related to the 11th @-@ century rebel Theophilos Erotikos . The French scholar Jean @-@ Claude Cheynet , on the other hand , proposed that Manuel was a member of the Erotikos family , and that he was the first to have changed the surname to Komnenos . Modern scholarship commonly accepts Michael Psellos ' comment that the family originated from the village of Komne in Thrace . Varzos also considers Manuel a brother of the protospatharios Nikephoros Komnenos , who was named governor of the Armenian region of Vaspurakan soon after its annexation in 1021 , but although possible , such a relationship cannot be proven .
Manuel is mentioned for the first time in 978 , when he led the defence of Nicaea against the rebel general Bardas Skleros , who had risen up against Emperor Basil II ( reigned 976 – 1025 ) . Although his great @-@ granddaughter , the princess Anna Komnene , claims in her Alexiad that he had been named strategos autokrator ( commander @-@ in @-@ chief ) of the East and sent with full powers to deal with the revolt , it is far more likely that he was merely a local commander . Manuel maintained the city 's defence with some success , even though the besiegers managed to undermine and collapse one of its towers , until the lack of food became acute . At that point Manuel was able to fool Skleros , by pretending that he had mountains of wheat and was considering joining him , into allowing him and the inhabitants to depart freely for Constantinople . Manuel re @-@ appears in 989 , when he was sent as an envoy to Skleros , who had once more risen in revolt against Basil II , to persuade him to surrender . Manuel was successful in his task , and the elderly rebel ended his revolt and gave himself up on 11 October . The titles by which he is recorded were patrikios , anthypatos , and vestes .
Manuel owned lands in the region of modern Kastamonu in Paphlagonia , inherited after his death by his eldest son , and which became the stronghold of the family in the 11th century . Manuel Erotikos Komnenos died probably around 1020 . At that time , his children were still young , so he entrusted them to the care of Emperor Basil II .
= = Family = =
Manuel 's wife is virtually unknown . She was likely named Maria , as were two of her granddaughters , and probably died ca . 1015 . They had two sons and one daughter :
Isaac I Komnenos ( ca . 1007 – 1061 ) , married Catherine of Bulgaria , daughter of the last Bulgarian Tsar , and a distinguished general . He became emperor in 1057 at the head of a cabal of Anatolian generals , but resigned in 1059 and retired to a monastery .
an unnamed daughter ( born ca . 1012 ) , married Michael Dokeianos , who served as Catepan of Italy and was killed by the Pechenegs in 1050 .
John Komnenos ( ca . 1015 – 12 July 1067 ) , married Anna Dalassene , and served during his brother 's reign as Domestic of the Schools . He fathered several children who also became senior military leaders . His third son , Alexios I Komnenos , became emperor in 1081 , founding the Komnenian dynasty .
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= Armageddon ( 2006 ) =
Armageddon ( 2006 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) and presented by Activision 's Call of Duty 3 , which took place on December 17 , 2006 , at the Richmond Coliseum in Richmond , Virginia . The event starred wrestlers from the SmackDown ! brand .
The main event was a tag team match , in which the team of Batista and John Cena defeated the team of King Booker and Finlay . Two featured bouts were scheduled on the undercard , including The Undertaker versus Mr. Kennedy , in a match where the objective was to place an opponent in a hearse located on the entrance stage and drive them out of the arena , which Undertaker won . The other match was an Inferno match featuring wrestlers attempting to set the opponent on fire with flames surrounding the ring . Kane defeated Montel Vontavious Porter .
The event grossed over $ 423 @,@ 500 in ticket sales from an attendance of 8 @,@ 200 . Canadian Online Explorer 's professional wrestling section rated the WWE Tag Team Championship match a nine out of ten stars , the highest match rating . The event was released on DVD on January 16 , 2007 by Sony Music Entertainment . The DVD reached second on Billboard 's DVD Sales Chart for recreational sports during the week of February 18 , 2007 , and it dropped to the tenth spot the following week .
= = Background = =
Armageddon ( 2006 ) was the seventh annual Armageddon event . Eight professional wrestling matches , were featured on the event 's card .
The leading staged rivalry written into the event was between Batista and King Booker . At Survivor Series , WWE 's November pay @-@ per @-@ view event , Batista defeated Booker to win the World Heavyweight Championship . On the December 1 , 2006 episode of SmackDown ! , one of WWE 's primary television programs , King Booker and Finlay both demanded a match against Batista for the World Heavyweight Championship . General Manager Theodore Long , a portrayed match maker and rules enforcer , announced that Booker and Finlay would instead form a tag team to compete against Batista and a partner of his choice at Armageddon . Later that night , Batista announced that his partner would be WWE Champion John Cena , a member of the Raw brand . The following week on an episode of SmackDown ! , Batista defeated Finlay by disqualification after Booker interfered on Finlay 's behalf . On the December 15 episode of SmackDown ! , Cena defeated Finlay after lifting Finlay up on his shoulders and slamming him to the mat , a move that Cena dubbed the FU .
The secondary rivalry was between The Undertaker and Mr. Kennedy . On the September 8 , 2006 episode of SmackDown ! , Kennedy announced that he was looking for a new opponent , one that he had never faced before . Long informed Kennedy that he knew a SmackDown ! superstar that had never faced Kennedy , The Undertaker . A match was made between the two for No Mercy , in which Kennedy defeated Undertaker by disqualification . At Survivor Series , Kennedy once again defeated Undertaker in a First Blood match . On the December 1 episode of SmackDown ! , Undertaker fought Montel Vontavious Porter ( MVP ) in a match where neither wrestler won . During the match , MVP was scripted to attempt escaping from the ring , but Kennedy caught him during the process and tried to throw him back into the ring . MVP instead threw Kennedy in . Undertaker then kicked Kennedy in the face , and Kane attacked MVP at ringside . The following week as Kennedy was in the ring , the hearse , appearing to have nobody in the driver 's seat , drove into the arena ; suddenly , The Undertaker appeared from the back of the hearse , as Kennedy sprung from the ring . Later that night , Kane defeated Kennedy by disqualification after MVP interfered on Kennedy 's behalf . On the December 15 episode of SmackDown ! , The Undertaker and Kane teamed together to face Kennedy and MVP in a tag team match , which ended in neither team winning . Kennedy knocked Kane down in the aisle and jumped into the driver 's seat of the hearse that had been at ringside for the match , and threatened to run him over with it however the Undertaker appeared in the passenger side seat scaring Kennedy off .
= = Event = =
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The first match to air live was between Kane and MVP in an Inferno match . The only way to win an Inferno match is by throwing one 's opponent into a fire that surrounds the ring on all four sides . This match was the first time that the Inferno match had been used on pay @-@ per @-@ view in more than seven years . At the start of the match , MVP attempted to leave the ring , but was unable to as the flames surrounding the ring prevented him . Kane kicked MVP in the head and threw him into the ring corner . MVP escaped the ring and was unable to go past the fire , so he returned to the ring and was continuously knocked down by Kane . The finish of the match saw Kane grab MVP and force him backwards into the fire . MVP 's costume caught on fire as he ran to the entrance ramp . MVP fell to the floor as WWE workers put out the flames with fire extinguishers .
The following match featured Paul London and Brian Kendrick , William Regal and Dave Taylor , MNM ( Joey Mercury , and Johnny Nitro ) , and The Hardys ( Matt and Jeff ) in a four @-@ team ladder match for the WWE Tag Team Championship . In this match , the only way to win and capture the titles was by climbing a ladder and releasing the championship belts that were suspended above the ring . Towards the end of the match , while MNM and The Hardys were out of the ring , Regal and Taylor attempted to climb the ladder , but Kendrick managed to knock the pair off . Kendrick fought off Regal and Taylor as London climbed the ladder and captured the titles to win the match for his team and retain the championships . During the match , Mercury suffered a legitimate nose injury after being hit by a ladder .
I happened to be looking up , so it hit me in the throat . But Mercury was looking straight at it and it hit him square in the nose and the orbital bone . It really could have been any one of us . I was just lucky that the ladder hit him first .
I 'll always remember [ the match ] for what we did to Joey Mercury 's face . After the seesaw , I remember hearing him yell , " I 'm bleeding , " and it was like someone went to a sink and turned the faucet on . It was gruesome .
The third match was a standard wrestling match between The Boogeyman and The Miz . The Boogeyman controlled the majority of the match and eventually won by pinfall after a Falling Chokebomb .
The next match featured Chris Benoit versus Chavo Guerrero ( accompanied by Vickie Guerrero ) for the United States Championship . Before the bell rang to start the match , Chavo tried to attack Benoit , but as the match began , Benoit retaliated by rushing and hitting Guerrero with his forearm , a move called the clothesline . Benoit and Guerrero wrestled inconclusively until Benoit covered Chavo to try to pin him . Chavo managed to place his foot on top of the bottom rope , which forced Benoit to break the pin per official wrestling match rules . While Guerrero was lying on his stomach , Benoit held Guerrero 's face back and legs back , stretching his body , and made Chavo tapped out to retain the championship and win the match .
The fifth match was the encounter of Gregory Helms and Jimmy Wang Yang for the WWE Cruiserweight Championship . Helms performed a swinging neckbreaker on Yang , a move where Helms grabbed Yang 's neck under his armpit and turned around to slam him onto the mat . Yang retaliated , but Helms quickly moved back into the power position and pinned Yang to retain the championship . Helms was bleeding from the mouth as he left the ring .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The following match was a Last Ride match between The Undertaker and Mr. Kennedy , where the only way to win was by throwing one 's opponent into a hearse and driving it out of the arena . During the beginning of the match , The Undertaker tossed Kennedy into steel steps on the side of the ring and then onto the commentator 's announcing table . The Undertaker then threw Kennedy into the ring apron , which is the apron covering the area under the ring . Kennedy and The Undertaker wrestled inconclusively until The Undertaker tossed Kennedy on top of the roof of the hearse . The Undertaker then grabbed and lifted Kennedy by the throat and slammed him down onto the roof of the car . After that , The Undertaker grabbed Kennedy and gave him a Tombstone Piledriver onto the roof of the hearse . As he was still in control of the match , The Undertaker threw Kennedy into the hearse and drove it out of the arena to win the match .
After the Last Ride match , Jillian Hall , Layla El , Ashley Massaro , and Kristal Marshall all took part in a " Naughty or Nice " contest , a lingerie contest , where the Diva with the loudest fan reaction would win . The host of the contest was Santa Claus ( portrayed by Big Dick Johnson , otherwise Christopher DeJoseph ) . Johnson declared all four of the Divas as the winners and proceeded to take off his Santa costume and dance to music being played in the arena .
The main event was the tag team match between John Cena and Batista versus the team of King Booker and Finlay . Batista wrestled the match with his left arm taped up due to a previous injury . Both teams wrestlers inconclusively until Cena grabbed Finlay 's face and bent it back , stretching Finlay 's body , a submission move that Cena dubbed the STFU . Finlay broke the submission hold , and The Little Bastard ran into the ring . Little Bastard attempted to kick Cena , but accidentally kicked himself in his head when Cena moved out of the way . Then , Booker tried to kick Batista , but Batista moved out of the way , and Booker accidentally hit Finlay . Batista then lifted and sat Booker onto his shoulders and slammed him down onto the mat , a move he dubbed the Batista Bomb . Batista pinned Booker to earn the victory for his team .
= = Aftermath = =
On the December 22 , 2006 episode of SmackDown ! , King Booker and Finlay demanded a rematch against Batista and John Cena . General Manager Theodore Long informed the pair that they would instead be facing Kane and The Undertaker later that night in a match , which Kane and The Undertaker won . At the Royal Rumble , the Royal Rumble match was held , where the winner is the final person left in the ring after the other twenty nine wrestlers are eliminated by being thrown over the top ring rope . The Undertaker won the Royal Rumble match to earn a title shot at WrestleMania 23 . At WrestleMania , he defeated Batista to win the World Heavyweight Championship and maintain his WrestleMania undefeated streak .
Chris Benoit continued to feud with Chavo Guerrero over the WWE United States Championship . On the December 22 , 2006 episode of SmackDown ! , Benoit defeated Guerrero in a rematch for the title , with Vickie Guerrero accompanying Chavo to ringside . Benoit won the match by disqualification when Vickie hit Benoit in the head with the championship belt . On the January 12 , 2007 episode of SmackDown ! , Mr. Kennedy defeated Chris Benoit in a standard match , with help from Chavo Guerrero . The following week , Benoit defeated Chavo yet again with the championship on the line .
The feuds between Kane and Montel Vontavious Porter ( MVP ) , and The Undertaker and Mr. Kennedy did not continue after the event . On the January 5 , 2007 , episode of SmackDown ! , Kennedy set the time to beat in the " Beat the Clock " sprint , a tournament based on the time wrestlers win matches , to become the new number one contender for the World Heavyweight Championship . On the January 12 episode of SmackDown ! , Kennedy won the " Beat the Clock " sprint by preventing The Undertaker from winning his match and from beating Kennedy 's time . At the Royal Rumble , Batista defeated Kennedy to retain the title . The feuds between Gregory Helms and Jimmy Wang Yang , and The Boogeyman and The Miz also did not continue , as Helms was put into a rivalry with The Boogeyman . Yang was put into a temporary rivalry with Tatanka .
= = = Reception = = =
The Richmond Coliseum has a maximum capacity of 13 @,@ 000 , but that was reduced for the 2006 Armageddon . The event grossed over $ 423 @,@ 500 in ticket sales from an attendance of 8 @,@ 200 . Canadian Online Explorer 's professional wrestling section rated the WWE Tag Team Championship match a nine out of ten stars , the highest match rating . The United States Championship , Cruiserweight Championship , and Last Ride matches all received seven out of ten stars . The main event match received a five and a half stars out of ten rating .
The event was released on DVD on January 16 , 2007 , by Sony Music Entertainment . The DVD reached second on Billboard 's DVD Sales Chart for recreational sports during the week of February 18 , 2007 , and it dropped to the tenth spot the following week . It remained on the chart 's " top ten " for two consecutive weeks until the week of March 4 , 2007 , when it ranked 17th .
= = Results = =
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= Pest of the West =
" Pest of the West " is the 16th episode of the fifth season and the 96th overall episode of the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants . In this episode , SpongeBob finds that he is a distant relative of SpongeBuck SquarePants , a sheriff from Bikini Bottom 's past who helped save the citizens from the quickest whip draw in town , the evil Dead Eye Plankton . It was written by Luke Brookshier , Tom King , Steven Banks and Richard Pursel , with Andrew Overtoom and Tom Yasumi serving as animation directors . Brookshier and King also functioned as storyboard directors .
Pest of the West originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on April 11 , 2008 , and became available on DVD four days later . It included the song " Idiot Friends , " written by Tom Kenny and Andy Paley , which was later released on the album called SpongeBob 's Greatest Hits in 2009 . Upon release , the episode garnered a total of 6 @.@ 1 million viewers , and was met with positive reviews from media critics .
= = Plot summary = =
At the Krusty Krab , SpongeBob discovers that his friend Patrick Star had a famous relative named Patrick Revere , ( A parody of Paul Revere ) , who warned Bikini Bottom of vicious man @-@ eating mollusks during the 17th century . Later , Mr.Krabs , Spongebob 's boss , reveals that he also had a famous relative---his great @-@ great grandpappy Krabs , who invented " The Spendthrift Bill Fold System , " a booby trap that baits its victims with a dollar bill . Disappointed , he walks into the park where he observes a statue covered in poop and runs into Sandy , who reveals that her great aunt named Rosie Cheeks was the first squirrel to discover oil in Texas . Feeling sorry for SpongeBob , Sandy takes him to a library . SpongeBob learns that he is the great @-@ great @-@ great grandson of a Western hero called SpongeBuck SquarePants . Sandy begins to tell SpongeBob the story of SpongeBuck .
In the story , SpongeBuck SquarePants takes a train to a town named Dead Eye Gulch . He goes to The Dead Eye Funeral and Ice Cream Parlor , and later goes to a western saloon called the Krusty Kantina . There he meets William Krabs , ( Mr. Krabs ' ancestor ) , Hopalong Tentacles , ( Squidward 's ancestor , a parody of Hopalong Cassidy ) , and Polene Puff , ( Mrs. Puff 's ancestor ) . Later , Pecos Patrick Star , ( Patrick 's ancestor , a parody of Pecos Bill ) arrives and warns everybody that the town 's villain , Dead Eye Plankton , would arrive and sing a song called " Dead Eye . " Dead Eye Plankton then arrives , and challenges SpongeBuck to a duel at high noon . SpongeBuck gets kicked away to a desert and there he meets Pecos Patrick Star . Pecos Patrick tells SpongeBuck that he must smack Dead Eye Plankton several times to defeat him . When they get back into town , SpongeBuck meets Dead Eye Plankton and the two proceed to have a western duel . SpongeBuck then accidentally steps on Dead Eye , defeating him . The next scene shows William Krabs profiting by having the people of Dead Eye Gulch step on Dead Eye Plankton in exchange for one dollar . Eventually , the people build a golden statue of SpongeBuck to show their gratitude . SpongeBuck says that if he ever has a great @-@ great @-@ great @-@ great @-@ great grandson , he wanted him to say he was proud of his grandfather .
After hearing the story the two friends go back to the park and SpongeBob cleans the poop @-@ covered statue , which is actually a statue of SpongeBuck . The Episode concludes with Spongebob saying that someday people will know the name SpongeBob SquarePants . In the epilogue , SpongeBuck and Pecos Patrick sing " Idiot Friends . "
= = Production = =
" Pest of the West " was a special episode written by Luke Brookshier , Tom King , Steven Banks and Richard Pursel , with Andrew Overtoom and Tom Yasumi serving as animation directors . Brookshier and King also functioned as storyboard directors . Brown Johnson , president of animation for Nickelodeon and MTVN Kids and Family Group , said " SpongeBob consistently finds new ways to delight our audience [ ... ] , and this special is just another example of how the creative team can put SpongeBob in any setting and deliver funny , unforgettable classic moments . "
To promote the episode , Nickelodeon released short @-@ form videos of the special including a two @-@ minute preview clip , song clips and an instant replay of the special following its premiere on TurboNick , the network 's broadband video service on Nick.com. Following its premiere , " Pest of the West " was streamed on video on demand and became available for purchase through downloads on various Nickelodeon partner video distribution platforms . Nickelodeon also launched an online page for the episode located on " www.nick.com / pest " , where it featured a new game of the week , and a " name generator " .
" Pest of the West " is the first episode in the series that the crew used Wacom Cintiqs for the drawings , instead of pencils . Series background designer Kenny Pittenger said that " the only real difference between the way we draw now and the way we drew then is that we abandoned pencil and paper during the fifth season . " The crew began the shift while they were working on the episode . Pittenger said that " it was while we were working on ' Pest of the West ' , one of the half @-@ hour specials , that we made the switch … did you notice ? " The shift to Wacom Cintiqs let the designers and animators draw on computer screen and make immediate changes or undo mistakes . Pittenger said " Many neo @-@ Luddites — er … I mean , many of my cohorts — don 't like working on them , but I find them useful . There 's no substitute for the immediacy of drawing on a piece of paper , of course , but digital nautical nonsense is still pretty fun . "
The song featured in the episode 's epilogue , " Idiot Friends " , was written by Tom Kenny , SpongeBob 's voice actor , and Andy Paley . In 2009 , the song was released on the album called SpongeBob 's Greatest Hits , alongside 16 other tracks .
= = Cultural references = =
" Pest of the West " features cultural references from various Western films . Aspects of the musical cues used in the high noon duel between SpongeBuck and Dead Eye Plankton was from Sergio Leone 's 1968 Spaghetti Western film Once Upon a Time in the West , complete with Ennio Morricone 's harmonica riff used for the Charles Bronson character .
= = Reception = =
" Pest of the West " first aired with a TV @-@ Y7 parental rating . The premiere marked the fourth Nickelodeon telecast in 2008 to move to the top of basic cable among total viewers , as well as handily ranking as number @-@ one on broadcast and cable television among kids 2 @-@ 11 , 6 @-@ 11 and teens 9 @-@ 14 . A total of 6 @.@ 1 million viewers tuned into the half @-@ hour " Pest of the West " special .
The episode received positive reviews from media critics . Paul Mavis of the DVD Talk said the episode is " a real treat for fans of westerns and spaghetti westerns " because " the writers play off time @-@ honored genre clichés so well . " Mavis lauded Plankton 's appearance in the episode , saying " Plankton reaches insane levels of hilarity here , brandishing a whip like Lash LaRue and cracking it at the ' hayseeds ' that get in his way . " He also praised Plankton 's voice actor , Mr. Lawrence , on his role , writing " It 's a terrific vocal performance by [ Mr. ] Doug Lawrence ( made even more funny during the town 's ritualized squashing of villain Dead @-@ Eye , as he screams grotesquely off @-@ camera ) . "
Lesley Aeschliman of Yahoo ! Voices praised the " going back in time " element of the episode , comparing it to " Dunces and Dragons " . Russ Evenhuis of Blogcritics was positive towards the DVD , saying " You won 't be disappointed . "
Roy Hrab of the DVD Verdict was negative towards the DVD , saying " adults will be disappointed further , but , more importantly , I think kids ( except for the very young ) will be less then [ sic ] impressed . Without question , the energy and imagination level of the show has dropped precipitously . " He criticized the featured song , " Idiot Friends " , saying it was " extremely idiotic ( and not in a funny way ) . " Mike McGuire of Napster , on the song " Idiot Friends " , said " [ It ] illustrate [ s ] SpongeBob 's dedication to total absurdity , irreverence and harmlessly off @-@ color gags . "
= = Merchandising = =
On April 15 , 2008 , Nickelodeon and Paramount Home Entertainment released the episode on the DVD of the same name . The DVD featured six other episodes , including " The Krusty Plate " , " Pat No Pay " , " The Inmates of Summer " , " To Save a Squirrel " , " 20 @,@ 000 Patties Under the Sea " and " The Battle of Bikini Bottom . " Bonus features include a " Pest of the West " original animatic and four " Pest of the West " shorts . It also became available in the SpongeBob SquarePants : Season 5 , Vol . 2 DVD on November 18 , 2008 . On September 22 , 2009 , " Pest of the West " was released in the SpongeBob SquarePants : The First 100 Episodes DVD , alongside all the episodes of seasons one through five .
In 2013 , Nickelodeon released a tie @-@ in book based on the episode called Pest of the West . The book was illustrated by Caleb Meurer , published by Random House , and was released on January 8 .
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= Ormulum =
The Ormulum or Orrmulum is a twelfth @-@ century work of biblical exegesis , written by a monk named Orm ( or Ormin ) and consisting of just under 19 @,@ 000 lines of early Middle English verse . Because of the unique phonetic orthography adopted by its author , the work preserves many details of English pronunciation existing at a time when the language was in flux after the Norman conquest of England . Consequently , it is invaluable to philologists in tracing the development of the language .
After a preface and dedication , the work consists of homilies explicating the biblical texts set for the mass throughout the liturgical year ; it was intended to be consulted as the texts changed , and is agreed to be tedious and repetitive when read straight through . Only about a fifth of the promised material is in the single manuscript of the work to survive , which is in the Bodleian Library in Oxford .
Orm was concerned with priests ' ability to speak the vernacular , and developed an idiosyncratic spelling system to guide his readers in the pronunciation of the vowels . He used a strict poetic metre to ensure that readers know which syllables are to be stressed . Modern scholars use these two features to reconstruct Middle English as Orm spoke it ( Burchfield 1987 , p . 280 ) .
= = Origins = =
Unusually for work of the period , the Ormulum is neither anonymous nor untitled . The author names himself at the end of the dedication :
At the start of the preface , the author identifies himself again , using a different spelling of his name , and gives the work a title :
The name " Orm " derives from Old Norse , meaning worm , serpent or dragon . With the suffix of " myn " for " man " ( hence " Ormin " ) , it was a common name throughout the Danelaw area of England . The meter probably dictated the choice between each of the two forms of the name . The title of the poem , " Ormulum " , is modeled after the Latin word speculum ( " mirror " ) ( Matthew 2004 , p . 936 ) , so popular in the title of medieval Latin non @-@ fiction works that the term speculum literature is used for the genre .
The Danish name is not unexpected ; the language of the Ormulum , an East Midlands dialect , is stringently of the Danelaw ( Bennett and Smithers 1982 , pp. 174 – 75 ) . It includes numerous Old Norse phrases ( particularly doublets , where an English and Old Norse term are co @-@ joined ) , but there are very few Old French influences on Orm 's language ( Bennett 1986 , p . 33 ) . Another — likely previous — East Midlands work , the Peterborough Chronicle , shows a great deal of French influence . The linguistic contrast between it and the work of Orm demonstrates both the sluggishness of the Norman influence in the formerly Danish areas of England and the assimilation of Old Norse features into early Middle English ( Bennett 1986 , pp. 259 – 63 ) .
According to the work 's dedication , Orm wrote it at the behest of Brother Walter , who was his brother both affterr þe flæshess kinde ( biologically ) and as a fellow canon of an Augustinian order ( Matthew 2004 , p . 936 ) . With this information , and the evidence of the dialect of the text , it is possible to propose a place of origin with reasonable certainty . While some scholars , among them Henry Bradley , have regarded the likely origin as Elsham Priory in north Lincolnshire ( Bennett and Smithers 1982 , pp. 174 – 75 ) , as of the mid @-@ 1990s it became widely accepted that Orm wrote in the Bourne Abbey in Bourne , Lincolnshire ( Treharne 2000 , p . 273 ) . Two additional pieces of evidence support this conjecture : firstly , Arrouaisian canons established the abbey in 1138 , and secondly , the work includes dedicatory prayers to Peter and Paul , the patrons of Bourne Abbey ( Parkes 1983 , pp. 115 – 27 ) . The Arrouaisian rule was largely that of Augustine , so that its houses often are loosely referred to as Augustinian ( Jack , George , in Matthew and Harrison 2004 , pp. 936 – 37 ; Parkes 1983 , pp. 115 – 27 ) .
Scholars cannot pinpoint the exact date of composition . Orm wrote his book over a period of decades and the manuscript shows signs of multiple corrections through time ( Burchfield 1987 , p . 280 ) . Since it is apparently an autograph , with two of the three hands in the text generally believed by scholars to be Orm 's own , the date of the manuscript and the date of composition would have been the same . On the evidence of the third hand ( that of a collaborator who entered the pericopes at the head of each homily ) it is thought that the manuscript was finished circa 1180 , but Orm may have begun the work as early as 1150 ( Parkes 1983 , pp. 115 – 27 ) . The text has few topical references to specific events that could be used to identify the period of composition more precisely .
= = Manuscript = =
Only one copy of the Ormulum exists , as Bodleian Library MS Junius 1 ( Burchfield 1987 , p . 280 ) . In its current state , the manuscript is incomplete : the book 's table of contents claims that there were 242 homilies , but only 32 remain ( Matthew 2004 , p . 936 ) . It seems likely that the work was never finished on the scale planned when the table of contents was written , but much of the discrepancy was probably caused by the loss of gatherings from the manuscript . There is no doubt that such losses have occurred even in modern times , as the Dutch antiquarian Jan van Vliet , one of its seventeenth @-@ century owners , copied out passages that are not in the present text ( Jack , George , in Matthew and Harrison 2004 , pp. 936 – 37 ) . The amount of redaction in the text , plus the loss of possible gatherings , led J. A. W. Bennett to comment that " only about one fifth survives , and that in the ugliest of manuscripts " ( Bennett 1986 , p . 30 ) .
The parchment used in the manuscript is of the lowest quality , and the text is written untidily , with an eye to economical use of space ; it is laid out in continuous lines like prose , with words and lines close together , and with various additions and corrections , new exegesis , and allegorical readings , crammed into the corners of the margins ( as can be seen in the reproduction above ) . Robert Burchfield argues that these indications " suggest that it was a ' workshop ' draft which the author intended to have recopied by a professional scribe " ( Burchfield 1987 , p . 280 ) .
It seems curious that a text so obviously written with the expectation that it would be widely copied should exist in only one manuscript and that , apparently , a draft . Treharne has taken this as suggesting that it is not only modern readers who have found the work tedious ( Treharne 2000 , p . 273 ) . Orm , however , says in the preface that he wishes Walter to remove any wording that he finds clumsy or incorrect ( quoted in Bennett and Smithers 1982 , pp. 175 – 76 ) .
The provenance of the manuscript before the seventeenth century is unclear . From a signature on the flyleaf we know that it was in van Vliet 's collection in 1659 . It was auctioned in 1666 , after his death , and probably was purchased by Franciscus Junius , from whose library it came to the Bodleian as part of the Junius donation ( Holt 1878 , pp. liv – lvi ) .
= = Contents and style = =
The Ormulum consists of 18 @,@ 956 lines of metrical verse , explaining Christian teaching on each of the texts used in the mass throughout the church calendar ( Treharne 2000 , p . 273 ) . As such , it is the first new homily cycle in English since the works of Ælfric of Eynsham ( c . 990 ) . The motivation was to provide an accessible English text for the benefit of the less educated , which might include some clergy who found it difficult to understand the Latin of the Vulgate , and the parishioners who in most cases would not understand spoken Latin at all ( Treharne 2000 , p . 273 ) .
Each homily begins with a paraphrase of a Gospel reading ( important when the laity did not understand Latin ) , followed by exegesis ( Bennett and Smithers 1982 , pp. 174 – 75 ) . The theological content is derivative ; Orm closely follows Bede 's exegesis of Luke , the Enarrationes in Matthoei , and the Glossa Ordinaria of the Bible . Thus , he reads each verse primarily allegorically rather than literally ( Jack , George , in Matthew and Harrison 2004 , pp. 936 – 37 ) . Rather than identify individual sources , Orm refers frequently to " ðe boc " and to the " holy book " ( Bennett 1986 , p . 31 ) . Bennett has speculated that the Acts of the Apostles , Glossa Ordinaria , and Bede were bound together in a large Vulgate Bible in the abbey so that Orm truly was getting all of his material from a source that was , to him , a single book . ( Bennett 1986 , p . 31 ) .
Although the sermons have been deemed " of little literary or theological value " ( Burchfield 1987 , p . 280 ) and though Orm has been said to possess " only one rhetorical device " , that of repetition ( Bennett 1986 , p . 32 ) , the Ormulum never was intended as a book in the modern sense , but rather as a companion to the liturgy . Priests would read , and congregations hear , only a day 's entry at a time . The tedium that many experience when attempting to read the Ormulum today would not exist for persons hearing only a single homily each day . Furthermore , although Orm 's poetry is , perhaps , subliterary , the homilies were meant for easy recitation or chanting , not for aesthetic appreciation ; everything from the overly strict meter to the orthography might function only to aid oratory ( Bennett and Smithers 1982 , pp. 174 – 75 ) .
Although earlier metrical homilies , such as those of Ælfric and Wulfstan , were based on the rules of Old English poetry , they took sufficient liberties with meter to be readable as prose . Orm does not follow their example . Rather , he adopts a " jog @-@ trot fifteener " for his rhythm , based on the Latin iambic septenarius , and writes continuously , neither dividing his work into stanzas nor rhyming his lines , again following Latin poetry ( Bennett 1986 , p . 31 ) . The work is unusual in that no critic ever has stepped forward to defend it on literary grounds . Indeed , Orm was humble about his oeuvre : he admits in the preface that he frequently has padded the lines to fill out the meter , " to help those who read it " , and urges his brother Walter to edit the poetry to make it more meet ( Treharne 2000 , pp. 274 – 75 ) .
A brief sample may help to illustrate the style of the work . This passage explains the background to the Nativity :
= = Orthography = =
Rather than conspicuous literary merit , the chief scholarly value of the Ormulum derives from Orm 's idiosyncratic orthographical system ( Treharne 2000 , p . 273 ) . He states that since he dislikes the way that people are mispronouncing English , he will spell words exactly as they are pronounced , and describes a system whereby vowel length and value are indicated unambiguously ( Bennett 1986 , pp. 31 – 32 ) .
Orm 's chief innovation was to employ doubled consonants to show that the preceding vowel is short and single consonants when the vowel is long ( Treharne 2000 , p . 273 ) . For syllables that ended in vowels , he used accent marks to indicate length . In addition to this , he used two distinct letter forms for g , using the old yogh for [ d ͡ ʒ ] and [ j ] , and the new g for [ ɡ ] ( Jack , George , in Matthew and Harrison 2004 , pp. 936 – 37 ) . His devotion to precise spelling was meticulous ; for example , having originally used eo and e inconsistently for words such as " beon " and " kneow , " which had been spelled with eo in Old English , at line 13 @,@ 000 he changed his mind and went back to change all eo spellings , replacing them solely with e alone ( ben and knew ) , to reflect the pronunciation ( Matthew 2004 , p . 936 ; Jack , George , in Matthew and Harrison 2004 , pp. 936 – 37 ) .
The combination of this system with the rigid meter , and the stress patterns this implies , provides enough information to reconstruct his pronunciation with some precision ; making the reasonable assumption that Orm 's pronunciation was in no way unusual , this permits scholars of history of English to develop an exceptionally precise snapshot of exactly how Middle English was pronounced in the Midlands in the second half of the twelfth century ( Matthew 2004 , p . 936 ) .
= = Significance = =
Orm 's book has a number of innovations that make it valuable . As Bennett points out , Orm 's adaptation of a classical meter with fixed stress patterns anticipates future English poets , who would do much the same when encountering foreign language prosodies ( Bennett 1986 , p . 31 ) . The Ormulum is also the only specimen of the homiletic tradition in England between Ælfric and the fourteenth century , as well as being the last example of the Old English verse homily . It also demonstrates what would become Received Standard English two centuries before Geoffrey Chaucer ( Burchfield 1987 , p . 280 ) . Further , Orm was concerned with the laity . He sought to make the Gospel comprehensible to the congregation , and he did this perhaps forty years before the Fourth Council of the Lateran of 1215 " spurred the clergy as a whole into action " ( Bennett 1986 , p . 33 ) . At the same time , Orm 's idiosyncrasies and attempted orthographic reform make his work vital for understanding Middle English . The Ormulum is , with the Ancrene Wisse and the Ayenbite of Inwyt , one of the three crucial texts that have enabled philologists to document the transformation of Old English into Middle English ( Burchfield 1987 , p . 280 ) .
= = Endnotes = =
A. ^ Quotations are from Holt ( 1878 ) . The dedication and preface are both numbered separately from the main body of the poem .
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= Iftah Ya Simsim =
Iftah Ya Simsim ( Arabic : افتح يا سمسم ; meaning " Open Sesame " ) is the first international co @-@ production of the American children 's television series Sesame Street created in the Arab world . It premiered in Kuwait in 1979 , was broadcast in 22 Arabic @-@ speaking countries and ran until 1990 , when the Gulf War ended production . The program continued to be well @-@ known decades after it went off the air . In 2010 , talks between Arab organizations and governments planned to revive the show . In 1978 , educators , mass media officers , and social planners agreed to adopt Sesame Street as a feasible and economical solution for the low attendance in preschools and illiteracy that plagued the region . They approached the Children 's Television Workshop ( CTW ) , the producers of the American show , and purchased the rights to create an Arab version for US $ 2 @.@ 5 million .
A few months after its premiere , Iftah Ya Simsim became one of the most popular and successful programs for children in many Arab states . Critics called it " one of the most successful pan @-@ Arab collaborations of educators , creators , writers and artists from the Middle East " . The show inspired many studies , which demonstrated that children benefited from watching it . It has been said that when Iraqi invaders stormed the set during the Gulf War in 1990 , they took away not just videos of the show but some of the Muppet costumes as " prisoners of war " , some of which have never been returned .
In 2010 , efforts began to revive the show for a new generation of young viewers in the Arab world . In late 2013 , fifteen writers and producers from Bidaya Media attended training about its educational methodology and production techniques from the staff of the American show in New York . Iftah Ya Simsim was in pre @-@ production in March 2014 , and the first phase of auditions took place in April 2014 . The new series debuted on September 1 , 2015 .
= = Background = =
A few months after the 1969 debut of Sesame Street on PBS in the US , producers from several countries all around the world approached the Children 's Television Workshop ( CTW , later the Sesame Workshop , or " the Workshop " ) , the organization responsible for the show 's production , to create and produce versions of Sesame Street in their countries . Co @-@ creator Joan Ganz Cooney was approached by German public television officials about a year after the US version debuted . Many years later , Cooney recalled , " To be frank , I was really surprised , because we thought we were creating the quintessential American show . We thought the Muppets were quintessentially American , and it turns out they 're the most international characters ever created " . She hired former CBS executive Mike Dann , who left commercial television to become her assistant , as a CTW vice @-@ president . One of Dann 's tasks was to field offers to produce versions of Sesame Street in other countries . By summer 1970 , he had made the first international agreements for what the CTW came to call " co @-@ productions " .
As of 2006 , there were 20 active co @-@ productions . In 2001 , CTW vice @-@ president Charlotte Cole estimated that there were over 120 million viewers of all international versions of Sesame Street , and by the show 's 40th anniversary in 2009 , they were seen in more than 140 countries . Doreen Carvajal of The New York Times reported that income from the co @-@ productions accounted for US $ 96 million in 1994 . Cole stated , " Children 's Television Workshop ( CTW ) can be regarded as the single largest informal educator of young children in the world " . Studies conducted on the effects of several co @-@ productions found that viewers of these shows gain basic skills from watching them .
Kuwait 's 1980 census , conducted shortly after the original show 's premiere , showed that 48 % of its citizens were " either totally illiterate or ... barely [ able to ] read or write " . Several studies in Kuwait showed that parents ' illiteracy adversely affected their children 's educational and social development . Half of Kuwaitis who lived in the rural areas of the country were illiterate . Literacy rates for women and girls were worse : UNESCO reported in 2005 that they " account for two thirds of the region 's illiterates " . In 2000 , before the revived show aired , the Arab region had some of the world 's lowest adult literacy rates , at a little over 62 % , which was well below the world average of 84 % and in developing countries ( almost 76 @.@ 5 % ) . The Kuwaiti 1980 census also showed that even though Kindergarten was free for its citizens , 30 % of children aged 3 to 5 attended ; the number was much lower for the 12 million preschoolers in the Arab world , at about 2 % . Girls attended school less commonly than boys in Arab countries .
In 1976 , the Arab fund for Social and Economic Development held a series of workshops and seminars , attended by educators , mass media officers , and social planners , about preschool education in the region . The participants agreed to adopt Sesame Street as a feasible and economical solution for the low attendance in preschools and illiteracy and , with funding from the Arab Gulf States Joint Program Production Institution , movement was made to create a co @-@ production for the children of Kuwait and for the Arab world . This program , called Iftah Ya Simsim ( " Open Sesame " ) premiered in Kuwait in 1979 and ran until 1990 , when the Gulf War stopped production . It was broadcast in 22 Arab countries , and continued to be well @-@ known decades after it went off the air . In June 2010 , the Sesame Workshop and the Arab Bureau of Education for the Gulf States ( ABEGS ) , a regional Gulf Cooperation Council ( GCC ) organization dedicated to education , research , and development , agreed to bring back the show .
= = Original production = =
Iftah Ya Simsim was the first children 's educational TV program of its kind in the Arab world and the first Sesame Street co @-@ production in the region . It was the first co @-@ production to use Modern Standard Arabic ( MSA ) . Its development was similar to that of the American version of Sesame Street in the late 1960s . The GCC considered creating a co @-@ production for many years , so consultations were held among its member countries regarding how to do so . Many of the early co @-@ productions were simple , dubbed versions with local language voice @-@ overs and instructional cutaways , but the GCC wanted to create their own original version .
They established the Joint Program Production Institute ( JPPI ) to work with the CTW to create a Sesame Street co @-@ production in addition to creating several children 's TV shows . The JPPI formed a team , which visited the CTW in New York to negotiate the production of 130 30 @-@ minute programs , purchasing the rights to create an Arab version for US $ 2 @.@ 5 million , and bringing in experts from throughout the Arab world " to introduce an all encompassing Arabic curriculum that would teach and cultivate Arab values and culture " .
According to researcher Ibrahim Al @-@ Khulaifi , there were three stages in the production of the show . The first stage was pre @-@ production research , which identified basic education needs for children under the age of six . The second stage involved the creation of a pilot reel to test children on the show 's effects and for review by educators , sociologists , psychologists , and other experts , who were invited to a seminar . Finally , the series was filmed and aired . Research began in August 1977 ; the team was led by an educator and included a linguist and a psychologist , all of whom were on the faculty of Kuwait University . The show was tested on different socioeconomic groups of children , between the ages of three and six , in kindergartens and preschools in four representative cities from Arab countries . The team proposed curriculum goals based upon the research and , during a seminar , Arab and CTW educators agreed on ten final goals .
Iftah Ya Simsim emphasized scientific thinking and the effects of technology on society . It sought to provide children with experiences that enriched their knowledge about their environment and improved their reasoning , through teaching them mathematical and geometric concepts . The show introduced its viewers to Arab history by citing important events , such as showing castles that were the center of historic battles . Geography was highlighted , especially the location of countries and their cities and capitals , which had the secondary effect of helping children increase their feelings of belonging and feeling proud of their Arab heritage . Children 's social awareness , especially their comprehension of social roles and their functions , was also emphasized .
Unlike the American show , Iftah Ya Simsim covered the topic of spirituality because of the importance of religion in Arab culture , so the producers ' goals included teaching children about Islamic principles , positive social behavior , personal manners , and the importance of traits like honesty , respect for parents , loyalty , and social interaction . According to researchers Misbah Al @-@ Khayr and Hashim Al @-@ Samira 'i , the program reinforced " the values and ethics that are derived from the teaching of orthodox Islam ... to help children develop a sound moral vision on the basis of which they will build their family relationships , and which will reinforce the values of cooperation , love , and justice " .
The producers wanted to present the characteristics of the Arabic language and its alphabet . Because pre @-@ production research showed that , although many dialects are spoken in the region , 90 % of Arab children were able to understand Modern Standard Arabic ( MSA ) , it was chosen as the show 's language . Linguist Kees Versteegh stated that the language used in Iftah Ya Simsim was " based on an explicit didactic and linguistic concept " . The show 's developers decided to use specific aspects of the language . Despite the absence of case endings in the dialects spoken by many of its users , the producers used them and other indispensable features of MSA . They also spelled out what features should be used sparingly , like passive verb forms , and what features they wanted to completely avoid , such as some prepositions . According to Versteegh , " These principles have been followed rather closely " . Children who appeared on the show made few grammatical errors in MSA , and although colloquialisms were used rarely , there was an informal quality in their conversations and speech patterns . Versteegh postulated that it was due to the use of intonation patterns and interjections , instead of the use of grammatical and lexical items from the vernacular use of the language . He also said that Iftah Ya Simsim proved that it was " possible to use an informal register of Modern Standard Arabic " . Versteegh reported that although the show was criticized in some Arab countries , Egypt in particular , for containing too many colloquialisms , he thought the criticism was biased and that " the selection of lexical items in any pan @-@ Arabic programme will probably never satisfy everybody " .
New Muppets were created , inspired by cultural traditions in the Arab world , from the shadow puppets of Syria to the puppets of Egypt , some of the oldest puppets in the world . Characters from the American show , like the Cookie Monster , Bert and Ernie , Grover , and Kermit , were transposed into Arabic versions : Kaaki , Bader and Anees , Gharghour , and Kamil . The show 's version of the Count kept his distinctive laugh and accent when speaking MSA .
New characters were created , including a camel named Nu 'man ( نُعمان ) drawn from Arabic history and tradition , the green and yellow parrot Malsoon ( َْمَلْسون ) , a lavender @-@ colored monster with a long nose named Yagut , and a large purple ribbon @-@ wearing cat called Abla .
The show focused on Arab heritage , like the wedding rituals of countries in the region , and included Arab poems and songs . Iftah Ya Simsim premiered in Kuwait in September 1979 , and was broadcast in all Arabic @-@ speaking countries excluding Egypt . The show 's opening consisted of a catchy tune that became beloved of its young viewers . As the song played , the opening footage showed children across the Arab world running past familiar landmarks like the Pyramids and playing in playgrounds and ancient alleyways before running into a white fort that had its gates open wide . The show 's set consisted of an intricately traditional Arabian neighborhood called Sharee Eshreen ( 20th Street ) .
Iftah Ya Simsim ran until 1990 , when the Gulf War brought it to an end . According to Rym Ghazal of The National , " Such was its popularity that it is said the Iraq invaders stormed the set ... taking away not just videos of the show but some of the Muppet costumes as prisoners of war . It is said that the Nu 'man costume , as well as Cookie Monster were never found or returned to Kuwait " .
= = = Legacy and influence = = =
According to researcher Ibrahim Al @-@ Khulaifi , " In a few months , Iftah Ya Simsim became one of the most popular and successful programs for children in many Arab states " . Critics called it " one of the most successful pan @-@ Arab collaborations of educators , creators , writers and artists from the Middle East " . The show continued to trigger nostalgia in its fans , some of whom watched its reruns well into the 1990s . Rym Ghazal of The National asserts that other co @-@ productions made in the region could not compare to Iftah Ya Simsim , which used actors and children from the region , known as Khaleeji , in their roles . Ghazal also stated , " No Arabic children 's television show was as popular and influential in the Middle East in the 1980s as Iftah Ya Sim Sim ... That 's because it offered an alternative way of learning that hardly existed in the Arab world at the time , just as Sesame Street had previously done in the West " .
Iftah Ya Simsim inspired " a flood of studies " , from scientific research to doctoral or masters theses submitted to Arab , European , and American universities . No studies were conducted during the show 's first five years , largely due to lack of government cooperation and unsuccessful attempts marred by subjects dropping out of the studies . In 1981 , however , the JPPI invited children from Arab countries to Kuwait to access how they assimilated the program . Their attitudes about the show were assessed by education , social , and media specialists , who found that most viewers had benefited from watching it . Parents reported that their children 's language use and ability improved , and the JPPI received many letters of appreciation and was commended for their efforts in producing the show . In 1984 , in one of the first studies conducted researching the show 's effects on its young viewers , Ibrahim Al @-@ Khulaifi compared the relationship between the viewing behavior by the Kuwaiti preschooler of Iftah Ya Simsim and certain developmental and environmental variables . He found that variables such as socioeconomic status , parental education ( especially that of the mother ) , sex , age , year in school , birth order , and family attitudes about the show influenced the frequency of viewing .
Misbah Al @-@ Khayr and Hashim Al @-@ Samira 'i , in an article from the 1995 book Children in the Muslim Middle East , reported on a study that sought to evaluate the influence of Iftah Ya Simsim on its Baghdad viewers ' knowledge about language , general information , mathematics , science , and moral principles . The study found that 85 % of all children residing in Baghdad had watched it and that they interacted with and were attached to many of its characters , who exposed viewers to the accents of the region . The most popular segments were those that contained cartoons , songs , and puppets . The show 's viewers demonstrated an increase in their understanding and knowledge in all areas , especially information about their social and natural environment .
= = Revival = =
In 2010 , the Sesame Workshop and the Arab Bureau of Education for the Gulf States ( ABEGS ) , which recognized " the deep love for the program " felt throughout the Arab world , started talks about relaunching Iftah Ya Simsim . Pre @-@ production research and preparation , like the process it took to bring the American version and the original Arab co @-@ production , took two years . The ABEGS and the Sesame Workshop signed an agreement to bring it back to Arab television , with content suitable for a new generation of children . The show was the first educational initiative sponsored by the Mubadala Development Company , the investment vehicle of the Abu Dhabi government . The initiative sought to relaunch the old series " with a new vision and content suitable for children of today " . Abdel @-@ Mohsen Al Bannai , CEO of the joint production program for GCC @-@ JPPI and who produced other co @-@ productions in the region during the 1980s , considered Iftah Ya Simsim as more than a TV show , but as an educational initiative . The production company Bidaya Media was chosen to produce the show ; in 2013 , the company was housed at Twofour54 , the United Arab Emirates version of public television . The show was supported by organizations all over the world ; Feras Al @-@ Maddah , Iftah Ya Simsim 's representative at the GCC , stated , " It is a public / private sector partnership and we will need the support of all to extend the communication channels and continue producing more educational products " .
A seminar was held in 2011 to design the show 's curriculum and educational framework , and was attended by over 80 education and media experts . The seminar , also attended by ABEGS representatives , was sponsored by the GCC Joint Program Production Institution ( GCC @-@ JPPI ) and Saudi Basic Industries Corporation ( SABIC ) , a manufacturing company based in Riyadh and one of the private corporations that sponsored the new show . The participants took into consideration the educational changes that had occurred in the region in the previous 20 years , including a more diverse and complicated world and a need for more creativity to educate young children . The seminar focused on the education needs of children throughout the Arab world , the possible effects of the show 's return , and how to provide educational resources and technology to children in the 21st century . The seminar participants recommended the creation of an advisory council , consisting of education experts and media professionals , as well as expanding to new media forms other than TV , and including important Arab celebrities as guests on the show , all components that the American show used .
Other curriculum topics chosen during the seminar included Arabic culture and heritage , school readiness , health and wellness , and female education . The seminar participants decided to use MSA , like the producers had done for the original show , citing an even greater need to expose children to the Arabic language . The National , for example , stated , " At a time when Arab children are increasingly deviating from their language and culture because of programming from nations like the United States and India , initiatives like this will help to reverse the trend " . Abdulla Al Sharhan , the new show 's creative director , agreed : " We are losing our language , and so through Iftah Ya Simsim , we can revive the language in such a way that a child learns proper Arabic in a fun way " . As with the original , outreach was an important part of the new show . Even before the show aired , four characters from the original toured the region , educating young children and their families about road and car safety . The cast and crew took a break from filming for a few months for " constant live events " to interact with their young viewers . Books , DVDs , CDs , online material and outreach programs for children , parents , and teachers were produced .
In late 2013 , fifteen writers and producers from Bidaya Media attended training about its education methodology and production techniques from the staff of the American show in New York . The Saudi Gazette reported that Iftah Ya Simsim was in pre @-@ production in March 2014 , and that the first phase of auditions took place in April 2014 , after , according to Al @-@ Sharhan , a year of designing the show , " with input from child development experts , educators and cultural consultants " . A casting call for a competitive search of performers specializing in puppeteering , voice , singing , and movement was sent to universities , theaters , and cultural centers in Abu Dhabi , where it was filmed , and through social media . They cast Arabic @-@ speaking performers , although no prior acting experience was required . Dina al Saleh , a puppeteer from Alam Simsim , the Egyptian co @-@ production , screened the first group of candidates , and then the final cast of seven puppeteers were chosen after ten days of workshops , which the Saudi Gazette called " " master level training " with Marty Robinson and other Sesame Workshop puppeteers from New York . According to an editorial in The National , the new version of the show was significant because it encouraged Emiratis and other Arabs to become more involved in filmmaking and , more importantly , it focused on " locally relevant Arabic @-@ language content that will seek to educate present and future generations " .
Jordanian comedian , actor , writer , and voice over artist Natheer Khawaldeh , who was involved in the Jordanian co @-@ production Hikayat Simsim in 2009 , was chosen to perform the Muppet character Gargur , the show 's version of the American character Grover . In addition to puppetry , Khawaldeh performed the voice of six other characters and wrote for the show . According to entertainment reporter Arwad Khalifeh , Khalwaldeh 's performance as Gargur sounded similar to Frank Oz 's Grover , but Khalwaldeh brought his own nuance to the role . Khalwaldeh called the part " the highlight of my career and a once @-@ in @-@ a @-@ lifetime opportunity " . He also stated , " Iftah Ya Simsim complements every one of my accomplishments in the field of children 's work in Jordan , including theatre work , storytelling , dubbing , presenting children 's TV programmes and writing . This project incorporates all those genres under its hat and crowns them like the cherry on top " . Khalwaldeh said that being cast in the show inspired him to consider his future projects more carefully . Emirati musician Taha Al Ajami , who was a fan of the original show , created music for the new version .
= = = Relaunch = = =
After a 25 @-@ year hiatus the show was relaunched in September 2015 appearing on nine regional stations with Abu Dhabi Al Emarat TV and Sharjah TV among them . At the time of the re @-@ launch the show was expected to reach 45 million viewers . The production is a collaboration between the Abu Dhabi Education Council , twofour54 , the Arab Bureau of Education for the Gulf States and Bedia Media . Along with live shows at schools , the show interacts with fans by means of Facebook , a Youtube channel , and Instagram accounts . The show announced its focus on regional traditions , culture , values , customs , and manners with the characters speaking in classical Arabic .
It was also announced that the much loved character No 'man the camel and the bird muppet Melsoon were returning to the new run . They were to be joined by new muppets that would " include Shams , a quick witted 6 year old girl who is full of energy and loves to express herself , as well as cute Gargur , a special resident on Iftah Ya Simsim who provides his trademark zaniness , comic chaos and a unique perspective on the world . " It was announced that puppeteers Abdullah Kassem , Asma Alshamsi , Natheer Khawaldeh , Maher Mozawak , Noura Sadaka , and Michel Jabali would be working on the show . Also announced were actors appearing on the show with the muppets ; Abdulla Rafaah ( in the role of Rashid ) and Fatma Al Taei ( as Amal ) . The educational content of the show is directed by the Educational Advisory Committee and the representatives of the Arab Bureau of Education for the Gulf States ( ABEGS ) .
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= United States Bicentennial coinage =
The United States Bicentennial coinage was a set of circulating commemorative coins , consisting of a quarter , half dollar and dollar struck by the United States Mint in 1975 and 1976 . Regardless of when struck , each coin bears the double date 1776 – 1976 on the normal obverses for the Washington quarter , Kennedy half dollar and Eisenhower dollar . No coins dated 1975 of any of the three denominations were minted .
Given past abuses in the system , the Mint advocated against the issuance of commemorative coins starting in the 1950s . Beginning in 1971 , members of Congress introduced bills to authorize coins to honor the United States Bicentennial , which would occur in 1976 . The Mint , through its director , Mary Brooks , initially opposed such proposals , but later supported them , and Congress passed legislation requiring the temporary redesign of the reverse of the quarter , half dollar and dollar .
A nationwide competition resulted in designs of a Colonial drummer for the quarter , Independence Hall for the half dollar and the Liberty Bell superimposed against the moon for the dollar . All three coins remain common today due to the quantity struck . Circulation pieces were in copper nickel ; Congress also mandated 45 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 part @-@ silver pieces be struck for collectors . The Mint sold over half of the part @-@ silver coins before melting the remainder after withdrawing them from sale in 1986 .
= = Background = =
Commemorative coins had been struck for a number of events and anniversaries by the United States Mint since 1892 . Organizations would get Congress to authorize a coin and would be allowed to buy up the issue , selling it to the public at a premium . The final issue among these commemoratives , half dollars honoring Booker T. Washington and George Washington Carver were struck over a number of years , and were discontinued in 1954 . Originally priced at $ 3 @.@ 50 , they were repeatedly discounted ; many could not be sold at a premium and entered circulation . The promoter of these issues , S.J. Phillips , mishandled the distribution and lost $ 140 @,@ 000 . The negative publicity caused the Department of the Treasury , of which the Mint is a part , to oppose subsequent commemorative coin proposals , and until the 1970s , Congress passed none .
In 1966 , Congress established the American Revolutionary Bicentennial Commission ( ARBC ) to plan and coordinate activities connected with the 1976 bicentennial of American Independence ( " the Bicentennial " ) . In February 1970 , the ARBC established a Coins and Medals Advisory Committee . The committee 's initial report , in July 1970 , called for the production of a commemorative half dollar for the Bicentennial . In December 1970 , the committee called for special designs for all denominations of US coinage for the Bicentennial ; the ARBC endorsed this position the following month . The Treasury , however , opposed the change , following its longstanding position against commemorative coins . Several proposals for Bicentennial coins were introduced in Congress in 1971 and 1972 , but did not pass .
Mint Director Mary Brooks had attended the Advisory Committee meetings . At one meeting , she supported having a 1776 – 1976 double date on circulating coins to mark the anniversary in 1976 , although accommodating two dates on the obverse would involve production difficulties . However , in a newspaper interview she termed the idea of changing the six circulating coins ( cent through dollar ) " a disaster " . She felt if any Bicentennial coin was issued , it should be non @-@ circulating , perhaps a half cent or a gold piece . Brooks believed that such a coin would not disrupt the Mint in the production of coins for circulation . During 1972 , however , she retreated from that position , and by the end of the year had persuaded Treasury Secretary George Shultz to support a Bicentennial coin bill .
= = Authorization = =
In January 1973 , Texas Representative Richard C. White introduced legislation for commemorative dollars and half dollars . Oregon Senator Mark Hatfield also put forward a bill , calling for a $ 25 gold piece . On March 2 , 1973 , the Treasury announced its support for Bicentennial coin legislation for design changes to the reverses of the circulating dollars and half dollars , and sent proposed legislation to Congress three days later . Hearings before a subcommittee in the House of Representatives were held on May 2 , 1973 . Brooks testified , supporting the limited redesign in the bill , but opposing a more extensive coin redesign . Separately from the Bicentennial matter , she asked for authority to strike US coins at the West Point Bullion Depository , where space was available to install older coinage presses . Brooks deprecated the Hatfield proposal , stating that the coin would have to be .667 pure or less to avoid hoarding .
As a result of the hearings , several additional bills were introduced , and additional hearings were held before a Senate subcommittee on June 6 . Brooks testified again , and responding to criticism that only the two least popular denominations were to be changed , indicated her support for a Bicentennial quarter as well . On June 13 , a bill , S. 1141 which provided for a circulating Bicentennial quarter , half dollar and dollar , gave permission for coins to be struck at West Point and allowed for 40 % silver clad versions of the new coins for collectors was reported favorably by the Senate Banking Committee . It passed the Senate on July 13 . However , amendments authorizing US citizens to own gold , and to implement the Hatfield proposal were attached to the bill . A similar bill passed the House of Representatives on September 12 , differing from the Senate bill in lacking any provision relating to gold , and in not authorizing silver versions of the new coins .
Members of the two houses met in a conference committee on September 19 in a session described by onlookers as " fairly hot and heavy " . The resulting bill had no gold provisions , but authorized changes to the reverses of the quarter , half dollar and dollar for the Bicentennial . The obverses of the three coins would not change , but would bear the double date 1776 – 1976 . By the terms of the statute , all coins minted to be issued after July 4 , 1975 and before January 1 , 1977 would bear the Bicentennial dates and designs . Congress directed the Mint to strike 45 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 silver clad coins ( that is , 15 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sets ) , and the Mint received the requested authority to strike coins at West Point . Circulation quarters , half dollars and dollars would continue to be of copper nickel bonded to an internal layer of copper , that is , copper nickel clad . The modified bill passed both houses of Congress on October 4 , 1973 , and the bill was signed into law by President Richard Nixon on October 18 . Hatfield 's measure , along with similar legislation from other senators , was reintroduced in 1975 , but died in committee , as did legislation seeking a Bicentennial two @-@ cent piece and a bill seeking a coin honoring Abigail Adams and Susan B. Anthony . The extra production at West Point was key to overcoming a shortage of cents in 1974 , and permitted the Mint greater flexibility as it geared up to strike the Bicentennial pieces .
= = Competition = =
On October 23 , 1973 , the Department of the Treasury announced a competition for the three reverse designs . Any US citizen could submit one drawing , or photograph of a plaster model 10 inches ( 250 mm ) in diameter . Submissions were to include the legend " quarter dollar " . Treasury Secretary Shultz , advised by a panel of judges , would decide which design would be used for which denomination — the inscription would be changed to half dollar and one dollar for the higher denominations . Additionally , the reverses were to bear the name of the country and the motto " e pluribus unum " , as required by law .
At Director Brooks ' request , the National Sculpture Society selected the five judges for the competition . The judges were society President Robert Weinman ( son of Adolph Weinman , who had designed the Mercury dime and Walking Liberty half dollar ) , Connecticut sculptor Adlai S. Hardin , former Mint Chief Engraver Gilroy Roberts , Julius Lauth of the Medallic Art Company , and Elvira Clain @-@ Stefanelli , curator in the Division of Numismatics , Smithsonian Institution .
The deadline was originally December 14 , 1973 , but was extended to January 9 , 1974 because of the energy crisis and Christmas mail delays . Brooks traveled more than 7 @,@ 000 miles ( 11 @,@ 000 km ) to publicize the competition . By the deadline , the Mint had received 15 @,@ 000 inquiries and 884 entries . Members of the panel and any person employed by the US government as a sculptor were ineligible to enter . The prize for each of the three winners was $ 5 @,@ 000 . The judging was originally supposed to take place at West Point ; with the delay , it took place instead at the Philadelphia Mint .
From the entries , the judges selected twelve semifinalist designs ; the sculptor submitting each received a prize of $ 750 . The competitors were to place their work on plaster models , if that had not already been done , and were offered assistance in making the models .
= = Preparation = =
The twelve remaining designs were released by the Treasury for public comment in early 1974 . Two of the proposed coins featured sailing ships , two featured Independence Hall in Philadelphia , where the Declaration of Independence was signed , and three depicted the moon or lunar spacecraft . Another depicted the Liberty Bell superimposed on an atomic symbol . According to numismatist Michael Marotta in his 2001 article on the Bicentennial coins , " the numismatic community 's reaction to the entries was predictable : everyone complained by writing letters to the editor " .
From the twelve , the judges selected six finalists for review by the National Bicentennial Coin Design Competition Committee , consisting of Brooks , Representative Wright Patman , Senator John Sparkman , Commission of Fine Arts Secretary Charles H. Atherton and Eric P. Newman , chairman of the ARBC 's coins and medals advisory committee . After receiving the committee 's recommendations , Secretary Shultz selected the winners and on March 6 , 1974 , Brooks went on the Today show to announce them . Jack L. Ahr 's design featuring a colonial drummer , with a torch of victory surrounded by thirteen stars ( representing the original states ) was selected for the quarter . Seth Huntington 's image of Independence Hall was selected for the half dollar while Dennis R. Williams ' superimposition of the Liberty Bell against the moon was successful for the dollar . Ahr owned a commercial art firm and Huntington was head artist for Brown and Bigelow , a Minneapolis publishing firm . Williams , at age 22 the youngest person to design a US coin , was an art student who had originally created his design for a class assignment . No change would be made to the obverses of the coins , except for the double dating .
Ahr was accused of copying his drummer from a 1973 stamp by the stamp 's designer , William A. Smith ; he denied it . According to numismatic historian Walter Breen , " both obviously derive from Archibald Willard 's 1876 painting Spirit of ' 76 , " a painting which numismatic author David L. Ganz suggests that both undoubtedly saw sometime in their lives . Ahr , however , stated that his son had been the model for the drummer . Brooks , in a letter to Smith , stated that the design for the quarter was " sufficiently original " to impress the National Sculpture Society . Weinman later deprecated the winning designs :
I really don 't think what we got was a great bargain . Nothing we selected was a real winner that I 'd fight to the death for . In terms of what we had to work with , though , I think we did the best we could .
On April 24 , 1974 , the three winning designers were brought to Washington , D.C. After a tour of the White House and meetings with the congressional committees which considered the coin bills , they went to the Treasury Building and received their $ 5 @,@ 000 checks from the new Treasury Secretary , William E. Simon , who jokingly asked them if they wanted to invest their awards in savings bonds .
Mint Chief Engraver Frank Gasparro made minor changes to all three reverse designs . Gasparro simplified the quarter design , altered the drum for the sake of authenticity , changed the lettering and modified the expression on the drummer 's face . He made slight changes to Independence Hall on the half dollar and altered the shape of the Liberty Bell and of the lettering on the dollar , simplifying the features visible on the moon . Ahr later stated that he would have liked more time to finalize his design , wishing to clarify the features of the drummer 's face . The initials of the designer were added to the design by the Mint . All three agreed that Gasparro 's changes improved their designs .
= = Production = =
On August 12 , 1974 , the three designers were at the Philadelphia Mint , where they ceremonially operated the presses to strike the first coins bearing their designs . These prototypes were exhibited under armed guard at the American Numismatic Association convention in Florida the next day . They differ from all other Bicentennial coins in that they were struck in silver proof without mint mark ; other silver proof coins bear an " S " mint mark as struck at the San Francisco Assay Office ( as the San Francisco Mint was then known ) . Coins struck at Denver bear a " D " on the obverse ; pieces lacking a mint mark were struck at Philadelphia . Sets of these prototypes were presented to President Gerald Ford , Counselor to the President Anne Armstrong and Director John Warner of the American Revolutionary Bicentennial Administration ( the successor to the ARBC ) . All other first strikes were melted , with copies not even kept for the National Numismatic Collection .
The Mint believed that if it was required to strike 1975 quarters , half dollars and dollars , not enough could be struck before it had to begin the Bicentennial issues to prevent the 1975 pieces from becoming collector 's items . This risked coin shortages at a time when the Mint was seeking to build a surplus of quarters . Mint officials returned to Congress to seek amending legislation . President Ford signed a bill on December 26 , 1974 that made several noncontroversial changes to law , including provisions to allow the Mint to keep striking 1974 @-@ dated pieces until it began striking the Bicentennial coins . By terms of the amending legislation , the commemorative coins could not be issued until after July 4 , 1975 .
On November 15 , 1974 , the Mint began taking orders for the silver clad pieces , at a price of $ 15 for proof sets and $ 9 for uncirculated , with a deadline for orders of January 31 , 1975 . Uncirculated coins are like those newly released into circulation ; proof coins have a mirror finish . Buyers were initially limited to five sets per person . On January 19 , 1975 , Brooks announced that the silver proof set price was cut to $ 12 , and the order limit was waived . Buyers who had paid the higher price were sent refunds by check . Brooks stated that the price reduction was because of production efficiencies , the benefit of which she wished to pass along to the public . Numismatic columnist Ed Reiter noted , though , that the reduction came amidst protests from the numismatic community that the price was too high . Coin dealer Herby Skelton suggested in 1977 that the initial high price for the sets followed by the reduction , together with the large mintage of silver sets made the public suspicious and contributed to lagging sales . On August 20 , 1975 , the price for the uncirculated silver sets was reduced to $ 7 when bulk purchases of 50 or more were made . A bank in Taiwan ordered 250 @,@ 000 sets at this price .
The first Bicentennial coins to be produced that were intended for the public were dollars , struck during February 1975 . The first for collectors were struck at San Francisco on April 23 , 1975 . The San Francisco Assay Office struck the 45 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 silver coins first , producing eleven million sets in uncirculated and four million in proof , then began the base metal pieces . Once striking began , the Mint found that the copper nickel dollar was striking indistinctly , a problem not seen with the silver pieces . The Mint modified the dies ; the most noticeable change is that the revised issue , or Type II as it came to be known , have narrower , sharper lettering on the reverse . All silver pieces ( struck only at San Francisco ) are Type I ; all three mints struck both Type I and Type II copper nickel pieces . All dollars included in 1975 proof sets are Type I ; all those included in 1976 proof sets are Type II . Bicentennial coins for collectors were not delivered until after July 4 , 1975 . The Bicentennial pieces , in base metal , were included in 1975 proof sets and mint sets together with 1975 @-@ dated cents , nickels and dimes .
The new coins first entered circulation on July 7 , 1975 , when the half dollar was released in conjunction with ceremonies in Minneapolis , Huntington 's hometown . The quarter followed in September and the dollar in October , each also with ceremonies to mark the issuance . The pieces were struck in numbers exceeding those needed for circulation ; a Mint spokesman stated , " The theory in striking them was to have enough available so as many Americans as possible would have an opportunity to have a coinage commemoration of the Bicentennial year . They 're momentos . "
In 1977 , the Mint returned to the old reverse designs for the quarter , half dollar and dollar . Sales by mid @-@ 1977 had dropped off considerably , to perhaps 300 sets a week , with one Mint official describing the sales against the massive unsold quantities as " a drop in the bucket " . By 1979 , the Mint anticipated an eventual sellout for the silver proof set , but admitted that with massive quantities unsold , there was no realistic possibility of selling all uncirculated silver sets . On September 17 , 1979 , faced with a spike in silver prices , Mint Director Stella B. Hackel announced that the sets were being removed from sale . They were returned to sale in August 1980 , at increased prices of $ 20 in proof and $ 15 in uncirculated . In September 1981 , the Mint , citing a decline in the price of silver , reduced the price of the sets to $ 15 in proof and $ 12 in uncirculated . A limit of 100 sets per person was set on proof sales , with none on uncirculated . A large number of sets were melted by the government in 1982 . Reagan administration Mint Director Donna Pope later stated , " Sales of 1776 – 1976 regular @-@ issue Bicentennial coins went on and on , seemingly forever . " On December 31 , 1986 , the remaining Bicentennial uncirculated silver sets were removed from sale . At the time , it was announced that proof sets had already sold out when coins went off sale . However , Marotta , writing in 2001 , stated that when sales ceased , 400 @,@ 000 proof sets and 200 @,@ 000 uncirculated sets remained in inventory .
Due to the large quantities struck , Bicentennial coins remain inexpensive . A set of three silver coins contains .5381 troy ounces of the precious metal . In a 1996 statistical study , T.V. Buttrey found that about 750 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 of the circulation quarters , more than a third , had been hoarded and did not circulate . Coin dealer Marcel Sassola suggested in 1977 of the silver sets , " There were just too many sold , and I think it will take a long time before they have any real value . Maybe by the Tricentennial . "
The total coinage by striking mint is shown below :
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= Boobrie =
The boobrie is a mythological shapeshifting entity inhabiting the lochs of the west coast of Scotland . It commonly adopts the appearance of a gigantic water bird resembling a cormorant or great northern diver , but it can also materialise in the form of various other mythological creatures such as a water bull .
A generally malevolent entity , the boobrie typically preys on livestock being transported on ships , but it is also fond of otters , of which it consumes a considerable number . In its manifestation as a water horse the creature is able to gallop across the top of lochs as if on solid ground . During the summer months it is seen infrequently as a large insect , sucking the blood of horses .
Folklorist Campbell of Islay has speculated that descriptions of the boobrie may be based on sightings of the great auk . The bellowing sound made by the boobrie , more like a bull than a bird , may have its origin in the strange call of the common bittern , which was a rare visitor to Scotland .
= = Etymology = =
Boobrie may derive from boibhre , meaning cow giver or cow bestowing . Edward Dwelly , a Scottish lexicographer , lists tarbh @-@ boidhre as " Monster , demon " and " God capable of changing himself into many forms " ; tarbh @-@ aoidhre is given as a northern counties variation . The simpler component of tarbh as a single word is defined by Dwelly as " bull . " Transcribers of the tale have used several differing spellings of the second component , some even adopting inconsistent variations throughout their own renditions . George Henderson for instance , a folklorist and Celtic scholar , used five alternatives : bo 'eithre ; boidhre ; bo @-@ oibhre ; eithre ; and fhaire . Spelling variations employed by other writers include aoidhre ; baoighre ; baoidhre ; boidhre ; eighre ; and oire .
= = Folk beliefs = =
= = = Description and common attributes = = =
Investigation into folklore , especially Celtic oral traditions , began in the 19th @-@ century , and several " bizarre " and less familiar beasts were identified , including the boobrie . It is a generally malevolent entity , with the ability to materialise in the form of various mythical creatures . It commonly preys on animals being transported on ships , preferably calves , but will also happily eat lambs and sheep , carrying its prey away to the deepest water before consuming it . It is also extremely fond of otters , which it consumes in large quantities .
In its favoured bird manifestation the boobrie resembles a gigantic great northern diver or cormorant , but with white markings . According to folklorist Campbell of Islay , a detailed account of its dimensions provided by an authoritative source claims that it is " larger than seventeen of the biggest eagles put together " . It has a strong black beak about 11 inches ( 280 mm ) wide and 17 inches ( 430 mm ) in length , the final 5 inches ( 130 mm ) of which taper like that of an eagle . The creature 's neck is almost 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) long with a girth of a little under 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) . Short black powerful legs lead to webbed feet with gigantic claws . An imprint of a boobrie 's foot left in some lakeside mud equalled " the span of a large wide @-@ spreading pair of red deer 's horns " . It bellows noisily with displeasure , sounding more like a bull than a bird . The design of its wings is more conducive to swimming rather than for flight . Its evil powers when in the form of a bird were said by Campbell of Islay to have " terrified a minister out of his propriety " . The boobrie 's insatiable appetite for livestock posed a threat to local farmers , as they relied on their animals as a means of providing income and food .
Although sea lochs are the boobries ' natural home they will shelter on land in overgrown heather . Accounts are inconsistent as to the extent of the boobrie 's habitat . Campbell of Islay claims that it is specific to the lochs of Argyllshire , as does Emeritus Professor of English James MacKillop . The writers Katharine Briggs and Patricia Monaghan on the other hand consider the creature 's range to be the broader Scottish Highlands , although Briggs does sometimes specify Argyllshire . Campbell of Islay 's undated manuscript notes the boobrie had not been seen for several years probably due to the widespread burning of heather in the area of its habitat .
= = = = Alternative manifestations = = = =
When manifested as a water horse the creature is able to gallop across the top of lochs ; the beating noise of the creature 's hooves on the water is the same as if it were galloping on solid ground .
Henderson reproduced parts of Campbell of Islay 's manuscripts when writing Survivals in belief among the Celts ( 1911 ) . Among them is a story listed as " boobrie as tarbh uisge " . The tale starts by detailing how a man named Eachann fed a colossal black bull when he discovered it writhing in pain and possibly close to death at the side of Loch nan Dobhran , on the west coast of Argyll . Some months later , Phemie , Eachann 's girlfriend , is occasionally disturbed by elusive shadows she senses on the loch , which make her think of Murdoch , her former paramour . While she sat dreaming of Eachann one evening when staying at a sheiling near the loch , she sensed the flicker of a shadow behind her , except this time it was Murdoch . He promptly overpowered her by enveloping her in a blanket and tying her hands . At that point , a water bull came to Phemie 's rescue by knocking Murdoch to the ground . The bull then knelt down allowing Phemie to get on its back , before transporting her at the speed of light back to the home of her mother . The bull disappeared never to be seen again but a " voice was heard in the air calling out loudly " . The verse heard was in Gaelic , and translates as :
It is then asserted that the tale " reveals the persistence in folk @-@ belief of the idea of transformation , the boobrie being the abode of a spirit " .
The boobrie can also manifest itself in the form of a large insect that sucks the blood of horses . Henderson refers to it as a " big striped brown gobhlachan or ear @-@ wig " with " lots of tentacles or feelers " . It was infrequently seen in this form , usually only at the height of the summer , during August and September .
= = = Capture and hunting = = =
A farmer and his son were ploughing a field on the Isle of Mull using a team of four horses beside Loch Freisa , but work stalled after one of the horses lost a shoe and was unable to continue . Noticing a horse grazing nearby they decided to try using it as a replacement . Once harnessed to the wooden plough the horse appeared to be familiar with the task , and initially worked steadily . As it began to work towards an area closest to the loch , it became restless and the farmer gently used a whip to encourage the animal to continue . It reacted by immediately transforming into a gigantic boobrie , giving out a loud bellow and diving into the loch , pulling the plough and the other three horses with it . The frightened farmer and his son watched as the creature swam to the centre of the loch then dived underwater , taking the other horses and plough with it . Seven hours later there was still no sign of the three horses .
In a story transcribed by John Campbell of Kilberry , a hunter attempted to shoot a boobrie after he spotted it in its bird @-@ like manifestation on a sea loch one chilly February day . The man paddled into the loch until the water was up to his shoulders , but when he was about 85 yards ( 78 m ) from the creature it dived under the water . The hunter maintained his position for forty @-@ five minutes before returning to the shore , where he remained for a further six hours waiting unsuccessfully for the boobrie to resurface . No clear indication is given of the loch 's whereabouts .
= = Origins = =
Campbell of Islay speculates that the boobrie may have originated from sightings of the great auk . He noted he had been told stories of the creature by various people , and regarded it as having " a real existence in the popular mind " . He considered the tale of the boobrie in its water horse manifestation resembled the Norse myth of " the ploughing of the Asa " . Referring to Forbes ' 1905 dictionary of " Gaelic names of beasts " in which bubaire is defined as a common bittern , and a detailed description given by scholar James Logie Robertson of the bull o ' the bog ( an alternative name for a bittern ) in The Scotsman in 1908 , Henderson hypothesises that the boobrie may stem from the bittern . Referring to the bittern 's " strangely weird sound " and highlighting its " weird hollow cry " during the night and throughout the evening , he describes it as resembling quietly bellowing cattle , particularly during the bird 's breeding season . Records indicate that the bird was rare in Scotland but had been sighted in the first decade of the 20th century , although catching sight of a bittern was believed to be a harbinger of death or disaster .
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= Greek mythology =
Greek mythology is the body of myths and teachings that belong to the ancient Greeks , concerning their gods and heroes , the nature of the world , and the origins and significance of their own cult and ritual practices . It was a part of the religion in ancient Greece . Modern scholars refer to and study the myths in an attempt to shed light on the religious and political institutions of Ancient Greece and its civilization , and to gain understanding of the nature of myth @-@ making itself .
Greek mythology is explicitly embodied in a large collection of narratives , and implicitly in Greek representational arts , such as vase @-@ paintings and votive gifts . Greek myth attempts to explain the origins of the world , and details the lives and adventures of a wide variety of gods , goddesses , heroes , heroines and mythological creatures . These accounts initially were disseminated in an oral @-@ poetic tradition ; today the Greek myths are known primarily from Greek literature . The oldest known Greek literary sources , Homer 's epic poems Iliad and Odyssey , focus on the Trojan War and its aftermath . Two poems by Homer 's near contemporary Hesiod , the Theogony and the Works and Days , contain accounts of the genesis of the world , the succession of divine rulers , the succession of human ages , the origin of human woes , and the origin of sacrificial practices . Myths are also preserved in the Homeric Hymns , in fragments of epic poems of the Epic Cycle , in lyric poems , in the works of the tragedians and comedians of the fifth century BC , in writings of scholars and poets of the Hellenistic Age , and in texts from the time of the Roman Empire by writers such as Plutarch and Pausanias .
Archaeological findings provide a principal source of detail about Greek mythology , with gods and heroes featured prominently in the decoration of many artifacts . Geometric designs on pottery of the eighth century BC depict scenes from the Trojan cycle as well as the adventures of Heracles . In the succeeding Archaic , Classical , and Hellenistic periods , Homeric and various other mythological scenes appear , supplementing the existing literary evidence . Greek mythology has had an extensive influence on the culture , arts , and literature of Western civilization and remains part of Western heritage and language . Poets and artists from ancient times to the present have derived inspiration from Greek mythology and have discovered contemporary significance and relevance in the themes .
= = = Literary sources = = =
Mythical narration plays an important role in nearly every genre of Greek literature . Nevertheless , the only general mythographical handbook to survive from Greek antiquity was the Library of Pseudo @-@ Apollodorus . This work attempts to reconcile the contradictory tales of the poets and provides a grand summary of traditional Greek mythology and heroic legends . Apollodorus of Athens lived from c . 180 – 125 BC and wrote on many of these topics . His writings may have formed the basis for the collection ; however the " Library " discusses events that occurred long after his death , hence the name Pseudo @-@ Apollodorus .
Among the earliest literary sources are Homer 's two epic poems , the Iliad and the Odyssey . Other poets completed the " epic cycle " , but these later and lesser poems now are lost almost entirely . Despite their traditional name , the " Homeric Hymns " have no direct connection with Homer . They are choral hymns from the earlier part of the so @-@ called Lyric age . Hesiod , a possible contemporary with Homer , offers in his Theogony ( Origin of the Gods ) the fullest account of the earliest Greek myths , dealing with the creation of the world ; the origin of the gods , Titans , and Giants ; as well as elaborate genealogies , folktales , and etiological myths . Hesiod 's Works and Days , a didactic poem about farming life , also includes the myths of Prometheus , Pandora , and the Five Ages . The poet gives advice on the best way to succeed in a dangerous world , rendered yet more dangerous by its gods .
Lyrical poets often took their subjects from myth , but their treatment became gradually less narrative and more allusive . Greek lyric poets including Pindar , Bacchylides , Simonides , and bucolic poets such as Theocritus and Bion , relate individual mythological incidents . Additionally , myth was central to classical Athenian drama . The tragic playwrights Aeschylus , Sophocles , and Euripides took most of their plots from myths of the age of heroes and the Trojan War . Many of the great tragic stories ( e.g. Agamemnon and his children , Oedipus , Jason , Medea , etc . ) took on their classic form in these tragedies . The comic playwright Aristophanes also used myths , in The Birds and The Frogs .
Historians Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus , and geographers Pausanias and Strabo , who traveled throughout the Greek world and noted the stories they heard , supplied numerous local myths and legends , often giving little @-@ known alternative versions . Herodotus in particular , searched the various traditions presented him and found the historical or mythological roots in the confrontation between Greece and the East . Herodotus attempted to reconcile origins and the blending of differing cultural concepts .
The poetry of the Hellenistic and Roman ages was primarily composed as a literary rather than cultic exercise . Nevertheless , it contains many important details that would otherwise be lost . This category includes the works of :
The Roman poets Ovid , Statius , Valerius Flaccus , Seneca and Virgil with Servius 's commentary .
The Greek poets of the Late Antique period : Nonnus , Antoninus Liberalis , and Quintus Smyrnaeus .
The Greek poets of the Hellenistic period : Apollonius of Rhodes , Callimachus , Pseudo @-@ Eratosthenes , and Parthenius .
Prose writers from the same periods who make reference to myths include Apuleius , Petronius , Lollianus , and Heliodorus . Two other important non @-@ poetical sources are the Fabulae and Astronomica of the Roman writer styled as Pseudo @-@ Hyginus , the Imagines of Philostratus the Elder and Philostratus the Younger , and the Descriptions of Callistratus .
Finally , a number of Byzantine Greek writers provide important details of myth , much derived from earlier now lost Greek works . These preservers of myth include Arnobius , Hesychius , the author of the Suda , John Tzetzes , and Eustathius . They often treat mythology from a Christian moralizing perspective .
= = = Archaeological sources = = =
The discovery of the Mycenaean civilization by the German amateur archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann in the nineteenth century , and the discovery of the Minoan civilization in Crete by the British archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans in the twentieth century , helped to explain many existing questions about Homer 's epics and provided archaeological evidence for many of the mythological details about gods and heroes . Unfortunately , the evidence about myths and rituals at Mycenaean and Minoan sites is entirely monumental , as the Linear B script ( an ancient form of Greek found in both Crete and mainland Greece ) was used mainly to record inventories , although certain names of gods and heroes have been tentatively identified .
Geometric designs on pottery of the eighth century BC depict scenes from the Trojan cycle , as well as the adventures of Heracles . These visual representations of myths are important for two reasons . Firstly , many Greek myths are attested on vases earlier than in literary sources : of the twelve labors of Heracles , for example , only the Cerberus adventure occurs in a contemporary literary text . Secondly , visual sources sometimes represent myths or mythical scenes that are not attested in any extant literary source . In some cases , the first known representation of a myth in geometric art predates its first known representation in late archaic poetry , by several centuries . In the Archaic ( c . 750 – c . 500 BC ) , Classical ( c . 480 – 323 BC ) , and Hellenistic ( 323 – 146 BC ) periods , Homeric and various other mythological scenes appear , supplementing the existing literary evidence .
= = Survey of mythic history = =
Greek mythology has changed over time to accommodate the evolution of their culture , of which mythology , both overtly and in its unspoken assumptions , is an index of the changes . In Greek mythology 's surviving literary forms , as found mostly at the end of the progressive changes , it is inherently political , as Gilbert Cuthbertson has argued .
The earlier inhabitants of the Balkan Peninsula were an agricultural people who , using Animism , assigned a spirit to every aspect of nature . Eventually , these vague spirits assumed human forms and entered the local mythology as gods . When tribes from the north of the Balkan Peninsula invaded , they brought with them a new pantheon of gods , based on conquest , force , prowess in battle , and violent heroism . Other older gods of the agricultural world fused with those of the more powerful invaders or else faded into insignificance .
After the middle of the Archaic period , myths about relationships between male gods and male heroes became more and more frequent , indicating the parallel development of pedagogic pederasty ( eros paidikos , παιδικὸς ἔρως ) , thought to have been introduced around 630 BC . By the end of the fifth century BC , poets had assigned at least one eromenos , an adolescent boy who was their sexual companion , to every important god except Ares and to many legendary figures . Previously existing myths , such as those of Achilles and Patroclus , also then were cast in a pederastic light . Alexandrian poets at first , then more generally literary mythographers in the early Roman Empire , often readapted stories of Greek mythological characters in this fashion .
The achievement of epic poetry was to create story @-@ cycles and , as a result , to develop a new sense of mythological chronology . Thus Greek mythology unfolds as a phase in the development of the world and of humans . While self @-@ contradictions in these stories make an absolute timeline impossible , an approximate chronology may be discerned . The resulting mythological " history of the world " may be divided into three or four broader periods :
The myths of origin or age of gods ( Theogonies , " births of gods " ) : myths about the origins of the world , the gods , and the human race .
The age when gods and mortals mingled freely : stories of the early interactions between gods , demigods , and mortals .
The age of heroes ( heroic age ) , where divine activity was more limited . The last and greatest of the heroic legends is the story of the Trojan War and after ( which is regarded by some researchers as a separate fourth period ) .
While the age of gods often has been of more interest to contemporary students of myth , the Greek authors of the archaic and classical eras had a clear preference for the age of heroes , establishing a chronology and record of human accomplishments after the questions of how the world came into being were explained . For example , the heroic Iliad and Odyssey dwarfed the divine @-@ focused Theogony and Homeric Hymns in both size and popularity . Under the influence of Homer the " hero cult " leads to a restructuring in spiritual life , expressed in the separation of the realm of the gods from the realm of the dead ( heroes ) , of the Chthonic from the Olympian . In the Works and Days , Hesiod makes use of a scheme of Four Ages of Man ( or Races ) : Golden , Silver , Bronze , and Iron . These races or ages are separate creations of the gods , the Golden Age belonging to the reign of Cronos , the subsequent races the creation of Zeus . The presence of evil was explained by the myth of Pandora , when all of the best of human capabilities , save hope , had been spilled out of her overturned jar . In Metamorphoses , Ovid follows Hesiod 's concept of the four ages .
= = = Origins of the world and the gods = = =
" Myths of origin " or " creation myths " represent an attempt to explain the beginnings of the universe in human language . The most widely accepted version at the time , although a philosophical account of the beginning of things , is reported by Hesiod , in his Theogony . He begins with Chaos , a yawning nothingness . Out of the void emerged Gaia ( the Earth ) and some other primary divine beings : Eros ( Love ) , the Abyss ( the Tartarus ) , and the Erebus . Without male assistance , Gaia gave birth to Uranus ( the Sky ) who then fertilized her . From that union were born first the Titans — six males : Coeus , Crius , Cronus , Hyperion , Iapetus , and Oceanus ; and six females : Mnemosyne , Phoebe , Rhea , Theia , Themis , and Tethys . After Cronus was born , Gaia and Uranus decreed no more Titans were to be born . They were followed by the one @-@ eyed Cyclopes and the Hecatonchires or Hundred @-@ Handed Ones , who were both thrown into Tartarus by Uranus . This made Gaia furious . Cronus ( " the wily , youngest and most terrible of Gaia 's children " ) , was convinced by Gaia to castrate his father . He did this , and became the ruler of the Titans with his sister @-@ wife Rhea as his consort , and the other Titans became his court .
A motif of father @-@ against @-@ son conflict was repeated when Cronus was confronted by his son , Zeus . Because Cronus had betrayed his father , he feared that his offspring would do the same , and so each time Rhea gave birth , he snatched up the child and ate it . Rhea hated this and tricked him by hiding Zeus and wrapping a stone in a baby 's blanket , which Cronus ate . When Zeus was full grown , he fed Cronus a drugged drink which caused him to vomit , throwing up Rhea 's other children and the stone , which had been sitting in Cronus 's stomach all along . Zeus then challenged Cronus to war for the kingship of the gods . At last , with the help of the Cyclopes ( whom Zeus freed from Tartarus ) , Zeus and his siblings were victorious , while Cronus and the Titans were hurled down to imprisonment in Tartarus .
Zeus was plagued by the same concern and , after a prophecy that the offspring of his first wife , Metis , would give birth to a god " greater than he " — Zeus swallowed her . She was already pregnant with Athena , however , and she burst forth from his head — fully @-@ grown and dressed for war .
The earliest Greek thought about poetry considered the theogonies to be the prototypical poetic genre — the prototypical mythos — and imputed almost magical powers to it . Orpheus , the archetypal poet , also was the archetypal singer of theogonies , which he uses to calm seas and storms in Apollonius ' Argonautica , and to move the stony hearts of the underworld gods in his descent to Hades . When Hermes invents the lyre in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes , the first thing he does is sing about the birth of the gods . Hesiod 's Theogony is not only the fullest surviving account of the gods , but also the fullest surviving account of the archaic poet 's function , with its long preliminary invocation to the Muses . Theogony also was the subject of many lost poems , including those attributed to Orpheus , Musaeus , Epimenides , Abaris , and other legendary seers , which were used in private ritual purifications and mystery @-@ rites . There are indications that Plato was familiar with some version of the Orphic theogony . A silence would have been expected about religious rites and beliefs , however , and that nature of the culture would not have been reported by members of the society while the beliefs were held . After they ceased to become religious beliefs , few would have known the rites and rituals . Allusions often existed , however , to aspects that were quite public .
Images existed on pottery and religious artwork that were interpreted and more likely , misinterpreted in many diverse myths and tales . A few fragments of these works survive in quotations by Neoplatonist philosophers and recently unearthed papyrus scraps . One of these scraps , the Derveni Papyrus now proves that at least in the fifth century BC a theogonic @-@ cosmogonic poem of Orpheus was in existence .
The first philosophical cosmologists reacted against , or sometimes built upon , popular mythical conceptions that had existed in the Greek world for some time . Some of these popular conceptions can be gleaned from the poetry of Homer and Hesiod . In Homer , the Earth was viewed as a flat disk afloat on the river of Oceanus and overlooked by a hemispherical sky with sun , moon , and stars . The Sun ( Helios ) traversed the heavens as a charioteer and sailed around the Earth in a golden bowl at night . Sun , earth , heaven , rivers , and winds could be addressed in prayers and called to witness oaths . Natural fissures were popularly regarded as entrances to the subterranean house of Hades and his predecessors , home of the dead . Influences from other cultures always afforded new themes .
= = = = Greek pantheon = = = =
According to Classical @-@ era mythology , after the overthrow of the Titans , the new pantheon of gods and goddesses was confirmed . Among the principal Greek gods were the Olympians , residing on Mount Olympus under the eye of Zeus . ( The limitation of their number to twelve seems to have been a comparatively modern idea . ) Besides the Olympians , the Greeks worshipped various gods of the countryside , the satyr @-@ god Pan , Nymphs ( spirits of rivers ) , Naiads ( who dwelled in springs ) , Dryads ( who were spirits of the trees ) , Nereids ( who inhabited the sea ) , river gods , Satyrs , and others . In addition , there were the dark powers of the underworld , such as the Erinyes ( or Furies ) , said to pursue those guilty of crimes against blood @-@ relatives . In order to honor the Ancient Greek pantheon , poets composed the Homeric Hymns ( a group of thirty @-@ three songs ) . Gregory Nagy regards " the larger Homeric Hymns as simple preludes ( compared with Theogony ) , each of which invokes one god " .
The gods of Greek mythology are described as having essentially corporeal but ideal bodies . According to Walter Burkert , the defining characteristic of Greek anthropomorphism is that " the Greek gods are persons , not abstractions , ideas or concepts " . Regardless of their underlying forms , the Ancient Greek gods have many fantastic abilities ; most significantly , the gods are not affected by disease , and can be wounded only under highly unusual circumstances . The Greeks considered immortality as the distinctive characteristic of their gods ; this immortality , as well as unfading youth , was insured by the constant use of nectar and ambrosia , by which the divine blood was renewed in their veins .
Each god descends from his or her own genealogy , pursues differing interests , has a certain area of expertise , and is governed by a unique personality ; however , these descriptions arise from a multiplicity of archaic local variants , which do not always agree with one another . When these gods are called upon in poetry , prayer or cult , they are referred to by a combination of their name and epithets , that identify them by these distinctions from other manifestations of themselves ( e.g. , Apollo Musagetes is " Apollo , [ as ] leader of the Muses " ) . Alternatively the epithet may identify a particular and localized aspect of the god , sometimes thought to be already ancient during the classical epoch of Greece .
Most gods were associated with specific aspects of life . For example , Aphrodite was the goddess of love and beauty , Ares was the god of war , Hades the ruler of the underworld , and Athena the goddess of wisdom and courage . Some gods , such as Apollo and Dionysus , revealed complex personalities and mixtures of functions , while others , such as Hestia ( literally " hearth " ) and Helios ( literally " sun " ) , were little more than personifications . The most impressive temples tended to be dedicated to a limited number of gods , who were the focus of large pan @-@ Hellenic cults . It was , however , common for individual regions and villages to devote their own cults to minor gods . Many cities also honored the more well @-@ known gods with unusual local rites and associated strange myths with them that were unknown elsewhere . During the heroic age , the cult of heroes ( or demi @-@ gods ) supplemented that of the gods .
= = = Age of gods and mortals = = =
Bridging the age when gods lived alone and the age when divine interference in human affairs was limited was a transitional age in which gods and mortals moved together . These were the early days of the world when the groups mingled more freely than they did later . Most of these tales were later told by Ovid 's Metamorphoses and they are often divided into two thematic groups : tales of love , and tales of punishment .
Tales of love often involve incest , or the seduction or rape of a mortal woman by a male god , resulting in heroic offspring . The stories generally suggest that relationships between gods and mortals are something to avoid ; even consenting relationships rarely have happy endings . In a few cases , a female divinity mates with a mortal man , as in the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite , where the goddess lies with Anchises to produce Aeneas .
The second type ( tales of punishment ) involves the appropriation or invention of some important cultural artifact , as when Prometheus steals fire from the gods , when Tantalus steals nectar and ambrosia from Zeus ' table and gives it to his own subjects — revealing to them the secrets of the gods , when Prometheus or Lycaon invents sacrifice , when Demeter teaches agriculture and the Mysteries to Triptolemus , or when Marsyas invents the aulos and enters into a musical contest with Apollo . Ian Morris considers Prometheus ' adventures as " a place between the history of the gods and that of man " . An anonymous papyrus fragment , dated to the third century , vividly portrays Dionysus ' punishment of the king of Thrace , Lycurgus , whose recognition of the new god came too late , resulting in horrific penalties that extended into the afterlife . The story of the arrival of Dionysus to establish his cult in Thrace was also the subject of an Aeschylean trilogy . In another tragedy , Euripides ' The Bacchae , the king of Thebes , Pentheus , is punished by Dionysus , because he disrespected the god and spied on his Maenads , the female worshippers of the god .
In another story , based on an old folktale @-@ motif , and echoing a similar theme , Demeter was searching for her daughter , Persephone , having taken the form of an old woman called Doso , and received a hospitable welcome from Celeus , the King of Eleusis in Attica . As a gift to Celeus , because of his hospitality , Demeter planned to make his son Demophon a god , but she was unable to complete the ritual because his mother Metanira walked in and saw her son in the fire and screamed in fright , which angered Demeter , who lamented that foolish mortals do not understand the concept and ritual .
= = = Heroic age = = =
The age in which the heroes lived is known as the heroic age . The epic and genealogical poetry created cycles of stories clustered around particular heroes or events and established the family relationships between the heroes of different stories ; they thus arranged the stories in sequence . According to Ken Dowden , " There is even a saga effect : We can follow the fates of some families in successive generations " .
After the rise of the hero cult , gods and heroes constitute the sacral sphere and are invoked together in oaths and prayers which are addressed to them . Burkert notes that " the roster of heroes , again in contrast to the gods , is never given fixed and final form . Great gods are no longer born , but new heroes can always be raised up from the army of the dead . " Another important difference between the hero cult and the cult of gods is that the hero becomes the centre of local group identity .
The monumental events of Heracles are regarded as the dawn of the age of heroes . To the Heroic Age are also ascribed three great events : the Argonautic expedition , the Theban Cycle and the Trojan War .
= = = = Heracles and the Heracleidae = = = =
Some scholars believe that behind Heracles ' complicated mythology there was probably a real man , perhaps a chieftain @-@ vassal of the kingdom of Argos . Some scholars suggest the story of Heracles is an allegory for the sun 's yearly passage through the twelve constellations of the zodiac . Others point to earlier myths from other cultures , showing the story of Heracles as a local adaptation of hero myths already well established . Traditionally , Heracles was the son of Zeus and Alcmene , granddaughter of Perseus . His fantastic solitary exploits , with their many folk @-@ tale themes , provided much material for popular legend . According to Burkert , " He is portrayed as a sacrificer , mentioned as a founder of altars , and imagined as a voracious eater himself ; it is in this role that he appears in comedy , while his tragic end provided much material for tragedy — Heracles is regarded by Thalia Papadopoulou as " a play of great significance in examination of other Euripidean dramas " . In art and literature Heracles was represented as an enormously strong man of moderate height ; his characteristic weapon was the bow but frequently also the club . Vase paintings demonstrate the unparalleled popularity of Heracles , his fight with the lion being depicted many hundreds of times .
Heracles also entered Etruscan and Roman mythology and cult , and the exclamation " mehercule " became as familiar to the Romans as " Herakleis " was to the Greeks . In Italy he was worshipped as a god of merchants and traders , although others also prayed to him for his characteristic gifts of good luck or rescue from danger .
Heracles attained the highest social prestige through his appointment as official ancestor of the Dorian kings . This probably served as a legitimation for the Dorian migrations into the Peloponnese . Hyllus , the eponymous hero of one Dorian phyle , became the son of Heracles and one of the Heracleidae or Heraclids ( the numerous descendants of Heracles , especially the descendants of Hyllus — other Heracleidae included Macaria , Lamos , Manto , Bianor , Tlepolemus , and Telephus ) . These Heraclids conquered the Peloponnesian kingdoms of Mycenae , Sparta and Argos , claiming , according to legend , a right to rule them through their ancestor . Their rise to dominance is frequently called the " Dorian invasion " . The Lydian and later the Macedonian kings , as rulers of the same rank , also became Heracleidae .
Other members of this earliest generation of heroes such as Perseus , Deucalion , Theseus and Bellerophon , have many traits in common with Heracles . Like him , their exploits are solitary , fantastic and border on fairy tale , as they slay monsters such as the Chimera and Medusa . Bellerophon 's adventures are commonplace types , similar to the adventures of Heracles and Theseus . Sending a hero to his presumed death is also a recurrent theme of this early heroic tradition , used in the cases of Perseus and Bellerophon .
= = = = Argonauts = = = =
The only surviving Hellenistic epic , the Argonautica of Apollonius of Rhodes ( epic poet , scholar , and director of the Library of Alexandria ) tells the myth of the voyage of Jason and the Argonauts to retrieve the Golden Fleece from the mythical land of Colchis . In the Argonautica , Jason is impelled on his quest by king Pelias , who receives a prophecy that a man with one sandal would be his nemesis . Jason loses a sandal in a river , arrives at the court of Pelias , and the epic is set in motion . Nearly every member of the next generation of heroes , as well as Heracles , went with Jason in the ship Argo to fetch the Golden Fleece . This generation also included Theseus , who went to Crete to slay the Minotaur ; Atalanta , the female heroine , and Meleager , who once had an epic cycle of his own to rival the Iliad and Odyssey . Pindar , Apollonius and the Bibliotheca endeavor to give full lists of the Argonauts .
Although Apollonius wrote his poem in the 3rd century BC , the composition of the story of the Argonauts is earlier than Odyssey , which shows familiarity with the exploits of Jason ( the wandering of Odysseus may have been partly founded on it ) . In ancient times the expedition was regarded as a historical fact , an incident in the opening up of the Black Sea to Greek commerce and colonization . It was also extremely popular , forming a cycle to which a number of local legends became attached . The story of Medea , in particular , caught the imagination of the tragic poets .
= = = = House of Atreus and Theban Cycle = = = =
In between the Argo and the Trojan War , there was a generation known chiefly for its horrific crimes . This includes the doings of Atreus and Thyestes at Argos . Behind the myth of the house of Atreus ( one of the two principal heroic dynasties with the house of Labdacus ) lies the problem of the devolution of power and of the mode of accession to sovereignty . The twins Atreus and Thyestes with their descendants played the leading role in the tragedy of the devolution of power in Mycenae .
The Theban Cycle deals with events associated especially with Cadmus , the city 's founder , and later with the doings of Laius and Oedipus at Thebes ; a series of stories that lead to the eventual pillage of that city at the hands of the Seven Against Thebes and Epigoni . ( It is not known whether the Seven Against Thebes figured in early epic . ) As far as Oedipus is concerned , early epic accounts seem to have him continuing to rule at Thebes after the revelation that Iokaste was his mother , and subsequently marrying a second wife who becomes the mother of his children — markedly different from the tale known to us through tragedy ( e.g. Sophocles ' Oedipus the King ) and later mythological accounts .
= = = = Trojan War and aftermath = = = =
Greek mythology culminates in the Trojan War , fought between Greece and Troy , and its aftermath . In Homer 's works , such as the Iliad , the chief stories have already taken shape and substance , and individual themes were elaborated later , especially in Greek drama . The Trojan War also elicited great interest in the Roman culture because of the story of Aeneas , a Trojan hero whose journey from Troy led to the founding of the city that would one day become Rome , as recounted in Virgil 's Aeneid ( Book II of Virgil 's Aeneid contains the best @-@ known account of the sack of Troy ) . Finally there are two pseudo @-@ chronicles written in Latin that passed under the names of Dictys Cretensis and Dares Phrygius .
The Trojan War cycle , a collection of epic poems , starts with the events leading up to the war : Eris and the golden apple of Kallisti , the Judgement of Paris , the abduction of Helen , the sacrifice of Iphigenia at Aulis . To recover Helen , the Greeks launched a great expedition under the overall command of Menelaus ' brother , Agamemnon , king of Argos or Mycenae , but the Trojans refused to return Helen . The Iliad , which is set in the tenth year of the war , tells of the quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles , who was the finest Greek warrior , and the consequent deaths in battle of Achilles ' beloved comrade Patroclus and Priam 's eldest son , Hector . After Hector 's death the Trojans were joined by two exotic allies , Penthesilea , queen of the Amazons , and Memnon , king of the Ethiopians and son of the dawn @-@ goddess Eos . Achilles killed both of these , but Paris then managed to kill Achilles with an arrow in the heel . Achilles ' heel was the only part of his body which was not invulnerable to damage by human weaponry . Before they could take Troy , the Greeks had to steal from the citadel the wooden image of Pallas Athena ( the Palladium ) . Finally , with Athena 's help , they built the Trojan Horse . Despite the warnings of Priam 's daughter Cassandra , the Trojans were persuaded by Sinon , a Greek who feigned desertion , to take the horse inside the walls of Troy as an offering to Athena ; the priest Laocoon , who tried to have the horse destroyed , was killed by sea @-@ serpents . At night the Greek fleet returned , and the Greeks from the horse opened the gates of Troy . In the total sack that followed , Priam and his remaining sons were slaughtered ; the Trojan women passed into slavery in various cities of Greece . The adventurous homeward voyages of the Greek leaders ( including the wanderings of Odysseus and Aeneas ( the Aeneid ) , and the murder of Agamemnon ) were told in two epics , the Returns ( the lost Nostoi ) and Homer 's Odyssey . The Trojan cycle also includes the adventures of the children of the Trojan generation ( e.g. , Orestes and Telemachus ) .
The Trojan War provided a variety of themes and became a main source of inspiration for Ancient Greek artists ( e.g. metopes on the Parthenon depicting the sack of Troy ) ; this artistic preference for themes deriving from the Trojan Cycle indicates its importance to the Ancient Greek civilization . The same mythological cycle also inspired a series of posterior European literary writings . For instance , Trojan Medieval European writers , unacquainted with Homer at first hand , found in the Troy legend a rich source of heroic and romantic storytelling and a convenient framework into which to fit their own courtly and chivalric ideals . Twelfth @-@ century authors , such as Benoît de Sainte @-@ Maure ( Roman de Troie [ Romance of Troy , 1154 – 60 ] ) and Joseph of Exeter ( De Bello Troiano [ On the Trojan War , 1183 ] ) describe the war while rewriting the standard version they found in Dictys and Dares . They thus follow Horace 's advice and Virgil 's example : they rewrite a poem of Troy instead of telling something completely new .
Some of the more famous heroes noted for their inclusion in the Trojan War were :
On the Trojan side :
Aeneas
Hector
Paris
On the Greek side :
Ajax ( there were two Ajaxes )
Achilles
King Agamemnon
Menelaus
Odysseus
= = Greek and Roman conceptions of myth = =
Mythology was at the heart of everyday life in Ancient Greece . Greeks regarded mythology as a part of their history . They used myth to explain natural phenomena , cultural variations , traditional enmities and friendships . It was a source of pride to be able to trace the descent of one 's leaders from a mythological hero or a god . Few ever doubted that there was truth behind the account of the Trojan War in the Iliad and Odyssey . According to Victor Davis Hanson , a military historian , columnist , political essayist and former classics professor , and John Heath , a classics professor , the profound knowledge of the Homeric epos was deemed by the Greeks the basis of their acculturation . Homer was the " education of Greece " ( Ἑλλάδος παίδευσις ) , and his poetry " the Book " .
= = = Philosophy and myth = = =
After the rise of philosophy , history , prose and rationalism in the late 5th century BC , the fate of myth became uncertain , and mythological genealogies gave place to a conception of history which tried to exclude the supernatural ( such as the Thucydidean history ) . While poets and dramatists were reworking the myths , Greek historians and philosophers were beginning to criticize them .
A few radical philosophers like Xenophanes of Colophon were already beginning to label the poets ' tales as blasphemous lies in the 6th century BC ; Xenophanes had complained that Homer and Hesiod attributed to the gods " all that is shameful and disgraceful among men ; they steal , commit adultery , and deceive one another " . This line of thought found its most sweeping expression in Plato 's Republic and Laws . Plato created his own allegorical myths ( such as the vision of Er in the Republic ) , attacked the traditional tales of the gods ' tricks , thefts and adulteries as immoral , and objected to their central role in literature . Plato 's criticism was the first serious challenge to the Homeric mythological tradition , referring to the myths as " old wives ' chatter " . For his part Aristotle criticized the Pre @-@ socratic quasi @-@ mythical philosophical approach and underscored that " Hesiod and the theological writers were concerned only with what seemed plausible to themselves , and had no respect for us ... But it is not worth taking seriously writers who show off in the mythical style ; as for those who do proceed by proving their assertions , we must cross @-@ examine them " .
Nevertheless , even Plato did not manage to wean himself and his society from the influence of myth ; his own characterization for Socrates is based on the traditional Homeric and tragic patterns , used by the philosopher to praise the righteous life of his teacher :
But perhaps someone might say : " Are you then not ashamed , Socrates , of having followed such a pursuit , that you are now in danger of being put to death as a result ? " But I should make to him a just reply : " You do not speak well , Sir , if you think a man in whom there is even a little merit ought to consider danger of life or death , and not rather regard this only , when he does things , whether the things he does are right or wrong and the acts of a good or a bad man . For according to your argument all the demigods would be bad who died at Troy , including the son of Thetis , who so despised danger , in comparison with enduring any disgrace , that when his mother ( and she was a goddess ) said to him , as he was eager to slay Hector , something like this , I believe ,
My son , if you avenge the death of your friend Patroclus and kill Hector , you yourself shall die ; for straightway , after Hector , is death appointed unto you . ( Hom . Il . 18 @.@ 96 )
he , when he heard this , made light of death and danger , and feared much more to live as a coward and not to avenge his friends , and said ,
Straightway may I die , after doing vengeance upon the wrongdoer , that I may not stay here , jeered at beside the curved ships , a burden of the earth .
Hanson and Heath estimate that Plato 's rejection of the Homeric tradition was not favorably received by the grassroots Greek civilization . The old myths were kept alive in local cults ; they continued to influence poetry and to form the main subject of painting and sculpture .
More sportingly , the 5th century BC tragedian Euripides often played with the old traditions , mocking them , and through the voice of his characters injecting notes of doubt . Yet the subjects of his plays were taken , without exception , from myth . Many of these plays were written in answer to a predecessor 's version of the same or similar myth . Euripides mainly impugns the myths about the gods and begins his critique with an objection similar to the one previously expressed by Xenocrates : the gods , as traditionally represented , are far too crassly anthropomorphic .
= = = Hellenistic and Roman rationalism = = =
During the Hellenistic period , mythology took on the prestige of elite knowledge that marks its possessors as belonging to a certain class . At the same time , the skeptical turn of the Classical age became even more pronounced . Greek mythographer Euhemerus established the tradition of seeking an actual historical basis for mythical beings and events . Although his original work ( Sacred Scriptures ) is lost , much is known about it from what is recorded by Diodorus and Lactantius .
Rationalizing hermeneutics of myth became even more popular under the Roman Empire , thanks to the physicalist theories of Stoic and Epicurean philosophy . Stoics presented explanations of the gods and heroes as physical phenomena , while the Euhemerists rationalized them as historical figures . At the same time , the Stoics and the Neoplatonists promoted the moral significations of the mythological tradition , often based on Greek etymologies . Through his Epicurean message , Lucretius had sought to expel superstitious fears from the minds of his fellow @-@ citizens . Livy , too , is skeptical about the mythological tradition and claims that he does not intend to pass judgement on such legends ( fabulae ) . The challenge for Romans with a strong and apologetic sense of religious tradition was to defend that tradition while conceding that it was often a breeding @-@ ground for superstition . The antiquarian Varro , who regarded religion as a human institution with great importance for the preservation of good in society , devoted rigorous study to the origins of religious cults . In his Antiquitates Rerum Divinarum ( which has not survived , but Augustine 's City of God indicates its general approach ) Varro argues that whereas the superstitious man fears the gods , the truly religious person venerates them as parents . According to Varro , there have been three accounts of deities in the Roman society : the mythical account created by poets for theatre and entertainment , the civil account used by people for veneration as well as by the city , and the natural account created by the philosophers . The best state is , adds Varro , where the civil theology combines the poetic mythical account with the philosopher 's .
Roman Academic Cotta ridicules both literal and allegorical acceptance of myth , declaring roundly that myths have no place in philosophy . Cicero is also generally disdainful of myth , but , like Varro , he is emphatic in his support for the state religion and its institutions . It is difficult to know how far down the social scale this rationalism extended . Cicero asserts that no one ( not even old women and boys ) is so foolish as to believe in the terrors of Hades or the existence of Scyllas , centaurs or other composite creatures , but , on the other hand , the orator elsewhere complains of the superstitious and credulous character of the people . De Natura Deorum is the most comprehensive summary of Cicero 's line of thought .
= = = Syncretizing trends = = =
In Ancient Roman times , a new Roman mythology was born through syncretization of numerous Greek and other foreign gods . This occurred because the Romans had little mythology of their own and inheritance of the Greek mythological tradition caused the major Roman gods to adopt characteristics of their Greek equivalents . The gods Zeus and Jupiter are an example of this mythological overlap . In addition to the combination of the two mythological traditions , the association of the Romans with eastern religions led to further syncretizations . For instance , the cult of Sun was introduced in Rome after Aurelian 's successful campaigns in Syria . The Asiatic divinities Mithras ( that is to say , the Sun ) and Ba 'al were combined with Apollo and Helios into one Sol Invictus , with conglomerated rites and compound attributes . Apollo might be increasingly identified in religion with Helios or even Dionysus , but texts retelling his myths seldom reflected such developments . The traditional literary mythology was increasingly dissociated from actual religious practice . The worship of Sol as special protector of the emperors and of the empire remained the chief imperial religion until it was replaced by Christianity .
The surviving 2nd @-@ century collection of Orphic Hymns ( second century AD ) and the Saturnalia of Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius ( fifth century ) are influenced by the theories of rationalism and the syncretizing trends as well . The Orphic Hymns are a set of pre @-@ classical poetic compositions , attributed to Orpheus , himself the subject of a renowned myth . In reality , these poems were probably composed by several different poets , and contain a rich set of clues about prehistoric European mythology . The stated purpose of the Saturnalia is to transmit the Hellenic culture Macrobius has derived from his reading , even though much of his treatment of gods is colored by Egyptian and North African mythology and theology ( which also affect the interpretation of Virgil ) . In Saturnalia reappear mythographical comments influenced by the Euhemerists , the Stoics and the Neoplatonists .
= = Modern interpretations = =
The genesis of modern understanding of Greek mythology is regarded by some scholars as a double reaction at the end of the eighteenth century against " the traditional attitude of Christian animosity " , in which the Christian reinterpretation of myth as a " lie " or fable had been retained . In Germany , by about 1795 , there was a growing interest in Homer and Greek mythology . In Göttingen , Johann Matthias Gesner began to revive Greek studies , while his successor , Christian Gottlob Heyne , worked with Johann Joachim Winckelmann , and laid the foundations for mythological research both in Germany and elsewhere .
= = = Comparative and psychoanalytic approaches = = =
The development of comparative philology in the 19th century , together with ethnological discoveries in the 20th century , established the science of myth . Since the Romantics , all study of myth has been comparative . Wilhelm Mannhardt , James Frazer , and Stith Thompson employed the comparative approach to collect and classify the themes of folklore and mythology . In 1871 Edward Burnett Tylor published his Primitive Culture , in which he applied the comparative method and tried to explain the origin and evolution of religion . Tylor 's procedure of drawing together material culture , ritual and myth of widely separated cultures influenced both Carl Jung and Joseph Campbell . Max Müller applied the new science of comparative mythology to the study of myth , in which he detected the distorted remains of Aryan nature worship . Bronisław Malinowski emphasized the ways myth fulfills common social functions . Claude Lévi @-@ Strauss and other structuralists have compared the formal relations and patterns in myths throughout the world .
Sigmund Freud introduced a transhistorical and biological conception of man and a view of myth as an expression of repressed ideas . Dream interpretation is the basis of Freudian myth interpretation and Freud 's concept of dreamwork recognizes the importance of contextual relationships for the interpretation of any individual element in a dream . This suggestion would find an important point of rapprochment between the structuralist and psychoanalytic approaches to myth in Freud 's thought . Carl Jung extended the transhistorical , psychological approach with his theory of the " collective unconscious " and the archetypes ( inherited " archaic " patterns ) , often encoded in myth , that arise out of it . According to Jung , " myth @-@ forming structural elements must be present in the unconscious psyche " . Comparing Jung 's methodology with Joseph Campbell 's theory , Robert A. Segal concludes that " to interpret a myth Campbell simply identifies the archetypes in it . An interpretation of the Odyssey , for example , would show how Odysseus 's life conforms to a heroic pattern . Jung , by contrast , considers the identification of archetypes merely the first step in the interpretation of a myth " . Karl Kerényi , one of the founders of modern studies in Greek mythology , gave up his early views of myth , in order to apply Jung 's theories of archetypes to Greek myth .
= = = Origin theories = = =
Max Müller attempted to understand an Indo @-@ European religious form by tracing it back to its Indo @-@ European ( or , in Müller 's time , " Aryan " ) " original " manifestation . In 1891 , he claimed that " the most important discovery which has been made during the nineteenth century with respect to the ancient history of mankind ... was this sample equation : Sanskrit Dyaus @-@ pitar |
= Greek Zeus =
Latin Jupiter = Old Norse Tyr " . The question of Greek mythology 's place in Indo @-@ European studies has generated much scholarship since Müller 's time . For example , philologist Georges Dumézil draws a comparison between the Greek Uranus and the Sanskrit Varuna , although there is no hint that he believes them to be originally connected . In other cases , close parallels in character and function suggest a common heritage , yet lack of linguistic evidence makes it difficult to prove , as in the case of the Greek Moirai and the Norns of Norse mythology .
Archaeology and mythography , on the other hand , have revealed that the Greeks were also inspired by some of the civilizations of Asia Minor and the Near East . Adonis seems to be the Greek counterpart — more clearly in cult than in myth — of a Near Eastern " dying god " . Cybele is rooted in Anatolian culture while much of Aphrodite 's iconography may spring from Semitic goddesses . There are also possible parallels between the earliest divine generations ( Chaos and its children ) and Tiamat in the Enuma Elish . According to Meyer Reinhold , " near Eastern theogonic concepts , involving divine succession through violence and generational conflicts for power , found their way ... into Greek mythology " . In addition to Indo @-@ European and Near Eastern origins , some scholars have speculated on the debts of Greek mythology to the pre @-@ Hellenic societies : Crete , Mycenae , Pylos , Thebes and Orchomenus . Historians of religion were fascinated by a number of apparently ancient configurations of myth connected with Crete ( the god as bull , Zeus and Europa , Pasiphaë who yields to the bull and gives birth to the Minotaur etc . ) Martin P. Nilsson concluded that all great classical Greek myths were tied to Mycenaen centres and were anchored in prehistoric times . Nevertheless , according to Burkert , the iconography of the Cretan Palace Period has provided almost no confirmation for these theories .
= = Motifs in Western art and literature = =
The widespread adoption of Christianity did not curb the popularity of the myths . With the rediscovery of classical antiquity in the Renaissance , the poetry of Ovid became a major influence on the imagination of poets , dramatists , musicians and artists . From the early years of Renaissance , artists such as Leonardo da Vinci , Michelangelo , and Raphael , portrayed the Pagan subjects of Greek mythology alongside more conventional Christian themes . Through the medium of Latin and the works of Ovid , Greek myth influenced medieval and Renaissance poets such as Petrarch , Boccaccio and Dante in Italy .
In Northern Europe , Greek mythology never took the same hold of the visual arts , but its effect was very obvious on literature . The English imagination was fired by Greek mythology starting with Chaucer and John Milton and continuing through Shakespeare to Robert Bridges in the 20th century . Racine in France and Goethe in Germany revived Greek drama , reworking the ancient myths . Although during the Enlightenment of the 18th century reaction against Greek myth spread throughout Europe , the myths continued to provide an important source of raw material for dramatists , including those who wrote the libretti for many of Handel 's and Mozart 's operas . By the end of the 18th century , Romanticism initiated a surge of enthusiasm for all things Greek , including Greek mythology . In Britain , new translations of Greek tragedies and Homer inspired contemporary poets ( such as Alfred Lord Tennyson , Keats , Byron and Shelley ) and painters ( such as Lord Leighton and Lawrence Alma @-@ Tadema ) . Christoph Gluck , Richard Strauss , Jacques Offenbach and many others set Greek mythological themes to music . American authors of the 19th century , such as Thomas Bulfinch and Nathaniel Hawthorne , held that the study of the classical myths was essential to the understanding of English and American literature . In more recent times , classical themes have been reinterpreted by dramatists Jean Anouilh , Jean Cocteau , and Jean Giraudoux in France , Eugene O 'Neill in America , and T. S. Eliot in Britain and by novelists such as James Joyce and André Gide .
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= Our Children , Ourselves =
" Our Children , Ourselves " is the 12th episode of the second season of the American television comedy series , Modern Family and the 36th overall episode of the series . Executive producers Dan O 'Shannon & Bill Wrubel wrote the episode , and Adam Shankman directed it . The episode originally aired on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) in the United States on January 12 , 2011 . It featured guest star Mary Lynn Rajskub as Mitchell 's ex @-@ girlfriend .
In this episode , the dedication of Alex to learning makes Phil and Claire question themselves . Gloria tries to meet new friends . Mitchell runs into an ex @-@ girlfriend while out with his current boyfriend , Cameron .
" Our Children , Ourselves " received generally positive reviews from television critics with many praising the " twist ending " to Mitchell and Cameron 's storyline . According to the Nielsen Media Research , the episode was viewed by 11 @.@ 12 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 4 @.@ 2 rating / 10 percent share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic and became the second highest @-@ rated ABC program of the original week it aired after Grey 's Anatomy .
Sarah Hyland does not appear in the episode .
= = Plot = =
At the Dunphy house , Phil ( Ty Burrell ) and Claire ( Julie Bowen ) become worried that Alex ( Ariel Winter ) is studying too much . The two attempt to get her to take a break and eventually have to force her to do so . Alex eventually gets the second @-@ highest grade in the class , behind a classmate named Sanjay Patel . Alex believes this is due to the fact that Sanjay has a doctor and a professor for parents , while she must do her best with what she was given . This statement offends Phil and Claire , with Claire starting to think they are holding their children back .
Later when they go to the movies , they run into Sanjay 's parents who are there to see a French movie . Phil and Claire decide to follow them to encourage their kids . Midway through the movie Phil leaves to watch Croctopus 3D , the film they originally intended to see , since they both are fans of cheesy horror films involving monsters . Phil has fun at his movie while Claire falls asleep at the highly acclaimed French one . After waking her up , Phil tells her that Alex still had one of the highest grades in the class , and dumb parents do not have kids that smart . Claire is reassured and they leave for home after seeing that the " bright Dr. Patel " cannot validate his parking ticket .
Mitchell ( Jesse Tyler Ferguson ) and Cameron ( Eric Stonestreet ) bump into Mitchell 's ex @-@ girlfriend , Tracy ( Mary Lynn Rajskub ) at a mall . Mitchell suggest hanging out , but she decides against it . Later , they see Tracy with what appears to be an eight @-@ year @-@ old red @-@ headed child ( seen only from behind ) , whose approximate age would match the last time Tracy and Mitchell saw each other ( and the only time Mitchell had sex with a woman ) . Mitchell tells this to Cameron at dinner , making him anxious . He eventually agrees with Mitchell that they should meet the child , who they are sure is his son . However , they then realize that he actually is a dwarf man ( Mark Povinelli ) and Tracy 's husband . The situation becomes more awkward when he opens his present from Mitchell and Cameron , a " Little Slugger " baseball glove .
Meanwhile , the Hoffmans , a couple that Gloria ( Sofía Vergara ) and Jay ( Ed O 'Neill ) Pritchett met on a vacation , come to visit them much to Jay 's openly ( and Gloria 's more discreet ) chagrin . He eventually tells them his true feelings not knowing that they were spending the night at their house . The couple decides to leave in a cab , as Gloria comes down to apologize they give her a copy of Gabriel García Márquez 's " One hundred years of solitude " that they had signed by the author specially for her , so she convinces them to stay by telling them that Jay 's " mind is going away " . In the morning , Jay decides to apologize to the Hoffmans ; however , during his apology he drinks from a prank glass that Manny gave him , ending in him being covered in orange juice . The Hoffmans leave believing that Jay is mad and admiring Gloria for enduring such a situation .
= = Production = =
" Our Children , Ourselves " was written by executive producers , Dan O 'Shannon and Bill Wrubel . The episode was also directed by Adam Shankman . This episode was the second script collaboration by O 'Shannon and Wrubel , who co @-@ wrote the episode " Airport 2010 " . " Our Children , Ourselves " was filmed on October 13 , and October 15 , 2010 .
In October 2010 , TV Guide reported that Mary Lynn Rajskub had been cast as Mitchell 's ex @-@ girlfriend . She filmed her appearance on October 13 , 2010 . Rajskub later said in an interview on Lopez Tonight that she had gone through the same experience : " I had this guy , I think I was in 7th or 8th grade ... we had this make out session [ ... ] he pulled away abruptly and I never saw him again . Then 20 years later he facebooked me . Totally gay " .
The episode aired on ABC in the United States on January 12 , 2011 . When the episode aired , the airtime was pushed 20 minutes later than its usual time slot due to Barack Obama 's speech about the 2011 Tucson shooting .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast , " Our Children , Ourselves " was seen by an estimated 11 @.@ 12 million households and received a 4 @.@ 2 rating / 10 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 4 @.@ 2 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 10 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This made it the highest @-@ rated program on Wednesday , according to the Nielsen Media Research . The episode received a drop from the previous episode , " Slow Down Your Neighbors " , possibly because of the 20 @-@ minute delay in its starting time . Despite this , the episode became the second highest @-@ rated ABC show after Grey 's Anatomy and the finished seventh in the ratings the week it premiered .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mostly positive reviews , with many praising the ending to Mitchell and Cameron 's storyline .
TV Squad writer Joel Keller gave the episode a positive review , writing that it had " funny moments " , but pointed out that " all of them left me wanting some more information to round things out . "
John Teti of The A.V. Club called it " not a very good episode " and mainly criticized the Delgado – Pritchett storyline , comparing it to " every episode of Three ’ s Company ever . " Teti ultimately gave the episode a C + .
Rachael Maddux of New York praised the episode for letting the characters " out of their primly landscaped domiciles to interact with the other batty folks of the world " .
Matt Roush of TV Guidewrote that the episode 's story lines were " all winners " . Joyce Eng and KMate Stanhope , also from TV Guide , later named the conclusion to Mitchell and Cameron 's storyline the best moment of the week , January 6 to January 13 , 2011 .
Entertainment Weekly writer Lesley Savage commented that while the episode wasn 't a good follow up to " Slow Down Your Neighbors " , the ending to the Pritchett @-@ Tucker storyline was " pretty darn funny , and possibly a little un @-@ PC " .
James Poniewozik of Time wrote that while the plot came " straight out of the Wacky Misunderstanding School of Sitcomedy " it was still a satisfying episode calling Phil and Claire 's storyline " the most amusing storyline " .
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= Kenneth Dewar =
Vice @-@ Admiral Kenneth Gilbert Balmain Dewar , CBE , RN ( 21 September 1879 – 8 September 1964 ) was an officer of the Royal Navy . After specialising as a gunnery officer , Dewar became a staff officer and a controversial student of naval tactics before seeing extensive service during the First World War . He served in the Dardanelles Campaign and commanded a monitor in home waters before serving at the Admiralty for more than four years of staff duty . After the war ended he became embroiled in the controversy surrounding the consequences of the Battle of Jutland . Despite this , he held a variety of commands during the 1920s .
In 1928 he was at the heart of the " Royal Oak Mutiny " , when as Captain of the battleship Royal Oak he forwarded his executive officer 's letter of complaint about their immediate superior , Rear @-@ Admiral Collard , to higher authority . This came in the wake of a series of incidents aboard ship . All three men were ordered back to Britain , and Dewar and his executive officer requested Courts @-@ martial so that they might defend themselves . The trials were held in Gibraltar and garnered widespread media coverage .
Dewar , though found partially guilty , survived with a severe reprimand . His executive officer was found guilty and resigned , while Collard was compelled to resign his commission for provoking the situation . Having then commanded successively the two oldest capital ships in the fleet , Dewar retired on promotion to Rear @-@ Admiral . His memoirs , published as The Navy from Within in 1939 , were a vitriolic indictment of the Navy 's practices .
= = Early life and career = =
Dewar was born in Queensferry on 21 September 1879 , the son of Dr. James and Mrs. Flora Dewar . In July , 1893 he was nominated as a naval cadet , passed the entrance examination and joined the training ship Britannia , where he studied for two years . Two of his brothers joined the navy ; Alfred Charles ( born 1876 ) who was promoted to Captain on the Retired List and was appointed Head of the Historical Section of the Naval Staff , and Alan Ramsay ( born 1887 ) who achieved Flag Rank in 1938 . Dewar performed so well in Britannia , that upon graduation , he was appointed Midshipman straight away , which normally required a year 's service at sea and passing an examination . He joined the protected cruiser Hawke on 20 August 1895 . The following year he was appointed to the battleship Magnificent on 30 October 1896 . Promoted Acting Sub @-@ Lieutenant , Dewar was confirmed in that rank and promoted to Lieutenant on 8 March 1900 . Upon promotion he was posted to the Devonport destroyer Osprey on 15 March . On 12 June he was appointed to the torpedo @-@ boat destroyer Fervent .
= = = Gunnery officer = = =
Following this period at sea , Lieutenant Dewar was selected to specialise in gunnery duties . His time training at HMS Excellent , the gunnery school at Portsmouth , coincided with that of the captaincy of Percy Scott , the renowned gunnery expert . His performance on the two @-@ year course was so impressive that on graduation he was given command of a ship . From 21 July 1903 , Dewar was Lieutenant and Commander of the Chatham @-@ based destroyer Mermaid .
Dewar became the gunnery officer of the armoured cruiser Kent on 24 August 1905 , where he remained until 1908 . Dewar 's dedication and standard of training became evident when his ship led the Fleet in battle practice firings and gunlayer 's @-@ test . He was reassigned to Excellent on 19 January 1908 for instruction duties . Soon he was sent to sea again , being made gunnery officer of the battleship Prince George on 8 February 1908 . He rejoined Excellent on 22 December that year . On 11 June 1909 Dewar was " lent " as gunnery officer to the protected cruiser Spartiate for the annual fleet manœuvres . Once the manœuvres were finished , Dewar was made assistant to the Inspector of Target Practice , an important gunnery position at the Admiralty on 17 July . In the same year , he was asked to lecture on the Imperial Japanese Navy , which he had previously had experience of , at the Royal Naval War College at Portsmouth . During his talk , he exhibited an unpalatable forthrightness by saying that the Royal Navy needed more intellectual officers like Togo Heihachiro , implying that there was a dearth of such officers . The President of the College , Lewis Bayly , abruptly terminated his lecture .
On 1 January 1910 , Dewar was once more given sea duty as First Lieutenant and Gunnery Officer ( referred to as " 1st and G " ) of Dreadnought . Dreadnought was still one of the most prestigious postings in the fleet despite the growing number of newer dreadnought battleships and battle cruisers entering service . It was Dewar 's misfortune during this service to be taken in by the Dreadnought hoax on 10 February , in which he escorted a party of practical jokers , that included Virginia Woolf , pretending to be Abyssinian royalty on an official visit to the battleship . However , Dewar befriended the captain , Herbert Richmond , who acted both as a friend and a mentor to him in the following years . With Richmond 's encouragement , Dewar began a thorough study of naval tactics and strategy which would later continue at the Royal Naval War College .
= = = Promotion to commander = = =
Dewar was reappointed to Dreadnought on 28 March 1911 , was promoted Commander on 22 June and on 14 December he was appointed for duty at the Royal Naval War College , Portsmouth as an instructor . The next year he was selected to join the newly formed War Staff at the Admiralty , created on First lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill 's orders in 1912 . He was consequently reappointed for duty at the War College on 2 April 1912 . On 4 March 1913 it was announced that Commander Dewar had been awarded the Gold Medal and Trench @-@ Gascoigne prize by the Royal United Service Institution for his winning essay on the question " What is the war value of oversea commerce ? How did it affect our naval policy in the past and how does it in the present day ? " The final chapter of the paper was suppressed from publication by the Admiralty ; in it Dewar advocated a " distant " blockade in a war with Germany at a time ( 1912 ) when the Royal Navy was still contemplating a " close " blockade of the German coastline . In the event a distant blockade was imposed . Dewar was then and remained unsympathetic to the removal of his concluding chapter ;
Dewar 's reputation as an intellectual within the navy was confirmed when in 1912 , he became one of the founder members of The Naval Review , an independent journal of Royal Navy officers . That year Richmond had formed a " Naval Society " with a dozen friends , Dewar among them . After Richmond went abroad on active service , Dewar decided that instead of being a society of purely discussion , it ought publish a journal , to which end he " raised subscriptions for the first issue from some forty or fifty officers of all ranks " .
In 1914 Dewar was appointed commander ( second @-@ in @-@ command ) of the battleship Prince of Wales , then flagship of the 5th Battle Squadron in the 2nd Fleet ( Home Fleets ) . On 28 July , Dewar married Gertrude Margaret Stapleton @-@ Bretherton , the sister of Evelyn , Princess Blücher , in a service at St. Bartholomew 's Church in Rainhill on Merseyside . The service was conducted by the Archbishop of Liverpool and the Bishop of Portsmouth . Dewar 's best man was the Honourable Reginald Plunkett , who later became known as Reginald Plunkett @-@ Ernle @-@ Erle @-@ Drax , and would go on to achieve high rank in the navy . Dewar and Gertrude had one son together , Kenneth Malcolm J. Dewar .
= = First World War = =
In August 1914 Britain went to war with Germany , and later that year with the Ottoman Empire ( modern @-@ day Turkey ) . Prince of Wales remained in the 5th Battle Squadron until 1915 , when with a number of other pre @-@ dreadnoughts she was sent to the Eastern Mediterranean to support the Gallipoli landings , the goal of which was to capture the strategically important Dardanelles Straits , take Constantinople and knock the Ottoman Empire out of the war . As second @-@ in @-@ command of Prince of Wales , Dewar was present for part of the naval operations in the Dardanelles Campaign against the Turkish positions . Following aborted attempts to lend heavy @-@ gunfire support to the troops at ANZAC Cove , Dewar wrote an unofficial memo to the Rear @-@ Admiral commanding the Eastern Mediterranean Squadron , with suggestions for the employment of indirect fire to attack Turkish targets . Dewar heard nothing of his proposals , and it was not until November , 1915 that indirect fire was used with good effect by the bulged cruiser Edgar . Following the campaign , in October Dewar was given command of HM Gunnery School , Devonport . It was an important position as large numbers of Reserve and Volunteer Reserve officers either re @-@ qualified or qualified in gunnery duties . After a year Dewar returned to sea in command of the Abercrombie class monitor Roberts , and joined the Dover Patrol in August , 1916 .
In response to the German battle cruiser raids on the British coast , a visible response was called for to quell public anxiety . On 27 May 1916 Roberts arrived at Gorleston to act as a guard ship for the port of Yarmouth , in effect acting as a coastal defence battery . Roberts fulfilled such duties at Tyneside and in the Thames Estuary for the rest of the war . Once again Dewar was rotated back to shore , and was appointed to the Operations Division of the Naval Staff under first the Jellicoe , and then the Wemyss Boards of Admiralty . Dewar was promoted to the rank of Captain on 30 June 1918 in the Half @-@ Yearly lists and then became Assistant Director of Plans in the Plans Division . On 17 October 1919 he was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) " for valuable services at the Peace Conference , Paris . "
= = Post @-@ war commands = =
= = = Jutland controversy = = =
While still at the Admiralty , Dewar became embroiled with the controversies surrounding the aftermath of the Battle of Jutland . The manner in which the battle had been fought had come under criticism , with a line drawn between those who supported Sir John Jellicoe , who had commanded the Grand Fleet at the battle ; and those who fell @-@ in behind his then @-@ subordinate , and successor , Sir David Beatty . Dewar followed the Beatty school of thought espoused by his former Captain , Herbert Richmond , that the battle had been lost by the staid admirals of the battleship squadrons . In November , 1920 he and his brother Captain Alfred Dewar ( retired ) were entrusted with compiling the Naval Staff Appreciation of the battle , which was completed in January , 1922 . The two brothers had produced a body of work which favoured Beatty , for whom the Dewars ' " capacity for original thinking and literary talents always held an appeal . " Even Richmond , who intensely disliked Jellicoe , and was a confidant of Beatty , agreed with the Committee on Imperial Defence 's official naval historian , Sir Julian Corbett who wrote that Dewar 's " facts were , I found , very loose . "
The Appreciation , which had originally been intended for distribution around the Royal Navy , was deemed so full of " far @-@ reaching and astringent criticism of Jellicoe " and of new and therefore irrelevant tactical theory that Beatty and his Board of Admiralty were compelled to decide against its publication . Indeed , Admirals Roger Keyes and Ernle Chatfield were moved to write to Beatty that if published the Appreciation " would rend the service to its foundations " . The final straw had been the very public heckling of Dewar when he lectured from his Appreciation to the twenty students of the Senior Officers ' War Course at the Royal Naval College , Greenwich . It was decided to expurgate the existing document , which had been removed from circulation and release it . It was published as The Narrative of the Battle of Jutland in 1924 .
All copies of the original Appreciation were ordered destroyed in 1928 and before the " Narrative " had been published Dewar and his brother had already been barred access to the original . However , he continued to have a major impact on the historiography of the Battle of Jutland by serving throughout the 1920s as Winston Churchill 's naval consultant on submarine @-@ warfare . Churchill wrote an anti @-@ Jellicoe tract in his World Crisis , Volume III which in large measure shared Dewar 's views on tactics and even some diagrams . Although Dewar would later become a supporter of the Labour Party , after Churchill was passed over for a cabinet position in 1931 Dewar wrote to him on 16 November , " I am very sorry to see that you are not in the new Cabinet . I had hoped you would go to the Admiralty and do very necessary work for the Navy . "
= = = Sea duty = = =
After four years of duty at the Admiralty , Dewar returned to sea in 1922 . He was fortunate after the " Geddes Axe " ( the systematic contraction of the Naval Service to a size substantially smaller than its pre @-@ war level ) and his controversial tenure at the Admiralty that he was still considered worthy of sea duty , the qualification for promotion to flag rank . He was appointed on 9 May to command the C class cruiser Calcutta , flagship on the North America and West Indies Station . In 1923 Dewar was given command of Calcutta 's sister @-@ ship on the same station , HMS Cape Town . While on the station he had occasion to act as Flag Captain to the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief on the station , pay calls on cities as diverse as Halifax , Nova Scotia , Quebec City and Boston while cruising the Eastern Seaboard of North America . During the U.S. blockade of the Mexican port of Tampico in 1924 Dewar and Cape Town cancelled their planned cruise of the Caribbean to adequately represent the British government at Vera Cruz , proceeding there on 4 January .
On 15 May 1924 Dewar was relieved in command of Cape Town by Captain G.H. Knowles , DSO . On 2 May 1925 he returned to the Admiralty as Deputy Director of Naval Intelligence . After two years in the position he was relieved in June , 1927 and given , from 15 October command of the battleship Royal Oak , flagship of the Rear @-@ Admiral in the 1st Battle Squadron , Mediterranean Fleet . The Rear @-@ Admiral , 1st Battle Squadron was Bernard St. George Collard .
= = " The Royal Oak Mutiny " = =
As Flag Captain to Admiral Collard , Dewar was technically Collard 's chief staff officer as well as captain of the Royal Oak . A good working relationship between Dewar and the second @-@ in @-@ command of the battle squadron was necessary . Notwithstanding , Collard on occasion acted imperiously and tactlessly on his flagship , causing friction with Dewar and his executive officer , Commander Henry Martin Daniel , DSO . At a dance on the quarterdeck on 12 January 1928 , Collard openly lambasted Royal Marine Bandmaster , Percy Barnacle , and allegedly said " I won 't have a bugger like that in my ship " in the presence of ship 's officers and guests . Dewar and Daniel accused Collard of " vindictive fault @-@ finding " and openly humiliating and insulting them before their crew , referring to an incident involving Collard 's disembarkation from the ship on 5 March where the admiral had openly said that he was " fed up with the ship " ; Collard countercharged the two with failing to follow orders and treating him " worse than a midshipman " .
Dewar and Daniel , feeling that morale was sinking due to these public displays , wrote letters of complaint which were given to Collard on 10 March , on the eve of a major exercise . Collard forwarded the letters to his superior , Vice @-@ Admiral Sir John Kelly ; he immediately passed them on to the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Admiral Sir Roger Keyes . On realising that the relationship between the two and their Flag Officer had irretrievably broken down , Keyes ordered the exercise postponed by fifteen hours and ordered a Court of Inquiry to be convened . As a consequence , Collard was ordered to strike his flag in Royal Oak and Dewar and Daniel were ordered back to Britain . The Admiralty was informed of the bare facts on the 12th and Keyes proceeded to sea with the Mediterranean Fleet for the exercise as planned . The press picked up on the story worldwide , describing the affair — with some hyperbole — as a " mutiny " . Public attention reached such proportions as to raise the concerns of the King , who summoned First Lord of the Admiralty William Bridgeman for an explanation .
Having arrived back in England , Dewar and Daniel gave their version of events at the Admiralty , and put in writing requests for reinstatement in their positions in Royal Oak , or trial by Court @-@ martial . Having received Keyes ' full dispatch on 16 March , the Board of Admiralty resolved that Dewar and Daniel should undergo trial by Court @-@ martial as soon as possible at Gibraltar , where Royal Oak was due to be berthed . Consequently Dewar and Commander Daniel departed Southampton in the P & O liner Malwa with their counsel , Mr. Day Kimball , and their wives , on the 24th and reached Gibraltar in the evening of the 27th . The two officers were immediately attached to the Gibraltar base ship , HMS Cormorant in accordance with naval custom . It was arranged that Daniel would face Court @-@ martial first , on 30 March , and Dewar 's would follow at its conclusion .
The Courts @-@ martial were held publicly in hangar " A " of the aircraft carrier Eagle . Because ten Captains from the fleet sat as members of the Court , the departure of the Mediterranean Fleet was delayed until the end of the proceedings . Out of four charges which Daniel faced , two related to writing an allegedly subversive letter ( the complaint ) and the latter two to publicly reading it out to officers of Royal Oak . Dewar consequently faced the charge of having forwarded said subversive letter . The court found Daniel " guilty " on all four charges in the afternoon of 3 April and dismissed him from his ship and ordered him to be severely reprimanded .
Dewar 's own Court @-@ martial began on 4 April . The Court trying him was composed of five Rear @-@ Admirals and eight Captains . Dewar pleaded " not guilty to two charges of accepting and forwarding a letter subversive of discipline and contrary to King 's Regulations and Admiralty Instructions " . Dewar had the opportunity of cross @-@ examining Rear @-@ Admiral Collard over the incident of the dance and the disembarkation . Collard admitted to saying certain things but refused to say that he had used improper words and not in earshot of anyone other than the Captain .
In his defence , Dewar attacked one of the charges against him , namely that of contravening Article 11 of King 's Regulations ; he declared the charge invalid because his actions did not " bring him into contempt " , and from witness testimony he portrayed himself as having acted in the best interests of his ships , his actions against Rear @-@ Admiral Collard having been made out of a sense of duty and loyalty and not malice . Discounting one charge , he said , meant that the first had to fail as well .
The Court reached its verdict on 5 April . The first charge was found proven , the second unproven , and Dewar was therefore acquitted of acting against regulations . However , despite his spotless record , when the Court sentenced him he was dismissed HMS Cormorant , and severely reprimanded — a potentially career @-@ destroying result . However , there was some popular support for his continued service in the navy . Questions were asked in the House of Commons as to whether Dewar or Daniel would be found new positions . The First Lord , Bridgeman , stated that they would be found positions in the Navy as soon as vacancies arose . Dewar 's career was reprieved for the time being . Daniel however resigned from the service , and following an unsuccessful attempt at a career in journalism , disappeared into obscurity in South Africa .
= = Post @-@ Royal Oak = =
Dewar was once more given duty at sea . However , he was to be relegated to second @-@ rate commands for a man of his seniority . Much to the surprise of many , on 25 September 1928 it was announced that from 5 November Dewar would be given command of the battle cruiser Tiger , the oldest of her type still in service and engaged primarily in training . However , it demonstrated the Admiralty 's continued albeit conditional faith in him . He commanded Tiger until he was given command of HMS Iron Duke the following year . On 29 May 1929 he was made a naval aide @-@ de @-@ camp ( ADC ) to King George V. However , Dewar 's time in the Navy was drawing to a close . On 4 August he was finally promoted to Rear @-@ Admiral , and the following day he was retired . Promotion to flag rank also saw the end of his duty as ADC to the King . On the day of his promotion he was also granted the Good Service pension of £ 150 per annum .
= = = Standing for Parliament = = =
In the 1931 General Election , Dewar stood as a Labour party candidate in Portsmouth North , where he lost against the incumbent by 14 @,@ 149 votes . Once more however Dewar was unable to escape controversy , having put up posters around the naval city which raised indignation among many sailors and officers .
The posters , which Dewar himself called " propaganda sheets " , were titled " Admiral Dewar 's Election News " , and carried the statement " The British Navy at Jutland in 1916 beat the ex @-@ Kaiser ; and at Invergordon in 1931 it beat Mr. Montagu Norman " , and featured prominently a depiction of the former Kaiser of Germany in civilian clothing in front of a sea battle , with the Governor of the Bank of England , Montagu Norman , looking on . A notice beneath the picture read :
The ex @-@ Kaiser tried to force German Kultur on the world . This attempt cost millions of human lives . Mr. Montagu Norman is the British head of the international financial system which tried to impose the pre @-@ War gold parity on Britain . The attempt devastated British industry and brought desolation into thousands of working @-@ class homes .
Dewar was accused of comparing Jutland to the Invergordon Mutiny , which rankled with many servicemen who had fought at Jutland but had taken no part in the 1931 mutiny in Northern Scotland . He claimed in his defence – a statement issued to the press on 29 October 1931 – that he had had nothing to do with the design or production of the poster , which had been published by the National Cooperative Publishing Society . Later , however , Dewar wrote , " I deeply regret that this picture should ever have been associated with my name . " At this point he had already lost at the polls by a substantial margin , the election having taken place on the 27 October .
= = = Later life = = =
As part of Navy Week in 1933 on 5 August , Dewar was invited to open a naval paintings exhibition at the Ilford Galleries in London . He took the opportunity to praise the Washington Naval Conference and its successor , and to criticise the size of the Treaty battleship . On the Retired List of the Royal Navy , he was promoted to the rank of Vice @-@ Admiral ( Retd . ) on 31 July 1934 .
In early 1939 Dewar 's memoirs were published . Entitled The Navy from Within he recounted his life story , while at the same time criticising severely the manner in which the Royal Navy trained its officers , blaming defects in said training for the naval failure at Gallipoli . However , his account was criticised as being far too harsh and at points hypocritical , for after condemning the naval system of training he then makes many mentions of naval officers who he himself considered to be excellent . In a letter to The Times , Dewar complained that their reviewer was taking far too much issue with the author , which as the reviewer pointed out , " a review of an autobiography must necessarily deal largely with the author himself " . Responding to a review of The Navy from Within in The Naval Review which questioned the prominence of " The Royal Oak Affair " in the book , Dewar responded by stating ;
Dewar , despite the attached stigma of the mutiny and criticism of his memoirs , was still held in high regard by many , and as war approached he wrote a number of letters to The Times criticising the cost of the Air Raid Precautions network , which attracted much support in the " Letters " pages in that newspaper . During the Second World War he returned to the Admiralty , working under his brother Alfred in the Historical Section of the Training and Staff Duties Division . After the war ended , Dewar would win one final victory when he sued the author and publisher of a book on Admiral Keyes for libel in 1953 . In the book written by Brigadier @-@ General Aspinall Oglander was a letter from Keyes to the King 's private secretary , Lord Stamfordham in which Keyes accused Dewar of having made contact with the press in his defence . Dewar denied this and the High Court of Justice agreed with him , finding in his favour . The solicitors acting on behalf of Aspinall @-@ Oglander and the publishers , Hogarth Press Ltd . , agreed to apologise in court and paid Dewar damages and expenses .
In 1957 he returned to his earlier theme on the failings of officer training , in a three @-@ part exposition on the Dardanelles Campaign for The Naval Review , the journal he had helped found over forty years previously . In the concluding article , published in October , 1957 , Dewar wrote that the failure of the Navy to adequately support the Army at Gallipoli " is to be found in the system of training officers which consciously or unconsciously suppressed independent thought and suggestions from subordinates . " Despite his later close association with Churchill , he criticised the former First Lord 's unrealistic expectations and also Lord Fisher 's inability to rein him in for want of a naval staff ; and Admiral of the Fleet ( at the time Commodore ) Roger Keyes for actively trying to gain support for forcing the straits again instead of acting as chief of staff and only advising the Naval Commander at the Dardanelles .
Dewar was given the last rites on 8 September 1964 and died at his home in Worthing , Sussex . He was buried at St Bartholomew 's Church , Rainhill , Merseyside on 12 September .
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= King of the Hill ( The Simpsons ) =
" King of the Hill " is the twenty @-@ third episode in the ninth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 3 , 1998 . It was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Steven Dean Moore , and guest stars Brendan Fraser and Steven Weber . The episode sees Homer trying to climb a large mountain to impress Bart after he humiliates him at a church picnic with his lack of fitness .
= = Plot = =
After his obesity embarrasses Bart at a church picnic , Homer attempts to lose weight . He soon discovers Power Sauce , an energy bar which he starts to eat regularly .
At a gym , Homer meets Rainier Wolfcastle who becomes his fitness coach . In two months , Homer is healthier and reveals what he has been doing to his family . At the gym , Rainier is being asked by two Power Sauce representatives to climb the tallest mountain in Springfield , " The Murderhorn " , as a publicity stunt . When Rainier refuses , Homer takes on the challenge .
He is aided by two Sherpas as guides , who were instructed to drag Homer up the mountain as he sleeps . During one of these nights , Homer wakes up to discover that he is being secretly dragged , and fires the two Sherpas . Homer soon makes it to the summit and plants a flagpole . Rejoining the crowd , Bart is proud of Homer .
= = Production = =
The episode was pitched and written by John Swartzwelder . The writing staff had to find a new angle for Homer 's weight problems , as the idea had been used several times before . This was emphasized in this episode when Marge does not seem to care that Homer is going to try to lose weight again .
In the scenes where the Sherpas were speaking , the show staff went to great lengths to find translations . Originally , the producers of the film adaption of the book Into Thin Air were contacted to help . The film producers were shocked at the trouble the Simpsons staff were going to , and replied that they had simply made up translations in the film . The staff then had to consult various experts by telephone .
= = Cultural references = =
The mountain Homer must climb , the Murderhorn , is a reference to the mountain Matterhorn , which is located in the Swiss Alps .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " King of the Hill " finished 23rd in ratings for the week of April 27 – May 4 , 1998 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 4 , equivalent to approximately 9 @.@ 2 million viewing households . It was the fourth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files , King of the Hill , and Ally McBeal .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , thought well of the episode , stating : " A quite charming little adventure in which , in an effort to impress Bart , Homer undertakes a dangerous adventure and comes through successfully . It 's nice because just for once , to all intents and purposes , Homer actually succeeds in something . "
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= Scout ( Scouting ) =
A Scout ( in some countries a Boy Scout , Girl Scout or Pathfinder ) is a boy or a girl , usually 10 ( AS in Australia ) – 18 years of age , participating in the worldwide Scouting movement . Because of the large age and development span , many Scouting associations have split this age group into a junior and a senior section . Scouts are organized into troops averaging 20 – 30 Scouts under the guidance of one or more Scout Leaders . Troops subdivide into patrols of about six Scouts and engage in outdoor and special interest activities . Troops may affiliate with local , national , and international organizations . Some national Scouting associations have special interest programs such as Air Scouts , Sea Scouts , outdoor high adventure , Scouting bands , and rider Scouts . Some troops , especially in Europe , have been co @-@ educational since the 1970s , allowing boys and girls to work together as Scouts .
= = Foundation = =
Robert Baden @-@ Powell founded the Boy Scouts as an organization in 1908 , a few months after the first Scout encampment at Brownsea Island Scout camp in 1907 . Baden @-@ Powell got the idea from his experiences with the British Army in South Africa . To advance his ideas , Baden @-@ Powell wrote Scouting for Boys for boy readership , which describes the Scout method of outdoor activities aiming at developing character , citizenship , and personal fitness qualities among youth . Many boys joined Scouting activities , resulting in the movement growing rapidly to become the world 's largest youth organization .
The Scout program is designed to develop youths who have a high degree of self @-@ reliance , initiative , courage , helpfulness , integrity , sportsmanship , and resourcefulness . Scouts should be helpful ; understand their society , heritage , and culture ; have respect for the rights of others ; and be positive leader @-@ citizens .
Over time , the Scout program has been reviewed and updated in many of the countries where it is run , and special interest programs developed such as Air Scouts , Sea Scouts , outdoor high adventure , Scouting bands , and rider Scouts , but the same core values and principles as Baden @-@ Powell originally envisaged still apply .
= = = Age groups and sections = = =
Originally , the Scout program was aimed at 11- to 16 @-@ year @-@ old boys . However , the younger brothers of Scouts started to attend Troop meetings , and so the Wolf Cub section was started . It was also evident that young girls wanted to participate in similar activities , but the Edwardian values at the time would not allow young boys and girls to " rough and tumble " together , causing the Guide Movement to be created .
While most Scouts may join a troop after finishing Cub Scouts , this is not required . As Scouts get older , they often seek more challenging and diverse activities . He may later join another affiliated program for older children , such as Exploring , Venturing , or Rovering .
= = Activities = =
A Scout learns the cornerstones of the Scout method , Scout Promise , and Scout Law . These are designed to instill character , citizenship , personal fitness , and leadership in boys through a structured program of outdoor activities . Common ways to implement the Scout method include spending time together in small groups with shared experiences , rituals , and activities , as well as emphasizing good citizenship and decision @-@ making that are age @-@ level appropriate . Cultivating a love and appreciation of the outdoors and outdoor activities are key elements . Primary activities include camping , woodcraft , first aid , aquatics , hiking , backpacking , and sports .
Scouts are known throughout the world for performing acts of public good and sometimes acts of heroism . For example , a Scout foiled a 2008 assassination attempt on Maldives ' President Maumoon Abdul Gayoom by " grabbing an attacker 's knife as the man leapt from a crowd and lunged at the leader " . The Scout , Ibrahim Jaisham , a male member of the co @-@ educational The Scout Association of Maldives , sustained minor injuries during the intervention .
= = = Fellowship = = =
Camping most often occurs on a unit level , such as in the troop , but there are periodic camporees and jamborees . Camporees are events where units from a local area camp together for a weekend . These often occur a couple times a year and usually have a theme , such as pioneering . Jamborees are large events on a national or international level held every four years where thousands of Scouts camp together for one to two weeks . Activities at these events include games , Scoutcraft competitions , patch trading , aquatics , woodcarving , archery , and rifle and shotgun shooting .
For many Scouts , the highlight of the year is spending at least a week in the summer as part of an outdoor activity . This can be a long event such as camping , hiking , sailing , canoeing , or kayaking with the unit or a summer camp operated on a council , state , or provincial level . Scouts attending a summer camp , generally one week during the summer , work on merit badges , advancement , and perfecting Scoutcraft skills . Some summer camps operate specialty programs , such as sailing , backpacking , canoeing and whitewater , caving , and fishing .
= = = Personal progression = = =
A large part , compared to younger and older sections , of the activities are related to personal progression . All Scouting organizations have an advancement program , whereby the Scout learns Scoutcraft , community service , leadership , and explores areas of interest to him . This Badge system or Personal Progressive Scheme is based on two complementary elements :
Proficiency ( Merit ) badges , which are intended to encourage the Scout to learn a subject which could be his work or hobby , so cover many different types of activities , not always related to Scouting .
Class badges or Progress system , which symbolize increasingly difficult levels or successive stages .
Most Scouting associations have a highest badge that require mastering Scoutcraft , leadership , and performing community service . Only a small percentage of Scouts attain them .
= = Unit affiliation = =
= = = Troop = = =
The troop is the fundamental unit of the Scouts . This is the group a Scout joins and via which he participates in Scouting activities , such as camping , backpacking , and canoeing . The troop leadership , youth and adult , organizes and provides support for these activities . It may include as few as a half @-@ dozen Scouts , or as many as seventy or more . Troops usually meet weekly .
= = = Patrol = = =
Each troop is divided into patrols of around five to ten Scouts . A patrol 's independence from the troop varies among troops and between activities . For instance , a troop typically holds ordinary meetings as a unit . Patrols ' autonomy becomes more visible at campouts , where each patrol may set up its own area for cooking and camping . However , on a high adventure trip which only a small part of the troop attends , divisions between patrols may disappear entirely . Patrols may hold meetings and even excursions separately from the rest of the troop , but this is more common in some troops than in others . Each patrol has a Patrol Leader ( PL ) and Patrol Second ( PS ) , or Assistant Patrol Leader ( APL ) . Some troops mix older and younger Scouts in the same patrols , so that the older Scouts can teach the younger ones more effectively , other troops group Scouts by age , so that the members of one patrol have more in common .
= = = Group = = =
In most countries a local organisation , a " Scout Group " , combines different sections together into a single body . Scout Groups can consist of any number of sections of the different Age Groups in Scouting and Guiding . Scout Groups can be single sex or have boys and girls in separate and / or co @-@ ed sections depending on the group and the national organization . In some countries , the different sections are independent of each other , although they might be sponsored or chartered by the same organisation , such as a church .
= = Uniforms = =
The Scout uniform is a specific characteristic of Scouting , and is worn at most events . The original uniform , which has created a familiar image in the public eye and had a very military appearance , consisted of a khaki button @-@ up shirt , shorts , and a broad @-@ brimmed campaign hat .
Uniforms have become much more functional and colorful since the beginning and are now frequently blue , orange , red , or green , and shorts are replaced by long trousers in areas where the culture calls for modesty , and in colder weather . T @-@ shirts and other more casual wear have also replaced the more formal button @-@ up uniforms in many Scouting regions .
To show the unity of all Scouts , the World Membership Badge ( World Crest ) or another badge with a fleur @-@ de @-@ lis is a part of all uniforms . Neckerchiefs and Woggles ( slides ) are still quite common , but some Scouting associations do not use them . Patches for leadership positions , ranks , special achievements , patrol- animals , colors or names , troop- or group- numbers or names , and country or regional affiliation are standard .
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= California sea lion =
The California sea lion ( Zalophus californianus ) is a coastal eared seal native to western North America . It is one of five species of sea lion . Its natural habitat ranges from southeast Alaska to central Mexico , including the Gulf of California . Sea lions are sexually dimorphic , males are larger than females , and have a thicker neck and protruding crest . They mainly haul @-@ out on sandy or rocky beaches , but they also frequent manmade environments such as marinas and wharves . Sea lions feed on a number of species of fish and squid , and are preyed on by Orcas and white sharks .
California sea lions have a polygynous breeding pattern . From May to August , males establish territories and try to attract females with which to mate . Females are free to move in between territories , and are not coerced by males . Mothers nurse their pups in between foraging trips . Sea lions communicate with numerous vocalizations , notably with barks and mother @-@ pup contact calls . Outside of their breeding season , sea lions spend much of their time at sea , but they come to shore to molt .
Sea lions are particularly intelligent , can be trained to perform various tasks and display limited fear of humans if accustomed to them . Because of this , California sea lions are a popular choice for public display in zoos , circuses and oceanariums , and are trained by the United States Navy for certain military operations . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) lists the species as Least Concern due to its abundance . Predation by California sea lions on threatened or endangered salmon species at Bonneville Dam has resulted in more than 50 of them being killed by state officials .
= = Taxonomy = =
The California sea lion was described by René Primevère Lesson , a French naturalist , in 1828 . It is grouped with other sea lions and fur seals in the family Otariidae . Otariids , also known as eared seals , differ from true seals in having external ear flaps , and proportionately larger foreflippers and pectoral muscles . Along with the Galapagos sea lion and the extinct Japanese sea lion , the California sea lion belongs to the genus Zalophus , which derives from the Greek words za , meaning " intensive , " and lophus , meaning " crest . " This refers to the protruding sagittal crest of the males , which distinguishes members of the genus .
Traditionally , the Galapagos sea lion and Japanese sea lion were classified as subspecies of the California sea lion . However , a genetic study in 2007 found that all three are in fact separate species . The lineages of the California and Japanese sea lion appear to have split off 2 @.@ 2 million years ago during the Pliocene . The California sea lion differs from the Galapagos sea lion in its greater sexual dimorphism . The Steller sea lion is the closest extant relative of the Zalophus sea lions , being a sister taxon .
= = Appearance , physiology , and movement = =
Being sexually dimorphic , California sea lions differ in size , shape , and coloration between the sexes . Males are typically around 2 @.@ 4 m ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) long and weigh up to 350 kg ( 770 lb ) , while females are typically around 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) and weigh up to 100 kg ( 220 lb ) . Females and juveniles have a tawny brown pelage , although they may be temporarily light gray or silver after molting . The pelage of adult males can be anywhere from light brown to black , but is typically dark brown . The face of adult males may also be light tan in some areas . Pups have a black or dark brown pelage at birth . Although the species has a slender build , adult males have robust necks , chests , and shoulders . Adult males also have a protruding crest which gives them a " high , domed forehead " ; it is tufted with white hairs . They also have manes , which are less developed than those of adult male South American and Steller sea lions . Both sexes have long , narrow muzzles .
As an otariid , the California sea lion relies on its foreflippers to propel itself when swimming . This form of aquatic locomotion , along with its streamlined body , effectively reduces drag underwater . Its foreflipper movement is not continuous ; the animal glides in between each stroke . The flexibility of its spine allows the sea lion to bend its neck backwards far enough to reach its hindflippers . This allows the animal to make dorsal turns and maintain a streamlined posture . When moving on land , the sea lion is able to turn its hindflippers forward and walk on all fours . It moves the foreflippers in a transverse , rather than a sagittal , fashion . In addition , it relies on movements of its head and neck more than its hindflippers for terrestrial locomotion . Sea lions may travel at speeds of around 10 @.@ 8 km / h ( 6 @.@ 7 mph ) , and can dive at depths of 274 m ( 899 ft ) and for up to 9 @.@ 9 minutes , though most dives are typically 80 m ( 260 ft ) and last less than 3 minutes .
Sea lions have color vision , though it is limited to the blue @-@ green area of the color spectrum . This is likely an adaptation for living in marine coastal habitats . Sea lions have fairly acute underwater hearing , with a hearing range of 0 @.@ 4 – 32 kHz . Sea lions rely on their whiskers or vibrissae for touch and detection of vibrations underwater . Compared to the harbor seal , the California sea lion 's vibrissae are smoother and less specialized and thus perform less when following hydrodynamic trails , although they still perform well .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Range and habitat = = =
The California sea lion ranges along the western coast and islands of North America , from southeast Alaska to central Mexico . Mitochondrial DNA sequences in 2009 have identified five distinct California sea lion populations : the U.S. or Pacific Temperate stock , the Western Baja California or Pacific Tropical stock , and the Southern , Central , and Northern Gulf of California stocks . The U.S. stock breeds mainly in the Channel Islands , although some breeding sites may be established in northern California , and females are now commonly found there . The Western Baja California stock mainly breeds near Punta Eugenia and at Isla Santa Margarita . The above @-@ mentioned stocks are separated by the Ensenada Front . The stocks of the Gulf of California live in the shallow waters of the north ( Northern stock ) , the tidal islands near the center ( Central stock ) , and the mouth of the bay ( Southern stock ) . The stock status of the sea lions at the deep waters of the central bay has not been analyzed .
During the breeding season , sea lions gather on both sandy and rocky shores . On warm days , they lie closer to the water . At night or in cool weather , they travel farther inland or to higher elevations . Non @-@ breeding individuals may gather at marinas , wharves , or even navigational buoys . California sea lions can also live in fresh water for periods of time , such as near the Bonneville Dam in the Columbia River . In 2004 a healthy sea lion was found sitting on a road in Merced County , California , almost a hundred miles upstream from the San Francisco Bay and half a mile from the San Joaquin River .
= = = Diet and predation = = =
California sea lions feed on a wide variety of seafood , mainly squid and fish , and sometimes clams . Commonly eaten fish and squid species include salmon , hake , Pacific whiting , anchovy , herring , rockfish , lamprey , dogfish , and market squid . They mostly forage near mainland coastlines , the continental shelf , and seamounts . They may also search along the ocean bottom . California sea lions may eat alone or in small to large groups , depending on the amount of food available . They sometimes cooperate with other predators , such as dolphins , porpoises , and seabirds , when hunting large schools of fish . Sea lions sometimes follow dolphins and exploit their hunting efforts . Adult females feed between 10 – 100 km ( 6 @.@ 2 – 62 @.@ 1 mi ) from shore . Males may forage as far as 450 km ( 280 mi ) from shore when water temperatures rise . They also have learned to feed on steelhead and salmon below fish ladders at Bonneville Dam and at other locations where fish must queue in order to pass through dams and locks that block their passage .
Sea lions are preyed on by killer whales and large sharks . At Monterey Bay , California sea lions appear to be the more common food items for transient mammal @-@ eating killer whale pods . The sea lions may respond to the dorsal fin of a killer whale and remain vigilant , even when encountering resident fish @-@ eating pods . Sea lions are also common prey for white sharks . They have been found with scars made by attacks from both white sharks and shortfin mako sharks . Sharks attack sea lions by ambushing them while they are resting at the surface . Sea lions that are attacked in the hindquarters are more likely to survive and make it to the shore .
= = Life history = =
= = = Reproductive behavior and parenting = = =
California sea lions breed gregariously between May and August , when they arrive at their breeding rookeries . When establishing a territory , the males will try to increase their chances of reproducing by staying on the rookery for as long as possible . During this time , they will fast , relying on a thick layer of fat called blubber for energy . Size and patience allow a male to defend his territory more effectively ; the bigger the male , the more blubber he can store and the longer he can wait . A male sea lion usually keeps his territory for around 27 days . Females have long parturition intervals , and thus the males do not establish their territories until after the females give birth . Most fights occur during this time . After this , the males rely on ritualized displays ( vocalizations , head @-@ shaking , stares , bluff lunges , and so on ) to maintain their territorial boundaries . Since temperatures can reach over 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) during this time , males must include water within their territories . Some territories are mostly underwater , particularly those near steep cliffs . Sea lions that fail to establish a territory are driven out to sea or gather at a nearby beach .
Before mating begins , females gather into " milling " groups of 2 – 20 individuals . The females in these groups will mount each other as well as the males . These groups begin to disintegrate as the females begin to mate . The territorial and mating system of the California sea lion has been described as similar to a lek system , as females appear to choose their mates while moving though different territories . They avoid males that are too aggressive or energetic . Males are usually unable to prevent females from leaving their territories , particularly in water . Mating may occur outside the rookeries , between non @-@ territorial males and females , as the latter move to and from the mating site . In some rookeries , copulation may be monopolized by a few males , while at others , a single male may sire no more than four pups .
Female California sea lions have a 12 @-@ month reproductive cycle , consisting of a 9 @-@ month actual gestation and a 3 @-@ month delayed implantation of the fertilized egg before giving birth in June or July . Interbirth intervals are particularly long for this species , being 21 days for sea lions off California and more than 30 days for sea lions in the Gulf of California . Females remain with their pups on shore for 10 days and nurse them . After this , females will go on foraging trips lasting as long as three days , returning to nurse their pups for up to a day . Pups left on shore tend to gather in nurseries to socialize and play . When returning from a trip , females call their pups with distinctive calls to which the pups will reply in kind . A mother and pup can distinguish each other 's calls from those of other mothers and pups . At first , reunions largely depend on the efforts of the mothers . However , as pups get older , they get more involved in reunions . Older pups may sometimes join their mothers during their foraging trips . Adult male California sea lions play no role in raising pups , but they do take more interest in them than adult males of other otariid species ; they have even been observed to help shield swimming pups from predators . Pups are weaned by a year but can continue to suckle for another year .
= = = Communication = = =
California sea lions communicate with a range of vocalizations . The most commonly used one is their characteristic bark . Territorial males are the loudest and most continuous callers , and barks are produced constantly during the peak of the breeding season . Sea lions bark especially rapidly when excited . The barks of territorial and non @-@ territorial males sound similar , although those of the former are deeper . Males may bark when threatening other males or during courtship . The only other vocalization made by territorial males is a " prolonged hoarse grunt sound " made when an individual is startled by a human . This vocalization is also made by groups of non @-@ reproductive males .
Female sea lions are less vocal . Their barks , high @-@ pitched and shorter than those made by males , are used in aggressive situations . Other aggressive vocalizations given by females include the " squeal " , the " belch " , and the " growl " . The sound a female sea lion gives when calling her pups is called a " pup @-@ attraction call " , described as " loud " and " brawling " . Pups respond with a " mother @-@ response call " , which is similar in structure . Pups will also bleat or bark when playing or in distress . California sea lions can produce vocalizations underwater . These include " whinny " sounds , barks , buzzings , and clicks .
= = = Nonbreeding activities = = =
Outside of the breeding season , males migrate to the northern ends of the species range to feed , while females forage near the breeding rookeries . Sea lions can stay at sea for as long as two weeks at a time . They make continuous dives , returning to the surface to rest . Sea lions may travel alone or in groups while at sea and haul @-@ out between each sea trip . Adult females and juveniles molt in autumn and winter ; adult males molt in January and February . Gulf of California sea lions do not migrate ; they stay in the Gulf year @-@ round .
= = Intelligence and trainability = =
Marine biologist Ronald J. Schusterman and his research associates have studied sea lions ' cognitive ability . They have discovered that sea lions are able to recognize relationships between stimuli based on similar functions or connections made with their peers , rather than only the stimuli 's common features . Sea lions have demonstrated the ability to understand simple syntax and commands when taught an artificial sign language . However , the sea lions rarely used the signs semantically or logically . In 2011 , a California sea lion named " Ronan " was recorded bobbing her head in synchronization to musical rhythms . This " rhythmic entrainment " was previously seen only in humans , parrots and other birds possessing vocal mimicry .
Because of their intelligence and trainability , California sea lions have been used by circuses and marine mammal parks to perform various tricks such as throwing and catching balls on their noses , running up ladders , or honking horns in a musical fashion . Trainers reward their animals with fish , which motivates them to perform . For ball balancing , trainers toss a ball at a sea lion so it may accidentally balance it or hold the ball on its nose , thereby gaining an understanding of what to do . A sea lion may go through a year of training before performing a trick for the public . However , its memory allows it to perform a trick even after three months of resting . Some organizations , such as the Humane Society of the United States and World Animal Protection , object to using sea lions and other marine mammals for entertainment , claiming the tricks are " exaggerated variations of their natural behaviors " and distract the audience from the animal 's unnatural environment . Less entertainment @-@ oriented zoos may still encourage animal play by throwing fish at animals in different directions and providing play equipment .
The California sea lion is used in military applications by the U.S. Navy Marine Mammal Program , including detecting naval mines and enemy divers . In the Persian Gulf , the animals can swim behind divers approaching a US naval ship and attach a clamp with a rope to the diver 's leg . Navy officials say the sea lions can do this in seconds , before the enemy realizes what happened . Organizations like PETA believe that such operations put the animals in danger . However , the Navy insists that the sea lions are removed once their mission is complete .
= = Status = =
The IUCN lists the California sea lion as Least Concern due to " its large and increasing population size . " The estimated population is 238 @,@ 000 – 241 @,@ 000 for the U.S. or Pacific Temperate stock , 75 @,@ 000 – 85 @,@ 000 for the Western Baja California or Pacific Tropical stock , and 31 @,@ 393 for the population in the Gulf of California . Off the Pacific coast of the United States , sea lions are so numerous that they are close to carrying capacity , while the Gulf of California population declined by 20 % by 2008 . Sea lions may be killed when in conflict with fishermen , by poaching , and by entanglements in man @-@ made garbage . They are also threatened by pollutants like DDT and PCB which accumulate in the marine food chain .
In the United States , the California sea lion is protected on the federal Marine Mammal Protection Act ( MMPA ) , passed in 1972 , which outlaws hunting , killing , capture , and harassment of the animal . In 1994 an amendment to the Act allowed for the possibility of limited lethal removal of pinnipeds preying on endangered salmonids should the level of predation be documented to have a significant adverse impact on the decline or recovery of ESA @-@ listed salmonids . Applications have been granted for removal of several individual sea lions at Ballard Locks and at the Bonneville Dam , where up to 92 sea lions can be killed each year for a 5 @-@ year period . Critics have objected to the killing of the sea lions , pointing out that the level of mortality permitted as a result of recreational and commercial fisheries in the river and as part of the operation of hydroelectric dams pose a greater threat to the salmon .
These animals exploit more man @-@ made environments like docks for haul @-@ out sites . Many docks are not designed to withstand the weight of several resting sea lions which cause major tilting and other problems . Wildlife managers have used various methods to control the animals and some city officials have redesigned docks so they can better withstand them .
= = = 2015 Californian shore sea lions pups crisis = = =
In January and February 2015 , 1450 malnourished or sick sea lion pups have been found on the coast of California , and estimations give a higher number of dead pups . NOAA has pointed the cause to unprecedentedly warm PDO in the North American west coast as a result of a failed attempt at El Niño , which has reduced the abundance of anchovies , sardines and mackerel , principal components of the sea lion diet just in the pups nursery season . Pups are leaving the rookeries in search of food long before they are capable of hunting fish , the outcome are pups really malnourished washed out on the shores , these conditions lead some of these pups to death if not rescued on time . These " unusual warm waters " affect the abundance of same species of fish and sea food , which have their effects in mammals and birds , a similar event has occurred by the end of 2014 with the unusual mass dead of Cassins auklet just in the period the chicks start to fledge .
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= Briarcliff Manor Public Library =
The Briarcliff Manor Public Library is the public library serving Briarcliff Manor , New York . Located on the edge of the Walter W. Law Memorial Park on Library Road , it is a member of Westchester Library System . It is staffed by a director and eleven employees , including reference and youth librarians , and is governed by a seven @-@ member board , with a liaison to the village board . The library offers computer classes , book discussion groups , young adult programs , a children 's room and a local history collection . The library also houses the Briarcliff Manor @-@ Scarborough Historical Society and offices for the Briarcliff Manor Recreation Department . Adjoining the library is the village 's former train station , which housed the library from 1959 to 2009 , and was renovated and reopened as the William J. Vescio Community Center on May 30 , 2016 .
The library was founded in 1914 in the Briarcliff Community Center . From the building 's destruction in 1929 and over the next thirty years , the library was without a permanent location , and was moved between sites including public school buildings and the village recreation center . In 1959 , the library purchased the former Briarcliff Manor station of the New York and Putnam Railroad . After renovations in the 1980s and 90s , a significant expansion was funded and completed in the late 2000s , where the library is housed today . In 1981 , the trackbed which ran alongside the building became part of a 48 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 77 @-@ kilometre ) rail trail , consisting of the South County , North County , and Putnam County Trailways . The biking , running , and walking trail stretches from the Bronx north to Brewster .
= = History = =
The Briarcliff Manor Free Library was founded by Edward S. Arnold in 1914 at the Briarcliff Community Center ( also referred to as " the Club " ) . The building was built as a public school in 1898 at the current Pleasantville Road southbound ramp to NY Route 9A . World War I slowed its expansion , though progress resumed in 1921 . This was achieved largely due to the efforts of Amy Bookwalter , at a time when the Library Board consisted entirely of women . On March 8 – 13 of that year , the Briarcliff Free Library was officially opened , and on September 22 , 1921 , the library was registered with the New York State library system .
On September 1 , 1922 , the Club 's library funds were transferred to the Library Committee , and the village government donated US $ 500 ( $ 7 @,@ 100 today ) to the library in 1924 . At that time , it had 1 @,@ 900 volumes , which became 23 @,@ 000 by 1926 , around 6 @,@ 000 in 1939 , and by 1952 , 8 @,@ 000 volumes . In 1988 , the library 's collections had grown to 25 @,@ 000 .
In its early years , the Briarcliff library received donations from the village Sunday school and the Club . In July 1928 , the library moved from the community club building ( which was sold to the Westchester Parkway Commission ) to the tower room of the former Briarcliff Farms office building , the present branch of the International Union of Operating Engineers . On March 18 , 1930 , after invitation from the Briarcliff Board of Education , the library was relocated again . It moved to a large room on the main floor of Briarcliff 's high school extension to its Law Park grade school building . In August 1949 , the school required more classroom space ; the village board then provided two rooms on the second floor of its recreation building on Old Route 100 near the village downtown . On March 18 , 1952 , the New York State Board of Regents granted the library a provisional charter ; that year its registration numbered 503 . Also in 1952 , the village semicentennial history book notes the need for a permanent home for the library .
Around 1939 , the library received an efficiency rating of 93 percent from the Library Division of the New York State Education Department . In 1944 , the library obtained its highest efficiency rating , 98 @.@ 3 percent , from the Library Extension Division of the University of the State of New York . The 1952 appropriation for the library was $ 1 @,@ 800 ( $ 16 @,@ 000 today ) ; its expenditures were $ 1 @,@ 875 @.@ 86 ( $ 17 @,@ 100 today ) in 1951 .
On January 20 , 1959 , the library moved to its fifth location , the former Briarcliff Manor station on the New York City & Northern Railroad ( later the New York and Putnam Railroad ) . The station was built in 1906 by village founder Walter W. Law in the Tudor style , as a replacement for a smaller station , moved to nearby Millwood . The railroad 's Putnam Division was discontinued in 1958 , freeing up use of the building for the library . The library spent $ 12 @,@ 500 ( $ 101 @,@ 500 today ) to purchase the building and an additional $ 6 @,@ 500 ( $ 52 @,@ 800 today ) for renovations ; it raised $ 14 @,@ 000 ( $ 113 @,@ 600 today ) from village residents , with the rest funded by the Library Board . In 1959 , the library received its absolute charter , and received a charter in 1964 to become a public library : the Briarcliff Manor Public Library . In the 1980s and 90s , videocassettes were increasing in popularity ; The New York Times reported in 1990 that the library had experienced a significant increase in its circulation , with over 5 @,@ 435 circulated in that year , compared to 2 @,@ 864 in 1989 . In 1985 , the library and the Briarcliff Lodge were among 60 sites given historical markers by Westchester County Tricentennial Commission .
The library , which had 3 @,@ 200 square feet ( 300 m2 ) , was determined to be too small ; other significant problems included no wireless capacity and poor shelving and lighting . In 1980 , a large interior renovation took place . Former mayor Chester L. Fisher and his wife led a $ 50 @,@ 000 ( $ 143 @,@ 600 today ) fundraising effort , and collected $ 50 @,@ 072 . Construction started in March 1980 and included interior painting , new shelves , cabinets , and carpeting for the main room , a mezzanine on the south side , a relocated checkout desk and remodeled children 's room , and a vestibule in the main entrance designed to match the original building . In 1981 the first section of the Putnam Division trackbed was repurposed for a trailway ; the section ran from the library south to New York Route 117 . The 48 @-@ mile biking , running , and walking trail was completed in 2014 , and consists of the South County , North County , and Putnam County Trailways . It stretches from Van Cortlandt Park in the Bronx north to Brewster.In 1995 village residents held a referendum for a new library of 10 @,@ 600 square feet ( 980 m2 ) ; it failed by 13 votes , from the 871 cast . From 1997 to 1999 , major renovations took place both on the building 's interior and exterior . In the early 2000s , plans began for an expansion . A modular building was set up in 2004 as the children 's room . In 2006 , a $ 4 million bond resolution ( $ 4 @.@ 7 million today ) was passed for a two @-@ story , 6 @,@ 600 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 610 @-@ square @-@ metre ) addition , which began construction in summer 2007 and opened February 19 , 2009 . The original station building was renovated to become a village community center , which was in development since as late as 2013 and held a cost of $ 1 @.@ 8 million . Mayor Lori Sullivan and former mayor William J. Vescio presided over the center 's opening and dedication to Vescio on May 30 , 2016 .
= = Location and architecture = =
The Briarcliff Manor Public Library is located on the eastern edge of the Walter W. Law Memorial Park on Library Road , and has a large parking lot accessible from Library Road .
The current structure consists of the 1906 former train station on the south end and an extension completed in 2009 on the north side . The exterior was designed in the Tudor Revival style , although The New York Times observed the building as " pseudo @-@ medieval " . When active as a train station , the timbering was painted a shade of green used for other New York Central stations . The 2007 addition has the same half @-@ timber and stucco exterior of the original building .
The station 's interior was decorated with flowers , oriental rugs on the terrazzo floor , and tables and chairs in the Mission style . During the library 's occupation from 1959 to 2009 , the building housed a main reading room , children 's room , and vestibule and second @-@ story balcony ( both added in 1980 ) . The community center opening in 2016 in the same space holds a meeting room and kitchen on the first floor and an oculus opening on the full @-@ length second floor , which is intended for presentations , exhibits , reading , studying , and computer usage . The community center also has a backup generator for use as an emergency broadcast and warming and cooling center .
= = Operations = =
The Briarcliff library is open seven days per week , except in August when it is closed each Sunday . The library hosts four computer workstations and eight laptops , and has its own WiFi network . It is a member of the Westchester Library System . The Friends of the Briarcliff Manor Public Library is an organization through which community members may support the library .
The library 's director oversees two and three @-@ quarters full @-@ time and eight part @-@ time employees , including reference and youth librarians . It is governed by a seven @-@ member board , with a liaison to the village board . Services include computer classes , book discussion groups , young adult programs , a children 's room and a local history collection . Library spending constitutes about four percent of the village budget .
= = Organizations = =
= = = Briarcliff Manor @-@ Scarborough Historical Society = = =
The Briarcliff Manor @-@ Scarborough Historical Society ( BMSHS ) is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) not @-@ for @-@ profit organization dedicated to local preservation , research , and education . In March 1974 , after the village mayor appointed twelve people for a 75th anniversary committee , the committee began by forming the Briarcliff Manor @-@ Scarborough Historical Society ; it received its provisional charter around that time . The historical society published an updated village history ( A Village Between Two Rivers : Briarcliff Manor ) in 1977 , marking the 75th anniversary of the village . The organization has since published several books , including a comprehensive history of the village . The publication , The Changing Landscape , a History of Briarcliff Manor @-@ Scarborough , was written by Mary Cheever , wife of novelist John Cheever . The historical society was initially located at the since @-@ demolished Briarcliff Middle School building ; it later moved to the second floor of a realty building on Pleasantville Road , and moved back to the school building after it was leased by Pace University . On March 21 , 2010 , the BMSHS was given a permanent location at the Eileen O 'Connor Weber Historical Center , established as part of the library 's expansion finished in 2009 . The current president , Karen Smith , heads a board of trustees , members of which have three @-@ year terms with a required year recess between terms .
Members of the historical society joined the nine @-@ member Centennial Committee in 2002 to organize events for Briarcliff Manor 's centennial . The Centennial Committee and BMSHS helped organize several events for the village 's 2002 centennial celebration , including the Centennial Variety Show at the Briarcliff High School auditorium in a sold @-@ out two @-@ night run on April 26 – 27 , 2002 . The two @-@ act show consisted of interpretations of village life by village organizations and a revue of Briarcliff Manor history in skits and songs . Other society @-@ sponsored events have included tours of homes and churches , bus tours , Hudson River cruises on historic boats such as the M / V Commander ( built in 1917 and listed on the national and state registers of historic places ) , dances , antique @-@ car exhibits , day trips to historic points of interest , art exhibits and events with authors and elected officials .
= = = Briarcliff Manor Recreation Department = = =
The library houses the village recreation department , which has four staff and a six @-@ member advisory committee , and provides recreation programming for the village . The department has operated the recreation center on Macy Road since 1980 , and also runs a youth center on Van Lu Van Road .
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= Beautiful Garbage =
Beautiful Garbage ( stylized as beautifulgarbage ) is the third studio album by American @-@ Scottish alternative rock band Garbage , released on September 27 , 2001 by Mushroom Records . Marking a departure from the sound Garbage had established on their first two albums , Beautiful Garbage was written and recorded over the course of a year , during which time lead singer Shirley Manson chronicled their efforts weekly online , becoming one of the first high @-@ profile musicians to keep an Internet blog . The album is marked by expanding on the musical variety , with stronger melodies , more direct lyrics , and sounds that mix rock with electronica , new wave , hip hop , and girl groups . The album 's title is taken directly from a lyric in the song " Celebrity Skin " by Hole .
Released three weeks after the September 11 attacks , the album suffered from lack of promotion , mixed reaction from critics , and the failure of its lead single " Androgyny " to achieve high chart positions . Despite faltering in major markets , Beautiful Garbage debuted at number 13 on the Billboard 200 , while topping the albums chart in Australia and peaking within the top 10 in multiple European countries . It was named one of Rolling Stone 's " Top 10 Albums of the Year " .
= = Background = =
The origins of Beautiful Garbage came from a three @-@ day September 1999 recording session during Garbage 's world tour in support of their second album Version 2 @.@ 0 . The sessions resulted in " Silence Is Golden " and " Til the Day I Die " , which were written for a proposed B @-@ sides album . Both songs were loose and organic , contrasting the very dense layered production that featured on Version 2 @.@ 0 . " Silence Is Golden " in particular had been written with an odd structure for a Garbage song : a 6 / 8 shuffle that progressed to a straight 4 / 4 beat .
The sale of the band 's North American independent record label Almo Sounds to Universal Music Group in early 2000 put the B @-@ sides album on hold ; Garbage decided to simply start work on recording their third album instead . Garbage began writing and recording the album at their own Smart Studios in Madison , Wisconsin in April of that year . " The only vision we had was that we wanted it to sound different , " recalled guitarist Duke Erikson about the influence that the two new tracks had cast , adding that the band wished to evolve the chemistry that the band had developed from touring the previous two years .
= = Composition = =
More diverse than their first two studio albums , musically more melodic and lyrically more direct , Beautiful Garbage featured electronica fused with contemporary hip hop , with influences coming from 1980s new wave to 1960s girl groups . Garbage acknowledged the broad span of sounds and styles , which included Prince , The Rolling Stones , Blondie , and Phil Spector . Regarding the melancholic lyrics , Manson stated they happened because after two years touring " we were very isolated and removed from our lives " , so when writing the lyrics , " I felt an overwhelming sense that I need to reinvest in my ' relations ' " .
Drummer Butch Vig stated that the album is a " much simpler record than Version 2 @.@ 0 " : " All of the songs sort of came from us playing live downstairs [ in Smart Studios ] with guitar , bass and drums ... That was the only conscious decision we made – to make the songs simpler . Some of the songs are still layered in spots ; compared to the last record , there 're about half as many tracks . As far as sounds go , it 's basically drums , bass , some heavy guitars and Shirley singing . " Erikson agreed that a more organic sound and simplistic approach with respect to production is embodied by the final mix of the album . " A lot of songs took shape in just a few hours as opposed to a few months with the last record . [ ... ] Some of the songs obviously took a long time , or we wouldn 't have been in the studio for a full year . But a lot of them happened very quickly . ' Silence Is Golden ' we recorded basically in three days and it was done . ' So Like a Rose , ' for the most part , was recorded in three hours . I think we spent a lot of time just trying to resist adding stuff to [ the new album ] . Because that was our tendency on the other two records . ” On the lyrical content of the songs , Vig remarked that " [ Manson 's lyrics ] aren 't specifically responses to the industry , but they could be read that way . Shirley has said that , for example , ' Shut Your Mouth ' is about all the bullshit that 's out there , but it 's also a sort of note to self to keep your mouth shut , because she says she 's the biggest , most opinionated loudmouth of anyone around . So they work on multiple levels . "
Garbage decided the best way to start writing the album was to set up their recording equipment , guitars , keyboards , drum kit and a sampler and " jam " as a group . Their improvisation led the inspiration of a few songs such as " Shut Your Mouth " , where the band played for three hours while Manson spontaneously composed melody and lyrics , while " Breaking Up the Girl " came from both Erikson and Vig strumming acoustic guitars in the studio lounge . The band felt that it was foremost that the new songs worked on an emotional level with Manson 's vocals and lyrics . The initial sessions ultimately led to around 32 song ideas to develop further .
= = Recording = =
Smart Studios had upgraded their mixing console to a Trident A @-@ Range model , which the band used extensively . The band tracked directly onto analogue tape using a Studer tape machine , which was then dumped into Pro Tools digital audio workstation . Overdubs and mixing were carried out in Pro Tools .
Vig kept the drums and percussion simpler than before . Percussive tracks were recorded through a thirty @-@ year @-@ old Roger Meyer compressor to color the sound ( Vig : " It 's really saturated and distorted , but in a very musical way " ) . Some tracks however were fairly scrutinized : an instrumental break in " Til the Day I Die " incorporated reverse tape effects . Vig was not satisfied with his " swing " on a 6 / 8 groove written for a falsetto vocal Manson had recorded on " Can 't Cry These Tears " , so he recruited Matt Chamberlain to play the part . The recorded sequence incorporated Chamberlain 's contribution , some of Vig 's performance and some light programming . Chamberlain also performed a " chopped @-@ up " drum pattern for " Cup of Coffee " and a " bitchin ' funk groove " on " Confidence " .
Much of the recorded guitar work was heavily processed , the band using a Line 6 Pod for melodic parts and embellishments : for example , for the middle eight of " So Like a Rose " , Erikson played a Les Paul with an E @-@ bow through the Pod , while the synth @-@ like intro to " Parade " was created by layering an acoustic guitar part with a clean electric guitar . A tremolo effect on " Can 't Cry These Tears " was inspired by 1960s production techniques . The amp modelers were used to pre @-@ effect the recording prior to Pro Tools , in order to prevent phasing . For electric guitar recording , the band utilized cabinet miking – four microphones recorded the output of a Marshall amplifier . Acoustics were recorded using a single Blue Bottle microphone . Daniel Shulman , who had performed bass guitar on Version 2 @.@ 0 and the band 's two world tours , spent two separate weeks laying down bass parts . Shulman was given freedom by the band to come up with parts and be creative , creating new basslines on the verses of " Androgyny " and " Nobody Loves You " . Shulman revisited " Silence Is Golden " , breaking up the straight eighths of the coda to make it more interesting .
Due to Manson 's growing confidence and technical skill , the band decided that her vocals did not require much treatment ; " Shirley was singing so much better , and she was coming up with melodies that were longer and had more range to them ... there wasn 't any point in doing a lot with it . On something like ' Nobody Loves You ' she sings really low on the verse , almost at the bottom of her range , and then and the end she 's singing three and a half octaves higher , almost in falsetto , as the song turns into a big wall of sound " , Vig remarked . Manson 's original guide vocals were used in the final mixes of several songs ; the vocal on " So Like a Rose " was recorded on the first take . On some songs , however , Manson 's vocal was subject to Pro Tools plug @-@ ins and post effects . " Til the Day Die " featured a digital " scratch " -effect , created by printing her vocal to DAT and using whatever edited passes sounded good . On " Can 't Cry These Tears " , the four vocal parts were triple @-@ tracked using different mikes , while a guitar riff was matched to her voice for a section of " Breaking Up the Girl " . On " Cherry Lips " , her entire vocal was sped up and heavily EQ 'd . On slower songs such as " Drive You Home " , Garbage were not overly concerned with phrasing and pitch , giving it " a rawer quality " . Manson improved on her guitar skills and played more guitar in the studio and live on stage for the eventual tour .
Garbage finished recording Beautiful Garbage at the end of April 2001 , and spent a month completing the final mix ( some songs had gone through as many as 40 rough mixes ) . Final EQ , compressing and sequencing on the album was handled by Scott Hull of Classic Sound in New York . Despite running a competition on their website to name the album , Manson 's own working title , inspired by a lyric in Hole 's " Celebrity Skin " , won out . The album artwork came from Garbage 's wish for it to be " something organic " ; The band came up with the fractured rose idea , thinking that it worked well with the album title . Garbage contracted London @-@ based designers Me Company to create the visuals .
= = Release = =
Preempting the worldwide release , on September 27 , Beautiful Garbage was released in Japan through Sony Music featuring two exclusive bonus tracks : " Begging Bone " , the B @-@ side of " Androgyny " , and " The World Is Not Enough " , their James Bond theme from the film of the same name . In Australia and New Zealand , the album was released by their label FMR .
On October 1 , 2001 , Beautiful Garbage was released worldwide , with the North American release the following day . Mushroom Records issued the album on five formats within the United Kingdom : a standard edition CD , a limited edition specially packaged CD ( in a fold @-@ out rose shaped holder and plastic slipcase ) , double LP , cassette and MiniDisc . Mushroom licensed the album to PIAS Recordings for release in Western Europe and through their distributor Playground Music in Scandinavia ; PIAS pressed their own standard CD , ' rose @-@ pack ' CD and double LP formats for the continent . In the United States , Almo Sounds and Interscope Records released Beautiful Garbage on CD , double LP and cassette . Interscope 's parent company Universal Music Group released the album in Canada .
= = = Beautiful Garbage mixer = = =
The CD formats of Beautiful Garbage contained an enhanced element which users could access and remix four tracks from the album : " Shut Your Mouth " , " Androgyny " , " Breaking Up the Girl " and " Cherry Lips " . Created in conjunction with Sonic Foundry , using a customized version of their drag @-@ and @-@ drop ACID Pro music sequencer software , the remixes utilized samples and loops taken directly from the album masters . The enhanced section could be accessed when the user was online ; a simplified version of the software featuring only " Androgyny " loops was accessible when the user was offline .
Interscope Records and Sonic Foundry launched a competition in November 2001 , in which fans were invited to remix " Androgyny " by downloading free ACID Xpress software . Entrants could then upload their work to a specially created website ( www.acidgarbage.com ) to stream their mixes online . The winner received copies of Sonic Foundry 's audio software – ACID Pro , Sound Forge , and Vegas Audio – and five loop libraries .
= = Tour = =
Garbage marked the release of Beautiful Garbage by performing an in @-@ store set in Chicago 's Virgin Megastore on October 2 , 2001 . Garbage began touring the album as the opening act on the third leg of U2 's Elevation Tour from October 12 in Notre Dame , Indiana , into Canada and through to October 24 in New York City . Before last show , Vig collapsed from the effects of food poisoning and contracting hepatitis A. Rather than cancelling the scheduled shows , Garbage recruited Matt Chamberlain to replace Vig for the remainder of the year . Garbage performed a series of underplayed headlining shows in Europe during November , beginning in Trondheim , Norway and ending in London , England , on November 14 . Garbage then returned to North America for the final Elevation tour Southern State shows , from Kansas City , Missouri on November 27 through to the last show in Miami , Florida on December 2 . At the last show , U2 drummer Larry Mullen , Jr. played drums on " Only Happy When It Rains " . Garbage wrapped up 2001 by performing at the Not So Silent Night radio festival in Los Angeles , California .
The Beautiful Garbage tour started in earnest in January 2002 in New Zealand and Australia , when Garbage joined the Big Day Out festival . In between the festival shows , Garbage headlined two concerts in Melbourne and Sydney . Garbage then spent ten days in Japan , performing four headline shows in Osaka and Tokyo .
Garbage launched a headline UK tour on April 1 , 2002 in Portsmouth , a run that included an acoustic performance in Edinburgh and headlining MTV 's 5 Night Stand . The band were supported on the UK dates by Kelli Ali . Beyond the UK , the run extended to a number of shows in Cologne , Amsterdam and Bourges . On April 19 , Garbage returned to play a six @-@ week itinerary of North American dates . Beginning in Toronto , the tour was routed down the Eastern Coast of America , over to the Midwest and then onto the West Coast . The jaunt ended with two night stint in Los Angeles . Garbage were supported by Abandoned Pools and on some shows , by White Stripes ; during the tour , Vig was taken ill ( later diagnosed as Bell 's Palsy ) and was replaced again by Matt Chamberlain . Garbage wrapped the North American tour dates on June 6 in Mexico City .
A month @-@ long European trek began June 10 in Madrid , covering major festivals including Glastonbury and Roskilde . Matt Walker stood in for Vig for the rest of the summer . Garbage performed two shows in Nice and Lyon supporting Red Hot Chili Peppers , and a further two headlining French shows in Lille and Paris with Mercury Rev as support . The European leg ended at Espárrago Rock in Spain on July 12 . Throughout the run , Manson was dogged by vocal problems , leading to the cancellation of a few festival appearances . After a six @-@ week break , Garbage returned to the United Kingdom to perform their last European shows of the year – two intimate club gigs in London .
With Vig rejoining the ranks following his recovery period , Garbage headed to Australia to perform at the four date M @-@ One festival across the country at the beginning of October . They then joined No Doubt , who were promoting their Rock Steady album , to co @-@ headline a trek around the United States ; support came from The Distillers . Kicking off on October 15 in West Kingston , Rhode Island , the tour was routed down the Eastern Seaboard , and into Southern States before heading to the Pacific Northwest region and onto the American Southwest . The tour ended on November 27 in Long Beach , California . Garbage went on to perform one further show , in Hell , Grand Cayman .
= = Critical reception = =
Beautiful Garbage received generally favorable reviews from music critics . Both Rolling Stone 's US and Australian editions named Beautiful Garbage as one of their critics " Top 10 Albums of the Year " .
Tom Laskin of Isthmus wrote that the significant " sonic tweaking and abundant sampling " of Version 2 @.@ 0 is discarded as the songs are supported primarily by " bass , drum , and guitar configurations " . Observing a musical theme , it is " the band 's abandonment of digitally manipulated perfection in favor of rawer guitars and more immediate vocal performances . " He added that , overall , the album is " far less commercially accommodating than any of the band 's previous work . It embraces no particular sound or style . It comes across with ideas and commentary that challenge rather than coerce , and the playing lacks the burnished , artificial quality that 's characteristic of so much youth @-@ oriented music these days . " Peter Robinson of the NME wrote that the album was a " departure from the sound Garbage had established on their first two records " ; It is " marked by expanding on the musical variety , with stronger melodies , more direct lyrics , and sounds that mix rock with hip hop , electronica , new wave , and girl groups . " Sound on Sound described the band 's approach to recording guitars as " distinctive " , observing the " distorted crunches cheek @-@ by @-@ jowl with delicate acoustics and treated sounds which are almost unrecognizable . " Michael Paoletta of Billboard noted that audiences expecting " more of the same [ Version 2 @.@ 0 ] are in for a wonderful surprise . " The band eschews " disco @-@ infused electronica foundations for more straight @-@ up rock 'n'pop " . " Modern tales for modern times , sung by the vocally versatile Manson , make for one of the year 's best . " Q described it as " sharp , seductive music from a band at their peak . " Uncut called it " their most accomplished and convincing album yet . "
AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine commented that Garbage 's penchant for absorbing elements from various genres , skillfully crafting them together is more evident in this album , in how they " approximate contemporary R & B with the sultry ' Androgyny ' , or the Minneapolis new wave bubblegum funk of ' Cherry Lips ( Go Baby Go ! ) , ' or the bluesy PJ Harvey strut of ' Silence Is Golden . ' " This penchant is enhanced by an " unabashedly pop coating , an element that Garbage clearly revel in , as well as should the listener . " He described it " every bit as enticingly postmodern as their other albums , and it sounds distinctly Garbage " and although the fusion elements are perceptible , " they seem less like magpies , more themselves , which means Beautiful Garbage is a more consistent record . " David Browne of Entertainment Weekly observed Manson 's continued " aggressive bite " complemented by " throbbing tracks like ' Till the Day I Die ' and ' Shut Your Mouth ' " , as well as exposing " tender aspects " in " heartfelt " and " subdued " songs like ' Cup of Coffee ' and ' So Like a Rose ' . He noted however that the band 's " experiments with sonic expansion yield more mixed results " ; " They thaw their sound by adding elements of trip @-@ hop , which works for ' Cup of Coffee ' and the first single , ' Androgyny ' ... But on a record that 's more self @-@ consciously varied than 1998 's Version 2 @.@ 0 other attempts are gimmicky and less successful " ... Still , there 's just enough to salvage from beautifulgarbage . "
= = Commercial performance = =
Beautiful Garbage debuted at number 13 on the US Billboard 200 with first @-@ week sales of 73 @,@ 000 copies . It also debuted atop Billboard 's Top Electronic Albums chart , spending seven consecutive weeks at the top position . As of August 2008 , the album had sold 405 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . The album peaked at number six on the Canadian Albums Chart , and on October 12 , 2001 , it was certified gold by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) .
In the United Kingdom , Beautiful Garbage sold 25 @,@ 173 units to debut at number six on the UK Albums Chart . The British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) certified the album gold on October 19 , 2001 , and by July 2007 , it had sold 121 @,@ 397 copies in the UK . It was commercially successful across the rest of Europe , reaching the top five in Finland , France , and Ireland , and the top 10 in Austria , Belgium , Germany , Italy , Norway , Spain , and Switzerland .
The album debuted at number one on the Australian ARIA Albums Chart and received a platinum certification from the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . In New Zealand , it debuted at number two on the RIANZ Albums Chart and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) . By December 2001 , Beautiful Garbage had sold nearly 1 @.@ 2 million copies worldwide .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Garbage , except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Beautiful Garbage .
Garbage – production , art direction
Billy Bush – engineering
Matt Chamberlain – drums ( on " Can 't Cry These Tears " and " Cup of Coffee " )
Scott Hull – mastering
Me Company – design
Warwick Saint – photography
Daniel Shulman – bass
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications and sales = =
= = Release history = =
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= Southgate , West Sussex =
Southgate is one of the 13 residential neighbourhoods in Crawley , a town and borough in West Sussex , England . Crawley was planned and laid out as a New Town after the Second World War , based on the principle of self @-@ contained neighbourhoods surrounding a town centre of civic and commercial buildings . Southgate was one of the four in the " inner ring " closest to the town centre , and was intended to be the largest of the nine designed in the original master plan . It was built in two stages between the 1950s and the 1970s , but retains some older buildings from before the New Town era and has " significant areas of pre @-@ New Town character " .
The area was settled by pre @-@ Roman people , and industrial and other artefacts from that era were found during construction of the neighbourhood . In the 19th century , after Crawley was connected to the national railway network , housing developed south of the line around the Brighton Road , which divides the modern neighbourhood in two . New Town @-@ era expansion produced a large residential area with a high proportion of terraced houses and a range of schools , places of worship and community facilities ; but some historic buildings and areas of open space remain , including an award @-@ winning park . The population at the time of the United Kingdom Census 2001 was 8 @,@ 016 .
= = History = =
In the century before the Romans arrived in Britain , the area now covered by West Sussex was ruled by the Atrebates , a Belgic tribe led by Commius . They were found to have been present in the area now covered by Southgate when building work took place in 1969 . The Southgate West development was underway on land covered by Hogs Hill Farm , which occupied a ridge of land between the Horsham and Brighton Roads . Land clearance revealed two ditches filled with debris such as bones and pieces of pottery . The next year , a large house on Horsham Road was demolished to make way for a new road of houses ; the builders discovered similar pits , and the remains were identified as pre @-@ Roman using carbon dating techniques . The remains of crucibles , slag and other ironworking materials were also discovered ; these were confirmed as being from the same era , the 2nd and 1st centuries BC . It was later confirmed that the Hogs Hill Farm remains dated from the Roman era , meaning that the ironmaking and pottery @-@ producing activities of the Atrebates were continued by their conquerors . By the time the excavations and investigation finished , evidence of three iron bloomeries , a small flint mine , roof tiles ( possibly from a building on the site ) and many pieces of pottery had been found and catalogued .
These discoveries confirmed for the first time the existence of Iron Age , pre @-@ Roman ironmaking and industrial development in the area of northern Sussex now occupied by Crawley . Despite this , investigation and analysis were initially discouraged . The Commission for the New Towns , responsible for the town 's development at that stage , did not want building work to be delayed , and tried to prevent archaeologists , other professionals , enthusiasts and the general public alike visiting the Hogs Hill Farm site and searching for remains . Workers on the site were expressly forbidden from doing so , although the first discovery had in fact been made by one . By the time the second site was developed in 1970 , attitudes had changed , and professional groups were involved from the beginning .
Crawley began to develop slowly from the 13th century , when it was granted a royal charter for a market . Its ecclesiastical parish , centred on St John the Baptist 's Church , was tiny in comparison to neighbouring Worth and Ifield . The parish had an unusual shape : very narrow , long from north to south , and gradually widening to the north until it met the county boundary with Surrey . This directed development northwards along the High Street , part of the ancient London to Brighton road which had provided the impetus for development to begin . The road was partly turnpiked after an Act of Parliament in 1696 , and became fully turnpiked in 1770 . By this time the distinction between the name " London Road " ( the section north of the church ) and " Brighton Road " ( southwards ) had been made ; and tollgates were built north and south of the town : these became known as the North Gate and South Gate .
Crawley was connected to the railway network in 1848 when a line was built from Three Bridges to Horsham . It crossed the High Street at a level crossing at the south end of the built @-@ up area . The provision of fast , regular trains to London and other destinations stimulated residential and commercial development , especially around the station . South of the line , around the Brighton Road , there was plenty of land for building ; in the second half of the 19th century , two building firms — the most important in Crawley 's pre @-@ New Town history — exploited it by building two areas of housing which still exist today , forming the northernmost part of the Southgate neighbourhood . Richard Cook set up a building firm next to the railway line soon after its completion ; in the early 1870s he built some streets of mainly terraced houses west of Brighton Road . Confusingly in the context of Crawley 's later history , this area was called " New Town " , a name which persisted for many years ; it had no connection with the later establishment of the New Town of Crawley under the New Towns Act 1946 , the name being merely a coincidence . Based around Springfield Road and West Street , at the junction of which was Cook 's yard , the " New Town " area had 43 houses in 1875 . In the early 1880s , James Longley established his building company nearby , which by 1909 had built an estate of houses east of the Brighton Road . The roads East Park and Malthouse Road had a mixture of terraced cottages , semi @-@ detached houses , detached houses and large villas , all built from red brick . Large houses were also built down both sides of the Brighton Road . Goffs Park Road , between the Brighton and Horsham Roads , began to be built up in 1895 , and saw more residential development in the interwar period .
Apart from these residential buildings , farms and their associated land , there was little else in the area now known as Southgate until Crawley Development Corporation started building the neighbourhood in the 1950s . Some shops , a corn merchant 's premises and a brewery were built near the level crossing in the late 19th century . Crawley 's first permanent cinema , the Imperial , was established nearby in 1911 , replacing a temporary structure ; it burnt down in 1928 but was rebuilt , only to be superseded by a larger building in the town centre in the 1930s . It has been a car dealership since the 1940s . Further down the Brighton Road , near the Hogs Hill Farm where Iron Age remains were later found , the Half Moon Inn and Hotel was built in the late 19th century , and rebuilt in 1890 . To the west , Goffs Park was established as a parkland and recreational area by the early 20th century . It covers more than 50 acres ( 20 ha ) , and its recreational features now include play areas for children , playing fields , sports pitches , lakes , a golf course and a miniature railway .
During World War II , the Crawley area was hit by about 50 high explosive bombs and 2 @,@ 000 incendiary bombs . The attack which caused the greatest loss of life happened on 10 July 1944 , when Southgate 's Victorian streets were hit by two V @-@ 1 flying bombs . One landed in Malthouse Road and did not detonate , but another destroyed 15 houses , killed seven people and injured 44 more when it exploded at the junction of Oak Road and West Street .
= = = New Town era = = =
Crawley was designated as a New Town in January 1947 after the New Towns Act 1946 identified it as a suitable site for one . A Development Corporation was formed , led by the architect Thomas Bennett , and planner Anthony Minoprio provided a master plan for the town 's development . He proposed a double ring of nine neighbourhoods surrounding an extended town centre . Southgate was to form the southern part of the inner ring , between the town centre and the southern section of the planned Crawley ring road ( which already existed , formed by Crawley and Southgate Avenues ) . Its built @-@ up area , excluding Goffs Park — which would lie within the neighbourhood 's northwest corner — was to be 138 hectares ( 340 acres ) .
The development was intended to take place in two stages : Southgate East , east of the Brighton Road , was to have been built in the early 1950s , and land west of Brighton Road ( Southgate West ) was to be reserved for expansion of the neighbourhood in the early 1960s . Both stages were delayed : the Development Corporation did not finalise their plan for Southgate East until 1954 , several years after building should have started . Work was eventually carried out between 1955 and 1957 , making Southgate the seventh neighbourhood to be started .
Southgate West suffered even longer delays , partly because of problems with the planned construction processes . Work should have started in 1961 but had to wait until 1968 ; plans were not submitted until 1966 . The archaeological discoveries in 1969 and 1970 caused further delays , and Southgate West was not complete until 1972 .
The master plan proposed that a neighbourhood centre , consisting of community centre , public house , school , church and shopping parade , should be an integral part of each neighbourhood . Initially the Development Corporation provided temporary community centre buildings ; West Sussex County Council provided a permanent facility in 1974 . A shopping parade was built on Wakehurst Drive in Southgate East in the mid @-@ 1950s ; the Development Corporation tried to provide some architectural diversity between the neighbourhoods , and as such it was designed as an arcade . St Mary 's Church was built opposite the parade in 1958 ; and infant and junior schools were provided in both halves of the neighbourhood .
In the early 21st century , commercial development spread along Southgate Avenue south of the railway line : a series of seven @-@ storey office blocks were built . The Arora International Hotel Gatwick / Crawley also stands nearby .
= = Location within Crawley = =
Southgate is south of the Northgate neighbourhood ( which includes Crawley town centre ) and West Green ; the Arun Valley railway line forms the boundary . Gossops Green lies to the west , Broadfield is to the southwest , Tilgate is to the south and Furnace Green shares a small border to the east . These are separated from Southgate by the A23 ( Crawley Avenue ) — part of the Crawley bypass built in the 1930s — and the A2004 Southgate Avenue . The A2219 Brighton Road , part of the original turnpike , coaching route and later main road from London to Brighton , runs through the heart of Southgate from north to south . The neighbourhood is roughly pentagonal and covers 181 hectares ( 450 acres ) .
When the New Town was planned , each neighbourhood was allocated a colour , which appears on street name signs together with the neighbourhood 's name . Southgate 's colour is dark brown .
= = Governance = =
When Crawley Urban District was formed in May 1956 , it was divided into eight wards whose boundaries were identical with those of eight of the extant and planned neighbourhoods . By 1983 , nine years after the district became a borough , the town had thirteen wards . This position remained the same until an electoral review in 2002 , which created two new wards . Throughout these changes , Southgate 's ward boundaries remained the same , and they are still coterminous with those of the neighbourhood . The ward elects three councillors .
= = Demography = =
The neighbourhood is coterminous with the administrative ward of the same name , which is one of the fifteen wards in Crawley . These divisions are used for collecting census and other statistical and demographic data . Southgate 's population of 8 @,@ 106 at the time of the 2001 United Kingdom Census made it Crawley 's fifth most populous neighbourhood . Based on its 181 @-@ hectare ( 450 @-@ acre ) area , its population density was 44 @.@ 75 inhabitants per hectare ( 18 @.@ 11 / acre ) — more than twice as high as the 22 @.@ 18 inhabitants per hectare ( 8 @.@ 98 / acre ) density for Crawley overall .
At the census date there were 3 @,@ 421 households , of which 2 @,@ 317 ( 68 % ) were owned by the occupier , 756 ( 22 % ) were rented from Crawley Borough Council or another public @-@ sector landlord , 274 ( 8 % ) were rented privately and 74 ( 2 % ) were occupied rent @-@ free . These proportions are almost identical to the housing tenure mix of Crawley as a whole . The relatively high population density is partly explained by the relatively high proportion of residents who live in purpose @-@ built flats or maisonettes of various types : 16 % compared to the Crawley figure of 11 % . Many low @-@ rise blocks of flats were built in Southgate West in the 1970s — in particular the extensive Caburn Heights development of three @-@ storey blocks . The most prevalent housing type in Southgate , in which 52 % of residents live , is the terraced house . The proportion is about ⅔ in Southgate West .
According to the census , 90 @.@ 6 % of Southgate residents were White , 6 @.@ 3 % were Asian or Asian @-@ British , 0 @.@ 8 % were Black or Black @-@ British , 1 @.@ 5 % were mixed @-@ race and 0 @.@ 7 % were from another ethnic background . The proportion of white people was slightly higher , and that of Asian people slightly lower , than in Crawley overall ; other proportions were comparable to Crawley as a whole . Southgate 's age profile at the census date was older than that of Crawley as a whole , in common with the other inner neighbourhoods : 1 @,@ 609 residents ( 19 @.@ 8 % ) were under 18 years old , 4 @,@ 853 ( 59 @.@ 9 % ) were between 18 and 64 years old , and 1 @,@ 644 ( 20 @.@ 3 % ) were 65 years old or older . The corresponding figures for Crawley were 23 @,@ 748 ( 23 @.@ 8 % ) , 61 @,@ 338 ( 61 @.@ 5 % ) and 14 @,@ 658 ( 14 @.@ 7 % ) .
= = Economy = =
Modern Southgate is primarily residential , and the area was mostly undeveloped before the New Town was created . Nevertheless , some commercial and industrial development existed around the Brighton Road and railway line , and farming provided employment . Two sets of local shops serve the modern neighbourhood , but its proximity to Crawley town centre and main transport routes mean that , as intended in Anthony Minoprio 's masterplan , residents travel outside Southgate for most of their employment and shopping requirements .
In common with other areas around Crawley , the land to the south was held by several large farms . Malthouse Farm had its own small @-@ scale brickworks as well ; Hilltop Farm was at the highest point in the area , 315 feet ( 96 m ) above sea level ; and Hogs Hill Farm , named after the herds of pigs farmed there , stood on a ridge east of the Brighton Road .
Crawley 's two main building firms had their yards and works in the Victorian streets near the railway line . Richard Cook 's firm , which built the houses and streets of the 19th @-@ century " New Town " development , was founded in 1861 and was based at the corner of two of the new streets . The works included a brickyard ; poor drainage led to soil and dirty water from it polluting the surrounding area . The Crawley and Ifield Vigilance Committee , an amateur pressure group , demanded improvements for several years , and proper drains were eventually laid . Cook and Sons ' advertisements revealed the range of products manufactured : the works made bricks , tiles , pipes and pottery , and his team of labourers carried out all types of building and contracting work . James Longley and Sons became the most famous business in Crawley and one of its largest : in 1898 more than 700 people worked for it . Longley moved his small firm from Turners Hill in 1881 when he bought Malthouse Farm and its brickworks . Expansion was rapid , and they received commissions for Christ 's Hospital school near Horsham , the King Edward VII sanatorium in Midhurst , Graylingwell Hospital in Chichester , the choir stalls in Westminster Abbey and almost every railway station owned by the London , Brighton and South Coast Railway . Longley and Sons , which soon became Longley and Company , quickly became one of southeast England 's main building firms ; but it was nearly ruined on 20 March 1924 when the joinery and timber works , all stock inside it and sixty machines were destroyed by fire . The firm recovered , though , and was able to tender for a wide range of contracts in the New Town era , including Hazelwick School , much of the Manor Royal industrial estate , Crawley fire station , the Queen 's Square shopping area and Crawley College 's tower block extension .
Neither building firm survives . Cook 's lasted into the New Town era but wound down after that ; their work survives in the streets of Southgate and at St Peter 's Church in West Green , a school in Handcross , the churchyard of St Margaret 's Church , Ifield and elsewhere . Longley and Company ceased trading in 2000 , and the works and associated buildings were demolished soon afterwards to make way for housing and a hotel . The Arora International Hotel Gatwick / Crawley , which has conference facilities , a large health and fitness suite and restaurant , was built on the site at the end of East Park in 2001 . The 4 @-@ star hotel has 432 bedrooms .
= = Public buildings and facilities = =
St Mary 's Church is the Anglican parish church of Southgate . The churches in the Broadfield , Furnace Green and Tilgate neighbourhoods are linked to it as daughter churches . Architects Henry Braddock and D.F. Martin @-@ Smith designed it in 1958 . The concrete and glass structure has a small flèche on top of a bell tower , and has an adjoining hall which can be opened out to increase the capacity of the church . It is on Wakehurst Drive opposite the main shopping parade . The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints has a meetinghouse on Horsham Road ; it was designed by the chief architect of the town , Sir Thomas Bennett , and built in 1964 on land provided by Crawley Development Corporation . ChristChurch ( formerly Gateway Church International ) on Brewer Road is a non @-@ denominational church associated with the New Covenant Ministries International movement ; its barnlike building has a semicircular roof .
St Wilfrid 's Catholic School is a 900 @-@ pupil voluntary aided secondary school , which opened in 1952 in the former Oakwood House next to Goffs Park . It was extended several times and became a comprehensive in 1967 . Former pupils include Robert Smith of rock band The Cure . A Roman Catholic primary school , St Francis of Assisi School , is located on Southgate Drive . Southgate Primary School was formed in 2004 from a merger between a first school and a middle school on the same site . The school is now a 400 pupil fast @-@ growing school . These had in turn been formed from the original Southgate County Infant and Junior School , opened in 1956 . Residential development in Southgate West resulted in the opening of first and middle schools there , in 1969 and 1970 respectively ; these closed in 2004 and were replaced by Hilltop Primary School .
The Development Corporation set up a sub @-@ committee in 1953 to decide how public houses should be provided in the New Town neighbourhoods . The Downsman pub was built shortly afterwards next to the shopping parade . Elsewhere , Goffs Manor pub and restaurant is near Goffs Park , and the Half Moon remains on the Brighton Road . As at July 2014 , The Half Moon is closed for refurbishment and is due to reopen in August 2014 as the New Moon .
St. Catherine 's Hospice , a charity which provides hospice care to patients throughout West Sussex and Surrey , is based on Malthouse Road in the 19th @-@ century part of Southgate . Crawley 's new skatepark was built on playing fields at Southgate Avenue in 2007 .
= = Heritage = =
Two of the 100 listed buildings and structures in the Borough of Crawley are in Southgate . Goffs Manor , in Goffs Park , is a Grade II @-@ listed 16th @-@ century farmhouse which is now a restaurant and pub . Before its conversion , actor Peter Vaughan owned and lived in it . The building is timber @-@ framed , as many Crawley houses of the time were , although little of this is now visible . The upper floor is hung with red tiles . The roof is made of slabs of Horsham Stone . An original open fireplace remains inside . The signal box next to the level crossing on Crawley High Street , another Grade II @-@ listed building , is just on the Southgate side of the railway line . It was built in about 1860 and has a hipped roof .
Crawley Borough Council has designated a conservation area around the level crossing on Brighton Road . Part of this falls within Southgate 's boundaries . Elsewhere , Goffs Park Road has been given the status of an Area of Special Environmental Quality . Goffs Park itself was given a Green Flag Award in July 2008 in recognition of its high standards .
There were 59 locally listed buildings in Crawley as of 2010 ; seven are in Southgate . Crawley Museum is based in Goffs Park House in Goffs Park , although in March 2010 plans were announced to move it elsewhere in the town — possibly to Tree House , a vacant council @-@ owned listed building in the town centre . Goffs Park House was designed in 1882 by architect William Buck and built by a Horsham @-@ based firm on behalf of banker Edwin Henty . The red @-@ brick , Bath stone and sandstone building combines the Queen Anne Revival and Vernacular styles . Its large grounds have become Goffs Park . Nightingale House on the Brighton Road dates from 1901 and was originally a bank branch . Its " striking corner turret " , oriel windows and detailed treatment of the ground @-@ floor elevation make it a local landmark . The four villas at 108 – 122 Malthouse Road , forming eight semi @-@ detached houses , are of a similar date and retain most of their original features such as carved timber porches and stained glass panelling . The local building firm James Longley & Company built them . Goffs Park Road was developed with large houses in the early 20th century , and Park Lodge and Masons Hall ( now offices ) are two examples . Park Lodge has been considerably altered but retains the character of a " late Victorian red @-@ brick villa " ; Masons Hall is later ( 1905 ) and " rather eccentric " , resembling a Tuscan villa and featuring a campanile @-@ style projection at one corner . Nearby , 49 Brighton Road , a large detached villa , is an example of Richard Cook 's late @-@ 19th @-@ century housing in the " New Town " area of Southgate . It has red @-@ brick walls with ornate mouldings , timber @-@ framed gables and original sash windows . St Mary 's Church is also on the local list .
= = Transport = =
Metrobus , which operates most local bus services in Crawley , serves several stops in Southgate on route 1 . Longer @-@ distance route 23 runs via the Horsham Road to Worthing and Horsham . The nearest railway station is Crawley , which has a rear entrance on East Park Road in the north of the neighbourhood .
Levels of vehicle ownership , as measured by the 2001 census , are lower than in Crawley as a whole . At the census date , the mean number of vehicles per household was 1 @.@ 09 ( the overall Crawley figure was 1 @.@ 21 ) , and 25 @.@ 4 % of households had no transport of their own , compared to 20 @.@ 4 % in Crawley overall .
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= Maryland Route 313 =
Maryland Route 313 ( MD 313 ) is a state highway located on the Eastern Shore of Maryland in the United States . The 75 @.@ 72 @-@ mile ( 121 @.@ 86 km ) route runs from U.S. Route 50 ( US 50 ) in Mardela Springs , Wicomico County north to MD 213 and MD 290 in Galena , Kent County . It is predominantly a rural two @-@ lane road that runs through agricultural areas a short distance west of the Delaware border , with the exception of a four @-@ lane divided bypass of Denton shared with MD 404 . MD 313 serves many communities , including Sharptown , Eldorado , Federalsburg , Denton , Greensboro , Goldsboro , Barclay , Sudlersville , Millington , and Massey . The route intersects many major roads , including MD 54 in Mardela Springs , MD 404 in the Denton area , MD 302 in Barclay , MD 300 in Sudlersville , and US 301 near Massey .
The designation MD 313 was first used in 1927 for the road running from Eldorado to Galena , while the portion south to Mardela Springs was designated a part of US 213 . By 1933 , the route was extended to Mardela Springs following a realignment of US 213 . MD 313 was rerouted to bypass Ingleside in 1949 and Greensboro in 1950 . The route was moved to its current alignment between Federalsburg and Denton in 1954 , replacing what had been briefly designated MD 322 between Federalsburg and Andersontown . The former alignment is now Auction Road and American Corner Road ( formerly designated MD 630 ) and MD 16 . The route bypassed Federalsburg in 1964 . MD 313 was moved to a one @-@ way pair in Denton along with MD 404 in 1972 . In 1987 , MD 313 and MD 404 were moved onto the four @-@ lane divided bypass of the town . The original routing of MD 313 in Denton is designated MD 619 . The divided highway in the Denton area was extended further south in the early 2000s . The remaining two @-@ lane portions of MD 313 that are concurrent with MD 404 are slated to be upgraded to a four @-@ lane divided highway to provide relief to beach traffic along MD 404 , a part of the main route between the Chesapeake Bay Bridge and the Delaware Beaches .
= = Route description = =
MD 313 runs through rural areas of woods and farms on the Eastern Shore of Maryland , generally a short distance west of the Delaware border . The route heads through five counties in Maryland from south to north : Wicomico , Dorchester , Caroline , Queen Anne 's , and Kent . It connects several towns including Mardela Springs and Sharptown in Wicomico County , Eldorado in Dorchester County , Federalsburg , Denton , Greensboro and Goldsboro in Caroline County , Barclay and Sudlersville in Queen Anne 's County , and Millington and Galena in Kent County . MD 313 is a part of the National Highway System along its concurrency with MD 404 from Andersontown to Denton .
= = = Wicomico County = = =
MD 313 begins at an intersection with US 50 in Mardela Springs , Wicomico County , where the route heads east past residences along Delmar Road , a two @-@ lane undivided road . A short distance past US 50 , the route turns north onto Sharptown Road , with MD 54 continuing east on Delmar Road toward the Delaware @-@ Maryland state border town of Delmar . The route continues north past more residences before it leaves Mardela Springs and heads into farmland a short distance west of the Delaware border . It continues through a mix of woods and farms with some residences before reaching Sharptown . Here , the road intersects unsigned MD 813F ( Twiford Road ) . MD 313 bypasses Sharptown to the south and intersects MD 348 ( Laurel Road ) . Past this intersection , the route turns north and runs along the eastern edge of the town before crossing over the Nanticoke River .
= = = Dorchester County = = =
Upon crossing the Nanticoke River , MD 313 enters Dorchester County and heads northwest through wooded areas before continuing into a mix of woodland and farmland . It turns west before heading northwest again and reaching the town of Eldorado . Here , the route intersects the eastern terminus of MD 14 ( Rhodesdale Eldorado Road ) . At this intersection , MD 313 makes a right turn to head north on Eldorado Road . The route leaves Eldorado and it continues through farmland with some patches of woods . It intersects MD 392 ( Finchville Reliance Road ) in Finchville and passes more farming areas with intermittent residences before coming to an intersection with MD 577 ( Reliance Road ) on the Caroline County border in Allens Corner .
= = = Caroline County = = =
At the MD 577 intersection , MD 313 runs northwest along the border of Caroline and Dorchester counties as Reliance Road . The route heads toward the town of Federalsburg , passing through a mix of agricultural and residential areas . The route then leaves the border line and enters Caroline County , intersecting MD 318 ( Federalsburg Highway ) and making a left turn to form a concurrency with that route . The two routes bypass Federalsburg to the south , crossing over Marshyhope Creek . After crossing the creek , the road intersects MD 308 ( South Main Street ) . The road passes an industrial park before turning north into wooded areas and crossing the Maryland & Delaware Railroad 's Seaford Line . After the railroad crossing , MD 313 and MD 318 intersect MD 307 ( Williamsburg Road ) at a roundabout located in the southwestern corner of Federalsburg . A short distance later , MD 318 splits from MD 313 by heading west on Preston Road while MD 315 continues east into Federalsburg on Bloomingdale Avenue . Past this intersection , MD 313 continues north on the Federalsburg Highway , leaving the Federalsburg area and heading into a mix of woodland and farmland .
In Andersontown , MD 313 intersects MD 16 and MD 404 ( Shore Highway ) , which constitutes a part of the main route between the Chesapeake Bay Bridge and the Delaware beaches . Here , the route makes a left turn onto that road , forming a three @-@ route concurrency . At this point , the Shore Highway heads northwest through a mix of woods and farms with some homes before widening to a four @-@ lane divided highway . Upon widening into a divided highway , MD 16 splits from MD 313 and MD 404 at an intersection and heads west on Harmony Road . Past this intersection , MD 313 crosses over Watts Creek and heads north through farmland , passing Martinak State Park .
The road heads into commercial areas in the southern part of Denton . The road turns northeast into woods and intersects the eastern terminus of MD 404 Bus . ( Franklin Street / Gay Street ) at an at @-@ grade intersection . Past this intersection , MD 313 and MD 404 become a limited @-@ access road and head north , passing residential neighborhoods and woodland along the eastern side of Denton . The road turns to the west and comes to a diamond interchange . Here MD 313 splits from MD 404 by heading north on two @-@ lane undivided Greensboro Road and MD 619 , while the former routing of MD 313 in Denton heads south into Denton on Sixth Street .
The route heads through farmland before passing residences and intersecting the western terminus of MD 317 ( Burrsville Road ) in Oil City . Past MD 317 , the road continues through mostly wooded areas with some residences and farmland . It reaches the town of Greensboro , where MD 313 intersects MD 314 ( Whiteleysburg Road ) . The route crosses the Choptank River past MD 314 , and continues to the intersection with the eastern terminus of MD 480 ( Ridgely Road ) just north of Greensboro . The road continues north through agricultural areas before entering Goldsboro , where the route becomes Old Town Road . In Goldsboro , MD 313 intersects MD 311 ( Main Street ) and continues through residential areas before coming to an intersection with MD 287 ( Old Line Road ) . Here , the route makes a left turn to head west on Goldsboro Road . MD 313 leaves Goldsboro and heads into a mix of farmland and woodland . The road intersects unsigned MD 820 ( Castle Hall Road ) . Past this intersection , MD 313 turns to the northwest and intersects the northern terminus of MD 312 ( Oakland Road ) in Baltimore Corner , where it heads north through farm fields past that intersection .
= = = Queen Anne 's County = = =
MD 313 crosses Long Marsh Ditch into Queen Anne 's County and continues north through more farmland , before intersecting the eastern terminus of MD 19 ( Roberts Station Road ) in Ingleside . The route proceeds north , with a traffic count of 2 @,@ 270 vehicles at the Merrick Corner Road intersection , before reaching the town of Barclay . Here , the road passes residences and intersects MD 302 ( Church Street ) . Past this intersection , the road crosses the Centreville Branch of the Northern Line of the Maryland & Delaware Railroad before leaving Barclay and heading back into agricultural areas . The Maryland & Delaware Railroad line runs a short distance to the east of MD 313 before eventually running next to the road as it passes through a mix of farms , woods , and residences . The route enters Sudlersville , where it passes through residential areas in the town on Church Street , with the railroad line drawing farther to the east . In the center of town , the road intersects MD 300 ( Main Street ) . Past the MD 300 intersection , MD 313 intersects MD 837 ( Church Circle ) , an unsigned loop to westbound MD 300 .
Upon leaving Sudlersville , the route becomes Millington Road and heads north through farm fields with intermittent residences . MD 313 heads into forested areas as it runs a short distance to the east of US 301 . It leaves the woodland as it intersects the eastern terminus of MD 544 ( Mcginnis Road ) . The route heads northeast through a mix of agricultural and residential areas before turning east in a patch of woodland and passing more farm fields and residences . MD 313 turns northeast into wooded residential areas and enters Millington , where it becomes Sassafras Street .
= = = Kent County = = =
MD 313 crosses the Chester River into Kent County , where it continues north through Millington and crosses MD 291 ( Cypress Street ) . The road passes more residences before leaving Millington and becoming Millington Massey Road , which passes by farmland and some residences . MD 313 reaches Massey , where it passes by residences before coming to an intersection at the center of town where it makes a left turn onto Massey Galena Road . It is here that MD 299 heads north on Massey Road and MD 330 heads east on Massey Delaware Line Road . The route leaves Massey and heads west through farm fields , crossing the Chestertown Branch of the Northern Line of the Maryland & Delaware Railroad before heading northwest into forested areas . The route intersects the multi @-@ lane , divided US 301 ( Blue Star Memorial Highway ) at a superstreet intersection in which traffic on MD 313 cannot continue directly across US 301 and must use a U @-@ turn ramp in the median of that route .
Past the US 301 intersection , the route officially becomes MD 313A , but is still signed as MD 313 . It heads west through farmland before turning north and intersecting MD 290 ( Chesterville Road ) . The two routes continue north together into Galena , where the road becomes Main Street . It passes residences before intersecting MD 213 ( Main Street ) in the center of town where MD 313 ends , MD 290 turns east on Cross Street , and MD 213 goes northbound on Main Street and southbound by going west on Cross Street .
= = History = =
In 1911 , what is now MD 313 was built as a state highway between Mardela Springs and Riverton , to the north of Federalsburg , and between south of Denton and Greensboro , with the portions between Riverton and Sharptown and Williston and Denton under contract . At this time , the state highway was under proposal between Sharptown and Eldorado , north of Federalsburg and Williston , and Greensboro and Ingleside . By 1915 , the state highway was completed between Riverton and Eldorado and south of Denton and Ingleside . The state road was finished to the north of Eldorado , between Federalsburg and Williston , to the north of Ingleside , to the south of Sudlersville , and from west of Massey to Galena by 1921 . At this time , the remainder of the state highway was under proposal between Eldorado and Galena . By 1923 , portions of the state highway were completed to the south of Federalsburg , between north of Ingleside and south of Sudlersville , and from north of Sudlersville to west of Massey .
MD 313 was designated in 1927 to run from US 213 in Eldorado north to US 213 in Galena . The route headed north from Eldorado to Federalsburg , where it continued northwest to Williston , northeast to Denton , north to Goldsboro , northwest to Ingleside , north to Massey , and northwest to Galena . All of MD 313 was state @-@ maintained except for two portions to the south of Federalsburg . At this time , the road between Mardela Springs and Eldorado was designated as part of US 213 , which ran from Ocean City to Elkton . By 1933 , the southern terminus of MD 313 was extended to US 213 in Mardela Springs when US 213 was rerouted to cross the Nanticoke River in Vienna . At this time , the missing state @-@ maintained segments south of Federalsburg were completed . By 1949 , the route was moved to a straight alignment bypassing Ingleside to the east , with the former routing becoming an extended MD 19 and St. Paul Road . In 1950 , MD 313 was rerouted to bypass Greensboro to the east . The former alignment through Greensboro became an extended MD 314 along Sunset Avenue and an extended MD 480 along Main Street . Construction on the modern alignment of MD 313 between Federalsburg and Andersontown began by 1950 ; MD 322 was assigned to the new highway by 1952 . In 1954 , MD 313 replaced MD 322 on the new highway from Federalsburg to Andersontown and continued concurrent with MD 404 between Andersontown and Denton . The former alignment became MD 630 along Auction Road and American Corner Road between Federalsburg and Bureau and was removed from a concurrency with MD 16 between Bureau and Denton . In 1964 , MD 313 was moved to a bypass to the south and west of Federalsburg along with MD 318 , with the former alignment through the town becoming Reliance Avenue and MD 315 .
In 1972 , MD 404 and MD 313 were relocated to a one @-@ way pair , eastbound Franklin Street and westbound Gay Street , through Denton . The routes previously headed south out of Denton on Sixth Street and Fifth Avenue . The former alignment along Sixth Street became MD 619 by 1978 . In the early 1980s , construction began to widen MD 313 / MD 404 to a divided highway around Denton . By 1985 , construction was underway for the four @-@ lane divided bypass of Denton between MD 404 west of Denton and MD 313 north of Denton . In 1987 , MD 313 and MD 404 were rerouted to bypass Denton along the newly completed four @-@ lane divided bypass . The former alignment of MD 313 through Denton became MD 404 Bus. along Franklin and Gay streets and MD 619 along Sixth Street . In 1987 , MD 313 was moved to a bypass to the north and east of Sharptown , having previously followed State Street through the town . A superstreet intersection was built at US 301 in 2000 , resulting in the northern terminus of MD 313 being officially moved to US 301 and the portion of the route between US 301 and MD 213 being designated MD 313A . The divided highway portion of MD 313 / MD 404 in the Denton area was extended further in the 2000s from the south end of Denton to the Sennett Road intersection east of where MD 16 joins the route . This project received $ 3 million from the federal government in 2001 . The remaining two @-@ lane portions of MD 313 that are concurrent with MD 404 are slated to be widened into a four @-@ lane divided highway in order to provide relief to travelers driving to the ocean resorts along MD 404 .
= = Junction list = =
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= Pennsylvania Route 463 =
Pennsylvania Route 463 ( PA 463 ) is a 12 @.@ 9 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 20 @.@ 8 km ) route completely in Montgomery County , Pennsylvania . Its western terminus is at PA 63 ( Welsh Road ) in Hatfield Township and its eastern terminus is at PA 611 in Horsham . It runs through the northern suburban areas of Philadelphia and passes through the towns of Hatfield , Montgomeryville , and Horsham . The route intersects PA 309 , U.S. Route 202 Business ( US 202 Bus . ) , and US 202 in Montgomeryville and PA 152 in Prospectville . Through its length , the route carries the names Forty Foot Road , Cowpath Road , and Horsham Road . PA 463 was designated in 1928 and fully paved by 1940 . In 2010 , a portion of the route in Montgomery Township was widened .
= = Route description = =
PA 463 begins an intersection with PA 63 on the border of Hatfield Township and Towamencin Township , heading northeast on four @-@ lane undivided Forty Foot Road into Hatfield Township . The road passes through commercial areas and farmland and narrows to two lanes . The route continues into residential areas with a few businesses and enters the borough of Hatfield , where it becomes West Broad Street . In Hatfield , the road continues northeast to the center of town . Here , PA 463 turns to the southeast on South Main Street and passes more residential and commercial development , crossing the Bethlehem Branch railroad line that is owned by SEPTA and operated by the Pennsylvania Northeastern Railroad . The road continues back into Hatfield Township and becomes Cowpath Road . The route crosses SEPTA 's Lansdale / Doylestown Line near the Fortuna station and intersecting Broad Street in a commercial area .
Heading past more homes , PA 463 enters Montgomery Township at the Line Street intersection . It reaches the community of Montgomeryville , where PA 463 widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway and intersects PA 309 ( Bethlehem Pike ) and US 202 Bus . ( Doylestown Road ) at the Five Points intersection .
Past this intersection , the route takes on the name Horsham Road and passes near more businesses as it narrows into a three @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane and one travel lane in each direction . After crossing North Wales Road , the route carries five lanes total , with two travel lanes in each direction and a center left @-@ turn lane , as it heads into residential areas . The road passes through commercial areas past the Upper State Road intersection and crosses US 202 . Past Stump Road , PA 463 narrows to two lanes total and runs past residential areas and business parks . Farther southeast , the route becomes the border between Horsham Township to the southwest and Montgomery Township to the northeast .
Upon crossing Lower State Road , PA 463 fully enters Horsham Township and becomes a three @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane as it heads past housing subdivisions . The route loses the turning lane and continues southeast to PA 152 in the village of Prospectville . At this intersection , PA 463 gains a center left @-@ turn lane again and passes a few businesses before continuing past Deep Meadow Park and Kohler Park . The road intersects Keith Valley Road and passes near Samuel Carpenter Park . At the Babylon Road junction , the route becomes a five @-@ lane road and runs to the northeast of Hatboro @-@ Horsham Senior High School and past business parks before coming to Privet Road . At this point , PA 463 runs past the Horsham Air Guard Station to the northeast and homes and businesses to the southwest . The route reaches the edge of the air station property at the Maple Avenue intersection . PA 463 intersects Dresher Road , where the center left @-@ turn lane ends and the road becomes four lanes , reaching its eastern terminus at PA 611 in the community of Horsham .
= = History = =
When Pennsylvania first legislated routes in 1911 , present @-@ day PA 463 was not given a number . In 1928 , PA 463 was designated onto its current alignment from PA 63 in Hatfield Township to US 611 / PA 2 in Horsham . At this time , the route was paved between PA 63 and Hatfield . When first created , PA 463 intersected US 122 / US 309 / PA 12 / PA 52 in Montgomery Township and PA 152 in Horsham Township . By 1930 , PA 463 was paved in Horsham Township . At this time , it no longer intersected PA 12 and PA 52 and it now intersected PA 752 in Horsham Township . The remainder of PA 463 was paved by 1940 . Also by this time , US 122 became US 202 and PA 463 no longer intersected PA 752 , the first of several changes to the routes that intersected PA 463 .
In 1968 , the US 309 designation that the route intersected in Montgomeryville became PA 309 . The route at the eastern terminus of PA 463 changed from US 611 to PA 611 in 1972 . Construction began to widen the section of PA 463 between North Wales Road and General Hancock Boulevard into a five @-@ lane road as part of the 202 Parkway project in 2009 . The widening project was completed a year later .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Montgomery County .
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= Dirk Nowitzki =
Dirk Werner Nowitzki ( German pronunciation : [ ˈdɪʁk ˈvɛʁnɐ noˈvɪtski ] ) ( born June 19 , 1978 ) is a German professional basketball player for the Dallas Mavericks of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . An alumnus of Röntgen Gymnasium and the DJK Würzburg basketball club , Nowitzki was chosen as the ninth pick in the 1998 NBA draft by the Milwaukee Bucks and immediately traded to the Mavericks , where he has played since . Listed at 7 ft 0 in ( 2 @.@ 13 m ) , Nowitzki is considered one of the greatest power forwards in basketball history .
Nowitzki led the Mavericks to 15 NBA Playoffs ( 2001 – 2012 ; 2014 – 2016 ) , including the franchise 's first Finals appearance in 2006 and only championship in 2011 . He is a 13 @-@ time All @-@ Star , a 12 @-@ time All @-@ NBA Team member , and the first European player to start in an All @-@ Star Game as well as the first to receive the NBA Most Valuable Player Award ( 2007 ) . Nowitzki is the highest @-@ scoring foreign @-@ born player in NBA @-@ history , currently being ranked 6th in all @-@ time scoring with over 29 @,@ 000 regular @-@ season points . He is also one of seven players who achieved a 50 – 40 – 90 season ( 2007 ) . He is the first Maverick voted onto an All @-@ NBA Team and holds several all @-@ time Mavericks franchise records . Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar and Nowitzki are the only players to achieve four consecutive 30 @-@ point , 15 @-@ rebound post @-@ season games ( 2001 – 2002 ) .
Nowitzki led the German national basketball team to a bronze medal in the 2002 FIBA World Championship and silver in EuroBasket 2005 , and was the leading scorer and MVP in both tournaments . He was named the Euroscar European Basketball Player of the Year by the Italian sports newspaper Gazzetta dello Sport for five years running from 2002 to 2006 and again in 2011 . He was also named the Mister Europa European Player of the Year by the Italian sports magazine Superbasket in 2005 , and the FIBA Europe Men 's Player of the Year twice in 2005 and 2011 .
On December 18 , 2011 , Nowitzki was named the 2011 German Sports Personality of the Year , the first basketball player to receive the award . On December 10 , 2012 , he became the first non @-@ American player to receive the Naismith Legacy Award .
= = Early years = =
Born in Würzburg , Germany , Nowitzki comes from an athletic family : his mother Helga Nowitzki ( née Bredenbröcker ) was a professional basketball player and his father Jörg @-@ Werner was a handball player who represented Germany at the highest international level . His older sister Silke Nowitzki , a local champion in track and field , also became a basketball player and now works for the NBA in International TV .
Nowitzki was a very tall child ; most of the time he stood above his peers by a foot or more . He initially played handball and tennis , but soon grew tired of being called a " freak " for his height and eventually turned to basketball . After joining the local DJK Würzburg , the 15 @-@ year @-@ old attracted the attention of former German international basketball player Holger Geschwindner , who spotted his talent immediately and offered to coach him individually two to three times per week . After getting both the approval of Nowitzki and his parents , Geschwindner put his student through an unorthodox training scheme : he emphasized shooting and passing exercises , and shunned weight training and tactical drills , because he felt it was " unnecessary friction " . Furthermore , Geschwindner encouraged Nowitzki to play a musical instrument and read literature to make him a more complete personality .
After a year , the coach was so impressed with Nowitzki 's progress that he advised him : " You must now decide whether you want to play against the best in the world or just stay a local hero in Germany . If you choose the latter , we will stop training immediately , because nobody can prevent that anymore . But if you want to play against the best , we have to train on a daily basis . " After pondering this lifetime decision for two days , Nowitzki agreed to enter the full @-@ time training schedule , choosing the path to his eventual international career . Geschwindner let him train seven days a week with DJK Würzburg players and future German internationals Robert Garrett , Marvin Willoughby and Demond Greene , and in the summer of 1994 , then 16 @-@ year @-@ old Nowitzki made the DJK squad .
= = DJK Würzburg ( 1994 – 1998 ) = =
When Nowitzki joined the team , DJK played in the Second Bundesliga , South Division . His first trainer was Pit Stahl , who played the tall teenager as an outside @-@ scoring forward rather than an inside @-@ scoring center to utilise his shooting skills . In the 1994 – 95 Second Bundesliga season , ambitious DJK finished as a disappointing sixth of 12 teams ; the rookie Nowitzki was often benched and struggled with bad school grades , which forced him to study rather than work on his game . In the next 1995 – 96 Second Bundesliga season , Nowitzki established himself as a starter next to Finnish star forward Martti Kuisma and soon became a regular double @-@ digit scorer : after German national basketball coach Dirk Bauermann saw him score 24 points in a DJK game , he stated that " Dirk Nowitzki is the greatest German basketball talent of the last 10 , maybe 15 years . " DJK finished second in the South Division , but could not earn promotion after losing , 86 – 62 , in the deciding match versus BG Ludwigsburg : in that game , Nowitzki scored only eight points .
In the 1996 – 97 Second Bundesliga season , the team 's top scorer Kuisma left the team , and Geschwindner replaced Pit Stahl as head coach . Filling the void , Nowitzki averaged 19 @.@ 4 points per game and led DJK again to second place after the regular season , but could not help his team gain promotion . In the following 1997 – 98 Second Bundesliga season , Nowitzki finished his " Abitur " ( German A @-@ levels ) , but had to do compulsory military service in the Bundeswehr which lasted from September 1 , 1997 to June 30 , 1998 ; Nowitzki described this period as " a tough time at first ; we had no privileges and had to participate in all the drills ... later ( after finishing the tough " Grundausbildung " , the most intensive initial part of the service ) it was much more relaxed . " Concerning basketball , the 18 @-@ year @-@ old , who had grown to 6 ft 11 in ( 2 @.@ 11 m ) tall , made progress , leading DJK to a 36 : 4 point total ( in Germany , a victory gives 2 : 0 points and a loss 0 : 2 ) and ending as leading scorer with 28 @.@ 2 points per game . In the promotion playoffs , DJK finally broke its hex , finishing at first place with 14 : 2 points and earning promotion to the next higher league ; Nowitzki scored 26 points in the deciding 95 – 88 win against Freiburg and was voted " German Basketballer of the Year " by the German BASKET magazine .
Abroad , Nowitzki 's progress was noticed . In 1996 , FC Barcelona Bàsquet wanted to sign him , but Nowitzki refused to move before finishing his Abitur . A year later , the teenager participated in the Nike " Hoop Heroes Tour " , where he played against NBA stars like Charles Barkley and Scottie Pippen . In a 30 @-@ minute show match , Nowitzki outplayed Barkley and even dunked on him , causing the latter to exclaim : " The boy is a genius . If he wants to enter the NBA , he can call me . " On March 29 , 1998 , Nowitzki was chosen to play in the Nike Hoop Summit , one of the premier talent watches in U.S. men 's basketball . In a match between the U.S. talents and the international talents , Nowitzki scored 33 points on 6 @-@ of @-@ 12 shooting , 14 rebounds and 3 steals for the internationals and outplayed future US NBA players Rashard Lewis and Al Harrington . He impressed with a combination of quickness , ball handling , and shooting range , and from that moment a multitude of European and NBA clubs wanted to recruit him .
= = Dallas Mavericks ( 1998 – present ) = =
= = = Difficult start ( 1998 – 99 ) = = =
After leading DJK Würzburg to promotion and with his Abitur and military service behind him , Nowitzki looked to the NBA for his future . Projected to be seventh pick in the 1998 NBA draft , he passed up many college offers and went directly into the NBA as a then @-@ still rare prep @-@ to @-@ pro player . In particular , Rick Pitino and Don Nelson , head coaches of the Boston Celtics and Dallas Mavericks respectively , were highly interested in acquiring him . After a 45 @-@ minute private workout with Pitino , where Nowitzki showcased his versatile shooting , rebounding and passing skills , the Boston coach immediately compared him to Celtics legend Larry Bird ; Pitino assured Nowitzki that he would draft him with the Celtics ' first @-@ round draft pick at # 10 .
However , Pitino 's plan was foiled by Nelson , whose team had the sixth pick . Nelson worked out draft day deals with the Milwaukee Bucks and the Phoenix Suns : the Mavericks wanted Nowitzki and Suns reserve point guard Steve Nash ; the Bucks desired muscular forward Robert Traylor , who was projected to be drafted before Nowitzki ; and the Suns had set their sights on forward Pat Garrity , who was projected as a low first round pick . In the draft , the Mavericks drafted Traylor with their sixth pick , and the Bucks selected Nowitzki with their ninth and Garrity with their nineteenth pick . The Mavericks then traded Traylor to the Bucks for Nowitzki and Garrity , and they in return traded the latter to Phoenix for Nash .
In retrospect , Don Nelson , who had once coached the Bucks , had an outstanding trade instinct , essentially trading future career underachievers Traylor and Garrity for two future NBA MVPs in Nowitzki and Nash ; in addition , the new recruits quickly became close friends . Nowitzki became only the fourth German player in NBA history , following pivots Uwe Blab and Christian Welp and All @-@ Star swingman Detlef Schrempf , who was a 35 @-@ year @-@ old veteran of the Seattle SuperSonics when his young compatriot arrived . Nowitzki finished his DJK career as the only Würzburg player to have ever made the NBA .
In Dallas , Nowitzki joined a franchise which had last made the playoffs in 1990 . Shooting guard Michael Finley captained the squad , supported by 7 @-@ foot @-@ 6 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 29 m ) center Shawn Bradley , once a number two draft pick , and team scoring leader Cedric Ceballos , an ex @-@ Laker forward . Nowitzki experienced a rocky start : prior to the 1998 – 99 NBA season , NBA commissioner David Stern wanted to introduce a salary cap , causing the NBA players ' union to declare a strike , the combination putting the entire season in jeopardy . In limbo , Nowitzki returned to DJK Würzburg and played thirteen games before both sides worked out a late compromise deal that resulted in a shortened schedule of only 50 instead of 82 regular season games .
When the season finally started , Nowitzki struggled . Played as a power forward by coach Don Nelson , the 20 @-@ year @-@ old felt overpowered by the more athletic NBA forwards , was intimidated by the expectations as a number nine pick , and played bad defense , causing hecklers to taunt him as " Irk Nowitzki " , omitting the " D " which stands for " defense " in basketball slang . He only averaged 8 @.@ 2 points and 3 @.@ 4 rebounds in 20 @.@ 4 minutes of playing time . Looking back , Nowitzki said : " I was so frustrated I even contemplated going back to Germany . ... [ the jump from Second Bundesliga to the NBA ] was like jumping out of an airplane hoping the parachute would somehow open . " The Mavericks only won 19 of their 50 games and missed the playoffs , although Nowitzki completed the season with eight double @-@ digit scoring games out of the last twelve .
= = = " Big Three " ( 1999 – 2004 ) = = =
1999 – 2000 season
In the 1999 – 2000 NBA season , Don Nelson wanted to use Nowitzki as a point forward to make use of his passing skills . However , one of the most important moves was made off the hardwood : until then , the owner of the Mavericks was Ross Perot , Jr . , who had bought the franchise for $ 125 million , but had no plans of investing in players and admitted he knew little of basketball . On January 4 , 2000 , he sold the Mavericks to Internet billionaire Mark Cuban for $ 280 million . Cuban quickly invested into the Mavericks and restructured the franchise , attending every game at the sidelines , buying the team a $ 46 million six @-@ star Boeing 757 for traveling , and increasing franchise revenues to over $ 100 million . Nowitzki lauded Cuban : " He created the perfect environment ... we only have to go out and win . " As a result of Nelson 's tutelage , Cuban 's improvements and his own progress , Nowitzki significantly improved his averages . The second @-@ year pro now averaged 17 @.@ 5 points , 6 @.@ 5 rebounds and 2 @.@ 5 assists per game in 35 @.@ 8 minutes , had nine double @-@ double games , and scored a career @-@ high 32 points twice . He was voted runner @-@ up in the NBA Most Improved Player Award behind Jalen Rose , and made it into the NBA All @-@ Star Sophomore squad along with peers Paul Pierce and Vince Carter . In the traditional Rookie @-@ Sophomore match , he scored 17 points , grabbed six rebounds and dished out four assists in an overtime loss against the rookie team led by Steve Francis and Lamar Odom . The 7 @-@ foot @-@ 0 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 13 m ) Nowitzki also was chosen for the NBA All @-@ Star Three Point Shootout , becoming the tallest player ever to participate . After draining 15 shots in the first shootout , he entered the final round , where he finished as runner @-@ up to Jeff Hornacek . While he improved on an individual level , the Mavericks missed the playoffs after a mediocre 40 – 42 season .
2000 – 01 season
In the 2000 – 01 NBA season , Nowitzki further improved his averages , recording 21 @.@ 8 points , 9 @.@ 2 rebounds and 2 @.@ 1 assists per game . Now playing the power forward position , he became the second player in NBA history after Robert Horry to score 100 3 @-@ pointers and 100 blocks in the regular season by registering 151 and 101 , respectively . As a sign of his growing importance , he joined team captain Finley as only one of two Mavericks to play and start in all 82 games and had 10 games in which he scored at least 30 points . Nowitzki became the first Maverick ever to be voted into the All @-@ NBA squads , making the Third Team . In addition , his best friend Nash became a valuable point guard , and with Finley scoring more than ever , pundits were calling this trio the " Big Three " of the Mavericks .
Posting a 53 – 29 record in the regular season , the Mavericks reached the playoffs for the first time since 1990 . As the fifth seed , they were paired against the Utah Jazz of all @-@ time assist leader John Stockton and second all @-@ time leading scorer Karl Malone . After losing the first two games , Nowitzki scored 33 points in Games 3 and 4 and helped to tie the series . In Game 5 , the Mavericks trailed the entire game until Calvin Booth made a lay @-@ up that put them ahead , 84 – 83 , with 9 @.@ 8 seconds left . Jazz players Bryon Russell and Malone missed last @-@ second shots and the Mavericks won , setting up a meeting with Texas rivals San Antonio Spurs . The Mavericks lost the first three games , and Nowitzki fell ill with flu and later lost a tooth after a collision with Spurs guard Terry Porter . After a Game 4 win , Nowitzki scored 42 points and 18 rebounds in Game 5 , but could not prevent a deciding 105 – 87 loss . While Sports Illustrated pointed out that the Mavericks shot badly during Game 5 , Nowitzki was lauded for scoring his playoff career @-@ high 42 points . Nowitzki said : " It 's a disappointment to end the season on a blowout . "
2001 – 02 season
Prior to the 2001 – 02 NBA season , Nowitzki signed a six @-@ year , $ 90 million contract extension , which made him the second highest @-@ paid German athlete after Formula One champion Michael Schumacher . He continued to improve , now averaging 23 @.@ 4 points , 9 @.@ 9 rebounds and 2 @.@ 4 assists per game , was voted into the All @-@ NBA Second Team and into his first All @-@ Star Game . He also had 13 games with at least 30 points and 10 rebounds , third behind Shaquille O 'Neal and Tim Duncan . Powered by new recruit Nick Van Exel , who became a high @-@ scoring sixth man , the Mavericks " Big Three " convincingly made the playoffs with a 57 – 25 record .
The Mavericks swept Kevin Garnett and the Minnesota Timberwolves in the first round of the 2002 NBA Playoffs 3 – 0 : Nowitzki outscored Garnett with 33 @.@ 3 points per game versus 24 @.@ 0 . In the second round , the Mavericks met the Sacramento Kings with rival power forward Chris Webber . After splitting the first two games , Kings coach Rick Adelman changed his defensive scheme : before , Webber had defended Nowitzki one @-@ on @-@ one , but now , the Kings coach ordered his smaller but quicker player Hedo Türkoğlu to cover Nowitzki . Türkoğlu would use his agility to play Nowitzki tightly , and if the taller Maverick tried to post up Türkoğlu , Webber would double team Nowitzki . In Game 3 in Dallas , the Mavericks lost , 125 – 119 ; Nowitzki scored only 19 points and said : " I simply could not pass Türkoğlu , and if I did , I ran into a double team and committed too many turnovers . " In Game 4 , more frustration awaited the German : the Mavericks gave away a 14 @-@ point lead , although the entire Kings starting frontcourt of center Vlade Divac and power forward Chris Webber ( both fouled out ) and small forward Peja Stojaković ( injury ) were eliminated in the closing stages of the game . Nowitzki missed two potentially game deciding jump shots , and the Mavericks lost , 115 – 113 , at home . In Game 5 , the demoralised Mavericks were no match for the spirited Kings , lost , 114 – 101 , and were eliminated again . Among others , nba.com remarked that the Kings defended better than the Mavericks : in those five games , the statisticians counted 115 Sacramento layups against the Mavericks , meaning the Kings averaged 23 uncontested baskets ( i.e. , 46 easy points ) per game . However , Nowitzki received a consolation award : the Gazzetta dello Sport voted him as " European Basketballer of the Year " , his 104 votes lifting him over second @-@ placed Dejan Bodiroga ( 54 ) and Stojakovic ( 50 ) .
2002 – 03 season
Before the 2002 – 03 NBA season , Don Nelson and Mark Cuban put more emphasis on defense in the training drills , specialising in a zone defense anchored by prolific shotblockers Raef LaFrentz and Shawn Bradley . The Mavericks won their first eleven games , and Finley , Nash and Nowitzki were voted " Western Conference Players of the Month " in November 2002 . In that season , Nowitzki lifted his averages again , now scoring 25 @.@ 1 points , 9 @.@ 9 rebounds and 3 @.@ 0 assists per game . In addition , the German had 41 double @-@ double games , the seventh highest figure that season . By averaging 25 @.@ 1 , he became the first European to score 2 @,@ 000 points in a season . As a reward , he was voted into the All @-@ Star Game and the All @-@ NBA Second Team again , and was also runner @-@ up in the " German Athlete of the Year " election , only losing to ski jumper Sven Hannawald . He led the Mavericks to a franchise @-@ high 60 – 22 record , which earned them the third seed : as a result , the Mavericks had to play sixth seed Portland Trail Blazers in the 2003 NBA Playoffs . Now playing in a best @-@ of @-@ seven series instead of the former best @-@ of @-@ five , the Mavs quickly won the first three games , but then completely lost their rhythm and the next three . In Game 7 , Portland held the game close , but Nowitzki hit a clutch three to make it 100 – 94 with 1 : 21 left and the Mavs won 107 – 95 . " This was the most important basket of my career , " he later said , " I was not prepared to go on vacation that early . " He later added in an ESPN interview : " We had to be more physical in the paint and rebound the ball . We worked hard all season to get the home @-@ court advantage and we used that advantage today . "
In the next round , the Mavericks met the Kings again . After losing Game 1 at home 124 – 113 , Nowitzki ( 25 points ) and veteran sixth man Van Exel ( 36 ) led Dallas to a spectacular 132 – 110 Game 2 win in which the Mavericks scored 83 points in the first half . Helped by the fact that Kings star forward Chris Webber injured his meniscus , Nowitzki and Van Exel led the Mavericks to a 141 – 137 OT win in Game 3 , before dropping Game 4 99 – 83 , where Nowitzki only scored 11 points and was ejected after angrily kicking over a load of towels . After splitting the next two games , Nowitzki delivered a clutch performance in Game 7 , scoring 30 points , grabbing 19 rebounds and playing strong defense , and led the Mavericks to a series @-@ deciding 112 – 99 win . ESPN lauded Nowitzki as " Big D " , and after again winning a Game 7 , the German added : " We 've really learned how to close games out . "
In the Western Conference Finals , the Mavericks met the Spurs again . In Game 1 in San Antonio , Nowitzki scored 38 points on Duncan and led his team to a 113 – 110 win . In Game 2 , Duncan quickly put Nowitzki in foul trouble , and the Spurs equalised the series with a 132 – 110 win . In Game 3 , Nowitzki went up for a rebound and Spurs guard Manu Ginóbili collided with his knee , forcing him out of the series : without their top scorer , the Mavericks still fought valiantly and trailed , 3 – 2 , before Spurs guard Steve Kerr got hot from beyond the arc late in Game 6 to help San Antonio clinch the series with a 90 – 78 victory . Don Nelson later commented : " We were playing so well for so long and the bottom just dropped out ... We went cold at the wrong time . " Nowitzki took very little consolation in the fact that he again was voted " European Basketballer of the Year " and was named " Best European Basketballer " in a general survey of the NBA general managers .
2003 – 04 season
In the 2003 – 04 NBA season , Cuban and Nelson decided to add more offensive wing players to their squad . As a result , the Mavericks acquired two All @-@ Star forwards , namely Golden State Warriors All @-@ Star forward Antawn Jamison ( along with Danny Fortson , Jiri Welsch and Chris Mills , for Van Exel and role players ) and Antoine Walker ( Boston Celtics ) who came for center Raef LaFrentz . Basketball experts were wary about the latter trade , because it sent away the Mavericks starting center ; they argued it left a hole in the middle that the aging , injury @-@ prone backup pivot Shawn Bradley could not fill anymore . Unable to trade for a new center , Nelson decided to start the prolific rebounder Nowitzki at pivot , put Walker on Nowitzki 's usual power forward spot and played Jamison as a high @-@ scoring sixth man . To cope with his more physical role , Nowitzki put on 20 lb ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) of muscle mass over summer , sacrificed part of his agility , and put more emphasis on defense rather than scoring : as a result , his averages fell for the first time in his career , dropping to 21 @.@ 8 points , 8 @.@ 7 rebounds and 2 @.@ 7 assists per game , but he still led the Mavericks in scoring , rebounding , steals ( 1 @.@ 2 spg ) and blocks ( 1 @.@ 35 bpg ) . These figures earned him nominations for the All @-@ Star Game and the All @-@ NBA Third Team . Compiling a 52 – 30 record , the Mavericks met their familiar rivals the Sacramento Kings once again , but were eliminated in 5 .
= = = Franchise player ( 2004 – present ) = = =
2004 – 05 season
Before the 2004 – 05 NBA season , the Mavericks were re @-@ tooled again . Defensive center Erick Dampier was acquired from the Golden State Warriors , but Nowitzki 's close friend Steve Nash left Dallas and returned to the Phoenix Suns as a free agent . During the season , long @-@ time head coach Don Nelson resigned , and his assistant Avery Johnson took on coaching duties . In the midst of these changes , Nowitzki stepped up his game and averaged 26 @.@ 1 points a game ( a career high ) and 9 @.@ 7 rebounds , and his 1 @.@ 5 blocks and 3 @.@ 1 assists were also career numbers . In addition , Nowitzki scored at least 10 points in every game and was one of four players who registered at least 1 @.@ 2 steals and blocks per game . This was also his second 2 @,@ 000 @-@ point season ; his 26 @.@ 1 points scoring average set a new record by a European player . On December 2 , 2004 , Nowitzki scored 53 points in an overtime win against the Houston Rockets , a career best . As a reward , Nowitzki was voted to the All @-@ NBA First Team for the first time . He also placed third in the league 's MVP voting , behind Nash and Shaquille O 'Neal . By being elected to the All @-@ NBA First Team , Nowitzki became the first player who did not attend a United States high school or college to be on the All @-@ NBA First Team .
However , the Mavericks had a subpar 2005 NBA Playoffs campaign . In the first round , Dallas met Houston Rockets scoring champion Tracy McGrady and 7 – 6 center Yao Ming , and Nowitzki was expected to average high figures against unheralded forward Ryan Bowen : nba.com described Bowen as " overmatched " versus the German . Instead , Bowen limited Nowitzki to just 21 points in Game 1 and 26 points in Game 2 , where the latter hit 8 of 26 shots from the field . The Rockets took a 2 – 0 series lead before the Mavericks won three games in a row . After losing Game 6 , Dallas won Game 7 convincingly and won the series even though Nowitzki struggled with his shooting . In the Western Conference Semifinals , the Mavericks met the Phoenix Suns , the new club of Nash . They split the first four games , before the Suns won the last two games . In Game 6 , which the Mavericks lost in overtime , Nowitzki was again not at his best : he scored 28 points , but also sank only 9 of his 25 field goal attempts ; in addition , he was visibly irritated , repeatedly shouting at his teammates and missing all five of his shots in OT .
2005 – 06 season
Prior to the 2005 – 06 NBA season , veteran Mavericks captain Michael Finley was waived over the summer , and now Nowitzki was the last player remaining from the Mavericks ' " Big Three " of Nash , Finley , and himself . Nowitzki blossomed as the sole franchise player , averaging 26 @.@ 6 points , 9 @.@ 0 rebounds , and 2 @.@ 8 assists . Not only was this his third 2 @,@ 000 @-@ point season , but his scoring average of 26 @.@ 6 points was highest ever by a European . He improved his shooting percentage , setting personal season records in field goals ( 48 @.@ 0 % ) , three @-@ point shots ( 40 @.@ 6 % ) and free throws ( 90 @.@ 1 % ) . During the 2006 All @-@ Star Weekend in Houston , Nowitzki scored 18 points to defeat Seattle SuperSonics guard Ray Allen and Washington Wizards guard Gilbert Arenas in the Three @-@ Point Shootout contest .
Nowitzki paced Dallas to a 60 @-@ win season . The team finished with the third @-@ best record in the league , behind the defending champion San Antonio Spurs and defending Eastern Conference champion Detroit Pistons . As in the 2004 – 05 season , he finished third in the league 's MVP voting , this time behind Nash and LeBron James . He was again elected to the first team All @-@ NBA squad . Nowitzki confirmed his superstar status during the playoffs as he averaged 27 @.@ 0 points , 11 @.@ 7 rebounds , and 2 @.@ 9 assists . The Mavericks swept the Memphis Grizzlies , 4 – 0 , with Nowitzki scored a clutch three @-@ pointer in the closing seconds of Game 3 which tied the game and forced overtime . In the Western Conference Semifinals , the Mavericks played against the San Antonio Spurs again . After splitting the first six games , the Mavericks took a 20 @-@ point lead in Game 7 before Spur Manu Ginóbili broke a tie at 101 by hitting a 3 with 30 seconds left . On the next play , Nowitzki completed a three @-@ point play , which tied the game at 104 . In the end , the Mavericks won , 119 – 111 , and Nowitzki ended the game with 37 points and 15 rebounds . Nowitzki commented : " I don 't know how the ball went in . Manu hit my hand . It was a lucky bounce . "
The Mavericks advanced to the Western Conference Finals , where they again met the Suns . Nowitzki scored 50 points to lead the Mavericks to a victory in the crucial Game 5 with the series tied at 2 ; the Mavericks won the series in six games and faced the Miami Heat in the 2006 NBA Finals . A content Nowitzki commented : " We 've been a good road team all season long , we believed in each other . We went through some ups and downs this season , but the playoffs are all about showing heart and playing together . " Of Nowitzki 's performance , ESPN columnist Bill Simmons wrote , " Dirk is playing at a higher level than any forward since [ Larry ] Bird . " The Mavericks took an early 2 – 0 lead , but then gave away a late 15 @-@ point lead in a Game 3 loss and finally fell to a scoring onslaught by Heat Finals MVP Dwyane Wade : Wade scored at least 36 points in the next four games , all of which the Heat won . Nowitzki only made 20 of his last 55 shots in the final three games as the Mavericks lost the Finals series , 4 – 2 , to the Heat . The German was criticized by ESPN as " clearly ... not as his best this series " and remarked : " That was a tough loss ( in Game 3 ) and that really changed the whole momentum of the series . ... After that , they got confidence . They played a lot better afterwards . "
2006 – 07 MVP season
The 2006 – 07 season was the year Nowitzki was named the league 's Most Valuable Player . He shot a career @-@ best 50 @.@ 2 % from the field , and recorded averages of 24 @.@ 6 points , 8 @.@ 9 rebounds , and 3 @.@ 4 assists and led the Mavericks to a franchise @-@ high 67 wins , which meant Dallas earned the first seed of the 2007 NBA Playoffs . He averaged 50 % from the field , 40 % for three pointers , and 90 % from the free throw line becoming , at the time , only the fourth player in NBA history to join the 50 – 40 – 90 club . Nowitzki was touted as the overwhelming favorite for the Most Valuable Player award , and was expected to lead the Mavericks to an easy win against the eighth @-@ seed Golden State Warriors , despite the Warriors having won all three regular @-@ season meetings against Dallas . However , the Mavericks ended up losing to the Warriors in six games , marking the first time a # 8 seed had beaten the # 1 in a best @-@ of @-@ seven series in NBA history . In the clinching Game 6 , Nowitzki shot just 2 – 13 from the field for only eight points . Defended by Stephen Jackson , Nowitzki averaged nearly five points less than his regular @-@ season average in that series and shot 38 @.@ 3 % from the field as compared to 50 @.@ 2 % during the regular season . He described that loss as a low point in his career : " This series , I couldn 't put my stamp on it the way I wanted to . That 's why I 'm very disappointed . " In spite of this historic playoffs loss , Nowitzki was named the NBA 's regular @-@ season Most Valuable Player and beat his friend and back @-@ to @-@ back NBA MVP Nash with more than 100 votes . He also became the first European player in NBA history to receive the honor .
2007 – 08 season
The 2007 – 08 campaign saw another first @-@ round playoffs exit for Nowitzki and his Mavericks . Despite a mid @-@ season trade that sent veteran NBA All @-@ Star Jason Kidd to Dallas , the Mavericks finished seventh in a highly competitive Western Conference . Nowitzki averaged 23 @.@ 6 points , 8 @.@ 6 rebounds , and a career @-@ high 3 @.@ 5 assists for the season . In the playoffs , they faced rising star Chris Paul 's New Orleans Hornets , and were eliminated in five games . The playoff loss led to the firing of Avery Johnson as head coach and the eventual hiring of Rick Carlisle . The few positive highlights that season for Nowitzki were his first career triple @-@ double against the Milwaukee Bucks on February 6 , 2008 , with 29 points , 10 rebounds , and a career @-@ high 12 assists , and on March 8 , 2008 ( 34 points against the New Jersey Nets ) , when he surpassed Rolando Blackman with his 16,644th point to become the Mavericks ' all @-@ time career points leader .
2008 – 09 season
The 2008 – 09 NBA season saw Nowitzki finish with averages of 25 @.@ 9 points , 8 @.@ 4 rebounds , and 2 @.@ 4 assists . He was fourth in the league in scoring , and garnered his fourth All @-@ NBA First Team selection . He also made the 2009 All @-@ Star game , his eighth appearance . Nowitzki led Dallas to a tight finish towards the playoffs , finishing 50 – 32 for the season ( 6th in the West ) , after a slow 2 – 7 start . In the playoffs , the German led Dallas to an upset win over long @-@ time rival San Antonio ( the third seed ) , winning the first @-@ round series , 4 – 1 . The Mavericks , however , fell short against the Denver Nuggets , 4 – 1 , in the second round , with Nowitzki averaging 34 @.@ 4 points , 11 @.@ 6 rebounds , and 4 assists in the series .
2009 – 10 season
The Mavericks finished the 2009 – 10 NBA season as the second seed for the 2010 NBA Playoffs — it was their 10th consecutive season with at least 50 regular season wins . Notable additions to the squad were multiple All @-@ Stars Shawn Marion and Caron Butler , with the latter coming in the second half of the season . On January 13 , 2010 , Nowitzki became the 34th player in NBA history — and the first European — to hit the 20 @,@ 000 @-@ point milestone , while ending the regular season with averages of 25 points , 7 @.@ 7 rebounds , 2 @.@ 7 assists , and 1 block . He was selected to the 2010 All @-@ Star Game , his ninth appearance . The Mavericks faced off against San Antonio once more in the first round of the playoffs , but for the third time in four seasons , they failed to progress to the next round . Nowitzki was the only consistent player throughout the series for the Mavericks , averaging 26 @.@ 7 points per outing , while Jason Terry , second @-@ leading scorer for the Mavericks , averaged 12 @.@ 7 points per game compared to his 16 @.@ 6 regular season . Despite being a free agent , on July 5 , 2010 , Nowitzki agreed to remain with Dallas by re @-@ signing to a four @-@ year , $ 80 million deal .
2010 – 11 championship season
The most significant change to the 2010 – 11 team roster was the arrival of Tyson Chandler via trade . Nowitzki was injured in the middle of the season , during which the Mavericks recorded their worst losing streak in over a decade . Nowitzki finished the regular season with averages of 23 points , 7 rebounds , and 3 assists . Despite missing 9 games , Nowitzki was selected to the 2011 All @-@ Star Game , his tenth appearance . The Mavericks concluded the regular season with 57 wins , seeding third behind the Spurs and Lakers for the 2011 NBA Playoffs . During the playoffs , despite their seeding , many predicted that Dallas would lose in the first round to Portland , and after blowing a 23 @-@ point fourth @-@ quarter lead in Game 4 to even the series at 2 – 2 , the Mavericks appeared ready for another postseason collapse . However , Dallas won the final two games to advance . They then swept the two @-@ time defending champion Lakers in the semifinals in Phil Jackson 's final year as an NBA coach . In the Conference Finals , they faced the Oklahoma City Thunder and their All @-@ NBA duo of Kevin Durant and Russell Westbrook . In Game 1 , Nowitzki scored 48 points while shooting 12 / 15 from the field while setting an NBA record of 24 consecutive free throws made in a game as well as most free throws in a game without a miss . In Game 4 , with Dallas up , 2 – 1 , Nowitzki scored 40 points to rally his team from a 99 – 84 deficit in the fourth quarter with 5 minutes left and eventually win , 112 – 105 , in OT to take a 3 – 1 series lead . Dallas overcame another fourth @-@ quarter deficit in Game 5 to win the Western Conference Title . In the 2011 NBA Finals , Dallas once again faced the Heat , which had acquired All @-@ Stars LeBron James and Chris Bosh before the season began . During the Game 1 loss in Miami , he tore a tendon in his left middle finger ; however , MRIs were negative , and Nowitzki vowed that the injury would not be a factor . In Game 2 , he led a Dallas rally from an 88 – 73 fourth @-@ quarter deficit , capped by a driving left @-@ handed layup over Bosh to tie the series at 1 . Miami took a 2 – 1 series lead after Nowitzki missed a potential game @-@ tying shot at the end of Game 3 . Despite carrying a 101 ° F fever in Game 4 , he hit the winning basket to tie the series yet again at 2 , evoking comparisons to Michael Jordan 's " Flu Game " against Utah in the 1997 NBA Finals . Dallas went on to win the next two games , with Nowitzki scoring 10 fourth @-@ quarter points in the series @-@ clinching game in Miami , bringing the first championship to the franchise . In the series , Nowitzki scored 62 points total in the six fourth quarters , equaling the combined fourth @-@ quarter output of James and Wade . He was named Finals MVP , joining a list of 10 other players to have been an NBA champion , NBA Finals MVP , an NBA regular season MVP , and a ten @-@ time All @-@ Star . For the 2011 playoffs , Nowitzki averaged 27 @.@ 7 points , 8 @.@ 1 rebounds , and 2 @.@ 5 assists in 21 games .
2011 – 12 season
As Dallas celebrated their title , the NBA was in a lockout . It ended on December 8 , 2011 . The defending champions lost core players , such as DeShawn Stevenson , J.J. Barea , Peja Stojaković , and Tyson Chandler , while adding veteran all @-@ star Vince Carter , Lamar Odom , and Delonte West in free agency . The Mavericks played only two preseason games , which led to a slow start for Nowitzki . Soon , Nowitzki became the 98th player in NBA history to play in 1 @,@ 000 games . Nowitzki received his championship ring on January 25 , 2012 . After scoring his 23,335th point , Nowitzki passed Robert Parish on the all @-@ time scoring list at # 20 . He then passed Charles Barkley for 19th , and scored his 24,000th point on April 15 , 2012 against the Lakers . Nowitzki blocked a shot by the Celtics ' Avery Bradley , which was his 1,000th block . He became one of only 3 players in NBA history with at least 1 @,@ 000 3 @-@ pointers and blocks , joining Clifford Robinson and Rasheed Wallace . Nowitzki made his 11th straight All @-@ Star game appearance in Orlando . Nowitzki scored 31 points in the second half against Houston on April 18 , 2012 , including 21 in the fourth quarter . It marked the third @-@ highest scoring half by a Dallas player in franchise history . The 21 points in the fourth quarter also represented Nowitzki 's third @-@ highest scoring quarter of his career . Carrying the load of the Mavericks , Nowitzki led his team in scoring 45 times . On March 30 , he led the Mavs down from 15 points , including a game winner , against the Magic . Nowitzki 's streak of 11 seasons with 1 @,@ 500 points came to an end after scoring 1 @,@ 342 in the shortened NBA season . The Mavs clinched the seventh spot in the West , and were matched against the Oklahoma City Thunder in the 2012 NBA Playoffs . The Thunder swept the Mavs in 4 games .
2012 – 13 season
After failing to sign coveted free agents Deron Williams and Steve Nash , the Mavericks retooled their roster by letting go of Jason Kidd , Jason Terry and Brendan Haywood , and acquiring younger players such as O. J. Mayo , Darren Collison , as well as veteran big men Chris Kaman and Elton Brand . Nowitzki plans to play out the remainder of his 4 @-@ year , 80 million dollar contract that expires in 2014 . Nowitzki underwent knee surgery in October 2012 and missed the first 27 games of the season . He returned on December 23 , 2012 , in a game against San Antonio .
In January 2013 , Nowizki and some of his teammates ( including Mayo , Brand , Kaman , Carter and then teammate Dahntay Jones ) made a pact not to shave their beards until the team reached .500 . They were often called " The Beard Bros. " On April 14 , 2013 , after a fade away jumper in a game against the New Orleans Hornets , Nowitzki became the 17th player in NBA history to score 25 @,@ 000 points . The Mavs went on to win the game , climbing back up to .500 with a 40 – 40 record and Nowitzki shaved his beard . However the Mavericks missed the playoffs for the first time since Nowitzki 's second season , ending their 12 @-@ year playoff streak .
2013 – 14 season
At the start of the season , the Mavs let go of players they had signed the year before like O.J. Mayo , Chris Kaman , Elton Brand and Darren Collison to make room for the signing of shooting guard Monta Ellis and point guard Devin Harris . On November 12 , 2013 , in a 105 – 95 victory over the Washington Wizards , Nowitzki finished the game with 19 points and passed Jerry West on the NBA scoring list with 25 @,@ 197 points . On November 20 , 2013 , in a 123 – 120 victory over the Houston Rockets , Nowitzki finished the game with 35 points and passed Reggie Miller on the NBA scoring list with 25 @,@ 298 points . On December 23 , 2013 , in a 111 – 104 victory over the Houston Rockets , Nowitzki finished the game with 31 points and passed Alex English on the NBA scoring list with 25 @,@ 631 points .
On January 29 , 2014 , Nowitzki scored his 26 @,@ 000 point in a 115 – 117 loss to the Houston Rockets . In 35 minutes of play , he recorded 38 points , 17 rebounds and 3 assists . On March 12 , 2014 , in a 108 – 101 victory over the Utah Jazz , Nowitzki finished the game with 31 points and passed John Havlicek on the NBA scoring list with 26 @,@ 426 points . On April 8 , 2014 , Nowitzki scored his 26,712th point , passing Oscar Robertson to move to the 10th position on the all @-@ time scoring list . Nowitzki led the Mavericks back to the Playoffs where they would face their in state rival San Antonio Spurs in the first round . Dallas lost the series in seven games and the Spurs went on to win the NBA championship .
2014 – 15 season
On July 15 , 2014 , Nowitzki re @-@ signed with the Mavericks to a reported three @-@ year , $ 25 million contract . He was also reunited with former championship teammate Tyson Chandler , who was traded to Dallas after a 3 @-@ year stint with New York . Also to come over from New York was point guard Raymond Felton . The Mavericks made big strides in the off @-@ season to put Dirk with some considerable talent , signing a rising small forward Chandler Parsons and veteran point guard Jameer Nelson . The Mavericks later signed former championship teammate J. J. Barea after the Timberwolves waived him .
On November 11 , 2014 , Nowitzki scored 23 points to surpass Hakeem Olajuwon as the highest @-@ scoring player born outside the United States , as the Mavericks came from 24 points down to defeat Sacramento 106 – 98 for their 21st straight regular @-@ season win at home against the Kings . Nowitzki hit a jumper from just inside the three @-@ point line early in the fourth quarter to pass Olajuwon at No. 9 , and he finished the night at 26 @,@ 953 career points . Six days later , Nowitzki became the fourth player in NBA history to eclipse 27 @,@ 000 career points with the same franchise , joining a prestigious group that includes Michael Jordan , Karl Malone and Kobe Bryant . On December 26 against the Los Angeles Lakers , Nowitzki passed Elvin Hayes for eighth place on the NBA 's all @-@ time scoring list . He went on to pass Moses Malone for seventh place on the NBA 's all @-@ time scoring list on January 5 , 2015 in a 96 – 88 overtime win over the Brooklyn Nets . He recored his 10,000th career rebound on March 24 against the San Antonio Spurs , and scored his 28,000th career point on April 1 against the Oklahoma City Thunder .
The Mavericks finished the regular season as the No. 7 seed in the Western Conference with a record of 50 – 32 . They faced the Houston Rockets in the first round of the playoffs and lost the series in five games .
2015 – 16 season
On November 11 , 2015 , Nowitzki scored a season @-@ high 31 points in a 118 – 108 win over the Los Angeles Clippers . He also grabbed a team @-@ high 11 rebounds and passed former teammate Shawn Marion for 15th on the all @-@ time career rebounding list . On December 12 , in a loss to the Washington Wizards , he moved past Jason Richardson for 16th all @-@ time in three @-@ point shots made , finishing the game with 1 @,@ 609 career three @-@ pointers . On December 23 , Nowitzki moved past Shaquille O 'Neal into sixth place on the NBA 's career scoring list , then made the go @-@ ahead basket with 19 @.@ 2 seconds left in overtime to help the Mavericks defeat the Brooklyn Nets , 119 – 118 . On January 12 , in an overtime loss to the Cleveland Cavaliers , he became the 14th NBA player to reach 46 @,@ 000 career minutes . On January 18 , he tied a season high with 31 points and had 11 rebounds for his sixth double @-@ double of the season in a 118 – 113 overtime win over the Boston Celtics . On February 21 , he scored 18 points against the Philadelphia 76ers , becoming the sixth player in NBA history to reach 29 @,@ 000 career points . Three days later , he set a new season high with 33 points in a loss to the Oklahoma City Thunder . On March 20 , he set another season high mark with 40 points in a 132 – 120 overtime win over the Portland Trail Blazers . His 20th career 40 @-@ point game was his first since January 2014 , and the first by a 37 @-@ year @-@ old since Karl Malone in 2000 – 01 . On April 11 , in a win over the Utah Jazz that clinched the Mavericks a spot in the playoffs for the 15th time in 16 years , Nowitzki hit four three @-@ pointers , becoming the 15th player in NBA history with at least 1 @,@ 700 career triples .
In Game 4 of the Mavericks ' first @-@ round playoff series against the Oklahoma City Thunder , Nowitzki passed Elgin Baylor ( 3 @,@ 623 points ) for 15th on the NBA 's career playoff scoring list .
2016 – 17 season
On July 22 , 2016 , Nowitzki agreed to re @-@ sign with the Mavericks on a two @-@ year , $ 50 million contract .
= = International career = =
Nowitzki began playing for the German national basketball team in 1997 . In his debut tournament , the 1999 FIBA European championship , the 21 @-@ year @-@ old rookie emerged as the main German scorer , but Germany finished seventh and failed to qualify for the 2000 Olympic Games . In the 2001 FIBA European Championship , Nowitzki was top scorer with 28 @.@ 7 points per game , and narrowly lost the MVP vote to Serbian player Peja Stojaković . Germany reached the semifinals and were close to beating host nation Turkey , but Hedo Turkoglu hit a 3 @-@ point buzzer beater to tie it , and the Turks eventually won in overtime . Germany then lost 99 – 90 against Spain , and did not win a medal . However , with averages of 28 @.@ 7 points and 9 @.@ 1 rebounds , Nowitzki led the tournament in both statistics , and was voted to the All @-@ Star team . Back home , the German basketball team attracted up to 3 @.@ 7 million television viewers , a German basketball record at the time .
Nowitzki finally earned his first medal when he led Germany to a bronze medal in the 2002 World Championship . In the quarter @-@ finals against the Pau Gasol @-@ led Spain , Spain was up 52 – 46 after three quarters , but then Nowitzki scored 10 points in the last quarter and led Germany to a 70 – 62 win . In the semi @-@ finals , his team played against the Argentinian squad led by Manu Ginóbili , but despite leading , 74 – 69 , four minutes from the end and despite Argentina losing Ginobili to a foot injury , the South Americans won , 86 – 80 . However , the Germans won 117 – 94 against New Zealand in the consolation finals and won bronze , and tournament top scorer Nowitzki ( 24 @.@ 0 ppg ) was elected MVP . Back in Germany , over 4 million television viewers followed the games , an all @-@ time record in German basketball history .
The 2003 FIBA European Championship proved to be a major disappointment for Nowitzki and his German squad . In a preparation game , he suffered a foot injury after a collision with French player Florent Pietrus ; as a result , Nowitzki played inconsistently and was also often target of hard fouls . In the decisive second round match against Italy ( only the winner was allowed to play the medal round ) , Germany lost , 86 – 84 , finished ninth and did not qualify for the 2004 Olympic Games . Nowitzki scored 22 @.@ 5 points per game ( third overall ) , but in general seemed to lack focus and dominance due to his injury .
In the 2005 FIBA European Championship , Nowitzki came back strong . He surprisingly led a depleted German squad into the Finals , beating title favorites Slovenia in the quarter @-@ finals and Spain in the semi @-@ finals on the way . Eurobasket pundits praised Nowitzki in both matches : against Slovenia ( 76 – 62 ) , the forward scored a game high 22 points and commented : " The Slovenians underestimated us . They said we were the team they wanted and that was wrong , you shouldn 't do that in the quarter @-@ finals . " Against Spain ( 74 – 73 ) , Nowitzki scored a game @-@ high 27 points and scored the decisive basket : down by one and with only a few seconds to go , he drove on Spanish forward Jorge Garbajosa , and hit a baseline jump shot over Garbajosa 's outstretched arms with 3 @.@ 9 seconds to go . The German later commented : " It was indescribable . Garbajosa kind of pushed me towards the baseline so I just went with it . " Despite losing the Finals , 78 – 62 , to the Greeks , Nowitzki was the tournament 's leading scorer ( 26 @.@ 7 ppg ) and second @-@ leading rebounder ( 10 @.@ 8 rpg ) and shot blocker ( 1 @.@ 8 bpg ) , and was voted Most Valuable Player of the tournament . When he was subbed out towards the end of the final , Nowitzki received standing ovation from the crowd , which he later recalled as " one of the best moments of [ his ] career " . In the 2006 FIBA World Championships , Nowitzki led the German team to an eighth place and commented : " It 's tough luck . But overall , finishing eighth in the world is not bad . "
In the 2007 FIBA European Championship , in which the top three teams automatically qualified for the 2008 Olympics , Nowitzki led Germany to a fifth place . He was the leading scorer with 24 @.@ 0 points per game . The fifth place meant that Germany fell short of direct qualification , but was allowed to participate in the 2008 Olympic Qualifying Tournament . Nowitzki led Germany into a decisive match against Puerto Rico for the last remaining slot . In that crucial match , he scored a game @-@ high 32 points and was vital for the 96 – 82 win which sent the German basketball team to their first Olympics since the 1992 Summer Olympics . Nowitzki was chosen to be the flag bearer for the German Olympic Team at the Opening Ceremony for the 2008 Olympics . Nowitzki led the German team to a tenth @-@ place finish , and averaged 17 @.@ 0 points , and 7 @.@ 6 rebounds for the tournament . In 2009 , Nowitzki skipped the 2009 FIBA European Championships . In July 2010 he said that he would skip the 2010 FIBA World Championship .
In Summer 2011 , Nowitzki played with Germany in the EuroBasket 2011 , where the team reached ninth place . In 2015 , Nowitzki captained Germany at the EuroBasket . They won only one game , and were eliminated in the group stage , on home soil . In January 2016 , Nowitzki officially announced his retirement from Germany 's national team . In his career with Germany 's senior men 's national team , he averaged 19 @.@ 8 points , 7 @.@ 3 rebounds , and 1 @.@ 6 assists per game .
= = Player profile = =
Nowitzki is a versatile frontcourt player who mostly plays the power forward position , but has also played center and small forward throughout his career . An exceptional shooter for his size , Nowitzki has made 88 % of his free throws , nearly 50 % of his field goal attempts and nearly 40 % of his 3 @-@ point shots , and won the 2006 NBA All @-@ Star Three @-@ Point Shootout competition . In 2006 – 07 , Nowitzki became only the fifth member of the NBA 's 50 – 40 – 90 Club for players who shot 50 % or better from the field , 40 % or better on three @-@ pointers , and 90 % or better on free @-@ throws in a single season while achieving the NBA league minimum number of makes in each category .
Throughout Nowitzki 's career , he has responded to the increased pressure of the playoffs by increasing his productivity . As of the end of the 2013 – 14 season , he had averaged 22 @.@ 5 points and 8 @.@ 1 rebounds in the regular season . In the playoffs , he has averaged 25 @.@ 6 points and 10 @.@ 1 rebounds , which only Hakeem Olajuwon , Bob Pettit and Elgin Baylor have managed to do . In the most pressure packed games , such as playoff elimination games he averages 28 @.@ 8 points , 11 @.@ 8 rebounds . He has had 14 elimination games where he scored 30 or more points , which ties him with Jerry West for most all time . Of the top 100 elimination game performances in the last 20 years , Nowitzki has had the best performances in 8 of them , more than any other player in the NBA in that same time frame .
His shooting accuracy combined with his long seven @-@ foot frame and unique shooting mechanics , such as having a release point above his head , makes contesting his jump shots very difficult . Before the start of the 2011 NBA Finals , LeBron James called Nowitzki 's one @-@ legged fadeaway the second most unstoppable move ever , only behind Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar 's skyhook . Additionally , Nowitzki can put the ball down and drive with it from the perimeter , like few have been able to do with his size . NBA.com lauds his versatility by stating : " The 7 – 0 forward who at times mans the pivot can strike fear in an opponent when he corrals a rebound and leads the break or prepares to launch a three @-@ point bomb . " Charles Barkley says the best way to guard Nowitzki is to " get a cigarette and a blindfold " . Later on in his career , Nowitzki also developed an unorthodox post up game , often backing down his opponents from the free throw line or near the middle of the key , opening up the floor for multiple passing angles should a double team come his way . When defenses guard Nowitzki with one of their biggest men , who is then pulled out to the perimeter , the net effect is that while Nowitzki 's own statistics are actually compromised by being out of position to offensively rebound or make an easy close @-@ range basket , the rest of the team becomes more offensively potent with the defense having to be spread across the floor . Often , this creates mismatches that his teammates can exploit . The Mavericks system and international play exposed him to an open passing game , making him dangerous as a point forward and post playmaker as well .
Nowitzki averages just over one block per game and never made an All @-@ Defense Team . However , playing more around the perimeter took him out of position where a typical power forward would be detracted from his overall defensive stats . Despite rarely blocking shots , he is ranked 8th in active players for defensive win shares as of July 2014 .
Nowitzki is the 17th player in NBA history , and the first European , to hit the 25 @,@ 000 @-@ point milestone . Apart from being the Mavericks ' all @-@ time leader in points , rebounds , field goals , field goal attempts , 3 @-@ pointers , 3 @-@ point attempts , free throws , and free @-@ throw attempts , Nowitzki has made the NBA All @-@ Star games thirteen times and the All @-@ NBA Teams twelve times . He was voted NBA MVP of the 2006 – 07 NBA season , becoming the first European player to receive the honor , as well as the MVP of the 2011 NBA Finals . Other achievements include winning the 2006 NBA All @-@ Star Three @-@ Point Shootout , being voted European Basketballer of the Year five times in a row by La Gazzetta dello Sport , and being the leading scorer and MVP of the 2002 FIBA World Championship , and EuroBasket 2005 tournaments .
In 2013 , Michael Jordan called Nowitzki one of only four current players ( alongside LeBron James , Tim Duncan , and Kobe Bryant ) who could be nearly as successful in his era of basketball .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = NBA statistics = = =
Correct as of the 2015 – 16 regular season
= = = = Regular season = = = =
= = = = Playoffs = = = =
= = = = Triple @-@ doubles = = = =
= = = International statistics = = =
= = Career highlights = =
NBA
NBA Finals MVP : 2011
NBA Most Valuable Player : 2007
13 × NBA All @-@ Star : 2002 – 2012 , 2014 – 2015
12 × All @-@ NBA Team : 2001 – 2012
4 × First Team : 2005 – 2007 , 2009
5 × Second Team : 2002 – 2003 , 2008 , 2010 – 2011
3 × Third Team : 2001 , 2004 , 2012
Three @-@ Point Shootout Champion : 2006
NBA Shooting Stars champion : 2010
Ranked 6th in all @-@ time @-@ scoring
Ranked 8th in all @-@ time defensive @-@ rebounds
Ranked 2nd in all @-@ time NBA Finals free throw percentage
82 consecutive free throws made ( the third @-@ longest streak of all @-@ time )
One of six players with at least 25 @,@ 000 points , 10 @,@ 000 rebounds , 3 @,@ 000 assists , 1 @,@ 000 steals and 1 @,@ 000 blocks
One of two players with 150 three @-@ pointers and 100 blocks in a single season : 2001
One of four players with an NBA Playoff career average of 25 ppg and 10 rpg ( 25 @.@ 3 ppg , 10 @.@ 0 rpg through 2016 postseason )
One of seven members of the 50 – 40 – 90 club : 2007
One of three players to surpass the mark of 1 @,@ 000 in both three @-@ pointers and blocks for the career
One of ten players to surpass the marks of 25 @,@ 000 in points and 10 @,@ 000 in rebounds for the career
Holds the record for most free @-@ throws made in a single playoff season with 205 free @-@ throws made : 2006
Dallas Mavericks all @-@ time statistical leader in games , points , rebounds , field goals , three @-@ point field goals and free throws
German national basketball team
2002 FIBA World Championship : bronze medal , MVP , top scorer , all @-@ tournament team
EuroBasket 2005 : silver medal , MVP , top scorer , all @-@ tournament team
2006 FIBA World Championship , EuroBasket 2001 , EuroBasket 2007 : top scorer , all @-@ tournament team
Goldener Ehrenring ( golden honorary ring ) of the DBB ( German Basketball Federation ) : 2007
Second leading scorer ( 1052 points ) in the history of EuroBasket
Leading scorer in the history of the German national basketball team ( 3045 points in 153 international games )
Member of the German national basketball team which was voted Outstanding German Team of the Year : 2005
Other achievements and highlights
German League MVP : 1999
6 × Euroscar : 2002 – 2006 , 2011
2 × FIBA Europe Men 's Player of the Year : 2005 , 2011
Mr. Europa : 2005
5 × All @-@ Europeans Player of the Year : 2005 – 2008 , 2011
German national flag bearer at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China
Best NBA Player ESPY Award : 2011
Best Male Athlete ESPY Award : 2011
Outstanding Team ESPY Award with the Dallas Mavericks : 2011
Sports Illustrated NBA All @-@ Decade Second Team ( 2000 – 2009 )
Silbernes Lorbeerblatt : 2011
German Sports Personality of the Year : 2011
Ranked 55 in SLAM Magazine 's 500 greatest NBA @-@ players of all @-@ time list : 2011
Naismith Legacy Award : 2012
Magic Johnson Award : 2014
= = Personal life = =
Nowitzki 's older sister , Silke Nowitzki , described Nowitzki as a confident but low @-@ key character , unspoiled by money and fame . He also enjoys reading and playing the saxophone . Nowitzki passed his Abitur examination at Röntgen Gymnasium Grammar School of Würzburg . He also founded the Dirk Nowitzki Foundation , a charity which aims at fighting poverty in Africa .
Nowitzki dated Sybille Gerer , a female basketball player from his local club DJK Würzburg . The relationship started in 1992 and lasted for 10 years before it eventually ended ; Nowitzki said , " At the end , we found out we developed in separate ways . ... It did not work anymore , but we are still good friends . " He added : " I surely want to start a family and have kids , but I cannot imagine it happening before I become 30 . "
In 2010 , Nowitzki met and began dating Jessica Olsson , sister of twin Swedish footballers Martin Olsson and Marcus Olsson . The couple got married on July 20 , 2012 , at Nowitzki 's home in Dallas . They have a daughter , born in July 2013 and a son , born in March 2015 . Though Nowitzki has considered acquiring U.S. citizenship , he remains a German national .
Nowitzki acknowledged close ties to his mentor Holger Geschwindner , whom he called his best friend . He is also good friends with his ex @-@ teammate Steve Nash . Nash said of playing with Nowitzki , " We were both joining a new club , living in a new city , we were both single and outsiders : this creates a bond . ... He made life easier for me and I for him . ... Our friendship was something solid in a very volatile world . " Nowitzki added , " He would have also become a good friend if we had met at the supermarket . "
= = Books = =
Nowitzki 's career has been chronicled in books . Dirk Nowitzki : German Wunderkind , written by German sports journalists Dino Reisner and Holger Sauer , was published in 2004 by CoPress Munich . The 160 @-@ page hardcover book follows Nowitzki 's beginnings in his native Würzburg , documents his entry and ascent in the NBA , and ends at the beginning of the 2004 – 05 NBA season .
In November 2011 the Würzburg local newspaper Main @-@ Post published a 216 @-@ page book written by its sports journalists Jürgen Höpfl and Fabian Frühwirth : Einfach Er – Dirk Nowitzki – Aus Würzburg an die Weltspitze , ( Just Him – Dirk Nowitzki – From Würzburg to top of the world ) . Both Höpfl and Frühwirth accompanied Nowitzki throughout his career , collecting interviews and photos used in the book . It looks back on the 2011 NBA Finals but also has a strong focus on Nowitzki 's relation to his hometown Würzburg and his career progression beginning there . It features insights from former coaches , family members , and friends .
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= Alicia McCormack =
Alicia McCormack ( born 7 June 1983 in Helensburgh , New South Wales ) is an Australian water polo goalkeeper . Her playing career started at the age of fourteen with the Kirrawee High School water polo team , and today she plays for the Cronulla Water Polo Club in the National Water Polo League and is a member of the Australia women 's national water polo team . Although she did not play water polo in 2010 due to injury , McCormack has won gold medals at the 2006 Commonwealth Games and the 2006 FINA World Cup ; a silver medal at the 2007 FINA World Championships ; and bronze medals at the 2008 and 2012 Summer Olympics , 2005 FINA World League Super Finals , 2008 FINA World League Super Finals and 2009 FINA World League Super Finals . Currently working at the New South Wales Institute of Sport , McCormack is studying for a Bachelor of Primary Education .
= = Personal life = =
McCormack was born on 7 June 1983 in Helensburgh , New South Wales . She is 168 cm ( 5 ft 6 in ) tall , weighs 73 kilograms ( 161 lb ) , is right handed and has a tattoo featuring the Olympic rings .
McCormack entered Helensburgh Public School in 1988 as a kindergartener and later graduated from Kirrawee High School . She began a Bachelor of Primary Education while on scholarship at the New South Wales Institute of Sport ( NSWIS ) . Her partner is a Navy clearance diver .
McCormack was at a barbecue attended by Prince William when he visited Sydney in 2010 . At the barbecue , people " .... were surprised by the amount of " royal " attention McCormack , the Australian goalkeeper and a member of the [ bronze ] -medal winning team at the Beijing Olympics , received especially when Prince William was seen to bow to the amused McCormack at a barbecue . "
In 2010 , McCormack was working at the New South Wales Institute of Sport as the personal assistant to Charles Turner , the chief executive of the organisation .
= = Water polo = =
McCormack is a goalkeeper , and prefers to wear cap number thirteen . She started playing water polo when she was fourteen years old for the Kirrawee High School team . In 2000 , she represented New South Wales on the state junior team . She has a water polo scholarship from the New South Wales Institute of Sport .
= = = Club water polo = = =
McCormack plays her club water polo for the Cronulla Water Polo Club in the National Water Polo League , serving as the team 's head coach in 2010 when she was unable to play due to a shoulder injury . She returned to the playing roster in 2011 , while also serving as an assistant coach on the team . She continued her involvement with the club into the 2012 season – during which she helped the side to 8 – 4 and 7 – 4 wins in the first two games of the season . She took a break from the Cronulla team following their 18 February 2012 game in order to attend the national team training camp .
= = = Senior national team = = =
McCormack is a member of the Australia women 's national water polo team and played her first game with the senior team at the 2003 Holiday Cup in the United States . In 2005 , she was part of the side that won a bronze medal at the FINA World League Super Finals in Kirishi , Russia . That year , she was also part of the team that finished sixth at the FINA World Championships in Montreal , Canada .
In 2006 , McCormack won a gold medal at the Commonwealth Games in Perth , Western Australia . That year , she was also part of the Australian side that finished fourth at the FINA World League Super Finals in Cosenza , Italy . She was also part of the 2006 FINA World Cup team in Tianjin , China , that won a gold medal . In a 2007 Asia @-@ Oceania qualifier for the World League Super Finals , she made seventeen saves in a 19 @-@ 2 victory against Japan . She was part of the 2007 silver winning side at the FINA World Championship in Melbourne , Australia . She played in goal in the December 2007 series against New Zealand where Australian won the first two tests 18 – 1 and 17 – 1 .
McCormack was part of Australia 's Oceania Olympic qualification campaign in 2008 . In an 18 – 1 victory over New Zealand during the qualifiers , she made twelve saves . She was named to the team that competed in 2008 at the FINA world league preliminary round in Tianjin , China . In a 2008 Asia @-@ Oceania qualifier against China for the World League Super Finals , she played in the 11 – 9 win that went to a penalty shoot out . She helped the team win by making a two handed stop of a Chinese shot in the last minutes of the game . She competed in the FINA World League Super Finals in Tenerife , Spain , where Australia took home a bronze medal . She won a bronze medal at the 2008 Summer Olympics as a member of the Australia women 's national water polo team . Her team ended up in the bronze medal match after losing 8 – 9 to the United States in the semi finals and playing against Hungary for the bronze . Earlier in the Olympics , her team had tied the Hungarians .
In 2009 , McCormack was part of the Australian side that finished third at the FINA World Leaue Super Finals in Kirishi , Russia . She was also part of the team that finished sixth at the FINA World Championships in Rome , Italy , in 2009 . In April 2011 , she attended a training camp at the Australian Institute of Sport where the coach was " selecting a team for the major championships over winter . " She competed in a warm @-@ up match for the 2011 FINA World League against Italy in Ostia , Italy , in July that Australia won 12 – 11 . In February 2012 , she was named to the final training squad for the 2012 Summer Olympics . She attended training camp that started on 20 February 2012 at the Australian Institute of Sport . The team of seventeen players will be cut to thirteen before the team departs for the Olympic games , with the announcement being made on 13 June . She was part of the Stingers squad that competed in a five @-@ game test against Great Britain at the AIS in late February 2012 . This was the team 's first matches against Great Britain 's national team in six years .
At the 2012 Summer Olympics , she was part of the team that won bronze .
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= Cnidaria =
Cnidaria ( / naɪˈdɛəriə / ) is a phylum containing over 10 @,@ 000 species of animals found exclusively in aquatic ( freshwater and marine ) environments : they are predominantly marine species . Their distinguishing feature is cnidocytes , specialized cells that they use mainly for capturing prey . Their bodies consist of mesoglea , a non @-@ living jelly @-@ like substance , sandwiched between two layers of epithelium that are mostly one cell thick . They have two basic body forms : swimming medusae and sessile polyps , both of which are radially symmetrical with mouths surrounded by tentacles that bear cnidocytes . Both forms have a single orifice and body cavity that are used for digestion and respiration . Many cnidarian species produce colonies that are single organisms composed of medusa @-@ like or polyp @-@ like zooids , or both ( hence they are trimorphic ) . Cnidarians ' activities are coordinated by a decentralized nerve net and simple receptors . Several free @-@ swimming species of Cubozoa and Scyphozoa possess balance @-@ sensing statocysts , and some have simple eyes . Not all cnidarians reproduce sexually , with many species having complex life cycles of asexual polyp stages and sexual medusae . Some , however , omit either the polyp or the medusa stage .
Cnidarians were formerly grouped with ctenophores in the phylum Coelenterata , but increasing awareness of their differences caused them to be placed in separate phyla . Cnidarians are classified into four main groups : the almost wholly sessile Anthozoa ( sea anemones , corals , sea pens ) ; swimming Scyphozoa ( jellyfish ) ; Cubozoa ( box jellies ) ; and Hydrozoa , a diverse group that includes all the freshwater cnidarians as well as many marine forms , and has both sessile members , such as Hydra , and colonial swimmers , such as the Portuguese Man o ' War . Staurozoa have recently been recognised as a class in their own right rather than a sub @-@ group of Scyphozoa , and there is debate about whether Myxozoa and Polypodiozoa are cnidarians or closer to bilaterians ( more complex animals ) .
Most cnidarians prey on organisms ranging in size from plankton to animals several times larger than themselves , but many obtain much of their nutrition from endosymbiotic algae , and a few are parasites . Many are preyed on by other animals including starfish , sea slugs , fish and turtles . Many scleractinian corals — which form the structural foundation for coral reefs — possess polyps that are filled with endosymbiotic algae . While reef @-@ forming corals are almost entirely restricted to warm and shallow marine waters , other cnidarians can be found at great depths , in polar regions , and in freshwater .
Fossil cnidarians have been found in rocks formed about 580 million years ago , and other fossils show that corals may have been present shortly before 490 million years ago and diversified a few million years later . Fossils of cnidarians that do not build mineralized structures are very rare . Scientists currently think that cnidarians , ctenophores and bilaterians are more closely related to calcareous sponges than these are to other sponges , and that anthozoans are the evolutionary " aunts " or " sisters " of other cnidarians , and the most closely related to bilaterians .
= = Distinguishing features = =
Cnidarians form an animal phylum that are more complex than sponges , about as complex as ctenophores ( comb jellies ) , and less complex than bilaterians , which include almost all other animals . However , both cnidarians and ctenophores are more complex than sponges as they have : cells bound by inter @-@ cell connections and carpet @-@ like basement membranes ; muscles ; nervous systems ; and some have sensory organs . Cnidarians are distinguished from all other animals by having cnidocytes that fire like harpoons and are used mainly to capture prey . In some species , cnidocytes can also be used as anchors .
Like sponges and ctenophores , cnidarians have two main layers of cells that sandwich a middle layer of jelly @-@ like material , which is called the mesoglea in cnidarians ; more complex animals have three main cell layers and no intermediate jelly @-@ like layer . Hence , cnidarians and ctenophores have traditionally been labelled diploblastic , along with sponges . However , both cnidarians and ctenophores have a type of muscle that , in more complex animals , arises from the middle cell layer . As a result , some recent text books classify ctenophores as triploblastic , and it has been suggested that cnidarians evolved from triploblastic ancestors .
= = Description = =
= = = Basic body forms = = =
Adult cnidarians appear as either swimming medusae or sessile polyps , and many hydrozoan species are known to alternate between the two forms . Both are radially symmetrical , like a wheel and a tube respectively . Since these animals have no heads , their ends are described as " oral " ( nearest the mouth ) and " aboral " ( furthest from the mouth ) . Most have fringes of tentacles equipped with cnidocytes around their edges , and medusae generally have an inner ring of tentacles around the mouth . Some hydroids may consist of colonies of zooids that serve different purposes , such as defense , reproduction and catching prey . The mesoglea of polyps is usually thin and often soft , but that of medusae is usually thick and springy , so that it returns to its original shape after muscles around the edge have contracted to squeeze water out , enabling medusae to swim by a sort of jet propulsion .
= = = Skeletons = = =
In medusae the only supporting structure is the mesoglea . Hydra and most sea anemones close their mouths when they are not feeding , and the water in the digestive cavity then acts as a hydrostatic skeleton , rather like a water @-@ filled balloon . Other polyps such as Tubularia use columns of water @-@ filled cells for support . Sea pens stiffen the mesoglea with calcium carbonate spicules and tough fibrous proteins , rather like sponges .
In some colonial polyps , a chitinous periderm gives support and some protection to the connecting sections and to the lower parts of individual polyps . Stony corals secrete massive calcium carbonate exoskeletons . A few polyps collect materials such as sand grains and shell fragments , which they attach to their outsides . Some colonial sea anemones stiffen the mesoglea with sediment particles .
= = = Main cell layers = = =
Cnidaria are diploblastic animals ; in other words , they have two main cell layers , while more complex animals are triploblasts having three main layers . The two main cell layers of cnidarians form epithelia that are mostly one cell thick , and are attached to a fibrous basement membrane , which they secrete . They also secrete the jelly @-@ like mesoglea that separates the layers . The layer that faces outwards , known as the ectoderm ( " outside skin " ) , generally contains the following types of cells :
Epitheliomuscular cells whose bodies form part of the epithelium but whose bases extend to form muscle fibers in parallel rows . The fibers of the outward @-@ facing cell layer generally run at right angles to the fibers of the inward @-@ facing one . In Anthozoa ( anemones , corals , etc . ) and Scyphozoa ( jellyfish ) , the mesoglea also contains some muscle cells .
Cnidocytes , the harpoon @-@ like " nettle cells " that give the phylum Cnidaria its name . These appear between or sometimes on top of the muscle cells .
Nerve cells . Sensory cells appear between or sometimes on top of the muscle cells , and communicate via synapses ( gaps across which chemical signals flow ) with motor nerve cells , which lie mostly between the bases of the muscle cells .
Interstitial cells , which are unspecialized and can replace lost or damaged cells by transforming into the appropriate types . These are found between the bases of muscle cells .
In addition to epitheliomuscular , nerve and interstitial cells , the inward @-@ facing gastroderm ( " stomach skin " ) contains gland cells that secrete digestive enzymes . In some species it also contains low concentrations of cnidocytes , which are used to subdue prey that is still struggling .
The mesoglea contains small numbers of amoeba @-@ like cells , and muscle cells in some species . However , the number of middle @-@ layer cells and types are much lower than in sponges .
= = = Polymorphism = = =
Polymorphism refers to the occurrence of structurally and functionally more than two different types of individuals within the same organism . It is a characteristic feature of Cnidarians , particularly the polyp and medusa forms , or of zooids within colonial organisms like those in Hydrozoa . In Hydrozoans , colonial individuals arising from individuals zooids will take on separate tasks . For example , in Obelia there are feeding individuals , the gastrozooids ; the individuals capable of asexual reproduction only , the gonozooids , blastostyles and free @-@ living or sexually reproducing individuals , the medusae .
= = = Cnidocytes = = =
These " nettle cells " function as harpoons , since their payloads remain connected to the bodies of the cells by threads . Three types of cnidocytes are known :
Nematocysts inject venom into prey , and usually have barbs to keep them embedded in the victims . Most species have nematocysts .
Spirocysts do not penetrate the victim or inject venom , but entangle it by means of small sticky hairs on the thread .
Ptychocysts are not used for prey capture — instead the threads of discharged ptychocysts are used for building protective tubes in which their owners live . Ptychocysts are found only in the order Cerianthria , tube anemones .
The main components of a cnidocyte are :
A cilium ( fine hair ) which projects above the surface and acts as a trigger . Spirocysts do not have cilia .
A tough capsule , the cnida , which houses the thread , its payload and a mixture of chemicals that may include venom or adhesives or both . ( " cnida " is derived from the Greek word κνίδη , which means " nettle " )
A tube @-@ like extension of the wall of the cnida that points into the cnida , like the finger of a rubber glove pushed inwards . When a cnidocyte fires , the finger pops out . If the cell is a venomous nematocyte , the " finger " ' s tip reveals a set of barbs that anchor it in the prey .
The thread , which is an extension of the " finger " and coils round it until the cnidocyte fires . The thread is usually hollow and delivers chemicals from the cnida to the target .
An operculum ( lid ) over the end of the cnida . The lid may be a single hinged flap or three flaps arranged like slices of pie .
The cell body , which produces all the other parts .
It is difficult to study the firing mechanisms of cnidocytes as these structures are small but very complex . At least four hypotheses have been proposed :
Rapid contraction of fibers round the cnida may increase its internal pressure .
The thread may be like a coiled spring that extends rapidly when released .
In the case of Chironex ( the " sea wasp " ) , chemical changes in the cnida 's contents may cause them to expand rapidly by polymerization .
Chemical changes in the liquid in the cnida make it a much more concentrated solution , so that osmotic pressure forces water in very rapidly to dilute it . This mechanism has been observed in nematocysts of the class Hydrozoa , sometimes producing pressures as high as 140 atmospheres , similar to that of scuba air tanks , and fully extending the thread in as little as 2 milliseconds ( 0 @.@ 002 second ) .
Cnidocytes can only fire once , and about 25 % of a hydra 's nematocysts are lost from its tentacles when capturing a brine shrimp . Used cnidocytes have to be replaced , which takes about 48 hours . To minimise wasteful firing , two types of stimulus are generally required to trigger cnidocytes : nearby sensory cells detect chemicals in the water , and their cilia respond to contact . This combination prevents them from firing at distant or non @-@ living objects . Groups of cnidocytes are usually connected by nerves and , if one fires , the rest of the group requires a weaker minimum stimulus than the cells that fire first .
= = = Locomotion = = =
Medusae swim by a form of jet propulsion : muscles , especially inside the rim of the bell , squeeze water out of the cavity inside the bell , and the springiness of the mesoglea powers the recovery stroke . Since the tissue layers are very thin , they provide too little power to swim against currents and just enough to control movement within currents .
Hydras and some sea anemones can move slowly over rocks and sea or stream beds by various means : creeping like snails , crawling like inchworms , or by somersaulting . A few can swim clumsily by waggling their bases .
= = = Nervous system and senses = = =
Cnidaria have no brains or even central nervous systems . Instead they have decentralized nerve nets consisting of sensory neurons that generate signals in response to various types of stimulus , such as odors , motor neurons that tell muscles to contract , and " cobwebs " of intermediate neurons to connect them . As well as forming the " signal cables " , intermediate neurons also form ganglia that act as local coordination centers . The cilia of the cnidocytes detect physical contact . Nerves inform cnidocytes when odors from prey or attackers are detected and when neighbouring cnidocytes fire . Most of the communications between nerve cells are via chemical synapses , small gaps across which chemicals flow . As this process is too slow to ensure that the muscles round the rim of a medusa 's bell contract simultaneously in swimming the neurons which control this communicate by much faster electrical signals across gap junctions .
Medusae and complex swimming colonies such as siphonophores and chondrophores sense tilt and acceleration by means of statocysts , chambers lined with hairs which detect the movements of internal mineral grains called statoliths . If the body tilts in the wrong direction , the animal rights itself by increasing the strength of the swimming movements on the side that is too low . Most species have ocelli ( " simple eyes " ) , which can detect sources of light . However the agile Box Jellyfish are unique among Medusae because they possess four kinds of true eyes that have retinas , corneas and lenses . Although the eyes probably do not form images , Cubozoa can clearly distinguish the direction from which light is coming as well as negotiate around solid @-@ colored objects .
= = = Feeding and excretion = = =
Cnidarians feed in several ways : predation , absorbing dissolved organic chemicals , filtering food particles out of the water , and obtaining nutrients from symbiotic algae within their cells . Most obtain the majority of their food from predation but some , including the corals Hetroxenia and Leptogorgia , depend almost completely on their endosymbionts and on absorbing dissolved nutrients . Cnidaria give their symbiotic algae carbon dioxide , some nutrients , a place in the sun and protection against predators .
Predatory species use their cnidocytes to poison or entangle prey , and those with venomous nematocysts may start digestion by injecting digestive enzymes . The " smell " of fluids from wounded prey makes the tentacles fold inwards and wipe the prey off into the mouth . In medusae the tentacles round the edge of the bell are often short and most of the prey capture is done by " oral arms " , which are extensions of the edge of the mouth and are often frilled and sometimes branched to increase their surface area . Medusae often trap prey or suspended food particles by swimming upwards , spreading their tentacles and oral arms and then sinking . In species for which suspended food particles are important , the tentacles and oral arms often have rows of cilia whose beating creates currents that flow towards the mouth , and some produce nets of mucus to trap particles . Their digestion is both intra and extracellular .
Once the food is in the digestive cavity , gland cells in the gastroderm release enzymes that reduce the prey to slurry , usually within a few hours . This circulates through the digestive cavity and , in colonial cnidarians , through the connecting tunnels , so that gastroderm cells can absorb the nutrients . Absorption may take a few hours , and digestion within the cells may take a few days . The circulation of nutrients is driven by water currents produced by cilia in the gastroderm or by muscular movements or both , so that nutrients reach all parts of the digestive cavity . Nutrients reach the outer cell layer by diffusion or , for animals or zooids such as medusae which have thick mesogleas , are transported by mobile cells in the mesoglea .
Indigestible remains of prey are expelled through the mouth . The main waste product of cells ' internal processes is ammonia , which is removed by the external and internal water currents .
= = = Respiration = = =
There are no respiratory organs , and both cell layers absorb oxygen from and expel carbon dioxide into the surrounding water . When the water in the digestive cavity becomes stale it must be replaced , and nutrients that have not been absorbed will be expelled with it . Some Anthozoa have ciliated grooves on their tentacles , allowing them to pump water out of and into the digestive cavity without opening the mouth . This improves respiration after feeding and allows these animals , which use the cavity as a hydrostatic skeleton , to control the water pressure in the cavity without expelling undigested food .
Cnidaria that carry photosynthetic symbionts may have the opposite problem , an excess of oxygen , which may prove toxic . The animals produce large quantities of antioxidants to neutralize the excess oxygen .
= = = Regeneration = = =
All cnidarians can regenerate , allowing them to recover from injury and to reproduce asexually . Medusae have limited ability to regenerate , but polyps can do so from small pieces or even collections of separated cells . This enables corals to recover even after apparently being destroyed by predators .
= = Reproduction = =
= = = Sexual = = =
Cnidarian sexual reproduction often involves a complex life cycle with both polyp and medusa stages . For example , in Scyphozoa ( jellyfish ) and Cubozoa ( box jellies ) a larva swims until it finds a good site , and then becomes a polyp . This grows normally but then absorbs its tentacles and splits horizontally into a series of disks that become juvenile medusae , a process called strobilation . The juveniles swim off and slowly grow to maturity , while the polyp re @-@ grows and may continue strobilating periodically . The adults have gonads in the gastroderm , and these release ova and sperm into the water in the breeding season .
This phenomenon of succession of differently organized generations ( one asexually reproducing , sessile polyp , and one sexually reproducing , free @-@ swimming medusa or sessile polyp ) is sometimes called Alternation of asexual and sexual phases or metagenesis , but should not be confused with the alternation of generations as found in plants , characterized by an alternation of a multicellular spore @-@ producing form and a multicellular gamete @-@ producing form .
Shortened forms of this life cycle are common , for example some oceanic scyphozoans omit the polyp stage completely , and cubozoan polyps produce only one medusa . Hydrozoa have a variety of life cycles . Some have no polyp stages and some ( e.g. hydra ) have no medusae . In some species , the medusae remain attached to the polyp and are responsible for sexual reproduction ; in extreme cases these reproductive zooids may not look much like medusae . Meanwhile , life cycle reversal , in which polyps are formed directly from medusae without the involvement of sexual reproduction process , was observed in both Hydrozoa ( Turritopsis dohrnii and Laodicea undulata ) and Scyphozoa ( Aurelia sp.1 ) . Anthozoa have no medusa stage at all and the polyps are responsible for sexual reproduction .
Spawning is generally driven by environmental factors such as changes in the water temperature , and their release is triggered by lighting conditions such as sunrise , sunset or the phase of the moon . Many species of Cnidaria may spawn simultaneously in the same location , so that there are too many ova and sperm for predators to eat more than a tiny percentage — one famous example is the Great Barrier Reef , where at least 110 corals and a few non @-@ cnidarian invertebrates produce enough gametes to turn the water cloudy . These mass spawnings may produce hybrids , some of which can settle and form polyps , but it is not known how long these can survive . In some species the ova release chemicals that attract sperm of the same species .
The fertilized eggs develop into larvae by dividing until there are enough cells to form a hollow sphere ( blastula ) and then a depression forms at one end ( gastrulation ) and eventually become the digestive cavity . However , in cnidarians the depression forms at the end further from the yolk ( at the animal pole ) , while in bilaterians it forms at the other end ( vegetal pole ) . The larvae , called planulae , swim or crawl by means of cilia . They are cigar @-@ shaped but slightly broader at the " front " end , which is the aboral , vegetal @-@ pole end and eventually attaches to a substrate if the species has a polyp stage .
Anthozoan larvae either have large yolks or are capable of feeding on plankton , and some already have endosymbiotic algae that help to feed them . Since the parents are immobile , these feeding capabilities extend the larvae 's range and avoid overcrowding of sites . Scyphozoan and hydrozoan larvae have little yolk and most lack endosymbiotic algae , and therefore have to settle quickly and metamorphose into polyps . Instead , these species rely on their medusae to extend their ranges .
= = = Asexual = = =
All known cnidaria can reproduce asexually by various means , in addition to regenerating after being fragmented . Hydrozoan polyps only bud , while the medusae of some hydrozoans can divide down the middle . Scyphozoan polyps can both bud and split down the middle . In addition to both of these methods , Anthozoa can split horizontally just above the base . Asexual reproduction makes the daughter Cnidaria clone the adult .
= = Classification = =
Cnidarians were for a long time grouped with Ctenophores in the phylum Coelenterata , but increasing awareness of their differences caused them to be placed in separate phyla . Modern cnidarians are generally classified into four main classes : sessile Anthozoa ( sea anemones , corals , sea pens ) ; swimming Scyphozoa ( jellyfish ) and Cubozoa ( box jellies ) ; and Hydrozoa , a diverse group that includes all the freshwater cnidarians as well as many marine forms , and has both sessile members such as Hydra and colonial swimmers such as the Portuguese Man o ' War . Staurozoa have recently been recognised as a class in their own right rather than a sub @-@ group of Scyphozoa , and there is debate about whether the parasitic Myxozoa and Polypodiozoa are cnidarians or whether they are more closely related to the bilaterians .
Stauromedusae , small sessile cnidarians with stalks and no medusa stage , have traditionally been classified as members of the Scyphozoa , but recent research suggests they should be regarded as a separate class , Staurozoa .
The Myxozoa , microscopic parasites , were first classified as protozoans , but recently as heavily modified cnidarians , and more closely related to Hydrozoa and Scyphozoa than to Anthozoa . However other recent research suggests that Polypodium hydriforme , a parasite within the egg cells of sturgeon , is closely related to the Myxozoa and that both Polypodium and the Myxozoa are intermediate between cnidarians and bilaterian animals .
Some researchers classify the extinct conulariids as cnidarians , while others propose that they form a completely separate phylum .
= = Ecology = =
Many cnidarians are limited to shallow waters because they depend on endosymbiotic algae for much of their nutrients . The life cycles of most have polyp stages , which are limited to locations that offer stable substrates . Nevertheless , major cnidarian groups contain species that have escaped these limitations . Hydrozoans have a worldwide range : some , such as Hydra , live in freshwater ; Obelia appears in the coastal waters of all the oceans ; and Liriope can form large shoals near the surface in mid @-@ ocean . Among anthozoans , a few scleractinian corals , sea pens and sea fans live in deep , cold waters , and some sea anemones inhabit polar seabeds while others live near hydrothermal vents over 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) below sea @-@ level . Reef @-@ building corals are limited to tropical seas between 30 ° N and 30 ° S with a maximum depth of 46 m ( 151 ft ) , temperatures between 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) and 28 ° C ( 82 ° F ) high salinity and low carbon dioxide levels . Stauromedusae , although usually classified as jellyfish , are stalked , sessile animals that live in cool to Arctic waters . Cnidarians range in size from Hydra , 5 – 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 20 – 0 @.@ 79 in ) long , to the Lion 's mane jellyfish , which may exceed 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) in diameter and 75 m ( 246 ft ) in length .
Prey of cnidarians ranges from plankton to animals several times larger than themselves . Some cnidarians are parasites , mainly on jellyfish but a few are major pests of fish . Others obtain most of their nourishment from endosymbiotic algae or dissolved nutrients . Predators of cnidarians include : sea slugs , which can incorporate nematocysts into their own bodies for self @-@ defense ; starfish , notably the crown of thorns starfish , which can devastate corals ; butterfly fish and parrot fish , which eat corals ; and marine turtles , which eat jellyfish . Some sea anemones and jellyfish have a symbiotic relationship with some fish ; for example clown fish live among the tentacles of sea anemones , and each partner protects the other against predators .
Coral reefs form some of the world 's most productive ecosystems . Common coral reef cnidarians include both Anthozoans ( hard corals , octocorals , anemones ) and Hydrozoans ( fire corals , lace corals ) . The endosymbiotic algae of many cnidarian species are very effective primary producers , in other words converters of inorganic chemicals into organic ones that other organisms can use , and their coral hosts use these organic chemicals very efficiently . In addition , reefs provide complex and varied habitats that support a wide range of other organisms . Fringing reefs just below low @-@ tide level also have a mutually beneficial relationship with mangrove forests at high @-@ tide level and sea grass meadows in between : the reefs protect the mangroves and seagrass from strong currents and waves that would damage them or erode the sediments in which they are rooted , while the mangroves and seagrass protect the coral from large influxes of silt , fresh water and pollutants . This additional level of variety in the environment is beneficial to many types of coral reef animals , which for example may feed in the sea grass and use the reefs for protection or breeding .
= = Evolutionary history = =
= = = Fossil record = = =
The earliest widely accepted animal fossils are rather modern @-@ looking cnidarians , possibly from around 580 million years ago , although fossils from the Doushantuo Formation can only be dated approximately . The identification of some of these as embryos of animals has been contested , but other fossils from these rocks strongly resemble tubes and other mineralized structures made by corals . Their presence implies that the cnidarian and bilaterian lineages had already diverged . Although the Ediacaran fossil Charnia used to be classified as a jellyfish or sea pen , more recent study of growth patterns in Charnia and modern cnidarians has cast doubt on this hypothesis , leaving only the Canadian polyp , Haootia , as the only bona @-@ fide cnidarian body fossil from the Ediacaran . Few fossils of cnidarians without mineralized skeletons are known from more recent rocks , except in lagerstätten that preserved soft @-@ bodied animals .
A few mineralized fossils that resemble corals have been found in rocks from the Cambrian period , and corals diversified in the Early Ordovician . These corals , which were wiped out in the Permian @-@ Triassic extinction about 251 million years ago , did not dominate reef construction since sponges and algae also played a major part . During the Mesozoic era rudist bivalves were the main reef @-@ builders , but they were wiped out in the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event 65 million years ago , and since then the main reef @-@ builders have been scleractinian corals .
= = = Family tree = = =
It is difficult to reconstruct the early stages in the evolutionary " family tree " of animals using only morphology ( their shapes and structures ) , because the large differences between Porifera ( sponges ) , Cnidaria plus Ctenophora ( comb jellies ) , Placozoa and Bilateria ( all the more complex animals ) make comparisons difficult . Hence reconstructions now rely largely or entirely on molecular phylogenetics , which groups organisms according to similarities and differences in their biochemistry , usually in their DNA or RNA .
It is now generally thought that the Calcarea ( sponges with calcium carbonate spicules ) are more closely related to Cnidaria , Ctenophora ( comb jellies ) and Bilateria ( all the more complex animals ) than they are to the other groups of sponges . In 1866 it was proposed that Cnidaria and Ctenophora were more closely related to each other than to Bilateria and formed a group called Coelenterata ( " hollow guts " ) , because Cnidaria and Ctenophora both rely on the flow of water in and out of a single cavity for feeding , excretion and respiration . In 1881 , it was proposed that Ctenophora and Bilateria were more closely related to each other , since they shared features that Cnidaria lack , for example muscles in the middle layer ( mesoglea in Ctenophora , mesoderm in Bilateria ) . However more recent analyses indicate that these similarities are rather vague , and the current view , based on molecular phylogenetics , is that Cnidaria and Bilateria are more closely related to each other than either is to Ctenophora . This grouping of Cnidaria and Bilateria has been labelled " Planulozoa " because it suggests that the earliest Bilateria were similar to the planula larvae of Cnidaria .
Within the Cnidaria , the Anthozoa ( sea anemones and corals ) are regarded as the sister @-@ group of the rest , which suggests that the earliest cnidarians were sessile polyps with no medusa stage . However , it is unclear how the other groups acquired the medusa stage , since Hydrozoa form medusae by budding from the side of the polyp while the other Medusozoa do so by splitting them off from the tip of the polyp . The traditional grouping of Scyphozoa included the Staurozoa , but morphology and molecular phylogenetics indicate that Staurozoa are more closely related to Cubozoa ( box jellies ) than to other " Scyphozoa " . Similarities in the double body walls of Staurozoa and the extinct Conulariida suggest that they are closely related . The position of Anthozoa nearest the beginning of the cnidarian family tree also implies that Anthozoa are the cnidarians most closely related to Bilateria , and this is supported by the fact that Anthozoa and Bilateria share some genes that determine the main axes of the body .
However , in 2005 Katja Seipel and Volker Schmid suggested that cnidarians and ctenophores are simplified descendants of triploblastic animals , since ctenophores and the medusa stage of some cnidarians have striated muscle , which in bilaterians arises from the mesoderm . They did not commit themselves on whether bilaterians evolved from early cnidarians or from the hypothesized triploblastic ancestors of cnidarians .
In molecular phylogenetics analyses from 2005 onwards , important groups of developmental genes show the same variety in cnidarians as in chordates . In fact cnidarians , and especially anthozoans ( sea anemones and corals ) , retain some genes that are present in bacteria , protists , plants and fungi but not in bilaterians .
The mitochondrial genome in the medusozoan cnidarians , unlike those in other animals , is linear with fragmented genes . The reason for this difference is unknown .
= = Interaction with humans = =
Jellyfish stings killed about 1 @,@ 500 people in the 20th century , and cubozoans are particularly dangerous . On the other hand , some large jellyfish are considered a delicacy in East and Southeast Asia . Coral reefs have long been economically important as providers of fishing grounds , protectors of shore buildings against currents and tides , and more recently as centers of tourism . However , they are vulnerable to over @-@ fishing , mining for construction materials , pollution , and damage caused by tourism .
Beaches protected from tides and storms by coral reefs are often the best places for housing in tropical countries . Reefs are an important food source for low @-@ technology fishing , both on the reefs themselves and in the adjacent seas . However , despite their great productivity , reefs are vulnerable to over @-@ fishing , because much of the organic carbon they produce is exhaled as carbon dioxide by organisms at the middle levels of the food chain and never reaches the larger species that are of interest to fishermen . Tourism centered on reefs provides much of the income of some tropical islands , attracting photographers , divers and sports fishermen . However , human activities damage reefs in several ways : mining for construction materials ; pollution , including large influxes of fresh water from storm drains ; commercial fishing , including the use of dynamite to stun fish and the capture of young fish for aquariums ; and tourist damage caused by boat anchors and the cumulative effect of walking on the reefs . Coral , mainly from the Pacific Ocean has long been used in jewellery , and demand rose sharply in the 1980s .
Some large jellyfish species of the Rhizostomae order are commonly consumed in Japan , Korea and Southeast Asia . In parts of the range , fishing industry is restricted to daylight hours and calm conditions in two short seasons , from March to May and August to November . The commercial value of jellyfish food products depends on the skill with which they are prepared , and " Jellyfish Masters " guard their trade secrets carefully . Jellyfish is very low in cholesterol and sugars , but cheap preparation can introduce undesirable amounts of heavy metals .
The " sea wasp " Chironex fleckeri has been described as the world 's most venomous jellyfish and is held responsible for 67 deaths , although it is difficult to identify the animal as it is almost transparent . Most stingings by C. fleckeri cause only mild symptoms . Seven other box jellies can cause a set of symptoms called Irukandji syndrome , which takes about 30 minutes to develop , and from a few hours to two weeks to disappear . Hospital treatment is usually required , and there have been a few deaths .
= = = Books = = =
Arai , M.N. ( 1997 ) . A Functional Biology of Scyphozoa . London : Chapman & Hall [ p . 316 ] . ISBN 0 @-@ 412 @-@ 45110 @-@ 7 .
Ax , P. ( 1999 ) . Das System der Metazoa I. Ein Lehrbuch der phylogenetischen Systematik . Gustav Fischer , Stuttgart @-@ Jena : Gustav Fischer . ISBN 3 @-@ 437 @-@ 30803 @-@ 3 .
Barnes , R.S.K. , P. Calow , P. J. W. Olive , D. W. Golding & J. I. Spicer ( 2001 ) . The invertebrates — a synthesis . Oxford : Blackwell . 3rd edition [ chapter 3 @.@ 4 @.@ 2 , p . 54 ] . ISBN 0 @-@ 632 @-@ 04761 @-@ 5 .
Brusca , R.C. , G.J. Brusca ( 2003 ) . Invertebrates . Sunderland , Mass . : Sinauer Associates . 2nd edition [ chapter 8 , p . 219 ] . ISBN 0 @-@ 87893 @-@ 097 @-@ 3 .
Dalby , A. ( 2003 ) . Food in the Ancient World : from A to Z. London : Routledge .
Moore , J. ( 2001 ) . An Introduction to the Invertebrates . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press [ chapter 4 , p . 30 ] . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 77914 @-@ 6 .
Schäfer , W. ( 1997 ) . Cnidaria , Nesseltiere . In Rieger , W. ( ed . ) Spezielle Zoologie . Teil 1 . Einzeller und Wirbellose Tiere . Stuttgart @-@ Jena : Gustav Fischer . Spektrum Akademischer Verl . , Heidelberg , 2004 . ISBN 3 @-@ 8274 @-@ 1482 @-@ 2 .
Werner , B. 4 . Stamm Cnidaria . In : V. Gruner ( ed . ) Lehrbuch der speziellen Zoologie . Begr. von Kaestner . 2 Bde . Stuttgart @-@ Jena : Gustav Fischer , Stuttgart @-@ Jena . 1954 , 1980 , 1984 , Spektrum Akad . Verl . , Heidelberg @-@ Berlin , 1993 . 5th edition . ISBN 3 @-@ 334 @-@ 60474 @-@ 8 .
= = = Journal articles = = =
D. Bridge , B. Schierwater , C. W. Cunningham , R. DeSalle R , L. W. Buss : Mitochondrial DNA structure and the molecular phylogeny of recent cnidaria classes. in : Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia . Philadelphia USA 89 @.@ 1992 , p . 8750 . ISSN 0097 @-@ 3157
D. Bridge , C. W. Cunningham , R. DeSalle , L. W. Buss : Class @-@ level relationships in the phylum Cnidaria — Molecular and morphological evidence. in : Molecular biology and evolution . Oxford University Press , Oxford 12 @.@ 1995 , p . 679 . ISSN 0737 @-@ 4038
D. G. Fautin : Reproduction of Cnidaria. in : Canadian Journal of Zoology . Ottawa Ont . 80 @.@ 2002 , p . 1735 . ( PDF , online ) ISSN 0008 @-@ 4301
G. O. Mackie : What 's new in cnidarian biology ? in : Canadian Journal of Zoology . Ottawa Ont . 80 @.@ 2002 , p . 1649 . ( PDF , online ) ISSN 0008 @-@ 4301
P. Schuchert : Phylogenetic analysis of the Cnidaria. in : Zeitschrift für zoologische Systematik und Evolutionsforschung . Paray , Hamburg @-@ Berlin 31 @.@ 1993 , p . 161 . ISSN 0044 @-@ 3808
G. Kass @-@ Simon , A. A. Scappaticci Jr . : The behavioral and developmental physiology of nematocysts. in : Canadian Journal of Zoology . Ottawa Ont . 80 @.@ 2002 , p . 1772 . ( PDF , online ) ISSN 0044 @-@ 3808
J. Zrzavý ( 2001 ) . " The interrelationships of metazoan parasites : a review of phylum- and higher @-@ level hypotheses from recent morphological and molecular phylogenetic analyses " ( PDF ) . Folia Parasitologica 48 ( 2 ) : 81 – 103 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 14411 / fp.2001.013. PMID 11437135 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2007 @-@ 10 @-@ 25 . Retrieved 2009 @-@ 01 @-@ 26 .
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= Mary Anning =
Mary Anning ( 21 May 1799 – 9 March 1847 ) was an English fossil collector , dealer , and paleontologist who became known around the world for important finds she made in Jurassic marine fossil beds in the cliffs along the English Channel at Lyme Regis in the county of Dorset in Southwest England . Her findings contributed to important changes in scientific thinking about prehistoric life and the history of the Earth .
Mary Anning searched for fossils in the area 's Blue Lias cliffs , particularly during the winter months when landslides exposed new fossils that had to be collected quickly before they were lost to the sea . It was dangerous work , and she nearly lost her life in 1833 during a landslide that killed her dog , Tray . Her discoveries included the first ichthyosaur skeleton correctly identified ; the first two more complete plesiosaur skeletons found ; the first pterosaur skeleton located outside Germany ; and important fish fossils . Her observations played a key role in the discovery that coprolites , known as bezoar stones at the time , were fossilised faeces . She also discovered that belemnite fossils contained fossilised ink sacs like those of modern cephalopods . When geologist Henry De la Beche painted Duria Antiquior , the first widely circulated pictorial representation of a scene from prehistoric life derived from fossil reconstructions , he based it largely on fossils Anning had found , and sold prints of it for her benefit .
Anning did not fully participate in the scientific community of 19th @-@ century Britain , who were mostly Anglican gentlemen . She struggled financially for much of her life . Her family was poor , and her father , a cabinetmaker , died when she was eleven .
She became well known in geological circles in Britain , Europe , and America , and was consulted on issues of anatomy as well as about collecting fossils . Nonetheless , as a woman , she was not eligible to join the Geological Society of London and she did not always receive full credit for her scientific contributions . Indeed , she wrote in a letter : " The world has used me so unkindly , I fear it has made me suspicious of everyone . " The only scientific writing of hers published in her lifetime appeared in the Magazine of Natural History in 1839 , an extract from a letter that Anning had written to the magazine 's editor questioning one of its claims .
After her death in 1847 , her unusual life story attracted increasing interest . An uncredited author in All the Year Round , edited by Charles Dickens , wrote of her in 1865 that " [ t ] he carpenter 's daughter has won a name for herself , and has deserved to win it . " In 2010 , one hundred and sixty @-@ three years after her death , the Royal Society included Anning in a list of the ten British women who have most influenced the history of science .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early childhood = = =
Anning was born in Lyme Regis in Dorset , England . Her father , Richard Anning , was a cabinetmaker who supplemented his income by mining the coastal cliff @-@ side fossil beds near the town , and selling his finds to tourists . He married Mary Moore , known as Molly , on 8 August 1793 in Blandford Forum . The couple moved to Lyme and lived in a house built on the town 's bridge . They attended the Dissenter chapel on Coombe Street , whose worshippers initially called themselves independents and later became known as Congregationalists . Shelley Emling writes that the family lived so close to the sea that the same storms that swept along the cliffs to reveal the fossils sometimes flooded the Annings ' home , on one occasion forcing them to crawl out of an upstairs bedroom window to avoid being drowned .
Richard and Molly had ten children . The first child , Mary , was born in 1794 . She was followed by another girl , who died almost at once ; Joseph in 1796 ; and another son in 1798 , who died in infancy . In December that year , the oldest child , then four years old , died after her clothes caught fire , possibly while adding wood shavings to the fire . The incident was reported in the Bath Chronicle on 27 December 1798 : " A child , four years of age of Mr. R. Anning , a cabinetmaker of Lyme , was left by the mother for about five minutes ... in a room where there were some shavings ... The girl 's clothes caught fire and she was so dreadfully burnt as to cause her death . " When another daughter was born just five months later , she was named Mary after her dead sister . More children were born after her , but none of them survived more than a couple of years . Only Mary and Joseph survived to adulthood . The high childhood mortality rate for the Anning family was not very unusual . Almost half the children born in Britain throughout the 19th century died before the age of 5 , and in the crowded living conditions of early 19th century Lyme Regis , infant deaths from diseases like smallpox and measles were particularly common .
On 19 August 1800 , when Anning was 15 months old , an event occurred that became part of local lore . She was being held by a neighbour , Elizabeth Haskings , who was standing with two other women under an elm tree watching an equestrian show being put on by a travelling company of horsemen when lightning struck the tree killing all three women below . Onlookers rushed the infant home where she was revived in a bath of hot water . A local doctor declared her survival miraculous . Her family said she had been a sickly baby before the event but afterwards she seemed to blossom . For years afterward members of her community would attribute the child 's curiosity , intelligence and lively personality to the incident .
Her education was extremely limited . She was able to attend a Congregationalist Sunday school where she learned to read and write . Congregationalist doctrine , unlike that of the Church of England at the time , emphasised the importance of education for the poor . Her prized possession was a bound volume of the Dissenters ' Theological Magazine and Review , in which the family 's pastor , the Reverend James Wheaton , had published two essays , one insisting that God had created the world in six days , the other urging dissenters to study the new science of geology .
= = = Fossils as a family business = = =
By the late 18th century , Lyme Regis had become a popular seaside resort , especially after 1792 when the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars made travel to the European mainland dangerous for the English gentry , and increasing numbers of wealthy and middle class tourists were arriving there . Even before Mary 's time , locals supplemented their income by selling what were called " curios " to visitors . These were fossils with colourful local names such as " snake @-@ stones " ( ammonites ) , " devil 's fingers " ( belemnites ) , and " verteberries " ( vertebrae ) , to which were sometimes attributed medicinal and mystical properties . Fossil collecting was in vogue in the late 18th and early 19th century , at first as a pastime , but gradually transforming into a science as the importance of fossils to geology and biology was understood .
The source of most of these fossils were the coastal cliffs around Lyme Regis , part of a geological formation known as the Blue Lias . This consists of alternating layers of limestone and shale , laid down as sediment on a shallow seabed early in the Jurassic period ( about 210 – 195 million years ago ) . It is one of the richest fossil locations in Britain . The cliffs could be dangerously unstable , however , especially in winter when rain caused landslides . It was precisely during the winter months that collectors were drawn to the cliffs because the landslides often exposed new fossils .
Their father , Richard , often took Mary and Joseph on fossil @-@ hunting expeditions to make more money for the family . They offered their discoveries for sale to tourists on a table outside their home . This was a difficult time for England 's poor ; the French Revolutionary Wars , and the Napoleonic Wars that followed , caused food shortages . The price of wheat almost tripled between 1792 and 1812 , but wages for the working class remained almost unchanged . In Dorset the rising price of bread caused political unrest , even riots . At one point , Richard Anning was involved in organising a protest against food shortages .
In addition , the family 's status as religious dissenters — not followers of the Church of England — attracted discrimination . Dissenters were not allowed into universities or the army , and were excluded by law from several professions . Her father had been suffering from tuberculosis and injuries he suffered from a fall off a cliff . When he died in November 1810 ( aged 44 ) , he left the family with significant debts and no savings , forcing them to apply for parish relief .
The family continued collecting and selling fossils together , and set up a table of curiosities near the coach stop at a local inn . Although the stories about Anning tend to focus on her successes , Dennis Dean writes that her mother and brother were astute collectors too , and her parents had sold significant fossils before the father 's death .
Their first well @-@ known find was in 1811 , when Mary was 12 ; Joseph dug up a 4 @-@ foot ichthyosaur skull , and a few months later Mary found the rest of the skeleton . Henry Hoste Henley of Sandringham , Norfolk , who was lord of the manor of Colway , near Lyme Regis , paid the family about £ 23 for it , and in turn he sold it to William Bullock , a well @-@ known collector , who displayed it in London . There it generated considerable interest , because at a time when most people in England still believed in the Biblical account of creation , which implied that the Earth was only a few thousand years old , it raised questions about the history of living things and of the Earth itself . It was later sold for £ 45 and five shillings at auction in May 1819 as a " Crocodile in a Fossil State " to Charles Konig , of the British Museum , who had already suggested the name Ichthyosaurus for it .
Mary 's mother Molly initially ran the fossil business after Richard 's death , but it is unclear how much actual fossil collecting she did herself . As late as 1821 , she wrote to the British Museum to request payment for a specimen . Joseph 's time was increasingly taken up by his apprenticeship to an upholsterer , but he remained active in the fossil business until at least 1825 . By that time , Mary had assumed the leading role in the family business .
= = = Birch auction = = =
One of the family 's keenest customers was Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Thomas James Birch , later Bosvile , a wealthy collector from Lincolnshire , who bought several specimens from them . In 1820 Birch became disturbed by the family 's poverty . Having made no major discoveries for a year , they were at the point of having to sell their furniture to pay the rent . So he decided to auction the fossils he had purchased from them on their behalf . He wrote to the palaeontologist Gideon Mantell on 5 March that year to say that the sale was " for the benefit of the poor woman and her son and daughter at Lyme , who have in truth found almost all the fine things which have been submitted to scientific investigation ... I may never again possess what I am about to part with , yet in doing it I shall have the satisfaction of knowing that the money will be well applied . " The auction was held at Bullocks in London on 15 May 1820 , and raised £ 400 ( worth the equivalent of over £ 26 @,@ 000 in 2010 ) . How much of that was given to the Annings is not known , but it seems to have placed the family on a steadier financial footing , and with buyers arriving from Paris and Vienna , the three @-@ day event raised the family 's profile within the geological community .
= = = Fossil shop and growing expertise in a risky occupation = = =
Anning continued to support herself selling fossils . Her primary stock in trade consisted of invertebrate fossils such as ammonite and belemnite shells , which were common in the area and sold for a few shillings . Vertebrate fossils , such as ichthyosaur skeletons , sold for more , but were much rarer . Collecting them was dangerous winter work . In 1823 , an article in The Bristol Mirror said of her :
This persevering female has for years gone daily in search of fossil remains of importance at every tide , for many miles under the hanging cliffs at Lyme , whose fallen masses are her immediate object , as they alone contain these valuable relics of a former world , which must be snatched at the moment of their fall , at the continual risk of being crushed by the half suspended fragments they leave behind , or be left to be destroyed by the returning tide : – to her exertions we owe nearly all the fine specimens of Ichthyosauri of the great collections ...
The risks of her profession were illustrated when on October 1833 she barely avoided being killed by a landslide that buried her black @-@ and @-@ white terrier , Tray , her constant companion when she went collecting . She wrote to a friend , Charlotte Murchison , in November of that year : " Perhaps you will laugh when I say that the death of my old faithful dog has quite upset me , the cliff that fell upon him and killed him in a moment before my eyes , and close to my feet ... it was but a moment between me and the same fate . "
As Anning continued to make important finds , her reputation grew . On 10 December 1823 , she found the first complete Plesiosaurus , and in 1828 the first British example of the flying reptiles known as pterosaurs , called a flying dragon when it was displayed at the British Museum , followed by a Squaloraja fish skeleton in 1829 . Despite her limited education , she read as much of the scientific literature as she could obtain , and often , laboriously hand @-@ copied papers borrowed from others . Palaeontologist Christopher McGowan examined a copy she made of an 1824 paper by William Conybeare on marine reptile fossils and noted that the copy included several pages of her detailed technical illustrations that he was hard pressed to tell apart from the original . She also dissected modern animals including both fish and cuttlefish to gain a better understanding of the anatomy of some of the fossils with which she was working . Lady Harriet Silvester , the widow of the former Recorder of the City of London , visited Lyme in 1824 and described Anning in her diary :
The extraordinary thing in this young woman is that she has made herself so thoroughly acquainted with the science that the moment she finds any bones she knows to what tribe they belong . She fixes the bones on a frame with cement and then makes drawings and has them engraved ... It is certainly a wonderful instance of divine favour — that this poor , ignorant girl should be so blessed , for by reading and application she has arrived to that degree of knowledge as to be in the habit of writing and talking with professors and other clever men on the subject , and they all acknowledge that she understands more of the science than anyone else in this kingdom .
In 1826 , at the age of 27 , Anning managed to save enough money to purchase a home with a glass store @-@ front window for her shop , Anning 's Fossil Depot . The business had become important enough that the move was covered in the local paper , which noted that the shop had a fine ichthyosaur skeleton on display . Many geologists and fossil collectors from Europe and America visited Anning at Lyme , including the geologist George William Featherstonhaugh , who called Anning a " very clever funny Creature . " He purchased fossils from her for the newly opened New York Lyceum of Natural History in 1827 . King Frederick Augustus II of Saxony visited her shop in 1844 and purchased an ichthyosaur skeleton for his extensive natural history collection . The king 's physician and aide , Carl Gustav Carus , wrote in his journal :
We had alighted from the carriage and were proceeding on foot , when we fell in with a shop in which the most remarkable petrifications and fossil remains — the head of an Ichthyosaurus — beautiful ammonites , etc. were exhibited in the window . We entered and found the small shop and adjoining chamber completely filled with fossil productions of the coast ... I found in the shop a large slab of blackish clay , in which a perfect Ichthyosaurus of at least six feet , was embedded . This specimen would have been a great acquisition for many of the cabinets of natural history on the Continent , and I consider the price demanded , £ 15 sterling , as very moderate .
Carus asked Anning to write her name and address in his pocketbook for future reference — she wrote it as " Mary Annins " — and when she handed it back to him she told him : " I am well known throughout the whole of Europe . " As time passed , Anning 's confidence in her knowledge grew , and in 1839 she wrote to the Magazine of Natural History to question the claim made in an article , that a recently discovered fossil of the prehistoric shark Hybodus represented a new genus , as an error since she had discovered the existence of fossil sharks with both straight and hooked teeth many years ago . The extract from the letter that the magazine printed was the only writing of Anning 's published in the scientific literature during her lifetime . Some personal letters written by her , such as her correspondence with Frances Augusta Bell , were published while she was alive , however .
= = = Interactions with the scientific community = = =
As a working @-@ class woman , Anning was an outsider to the scientific community . At the time in Britain women were not allowed to vote , hold public office , or attend university . The newly formed , but increasingly influential Geological Society of London did not allow women to become members , or even to attend meetings as guests . The only occupations generally open to working @-@ class women were farm labour , domestic service , and work in the newly opening factories .
Although Anning knew more about fossils and geology than many of the wealthy fossilists to whom she sold , it was always the gentlemen geologists who published the scientific descriptions of the specimens she found , often neglecting to mention her name . She became resentful of this . Anna Pinney , a young woman who sometimes accompanied Anning while she collected , wrote : " She says the world has used her ill ... these men of learning have sucked her brains , and made a great deal of publishing works , of which she furnished the contents , while she derived none of the advantages . " Torrens writes that these slights to Anning were part of a larger pattern of ignoring the contributions of working @-@ class people in early 19th @-@ century scientific literature . Often a fossil would be found by a quarryman , construction worker , or road worker who would sell it to a wealthy collector , and it was the latter who was credited if the find was of scientific interest .
Along with purchasing specimens , many geologists visited her to collect fossils or discuss anatomy and classification . Henry De la Beche and Anning became friends as teenagers following his move to Lyme , and he , Mary , and sometimes Mary 's brother Joseph , went fossil @-@ hunting together . De la Beche and Anning kept in touch as he became one of Britain 's leading geologists . William Buckland , who lectured on geology at the University of Oxford , often visited Lyme on his Christmas vacations and was frequently seen hunting for fossils with Anning . It was to him she made what would prove to be the scientifically important suggestion that the strange conical objects known as bezoar stones , were really the fossilised faeces of ichthyosaurs or plesiosaurs . Buckland would name the objects coprolites . In 1839 Buckland , Conybeare , and Richard Owen visited Lyme together so that Anning could lead them all on a fossil @-@ collecting excursion .
She also assisted Thomas Hawkins with his efforts to collect ichthyosaur fossils at Lyme in the 1830s . She was aware of his penchant to " enhance " the fossils he collected . She wrote : " he is such an enthusiast that he makes things as he imagines they ought to be ; and not as they are really found ... " . A few years later there was a public scandal when it was discovered that Hawkins had inserted fake bones to make some ichthyosaur skeletons seem more complete , and later sold them to the government for the British Museum 's collection without the appraisers knowing about the additions .
The Swiss palaeontologist Louis Agassiz visited Lyme Regis in 1834 and worked with Anning to obtain and study fish fossils found in the region . He was so impressed by her and her friend Elizabeth Philpot that he wrote in his journal : " Miss Philpot and Mary Anning have been able to show me with utter certainty which are the icthyodorulites dorsal fins of sharks that correspond to different types . " He thanked both of them for their help in his book , Studies of Fossil Fish .
Another leading British geologist , Roderick Murchison , did some of his first field work in southwest England , including Lyme , accompanied by his wife , Charlotte . Murchison wrote that they decided Charlotte should stay behind in Lyme for a few weeks to " become a good practical fossilist , by working with the celebrated Mary Anning of that place ... " . Charlotte and Anning became lifelong friends and correspondents . Charlotte , who travelled widely and met many prominent geologists through her work with her husband , helped Anning build her network of customers throughout Europe , and Anning stayed with the Murchisons when she visited London in 1829 .
Gideon Mantell , discoverer of the dinosaur Iguanodon , also visited her at her shop .
Anning 's correspondents included Charles Lyell , who wrote to her to ask her opinion on how the sea was affecting the coastal cliffs around Lyme , as well as Adam Sedgwick — one of her earliest customers — who taught geology at the University of Cambridge and who numbered Charles Darwin among his students .
= = = Financial difficulties and change in church affiliation = = =
By 1830 , because of difficult economic conditions in Britain that reduced the demand for fossils , coupled with long gaps between major finds , Anning was having financial problems again . Her friend the geologist Henry De la Beche assisted her by commissioning Georg Scharf to make a lithographic print based on De la Beche 's watercolour painting , Duria Antiquior , portraying life in prehistoric Dorset that was largely based on fossils Anning had found . De la Beche sold copies of the print to his fellow geologists and other wealthy friends and donated the proceeds to her . It became the first such scene from what later became known as deep time to be widely circulated . In December 1830 she finally made another major find , a skeleton of a new type of plesiosaur , which sold for £ 200 .
It was around this time that she switched from attending the local Congregational church , where she had been baptised and in which she and her family had always been active members , to the Anglican church . The change was prompted in part by a decline in Congregational attendance that began in 1828 when its popular pastor , John Gleed , a fellow fossil collector , left for the United States to campaign against slavery . He was replaced by the less likeable Ebenezer Smith . The greater social respectability of the established church , in which some of Anning 's gentleman geologist customers such as Buckland , Conybeare , and Sedgwick were ordained clergy , was also a factor . Anning , who was devoutly religious , actively supported her new church as she had her old .
She suffered another serious financial setback in 1835 when she lost most of her life savings , about £ 300 , in a bad investment . Sources differ somewhat on what exactly went wrong . Deborah Cadbury says that she invested with a conman who swindled her and disappeared with the money , but Shelley Emling writes that it is not clear whether the man ran off with the money or whether he died suddenly leaving Anning with no way to recover the investment . Concerned about her financial situation , her old friend William Buckland persuaded the British Association for the Advancement of Science and the British government to award her an annuity , known as a civil list pension , in return for her many contributions to the science of geology . The £ 25 annual pension gave her a certain amount of financial security .
= = = Illness and death = = =
Anning died from breast cancer at the age of 47 on 9 March 1847 . Her work had tailed off during the last few years of her life because of her illness , and as some townspeople misinterpreted the effects of the increasing doses of laudanum she was taking for the pain , there had been gossip in Lyme that she had a drinking problem . The regard in which she was held by the geological community was shown in 1846 when , upon learning of her cancer diagnosis , the Geological Society raised money from its members to help with her expenses and the council of the newly created Dorset County Museum made her an honorary member . She was buried on 15 March in the churchyard of St. Michael 's , the local parish church . Members of the Geological Society contributed to a stained @-@ glass window in her memory , unveiled in 1850 . It depicts the six corporal acts of mercy — feeding the hungry , giving drink to the thirsty , clothing the naked , sheltering the homeless , visiting prisoners and the sick , and the inscription reads : " This window is sacred to the memory of Mary Anning of this parish , who died 9 March AD 1847 and is erected by the vicar and some members of the Geological Society of London in commemoration of her usefulness in furthering the science of geology , as also of her benevolence of heart and integrity of life . "
After her death , Henry De la Beche , president of the Geological Society , wrote a eulogy that he read to a meeting of the society and published in its quarterly transactions , the first such eulogy given for a woman . These were honours normally only accorded to fellows of the society , which did not admit women until 1904 . The eulogy began :
" I cannot close this notice of our losses by death without adverting to that of one , who though not placed among even the easier classes of society , but one who had to earn her daily bread by her labour , yet contributed by her talents and untiring researches in no small degree to our knowledge of the great Enalio @-@ Saurians , and other forms of organic life entombed in the vicinity of Lyme Regis ... "
Charles Dickens wrote an article about her life in February 1865 in his literary magazine All the Year Round that emphasised the difficulties she had overcome , especially the scepticism of her fellow townspeople . He ended the article with : " The carpenter 's daughter has won a name for herself , and has deserved to win it . "
= = Major discoveries = =
= = = Ichthyosaurs = = =
Anning 's first famous discovery was made shortly after her father 's death . In 1811 ( some sources say 1810 or 1809 ) her brother Joseph found a 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) skull , but failed to locate the rest of the animal . After Joseph told her to look between the cliffs at Lyme Regis and Charmouth , Mary found the skeleton — 17 ft ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) long in all — a few months later . The family hired workmen to dig it out in November that year , an event covered by the local press on 9 November , who identified the fossil as a crocodile .
Other ichthyosaur remains had been discovered in years past at Lyme and elsewhere , but the specimen found by the Annings was the first to come to the attention of scientific circles in London . It was purchased by the lord of a local manor , who passed it to William Bullock for public display in London where it created a sensation . At a time when most people in Britain still believed in a literal interpretation of Genesis , that the Earth was only a few thousand years old and that species did not evolve or become extinct , the find raised questions in scientific and religious circles about what the new science of geology was revealing about ancient life and the history of the Earth . Its notoriety increased when Sir Everard Home wrote a series of six papers , starting in 1814 , describing it for the Royal Society . The papers never mentioned who had collected the fossil , and in the first one he even mistakenly credited the painstaking cleaning and preparation of the fossil performed by Anning to the staff at Bullock 's museum . Perplexed by the creature , Home kept changing his mind about its classification , first thinking it was a kind of fish , then thinking it might have some kind of affinity with the duck @-@ billed platypus ( only recently known to science ) ; finally in 1819 he reasoned it might be a kind of intermediate form between salamanders and lizards , which led him to propose naming it Proteo @-@ Saurus . By then Charles Konig , an assistant curator of the British Museum , had already suggested the name Ichthyosaurus ( fish lizard ) for the specimen and that name stuck . Konig purchased the skeleton for the museum in 1819 . The skull of the specimen is still in the possession of the Natural History Museum in London ( to which the fossil collections of the British Museum were transferred later in the century ) , but at some point , it became separated from the rest of the skeleton , the location of which is not known .
Anning found several other ichthyosaur fossils between 1815 and 1819 , including almost complete skeletons of varying sizes . In 1821 William Conybeare and Henry De la Beche , both members of the Geological Society of London , collaborated on a paper that analysed in detail the specimens found by Anning and others . They concluded that ichthyosaurs were a previously unknown type of marine reptile , and based on differences in tooth structure , they concluded that there had been at least three species . Also in 1821 , Anning found the 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) skeleton from which the species Ichthyosaurus platydon ( now Temnodontosaurus platyodon ) would be named . In the 1980s it was determined that the first ichthyosaur specimen found by Joseph and Mary Anning was also a member of Temnodontosaurus platyodon .
= = = Plesiosaurus = = =
In the same 1821 paper he co @-@ authored with Henry De la Beche on ichthyosaur anatomy , William Conybeare named and described the genus Plesiosaurus ( near lizard ) , called so because he thought it more like modern reptiles than the ichthyosaur had been . The description was based on a number of fossils , the most complete of them specimen OUMNH J.50146 , a paddle and vertebral column that had been obtained by Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Thomas James Birch . Christopher McGowan has hypothesised that this specimen had originally been much more complete and had been collected by Anning , during the winter of 1820 / 1821 . If so , it would have been Anning 's next major discovery , providing essential information about the newly recognised type of marine reptile . No records by Anning of the find are known . The paper thanked Birch for giving Conybeare access to it , but does not mention who discovered and prepared it .
In 1823 , Anning discovered a second , much more complete plesiosaur skeleton , specimen BMNH 22656 . When Conybeare presented his analysis of plesiosaur anatomy to a meeting of the Geological Society in 1824 , he again failed to mention Anning by name , even though she had possibly collected both skeletons and she had made the sketch of the second skeleton he used in his presentation . Conybeare 's presentation was made at the same meeting at which William Buckland described the dinosaur Megalosaurus and the combination created a sensation in scientific circles . The second fossil was named and described as Plesiosaurus dolichodeirus and is the type specimen ( holotype ) of this species , which itself is the type species of the genus .
Conybeare 's presentation followed the resolution of a controversy over the legitimacy of one of the fossils . The fact that the plesiosaur 's long neck had an unprecedented 35 vertebrae raised the suspicions of the eminent French anatomist Georges Cuvier when he reviewed Anning 's drawings of the second skeleton , and he wrote to Conybeare suggesting the possibility that the find was a fake produced by combining fossil bones from different kinds of animals . Fraud was far from unknown among early 19th @-@ century fossil collectors , and if the controversy had not been resolved promptly , the accusation could have seriously damaged Anning 's ability to sell fossils to other geologists . Cuvier 's accusation had resulted in a special meeting of the Geological Society earlier in 1824 , which , after some debate , had concluded the skeleton was legitimate . Cuvier later admitted he had acted in haste and was mistaken .
Anning discovered yet another important and nearly complete plesiosaur skeleton in 1830 . It was named Plesiosaurus macrocephalus by William Buckland and was described in an 1840 paper by Richard Owen . Once again Owen mentioned the wealthy gentleman who had purchased the fossil and made it available for examination , but not the woman who had discovered and prepared it .
= = = Fossil fish and pterosaur = = =
Anning found what a contemporary newspaper article called an " unrivalled specimen " of Dapedium politum . This was a ray @-@ finned fish , which would be described in 1828 . In December of that same year she made an important find consisting of the partial skeleton of a pterosaur . In 1829 William Buckland described it as Pterodactylus macronyx ( later renamed Dimorphodon macronyx by Richard Owen ) , and unlike many other such occasions , Buckland credited Anning with the discovery in his paper .
It was the first pterosaur skeleton found outside Germany , and it created a public sensation when displayed at the British Museum . In December 1829 she found a fossil fish , Squaloraja , which attracted attention because it had characteristics intermediate between sharks and rays .
= = = Invertebrates and trace fossils = = =
Vertebrate fossil finds , especially of marine reptiles , made Anning 's reputation , but she made numerous other contributions to early palaeontology . In 1826 she discovered what appeared to be a chamber containing dried ink inside a belemnite fossil . She showed it to her friend Elizabeth Philpot who was able to revivify the ink and use it to illustrate some of her own ichthyosaur fossils . Soon other local artists were doing the same , as more such fossilised ink chambers were discovered . Anning noted how closely the fossilised chambers resembled the ink sacs of modern squid and cuttlefish , which she had dissected to understand the anatomy of fossil cephalopods , and this led William Buckland to publish the conclusion that Jurassic belemnites had used ink for defence just as many modern cephalopods do . It was also Anning who noticed that the oddly shaped fossils then known as " bezoar stones " were sometimes found in the abdominal region of ichthyosaur skeletons . She noted that if such stones were broken open they often contained fossilised fish bones and scales , and sometimes bones from small ichthyosaurs . Anning suspected the stones were fossilised faeces and suggested so to Buckland in 1824 . After further investigation and comparison with similar fossils found in other places , Buckland published that conclusion in 1829 and named them coprolites . In contrast to the finding of the plesiosaur skeletons a few years earlier , for which she was not credited , when Buckland presented his findings on coprolites to the Geological Society , he mentioned Anning by name and praised her skill and industry in helping to solve the mystery .
= = Impact and legacy = =
Anning 's discoveries became key pieces of evidence for extinction . Georges Cuvier had argued for the reality of extinction in the late 1790s based on his analysis of fossils of mammals such as mammoths . Nevertheless , until the early 1820s it was still believed by many scientifically literate people that just as new species did not appear , so existing ones did not become extinct — in part because they felt that extinction would imply that God 's creation had been imperfect ; any oddities found were explained away as belonging to animals still living somewhere in an unexplored region of the Earth . The bizarre nature of the fossils found by Anning , some , such as the plesiosaur , so unlike any known living creature , struck a major blow against this idea .
The ichthyosaurs , plesiosaurs , and pterosaur she found , along with the first dinosaur fossils which were discovered by Gideon Mantell and William Buckland during the same period , showed that during previous eras the Earth was inhabited by creatures very different from those living today , and provided important support for another controversial suggestion of Cuvier 's : that there had been an " age of reptiles " when reptiles rather than mammals had been the dominant form of animal life . This phrase became popular after the publication in 1831 of a paper by Mantell entitled " The Age of Reptiles " that summarised the evidence that there had been an extended geological era when giant reptiles has swarmed the land , air , and sea . These discoveries also played a key role in the development of a new discipline of geohistorical analysis within geology in the 1820s that sought to understand the history of the Earth by using evidence from fossils to reconstruct extinct organisms and the environments in which they lived . This discipline eventually came to be called palaeontology . Illustrations of scenes from " deep time " ( now known as palaeoart ) , such as Henry De la Beche 's ground @-@ breaking painting Duria Antiquior , helped convince people that it was possible to understand life in the distant past . De la Beche had been inspired to create the painting by a vivid description of the food chain of the Lias by William Buckland that was based on analysis of coprolites . The study of coprolites , pioneered by Anning and Buckland , would prove to be a valuable tool for understanding ancient ecosystems .
Throughout the 20th century , beginning with H. A. Forde and his The Heroine of Lyme Regis : The Story of Mary Anning the Celebrated Geologist ( 1925 ) , a number of writers saw Anning 's life as inspirational . She was even the basis of Terry Sullivan 's 1908 tongue twister , " She sells seashells , " according to P. J. McCartney in Henry de la Beche ( 1978 ) :
Much of the material written about her was aimed at children , and tended to focus on her childhood and early career . Much of it was also highly romanticised and not always historically accurate . She has been referenced in several historical novels , most notably in The French Lieutenant 's Woman ( 1969 ) by John Fowles , who was critical of the fact that no British scientist had named a species after her in her lifetime . As her biographer , Shelley Emling , noted , this contrasted with some of the prominent geologists who had used her finds , such as William Buckland and Roderick Murchison , who ended up with multiple fossil species named after them . The only person who did name a species after her during her lifetime was the Swiss @-@ American naturalist , Louis Agassiz . In the early 1840s , he named two fossil fish species after her — Acrodus anningiae , and Belenostomus anningiae — and another after her friend Elizabeth Philpot . Agassiz was grateful for the help the women had given him in examining fossil fish specimens during his visit to Lyme Regis in 1834 . After her death , other species , including the ostracod Cytherelloidea anningi , and two genera , the therapsid reptile genus Anningia , and the bivalve mollusc genus Anningella , were named in her honour . In 2012 , the plesiosaur genus Anningasaura was named for her , and the species Ichthyosaurus anningae was named for her in 2015 .
In 1999 , on the 200th anniversary of her birth , an international meeting of historians , palaeontologists , fossil collectors , and others interested in Anning 's life was held in Lyme Regis . In 2005 the Natural History Museum added her , alongside scientists such as Carl Linnaeus , Dorothea Bate , and William Smith , as one of the gallery characters it uses to patrol its display cases . In 2007 American playwright / performer Claudia Stevens premiered Blue Lias , or the Fish Lizard 's Whore , a solo play with music by Allen Shearer depicting Anning in later life . Among the presenters of its thirty performances around the Charles Darwin bi @-@ centennial were the Cleveland Museum of Natural History , museums of natural history at the University of Michigan and the University of Kansas , and the Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History . In 2009 Tracy Chevalier wrote a historical novel entitled Remarkable Creatures , in which Anning and Elizabeth Philpot were the main characters , and another historical novel about Anning , Curiosity by Joan Thomas , was published in March 2010 . Also that month , as part of the celebration of its 350th anniversary , the Royal Society invited a panel of experts to produce a list of the ten British women who have most influenced the history of science . They included Anning in the list .
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= St Eleth 's Church , Amlwch =
St Eleth 's Church , Amlwch is a parish church built in the Neo @-@ classical style in 1800 in Amlwch , a town on the island of Anglesey in north Wales . It stands on the site of earlier buildings , with the first church here said to have been established by St Elaeth ( or Eleth ) in the 6th century . Increasing prosperity in the town through copper mining during the 18th century led to the construction of a new church to serve the growing population .
The church is still used for services within the Church in Wales , and is one of four churches in the parish of Amlwch . It is a Grade II * listed building , a designation given to " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " , because it is a " substantially Neo @-@ classical church retaining much of its original architectural character " .
= = History and location = =
The first church in the area was reputedly established in the 6th century by Elaeth , or Eleth . He was a ruler from northern Britain who fled to Anglesey in north Wales when ousted from power , settling at St Seiriol 's monastery at Penmon .
Amlwch grew and became increasingly prosperous during the 18th century after copper mining began at nearby Parys Mountain in 1768 . As a result , the church became too small . Planning for a replacement church began in 1787 when Thomas Williams , " the Copper King " , offered £ 600 ( approximately £ 68 @,@ 800 in present @-@ day terms ) . The Copper Mines Company provided the majority of the money required for the new church ; Henry Paget , 1st Earl of Uxbridge , and the Reverend Edward Hughes ( a co @-@ owner of the mines ) also made donations . Work eventually got underway and the church , designed by the architect James Wyatt , was built and consecrated in 1800 . Different figures for the cost of construction are given by two 19th @-@ century writers : in 1833 , Angharad Llwyd said that the cost was £ 4 @,@ 000 ( approximately £ 291 @,@ 300 in present @-@ day terms ) but in 1849 , Samuel Lewis stated it to have been £ 2 @,@ 500 ( approximately £ 182 @,@ 000 in present @-@ day terms ) .
The new church was constructed on the same site as earlier buildings , set back from the road on the east side of Queen Street in the town centre . Some internal alterations were made in 1867 under Henry Kennedy , the architect of the Diocese of Bangor : tracery was added to the windows , a chancel arch and arcades inserted , and the galleries removed . Restoration took place in 1999 and 2000 under the architect Adam Voelcker , when a gallery at the west end , a baptistry and meeting rooms were added .
The church is still used for services as part of the Church in Wales . It is in the parish of Amlwch , which has three other churches in the surrounding area ( St Eilian , Llaneilian ; St Gwenllwyfo , Llanwenllwyfo ; and St Tyfrydog , Llandyfrydog ) . As of 2012 , the priest in charge is H. V. Jones . The parish is in the deanery of Twrcelyn , the archdeaconry of Bangor and the Diocese of Bangor .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
The predominant style of the church is Neo @-@ classical , although there are some Gothic elements . It is built from local stone , with courses of rubble and ashlar dressings ; the roof is made of slate . There is a tower at the centre of the west end , which houses a clock and a bell @-@ chamber behind large arched windows ; it has a parapet with pinnacles at each corner . There are two bells , one dated 1687 and the other dated 1820 . The arched doorway is set into the tower , with a circular window ( an oculus ) above it ; the tracery in this window was added in the 19th century .
Inside , the division of the nave from the narrow chancel was carried out in the 19th century through the addition of a chancel arch and creation of a chapel at the east end . Arcades were also added in the nave , to form aisles to either side . The inside of the roof is plastered . The east window contains 19th @-@ century stained glass . There are memorial stones , mostly from the previous church on the site .
The organ is 19th @-@ century by Bevington and is housed in a gallery at the west end that was added in the restoration in 1999 and 2000 . The font dates from 1900 . Outside the church , the large lychgate at the west of the churchyard dates from the early 19th century . Inside the churchyard , the gravestones have been moved to the side , possibly for ease of maintenance .
= = Assessment = =
The church is a Grade II * listed building – the second @-@ highest of the three grades of listing , designating " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " . It was given this status on 25 October 1951 , and has been listed because it is " a substantially Neo @-@ classical church retaining much of its original architectural character . " Cadw ( the Welsh Assembly Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales ) notes that the " lightness of its Victorian restoration left the original fabric and much of the detail intact , and traces changing attitudes to church layout and style without obliterating the character of the original . " It also states that the church is historically important for its links with copper mining . The lychgate has also been given listed building status at the lowest level , Grade II ( for buildings of national importance and special interest ) , because it is a " good early example " of a 19th @-@ century lychgate of " characteristic local type " and because it forms a group with the adjacent church .
The 19th @-@ century Welsh antiquarian Angharad Llwyd described the church as a " spacious handsome structure " , and Samuel Lewis ( a writer of topographical guides in the 19th century ) described the church in very similar words as a " spacious and handsome structure " ; he particularly noted the " lofty square embattled tower crowned with pinnacles . " A 2009 guide to the buildings of north Wales describes the 19th @-@ century alterations by Kennedy as " egregious " , but says that the interior " possesses considerable grace " , with the columns of the arcades being " touched by a breath of classicism " . A 2006 guide to the churches of Anglesey describes it as " a good example of a tastefully restored church " , and a " spacious , high sided building with an impressive tower " . It also comments that its shape is not typical of churches on the island .
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= 1st Brigade Combat Team , 10th Mountain Division ( United States ) =
The 1st Brigade Combat Team , 10th Mountain Division is an infantry brigade combat team of the United States Army based at Fort Drum , New York . It is a subordinate unit of the 10th Mountain Division .
Formed as the 10th Mountain Division 's original headquarters company , the brigade traces its lineage through the division 's fight through Italy in World War II and afterwards , as it commanded a training division and then an infantry division which briefly deployed to Europe .
1st Brigade was reactivated 11 April 1986 at Fort Drum , New York . The 1st Brigade is the Command and Control Headquarters for Task Force Warrior , consisting of its organic battalions 1 – 32nd Infantry , 1 – 87th Infantry , and 2 – 22nd Infantry . The principal units that have been assigned to TF Warrior during Division Ready Brigade missions , off post deployments , and major exercises have been the 3 – 6th Field Artillery , 10th Forward Support Battalion , A / 3 @-@ 62nd Air Defense Artillery , A / 41st Engineer , A / 110th Military Intelligence , A / 10th Signal Battalion , and 1st PLT / 10th Military Police Battalion .
1st Brigade and its elements saw numerous deployments to contingencies around the world in the 1990s . With the War on Terrorism the brigade has seen multiple deployments to Afghanistan to support Operation Enduring Freedom and to Iraq to support Operation Iraqi Freedom .
= = Organization = =
The 1st Brigade Combat Team is a subordinate unit of the 10th Mountain Division , however its modular nature means it is capable of operating independently of the division 's Headquarters and Headquarters Battalion .
The brigade consists of six subordinate battalions ; its combat element consists of two infantry battalions , the 1st Battalion , 87th Infantry Regiment and the 2nd Battalion , 22nd Infantry Regiment . The 1st Squadron , 71st Cavalry Regiment provides armored reconnaissance services to the Brigade Combat Team , while the 3rd Battalion , 6th Field Artillery Regiment provides field artillery support . The brigade 's Headquarters and command services are provided by 1st Brigade Combat Team , 10th Mountain Division Special Troops Battalion . All supporting services for the brigade are provided by the 10th Brigade Support Battalion . All of these battalions are located at Fort Drum with most of the rest of the 10th Mountain Division .
= = History = =
On 13 February 1985 , the 10th Mountain Division ( Light Infantry ) was reactivated at Fort Drum , New York . In accordance with the Reorganization Objective Army Divisions plan , the division was no longer centered around regiments , instead two brigades were activated under the division . The 1st Brigade , 10th Mountain Division was activated at Fort Drum while the 2nd Brigade , 10th Mountain Division was activated at Fort Benning , moving to Fort Drum in 1988 . The division was also assigned a round @-@ out brigade from the Army National Guard , the 27th Infantry Brigade . The division was specially designed as a light infantry division able to rapidly deploy . Equipment design was oriented toward reduced size and weight for reasons of both strategic and tactical mobility . The division also received a distinctive unit insignia .
Hurricane Andrew struck South Florida on 24 August 1992 , killing 13 people , leaving another 250 @,@ 000 homeless and causing damages in excess of 20 billion dollars . On 27 September 1992 , the 10th Mountain Division assumed responsibility for Hurricane Andrew disaster relief as Task Force Mountain . Division soldiers set up relief camps , distributed food , clothing , medical necessities and building supplies , as well as helping to rebuild homes and clear debris . The last of the 6 @,@ 000 division soldiers to deployed to Florida returned home in October 1992 .
= = = Operation Restore Hope = = =
On 3 December 1993 , the division headquarters was designated as the headquarters for all Army Forces ( ARFOR ) of the Unified Task Force ( UNITAF ) for Operation Restore Hope . Major General Steven L. Arnold , the division Commander , was named Army Forces commander . The 10th Mountain Division ’ s mission was to secure major cities and roads to provide safe passage of relief supplies to the Somali population suffering from the effects of the Somali Civil War . Due to 10th Mountain Division efforts , humanitarian agencies declared an end to the food emergency and factional fighting decreased . When Task Force Ranger and the SAR team were pinned down during a raid in what later became known as the Battle of Mogadishu , 10th Mountain units provided infantry for the UN quick reaction force sent to rescue them . The 10th had 2 soldiers killed in the fighting , which was the longest sustained firefight by regular US Army forces since the Vietnam War . The division began a gradual reduction of forces in Somalia in February 1993 , until the last soldiers of the 2nd Battalion , 22nd Infantry returned to the United States in March 1994 .
= = = Operation Uphold Democracy = = =
The division formed the nucleus of the Multinational Force Haiti ( MNF Haiti ) and Joint Task Force 190 ( JTF 190 ) in Haiti during Operation Uphold Democracy . More than 8 @,@ 600 of the division 's troops deployed during this operation . On 19 September 1994 , the 1st Brigade conducted the Army ’ s first air assault from an aircraft carrier . This force consisted of 54 helicopters and almost 2 @,@ 000 soldiers . They occupied the Port @-@ au @-@ Prince International Airport . This was the largest Army air operation conducted from a carrier since the Doolittle Raid in World War II .
The division ’ s mission was to create a secure and stable environment so the government of Haitian President Jean @-@ Bertrand Aristide could be reestablished and democratic elections held . After this was accomplished , the 10th Mountain Division handed over control of the MNF @-@ Haiti to the 25th Infantry Division on 15 January 1995 . The Division redeployed the last of its soldiers who served in Haiti by 31 January 1995 .
= = = War on Terrorism = = =
In late 2001 , following the 11 September 2001 attacks , elements of the division , including its special troops battalion and the 1 @-@ 87th Infantry , deployed to Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom . These forces remained in the country until mid @-@ 2002 , fighting to secure remote areas of the country and participating in prominent operations such as Operation Anaconda , the Fall of Mazar @-@ i @-@ Sharif , and the Battle of Qala @-@ i @-@ Jangi . The division also participated in fighting in the Shahi Khot Valley in 2002 . Upon the return of the battalions , they were welcomed home and praised by President Bush .
In 2003 , the division 's headquarters , along with the 1st Brigade , returned to Afghanistan . During that time , they operated in the frontier regions of the country such as Paktika Province , going places previously untouched by the war in search of Taliban and Al @-@ Qaeda forces . Fighting in several small @-@ scale conflicts such as Operation Avalanche , Operation Mountain Resolve , and Operation Mountain Viper , the division maintained a strategy of small units moving through remote regions of the country to interact directly with the population and drive out insurgents . The 1st Brigade also undertook a number of humanitarian missions .
= = = = Reorganization and recent deployments = = = =
Upon the return of the division headquarters and 1st Brigade , the 10th Mountain Division began the process of transformation into a modular division . On 16 September 2004 , the division headquarters finished its transformation . The 1st Brigade became the 1st Brigade Combat Team , while the 3rd Brigade Combat Team , 10th Mountain Division was activated for the first time . In January 2005 , the 4th Brigade Combat Team , 10th Mountain Division was activated at Fort Polk , Louisiana .
The 1st Brigade Combat Team and the 2nd Brigade Combat Team deployed to Iraq in the fall of 2009 , as a part of the 2009 – 2010 rotation to Iraq .
1st Brigade Combat Team was scheduled for a third deployment , returning to Iraq in fall of 2009 , but the deployment was canceled on 16 October 2009 . The brigade deployed in Afghanistan in 2010 ) and returned to garrison in early 2011 .
= = Honors = =
The 1st Brigade , 10th Mountain Division earned two campaign streamers in World War II and two campaign streamers in the War on Terrorism for a total of four campaign streamers and two unit decorations in its operational history . Note that some of the brigade 's battalions received more or fewer decorations depending on their individual deployments .
= = = Unit decorations = = =
= = = Campaign streamers = = =
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= Russian cruiser Bayan ( 1900 ) =
The cruiser Bayan ( Russian : Баян ) was the name ship of the four Bayan @-@ class armoured cruisers built for the Imperial Russian Navy in the first decade of the 20th century . The ship had to be built in France because there was no available capacity in Russia . Bayan was assigned to the First Pacific Squadron after completion and based at Port Arthur from the end of 1903 . She suffered minor damage during the Battle of Port Arthur at the beginning of the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 and supported destroyers as they patrolled outside the harbour . After bombarding Japanese positions in July 1904 , the ship struck a mine and was out of action for the next several months . Bayan was sunk during the Siege of Port Arthur and was then salvaged by the Japanese after the war .
Renamed Aso by the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) she served as a training ship after extensive repairs . The ship was converted into a minelayer in 1917 and was decommissioned in 1930 to serve as a target ship . She was eventually sunk as a target in 1932 .
= = Design and description = =
Unlike previous Russian armoured cruisers , the Bayan @-@ class ships were designed as scouts for the fleet . They were 449 feet 7 inches ( 137 @.@ 0 m ) long overall and 443 feet ( 135 @.@ 0 m ) between perpendiculars . They had a maximum beam of 57 feet 6 inches ( 17 @.@ 5 m ) , a draft of 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) and displaced 7 @,@ 802 long tons ( 7 @,@ 927 t ) . The ships had a crew of 573 officers and men .
The Bayan class had two vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving a single propeller shaft using steam provided by 26 Belleville boilers . Designed for a total of 16 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 304 kW ) intended to propel the cruisers at 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) , the engines actually developed 17 @,@ 400 ihp ( 13 @,@ 000 kW ) during Bayan 's sea trials in October 1902 and drove the ship to a maximum speed of 20 @.@ 9 knots ( 38 @.@ 7 km / h ; 24 @.@ 1 mph ) . She could carry a maximum of 1 @,@ 100 long tons ( 1 @,@ 118 t ) of coal , which gave her a range of 3 @,@ 900 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 200 km ; 4 @,@ 500 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Bayan 's main armament consisted of two 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) 45 @-@ calibre guns in single turrets fore and aft of the superstructure . Her eight 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns were mounted in casemates on the sides of the ship 's hull . Anti @-@ torpedo boat defence was provided by twenty 75 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) 50 @-@ calibre guns ; eight of these were mounted in casemates on the side of the hull and in the superstructure . The remaining guns were located above the six @-@ inch gun casemates in pivot mounts with gun shields . Bayan also mounted eight 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) and two 37 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss guns . The ship had two submerged 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) torpedo tubes , one on each broadside .
The ship used Harvey armour throughout . Her waterline belt was 7 @.@ 9 inches ( 200 mm ) thick over her machinery spaces . Fore and aft , it reduced to 3 @.@ 9 inches ( 100 mm ) . The upper armour strake and the armour protecting the casemates was 2 @.@ 4 inches ( 60 mm ) thick . The thickness of the armoured deck was 2 inches ( 50 mm ) ; over the central battery it was a single plate , but elsewhere it consisted of a 1 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 30 mm ) plate over two 0 @.@ 39 @-@ inch ( 10 mm ) plates . The gun turret sides were protected by 5 @.@ 9 inches ( 150 mm ) of armour and their roofs were 1 @.@ 2 inches thick . The barbettes were protected by armour plates 6 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 170 mm ) thick . The sides of the conning tower were 6 @.@ 3 inches ( 160 mm ) thick .
= = Construction and career = =
Bayan , named after the bard Boyan , had to be ordered in May 1898 from the French shipyard Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée in La Seyne @-@ sur @-@ Mer because there was no capacity available in Russian shipyards . The ship was laid down in February 1899 and launched on 12 June 1900 . Bayan was completed in February 1903 and , under the command of Captain 1st Rank Robert Wiren , made port visits in Greece , Italy and North Africa before sailing for Kronstadt . Arriving in April 1903 , she was only there for several months before departing for Port Arthur on 7 August . Together with the French @-@ built battleship Tsesarevich , Bayan arrived on 2 December and they were both assigned to the First Pacific Squadron .
On the night of 8 / 9 February 1904 , the IJN launched a surprise attack on the Russian fleet at Port Arthur . Bayan was not hit by the initial torpedo @-@ boat incursion and sortied the following morning when the Combined Fleet , commanded by Vice Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō , attacked . Tōgō had expected the surprise night attack by his ships to be much more successful than it was , anticipating that the Russians would be badly disorganized and weakened , but they had recovered from their surprise and were ready for his assault . The Japanese vessels had been spotted by the protected cruiser Boyarin , which was patrolling offshore , and alerted the Russian defences . Tōgō chose to attack the Russian coastal defences with his main armament and engage the ships with his secondary guns . Splitting his fire proved to be a poor decision as the Japanese 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) and six @-@ inch guns inflicted inconsequential damage on the Russian ships , which concentrated all their fire on their opponents with some effect . Bayan suffered superficial damage from nine hits and numerous splinters ; 6 crewmen were killed and 35 injured . The ship fired 28 eight @-@ inch , 100 six @-@ inch and 160 seventy @-@ five @-@ millimetre shells during the battle .
The damage to Bayan was repaired in several days and subsequently the cruiser patrolled off Port Arthur . Together with the protected cruiser Novik , the ship sortied on 11 March 1904 to support the destroyer Steregushchiy . Under attack by Japanese destroyers , the ship was sunk before help arrived . Early on the morning of 13 April , the Russian destroyer Strashnii fell in with four Japanese destroyers in the darkness while on patrol . Once her captain realized his mistake , the Russian ship attempted to escape but failed after a Japanese shell struck one of her torpedoes and caused it to detonate . By this time Bayan had sortied to provide support , but was only able to rescue five survivors before a Japanese squadron of protected cruisers attacked . Vice Admiral Stepan Makarov led a force of two battleships and three cruisers out to support Bayan and also ordered the rest of the First Pacific Squadron to follow as soon as they could . In the meantime , the Japanese had reported the Russian sortie to Tōgō and he arrived with all six Japanese battleships . Heavily outnumbered , Makarov ordered his ships to retreat and to join the rest of the squadron that was just exiting the harbour . Enroute , however , his flagship , Petropavlovsk , struck a naval mine and sank almost instantly .
Bayan sailed with the rest of the Pacific Squadron on 23 June in an abortive attempt to reach Vladivostok . The new squadron commander , Rear Admiral Wilgelm Vitgeft , ordered the squadron to return to Port Arthur when it encountered the Japanese fleet shortly before sunset , as he did not wish to engage his numerically superior opponents in a night battle . After bombarding Imperial Japanese Army positions on 27 July , the ship struck a mine and was under repair until September . After the death of Vitgeft during the Battle of the Yellow Sea on 10 August , Wiren was promoted to rear admiral and became the commander of the First Pacific Squadron . Bayan was subsequently trapped in Port Arthur and sunk at her mooring by five 28 @-@ centimetre ( 11 in ) howitzer shells on 9 December .
= = = Japanese service = = =
After the war , Bayan 's wreck was refloated on 24 June and towed to Dairen . There she was given temporary repairs and commissioned as Aso ( named after a volcano in Kumamoto Prefecture ) on 22 August . The next day she was towed to Maizuru , Japan for permanent repairs that lasted until July 1908 . During this time , her boilers were replaced by Miyabara water @-@ tube boilers and she was rearmed with Japanese @-@ built weapons of the same size . Her 20 seventy @-@ five @-@ millimetre guns were replaced by 16 three @-@ inch guns .
On 7 September 1908 , Aso , together with the ex @-@ Russian protected cruiser Soya , was assigned to the Training Squadron . On 14 March 1909 they began a training cruise that took their naval cadets to the West Coast of the United States and Canada and Hawaii before they returned to Yokosuka on 7 August . The next year the two ships made a cruise to Australia and Southeast Asia that last from 1 February to 3 July 1910 . They were briefly relieved of their assignment to the Training Squadron on 25 September before rejoining it on 1 April 1911 . The next training cruise lasted from 25 November 1911 to 28 March 1912 and took the cadets to the same destinations as the 1910 cruise . On 20 April 1912 , Aso was transferred away from the Training Squadron and she was refitted in March 1913 . During this refit , her eight @-@ inch guns were replaced by a pair of six @-@ inch guns and her torpedo tubes were removed . Aso and Soya were reassigned to the Training Squadron on 1 December 1914 and they made their last training cruise from 20 April to 23 August 1915 , during which they visited Rabaul , New Guinea , and Fremantle , Australia .
In 1917 , Aso was converted into a minelayer , with a capacity of 420 mines , although she was not formally reclassified as such until 1 April 1920 . Aso was stricken from the navy list on 1 April 1930 and renamed Hai Kan No. 4 . She was sunk on 4 August 1932 by two submarine torpedoes after serving as a target for the heavy cruisers Myōkō and Nachi .
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= Twilight ( Star Trek : Enterprise ) =
" Twilight " is the eighth episode of the third season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise , originally broadcast on November 5 , 2003 . It was the sixtieth episode of the series overall . The episode was written by co @-@ producer Michael Sussman , and directed by former Star Trek : Voyager actor Robert Duncan McNeill .
Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . In this episode , following an accident , Captain Jonathan Archer 's ( Scott Bakula ) long term memory is affected and he is relieved of duty . The crew of the Enterprise subsequently fail to stop the Xindi attack on Earth resulting in the remnants of the human race resettling another planet . Dr Phlox ( John Billingsley ) finds a way of curing Archer in the past , in the hope that it would undo everything since the Captain was originally injured .
The episode and script was praised by Bakula during the shoot , which required the actors and sets to be aged in order to appear older in later time frames . The production of the episode was suspended for a day following the death of first assistant director Jerry Fleck , who was in pre @-@ production on the following episode " North Star " , which subsequently resulted in crew changes on " Twilight " . References in the episode were made to locations previously mentioned in the Star Trek : The Original Series episode " Space Seed " and the film Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan . On first broadcast , " Twilight " was watched by 3 @.@ 88 million viewers , more than the following episode . The critical response was positive .
= = Plot = =
While rescuing Sub @-@ Commander T 'Pol from a spatial anomaly , Captain Archer is infected by subspace parasites in his cerebral cortex , resulting in anterograde amnesia . His condition prevents him from forming new long term memories . This allows him to remember everything prior to the accident , but any new memories fade within a few hours . It soon becomes clear that Archer is not fit for duty , and he is subsequently relieved of his command . T 'Pol is granted a field commission to Captain , but the mission fails and Earth , alongside every other human colony , is destroyed by the Xindi weapon . The few surviving humans form a convoy , led by the Enterprise , which travels to the planet Ceti Alpha V.
Twelve years pass and Archer , still plagued by memory loss , lives with T 'Pol in a house on the colony . They are visited by Doctor Phlox , who eventually engineers a cure . He also discovers that when the subspace radiation treatments kill one of the parasite clusters in Archer 's brain , it also vanishes from every other previous medical scan – as if the parasite had never existed . Therefore , since Archer will never have been infected , he would have remained Captain and possibly prevented the chain of events that led to Earth 's destruction .
Unfortunately , the ship , now captained by Captain Tucker , is observed and attacked by Xindi vessels before the treatments can be completed . Outnumbered and heavily damaged , Phlox , T 'Pol , and Archer race against the clock to create a subspace implosion . The ship is destroyed , but their plan works and the subspace parasites ( which exist outside the normal space / time realm ) are also destroyed by the implosion . The episode ends with the time @-@ line reset ; Archer is in sickbay recovering from a physical injury but will never develop the amnesia he originally suffered .
= = Production = =
The script for " Twilight " was written by Mike Sussman , one of the co @-@ producers on Enterprise . The producers had considered showing the episode later on in the series in order to show what could have happened if the Xindi were successful in their attack on Earth , but instead elected to show it earlier in the series to demonstrate the stakes in the storyline during season three . " Twilight " was directed by Robert Duncan McNeill , his third directing credit for the series following " Cold Front " and " The Breach " . McNeill had previously starred in Star Trek : Voyager as Tom Paris . McNeill was interviewed for the magazine Star Trek Monthly shortly after reading the script for " Twilight " for the first time . He explained that after reading it , he said " Holy crap how are we going to do that ? " He explained that the episode would see the Enterprise destroyed but wasn 't yet sure how they were going to film certain sequences such as the roof being blown off the bridge and the crew being sucked out into space .
Filming on the episode began on September 10 , 2003 , the same day as the airing of the season three premiere episode , " The Xindi " . Production ran through to September 17 . Production was suspended for a day on 8 September following the death of first assistant director Jerry Fleck over the preceding weekend . Fleck had been in pre @-@ production for the following episode " North Star " . Following the death of Fleck , the first assistant director on " Twilight " , Michael DeMeritt , moved on to working on " North Star " and Arlene Fukai took over on " Twilight " .
Whilst filming the episode , Bakula described it as " potentially the best script we 've had and the best show to date " . He found it hard to describe , saying it involved " time travel into the future , parasites in my hippocampus , and Xindi and subspace implosions " . In order to represent the changes in time frames throughout the episodes , several of the cast were required to have their make @-@ up adjusted between scenes . This included adding grey make @-@ up to the dog actor who portrayed Archer 's dog , Porthos , but the scene was cut from the final broadcast . Costume changes were made to represent promotions granted to the characters over the changes in time periods . These included Bakula who wore a wig during the later time periods shown in the episode . The wig he wore had originally been created for Gary Graham in his role as Ambassador Soval . The sets on the Enterprise were dressed to represent ongoing wear and tear .
During the shoot of the previous episode , " The Shipment " , director David Straiton wore a suit and tie on the final day of shooting , something that Bakula described as being out of character . After McNeill heard about Straiton , he sought to outdo his fellow director . So instead , he arrived on the final day of shooting for " Twilight " wearing the uniform he wore as Tom Paris in Star Trek : Voyager . He hoped this would cheer the cast and crew up after a week of working on such a somber episode .
Guest stars in " Twilight " included Graham in his recurring role as Ambassador Soval , who appeared in two scenes . Brett Rickaby made a guest appearance as Yedrin Ross . Rickaby had previously appeared in the television series Carnivàle . Richard Anthony Crenna was also credited in this episode as a security guard on board the Enterprise . " Twilight " contained references to the Star Trek : The Original Series episode " Space Seed " and the associated film Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan . These references included the humans settling on Ceti Alpha V , the planet that Khan Noonien Singh and his followers were exiled to in " Space Seed " and escaped from in Wrath of Khan . Reference is also made to the Mutara Nebula , where the climactic battle occurred between Captain James T. Kirk and Khan .
= = Reception and home media release = =
" Twilight " was first aired on November 5 , 2003 on UPN . It received Nielsen ratings stating a 2 @.@ 6 / 4 % share . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 6 percent of all viewers , and 4 percent of all households watching television at the time of the broadcast . This was the same as the ratings received by the following episode entitled " North Star " , but the total number of viewers was 200 @,@ 000 higher as " Twilight " was watched by 3 @.@ 88 million people . These figures placed " Twilight " sixth in the timeslot based on the Nielsen ratings and fifth based on the number of viewers .
Jamahl Epsicokhan on his website " Jammer 's Reviews " , thought that the episode 's story bore similarities to the Star Trek : The Next Generation episode " Yesterday 's Enterprise " due to the alternative timeline and also the film Memento due to the memory issues suffered by Archer . Epsicokhan also suggested that the flashback sequences were similar to the Star Trek : Deep Space Nine episode " The Visitor " , but was a " substantially less poignant take on hypothetical material " . He said that the episode had " something for everyone " , with an " apocalyptic " action storyline which tied in neatly to an interesting character drama . He gave the episode a score of three and a half out of four . The review on Ain 't It Cool News also suggested that the storyline had been inspired by a number of different episodes in the Star Trek franchise , including the Voyager episodes " Year of Hell " and " Endgame " , as well as The Next Generation 's " Yesterday 's Enterprise " and " All Good Things ... " . But the reviewer thought that the episode presented the viewer with a sense of what is at stake with the fight against the Xindi for the first time , and gave the episode a score of four out of five , a grade described as " better than most motion pictures " .
The only home media release of " Twilight " has been as part of the season three DVD box set , released in the United States on September 27 , 2005 . The Blu ray release of Enterprise was announced in early 2013 .
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= Cretan War ( 205 – 200 BC ) =
The Cretan War ( 205 – 200 BC ) was fought by King Philip V of Macedon , the Aetolian League , many Cretan cities ( of which Olous and Hierapytna were the most important ) and Spartan pirates against the forces of Rhodes and later Attalus I of Pergamum , Byzantium , Cyzicus , Athens , and Knossos .
The Macedonians had just concluded the First Macedonian War and Philip , seeing his chance to defeat Rhodes , formed an alliance with Aetolian and Spartan pirates who began raiding Rhodian ships . Philip also formed an alliance with several important Cretan cities , such as Hierapytna and Olous . With the Rhodian fleet and economy suffering from the depredations of the pirates , Philip believed his chance to crush Rhodes was at hand . To help achieve his goal , he formed an alliance with the King of the Seleucid Empire , Antiochus the Great , against Ptolemy V of Egypt ( the Seleucid Empire and Egypt were the other two Diadochi states ) . Philip began attacking the lands of Ptolemy and Rhodes 's allies in Thrace and around the Propontis .
In 202 BC , Rhodes and her allies Pergamum , Cyzicus , and Byzantium combined their fleets and defeated Philip at the Battle of Chios . Just a few months later , Philip 's fleet defeated the Rhodians at Lade . While Philip was plundering Pergamese territory and attacking cities in Caria , Attalus I of Pergamum went to Athens to try to create a diversion . He succeeded in securing an alliance with the Athenians , who immediately declared war on the Macedonians . The King of Macedon could not remain inactive ; he assailed Athens with his navy and with some infantry . The Romans warned him , however , to withdraw or face war with Rome . After suffering a defeat at the hands of the Rhodian and Pergamese fleets , Philip withdrew , but not before attacking the city of Abydos on the Hellespont . Abydos fell after a long siege and most of its inhabitants committed suicide . Philip rejected the Roman ultimatum to stop attacking Greek states and the Romans declared war on Macedon . This left the Cretan cities with no major allies , and the largest city of Crete , Knossos , joined the Rhodians . Faced with this combination , both Hierapytna and Olous surrendered and were forced to sign a treaty favourable to Rhodes and Knossos .
= = Prelude = =
In 205 BC , the First Macedonian War came to an end with the signing of the Treaty of Phoenice , under the terms of which the Macedonians were not allowed to expand westwards . Rome , meanwhile , was preoccupied with Carthage , and Philip hoped to take advantage of this to seize control of the Greek world . He knew that his ambitions would be aided by an alliance with Crete and began pressing the Cretans to attack Rhodian assets . Having crushed Pergamum , the dominant Greek state in Asia Minor , and formed an alliance with Aetolia , Philip was now opposed by no major Greek power other than Rhodes . Rhodes , an island state that dominated the south @-@ eastern Mediterranean economically and militarily , was formally allied to Philip , but was also allied to his enemy Rome . Furthermore , Philip worked towards consolidating his position as the major power in the Balkans . Marching his forces to Macedon 's northern frontier , he inflicted a crushing defeat on the Illyrians , who lost 10 @,@ 000 men in battle . With his northern frontier secured , Philip was able to turn his attention towards the Aegean Sea .
= = Piracy and early campaigns = =
The Treaty of Phoenice prohibited Philip from expanding westward into Illyria or the Adriatic Sea , so the king turned his attentions eastwards to the Aegean Sea , where he started to build a large fleet .
Philip saw two ways of shaking Rhodes ' dominance of the sea : piracy and war . Deciding to use both methods , he encouraged his allies to begin pirate attacks against Rhodian ships . Philip convinced the Cretans , who had been involved in piracy for a long time , the Aetolians , and the Spartans to take part in the piracy . The lure for these nations was the promise of vast loot from captured Rhodian vessels . He sent the Aetolian freebooter Dicaearchus on a large razzia through the Aegean , during the course of which he plundered the Cyclades and Rhodian territories . Additionally , Philip sought to weaken the Rhodians ' naval capacity through subterfuge . He achieved this by sending his agent , Heracleides , to Rhodes where he succeeded in burning 13 boat @-@ sheds .
By the end of 205 BC , Rhodes had been significantly weakened by these raids , and Philip saw his chance to go forward with the second part of his plan , direct military confrontation . He convinced the cities of Hierapytna and Olous and other cities in Eastern Crete to declare war against Rhodes .
Rhodes ' initial response to the declaration of war was diplomatic ; they asked the Roman Republic for help against Philip . The Romans , however , were wary of another war , the Second Punic War having just ended . The Roman Senate attempted to persuade the populace to enter the war , even after Pergamum , Cyzicus and Byzantium had joined the war on the Rhodians side , but was unable to sway the city 's war @-@ weary population .
At this point Philip further provoked Rhodes by attacking Cius , which was an Aetolian @-@ allied city on the coast of the Sea of Marmara . Despite attempts by Rhodes and other states to mediate a settlement , Philip captured and razed Cius as well as its neighbour Myrleia . Philip then handed these cities over to his brother @-@ in @-@ law , the King of Bithynia , Prusias I who rebuilt and renamed the cities Prusa after himself and Apameia after his wife , respectively . In return for these cities Prusias promised that he would continue on expanding his kingdom at the expense of Pergamum ( his latest war with Pergamum had ended in 205 ) . The seizure of these cities also enraged the Aetolians , as both were members of the Aetolian League . The alliance between Aetolia and Macedon was held together only by the Aetolians ' fear of Philip , and this incident worsened the already tenuous relationship . Philip next compelled the cities of Lysimachia and Chalcedon , which were also members of the Aetolian League , to break off their alliance with Aetolia probably through the threatened use of violence .
On the way home , Philip 's fleet stopped at the island of Thasos off the coast of Thrace . Philip 's general Metrodorus , went to the island 's eponymous capital to meet emissaries from the city . The envoys said they would surrender the city to the Macedonians on the conditions that they not receive a garrison , that they not have to pay tribute or contribute soldiers to the Macedonian army and that they continue to use their own laws . Metrodorus replied that the king accepted the terms , and the Thasians opened their gates to the Macedonians . Once within the walls , however , Philip ordered his soldiers to enslave all the citizens , who were then sold away , and to loot the city . Philip 's action during this campaign had a drastic impact on his reputation amongst the Greek states , where his actions were considered to be no better than the savage raids of the Aetolians and the Romans during the First Macedonian War .
In 204 BC or the spring of 203 BC , Philip was approached by Sosibius and Agathocles of Egypt , the ministers of the young pharaoh Ptolemy V. The ministers sought to arrange a marriage between Ptolemy and Philip 's daughter in order to form an alliance against Antiochus III the Great , emperor of the Seleucid Empire , who was seeking to expand his empire at Egypt 's expense . Philip , however , declined the proposal and in the winter of 203 BC @-@ 202 BC , Philip formed an alliance with Antiochus and organised the partition of the Ptolemaic Empire . Philip agreed to help Antiochus to seize Egypt and Cyprus , while Antiochus promised to help Philip take control of Cyrene , the Cyclades and Ionia .
In late 202 BC , the Aetolians sent ambassadors to Rome in order to form an alliance against Philip . Macedonian aggression had convinced the Aetolian League that they needed additional protectors in order to maintain their current position . However , the Romans rebuffed the Aetolian envoys as they were still seething about the fact that the Aetolians had come to terms with Philip to end the First Macedonian War . The unsupportive attitude of Rome encouraged Philip to continue with his Aegean campaign . Philip considered control of the Aegean to be paramount in maintaining his regional dominance . By ruling the Aegean he would be able to isolate Pergamum as well as restrict Roman attempts to interfere in the Eastern Mediterranean .
= = War against Pergamum and Rhodes = =
With the Seleucid treaty concluded , Philip 's army attacked Ptolemy 's territories in Thrace . Upon hearing that the King of Pergamum , Attalus I , had joined the Rhodian alliance , Philip became enraged and invaded Pergamese territory . However , before having set out to campaign against Philip 's navy in the Aegean Sea , Attalus had strengthened the city walls of his capital . By taking this and other precautions , he hoped to prevent Philip from a seizing a large amount of booty from his territory . Seeing that the city was undermanned , he sent his skirmishers against it , but they were easily repelled . Judging that the city walls were too strong , Philip retreated after destroying a few temples , including the temple of Aphrodite and the sanctuary of Athena Nicephorus . After the Macedonians captured Thyatira , they advanced to plunder the plain of Thebe , but the booty proved less fruitful than anticipated . Once he arrived at Thebe , he demanded supplies from the Seleucid governor of the region , Zeuxis . Zeuxis , however , never planned to give Philip substantial supplies .
After withdrawing from Pergamese land , Philip with the Macedonian fleet headed south and after subduing the Cyclades , took the island of Samos from Ptolemy V , capturing the Egyptian fleet stationed there . The fleet then turned north and laid siege to the island of Chios . Philip was planning to use the northern Aegean islands as stepping @-@ stones as he worked his way down to Rhodes . The siege was not going well for Philip and the situation worsened as the combined fleets of Pergamum , Rhodes and their new allies , Kos , Cyzicus and Byzantium approached from both the north and south . Philip , comprehending that the allies were attempting to seal his line of retreat , lifted the siege and began to sail for a friendly harbour . However , he was confronted by the allied fleet , precipitating the Battle of Chios .
The Macedonian fleet of around 200 ships , manned by 30 @,@ 000 men , significantly outnumbered the coalition 's fleet of sixty @-@ five large warships , nine medium vessels and three triremes . The battle began with Attalus , who was commanding the allied left wing , advancing against the Macedonian right wing , while the allied right flank under the command of the Rhodian admiral Theophiliscus attacked the Macedonian 's left wing . The allies gained the upper hand on their left flank and captured Philip 's flagship ; Philip 's admiral , Democrates , was slain in the fighting . Meanwhile , on the allied right flank , the Macedonians were initially successful in pushing the Rhodians back . Theophiliscus , fighting on his flagship , received three fatal wounds but managed to rally his men and defeat the Macedonian boarders . The Rhodians were able to use their superior navigational skills to incapacitate large numbers of Macedonian ships , swinging the battle back into their favour .
On the allied left flank , Attalus saw one of his ships being sunk by the enemy and the one next to it in danger . He decided to sail to the rescue with two quadriremes and his flagship . Philip , however , whose ship had not been involved in the fighting to this point , saw that Attalus had strayed some distance from his fleet and sailed to attack him with four quinqueremes and three hemioliae . Attalus , seeing Philip approaching , fled in terror and was forced to run his ships aground . Upon landing he spread coins , purple robes and other splendid articles on the deck of his ship and fled to the city of Erythrae . When the Macedonians arrived at the shore , they stopped to collect the plunder . Philip , thinking that Attalus had perished in the chase , started towing away the Pergamese flagship .
Following the flight of their monarch , the Pergamese fleet withdrew north . However , having been bested by the Rhodians on the allied right wing , the Macedonian left wing disengaged and retreated to join its victorious right flank . The withdrawal of the Macedonian left permitted the Rhodians to sail unmolested back into Chios ' harbour .
While the battle was not decisive , it was a significant setback for Philip , who lost 92 ships destroyed and 7 captured . On the allied side , the Pergamese had three ships destroyed and two captured , while the Rhodians lost three ships sunk and none captured . During the battle the Macedonians lost 6 @,@ 000 rowers and 3 @,@ 000 marines killed and had 2 @,@ 000 men captured . The casualties for the allies were significantly lower , with the Pergamese losing 70 men the Rhodians 60 killed , the allies as a whole losing 600 captured . Peter Green describes this defeat as " crippling and costly " , with Philip sustaining more casualties than he had previously suffered in any battle .
After this battle , the Rhodian admirals decided to leave Chios and sail back home . On the way back to Rhodes , the Rhodian admiral Theophiliscus died of the wounds he received at Chios , but before he died he appointed Cleonaeus as his successor . As the Rhodian fleet was sailing in the strait between Lade and Miletus on the shore of Asia Minor , Philip 's fleet attacked them . Philip defeated the Rhodian fleet in the Battle of Lade and forced it to retreat back to Rhodes . The Milesians were impressed by the victory and sent Philip and Heracleides garlands of victory when they entered Milesian territory as did the city of Hiera Cone .
= = Asia Minor campaign = =
Philip , disappointed by the spoils in Mysia , proceeded south and plundered the towns and cities of Caria . He invested Prinassus , which held out bravely at first , but when Philip set up his artillery , he sent an envoy into the city offering to let them leave the city unharmed or they would all be killed . The citizens decided to abandon the city . At this stage in the campaign , Philip 's army was running out of food , so he seized the city of Myus and gave it to the Magnesians in return for food supplies . Since the Magnesians had no grain , Philip settled for enough figs to feed his whole army . Subsequently , Philip turned north in order to seize and garrison the cities of Iasos , Bargylia , Euromus and Pedasa in quick succession .
While Philip 's fleet was wintering in Bargylia , the combined Pergamese and Rhodian fleet blockaded the harbour . The situation in the Macedonian camp became so grave that the Macedonians were close to surrendering . The dire situation was alleviated somewhat by supplies sent by Zeuxis . Philip , however , managed to get out by trickery . He sent an Egyptian deserter to Attalus and the Rhodians to say that he was preparing to attack the allies the next day . Upon hearing the news , Attalus and the Rhodians started preparing the fleet for the oncoming attack . While the allies were making their preparations , Philip slipped past them by night with his fleet , leaving numerous campfires burning to give the appearance that he remained in his camp .
While Philip was involved in this campaign , his allies the Acarnanians became involved in a war against Athens after the Athenians murdered two Acarnanian athletes . The Acarnanians complained to Philip about this provocation , and he decided to send a force under the command of Nicanor the Elephant to assist them in their attack on Attica . The Macedonians and their allies plundered and looted Attica before attacking Athens . The invaders made it as far as the Academy of Athens when the Roman ambassadors in the city ordered the Macedonians to retreat or to face war with Rome .
Philip 's fleet had just escaped from the allied blockade and Philip ordered that a squadron head to Athens . The Macedonian squadron sailed into Piraeus and captured four Athenian ships . As the Macedonian squadron was retreating , the Rhodian and Pergamese fleet , which had followed Philip 's ships across the Aegean , appeared from the allied base at Aegina and attacked the Macedonians . The allies defeated the Macedonian fleet and recaptured the Athenian ships , which they returned to the Athenians . The Athenians were so pleased by the rescue that they replaced the recently abolished pro @-@ Macedonian tribes , the Demetrias and Antigonis tribes , with the Attalid tribe in honour of Attalus as well as destroying monuments that had previously been erected in honour of Macedonian Kings . Attalus and the Rhodians convinced the Athenian assembly to declare war on the Macedonians .
The Pergamese fleet sailed back to their base at Aegina and the Rhodians set out to conquer all the Macedonian islands from Aegina to Rhodes , successfully assaulting all except Andros , Paros and Cythnos . Philip ordered his prefect on the island of Euboea , Philoces , to assault Athens once again with 2 @,@ 000 infantry and 200 cavalry . Philocles was unable to capture Athens , but ravaged the surrounding countryside .
= = Roman intervention = =
Meanwhile , Rhodian , Pergamese , Egyptian , anti @-@ Macedonian Cretan and Athenian delegations travelled to Rome to appear before the Senate . When they were given audience they informed the Senate about the treaty between Philip and Antiochus and complained of Philip 's attacks on their territories . In response to these complaints the Romans sent three ambassadors , Marcus Aemilius Lepidus , Gaius Claudius Nero and Publius Sempronius Tuditanus to Egypt with the orders to go to Rhodes after speaking with Ptolemy .
While this was happening , Philip attacked and occupied the cities in Thrace which still belonged to Ptolemy , Maroneia , Cypsela , Doriscos , Serrheum and Aemus . The Macedonians then advanced on the Thracian Chersonese where they captured the cities of Perinthus , Sestos , Elaeus , Alopeconnesus , Callipolis and Madytus . Philip then descended to the city of Abydos , which was held by a combined Pergamese and Rhodian garrison . Philip started the siege by blockading the city by land and sea to stop attempts to reinforce or supply the city . The Abydenians , full of confidence , dislodged some of the siege engines with their own catapults while some of Philip 's other engines were burnt by the defenders . With their siege weaponry in tatters , the Macedonians started undermining the city 's walls , eventually succeeding in collapsing the outer wall .
The situation was now grave for the defenders and they decided to send two of their most prominent citizens to Philip as negotiators . Appearing before Philip , these men offered to surrender the city to him on the conditions that the Rhodian and the Pergamese garrisons were allowed to leave the city under a truce and that all the citizens were permitted to leave the city with the clothes they were wearing and go wherever they pleased , in effect meaning an unconditional surrender . Philip replied that they should " surrender at discretion or fight like men . " The ambassadors , powerless to do more , carried this response back to the city.'
Informed of this response , the city 's leaders called an assembly to determine their course of action . They decided to liberate all slaves to secure their loyalty , to place all the children and their nurses in the gymnasium and to put all the women in the temple of Artemis . They also asked for everyone to bring forward their gold and silver and any clothes that were valuable so they could put them in the boats of the Rhodians and the Cyzicenes . Fifty elder and trusted men were elected to carry out these tasks . All the citizens then swore an oath . As Polybius writes :
After reciting the oath , they brought forward the priests and everyone swore that they would defeat the enemy or die trying.'
When the interior wall fell , the men , true to their promise , sprang from the ruins and fought with great courage , forcing Philip to send his troops forward in relays to the front line . By nightfall the Macedonians retreated to camp . That night the Abydenians resolved to save the women and children and at daybreak they sent some priests and priestess with a garland across to the Macedonians , surrendering the city to Philip .
Meanwhile , Attalus sailed across the Aegean to the island of Tenedos . The youngest of the Roman ambassadors , Marcus Aemilius Lepidus , had heard about the siege at Abydos while he was in Rhodes and he arrived at Abydos to find Philip . Meeting the king outside the city , Lepidus informed him of the Senate 's wishes . Polybius writes :
While Philip was walking through Abydos , he saw people killing themselves and their families by stabbing , burning , hanging , and jumping down wells and from rooftops . Philip was surprised to see this , and published a proclamation announcing that would give three day 's grace to anybody wishing to commit suicide . The Abydenians , who were bent on following the orders of the original decree , thought that this would amount to treason to the people who had already died , and refused to live under these terms . Apart from those in chains or similar restraints , each family individually hurried to their deaths .
Philip then ordered another attack on Athens ; his army failed to take either Athens or Eleusis , but subjected Attica to the worst ravaging the Atticans had seen since the Persian Wars . In response , the Romans declared war on Philip and invaded his territories in Illyria . Philip was forced to abandon his Rhodian and Pergamese campaign in order to deal with the Romans and the situation in Greece . Thus began the Second Macedonian War .
After Philip 's withdrawal from his campaign against Rhodes , the Rhodians were free to attack Olous and Hierapytna and their other Cretan allies . Rhodes ' search for allies in Crete bore fruit when the Cretan city of Knossos saw that the war was going in Rhodes ' favour and decided to join Rhodes in an attempt to gain supremacy over the island . Many other cities in central Crete subsequently joined Rhodes and Knossos against Hierapytna and Olous . Now under attack on two fronts , Hierapytna surrendered .
= = Aftermath = =
Under the treaty signed at the conclusion of the war , Hierapytna agreed to break off all relations and alliances with foreign powers and to place all its harbors and bases at Rhodes ' disposal . Olous , among the ruins of which the terms of the treaty have been found , had to accept Rhodian domination . As a result , Rhodes was left with control of a significant part of eastern Crete after the war . The conclusion of the war left the Rhodians free to help their allies in the Second Macedonian War .
The war had no particular short @-@ term effect on the rest of Crete . Pirates and mercenaries there continued in their old occupations after the war 's end . In the Battle of Cynoscephalae during the Second Macedonian War three years later , Cretan mercenary archers fought for both the Romans and the Macedonians .
The war was costly for Philip and the Macedonians , losing them a fleet that had taken three years to build as well as triggering the defection of their Greek allies , the Achean League and the Aetolian League , to the Romans . In the war 's immediate aftermath the Dardani , a barbarian tribe , swarmed across the northern border of Macedon , but Philip was able to repel this attack . In 197 , however , Philip was defeated in the Battle of Cynoscephalae by the Romans and was forced to surrender . This defeat cost Philip most of his territory outside Macedon and he had to pay a war indemnity of 1 @,@ 000 talents of silver to the Romans .
The Rhodians regained control over the Cyclades and reconfirmed their naval supremacy over the Aegean . The Rhodians ' possession of eastern Crete allowed them to largely stamp out piracy in that area , but pirate attacks on Rhodian shipping continued and eventually led to the Second Cretan War . Attalus died in 197 and was succeeded by his son , Eumenes II , who continued his father 's anti @-@ Macedonian policy . The Pergamese , meanwhile , came out of the war having gained several Aegean islands which had been in Philip 's possession and went on to become the supreme power in Asia Minor , rivaled only by Antiochus .
= = = Ancient sources = = =
Livy ; Bettison , Henry ( translator ) ( 1976 ) . Rome and the Mediterranean . London : Penguin Classics . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 044362 @-@ 2 .
Polybius ; Walbank , Frank W. ( translator ) ( 1979 ) . The Rise of the Roman Empire . New York : Penguin Classics . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 044318 @-@ 9 .
= = = Modern sources = = =
Detorakis , Theocharis ( 1994 ) . A History of Crete . Heraklion : Iraklion . ISBN 978 @-@ 960 @-@ 220 @-@ 712 @-@ 3 .
Errington , Robert Malcolm ( 1990 ) . A History of Macedonia . United States of America : University of California Press . ISBN 9780520063198 .
Fox , Robert Lane ( 2006 ) . The Classical World . United Kingdom : Penguin Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 103761 @-@ 5 .
Green , Peter ( 1993 ) . Alexander to Actium : The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age . United States of America : University of California Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 500 @-@ 01485 @-@ X.
Hammond , N. G. L. ( 1988 ) . A History of Macedonia : 336 – 167 BC . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0198148151 .
Matyszak , Philip ( 2004 ) . The Enemies of Rome : From Hannibal to Attila . New York : Thames and Hudson . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 500 @-@ 25124 @-@ 9 .
Walbank , F. W. ( 1967 ) . Philip V of Macedon . United Kingdom : Archon Books . OCLC 601891051 .
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= Half @-@ Life ( video game ) =
Half @-@ Life ( stylized as HλLF @-@ LIFE ) is a science fiction first @-@ person shooter video game developed by Valve L.L.C. , released in 1998 by Sierra Studios for Microsoft Windows . It was Valve L.L.C. ' s debut product and the first in the Half @-@ Life series . Players assume the role of Dr. Gordon Freeman , who must fight his way out of a secret research facility after a teleportation experiment goes disastrously wrong , fighting enemies and solving puzzles .
Unlike many other games at the time , Half @-@ Life features no cutscenes ; the player has uninterrupted control of Freeman , and the story is told through scripted sequences seen through his eyes . Valve L.L.C. co @-@ founder Gabe Newell said the team had wanted to create an immersive world rather than a " shooting gallery " . The game 's engine , GoldSrc , is a heavily modified version of the Quake engine licensed from id Software .
Half @-@ Life received acclaim for its graphics , realistic gameplay , and seamless narrative . It won over fifty PC " Game of the Year " awards and is often considered one of the greatest games of all time . It influenced first @-@ person shooters for years after its release ; according to IGN , the history of the genre " breaks down pretty cleanly into pre @-@ Half @-@ Life and post @-@ Half @-@ Life eras . "
Half @-@ Life had sold eight million copies by November 16 , 2004 , and 9 @.@ 3 million copies by December 2008 . It was ported to the PlayStation 2 in 2001 , and OS X and Linux in 2013 . It was followed in 2004 by a sequel , Half @-@ Life 2 .
= = Gameplay = =
Half @-@ Life is a first @-@ person shooter that requires the player to perform combat tasks and puzzle solving to advance through the game . Unlike most of its peers at the time , Half @-@ Life used scripted sequences , such as a Vortigaunt ramming down a door , to advance major plot points . Compared to most first @-@ person shooters of the time , which relied on cut @-@ scene intermissions to detail their plotlines , Half @-@ Life 's story is told entirely by means of scripted sequences , keeping the player in control of the first @-@ person viewpoint . In line with this , the game has no cut @-@ scenes , and the player rarely loses the ability to control Gordon , who never speaks and is never actually seen in the game ; the player sees " through his eyes " for the entire length of the game . Half @-@ Life has no " levels " ; it instead divides the game by chapters , whose titles flash on the screen as the player moves through the game . Progress through the world is continuous , except for short pauses for loading .
The game regularly integrates puzzles , such as navigating a maze of conveyor belts , or using nearby boxes to build a small staircase to the next area the player must travel to . Some puzzles involve using the environment to kill an enemy , like turning on a steam valve to spray hot steam at their enemies . There are few " bosses " in the conventional sense , where the player defeats a superior opponent by direct confrontation . Instead , such organisms occasionally define chapters , and the player is generally expected to use the terrain , rather than firepower , to kill the " boss " . Late in the game , the player receives a " long jump module " for the HEV suit , which allows the player to increase the horizontal distance and speed of jumps by crouching before jumping . The player must rely on this ability to navigate various platformer @-@ style jumping puzzles in Xen toward the end of the game .
For the most part the player battles through the game alone , but is occasionally assisted by non @-@ player characters ; specifically security guards and scientists who help the player , the former who will fight alongside and both who can assist in reaching new areas and impart relevant plot information . A wide array of enemies populate the game including parasites of Xen such as headcrabs , bullsquids , headcrab zombies and Vortigaunts . The player also faces human opponents , in particular Hazardous Environment Combat Unit ( HECU ) Marines and black ops assassins who are dispatched to contain the extra @-@ dimensional threats and silence all witnesses .
The iconic weapon of Half @-@ Life is the crowbar . The game also features numerous conventional weapons , such as the Glock 17 pistol ( with the HD pack enabled , it resembles a Beretta ) , Franchi SPAS @-@ 12 shotgun ( with the HD pack enabled , the stock is folded up ) , MP5 submachine gun with an attached M203 grenade launcher ( with the HD pack enabled , it resembles an M4 Carbine ) , Colt Python .357 Magnum revolver , and rocket launcher as well as unusual weapons ranging from a crossbow to weapons from Xen and genetically engineered weapons such as an organic homing gun and flesh @-@ eating parasites called " Snarks " . Two experimental weapons , the tau cannon ( nicknamed the Gauss gun ) and the Gluon Gun , are built by the scientists in the facility and are acquired by the player late in the game .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Most of the game is set in a remote desert area of New Mexico in the Black Mesa Research Facility , a fictional complex that bears many similarities to both the Los Alamos National Laboratory and Area 51 , at some point during the 2000s . The game 's protagonist is the theoretical physicist Gordon Freeman , who holds a Ph.D. from MIT . Freeman becomes one of the survivors of an experiment at Black Mesa that goes horribly wrong , when an unexpected " resonance cascade " — a fictitious phenomenon — rips dimensional seams , devastating the facility . Aliens from another dimension known as Xen subsequently enter the facility through these dimensional seams ( an event known as the " Black Mesa incident " ) .
As Freeman tries to make his way out of the ruined facility , he soon discovers that he is caught between two sides : the hostile aliens and the Hazardous Environment Combat Unit , a U.S. Marine Corps special operations unit dispatched to cover up the incident by eliminating the organisms , as well as Dr. Freeman and the other surviving Black Mesa personnel to keep them from talking . Throughout the game , a mysterious figure known ( but not actually referred to in @-@ game ) as the " G @-@ Man " regularly appears , and seems to be monitoring Freeman 's progress . Ultimately , Freeman uses the cooperation of surviving scientists and security officers to work his way towards the mysterious " Lambda Complex " of Black Mesa ( signified with the Greek " λ " character ) , where a team of survivors teleport him to the alien world Xen to kill the Nihilanth , the gigantic entity keeping Xen 's side of the dimensional rift open .
The game 's plot was originally inspired by the video games Doom and Quake ( both PC games produced by id Software ) , Stephen King 's short story / novella The Mist , and an episode of The Outer Limits called " The Borderland " . It was later developed by Valve 's in @-@ house writer and author , Marc Laidlaw , who wrote the books Dad 's Nuke and The 37th Mandala .
= = = Plot = = =
Dr. Gordon Freeman arrives late for work at 8 : 47 am in the Black Mesa Research Facility , using the advanced Black Mesa train system that leads through the facility . He arrives at the Anomalous Materials Lab , his work place , and is informed by the security officer that the scientists have a special experiment today , so he goes to the locker room and puts on the hazard suit . He goes to the lab 's lower levels , arriving at the Anti @-@ Mass Chamber , where he is instructed that the specimen to be used that day is the rarest and also the most unstable specimen the lab has ever worked with . He is tasked with pushing the specimen into the scanning beam of the Anti @-@ Mass Spectrometer for analysis . However , as soon as the specimen enters the beam , the spectrometer explodes , creating a sudden catastrophe called a " resonance cascade " , and opening a portal between Earth and a dimension called Xen . Freeman is apparently teleported to an alien planet and catches glimpses of various alien lifeforms , including a circle of Vortigaunts , shortly before blacking out .
Freeman awakens in the ruined test chamber and surveys the destroyed lab , strewn with the bodies of scientists and security personnel . Finding survivors , Freeman learns that communication to the outside is completely cut and is encouraged to head to the surface for help because of the protection afforded by his suit . His journey consists of sidestepping Black Mesa 's structural damage and defending himself against hostile Xen creatures , such as the parasitic headcrab which attaches itself to a human host before enslaving it . Other survivors claim a rescue team has been dispatched , only to discover that the Hazardous Environment Combat Unit sent in is killing both the organisms and the personnel there as part of a government cover @-@ up of the catastrophe .
Freeman fights the Marines before reaching the surface of Black Mesa , where he learns that scientists from the Lambda Complex may have the means to resolve the problems created by the cascade . Gordon travels to the other end of the facility to assist them . However , Gordon encounters several hurdles throughout the facility , such as reactivating a rocket engine test facility to destroy a giant creature of three tentacles , using an aged railway system in order to get to and launch a crucial satellite rocket , and fighting a group of Black Ops soldiers , before he is captured by Marines and dumped in a garbage compactor . Gordon escapes and makes his way to an older part of the facility where he discovers an extensive collection of specimens collected from Xen , long before the resonance cascade .
Reaching the surface once more , Gordon finds a warzone . Despite calling for reinforcements , the Marines are being overwhelmed by the aliens . Scaling cliffs and navigating destroyed buildings , Gordon reaches safety underground . The Marines begin to pull out of Black Mesa and airstrikes begin . Meanwhile , Gordon goes through underground water channels as aliens pick off the remaining Marines . He arrives at the Lambda Complex , where scientists developed the teleportation technology that allowed travel to Xen in the first place . After meeting the remaining personnel , Gordon is told the satellite he launched failed to reverse the effects of the resonance cascade because an immensely powerful being on the other side of the rift is keeping it open . Gordon must therefore kill this being to stop the Xenian invasion and the scientists activate the teleporter to send Gordon to Xen .
Entering the borderworld Xen , Gordon encounters organisms that had been brought into Black Mesa , as well as the remains of HEV @-@ wearing researchers that came before him . He fights his way through Gonarch , the huge egg laying headcrab , an alien camp and arrives at a massive alien factory , which is creating the Alien Grunt soldiers . After fighting his way through levitating creatures , he finds a giant portal and enters it . In a vast cave , Gordon confronts the Nihilanth , the entity maintaining the rift , and destroys it . The Nihilanth dies in an explosion , knocking Gordon unconscious .
Freeman awakens , stripped of his weapons , to find the G @-@ Man , who has been watching over Gordon throughout . The G @-@ Man praises Freeman 's actions in Xen . He explains that his " employers " , believing that Freeman has potential , have authorized him to offer Freeman a job . The player is then given a choice . If the offer is accepted , Freeman is congratulated by the G @-@ Man and placed into stasis . If he refuses , he is teleported to a map full of enemies , and the game ends .
= = Development = =
Valve , based in Kirkland , Washington , was founded in 1996 by former Microsoft employees Mike Harrington and Gabe Newell . For its first product , Valve settled on a concept for a horror 3D action game using the Quake engine licensed from id Software . Valve eventually modified 70 % of the engine 's code , adding skeletal animation and Direct3D support .
According to designer Harry Teasley , id Software 's 1993 first @-@ person shooter Doom was a major influence , and the team wanted Half @-@ Life to " scare you like Doom did " . Newell said that " Half @-@ Life in many ways was a reactionary response to the trivialization of the experience of the first @-@ person genre . Many of us had fallen in love with videogames because of the phenomenological possibilities of the field , and felt like the industry was reducing the experiences to least common denominators rather than exploring those possibilities . Our hope was that building worlds and characters would be more compelling than building shooting galleries . "
The team had early difficulties with level design ; in desperation , they eventually built a single level including every weapon , enemy , scripted event , and idea they had so far conceived . This level inspired the studio to continue development .
The project had the working title Quiver , after the Arrowhead military base from Stephen King 's novella The Mist , an early inspiration for the game . The name Half @-@ Life was chosen because it was evocative of the theme , not clichéd , and had a corresponding visual symbol : the Greek letter λ ( lower @-@ case lambda ) , which represents the decay constant in the half @-@ life equation .
Valve struggled to find a publisher , as many believed the game was too ambitious for a first @-@ time developer . Sierra On @-@ Line signed Valve for a one @-@ game deal as it was interested in making a 3D action game , especially one based on the Quake engine . Valve first showed Half @-@ Life in early 1997 ; it was a success at Electronic Entertainment Expo that year , where Valve demonstrated the game 's animation and artificial intelligence . At E3 1998 it was given Game Critics Awards for " Best PC Game " and " Best Action Game " .
In August 1997 , Valve hired science fiction author Marc Laidlaw to work on characters and level design . The soundtrack was composed by Kelly Bailey . Half @-@ Life was originally planned for release in late 1997 , to compete with Quake II , but Valve decided the game needed significant revision . The studio completely reworked the game 's artificial intelligence and levels in the year leading up to its release . The release date was delayed several times in 1998 before the game was finally released in November of that year . A few days prior to the release the developers discovered an error in the source code . Developers fixed the error by adding corrections into a single line of the source code .
Valve released two demos for Half @-@ Life . The first , Half @-@ Life : Day One , contained the first fifth of the game , and was distributed with certain graphic cards . The second demo , Half @-@ Life : Uplink , was released on February 12 , 1999 , featuring heavily revised variations of levels cut during Half @-@ Life 's development phase .
= = = Ports = = =
Half @-@ Life was ported to the PlayStation 2 by Gearbox Software and released in 2001 . This version of the game had a significant overhaul in terms of both character models , weapons , and more advanced and extended levels and general map geometry , incorporated from work on a planned Dreamcast version . Also added in is a head @-@ to @-@ head play and a co @-@ op expansion called Half @-@ Life : Decay that allowed players to play as the two women scientists Dr. Cross and Dr. Green at Black Mesa . Another interesting feature allowed players to use a USB mouse and keyboard , a feature previously unused on the platform .
A version for Mac OS , ported by Logicware , was announced but never released . Captivation Digital Laboratories , Inc. was slated to develop a port to the Dreamcast , to be released near the end of 2000 . The Dreamcast version revamped the graphics of the game with double the polygon count of the original models . Like Opposing Force for PC and Decay for PlayStation 2 , the Dreamcast version was set to have its own exclusive expansion , Blue Shift . However , after many delays , the Dreamcast version was cancelled in June 2001 due to " changing market conditions " . The Blue Shift expansion was then preserved and ported over to become Half @-@ Life 's second expansion for PC .
That year Sierra On @-@ Line showed its PlayStation 2 port at E3 2001 . This version was released in North America in late October of the same year , followed by a European release just a month later . Around the same time , Half @-@ Life : Blue Shift , which was intended to be the Dreamcast @-@ exclusive side story , was eventually released on Windows as the second Half @-@ life Expansion Pack . It featured the " High Definition Pack " , upgraded models originally in the Dreamcast version , which overhauled the graphics of the original Half @-@ Life and Opposing Force as well .
On January 29 , 2013 , Valve released beta versions of ports for OS X and Linux , and finalized them on February 14 , 2013 .
= = Expansions and sequels = =
= = = Expansions = = =
Two expansion packs by outside developer Gearbox Software have been released for the PC version : Half @-@ Life : Opposing Force ( 1999 ) and Half @-@ Life : Blue Shift ( 2001 ) . The former returns the player to Black Mesa during the events of Half @-@ Life 's storyline , but this time from the perspective of Adrian Shephard , one of the Marines in the Hazardous Environment Combat Unit sent to cover up evidence of the incident . It introduced several new weapons , new non @-@ player characters , both friendly and hostile and new , previously unseen areas of the facility . The expansion is shorter than Half @-@ Life , having 11 chapters to the original 's 19 .
Blue Shift returns the player to Half @-@ Life 's Black Mesa timeline once more , this time as Barney Calhoun , one of the facility 's security guards . The expansion was originally developed as a bonus mission for the cancelled Dreamcast version . Blue Shift came with the High Definition Pack , that gave the player the option to update the look of Half @-@ Life , Opposing Force , and the new Blue Shift content . Blue Shift had relatively little new content compared to Opposing Force : aside from a few variations on existing models , all content was already present in the original Half @-@ Life .
Half @-@ Life : Decay was another expansion by Gearbox , released only as an extra with the PlayStation 2 version of Half @-@ Life . The add @-@ on featured cooperative gameplay in which two players could solve puzzles or fight against the many foes in the Half @-@ Life universe .
In 2000 , a compilation pack titled the Half @-@ Life : Platinum Pack was released , including ( with their respective manuals ) Half @-@ Life , Counter @-@ Strike , Team Fortress Classic , Half @-@ Life : Opposing Force . In 2002 , the pack was re @-@ released under the new titles Half @-@ Life Platinum Collection and Half @-@ Life : Generation . These new iterations also included the Half @-@ Life : Blue Shift expansion pack ; though if registered on Steam , Day of Defeat , as well as Ricochet and Deathmatch Classic were also included . In 2005 , Half @-@ Life 1 : Anthology was released , containing Steam @-@ only versions of the following games on a single DVD : Half @-@ Life , Half @-@ Life : Opposing Force , Half @-@ Life : Blue Shift , and Team Fortress Classic .
= = = Sequels = = =
The sequel , Half @-@ Life 2 , was merely a rumor until it was finally revealed at E3 in May 2003 , which ignited a firestorm of hype surrounding the game . The player again takes the role of Gordon Freeman , this time 20 years after the Black Mesa incident in the dystopic Eastern European " City 17 " where he must fight as part of a rebellion against an alien regime . After a series of controversies and delays , Half @-@ Life 2 was released on November 16 , 2004 .
On June 1 , 2006 Half @-@ Life 2 : Episode One was released . It was announced as part of a trilogy of episodes , of which the second was released on October 10 , 2007 , as part of The Orange Box . No third episode in the Half @-@ Life 2 trilogy was released .
= = = Remakes = = =
To experience firsthand the processes mod @-@ makers would have to go through with the new engine , Valve ported Half @-@ Life ( dubbed Half @-@ Life : Source ) and Counter @-@ Strike to their new Source engine . Half @-@ Life : Source is a straight port , lacking any new content or the Blue Shift High Definition pack . However , it does take advantage of vertex and pixel shaders for more realistic water effects , as well as Half @-@ Life 2 's realistic physics engine . They also added several other features from Half @-@ Life 2 , including improved dynamic lightmaps , vertex maps , ragdolls , and a shadowmap system with cleaner , higher resolution , specular texture and normal maps , as well as utilization of the render @-@ to @-@ texture soft shadows found in Half @-@ Life 2 's Source engine , along with 3D skybox replacements in place of the old 16 @-@ bit color prerendered bitmap skies . The Half @-@ Life port possesses many of the Source engine 's graphical strengths as well as control weaknesses that have been noted in the Source engine . Later updates added field of view options , support for OS X and Linux , an optional high @-@ definition texture pack , among other improvements . Half @-@ Life : Source is available with special editions of Half @-@ Life 2 , or separately on Steam .
Half @-@ Life : Source has been criticized for not fully utilizing many of the features of the Source engine found in Half @-@ Life 2 , as it still uses textures and models from the original game . In response to this , a third @-@ party mod remake called Black Mesa was developed . The first part of the Black Mesa modification was released on September 14 , 2012 , with the second promised to be coming later .
On June 10 , 2005 Valve announced through their Steam update news service an upcoming port of Half @-@ Life Deathmatch , the multiplayer portion of the original game , much in the same fashion as the earlier released Half @-@ Life : Source . No exact release date was given , simply the words " In the coming weeks ... " On July 2 , 2005 Half @-@ Life Deathmatch : Source was released .
= = = Third @-@ party mods = = =
From its release in 1998 , Half @-@ Life saw fervent support from independent game developers , due in no small part to support and encouragement from Valve Software . Worldcraft , the level @-@ design tool used during the game 's development , was included with the game software . Printed materials accompanying the game indicated Worldcraft 's eventual release as a retail product , but these plans never materialized . Valve also released a software development kit , enabling developers to modify the game and create mods . Both tools were significantly updated with the release of the version 1 @.@ 1 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 patch . Many supporting tools ( including texture editors , model editors , and rival level editors like the multiple engine editor QuArK ) were either created or updated to work with Half @-@ Life .
The Half @-@ Life software development kit served as the development base for many multiplayer mods , including the Valve @-@ developed Team Fortress Classic and Deathmatch Classic ( an updated version of Quake ) . Other mods such as Counter @-@ Strike and Day of Defeat ( DOD ) began life as the work of independent developers ( self @-@ termed " modders " ) who later received aid from Valve . Other multiplayer mods include Action Half @-@ Life , Firearms , Science and Industry , The Specialists , Pirates , Vikings and Knights , Natural Selection and Sven Co @-@ op .
Numerous single player mods have also been created , like USS Darkstar ( 1999 , a futuristic action @-@ adventure on board a zoological research spaceship ) , The Xeno Project 1 and 2 ( 1999 – 2005 , a two @-@ part mod starting in Xen and again including spaceships ) , Edge of Darkness ( 2000 , which features some unused Half @-@ Life models ) , Half @-@ Life : Absolute Redemption ( 2000 , which brings back Gordon Freeman for four additional episodes and another encounter with the G @-@ Man ) , They Hunger ( 2000 – 2001 , a survival horror total conversion trilogy involving zombies ) , Poke646 ( 2001 , a follow @-@ up to the original Half @-@ Life story with improved graphics ) , Someplace Else ( 2002 , Side story to the original Half @-@ Life ) , and Heart of Evil ( 2003 , Vietnam war with zombies ) .
Some Half @-@ Life modifications eventually landed on retail shelves . Counter @-@ Strike was the most successful , having been released in six different editions : as a standalone product ( 2000 ) , as part of the Platinum Pack ( 2000 ) , as an Xbox version ( 2003 ) , as a single player spin @-@ off called Counter @-@ Strike : Condition Zero ( 2004 ) , Counter @-@ Strike : Source , which runs on Half @-@ Life 2 's Source engine , and the newest addition Counter @-@ Strike : Global Offensive , also running on the Source engine . Team Fortress Classic , Day of Defeat , Gunman Chronicles ( 2000 , a futuristic Western movie @-@ style total conversion with emphasis on its single player mode ) and Sven Co @-@ op were also released as stand @-@ alone products .
Black Mesa , a fan @-@ made remake of Half @-@ Life utilising the Source engine , began development in 2005 , and was released as a free download on September 14 , 2012 . The free 2007 Source SDK base is needed to run the game . It has been confirmed that Black Mesa will be distributed via Steam ; the remake was among the first ten titles whose release on the platform was approved using Valve 's crowdvoting service Steam Greenlight .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Half @-@ Life 's public reception was overwhelmingly positive in terms of reviews , acclaim and sales . As of November 16 , 2004 , eight million copies of the game had been sold , by 2008 9 @.@ 3 million copies had been sold at retail . The game has won over 50 Game of the Year awards .
Half @-@ Life was universally acclaimed , earning an overall score of 96 out of 100 on aggregate review website Metacritic . Computer Gaming World 's Jeff Green said that the game " is not just one of the best games of the year . It 's one of the best games of any year , an instant classic that is miles better than any of its immediate competition , and - in its single @-@ player form - is the best shooter since the original Doom " . IGN described it as " a tour de force in game design , the definitive single player game in a first person shooter " . IGN has also respected the game as one of the most influential video games . GameSpot claimed that it was the " closest thing to a revolutionary step the genre has ever taken " . GameSpot inducted Half @-@ Life into their " Greatest Games of All Time " list in May 2007 . In 2004 , GameSpy held a Title Fight , in which readers voted on what they thought was the " greatest game of all time " , and Half @-@ Life was the overall winner of the survey . In the November 1999 , October 2001 , and April 2005 issues of PC Gamer , Half @-@ Life was named " Best Game of All Time " / " Best PC Game Ever " .
The immersive gaming experience and interactive environment was cited by several reviewers as being revolutionary . Allgame said " It isn 't everyday that you come across a game that totally revolutionizes an entire genre , but Half @-@ Life has done just that " . Hot Games commented on the realism of the game , and how the environment " all adds up to a totally immersive gaming experience that makes everything else look quite shoddy in comparison " . Gamers Depot found the game engaging , stating that they have " yet to play a more immersive game period " .
Despite the praise that the game has received , there have also been some complaints . The Electric Playground said that Half @-@ Life was an " immersive and engaging entertainment experience " , but said that this only lasted for the first half of the game , explaining that the game " peaked too soon " .
Guinness World Records awarded Half @-@ Life with the world record for Best @-@ Selling First @-@ Person Shooter of All Time ( PC ) in the Guinness World Records : Gamer 's Edition 2008 .
A short film based upon Half @-@ Life entitled Half @-@ Life : Uplink , was developed by Cruise Control , a British marketing agency , and was released on March 15 , 1999 . However , Sierra withdrew it from circulation , after itself and Valve had failed to resolve licensing issues with Cruise Control over the film . The critical reception of the film was very poor . The plot of the film was that a journalist infiltrates the Black Mesa Research Facility , trying to discover what has happened there .
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= Japanese aircraft carrier Hiyō =
Hiyō ( 飛鷹 , " Flying Hawk " ) was a Hiyō @-@ class aircraft carrier of the Imperial Japanese Navy . Begun as the ocean liner Izumo Maru ( 出雲丸 ) in 1939 , she was purchased by the Navy Ministry in 1941 for conversion to an aircraft carrier . Completed shortly after the Battle of Midway in June 1942 , she participated in the Guadalcanal Campaign in October and missed the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands later that month because of an electrical generator fire . Her aircraft were disembarked several times and used from land bases in a number of battles in the South West Pacific . Hiyō was torpedoed in mid @-@ 1943 and spent three months under repair . She spent most of the next six months training and ferrying aircraft before returning to combat . She was sunk by a gasoline vapor explosion caused by an American torpedo hit during the Battle of the Philippine Sea in mid @-@ 1944 .
= = Design and description = =
The ship was ordered as the fast luxury passenger liner Izumo Maru by Nippon Yusen Kaisha ( Japan Mail Steamship Company ) in late 1938 . In exchange for a 60 % subsidy of her building costs by the Navy Ministry , she was designed to be converted to an aircraft carrier .
Hiyō had a length of 220 meters ( 721 ft 9 in ) overall . She had a beam of 26 @.@ 7 meters ( 87 ft 7 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 15 meters ( 26 ft 9 in ) . She displaced 24 @,@ 150 tonnes ( 23 @,@ 770 long tons ) at standard load . Her crew ranged from 1 @,@ 187 to 1 @,@ 224 officers and enlisted men .
The ship was fitted with two Mitsubishi @-@ Curtis geared steam turbine sets with a total of 56 @,@ 250 shaft horsepower ( 41 @,@ 950 kW ) , each driving a 5 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 18 ft ) propeller . Steam was provided by six Kawasaki @-@ La Mont water @-@ tube boilers . Her machinery , designed for merchant service , was over four times heavier than that of the aircraft carrier Hiryū . Hiyō had a designed speed of 25 @.@ 5 knots ( 47 @.@ 2 km / h ; 29 @.@ 3 mph ) , but during sea trials she reached 25 @.@ 63 knots ( 47 @.@ 47 km / h ; 29 @.@ 49 mph ) from 56 @,@ 630 shp ( 42 @,@ 230 kW ) . The ship carried 4 @,@ 100 tonnes ( 4 @,@ 000 long tons ) of fuel oil which gave her a range of 11 @,@ 700 nautical miles ( 21 @,@ 700 km ; 13 @,@ 500 mi ) at 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
= = = Flight deck arrangements = = =
Hiyō 's flight deck was 210 @.@ 3 meters ( 690 ft 0 in ) long and had a maximum width of 27 @.@ 3 meters ( 89 ft 7 in ) . A large island was fitted on the starboard side that was integrated with , for the first time in a Japanese carrier , the ship 's funnel . This was angled 26 ° outwards to help keep its exhaust from interfering with flight operations . The ship was designed with two superimposed hangars , each approximately 153 meters ( 502 ft 0 in ) long , 15 meters ( 49 ft 3 in ) wide and 5 meters ( 16 ft 5 in ) high . Each hangar could be subdivided by four fire curtains and they were fitted with fire fighting foam dispensers on each side . The hangars were served by two square aircraft elevators with rounded corners , 14 @.@ 03 meters ( 46 @.@ 0 ft ) on each side . The elevators had a maximum capacity of 5 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 11 @,@ 000 lb ) and took 15 seconds to go from the lower hangar to the flight deck . Hiyō was fitted with electrically operated Kure type model 4 arresting gear with nine cables . She also mounted two Type 3 crash barricades . No aircraft catapult was fitted . The ship mounted a crane on the port side of the flight deck , just aft of the rear elevator . When collapsed , it was flush with the flight deck .
The ship 's air group was originally intended to consist of 12 Mitsubishi A5M ' Claude ' fighters , plus four in storage , 18 Aichi D3A ' Val ' dive bombers , plus two in reserve , and 18 Nakajima B5N ' Kate ' torpedo bombers . This was revised to substitute a dozen Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters , and three in storage for the A5Ms by the time the ship commissioned in 1942 . As a result of the lessons learned from the Battle of Midway in June , the ship 's fighter complement was strengthened to 21 Zeros , and the other aircraft reduced to 12 D3As and 9 B5Ns . By the end of the year , six more Zeros replaced an equal number of D3As . Although it was possible to fit all these aircraft into the hangars , eight or nine were usually stored on the flight deck to reduce cramping below decks .
= = = Armor , armament and sensors = = =
As a conversion from an ocean liner , it was not possible to add much armor , although the ship had a double hull . Two plates of Ducol steel , each 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick , protected the sides of the ship 's machinery spaces . The ship 's aviation gasoline tanks and magazines were protected by one layer of Ducol steel . In addition , her machinery spaces were further subdivided by transverse and longitudinal bulkheads to limit any flooding .
The ship 's primary armament consisted of a dozen 40 @-@ caliber 12 @.@ 7 cm Type 89 anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns in twin mounts on sponsons along the sides of the hull . Hiyō was also initially equipped with eight triple 25 mm Type 96 light AA guns , also in sponsons along the sides of the hull . In early 1943 , four more triple mounts were added and another four triple mounts late in the year . Two of these last four mounts were mounted on the stern and the others were placed in front of and behind the island . A dozen single mounts were also added , some of which were portable and could be mounted on tie @-@ down points on the flight deck .
Two Type 94 high @-@ angle fire @-@ control directors , one on each side of the ship , were fitted to control the Type 89 guns . Each director mounted a 4 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 14 ft 9 in ) rangefinder . Four Type 95 directors controlled the 25 mm guns and another pair were added in early 1943 . Early warning was provided by two Type 2 , Mark 2 , Model 1 air search radars . The first of these was mounted on the top of the island shortly before she was completed in July 1942 and the other was added later in the year . This latter system was fitted on the port side of the hull , outboard of the rear elevator . A smaller Type 3 , Mark 1 , Model 3 air search radar was added in 1944 .
= = Service history = =
Hiyō 's keel was laid down by Kawasaki Heavy Industries Shipyard , Kobe , on 30 November 1939 with the name of Izumo Maru . The ship was purchased on 10 February 1941 by the Navy Ministry and she was temporarily referred to as No. 1002 Ship ( Dai 1002 bankan ) to keep her conversion secret . She was launched on 24 June 1941 and commissioned on 31 July 1942 .
The ship was assigned to the Second Carrier Division of the 1st Air Fleet after commissioning and became Rear Admiral Kakuji Kakuta 's flagship on 12 August . After spending the next several months working up , Hiyō arrived at Truk , together with her sister Jun 'yō , on 9 October to begin operations against American forces in the Guadalcanal area as part of the 3rd Fleet . On 15 October , the two carriers reached the vicinity of Malaita Island in the Solomon Islands and their aircraft discovered a resupply convoy for Guadalcanal that was escorted by the destroyer Meredith . The A6M Zeros and D3As from the sisters attacked and sank the destroyer . The next day , they found the small seaplane tender , McFarland , in Lunga Roads offloading avgas into barges . Nine D3As attacked , blowing the ship 's stern off and destroying the barge . McFarland was not sunk , but required months of repairs . The two carriers were intended to play a prominent role in the Japanese effort to retake Guadalcanal Island and were assigned to the Advance Force for this operation . Their aircraft were supposed to provide air cover after the Japanese night attack that retook Henderson Field and then they were to be flown ashore . A fire in the generator room occurred on 17 October and reduced her top speed to 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) so Admiral Kakuta transferred his flag to Jun 'yō while Hiyō returned to Truk for repairs . Some of her aircraft , however , were also transferred to Jun 'yō before she left .
The remaining aircraft of her air group ( 16 Zeros and 17 D3As ) were flown off for Rabaul on 23 October where they provided air cover for Japanese forces on Guadalcanal . A detachment from the air group was transferred to Buin , Papua New Guinea on 1 November and participated in the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal later in the month . Those aircraft that remained at Rabaul flew back to Truk by 11 November , but the Buin detachment was ferried back to Japan on 14 December .
Hiyō spent November in Truk , during which time she was twice slightly damaged by American air raids , before returning to Japan in early December where she was rejoined by the rest of her air group . Aside from a brief refit at Kure from 26 February to 4 March 1943 , the ship was training in the Inland Sea until she sailed for Truk on 22 March . Her air group consisted of 27 Zeros and 12 D3As at this time . They were detached from Hiyō in early April to participate in Operation I @-@ Go , a land @-@ based aerial offensive against Allied bases in the Solomon Islands and New Guinea . The carrier was again lightly damaged from bomb splinters on 12 April from an American air attack . After her air group returned , the ship arrived back in Japan on 21 May in case she was needed to relieve Japanese forces fighting on the Attu Island .
Now the flagship of the Second Carrier Division under Rear Admiral Munetaka Sakamaki , Hiyō and her sister Junyō departed Yokosuka on 7 June en route for Truk . Later that evening , the ship was torpedoed by the submarine USS Trigger off Miyakejima . Hits in the starboard bow and boiler room knocked out all power , but she managed to return to Japan the following day after restoring power . Hiyō 's fighters were flown to Truk by 15 July and assigned to the light carrier Ryūhō . The ship was under repair at Yokosuka until 15 September . On 1 November , Hiyō 's air group was reconstituted with 24 Zeros , 18 D3As and 9 B5Ns and the ship departed Japan for Singapore on 24 November . She arrived on 3 December and was almost immediately assigned duties as an aircraft ferry . On 9 December , Hiyō left Singapore en route for Truk with several deliveries on the way . The ship arrived there on 22 December and disembarked her own air group before proceeding on to Saipan to deliver more aircraft . The air group was transferred to Kavieng and later Rabaul to provide air cover for Japanese operations there .
Hiyō returned to Japan on 1 January 1944 and her air group rejoined her on 2 March , albeit without aircraft . In the meantime , the Japanese Navy had restructured its carrier air groups so that one air group was assigned to one carrier division and Air Group 652 was assigned to the 2nd Carrier Division with Hiyō , Jun 'yō and Ryūhō . The air group was last in priority to be rebuilt and only had 30 Model 21 Zeros , 13 Model 52 Zeros and four D3As on hand on 1 April of its authorized 81 fighters , 36 dive bombers and 27 torpedo bombers . The ship conducted training for her aircraft in the Inland Sea until 11 May when she sailed for Tawi @-@ Tawi in the Philippines . The new base was closer to the oil wells in Borneo on which the Navy relied and also to the Palau and western Caroline Islands where the Japanese expected the next American attack . However , the location lacked an airfield on which to train the green pilots and American submarines were very active in the vicinity which restricted the ships to the anchorage .
= = = Battle of the Philippine Sea = = =
The Japanese fleet was en route to Guimares Island in the central Philippines on 13 June , 1944 where they intended to practice carrier operations in an area better protected from submarines , when Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa learned of the American attack on the Mariana Islands the previous day . Upon reaching Guimares , the fleet refuelled and sortied into the Philippine Sea where they spotted Task Force 58 on 18 June . The Americans failed to locate Ozawa 's ships that day and the Japanese turned south to maintain a constant distance between them and the American carriers as Ozawa had decided on launching his air strikes early the following morning . At this time , Air Group 652 consisted 81 Zeros , 27 D3As , 9 Yokosuka D4Y " Judy " dive bombers and 18 Nakajima B6N " Jill " torpedo bombers , roughly evenly divided among the three three carriers under his command . The carriers began launching their first air strike of 26 bomb @-@ carrying A6M2 Zeros , seven B6Ns and 16 A6M5 Zeros as escort around 09 : 30 . Most of these aircraft were misdirected and failed to find any American ships , although a dozen persisted in their search and found one of the American task groups . Five bomb @-@ carrying Zeros , a B6N and an escort Zero were shot down by the defending fighters and no damage was inflicted on any American ship .
A second air strike of 27 D3As , nine D4Ys , two B6Ns and 26 escorting Zeros was launched around 11 : 00 , accompanied by at least 18 A6Ms and B6Ns from the carriers Shōkaku and Zuikaku . They had also been given an erroneous spot report and were unable to find any American ships . Some of the aircraft headed for airfields at Rota and Guam to refuel while the remainder headed back to the carriers . Six D4Ys and two Zeros bound for Rota spotted the carriers Wasp and Bunker Hill en route and failed to inflict any damage on the American ships while losing five D4Ys to anti @-@ aircraft fire . Radar had spotted those aircraft headed for Guam and they were intercepted by 41 Grumman F6F Hellcats . Only one A6M5 , one D4Y and seven D3As of 49 Japanese aircraft survived the encounter and landed .
At dusk , the Japanese turned away to the northwest to regroup and to refuel and the Americans turned west to close the distance . They discovered the retiring Japanese fleet during the afternoon of the following day and Vice Admiral Marc Mitscher ordered an air strike launched . Hiyō was struck by two bombs , one of which detonated above the bridge and killed or wounded virtually everyone there . More seriously , the ship was struck by one torpedo dropped by a Grumman TBF Avenger from Belleau Wood . This knocked out the starboard engine room and started fires , but Hiyō was able to continue , albeit a slower speed . Two hours later , a large explosion occurred when leaking gasoline vapor ignited and it knocked out all power on the ship . The fires raged out of control and Hiyō sank stern first shortly afterwards at 16 ° 20 ′ N 132 ° 32 ′ E. Roughly 1 @,@ 000 men were rescued by her escorting destroyers , but 247 officers and enlisted men died aboard the carrier .
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= German submarine U @-@ 2336 =
German submarine U @-@ 2336 was a Type XXIII U @-@ boat of Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine during World War II .
U @-@ 2336 had a very short career . She only conducted one war patrol and sank only three vessels , one of which was another German U @-@ boat ( U @-@ 2344 ) . Despite her short time in service , U @-@ 2336 is known for sinking the last two Allied merchant ships lost to a submarine in the war , when she torpedoed and sank the freighters Avondale Park and Sneland I off the Isle of May inside the Firth of Forth .
Following the war , U @-@ 2336 was handed over to the Allies where she was taken to the British port of Lisahally and sunk in Operation Deadlight on 3 January 1946 .
= = Construction = =
U @-@ 2336 was the 16th U @-@ boat that was constructed in the Type XXIII class . She was ordered on 20 September 1943 , and was laid down on 27 July 1944 at Deutsche Werft , Hamburg , as yard number 490 . She was launched on 10 September 1944 and commissioned under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Jürgen Vockel on 30 September of that year .
By the time she was operational , U @-@ 2336 was equipped with only two bow torpedoes due to a lack of space and had a crew of 14 – 18 men . She had a range of 2 @,@ 600 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 800 km ; 3 @,@ 000 mi ) at 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) on the surface and 194 nmi ( 359 km ; 223 mi ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) while submerged . U @-@ 2336 's maximum speed was 9 @.@ 7 knots ( 18 km / h ; 11 mph ) while surfaced and 12 @.@ 5 knots ( 23 km / h ; 14 mph ) when submerged .
= = Service record = =
Following training exercises with the 32nd U @-@ boat Flotilla from 30 September 1944 to 15 February 1945 , U @-@ 2336 began her first voyages as a front boat of the 4th U @-@ boat Flotilla on 16 February 1945 . However , on 18 February 1945 she was involved in a collision with U @-@ 2344 , another Type XXIII U @-@ boat , off Heiligendamm on the Baltic coast . U @-@ 2344 was sunk , with the loss of 11 of her crew . It took about two months for U @-@ 2336 to actually leave her home port of Kiel , which she finally did on 18 April 1945 under a new commander , Kapitänleutnant Emil Klusmeier . Following five days of traveling across the straits of Kattegat and Skagerrak , U @-@ 2336 reached Larvik , Norway on 24 April 1945 ; which was to be her new home port for the remainder of the war .
= = = 1st patrol = = =
On 1 May 1945 , U @-@ 2336 left Larvik and headed out into the North Sea . On 7 May 1945 , U @-@ 2336 sank the last Allied merchant ships to be lost to a German submarine in the war , when she torpedoed and sank the freighters Avondale Park and Sneland I ( in order ) off the Isle of May inside the Firth of Forth . The first of the two ships to be sunk was the Sneland I , which exploded as soon as it was hit killing seven of her crew members , including the captain . Avondale Park was hit next , alarming the 28 man crew who believed that they had struck a mine . Avondale Park sank two minutes after being hit . Two crew members had been killed while the rest managed to enter a lifeboat or jump into the sea . U @-@ 2336 later returned to Kiel on 14 May 1945 and then transferred to Wilhelmshaven , Germany , where she was surrendered to the Western Allies .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
After being surrendered to the Western Allies , U @-@ 2336 was taken to Lisahally , United Kingdom on 21 June 1945 to take part in Operation Deadlight where she was sunk on 3 January 1946 by gunfire from the British destroyer HMS Offa .
= = = Summary of raiding history = = =
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= Johnson Senior High School ( Saint Paul , Minnesota ) =
Johnson Senior High School is a comprehensive high school for grades 9 to 12 in Saint Paul , Minnesota , United States . Originally named Cleveland High School , the school was renamed after Minnesota governor John A. Johnson in 1911 . Johnson is the second oldest high school in the Saint Paul Public Schools district and is only surpassed in age by Central High School . The school has operated in three different buildings since 1897 , all located on the East Side of Saint Paul .
Johnson is the third largest high school in the district and enrolls 1647 students . The school offers Advanced Placement classes as well as the University of Minnesota @-@ affiliated College in the Schools program . In 2002 the school received a grant from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation which led to the introduction of eight Small Learning Communities .
Johnson offers over 40 extracurricular clubs and organizations including an Air Force Junior Reserve Officers ' Training Corps ( AFJROTC ) unit , one of only three in the state . The school was a founding member and currently competes in the Saint Paul City Conference . The school 's hockey team has had success , winning four state titles , but in the last decade has suffered from low participation .
= = History = =
Johnson High School was established in 1897 , making it the second oldest high school in the Saint Paul Public Schools district and the oldest on the East Side of Saint Paul . The school was originally named Cleveland High School , after the U.S. President Grover Cleveland , although some sources state the school was named after Horace Cleveland , a local landscape architect .
In 1910 increasing enrollment and overcrowding led to the construction of a second school building at 740 York Ave . The school was renamed John A. Johnson High School in honor of the recently deceased Minnesota governor John Albert Johnson ( 1861 – 1909 ) . Students attended class at the second location from 1911 to 1963 .
By 1959 overcrowding as a result of the post @-@ World War II baby boom forced the construction of a third school building . Land was purchased in 1960 at the former site of Hastings Pond , which had been filled in during construction of Interstate 94 through Saint Paul , and the building was completed at a cost of $ 3 @,@ 663 @,@ 529 @.@ 78 . Johnson High School has been located at the third school building since the fall of 1963 .
= = Enrollment = =
Students are able to enroll from throughout the city , however most students live on the East Side . Johnson is the third largest high school in the Saint Paul Public Schools district with 1647 students attending in the 2006 – 2007 school year . The plurality of students identified as Asian , with 46 % , while students identifying as Black and White composed 29 % and 14 % of the student body respectively . Ten percent ( 10 % ) of students identified as Hispanic and 2 % American Indian . Eighty @-@ one ( 81 % ) qualified for Free or Reduced Price Lunch and 34 % of students had limited English Proficiency .
= = Education = =
Johnson participates in the Advanced Placement ( AP ) program , offering college @-@ level courses in twelve subject areas . Students can also earn college credit through College in the Schools ( CIS ) classes offered by the University of Minnesota , and Post Secondary Enrollment Options ( PSEO ) classes at area colleges and universities . Language classes in Spanish and French are offered .
In 2002 Johnson received $ 1 @.@ 1 million in grants from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the U.S. Department of Education . Johnson used the money to create eight smaller learning communities for the 2003 – 2004 school year . In the first five years the graduation rate at Johnson increased 19 % with state @-@ required 10th grade reading and writing tests also seeing double digit increases . The money from the grants ran out before the 2006 – 2007 school year . Currently , there are eight smaller learning communities within the school . All students start in the Freshmen FOCUS Academy and then choose one of seven other academies for the remainder of their high school career based on their interests . Beginning with the class of 2006 , graduating seniors are required to engage in the Senior Project , a program designed for students to showcase the skills they have developed during their stay at Johnson and as a practice for building a résumé or portfolio when applying for jobs .
The senior project consists of four main P 's project , paper , portfolio and presentation . The students are required to work on a project outside of class that takes at least 15 hours of their time . This project can be anything . Their paper then has to relate in some way to their project , so if the project is creating a bird house the paper could be able the best type of bird house . The portfolio then brings everything together with evidence to prove that the project was completed . The presentation is then given at least 3 times and ties all of the items together . All the projects are judged throughout the year , and the top four receive a scholarship to help finance their college education .
= = Extracurricular activities = =
= = = Athletics = = =
Johnson athletic programs competed in class AAAA of the Minnesota State High School League , until the 2007 @-@ 08 school year , when the school was moved to class AAA . The school was a founding member of the Saint Paul City Conference in 1898 when the school was still Cleveland High School .
The Governors have won the Saint Paul City Conference title for football 13 times , their last conference title coming in 2006 . Johnson 's chief rival is Harding Senior High School , and the two football squads play each other annually for the Hatchet trophy . The rivalry is the oldest continuous one in the Saint Paul City Conference with the teams meeting each year since 1932 .
In 2010 , the Governors won their first boy 's basketball state title , beating out Grand Rapids High School and capping off an undefeated season . Johnson made another state tournament appearance in 2006 , but lost in the semi @-@ finals to eventual state AAAA champion Hopkins .
= = = = Hockey = = = =
Johnson also has a history of success in ice hockey including four State Championships ( 1947 , 1953 , 1955 , 1963 ) , three second @-@ place finishes , and three third @-@ place finishes in 22 State Tournament appearances . Johnson was the only Twin Cities high school to win the Minnesota high school boys hockey tournament for the first 25 years . Herb Brooks , who coached the Miracle on Ice gold medal winning team , played on the school 's 1955 state championship winning team . Brooks ' number five jersey was retired following his death in 2003 . During the 1950s students shoveled off parts of Lake Phalen because there were no enclosed ice arenas . Most of the bantam hockey team players from the East Side attend either Johnson or Hill @-@ Murray School . During the 1950s and 1960s Johnson was considered a feeder school for the University of Minnesota 's ice hockey team . Recently the school 's teams have suffered from lack of enrollment in the sports teams . Johnson is along with Como Park the only Saint Paul City Conference school to field a hockey team .
= = = Clubs and organizations = = =
Johnson 's literary magazine the Gleam was first published in 1912 but stopped publishing in 1926 . In 1992 the magazine began again to help students improve scores on writing tests . The current literary annual is titled the " Mirror . " Johnson is one of only three high schools in Minnesota to have an Air Force Junior Reserve Officers ' Training Corps ( AFJROTC ) . There are over 40 extracurricular clubs or organizations for students .
= = Notable alumni = =
Louie Anderson , comedian and actor
Wendell Anderson , former Minnesota Governor and Olympic Medalist
Les Auge , hockey player
Alana Blahoski , Olympic Gold medalist in hockey
Matthew D. Bostrom , former Saint Paul Police Assistant Chief and current Ramsey County Sheriff .
Herb Brooks , hockey coach of the " Miracle on Ice " gold medal winning U.S. Olympic hockey team
Warren E. Burger , Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court from 1969 to 1986 .
Tyler Hendrickson Drafted to the Chicago Bears 2012 , later played for the Green Bay Blizzard .
Jim Hau , hockey player
Ray Hitchcock , professional football player , formerly for the Washington Redskins .
Eric Langness , Republican politician , formerly for the Forest Lake Area Schools board member .
Amy Peterson , three time Olympic medalist
Warren Strelow , ice hockey goal tending coach
Arnold Sundgaard , playwright
Jerry Rusch , also credited as Jerry Rush , was an American jazz trumpeter
Barry Tallackson , hockey player
Thomas Tapeh , professional football player , formerly for the Minnesota Vikings .
Bruce Vento , U.S. Congressman
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= Émile Bouchard =
Joseph Émile Alcide " Butch " Bouchard , CM , CQ ( September 4 , 1919 – April 14 , 2012 ) was a Canadian ice hockey player who played defence with the Montreal Canadiens in the National Hockey League from 1941 to 1956 . He is a member of the Hockey Hall of Fame , won four Stanley Cups , was captain of the Canadiens for eight years and was voted to the NHL All @-@ Star Team four times . Although having a reputation as a clean player , he was also one of the strongest players and best body @-@ checkers of his era . He excelled as a defensive defenceman , had superior passing skills and was known for his leadership and mentoring of younger players . In his early years in the NHL , Bouchard was one of the players who made a major contribution to reinvigorating what was at the time an ailing Canadien franchise .
He was born in Montreal , Quebec , and at the time his death resided in Saint @-@ Lambert , Quebec . In retirement Bouchard was active with several business interests and contributions to his community . In 2008 , he received the National Order of Quebec . On December 4 , 2009 , Bouchard 's No. 3 was retired by the Canadiens as part of their 100th anniversary celebrations . On December 30 , 2009 , Michaëlle Jean , Governor General of Canada , announced Bouchard as among the appointments to the Order of Canada .
= = Youth and learning the game = =
Bouchard was born September 4 , 1919 , in Montreal the son of Regina Lachapelle and Calixte Bouchard . Growing up poor during the depression , Bouchard did not begin skating until he was 16 and had to learn on rented skates , before borrowing $ 35 from his brother for a complete set of hockey equipment which included his own pair of skates . Bouchard opted for a career in hockey over banking when he was offered $ 75 a week to play senior hockey and the bank paid $ 7 . In the minors Bouchard played with the Verdun Maple Leafs , Montreal Junior Canadiens and Providence Reds . It was Verdun team @-@ mate Bob Fillion who gave Bouchard the nickname " Butch " . It originated due to the resemblance of his last name to the English word " butcher " . Bouchard was determined , strong and developed enough skills to impress coach Dick Irvin in the Canadiens ’ 1940 – 41 training camp after which he was signed as a free agent . Bouchard had arrived at training camp in peak condition , which was unusual for National Hockey League ( NHL ) players of the time . To attend this first training camp he rode a bike 50 miles ( 80 km ) , which also allowed him to pocket the travel expenses the Canadiens had allotted .
In an era when hockey players were regarded by hockey management as rural and unsophisticated , Bouchard had already developed his entrepreneurial skills . While still in high school he was working alongside an inspector with the Department of Agriculture when he came across a bee ranch owned by a priest who had just died . Borrowing $ 500 from his brother he bought the business . He turned it into an apiary of 200 hives which was so successful he earned enough to buy his parents a home . It was due to this business acuity that prior to signing with the Canadiens he uncovered what Ken Reardon and Elmer Lach , already playing with the Montreal , were currently earning . Then , over the course of ten days he negotiated a larger contract than either player had been receiving , $ 3 @,@ 750 ( $ 55 @,@ 941 in 2016 dollars ) .
= = NHL career = =
= = = Arrival to the Canadiens = = =
Along with a strong work ethic and keen intellect , Bouchard was physically imposing . At 6 ft 2 in ( 1 @.@ 88 m ) and 205 pounds ( 93 kg ) he was considered a giant compared to NHL players of the 1940s , when the average height was 5 ft 8 in ( 1 @.@ 73 m ) and average weight was 165 pounds ( 75 kg ) . Moreover , since he also practiced heavy weight training in an era before NHL players were concerned about upper body strength he became a very effective defensive presence . Hockey Hall of Fame leftwinger and team @-@ mate Dickie Moore said of Bouchard : " He appeared to have been chiseled out of stone . "
By the time of Bouchard 's arrival to the Montreal Canadiens the club had not won the championship for 10 years and attendance at the Forum was very low , often less than 3 @,@ 000 a game , and there was talk of folding the franchise . A few years earlier , in 1935 , Canadien owners had seriously considered an offer to sell the team to be moved to Cleveland . After finishing last or near the bottom of the league for several years , apathy of the fans was matched by the players themselves who had accepted losing as way of hockey life . In his first training camp , he showcased his physical play by body @-@ checking players , including veterans , with abandon . When the season started other teams discovered that with Bouchard in the lineup they could no longer push Canadien players around . Bouchard 's presence reinvigorated the Canadiens and he is credited with playing an important part in keeping the franchise from leaving Montreal .
However , Bouchard was more than just a physical presence . He learned to play good positional hockey and became skilled at passing the puck . He also possessed a flair for judging the flow of the game and knew when to join the attack and when to retreat . Despite his role as a " stay @-@ at @-@ home " defenceman , due to his skills for the long breakout pass , he was a contributor to the style of firewagon hockey for which the Canadiens exemplified .
Though he had an immediate impact on the team , Bouchard had not scored many points for the team ; in his first season , 1941 – 42 , he collected six points in the regular season and scored the first NHL goal of his career in the Canadiens ' first @-@ round playoff loss to the Detroit Red Wings .
= = = NHL star = = =
The 1942 – 43 season was Bouchard 's breakthrough year as he finished leading all Canadien defencemen in points and was key to the Canadiens ' first season in several years without a losing record . They finished in fourth place with a record of 19 wins , 19 losses and 12 ties . Although they lost in the first round of the playoffs , the team was building in the right direction .
The 1943 – 44 season was Maurice Richard 's first full season with the Canadiens . Richard was not just an exciting player to watch which served to increase attendance , but also had the offensive skills needed to turn the Canadiens into an exceptional team . The Canadiens proceeded to dominate the regular season finishing well ahead of second @-@ place Detroit . In the playoffs in the first round against Toronto , after losing the opening game , they won the next four straight to win the series . Then , in the final they swept Detroit in four games to win their first Stanley Cup in thirteen years . While the " Punch Line " of Richard , Toe Blake and Lach provided the offensive power it was Bouchard and goal @-@ tender Bill Durnan who kept the goals out . During the regular season Montreal had allowed only 109 goals , 68 less than second @-@ place Detroit . Bouchard along with Richard and Lach were named to the NHL All Stars ' second team and goaltender Bill Durnan made the first team and won the Vezina . Bouchard had become one of the most reliable defencemen in the league . He would be named to the NHL First All Star team , as one of the best defencemen in the league , for the next three seasons . He won his second Stanley Cup in 1945 – 46 .
As physical on the ice as Bouchard was , he was also regarded as a clean player and only rarely participated in hockey fights . Immensely strong , most players avoided engaging him in fights and Bouchard more often would be the person to break up combatants . However , it was a fight involving Bouchard which led to a significant change in the role of referees . During the 1946 – 47 season , Bouchard became involved in a prolonged and one @-@ sided fight with Boston 's Terry Reardon . Due to the fight , Clarence Campbell , president of the NHL , added to the duties of referees ; for the first time they had the responsibility of breaking up fights . Then there was the time in March 1947 , in a game in Boston , as the Canadiens were coming back onto the ice for the beginning of the third period , a female fan attacked Bouchard spearing him with a hat pin . Bouchard responded by pushing the woman away forcefully . A few moments later , Boston police were leading Bouchard out to a police car . According to Bouchard , Pat Egan of the Boston Bruins , interceded and talked the police out of the arrest .
For the 1947 – 48 season , defenceman Doug Harvey joined the team . Within a couple years Harvey would become the best offensive @-@ oriented defenceman in the NHL and he and Bouchard would form a long @-@ time and very effective defensive pairing . Whenever Harvey undertook one of the offensive rushes for which he became famous , he was confident in the knowledge that Bouchard was backing him up if he was to lose the puck .
= = = Leader and mentor = = =
In 1948 , Bouchard became the first Quebec @-@ born captain of the Canadiens , a position he retained for eight years until his retirement . At the time of his retirement no player had served more years as captain of the Canadiens than Bouchard . Hall of Famer Jean Beliveau , a teammate of Bouchard for Beliveau 's early years with the Canadiens , said Bouchard was the model for his time as captain in the 1960s . Bouchard was a well @-@ respected leader and played a role in supporting and mentoring the younger players . Never afraid to speak up to management , in 1950 on Bouchard 's recommendation to Selke to " give the kid a shot " , Bernie Geoffrion was given a tryout and eventually joined the Canadiens . Geoffrion won the Calder for rookie of the year and would be near the top of league scoring for years to come . Bouchard commenting on the fact that he was nominated for captain by his teammates : " I don 't agree with management nominating you . I can respond to players , not be a yes @-@ man for the proprietor . " He missed a large part of the 1948 – 49 season after a severe knee injury which threatened his career . Despite medical opinion that he might not be able to continue to play he trained hard and was able to strengthen the knee enough to return to the Canadiens .
In 1951 , Bouchard was involved in a legal first when he was a defendant in a lawsuit brought by a New York Rangers fan . The fan claimed Bouchard had struck him with his stick when he was waving to a friend watching the game on TV . Bouchard said the fan had actually raised his fist towards a fellow Canadiens player who was being taken off the ice with an injury and his stick hit the fan accidentally as he tried to ward off the blow . In what may have been the first time in legal history , evidence was taken during a trial from someone witnessing an event on a television as the fan 's friend testified he 'd seen Bouchard strike the blow . Bouchard won the case when Otis Guernsey , president of Abercrombie and Fitch , who was at the game testified he heard " vile language " and saw the fan raise his fist and not wave .
On February 28 , 1953 , the Canadiens had a " Bouchard Night at the Forum " . Bouchard was honoured in a ceremony during the second intermission in a game against the Detroit Red Wings . It was presided over by Montreal Mayor Camillien Houde and broadcast nationally live over the CBC . Among the gifts Bouchard received was a Buick automobile which was driven out onto the ice . The organizer 's plan was to have Bouchard drive off in the car at the end of the ceremony . However , sitting in the car Bouchard discovered the keys were missing . To the roar of the crowd Ted Lindsay , captain of the Red Wings , returned the keys he had stolen and congratulated Bouchard on behalf of the Red Wings
In 1952 – 53 , Montreal and Detroit battled for first place with Detroit coming out on top by the end of the season . In the first round of the playoffs the heavily favored Detroit Red Wings were upset by the Boston Bruins and Montreal won a close seven @-@ game series over the Chicago Black Hawks . The Canadiens then defeated Boston in five games and Bouchard won his third Stanley Cup .
Eventually injuries began to take their toll and at the conclusion of the 1954 – 55 season he considered retirement . Toe Blake , who had taken over as coach , talked him into playing one more season to assist the younger players . Bouchard recognized Blake 's value as a " player 's coach " and used his leadership as captain to ease the transition and encourage Blake 's acceptance by the Canadiens players . Due to physical problems Bouchard was forced to miss the last half of the season and the playoffs . However , in the deciding game of the Stanley Cup final against Detroit , Blake dressed Bouchard . As the final seconds counted down , with Montreal up 3 – 1 , Blake put Bouchard on the ice and he was able to end his career with one more Stanley Cup celebration .
= = Personal life = =
In 1947 , Bouchard married Marie @-@ Claire Macbeth , a painter . They had five children , Émile Jr . , Jean , Michel , Pierre and Susan .
In the 1970s , his son Pierre Bouchard , also a defenceman , played for the Montreal Canadiens . While father Émile participated in the birth of the Montreal Canadiens ' dynasty , thirty years later son Pierre played a part in continuing the Canadien dynasty into the 1970s . With Butch 's four and Pierre 's five they have the distinction of winning the most Stanley Cups of any father @-@ son combination in NHL history . Bobby and Brett Hull are the only other father and son to have won the Cup .
In retirement Bouchard remained as active as he was during his NHL career . He received coaching offers soon after his retirement , but his business interests prevented him from leaving Montreal . Bouchard owned a popular restaurant Chez Émile Bouchard which operated for many years in Montreal . On March 22 , 1953 , while Bouchard was traveling to Detroit for the last game of the season , the restaurant was gutted by a fire started in a basement at 3 : 22am soon after employees and patrons had left . He was also president of the Montreal Royals Triple @-@ A baseball club , elected to the Longueuil municipal council , on the board of directors of Ste . Jeanne @-@ d 'Arc Hospital , president of the Metropolitan Junior " A " Hockey League among other activities .
Bouchard was unafraid to speak his mind when he felt the occasion demanded . In 1957 , after an International League game in Toronto between his Montreal Royals and the Maple Leafs baseball team President Bouchard complained about Toronto 's excessive conference trips to the mound . He called the Leafs " showspoilers " and then said , for the entire press room to hear , " They 're a lot of punks , just like in hockey ! "
Bouchard was a tough opponent even outside of hockey . When the Mafia of the day in Montreal attempted to intimidate him into hiring their people for his restaurant , Bouchard invited the head man to Chez Butch Bouchard for dinner . Bouchard 's wife , Marie @-@ Claire , recalled he told them , " Il lui a dit over my dead body . Je n 'embaucherai jamais un de tes hommes . " which translates " Over my dead body , I will never hire one of your men . "
A reporter once asked the canny Bouchard what he thought of coaching methods in the NHL . He replied , " Hockey should be more like football , with a coach for the defence , one for the offence and maybe one for the goalies . " Indicative of his usual foresight it would be many years before such practices would become common in the NHL .
He died in 2012 at the age of 92 .
= = Honours and recognition = =
Bouchard was one of nine players and one builder elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1966 . On October 15 , 2008 , the Montreal Canadiens celebrated their 100th season by unveiling the Ring of Honour , an exhibit along the wall of the upper deck of the Bell Centre , paying tribute to their 44 players and 10 builders who are members of the Hockey Hall of Fame . Bouchard along with Elmer Lach , the two oldest surviving members , were on hand to drop the ceremonial puck at centre ice .
In 2008 , a grass roots movement had begun to pressure Canadien management to retire Bouchard 's # 3 . During the Quebec provincial election Independent candidate Kevin Côté made one of his platforms to force Canadiens into retiring the number . By March 2009 it reached the Quebec National Assembly where a motion was presented and carried " That the National Assembly support the steps taken and supported by the population of Québec in order that Montreal Canadians management retire the sweater of Émile " Butch " Bouchard eminent defenceman from 1941 to 1956 . "
On December 4 , 2009 , as part of an 85 minute pre @-@ game ceremony celebrating the Canadiens ' 100th anniversary , Bouchard 's No. 3 and Elmer Lach 's No. 16 were retired . They become the 16th and 17th Canadien players to have their numbers retired .
On June 18 , 2008 , Bouchard received the National Order of Quebec ( L 'Ordre national du Québec ) presented to him by the Premier of Quebec Jean Charest . On December 30th , 2009 , he was made a Member of the Order of Canada " for his contributions to sports , particularly professional hockey , and for his commitment to his community " .
= = Awards and achievements = =
Member of the Order of Canada ( 2009 )
National Order of Quebec Chevalier ( 2008 ) .
Inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1966 .
Stanley Cup champion : 1944 , 1946 , 1953 , 1956
NHL First All @-@ Star Team : 1945 , 1946 , 1947
NHL Second All @-@ Star Team : 1944
The QMJHL 's Defenceman of the Year Trophy ( Emile Bouchard Trophy ) is named in his honour .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
Career statistics from Total Hockey
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= German cruiser Lützow ( 1939 ) =
Lützow was a heavy cruiser of Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine , the fifth and final member of the Admiral Hipper class , but was never completed . The ship was laid down in August 1937 and launched in July 1939 , after which the Soviet Union requested to purchase the ship . The Kriegsmarine agreed to the sale in February 1940 , and the transfer was completed on 15 April . The vessel was still incomplete when sold to the Soviet Union , with only half of her main battery of eight 20 @.@ 3 cm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) guns installed and much of the superstructure missing .
Renamed Petropavlovsk in September 1940 , work on the ship was delayed by poor German @-@ Soviet co @-@ operation in crew training and provision of technical literature to enable completion of the ship , which was being carried out in the Leningrad shipyards . Still unfinished when Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941 , the ship briefly took part in the defense of Leningrad by providing artillery support to the Soviet defenders . She was heavily damaged by German artillery in September 1941 , sunk in April 1942 , and raised in September 1942 . After repairs were effected , the ship was renamed Tallinn and used in the Soviet counter @-@ offensive that relieved Leningrad in 1944 . After the end of the war , the ship was used as a stationary training platform and as a floating barracks before being broken up for scrap sometime between 1953 and 1960 .
= = Construction = =
Lützow was ordered by the Kriegsmarine from the Deschimag shipyard in Bremen . Lützow was originally designed as a light cruiser version of the Admiral Hipper class heavy cruisers , armed with twelve 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns instead of the Admiral Hipper 's eight 20 @.@ 3 cm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) guns . The Kriegsmarine decided , however , to complete the ship identically to Admiral Hipper on 14 November 1936 . Her keel was laid on 2 August 1937 , under construction number 941 . The ship was launched on 1 July 1939 , but was not completed .
Lützow was 210 meters ( 690 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 21 @.@ 80 m ( 71 @.@ 5 ft ) and a maximum draft of 7 @.@ 90 m ( 25 @.@ 9 ft ) . The ship had a design displacement of 17 @,@ 600 t ( 17 @,@ 300 long tons ; 19 @,@ 400 short tons ) and a full load displacement of 20 @,@ 100 t ( 19 @,@ 800 long tons ; 22 @,@ 200 short tons ) . Lützow was powered by three sets of geared steam turbines , which were supplied with steam by twelve ultra @-@ high pressure oil @-@ fired boilers . The ship 's top speed was 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) , at 132 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 98 @,@ 000 kW ) . As designed , her standard complement consisted of 42 officers and 1 @,@ 340 enlisted men .
Lützow 's primary armament was eight 20 @.@ 3 cm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) SK L / 60 guns mounted in four twin gun turrets , placed in superfiring pairs forward and aft . Her anti @-@ aircraft battery was to have consisted of twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) L / 65 guns , twelve 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , and eight 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) guns . The ship also would have carried a pair of triple 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo launchers abreast of the rear superstructure . The ship was to have been equipped with three Arado Ar 196 seaplanes and one catapult . Lützow 's armored belt was 70 to 80 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick ; her upper deck was 12 to 30 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 to 1 @.@ 18 in ) thick while the main armored deck was 20 to 50 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 to 1 @.@ 97 in ) thick . The main battery turrets had 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) thick faces and 70 mm thick sides .
= = Service history = =
In October 1939 , the Soviet Union approached Germany with a request to purchase the then unfinished Admiral Hipper @-@ class cruisers Lützow , Seydlitz , and Prinz Eugen , along with plans for German capital ships , naval artillery , and other naval technology . The Kriegsmarine denied the request for Seydlitz and Prinz Eugen , but agreed to sell Lützow , as well as 38 cm ( 15 in ) gun turrets and other weaponry . The price for the heavy cruiser was set at 150 million Reichsmarks , nearly double the original cost of the vessel , which was 83 @,@ 590 @,@ 000 Reichsmarks . Complete technical specifications , the results of engine trials , and spare parts were included in the sale . Eighty percent of the material was to be provided within twelve months of the transfer , with the remainder to be provided within fifteen months . Lützow was renamed " L " , her original contract name , for the transfer to the Soviet Union .
In February 1940 , when the agreement was concluded , Lützow was fitting @-@ out in Bremen . Her main battery guns had been transferred to the German army and placed on railway mountings ; they had to be dismantled and returned to Bremen . The ship was then towed to Leningrad on 15 April by a private German towing company . The two navies agreed that Germany would be responsible for naval escort , which included destroyers and smaller vessels . Rear Admiral Otto Feige was placed in command of the operation Feige then led an advisory commission assigned to assist the Soviet effort to complete the ship .
At the time the ship arrived in Leningrad , only the two forward gun turrets had been installed and the bridge superstructure was incomplete . The only secondary guns installed were the 3 @.@ 7 cm anti @-@ aircraft guns . The Soviet Navy renamed the ship Petropavlovsk on 25 September 1940 , and designated the construction effort to complete the ship Projekt 83 . The vessel 's design provided the basis for a planned heavy cruiser , designated Projekt 82 , although this ship was canceled before work began . Training for the Soviet crew of the ship proved to be contentious ; the Soviets wanted their personnel trained in Germany , while the Germans preferred sending instructors to the Soviet Union . Language barriers and inexperience with international training missions also hampered the training effort .
Sea trials for Petropavlovsk were scheduled to begin sometime in late 1941 , and according to the training program , the Soviet crew would not begin training until a month before the trials . It was decided that Soviet officers would train at German naval schools in the Fall of 1941 , and that five officers would train aboard Seydlitz when the ship was commissioned for trials . German instructors would also be sent to Leningrad to train engine @-@ room personnel . At the time of the commissioning of Petropavlovsk , the relevant German training and technical manuals would be sent to the Soviet Navy , albeit in German only .
By the time Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941 , Petropavlovsk was still incomplete . She was nevertheless used as a floating battery in the defense of Leningrad in August of that year . Several other ships , including the cruiser Maxim Gorky , joined Petropavlovsk in shelling the advancing Germans . On 7 September , the ship fired on German forces encircling the city ; she fired forty salvos from her forward main battery turrets — the only two operational — expending some 700 rounds of ammunition during the attack . On 17 September 1941 , the ship was disabled by German heavy artillery ; after being hit 53 times , the ship was forced to beach herself to avoid sinking .
On 4 April 1942 , the I Fliegerkorps launched a major attack on the Soviet naval forces in Leningrad : 62 Ju 87s , 33 Ju 88s , and 37 He 111s struck the ships in the harbor . Petropavlovsk was hit once , suffering serious damage . The Soviet Navy raised the ship on 17 September 1942 and towed her to the Neva where she was repaired . Renamed Tallinn in 1943 , the ship returned to service to support the Soviet counter @-@ offensive to relieve the Siege of Leningrad in 1944 . The ship was never completed , and was used as a stationary training ship after the end of the war . She was later used as a floating barracks in the Neva , and renamed Dniepr in 1953 . The date of her disposal is uncertain ; Erich Gröner reports the ship survived until being broken up for scrap in 1960 , while Conway 's All the World 's Fighting Ships states that the vessel was scrapped in 1958 – 59 . Tobias Philbin reports that the ship was broken up in 1953 .
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= 2015 Copa del Rey Final =
The 2015 Copa del Rey Final was a football match on 30 May 2015 to decide the winner of the 2014 – 15 Copa del Rey , the 113th edition of the Copa del Rey , Spain 's primary football cup .
It was played between Athletic Bilbao and Barcelona , at the Camp Nou , the latter club 's home ground . Barcelona won the match 3 – 1 , achieving their record 27th title in the competition . Lionel Messi and Neymar gave Barcelona a 2 – 0 lead at half time , and although Athletic replied with a goal by Iñaki Williams , Messi scored another goal late on to confirm his team 's victory . This was the second part of Barcelona 's treble , with the team going on to win the 2015 UEFA Champions League Final a week later .
Messi 's first goal , in which he ran past a number of opponents , was the runner @-@ up in the FIFA Puskás Award for the year 's best goal . Neymar was criticised for his showboating in the final minutes of the match , with Barcelona manager Luis Enrique excusing his Brazilian striker for cultural reasons . Both teams and the Royal Spanish Football Federation were given fines by the nation 's government for security breaches and allowing separatist demonstrations at the match . As Barcelona won the 2014 – 15 La Liga , Athletic qualified automatically as the cup representative in the 2015 Supercopa de España .
= = Venue = =
Before the semi @-@ final second leg , Barcelona 's board requested the final be held at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium , home of their fierce rivals Real Madrid , as it is the largest stadium in Spain apart from their own Camp Nou . At the same time , according to Barcelona @-@ based newspaper La Vanguardia , the president of the Royal Spanish Football Federation ( RFEF ) , Ángel María Villar , wanted the final at the San Mamés Stadium in Bilbao . That decision would have given Athletic Bilbao home advantage , but could have been challenged by potential finalist Espanyol , whose team bus was vandalised on their last visit there .
On 25 March , the RFEF confirmed that it would be held at Barcelona 's Camp Nou . Real Madrid refused to let the final be played at their stadium , and the Camp Nou was chosen at an RFEF meeting ahead of the San Mamés , with Sevilla 's Ramón Sánchez Pizjuán Stadium and Valencia 's Mestalla Stadium eliminated in an earlier round of voting .
= = Background = =
Barcelona had previously played 36 Copa del Rey Finals , a record bettered only by Real Madrid with 39 . However , Barcelona had won the competition a record 26 times . Their most recent appearance in the final was the previous year 's edition , in which they lost 1 – 2 to Real Madrid at the Mestalla in Valencia . Their most recent win was in 2012 , beating Athletic Bilbao 3 – 0 at the Vicente Calderón Stadium in Madrid . Their only previous final at the Camp Nou was a victory in 1963 . The last team to play a Copa del Rey Final at their own ground was Real Madrid , who lost in 2013 to Atlético Madrid and 2002 to Deportivo de La Coruña at their Santiago Bernabéu Stadium .
Athletic Bilbao had previously played in 35 finals , winning 23 , with only Barcelona winning more . Their most recent final was in 2012 , and their most recent victory in the tournament was in 1984 , beating Barcelona 1 – 0 at the Bernabéu .
Barcelona and Athletic Bilbao had played each other in seven previous finals of the tournament . Barcelona won in 1920 , 1942 , 1953 , 2009 and 2012 , and Athletic Bilbao won in 1932 and 1984 .
The two teams played each other twice during the 2014 – 15 La Liga season . In the first instance , at the Camp Nou on 13 September 2014 , Barcelona won 2 – 0 with two goals from Neymar in the last 11 minutes of the game . On 8 February 2015 at Athletic Bilbao 's San Mamés Stadium , Barcelona won 5 – 2 . Lionel Messi and Luis Suárez gave them a 2 – 0 half @-@ time lead . Four goals came between the 59th and 66th minutes : Mikel Rico scored for Athletic , his teammate Óscar de Marcos scored an own goal , Neymar achieved a fourth for Barcelona and Aritz Aduriz a second for Athletic . Later on in the game , Xabier Etxeita was sent off for the hosts and Pedro netted a fifth for the visitors .
The final was jeopardised due to a dispute over the sharing of television revenue between Spanish clubs , with all football in the country due to be suspended from 16 May . However , two days before the intended suspension , this action was deemed unlawful by the Spanish High Court , and the season continued .
= = Route to the final = =
= = = Athletic Bilbao = = =
Athletic Bilbao , of La Liga , entered in the last 32 against a Segunda División B team , Alcoyano . In the first leg away at the Estadio El Collao on 2 December 2014 , they drew 1 – 1 ; Francis opened the scoring for the hosts while Borja Viguera equalised in added time . Sixteen days later at the San Mamés Stadium , Viguera 's first @-@ half strike was enough to win the match .
In the last 16 , the club faced top @-@ flight club Celta de Vigo , and began with a 4 – 2 away win at the Galician club 's Balaídos on 6 January 2015 . Defender Mikel San José headed Athletic into an early lead , only for Álex López to equalise for the hosts six minutes later , and Aritz Aduriz to restore the visitors ' lead four minutes after that . In the second half , Charles made it level again , but a Markel Susaeta goal and a late penalty from Aduriz gave Athletic the win . Celta won the second leg 2 – 0 via a Xabier Etxeita own goal and a Fabián Orellana contribution , but Athletic advanced on the away goals rule .
Athletic 's quarter @-@ final began on 21 January with a goalless draw at the La Rosaleda Stadium against Málaga , but eight days later in the second leg Aduriz scored three minutes into the second half to send them into the semi @-@ finals . The semi @-@ final against Espanyol began with a 1 – 1 home draw , Aduriz putting Bilbao ahead on his 34th birthday and Víctor Sánchez equalising ten minutes before half time . On 4 March , Athletic travelled for the second leg at the Estadi Cornellà @-@ El Prat and won 2 – 0 to reach the final , with first @-@ half goals from Aduriz and Etxeita .
= = = Barcelona = = =
Barcelona , also of La Liga , entered the tournament in the last 32 against a Segunda División B club , Huesca . The first leg was in Aragon at the Estadio El Alcoraz on 3 December 2014 , and Barcelona won 4 – 0 with goals from Ivan Rakitić , Andrés Iniesta , Pedro and Rafinha . Due to the large advantage , Barcelona rested key players for the second leg but nonetheless won 8 – 1 for a 12 – 1 aggregate . Pedro scored a hat @-@ trick among further goals from Sergi Roberto and Iniesta for a 5 – 0 half @-@ time lead , while Adriano and substitutes Adama Traoré and Sandro Ramírez added more goals in the second half ; Carlos David scored a late consolation for the visitors .
In the last 16 , Barcelona met top @-@ flight opposition in the shape of Elche , but won 9 – 0 on aggregate . They hosted the first leg at the Camp Nou on 8 January 2015 and won 5 – 0 , with two goals from Neymar , a Lionel Messi penalty and contributions from Luis Suárez and Jordi Alba . A week later at the Estadio Manuel Martínez Valero , Barcelona defeated the Valencian club 4 – 0 , starting with a free kick from defender Jérémy Mathieu followed by a long @-@ range strike by Roberto , a penalty by Pedro and an added @-@ time goal by Adriano .
On 21 January , Barcelona hosted the first leg of the quarter @-@ finals , and defeated Atlético Madrid 1 – 0 . Sergio Busquets was fouled , giving Barcelona a late penalty . Messi took it and it was saved by Atlético goalkeeper Jan Oblak , but Messi scored the rebound . A week later at the Vicente Calderón Stadium , the hosts made the aggregate score level in the first minute through Fernando Torres ; in the ninth minute , Neymar put Barcelona back into the lead . When Javier Mascherano fouled Juanfran , Raúl García 's penalty gave the advantage back to Atlético , but Barcelona scored two more goals in the first half from a Miranda own goal and Neymar to win 4 – 2 on aggregate . Atlético captain Gabi was sent off at half time for arguing with the referee , and his midfield partner Mario Suárez was also dismissed later on .
Barcelona hosted the first leg of their semi @-@ final on 11 February , and defeated Villarreal 3 – 1 , with a half @-@ time lead from Messi . Within the first five minutes of the second half , Manu Trigueros equalised with a long @-@ range strike but Iniesta gave the advantage back to Barcelona , which was extended by Gerard Piqué later on despite Neymar missing a penalty . They won by the same scoreline again in the second leg at the Estadio El Madrigal on 4 March with a brace from Neymar and a goal by Suárez , despite former Barcelona player Jonathan dos Santos equalising at one point .
= = Match = =
= = = Summary = = =
Athletic kicked the game off , and had an opportunity after five minutes , when Mikel Rico crossed for Aduriz , but he was prevented from making contact with the ball by Jordi Alba . Five minutes later , Barcelona launched a counter @-@ attack starting with goalkeeper Marc @-@ André ter Stegen and ending with Neymar volleying the ball into the goal , but it was ruled out for offside . Soon after , Iago Herrerín saved from Messi . In the 20th minute , Messi scored the first goal of the game , taking possession on the right @-@ hand side of the pitch and beating four defenders before finishing with a near @-@ post shot . Barcelona had more chances after this , with Herrerín making saves from Neymar . In the 36th minute , Neymar scored the second goal of the game , finishing from close range when set up by Suárez , after earlier work by Messi and Rakitić . Near the end of the first half , Andoni Iraola set up Iñaki Williams , whose volley missed the target . Piqué and Iraola received yellow cards at the end of the first half , for fouls on Aduriz and Suárez respectively .
Ten minutes into the second half , Andrés Iniesta was substituted for Xavi , who took over as captain for his 766th Barcelona appearance , and last one at the Camp Nou . Soon after , Athletic substituted Iraola in his final match , replacing him with Susaeta , while Mikel Balenziaga was booked for his foul on Messi . In the 74th minute , Dani Alves co @-@ operated with Neymar before setting up Messi to put Barcelona 3 – 0 up . Six minutes later , Athletic gained a consolation goal from Williams ' header . In the closing stages of the game , Neymar showboated around opposition players , and was pushed over by Unai Bustinza , starting a melée between both sets of players . After play restarted , Neymar received a yellow card for fouling Balenziaga . In added time Susaeta fouled Neymar , and Busquets was booked afterwards for dissent ; the foul earned a free kick from which Xavi hit the post .
= = = Details = = =
= = = Post @-@ match = = =
The conduct of Neymar , who performed tricks with the ball in the closing stages of Barcelona 's victory , was a talking point after the match . His opponent Iraola decried Neymar , saying that his actions were unsporting , while Barcelona manager Luis Enrique said that Neymar 's actions were common in Brazil , even though frowned upon in Spain , and would have to change . However , Neymar himself did not apologise and said that he would repeat his behaviour in the future .
In July 2015 , the Spanish Sports Council levied fines against both clubs and the RFEF , with all three entities deemed to have taken insufficient action against security breaches and planned protests of Basque and Catalan separatist supporters who jeered the Spanish national anthem and King Felipe VI . Barcelona were laden with a € 66 @,@ 000 fine , Athletic with € 18 @,@ 000 and the RFEF € 123 @,@ 000 . Barcelona claimed that the fines were punishment of freedom of expression .
Lionel Messi 's first goal was nominated for the FIFA Puskás Award at the 2015 FIFA Ballon d 'Or . It finished as runner @-@ up to a bicycle kick by Wendell Lira for Goianésia in the Brazilian third division .
Barcelona had already won La Liga , and concluded their treble a week after securing the Copa , with victory over Juventus in the 2015 UEFA Champions League Final in Berlin . They became the first European club to win the national league , national cup and continental cup in one season on two separate occasions . As Barcelona won both domestic tournaments , Athletic were the cup entrants in the 2015 Supercopa de España , in which they defeated Barcelona 5 – 1 on aggregate for their first trophy since their double in 1983 – 84 .
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= Right Round =
" Right Round " is a song performed by American singer / rapper Flo Rida . It was released as the lead single from his second studio album , R.O.O.T.S. ( 2009 ) . The song features guest vocals from American singer Kesha . It was released to radio on 27 January 2009 and was digitally released on 10 February by Poe Boy Entertainment and Atlantic Records . The song heavily samples the chorus of the 1984 Dead or Alive song " You Spin Me Round ( Like a Record ) " in its hook . According to one of the song 's writers , the chorus refers to oral sex . Kesha contributed guest vocals to the song , but was uncredited in the United States and Canada during the run atop the charts .
Despite receiving mostly negative reviews , with critics claiming it was kitschy and misogynistic , the song was a commercial success , reaching the top ten of the charts in nineteen countries worldwide . In the United States , it became Flo Rida 's second number @-@ one single ( staying at # 1 for six consecutive weeks ) and broke the record for first @-@ week sales ( 636 @,@ 000 downloads ) when it was released to digital retailers ; eventually , this record was broken by Adele 's " Hello " , which sold 1 @.@ 11 million copies in its first week . The single 's accompanying music video was directed by Malcolm Jones and nominated for an MTV Video Music Award . The song has been used in several movies , such as The Hangover , The Ugly Truth and the Telugu movie Pilla Zamindar . In the movie Pitch Perfect , the song is performed by the a cappella group the Treblemakers . This song is the second track on Now 31 .
= = Background and recording = =
" Right Round " was written by Flo Rida , Dr. Luke , Kool Kojak , DJ Frank E , Philip Lawrence , Bruno Mars , Aaron Bay @-@ Schuck , and Dead or Alive , the band whose 1984 song , " You Spin Me Round ( Like a Record ) " is sampled in the chorus . The track was produced by Dr. Luke and Kool Kojak and features guest vocals from American pop singer Kesha , ( who was not credited on the American release of the single ) . At the end of 2008 , Luke was working on a track with Flo Rida called " Right Round " and the two decided they needed a female hook . Luke pulled Kesha into the studio to record the vocals . According to Flo Rida , the song is about " a young lady , she might be in the strip club and she 's got my head spinning round , [ ... ] Or any young lady that I might see walking past me that 's getting my attention . She got it going on ! I 'm going crazy over her . "
Flo Rida explained that he listened to " You Spin Me Round ( Like A Record ) " and similar records growing up as a result of the varying music genres his seven sisters listened to . Ultimately , his A & R Aaron Bay @-@ Schuck came up with the idea to sample " You Spin Me Round ( Like A Record ) " in a song . Bay @-@ Schuck told HitQuarters that he had been listening to a shuffle beat produced by DJ Frank E on a CD of potential beats and had kept hearing in his head the melody of the Dead or Alive song over the top of it . Co @-@ A & R Mike Caren then brought the sample to the attention of Flo Rida .
As R.O.O.T.S. was Flo Rida 's second studio album , he wanted to show listeners musical growth by " broaden [ ing ] my horizons , " which was why he decided to record the song . After Luke produced the sample , the song was recorded . In the same night the song was written Aaron Bay @-@ Schuck , Bruno Mars and Philip Lawrance decided to go to the studio and make the initially recording . It was recorded primarily at Conway Studios in Hollywood , California , with additional recording at Atlantic Studios , also located in Hollywood .
This is the first of three collaborations between Flo Rida and Dr. Luke . The songs " Who Dat Girl " and " Good Feeling " would follow . Also , with the use of the DJ Frank E shuffle beat in the song 's production , this is the first of four collaborations between Flo Rida and DJ Frank E. The two would later actually meet together and collaborate on the songs " Me & U " , " Turn Around ( 5 , 4 , 3 , 2 , 1 ) " , and more famously , " Whistle " .
= = Composition = =
Musically , " Right Round " uses the recurring pop rap themes of Flo Rida 's music ; specifically , similarities were noted between the song and " Low " ( 2007 ) , with Allmusic reviewer David Jeffries calling " Right Round " its " heir apparent " . The song is " swaggering " and " bass @-@ heavy " , according to Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly . The lyrics discuss being in a strip club with friends and tossing money at a woman performing a striptease . Additionally , the chorus line " You spin my head right round , right round / When you go down , when you go down , down " can be interpreted as a reference to fellatio . Bruno Mars , co @-@ writer of the song confirmed in an interview with Entertainment Weekly that the song 's chorus was referring to oral sex . Philip Lawrence , also co @-@ writer , confessed the song was " almost something we had accidentally written in the car one night just hanging out . " It was him , Bruno Mars , and Aaron Bay @-@ Schuck . Bay @-@ Schuck was playing to Bruno and Philip some tracks and wanted to come up with something big for Flo Rida , and they were just throwing out 80 's ideas . The song 's sexual themes have been compared to those of " If U Seek Amy " ( 2009 ) by Britney Spears .
" Right Round " is set in common time with a moderate tempo of 125 beats per minute . It is written in the key of A @-@ minor with a chord progression of Am @-@ C @-@ G @-@ Am @-@ D @-@ G , and the breakdown of C @-@ G @-@ Am @-@ C @-@ D @-@ E.
= = Critical reception = =
Reviews for " Right Round " were mostly negative . A reviewer for The New York Times called the song " [ b ] ionic and empty " . In a review of R.O.O.T.S. , Ken Capobianco of The Boston Globe stated , " His music is pure ear candy that must make Britney [ Spears ] envious , yet he wants to come off as a thug . " He continued that it is unlikely that " Right Round " would have gone over well in Brooklyn in the ' 80s , calling it " as hard as Jell @-@ O. " Alex Fletcher of Digital Spy stated in his review of the song , " It 's pretty difficult to ruin a pop classic , but Flo Rida gives it a pretty good stab here . " He added that " Right Round " is " [ f ] illed with more misogyny than a 1970s working mens ' club " , and called it " an unpleasant affair that 's only saved from the trashcan by its sample . " Fletcher concluded , " The fuzzy synths , electro beats and infectious chorus hook sung by Kesha are almost enough to fool the casual listener into enjoying themselves . But sadly it 's never too long before Flo Rida turns up again to spoil things . " Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson of Entertainment Weekly called the song " a horrendous rap remake of Dead or Alive 's ' You Spin Me Round ( Like a Record ) . ' " Noting that the song was , at the time , the number @-@ one single on the Billboard Hot 100 , he added , " What does all this say about us as a society ? Mainly that we really , really enjoy cheesetastic ' 80s hair @-@ pop hits in whatever form we can get ' em , I guess . "
There were also a few positive reviews . One such review came from Fraser McAlpine of BBC , who opened , " It 's one of the fundamental laws of pop , anything which tips a nod to ' You Spin Me Round ( Like A Record ) ' by Dead Or Alive is going to be worth a listen . " He continued , " Even though this is just a song written from the perspective of a randy man watching a pole @-@ dancer and bragging about how much money he has [ ... ] in a manner which would make Akon blush , there 's just something kind of cute about the whole thing . " McAlpine attributed this to the song 's " Tigger @-@ beat " , explaining , " How can anything too sordid be going on when everyone is bouncing around like they 're on spacehoppers ? " Bill Lamb of About.com commented , " You will hear echoes of another pop classic , but the new song stands on its own feet . " However , he noted that while pop music fans would appreciate it , hip hop listeners would likely dismiss it , and he added that " [ i ] t 's not groundbreaking by any means " .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " Right Round " debuted at number 74 on the Billboard Hot 100 based solely on airplay . The next week , it rose sixteen positions to chart at number fifty @-@ eight . In its third chart week , issue dated 19 February 2009 , it jumped fifty @-@ seven positions to the top spot , becoming Flo Rida 's second number @-@ one hit after 2007 's " Low " . That week , it also debuted at the top of the Hot Digital Songs chart with sales of 636 @,@ 000 , breaking the record of first @-@ week sales established only the week before by Eminem , Dr. Dre and 50 Cent 's " Crack a Bottle " ( 418 @,@ 000 ) . Eventually , Adele 's " Hello " outsold the record in 2015 , selling 1 @.@ 11 million copies in its first week . It remained atop the Hot 100 for six consecutive weeks . " Right Round " also topped the Pop 100 in the United States , and peaked at the third position on the Hot Rap Tracks chart , and appeared on the Hot 100 's year @-@ end and decade @-@ end charts at positions six and eighty , respectively . By 12 March 2009 , the song was certified gold and platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America , and by 31 March , achieved double @-@ platinum status . To date , it has been certified sextuple @-@ platinum by the RIAA . " Right Round " made its Canadian debut at the seventy @-@ fifth position , moved to the forty @-@ seventh position in its second week , and peaked at the top of the charts — where it spent nine non @-@ consecutive weeks — its third week . At the end of 2009 , it was ranked the number @-@ three song on the Canadian Hot 100 . As of March 2014 , it has sold 5 @,@ 572 @,@ 000 digital downloads in the USA .
The song debuted at the top of the Australian ARIA Singles Chart and maintained its position for seven non @-@ consecutive weeks . It has been certified twice @-@ platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association . It was the number @-@ five song of the year and appeared on the decade @-@ end chart at number eighteen . In New Zealand , " Right Round " debuted at number nine and moved to number five in its second week . It remained in the top five for four weeks before reaching a peak of number two , where it remained for four consecutive weeks . The Recording Industry Association of New Zealand has certified the song platinum , and it was ranked as the seventh most popular song of 2009 .
" Right Round " also performed well in Europe , peaking at the second position on the European Hot 100 Singles chart and at number sixteen on the chart 's year @-@ end list . In the United Kingdom , the single debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart on March 8 , 2009 - for the week ending date March 14 , 2009 - becoming Flo Rida 's first chart @-@ topping song in Britain . It then dropped to number two in its second charting week . It remained in the top ten for six weeks . As of January 2012 , the song had sold 505 @,@ 434 copies in Britain . In Ireland , it debuted at number four and remained in the top five for four weeks . In its fifth week , it topped the chart and remained at the top position for three consecutive weeks . Elsewhere in Europe , the song reached the top ten in Austria ( where it was certified gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ) , Belgium ( number one in Wallonia , number two in Flanders ) , Denmark , the Netherlands , Finland , France , Norway , Spain , Sweden , Switzerland and Germany .
= = Music video = =
The song 's accompanying music video was shot in Miami , Florida and directed by Malcolm Jones . Kesha was asked to appear in the video , but declined ; in an interview with Esquire magazine , she said , " They [ Flo Rida 's team ] wanted me in the video , and I said , ' Nah , I want to make my own name for myself . ' " The video begins with Flo Rida standing on a revolving circular platform , while his name appears in gold on a screen behind him . A young woman then joins him on the platform , with shots alternating between the two together and each individually . During the first verse , the screen behind him alternates between images of a rotating globe and locations such as Tokyo , Paris , London , and New York City . Shortly after , the silhouettes of three women appear behind Flo Rida while the clip is intercut with shots of a rotating disco ball and several women on a circular bed . Several women are then seen dancing on or around cars while Flo Rida stands in front of them . A waitress comes in to serve them an unidentified beverage . As the video ends , Flo Rida is seen once again on the circular platform while the screen behind him shows a red background with a gold Poe Boy Entertainment sticker . The video was nominated for Best Hip @-@ Hop Video at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards , but lost to Eminem 's " We Made You " ( 2009 ) .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Greatest Hits : My Prerogative ( video ) =
Greatest Hits : My Prerogative is a greatest videos DVD compilation by singer Britney Spears . Designed by Jim Swaffield , the highly interactive collection was released by Jive Records on November 9 , 2004 , it accompanied the greatest hits of the same name . The collection contained all of Spears 's music videos from 1998 to 2004 , including unreleased material from the shoot of " Outrageous " . It also contained alternate versions of the videos with never before seen footage .
The DVD received positive reviews from critics , who complimented the quality of the audio and the image and also deemed Spears as the ultimate video performer . Greatest Hits : My Prerogative debuted at the top of the DVD charts in Australia , number two in Hungary and number nine on Billboard 's Top Music Videos . It was also certified two @-@ times platinum in countries such as Argentina , Australia and the United States .
= = Background = =
On August 13 , 2004 , Spears announced through Jive Records the release of her first greatest hits compilation titled Greatest Hits : My Prerogative , due November 16 , 2004 . A DVD would also be released the same day , containing Spears 's music videos . The compilation took four months to be assembled , as crews from her record label combed through unedited and unused footage , instrumentals and alternate audio . The DVD provided two menus — one which contained all of Spears 's music videos to date , as well as scenes from the unreleased video of " Outrageous " ; and other for alternate versions with never before seen footage from " ... Baby One More Time " , " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " , " Oops ! ... I Did It Again " , " Stronger " , " Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know " , " I 'm a Slave 4 U " , " Toxic " , " Everytime " and " My Prerogative " . Among the highlights of the alternate takes were new vocal mixes in " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " and " I 'm a Slave 4 U " and a karaoke version of the diamonds scene of " Toxic " . The video also included hidden footage , such as a third alternate version of " My Prerogative " . The release date for the DVD was later moved to November 9 , 2004 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
James Griffiths of The Guardian commented , " Here comes the Queen of Pop in a box so shiny you can see your face in it . Spears is described on the cover as ' the ultimate video performer ' , and watching the 20 promos contained within , it 's difficult to argue . [ ... ] Relentlessly thrusting herself at the camera , compulsively preening amid special FX galas , Britney is the MTV video age in human form . " He also complimented the innovations of the menu , but added that " it 's not particularly impressive " and " you need to be pretty nifty with your handset to find them . " Music Week said , " The DVD version of Spears ' high @-@ flying ' best of ' set adds bells and whistles to the audio version at only a slight premium pricewise . Twenty promo videos are included , all with top @-@ notch sound and vision " . Allmusic gave the compilation four and a half stars out of five . Rolling Stone graded it with three out of five stars .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
The collection debuted at number three on Billboard 's Top Music Videos chart on November 27 , 2004 . It was present on the Music Video chart for a total of 22 weeks . On December 15 , 2004 , the DVD was certified two @-@ times platinum in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of 200 @,@ 000 copies . On November 22 , 2004 , the DVD debuted at the top of the ARIA Top 40 Music DVD chart in Australia , replacing Hell Freezes Over by Eagles . It was certified two @-@ times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments of 30 @,@ 000 units . The collection also ranked at number thirty @-@ two on the year @-@ end DVD chart for 2005 . The DVD debuted at number two on the Hungarian Top 20 DVD chart on November 8 , 2004 . On December 1 , 2004 , Greatest Hits : My Prerogative was certified two @-@ times platinum by the Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers ( CAPIF ) for shipments of 60 @,@ 000 copies in total . On May 9 , 2005 , it was certified gold by the Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas ( AMPROFON ) for shipments of 10 @,@ 000 copies . Greatest Hits : My Prerogative also received a platinum certification in France , for shipments of 15 @,@ 000 copies of the video . According to the Associação Brasileira dos Produtores de Discos ( ABPD ) , it was the second best @-@ selling DVD of 2004 in the world .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Olivia Pope =
Olivia Carolyn Pope is a fictional character portrayed by Kerry Washington ( and as a child by Yara Shahidi ) , created by Shonda Rhimes and partially based on Judy Smith for the political drama television series Scandal . Pope is a Washington , D.C.-based crisis manager who runs her own firm , Pope & Associates , that specializes in political situations . The character has become a widely @-@ watched fashion and style trendsetter .
= = Characterization = =
Pope is loosely based on Judy Smith , who served as George H. W. Bush 's Deputy Press Secretary and represented Monica Lewinsky during the Clinton @-@ Lewinsky scandal . On Scandal , she is a revered fixer who helped United States President Fitzgerald Grant ( played by Tony Goldwyn ) win office . Pope is a former lawyer and White House aide . Pope " thinks fast and effectively " . Her delivery is through what The New York Times 's Alessandra Stanley describes as admonitory , staccato sentences . Among her secrets is her affair with President Grant . Some of her employees have law degrees , but do not serve as lawyers . Instead , they are " gladiators in suits " who mollify or avert a wide array of crises .
The role is regarded as groundbreaking . According to Felicia Lee of The New York Times , Pope is the only dramatic protagonist role played by a black woman on American network television since 1974 , when Teresa Graves starred as Christie Love in Get Christie Love ! for one series . Among her prominent comedic predecessors , Diahann Carroll played the title role in Julia from 1968 to 1971 . Pope is regarded as a post @-@ racial character , yet possibly the most complex black female lead in television history . Although the show does not touch upon race that often , regarding her much publicized affair with Grant , Pope once said " I 'm feeling a little , I don 't know , Sally Hemings @-@ Thomas Jefferson about all this . " Pope has given Washington a role as a standard bearer for middle @-@ class and upper middle @-@ class , educated black women .
Among women of all races , Washington 's Pope is in the stark minority as a female protagonist of a television series who are " emotionally strong , professionally powerful , and personally complicated " . Her leadership of a hodge podge crew is compared to that of Brenda Leigh Johnson of The Closer . Pope 's " intensity " infuses her team with a " sense of urgency " that gives the show its pace . Her strong , professional but feminine leadership style is accentuated by her fashion .
Pope 's wardrobe is designed by Scandal costume designer Lyn Paolo ( who does or has done costume design for The West Wing , ER and Shameless ) , and it has caught the attention of the Vogue staff . In 2014 , Washington 's portrayal of Pope and her promotion of Pope 's style earned her acclaim as a style influencer from the Accessories Council . Paolo attempted to make Pope stand apart from the black , gray and dark blue colors of DC by outfitting her in " chic pastels " going so far as to put her in pink pants or Louboutin shoes at times . Some of her most respected wardrobe pieces are from notable fashion houses such as Ferragamo , Burberry , Gucci , Armani , Prada , Valentino , Tory Burch , and Michael Kors . The Valentino was saved for the season 1 finale . In addition to the luxurious elements of her wardrobe that are on loan from designers , Pope wears modest elements that Paolo picks up from Nordstrom Rack , Bloomingdale 's and Loehmann 's . The Pope character has become somewhat of a style icon . Harper 's Bazaar and Glamour analyze her wardrobe every week in a dedicated fashion watch columns . Time describes her as " a real @-@ world lifestyle tastemaker " , pointing out that the Crate & Barrel wine glasses that she drinks from on the show sold out at the store . Washington and Paolo curated a Saks Fifth Avenue installation of Pope fashions in October 2013 . That season , Pope 's attire was part of a special collection at Saks Fifth Avenue . In September 2014 , an Olivia Pope Scandal collection was set to debut at The Limited , in what was publicized as " the first design collaboration between a national retailer and a top @-@ rated network TV show , its costume designer and star " . The collaboration included " tops , pants , jackets and outerwear " and incorporated items priced as low as $ 49 . The collaboration includes 42 pieces . Vulture dedicated a feature to presenting every outfit Pope wore during season 2 . When her wardrobe changed to more colorful and asymmetric looks in season 3 , The Huffington Post dedicated a feature to this issue . During season 3 , Entertainment Weekly ranked Pope 's ten best outfits . Because Pope 's wardrobe is pricey , there are features and websites dedicated to cheap alternatives to the exact wardrobe elements . Paolo suggests that the Pope style be purchased at Zara and Ann Taylor . In terms of jewelry , Pope wears long necklaces and exclusively wears Movado watches . She also generally uses one of her modest collection of Prada purses .
When the Obama administration needed a spokesman for its Affordable Care Act , it had Jennifer Hudson spoof Pope .
= = Storylines = =
= = = Season 1 = = =
Season 1 introduces Olivia Pope , her " iron @-@ clad rules " , and her demands of loyalty . Pope works with her battalion of misfits that she has rescued from assorted affairs of varying amounts of unsavory elements . Episode six , " The Trial " , showed the evolution of the affair between Pope and President Grant . However , the entire first season is strung together by Olivia 's management of the Amanda Tanner case about " a former White House staffer who claims she ’ s had a relationship with the President and is carrying his baby " . This season presents the beginnings of Beane 's constant attempts to manipulate Grant into dumping Pope . The season ends as Pope 's and Grant 's shared dream of happiness is shattered .
= = = Season 2 = = =
During season 2 , it is revealed that Pope had been involved in an electoral fraud scheme that had ensured Fitz 's election . During a break in her relationship with Fitz , Pope develops an emotional and physical attachment to Fitz 's Navy colleague Jake Ballard ( Scott Foley ) . Fitz ' affair with Pope caused him to become estranged from his wife , Mellie ( Bellamy Young ) , and led to his romantic gesture to move Pope into the White House . However , the season ended with Pope telling Fitz he should go back to his wife and run for reelection after Fitz and Pope were driven apart by White House Chief of Staff Cyrus Beene ( Jeff Perry ) . The season ends with a mysterious relationship with her father , Rowan Pope ( Joe Morton ) , coming to the surface .
= = = Season 3 = = =
The season begins with Rowan attempting to fix Olivia 's personal life and Olivia teaming with Mellie and Fitz for a press conference to reveal the truth about her and Fitz . Olivia and Rowan disagree about the purpose of B613 , which Rowan currently heads . Olivia has an emotional history with Huck . She teams with Jake and Huck to expose Operation Remington . Olivia 's mother , Maya Lewis ( Khandi Alexander ) , is introduced both in the present day and in flashbacks . Olivia comes to believe that her father had made the decision to kill her mother , which was very different than her prior beliefs about her mother 's death . Believing that her father and Fitz conspired to shoot down a plane with her mother on board , Olivia becomes the client of her own firm . It is later revealed that her mother is alive and has been held prisoner by her father in a maximum security prison for 20 years for national security reasons . Lewis escapes . The midseason hiatus from mid @-@ December to late @-@ February left off with Olivia sending her mother abroad . However , Olivia realizes that her mother is a terrorist who married her father for his access to high level intelligence .
= = Reception = =
" Olivia Pope has the messiest personal life of any character in prime time . And that ’ s why you ’ ll probably fall in love with her ... " wrote Mark Perigard of The Boston Herald of Pope 's character . Time ranked her second on their list of the 11 most influential fictional characters in 2013 .
Maureen Ryan of The Huffington Post wrote " Washington does a good job of carrying every story along in her energetic wake , and even if Scandal isn 't quite as instantly addictive as Grey 's Anatomy ... " Washington 's simultaneous " emotionally and intellectually acute " presentations are usually showcased in a " fast @-@ talking ... eloquent , pointed ... ultimatum ( or two ) to a client or a nemesis balking over a deal . " in each episode .
Stanley says her voice patterns are reminiscent of a salesman in Glengarry Glen Ross . According to Los Angeles Times television critic Mary McNamara , saying the supernaturally empowered Pope is based on Smith is " like saying Willie Wonka [ sic ] is based on Milton Hershey " . McNamara also says " Olivia Pope is not just the ultimate fixer , she also manages to work only on the side of the angels , " although she has the sole flaw of loving the married president .
Slate critic Troy Patterson describes her as intellectually comparable to contemporary protagonists Adrian Monk and Gregory House due to her genius powers of intuition , which enable her to judge guilt and veracity by scales in her gut . However , Patterson compares her emotionally to Roy Lichtenstein 's romantic subjects such as Drowning Girl despite her angelic swagger and chutzpah .
Staff writer David Hiltbrand of The Philadelphia Inquirer , calls Pope " one of the strongest ( in every sense ) female characters to hit prime time in recent memory " . The Washington Post 's Hank Stuever says Pope is a " much @-@ feared " character delivered with a watchability that is " coldhearted but complex " .
David Dennis of The Guardian stated that Pope was " a home wrecker " and expressed disdain for the character 's lack of morals . He went on to say that Pope 's actions were so destructive that she was " barely an anti @-@ hero , much less a hero . " Writer Meghan Gallagher of The Artifice considered Pope to be groundbreaking for being among the " first female antiheroes to grace primetime television . " She also compared Pope to Tony Soprano , and stated of the character 's strengths and weaknesses : " [ S ] he is a powerful and brilliant woman whose own scheming ambitions get the better of her . "
= = = Recognition = = =
Washington 's portrayal of Olivia Pope has garnered mostly positive reviews as well as a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series nomination at both the 65th and 66th Primetime Emmy Awards . The role has also earned Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama and Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series nominations . Washington 's performance as Pope also won an NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actress in a Drama Series and a BET Award for Best Actress ( also for Broomhilda von Shaft in Django Unchained ) .
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= Sistine Chapel ceiling =
The Sistine Chapel ceiling , painted by Michelangelo between 1508 and 1512 , is a cornerstone work of High Renaissance art .
The ceiling is that of the Sistine Chapel , the large papal chapel built within the Vatican between 1477 and 1480 by Pope Sixtus IV , for whom the chapel is named . It was painted at the commission of Pope Julius II . The chapel is the location for papal conclaves and many important services .
The ceiling 's various painted elements form part of a larger scheme of decoration within the Chapel , which includes the large fresco The Last Judgment on the sanctuary wall , also by Michelangelo , wall paintings by several leading painters of the late 15th century including Sandro Botticelli , Domenico Ghirlandaio and Pietro Perugino , and a set of large tapestries by Raphael , the whole illustrating much of the doctrine of the Catholic Church .
Central to the ceiling decoration are nine scenes from the Book of Genesis of which The Creation of Adam is the best known , having an iconic standing equalled only by Leonardo da Vinci 's Mona Lisa , the hands of God and Adam being reproduced in countless imitations . The complex design includes several sets of individual figures , both clothed and nude , which allowed Michelangelo to fully demonstrate his skill in creating a huge variety of poses for the human figure and which have provided an enormously influential pattern book of models for other artists ever since .
= = Context and history = =
Pope Julius II was a " warrior pope " who in his papacy undertook an aggressive campaign for political control , to unite and empower Italy under the leadership of the Church . He invested in symbolism to display his temporal power , such as his procession , in the Classical manner , through a triumphal arch in a chariot after one of his many military victories . It was Julius who began the rebuilding of St. Peter 's Basilica in 1506 , as the most potent symbol of the source of papal power .
In the same year 1506 , Pope Julius conceived a program to paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel . The walls of the chapel had been decorated twenty years earlier . The lowest of three levels is painted to resemble draped hangings and was ( and sometimes still is ) hung on special occasions with the set of tapestries designed by Raphael . The middle level contains a complex scheme of frescoes illustrating the Life of Christ on the right side and the Life of Moses on the left side . It was carried out by some of the most renowned Renaissance painters : Botticelli , Ghirlandaio , Perugino , Pinturicchio , Signorelli and Cosimo Rosselli . The upper level of the walls contains the windows , between which are painted pairs of illusionistic niches with representations of the first thirty @-@ two popes . A draft by Matteo d 'Amelia indicates that the ceiling was painted blue like that of the Arena Chapel and decorated with gold stars , possibly representing the zodiacal constellations . It is probable that , because the chapel was the site of regular meetings and Masses of an elite body of officials known as the Papal Chapel who would observe the decorations and interpret their theological and temporal significance , it was Pope Julius ' intention and expectation that the iconography of the ceiling was to be read with many layers of meaning .
Michelangelo , who was not primarily a painter but a sculptor , was reluctant to take on the work . Also , he was occupied with a very large sculptural commission for the pope 's own tomb . The pope was adamant , leaving Michelangelo no choice but to accept . But a war with the French broke out , diverting the attention of the pope , and Michelangelo fled from Rome to continue sculpting . The tomb sculptures , however , were never to be finished because in 1508 the pope returned to Rome victorious and summoned Michelangelo to begin work on the ceiling . The contract was signed on 10 May 1508 .
The scheme proposed by the pope was for twelve large figures of the Apostles to occupy the pendentives . However , Michelangelo negotiated for a grander , much more complex scheme and was finally permitted , in his own words , " to do as I liked " . His scheme for the ceiling eventually comprised some three hundred figures and took four years to execute , being completed in 1512 . It is unknown and is the subject of much speculation among art historians as to whether Michelangelo was really able to " do as he liked " . It has been suggested that the Augustinian friar and cardinal , Giles of Viterbo , was a consultant for the theological aspect of the work . Many writers consider that Michelangelo had the intellect , the Biblical knowledge , and the powers of invention to have devised the scheme himself . This is supported by Ascanio Condivi 's statement that Michelangelo read and reread the Old Testament while he was painting the ceiling , drawing his inspiration from the words of the scripture , rather than from the established traditions of sacral art . There was a total of 343 figures painted on the ceiling .
= = Method = =
To reach the chapel 's ceiling , Michelangelo designed his own scaffold , a flat wooden platform on brackets built out from holes in the wall near the top of the windows , rather than being built up from the floor . Mancinelli speculates that this was in order to cut the cost of timber . According to Michelangelo 's pupil and biographer Ascanio Condivi , the brackets and frame that supported the steps and flooring were all put in place at the beginning of the work and a lightweight screen , possibly cloth , was suspended beneath them to catch plaster drips , dust , and splashes of paint . Only half the building was scaffolded at a time and the platform was moved as the painting was done in stages . The areas of the wall covered by the scaffolding still appear as unpainted areas across the bottom of the lunettes . The holes were re @-@ used to hold scaffolding in the latest restoration .
Contrary to popular belief , he painted in a standing position , not lying on his back . According to Vasari , " The work was carried out in extremely uncomfortable conditions , from his having to work with his head tilted upwards " . Michelangelo described his physical discomfort in a humorous sonnet accompanied by a little sketch .
The painting technique employed was fresco , in which the paint is applied to damp plaster . Michelangelo had been an apprentice in the workshop of Domenico Ghirlandaio , one of the most competent and prolific of Florentine fresco painters , at the time that the latter was employed on a fresco cycle at Santa Maria Novella and whose work was represented on the walls of the Sistine Chapel . At the outset , the plaster , intonaco , began to grow mold because it was too wet . Michelangelo had to remove it and start again . He then tried a new formula created by one of his assistants , Jacopo l 'Indaco , which resisted mold and entered the Italian building tradition .
Because he was painting fresco , the plaster was laid in a new section every day , called a giornata . At the beginning of each session , the edges would be scraped away and a new area laid down . The edges between giornate remain slightly visible ; thus , they give a good idea of how the work progressed . It was customary for fresco painters to use a full @-@ sized detailed drawing , a cartoon , to transfer a design onto a plaster surface — many frescoes show little holes made with a stiletto , outlining the figures . Here Michelangelo broke with convention ; once confident the intonaco had been well applied , he drew directly onto the ceiling . His energetic sweeping outlines can be seen scraped into some of the surfaces , while on others a grid is evident , indicating that he enlarged directly onto the ceiling from a small drawing .
Michelangelo painted onto the damp plaster using a wash technique to apply broad areas of colour , then as the surface became drier , he revisited these areas with a more linear approach , adding shade and detail with a variety of brushes . For some textured surfaces , such as facial hair and woodgrain , he used a broad brush with bristles as sparse as a comb . He employed all the finest workshop methods and best innovations , combining them with a diversity of brushwork and breadth of skill far exceeding that of the meticulous Ghirlandaio .
The work commenced at the end of the building furthest from the altar , with the latest of the narrative scenes , and progressed towards the altar with the scenes of the Creation . The first three scenes , from the story of Noah , contain a much larger number of small figures than the later panels . This is partly because of the subject matter , which deals with the fate of Humanity , but also because all the figures at that end of the ceiling , including the prophets and Ignudi , are smaller than in the central section . As the scale got larger , Michelangelo 's style became broader , the final narrative scene of God in the act of Creation was painted in a single day .
The bright colours and broad , cleanly defined outlines make each subject easily visible from the floor . Despite the height of the ceiling , the proportions of the Creation of Adam are such that when standing beneath it , " it appears as if the viewer could simply raise a finger and meet those of God and Adam " . Vasari tells us that the ceiling is " unfinished " , that its unveiling occurred before it could be reworked with gold leaf and vivid blue lapis lazuli as was customary with frescoes and in order to better link the ceiling with the walls below it which were highlighted with a great deal of gold . But this never took place , in part because Michelangelo was reluctant to set up the scaffolding again , and probably also because the gold and particularly the intense blue would have distracted from his painterly conception .
Some areas were , in fact , decorated with gold : the shields between the Ignudi and the columns between the Prophets and Sibyls . It seems very likely that the gilding of the shields was part of Michelangelo 's original scheme , since they are painted to resemble a certain type of parade shield , a number of which still exist and are decorated in a similar style with gold .
Section reference .
Michelangelo wrote a poem describing the arduous conditions under which he worked
I 've grown a goitre by dwelling in this den –
As cats from stagnant streams in Lombardy ,
Or in what other land they hap to be –
Which drives the belly close beneath the chin :
My beard turns up to heaven ; my nape falls in ,
Fixed on my spine : my breast @-@ bone visibly
Grows like a harp : a rich embroidery
Bedews my face from brush @-@ drops thick and thin .
My loins into my paunch like levers grind :
My buttock like a crupper bears my weight ;
My feet unguided wander to and fro ;
In front my skin grows loose and long ; behind ,
By bending it becomes more taut and strait ;
Crosswise I strain me like a Syrian bow :
Whence false and quaint , I know ,
Must be the fruit of squinting brain and eye ;
For ill can aim the gun that bends awry .
Come then , Giovanni , try
To succour my dead pictures and my fame ;
Since foul I fare and painting is my shame .
= = Content = =
The overt subject matter of the ceiling is the doctrine of humanity 's need for Salvation as offered by God through Jesus . It is a visual metaphor of Humankind 's need for a covenant with God . The Old Covenant of the Children of Israel through Moses and the New Covenant through Christ had already been represented around the walls of the chapel . Some experts , including Benjamin Blech and Vatican art historian Enrico Bruschini , have also noted less overt subject matter , which they describe as being " concealed " and " forbidden . "
The main components of the design are nine scenes from the Book of Genesis , of which five smaller ones are each framed and supported by four naked youths or Ignudi . At either end , and beneath the scenes are the figures of twelve men and women who prophesied the birth of Jesus . On the crescent @-@ shaped areas , or lunettes , above each of the chapel 's windows are tablets listing the Ancestors of Christ and accompanying figures . Above them , in the triangular spandrels , a further eight groups of figures are shown , but these have not been identified with specific Biblical characters . The scheme is completed by four large corner pendentives , each illustrating a dramatic Biblical story .
The narrative elements of the ceiling illustrate that God made the World as a perfect creation and put humanity into it , that humanity fell into disgrace and was punished by death and by separation from God . Humanity then sank further into sin and disgrace , and was punished by the Great Flood . Through a lineage of Ancestors – from Abraham to Joseph – God sent the saviour of humanity , Christ Jesus . The coming of the Saviour was prophesied by Prophets of Israel and Sibyls of the Classical world . The various components of the ceiling are linked to this Christian doctrine . Traditionally , the Old Testament was perceived as a prefiguring of the New Testament . Many incidents and characters of the Old Testament were commonly understood as having a direct symbolic link to some particular aspect of the life of Jesus or to an important element of Christian doctrine or to a sacrament such as Baptism or the Eucharist . Jonah , for example , was readily recognisable by his attribute of the large fish and was commonly seen to symbolise Jesus ' death and resurrection .
While much of the symbolism of the ceiling dates from the early church , the ceiling also has elements that express the specifically Renaissance thinking that sought to reconcile Christian theology with the philosophy of Renaissance Humanism . During the 15th century in Italy , and in Florence in particular , there was a strong interest in Classical literature and the philosophies of Plato , Socrates and other Classical writers . Michelangelo , as a young man , had spent time at the Humanist academy established by the Medici family in Florence . He was familiar with early Humanist @-@ inspired sculptural works such as Donatello 's bronze David and had himself responded by carving the enormous nude marble David , which was placed in the piazza near the Palazzo Vecchio , the home of Florence 's council . The Humanist vision of humanity was one in which people responded to other people , to social responsibility , and to God in a direct way , not through intermediaries , such as the Church . This conflicted with the Church 's emphasis . While the Church emphasized humanity as essentially sinful and flawed , Humanism emphasized humanity as potentially noble and beautiful . These two views were not necessarily irreconcilable to the Church , but only through a recognition that the unique way to achieve this " elevation of spirit , mind and body " was through the Church as the agent of God . To be outside the Church was to be beyond Salvation . In the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel , Michelangelo presented both Catholic and Humanist elements in a way that does not appear visually conflicting . The inclusion of " non @-@ biblical " figures such as the Sibyls or Ignudi is consistent with the rationalising of Humanist and Christian thought of the Renaissance . This rationalisation was to become a target of the Counter Reformation .
The iconography of the ceiling has had various interpretations in the past , some elements of which have been contradicted by modern scholarship . Others , such as the identity of the figures in the lunettes and spandrels , continue to defy interpretation . Modern scholars have sought , as yet unsuccessfully , to determine a written source of the theological program of the ceiling and have questioned whether or not it was entirely devised by the artist himself , who was both an avid reader of the Bible and a genius . Also of interest to some modern scholars is the question of how Michelangelo 's own spiritual and psychological state is reflected in the iconography and the artistic expression of the ceiling . One such speculation is that Michelangelo was tormented by conflict between homosexual desires and passionate Christian beliefs .
= = Michelangelo 's scheme realised = =
= = Architectural scheme = =
= = = Real = = =
The Sistine Chapel is 40 @.@ 9 metres long and 14 metres wide . The ceiling rises to 13 @.@ 4 metres above the main floor of the chapel . The vault is of quite a complex design and it is unlikely that it was originally intended to have such elaborate decoration . Pier Matteo d 'Amelia provided a plan for its decoration with the architectural elements picked out and the ceiling painted blue and dotted with gold stars , similar to that of the Arena Chapel decorated by Giotto at Padua .
The chapel walls have three horizontal tiers with six windows in the upper tier down each side . There were also two windows at each end , but these have been closed up above the altar when Michelangelo 's Last Judgement was painted , obliterating two lunettes . Between the windows are large pendentives which support the vault . Between the pendentives are triangularly shaped arches or spandrels cut into the vault above each window . Above the height of the pendentives , the ceiling slopes gently without much deviation from the horizontal . This is the real architecture . Michelangelo has elaborated it with illusionary or fictive architecture .
= = = Illusionary = = =
The first element in the scheme of painted architecture is a definition of the real architectural elements by accentuating the lines where spandrels and pendentives intersect with the curving vault . Michelangelo painted these as decorative courses that look like sculpted stone moldings . These have two repeating motifs , a formula common in Classical architecture . Here , one motif is the acorn , the symbol of the family of both Pope Sixtus IV , who built the chapel , and Pope Julius II , who commissioned Michelangelo 's work . The other motif is the scallop shell , one of the symbols of the Madonna , to whose assumption the chapel was dedicated in 1483 . The crown of the wall then rises above the spandrels , to a strongly projecting painted cornice that runs right around the ceiling , separating the pictorial areas of the biblical scenes from the figures of Prophets , Sibyls , and Ancestors , who literally and figuratively support the narratives . Ten broad painted crossribs of travertine cross the ceiling and divide it into alternately wide and narrow pictorial spaces , a grid that gives all the figures their defined place .
A great number of small figures are integrated with the painted architecture , their purpose apparently purely decorative . These include two faux marble putti below the cornice on each rib , each one a male and female pair ; stone rams @-@ heads are placed at the apex of each spandrel ; copper @-@ skinned nude figures in varying poses , hiding in the shadows , propped between the spandrels and the ribs like animated bookends ; and more putti , both clothed and unclothed strike a variety of poses as they support the nameplates of the Prophets and Sibyls . Above the cornice and to either side of the smaller scenes are an array of round shields , or medaillons . They are framed by a total of twenty more figures , the so @-@ called Ignudi , which are not part of the architecture but sit on inlaid plinths , their feet planted convincingly on the fictive cornice . Pictorially , the Ignudi appear to occupy a space between the narrative spaces and the space of the chapel itself . ( see below )
= = Pictorial scheme = =
= = = Nine scenes from the Book of Genesis = = =
Along the central section of the ceiling , Michelangelo depicted nine scenes from the Book of Genesis , the first book of the Bible . The pictures are organized into three groups of three alternating large and small panels .
The first group shows God creating the Heavens and the Earth . The second group shows God creating the first man and woman , Adam and Eve , and their disobedience of God and consequent expulsion from the Garden of Eden where they have lived and where they walked with God . The third group of three pictures shows the plight of Humanity and in particular the family of Noah .
The pictures are not in strictly chronological order . If they are perceived as three groups , then the pictures in each of the three units inform upon each other , in the same way as was usual in Medieval paintings and stained glass . The three sections of Creation , Downfall , and Fate of Humanity appear in reverse order , when read from the entrance of the chapel . However , each individual scene is painted to be viewed when looking toward the altar . This is not easily apparent when viewing a reproduced image of the ceiling but becomes clear when the viewer looks upward at the vault . Paoletti and Radke suggest that this reversed progression symbolises a return to a state of grace . However , the three sections are generally described in the order of Biblical chronology .
The scenes , from the altar toward the main door , are ordered as follows :
The Separation of Light and Darkness
The Creation of the Sun , Moon and Earth
The Separation of Land and Water
The Creation of Adam
The Creation of Eve
The Temptation and Expulsion
The Sacrifice of Noah
The Great Flood
The Drunkenness of Noah
= = = = Creation = = = =
The three Creation pictures show scenes from the first chapter of Genesis , which relates that God created the Earth and all that is in it in six days , resting on the seventh day . In the first scene , the First Day of Creation , God creates light and separates light from darkness . Chronologically , the next scene takes place in the third panel , in which , on the Second Day , God divides the waters from the heavens . In the central panel , the largest of the three , there are two representations of God . On the Third Day , God creates the Earth and makes it sprout plants . On the Fourth Day , God puts the Sun and the Moon in place to govern the night and the day , the time and the seasons of the year . According to Genesis , on the Fifth Day , God created the birds of the air and fish and creatures of the deep , but we are not shown this . Neither do we see God 's creation of the creatures of the earth on the Sixth Day .
These three scenes , completed in the third stage of painting , are the most broadly conceived , the most broadly painted and the most dynamic of all the pictures . Of the first scene Vasari says " ... Michelangelo depicted God dividing Light from Darkness , showing him in all his majesty as he rests self @-@ sustained with arms outstretched , in a revelation of love and creative power . "
= = = = Adam and Eve = = = =
For the central section of the ceiling , Michelangelo has taken four episodes from the story of Adam and Eve as told in the first , second and third chapters of Genesis . In this sequence of three , two of the panels are large and one small .
In the first of the pictures , and one of the most widely recognised images in the history of painting , Michelangelo shows God reaching out to touch Adam , who , in the words of Vasari , is " a figure whose beauty , pose and contours are such that it seems to have been fashioned that very moment by the first and supreme creator rather than by the drawing and brush of a mortal man . " From beneath the sheltering arm of God , Eve looks out , a little apprehensively . The " glory " of God , represented by a dark shaded area around him , has the same anatomical geometry as a human brain .
The central scene , of God creating Eve from the side of the sleeping Adam has been taken in its composition directly from another Creation sequence , the relief panels that surround the door of the Basilica of San Petronio , Bologna by Jacopo della Quercia whose work Michelangelo had studied in his youth .
In the final panel of this sequence Michelangelo combines two contrasting scenes into one panel , that of Adam and Eve taking fruit from the forbidden tree , Eve trustingly taking it from the hand of the Serpent and Adam eagerly picking it for himself ; and their banishment from the Garden of Eden , where they have lived in the company of God , to the world outside where they have to fend for themselves and experience death .
= = = = Story of Noah = = = =
As with the first sequence of pictures , the three panels concerning Noah , taken from the sixth to ninth chapters of Genesis are thematic rather than chronological . In the first scene is shown the sacrifice of a sheep . Vasari , in writing about this scene mistakes it for the sacrifices by Cain and Abel , in which Abel 's sacrifice was acceptable to God and Cain 's was not . What this image almost certainly depicts is the sacrifice made by the family of Noah , after their safe deliverance from the Great Flood which destroyed the rest of Humankind .
The central , larger , scene shows the Great Flood . The Ark in which Noah 's family escaped floats at the rear of the picture while the rest of humanity tries frantically to scramble to some point of safety . This picture , which has a large number of figures , conforms the most closely to the format of the paintings that had been done around the walls .
The final scene is the story of Noah 's drunkenness . After the Flood , Noah tills the soil and grows vines . He is shown doing so , in the background of the picture . He becomes drunk and inadvertently exposes himself . His youngest son , Ham , brings his two brothers Shem and Japheth to see the sight but they discreetly cover their father with a cloak . Ham is later cursed by Noah and told that the descendants of Ham 's son Canaan will serve Shem and Japheth 's descendants forever . Taken together , these three pictures serve to show that Humankind had moved a long way from God 's perfect creation . However , it is through Shem and his descendants , the Israelites , that Salvation will come to the world .
Since Michelangelo executed the nine Biblical scenes in reverse chronological order , some analyses of the frescoes of the vault commence with the Drunkenness of Noah . Tolnay 's Neoplatonic interpretation sees the story of Noah at the beginning and the act of Creation by God as the conclusion of the process of deificatio and the return from physical to spiritual being .
= = = = Shields = = = =
Adjacent to the smaller Biblical scenes and supported by the Ignudi are ten circular parade shields , sometimes described as being painted to resemble bronze . Known examples are actually of lacquered and gilt wood . Each is decorated with a picture drawn from the Old Testament or the Book of Maccabees from the Apocrypha .
The subjects are the more gruesome or shameful of Biblical episodes , the only exception seeming to be that of Elijah being swept up to Heaven in a Chariot of Fire , leaving his mantel to fall on Elisha . However , Elijah 's role as a prophet was one marked by accusation and warnings to repent , and the purpose of his translation into Heaven was traditionally seen as so that he might stand before God to condemn Israel for its sins . In four of the five most highly finished " medallions " the space is crowded with figures in violent action , similar to Michelangelo 's cartoon for the Battle of Cascina .
The application of gold on the shields , in contrast to its absence on the rest of the ceiling , serves to link the ceiling to some extent with the frescoes around the walls . In the latter , gold leaf has been applied lavishly to many details and in some of the frescoes , notably those by Perugino , has been most expertly used not just to detail the robes but to highlight the folds by subtle graduation in the density of golden flecks . It is this technique that Michelangelo has picked up on and carried a step further , inspired also perhaps by the medallions that appear on a Roman triumphal arch in Botticelli 's episode from the Life of Moses , showing the Punishment of the Rebels .
The medallions represent :
Abraham about to sacrifice his son Isaac
The Destruction of the Statue of Baal
The worshippers of Baal being brutally slaughtered .
Uriah being beaten to death .
Nathan the priest condemning King David for murder and adultery .
King David 's traitorous son Absalom caught by his hair in a tree while trying to escape and beheaded by David 's troops .
Joab sneaking up on Abner to murder him
Joram being hurled from a chariot onto his head .
Elijah being carried up to Heaven
On one medallion the subject is either obliterated or incomplete .
Section references
= = = Twelve prophetic figures = = =
On the five pendentives along each side and the two at either end , Michelangelo painted the largest figures on the ceiling : twelve people who prophesied or represented some aspect of the Coming of Christ . Of those twelve , seven were Prophets of Israel and were male . The remaining five were prophets of the Classical World , called Sibyls and were female . The prophet Jonah is placed above the altar and Zechariah at the further end . The other male and female figures alternate down each side , each being identified by an inscription on a painted marble panel supported by a putto .
Jonah ( IONAS ) – above the altar
Jeremiah ( HIEREMIAS )
Persian Sibyl ( PERSICHA )
Ezekiel ( EZECHIEL )
Erythraean Sibyl . ( ERITHRAEA )
Joel ( IOEL )
Zechariah ( ZACHERIAS ) – above the main door of the chapel
Delphic Sibyl . ( DELPHICA )
Isaiah ( ESAIAS )
Cumaean Sibyl . ( CVMAEA )
Daniel ( DANIEL )
Libyan Sibyl ( LIBICA )
= = = = Prophets = = = =
The seven prophets of Israel chosen for depiction on the ceiling include the four so @-@ called Major Prophets , Isaiah , Jeremiah , Ezekiel and Daniel . Of the remaining twelve possibilities among the Minor Prophets , the three represented are Joel , Zechariah and Jonah . Although the prophets Joel and Zechariah are considered " minor " because of the comparatively small number of pages that their prophecy occupies in the Bible , each one produced prophesies of profound significance .
They are often quoted , Joel for his " Your sons and your daughters shall prophesy , your elderly shall dream dreams and your youth shall see visions " . These words are significant for Michelangelo 's decorative scheme , where women take their place among men and the youthful Daniel sits across from the brooding Jeremiah with his long white beard .
Zechariah prophesied , " Behold ! Your King comes to you , humble and riding on a donkey " . His place in the chapel is directly above the door through which the Pope is carried in procession on Palm Sunday , the day on which Jesus fulfilled the prophecy by riding into Jerusalem on a donkey and being proclaimed King .
Jonah is of symbolic and prophetic significance , which was commonly perceived and had been represented in countless works of art including manuscripts and stained glass windows . Through his reluctance to obey God , he was swallowed by a " mighty fish " . He spent three days in its belly and was eventually spewed up on dry land where he went about God 's business . Jonah was thus seen as presaging Jesus , who having died by crucifixion , spent part of three days in a tomb and was raised on the third day . So , on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel , Jonah , with the " great fish " beside him and his eyes turned towards God the Creator , represents a " portent " of the Passion and Resurrection of Christ . The Jonah figure placed right over the altar activated the Passion motif . " When Perugino 's altar painting was removed and ... Last Judgement fresco came to cover the altar wall " , after at least twenty five years Michelangelo depicted Christ just below Jonah : not only for his role as precursor of Christ , Christianity and Christocentrism , but also because his powerful torsion of the body , bent backwards from the bust to the eyes and with his forefingers that now point the glorious Jesus to the characters of the ceiling , assumes a function of link between the Old and New Testament .
In Vasari 's description of the Prophets and Sibyls he is particularly high in his praise of the portrayal of Isaiah : " Anyone who studies this figure , copied so faithfully from nature , the true mother of the art of painting , will find a beautifully composed work capable of teaching in full measure all the precepts to be followed by a good painter . ”
= = = = Sibyls = = = =
The Sibyls were prophetic women who were resident at shrines or temples throughout the Classical World . The five depicted here are each said to have prophesied the birth of Christ . The Cumaean Sibyl , for example , is quoted by Virgil in his Fourth Eclogue as declaring that " a new progeny of Heaven " would bring about a return of the " Golden Age " . This was interpreted as referring to Jesus .
In Christian doctrine , Christ came not just to the Jews but also to the Gentiles . It was understood that , prior to the Birth of Christ , God prepared the world for his coming . To this purpose , God used Jews and Gentiles alike . Jesus would not have been born in Bethlehem ( where it had been prophesied that his birth would take place ) , except for the fact that the pagan Roman Emperor Augustus decreed that there should be a census . Likewise , when Jesus was born , the announcement of his birth was made to rich and to poor , to mighty and to humble , to Jew and to Gentile . The Three Wise Men ( the " Magi " of the Bible ) who sought out the infant King with precious gifts were pagan foreigners .
In the Church of Rome , where there was an increasing interest in the remains of the city 's pagan past , where scholars turned from reading Medieval Church Latin to Classical Latin and the philosophies of the Classical world were studied along with the writings of St Augustine , the presence , in the Sistine Chapel of five pagan prophets is not surprising .
It is not known why Michelangelo selected the five particular Sibyls that were depicted , given that , as with the Minor Prophets , there were ten or twelve possibilities . It is suggested by John O 'Malley that the choice was made for a wide geographic coverage , with the Sibyls coming from Africa , Asia , Greece and Ionia .
Vasari says of the Erythraean Sibyl " Many aspects of this figure are of exceptional loveliness : the expression of her face , her headdress and the arrangement of her draperies : and her arms , which are bared , are as beautiful as the rest . "
= = = Pendentives = = =
In each corner of the chapel is a triangular pendentive filling the space between the walls and the arch of the vault and forming the spandrel above the windows nearest the corners . On these curving shapes Michelangelo has painted four scenes from Biblical stories that are associated with the salvation of Israel by four great male and female heroes of the Jews : Moses , Esther , David and Judith .
The Brazen Serpent
The Punishment of Haman
David and Goliath
Judith and Holofernes
The first two stories were both seen in Medieval- and Renaissance theology as prefiguring the Crucifixion of Jesus . In the story of the Brazen Serpent , the people of Israel become dissatisfied and grumble at God . As punishment they receive a plague of venonous snakes . God offers the people relief by instructing Moses to make a snake of brass and set it up on a pole , the sight of which gives miraculous healing . Michelangelo chooses a crowded composition , depicting a dramatic mass of suffering men , women , and writhing snakes , separated from redeemed worshipers by the snake before an epiphanic light .
In the Book of Esther it is related that Haman , a public servant , plots to get Esther 's husband , the King of Persia , to slay all the Jewish people in his land . The King , who is going over his books during a sleepless night , realises something is amiss . Esther , discovering the plot , denounces Haman , and her husband orders his execution on a scaffold he has built . The King 's eunuchs promptly carry this out . Michelangelo shows Haman crucified with Esther looking at him from a doorway , the King giving orders in the background .
The other two stories , those of David and Judith , were often linked in Renaissance art , particularly by Florentine artists as they demonstrated the overthrow of tyrants , a popular subject in the Republic . In this image , the shepherd boy , David , has brought down the towering Goliath with his sling , but the giant is alive and is trying to rise as David forces his head down to chop it off .
The depiction of Judith and Holofernes has an equally gruesome detail . As Judith loads the enemy 's head onto a basket carried by her maid and covers it with a cloth , she looks towards the tent , apparently distracted by the limbs of the decapitated corpse flailing about .
There are obvious connections in the design of the Slaying of Holofernes and the Slaying of Haman at the opposite end of the chapel . Although in the Holofernes picture the figures are smaller and the space less filled , both have the triangular space divided into two zones by a vertical wall , allowing us to see what is happening on both sides of it . There are actually three scenes in the Haman picture because as well as seeing Haman punished , we see him at the table with Esther and the King and get a view of the King on his bed . Mordechai sits on the steps , making a link between the scenes .
While the Slaying of Goliath is a relatively simple composition with the two protagonists centrally placed and the only other figures being dimly seen observers , the Brazen Serpent picture is crowded with figures and separate incidents as the various individuals who have been attacked by snakes struggle and die or turn toward the icon that will save them . This is the most Mannerist of Michelangelo 's earlier compositions at the Sistine Chapel , picking up the theme of human distress begun in the Great Flood scene and carrying it forward into the torment of lost souls in the Last Judgement , which was later painted below .
= = = Ancestors of Christ = = =
= = = = Subject = = = =
Between the large pendentives that support the vault are windows , six on each side of the chapel . There were two more windows in each end of the chapel , now closed , and those above the High Altar covered by the Last Judgement . Above each window is an arched shape , referred to as a lunette and above eight of the lunettes at the sides of the chapel are triangular spandrels filling the spaces between the side pendentives and the vault , the other eight lunettes each being below one of the corner pendentives .
Michelangelo was commissioned to paint these areas as part of the work on the ceiling . The structures form visual bridges between the walls and the ceiling , and the figures which are painted on them are midway in size ( approximately 2 metres high ) between the very large prophets and the much smaller figures of Popes which had been painted to either side of each window in the 15th century . Michelangelo chose the Ancestors of Christ as the subject of these images , thus portraying Jesus ' physical lineage , while the papal portraits are his spiritual successors , according to Church doctrine . ( see gallery )
Centrally placed above each window is a faux marble tablet with a decorative frame . On each is painted the names of the male line by which Jesus , through his Earthly father , Joseph , is descended from Abraham , according to the Gospel of Matthew . However , the genealogy is now incomplete , since the two lunettes of the windows in the Altar wall were destroyed by Michelangelo when he returned to the Sistine Chapel in 1537 to paint The Last Judgment . Only engravings , based on a drawing that has since been lost , remain of them . The sequence of tablets seems a little erratic as one plaque has four names , most have three or two , and two plaques have only one . Moreover , the progression moves from one side of the building to the other , but not consistently , and the figures the lunettes contain do not coincide closely with the listed names . These figures vaguely suggest various family relationships ; most lunettes contain one or more infants , and many depict a man and a woman , often sitting on opposing sides of the painted plaque that separates them . O 'Malley describes them as " simply representative figures , almost ciphers " .
There is also an indeterminate relationship between the figures in the spandrels and the lunettes beneath them . Because of the constraints of the triangular shape , in each spandrel the figures are seated on the ground . In six of the eight spandrels the compositions resemble traditional depictions of the Flight into Egypt . Of the two remaining , one shows a woman with shears trimming the neck of a garment she is making while her toddler looks on . The Biblical woman who is recorded as making a new garment for her child is Hannah , the mother of Samuel , whose child went to live in the temple , and indeed , the male figure in the background is wearing a distinctive hat that might suggest that of a priest . The other figure who differs from the rest is a young woman who sits staring out of the picture with prophetic intensity . Her open eyes have been closed in the restoration .
Section References
= = = = Treatment = = = =
Michelangelo 's depiction of the Genealogy of Jesus departs from an artistic tradition for this topic that was common in medieval times , especially in stained @-@ glass windows . This so @-@ called Jesse Tree shows Jesse lying prone and a tree growing from his side with the ancestors on each branch , in a visual treatment of a biblical verse .
The figures in the lunettes appear to be families , but in every case they are families that are divided . The figures in them are physically divided by the name tablet but they are also divided by a range of human emotions that turn them outward or in on themselves and sometimes towards their partner with jealousy , suspicion , rage or simply boredom . In them Michelangelo has portrayed the anger and unhappiness of the human condition , painting " the daily round of merely domestic life as if it were a curse " . In their constraining niches , the ancestors " sit , squat and wait " . Of the fourteen lunettes , the two that were probably painted first , the families of Eleazar and Mathan and of Jacob and Joseph are the most detailed . They become progressively broader towards the altar end , one of the last being painted in only two days .
The Eleazar and Mathan picture contains two figures with a wealth of costume detail that is not present in any other lunette . The female to the left has had as much care taken with her clothing as any of the Sibyls . Her skirt is turned back showing her linen petticoat and the garter that holds up her mauve stockings and cuts into the flesh . She has a reticule and her dress is laced up under the arms . On the other side of the tablet sits the only male figure among those on the lunettes who is intrinsically beautiful . This blonde young man , elegantly dressed in white shirt and pale green hose , with no jerkin but a red cloak , postures with an insipid and vain gesture , in contrast to the Ignudi which he closely resembles .
Prior to restoration , of all the paintings in the Sistine Chapel , the lunettes and spandrels were the dirtiest . Added to this , there has always been a problem of poor daytime visibility of the panels nearest the windows because of halination . Consequently , they were the least well known of all Michelangelo 's publicly accessible works . The recent restoration has made these masterly studies of human nature and inventive depiction of the human form known once more .
Section References
= = = Ignudi = = =
( For images , see gallery )
The Ignudi are the 20 athletic , nude males that Michelangelo painted as supporting figures at each corner of the five smaller narrative scenes that run along the centre of the ceiling . The figures hold or are draped with or lean on a variety of items which include pink ribbons , green bolsters and enormous garlands of acorns .
The Ignudi , although all seated , are less physically constrained than the Ancestors of Christ . While the pairs of the monochrome male and female figures above the spandrels are mirrors of each other , these Ignudi are all different . In the earliest paintings , they are paired , their poses being similar but with variation . These variations become greater with each pair until the postures of the final four bear no relation to each other whatsoever .
The meaning of these figures has never been clear . They are certainly in keeping with the Humanist acceptance of the classical Greek view that " the man is the measure of all things " . But Michelangelo knew the Bible well . He would have been well aware of the fact that although seraphim and cherubim are described as being winged creatures . They are described as looking like men . When Michelangelo later painted the altar wall of the chapel , he included a great number of angels , particularly in the lunettes which are decorated with scenes of angels carrying the symbols of the Passion . Other angels are employed sounding the trumpets which call forth the dead , displaying books in which the names of the saved and the damned are written and casting sinners down to Hell . In all , the Last Judgement contains more than forty angels , all closely resembling the Ignudi . It is reasonable to conclude that the Ignudi represent angels . If the Ignudi are indeed angels , they are the ever @-@ present attendants and messengers of God , impassively watching and waiting on the fate of Humankind .
Their painting demonstrates , more than any other figures on the ceiling , Michelangelo 's mastery of anatomy and foreshortening and his enormous powers of invention . In their reflection of classical antiquity they resonate with Pope Julius ' aspirations to lead Italy towards a new ' age of gold ' ; at the same time , they staked Michelangelo 's claim to greatness . However , a number of critics were angered by their presence and nudity , including Pope Adrian VI who wanted the ceiling stripped .
= = Stylistic analysis and artistic legacy = =
Michelangelo was the artistic heir to the great 15th @-@ century sculptors and painters of Florence . He learnt his trade first under the direction of a masterly fresco painter , Domenico Ghirlandaio , known for two great fresco cycles in the Sassetti Chapel and Tornabuoni Chapel , and for his contribution to the cycle of paintings on the walls of the Sistine Chapel . As a student Michelangelo studied and drew from the works of the two most renowned Florentine fresco painters of the early Renaissance , Giotto and Masaccio . Masaccio 's figures of Adam and Eve being expelled from the Garden of Eden had a profound effect on the depiction of the nude in general , and in particular on the use of the nude figure to convey human emotion . Helen Gardner says that in the hands of Michelangelo " the body is simply the manifestation of the soul , or of a state of mind and character " .
Michelangelo was also almost certainly influenced by the paintings of Luca Signorelli whose paintings , particularly the Death and Resurrection Cycle in Orvieto Cathedral contain a great number of nudes and inventive figurative compositions . In Bologna , Michelangelo saw the relief sculptures of Jacopo della Quercia around the doors of the cathedral . In Michelangelo 's depiction of the Creation of Eve the whole composition , the form of the figures and the relatively conservative concept of the relationship between Eve and her Creator adheres closely to Jacopo 's design . Other panels on the ceiling , most particularly the iconic Creation of Adam show " ... unprecedented invention " .
The ceiling of the Sistine Chapel was to have a profound effect upon other artists , even before it was completed . Vasari , in his Life of Raphael , tells us that Bramante , who had the keys to the chapel , let Raphael in to examine the paintings in Michelangelo 's absence . On seeing Michelangelo 's prophets , Raphael went back to the picture of the Prophet Isaiah that he was painting on a column in the Church of Sant 'Agostino and , according to Vasari , although it was finished , he scraped it off the wall and repainted it in a much more powerful manner , in imitation of Michelangelo . John O 'Malley points out that even earlier than the Isaiah is Raphael 's inclusion of the figure of Heraclitus in the School of Athens , a brooding figure similar to Michelangelo 's Jeremiah , but with the countenace of Michelangelo himself , and leaning on a block of marble .
There was hardly a design element on the ceiling that was not subsequently imitated : the fictive architecture , the muscular anatomy , the foreshortening , the dynamic motion , the luminous colouration , the haunting expressions of the figures in the lunettes , the abundance of putti . Gabriele Bartz and Eberhard König have said of the Ignudi , " There is no image that has had a more lasting effect on following generations than this . Henceforth similar figures disported themselves in innumerable decorative works , be they painted , formed in stucco or even sculpted . "
Within Michelangelo 's own work , the chapel ceiling led to the later and more Mannerist painting of the Last Judgement in which the crowded compositions gave full rein to his inventiveness in painting contorted and foreshortened figures expressing despair or jubilation . Among the artists in whose work can be seen the direct influence of Michelangelo are Pontormo , Andrea del Sarto , Correggio , Tintoretto , Annibale Carracci , Paolo Veronese and El Greco .
In January 2007 , it was claimed that as many as 10 @,@ 000 visitors passed through the Vatican Museums in a day and that the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel is the biggest attraction . The Vatican , anxious at the possibility that the newly restored frescoes will suffer damage , announced plans to reduce visiting hours and raise the price in an attempt to discourage visitors .
Five hundred years earlier Vasari had said " The whole world came running when the vault was revealed , and the sight of it was enough to reduce them to stunned silence . "
= = Restoration = =
The frescoes of the Sistine Chapel were restored between June 1980 and December 1999 , with preliminary tests taking place in 1979 .
The first stage of restoration , the work upon Michelangelo ’ s lunettes , was achieved in October 1984 . The work then proceeded on the ceiling , completed December 1989 and from there to the Last Judgement . The restoration was unveiled by Pope John Paul II on 8 April 1994 . The restoration team comprised Gianluigi Colalucci , Maurizio Rossi , Piergiorgio Bonetti , Bruno Baratti and others . The final stage was the restoration of the wall frescoes by Botticelli , Domenico Ghirlandaio , Perugino and others , This was unveiled on 11 December 1999 .
The colours , which now appear so fresh and spring @-@ like with pale pink , apple green , vivid yellow and sky blue against a background of warm pearly grey , were so discoloured by candle smoke as to make the pictures seem almost monochrome . The restoration has removed the filter of grime to reveal the colours again . However , the restoration was met with both praise and criticism . Critics assert that much original work by Michelangelo – in particular pentimenti , highlights and shadows , and other detailing painted a secco – was lost in the removal of various accretions .
= = Quotations = =
Vasari
" The work has proved a veritable beacon to our art , of inestimable benefit to all painters , restoring light to a world that for centuries had been plunged into darkness . Indeed , painters no longer need to seek for new inventions , novel attitudes , clothed figures , fresh ways of expression , different arrangements , or sublime subjects , for this work contains every perfection possible under those headings . "
Johann Wolfgang Goethe
" Without having seen the Sistine Chapel one can form no appreciable idea of what one man is capable of achieving . "
Waldemar Januszczak The art critic and television producer Waldemar Januszczak wrote that when the Sistine Chapel ceiling was recently cleaned , he " was able to persuade the man at the Vatican who was in charge of Japanese TV access to let me climb the scaffold while the cleaning was in progress . "
" I sneaked up there a few times . And under the bright , unforgiving lights of television , I was able to encounter the real Michelangelo . I was so close to him I could see the bristles from his brushes caught in the paint ; and the mucky thumbprints he ’ d left along his margins . The first thing that impressed me was his speed . Michelangelo worked at Schumacher pace . Adam ’ s famous little penis was captured with a single brushstroke : a flick of the wrist , and the first man had his manhood . I also enjoyed his sense of humour , which , from close up , turned out to be refreshingly puerile . If you look closely at the angels who attend the scary prophetess on the Sistine ceiling known as the Cumaean Sibyl , you will see that one of them has stuck his thumb between his fingers in that mysteriously obscene gesture that visiting fans are still treated to today at Italian football matches . "
Gabriele Bartz and Eberhard König
" In a world where all experience was based in the glorious lost past of Antiquity , he made a new beginning . Michelangelo , more even than Raphael or Leonardo , embodies a standard of artistic genius which reveals a radically changed image of human beings and their potential ... "
Pope John Paul II
" It seems that Michelangelo , in his own way , allowed himself to be guided by the evocative words of the Book of Genesis which , as regards the creation of the human being , male and female , reveals : ' The man and his wife were both naked , yet they felt no shame ' . The Sistine Chapel is precisely – if one may say so – the sanctuary of the theology of the human body . In witnessing to the beauty of man created by God as male and female , it also expresses in a certain way , the hope of a world transfigured , the world inaugurated by the Risen Christ . "
= = In popular culture = =
In many works , the painting of God and Adam are parodied . See The Creation of Adam for more .
In the film 2012 , the entire College of Cardinals are seen praying silently under the ceiling . The ceiling then starts to crack , commencing at the point where God 's and Adam 's fingers nearly touch , dividing the two .
In Life After People : The Series , the Sistine chapel is seen falling after 500 years .
Playwright Neil Simon 's quote about the Sistine floor- " If no one took any risks , Michaelangelo would have painted the Sistine floor . "
The 1965 film The Agony and the Ecstasy features the story of Michelangelo and his travails in painting the Sistine Chapel . He is portrayed in the film by Charlton Heston .
In the 2009 film Angels & Demons and also in the 2000 book on which the film is based , the chapel is featured throughout the story .
= = = Reference images = = =
= = = Biblical sources = = =
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= Lynn Davis ( singer ) =
Lynn Blythe Davis ( born July 12 , 1958 ) is an American singer , songwriter , musician , and record producer . She rose to prominence after joining The George Duke Band in 1977 . During her time with the band , she sang lead vocals on their one of their biggest hits ; " I Want You for Myself " , " Party Down " , and " Reach Out " . Under the guidance of Epic Records musician and mentor George Duke , Davis continued booking success by contributing background vocals and writing songs for many singers including Tracie Spencer , La Toya Jackson , Patrice Rushen , Anita Baker , and many other singers .
Davis 's musical genre has varied throughout her career including R & B , funk , soul , funk , adult contemporary , old skool , psychedelia , and pop . Her artistic influences include George Duke , Chaka Khan , Marvin Gaye , and Earth , Wind , and Fire .
Throughout her career , Davis has written songs and contributed background vocals for over 100 different singers and musical groups . Known for her wide , high @-@ reaching vocal range , she is recognized as one of the most successful and musical recorded session vocalists of the era . She has also been a back @-@ up singer for a number of famous artists , including Marvin Gaye , Stevie Wonder , and Toshinobu Kubota , as well as toured with Yanni for a short period of time , where her popularity has grown among worldwide audiences .
= = Early life = =
Lynn Blythe Davis was born in Jamestown , California , to Adeline Davis ( née Livingston ) and Thomas Davis , a Baptist minister at a local church . Lynn attended Narbonne High School in Los Angeles , California , where she enrolled in dance classes . Her singing talent was discovered when she began performing in school talent shows . Lynn 's interest in music and performing continued after winning a school talent show at age sixteen along with her friends . After graduating high school at the age of 17 , she received a message from a friend to audition for The George Duke Band .
= = Career = =
= = = 1977 @-@ 1987 : The George Duke Band = = =
At the age of 18 , Lynn began a professional singing career when she joined singer / musician George Duke and his band for his tour . During this time , The George Duke Band consisted of George Duke , Josie James , Sheila E. , Napoleon Murphy Brock , Louis Johnson , Byron Miller , and Leon " Ndugu " Chancler . In 1978 , Lynn contributed background vocals on the title @-@ track album " No One Home " by Argentine composer / pianist Lalo Schifrin . In the same year , she contributed background vocals along with The George Duke Band on Flora Purim 's album Carry On . In 1979 , Lynn contributed background vocals on the songs " Summer Breezin ' " and " I Need You Now " , which were featured on George Duke 's album A Brazilian Love Affair . In mid @-@ 1979 , Lynn became the featured vocalist on the single " I Want You for Myself " , which was released on George Duke 's album Master of the Game . The single charted at number 23 on Billboard 's Hot R & B chart and on the Hot Dance Club Songs ' chart . In the same year , Lynn began providing background vocals for singer Patrice Rushen , whom she met during the recording sessions with Lalo Schifrin . The songs were featured on Rushen 's hit album Pizzazz .
In 1980 , Lynn began contributing background vocals for La Toya Jackson 's self @-@ titled debut album . In the same year , she also contributed background vocals and began writing songs for Patrice Rushen 's album Posh . Lynn also appears on the album as a guest and featured vocalist for " This Is All I Really Know " , a song she wrote for Rushen 's album . In 1981 , Lynn recorded a cover version of Earth , Wind , and Fire 's hit single After the Love Has Gone for Stanley Turrentine 's album Tender Togetherness . In the same year , she also contributed background vocals for Syreeta Wright 's album Set My Love in Motion and Greg Phillinganes 's album Significant Gains . In late 1981 , she recorded background vocals for Billy Preston & Syreeta Wright 's duet album Billy Preston & Syreeta . In 1982 , Lynn was featured on Jeffrey Osborne 's debut single " I Really Don 't Need No Light " , which appeared on his self @-@ titled debut album . Lynn also appears a background vocalist on his song " Ain 't Nothin ' Missin ' " and " Baby " , which also appear on his album . Later that year , Lynn once again provided background vocals and wrote songs for Patrice Rushen to appear on her hit album , Straight from the Heart .
In early 1983 , Lynn joined The Gene Dunlap Band . The band released their first album , entitled Tired of Being a Nice Guy . Lynn returned to the George Duke Band and they released their album Guardian Of The Light . Lynn later toured with the George Duke Band for their worldwide tour . During the tour , the George Duke Band recorded their live album Live in Tokyo , Japan 1983 , which was also released on DVD . Later that year , Lynn joined Marvin Gaye 's Midnight Love Tour as a backup vocalist . The tour also featured , fellow George Duke Band member , Sheila E. and her brother Peter Michael Escovedo . Lynn continued to provide background vocals on Duke 's following abums : " Rendezvous " ( 1984 ) , " Super Keyboards " ( 1984 ) , " Thief in the Night " ( 1984 ) , and " George Duke " ( 1986 ) .
In 1985 , she recorded two songs that would appear on Rodney Franklin 's album Marathon ; " Stay On in the Groove " and a duet song " Love Is the Answer " with Darryl Coley . In 1986 , Lynn recorded two songs " The First Time " and " It 's Your Turn " , which were featured in the film Flying : Dream To Believe . In 1987 , George Duke formed a R & B group called " 101 North " , which Lynn was briefly apart of along with fellow George Duke Band members Josie James , Napoleon Murphy Brock , and Carl Carwell ( of Earth , Wind , and Fire ) . The group released their self @-@ titled debut album in August 1987 .
= = = 1987 @-@ 1995 : Touring with Toshinobu Kubota and Yanni = = =
In 1987 , Lynn was introduced to uprising Japanese singer Toshinobu Kubota , who was impressed with her stage performance during earlier tour with George Duke in 1983 . Later that year , Lynn re @-@ located to Japan and began recording regularly with Kubota and eventually became a backup singer for him during his " I Need Your Funky Thang Tour " . In the same year , Lynn met Japanese singer / musician Hiroshi Satoh . Satoh produced a song for Lynn called " Lady of the Nile " and a duet song with Satoh entitled " Together " , which appeared on his album Future File .
In 1988 , she was featured on Kubota 's single " Indigo Waltz " from his third album Such A Funky Thang ! . In 1988 , Lynn returned to America and co @-@ wrote as well as produce songs for Gary Taylor , Paul Jackson , Jr . , Alfonz Jones , Anita Baker , Jeffrey Osborne , Evelyn " Champagne " King , Stacy Lattisaw , Howard Hewett , Deniece Williams , and many other singers . She also joined Chaka Khan for her European Tour .
In 1989 , Lynn appeared on Toshinobu Kubota 's single " Give You My Love " . The song peaked at number 3 on the Oricon Singles Chart , selling over 150 @,@ 000 copies in Japan . In 1990 , Lynn made a guest appearance Kubota 's fourth album Bonga Wanga , in which she sings background vocals on the lead single " Be Wannabe " . In the same year , Lynn and Toshinobu Kubota performed a live cover of Roberta Flack and Donny Hathaway 's single " The Closer I Get to You " on a Japan 's national music program . In 1991 , Lynn joined Toshinobu Kubota during his " Bonga Wanga Spring Tour " as a backup singer . After the conclusion of the tour , she parted ways with the singer . After returning to America , Lynn began providing background vocals and writing songs on many albums for Phil Perry , Diane Schuur , Tevin Campbell , Patti Austin , Aretha Franklin , Phyllis Hyman , and Peabo Bryson .
In 1992 , she began recording with Go West . She contributed background vocals on the lead single " Faithful " as well as " Tell Me " and " King of Wishful Thinking " for their album Indian Summer . She contributed background vocals for Kenny G 's album Breathless . In the same year , Lynn re @-@ joined long @-@ time friend George Duke and performed on his album , Snapshot .
In the summer of 1993 , Lynn was asked to tour with Greek @-@ American composer Yanni . Along with Darlene Koldenhoven , she performed the song " Aria " during each concert . She continued to tour with Yanni throughout the end of 1995 , during end of his Yanni Live , The Symphony Concerts 1995 . The performances were recorded live and released on two of Yanni 's live DVD : Live at the Acropolis ( 1994 ) and Live at Royal Albert Hall ( 1995 ) .
= = = 1996 @-@ present : Later career = = =
In 1996 and 1997 , she contributed background vocals for albums that would be released by Eros Ramazzotti , Celine Dion , Vonda Shepard , and Puff Johnson . In 1998 , she was contributed background vocals for the Whitney Houston and Mariah Carey single " When You Believe " . In 2000 , she recorded with Elton John and Tim Rice for their collaboration album , The Road to El Dorado .
In 2001 , Davis appeared on Pat Thomi 's album Remote Control as a guest vocalist on the song " Love 's Own Time " . Davis would later go on to record music with Gerald Albright , Laura Pausini , Cerrone , Meat Loaf , The Mooney Suzuki , Frank McComb , and Lynne Fiddmont .
In 2008 , Davis reunited with George Duke and the original members of The George Duke Band to record " Dukey Treats " and " Mercy " for his album " Dukey Treats " .
In August 2013 , Davis briefly reunited with The George Duke Band at the George Duke Memorial Service . Along with her bandmates , she gave a brief commentary about her mentor George Duke . She also performed " Brazilian Love Affair " with The George Duke Band and Stanley Clarke .
= = Discography = =
= = Tours = =
1979 : George Duke Band Tour ( with George Duke )
1982 : Midnight Love Tour ( with Marvin Gaye )
1983 : Guardian of the Light Tour ( with George Duke )
1984 : The Woman in Red Tour ( with Stevie Wonder )
1986 @-@ 87 : George Duke Tour ( with George Duke )
1988 : European Tour ( with Chaka Khan )
1989 : I Need Your Funky Thang ! Tour ( with Toshinobu Kubota )
1990 : Bonga Wanga Tour ( with Toshinobu Kubota )
1993 @-@ 95 : Yanni Live , The Symphony Concerts ( with Yanni )
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= 1910 London to Manchester air race =
The 1910 London to Manchester air race took place between two aviators , each of whom attempted to win a heavier @-@ than @-@ air powered flight challenge between London and Manchester first proposed by the Daily Mail newspaper in 1906 . The £ 10 @,@ 000 prize was won in April 1910 by Frenchman Louis Paulhan .
The first to make the attempt was Claude Grahame @-@ White , an Englishman from Hampshire . He took off from London on 23 April 1910 , and made his first planned stop at Rugby . His biplane subsequently suffered engine problems , forcing him to land again , near Lichfield . High winds made it impossible for Grahame @-@ White to continue his journey , and his aeroplane suffered further damage on the ground when it was blown over .
While Grahame @-@ White 's aeroplane was being repaired in London , Paulhan took off late on 27 April , heading for Lichfield . A few hours later Grahame @-@ White was made aware of Paulhan 's departure , and immediately set off in pursuit . The next morning , after an unprecedented night @-@ time take @-@ off , he almost caught up with Paulhan , but his aeroplane was overweight and he was forced to concede defeat . Paulhan reached Manchester early on 28 April , winning the challenge . Both aviators celebrated his victory at a special luncheon held at the Savoy Hotel in London .
The event marked the first long @-@ distance aeroplane race in England , the first take @-@ off of a heavier @-@ than @-@ air machine at night , and the first powered flight into Manchester from outside the city . Paulhan repeated the journey in April 1950 , the fortieth anniversary of the original flight , this time as a passenger aboard a British jet fighter .
= = History = =
On 17 November 1906 the Daily Mail newspaper offered a £ 10 @,@ 000 prize for the first aviator to fly the 185 miles ( 298 km ) between London and Manchester , with no more than two stops , in under 24 hours . The challenge also specified that take @-@ off and landing were to be at locations no more than five miles from the newspaper 's offices in those cities . Powered flight was a relatively new invention , and the newspaper 's proprietors were keen to stimulate the industry 's growth ; in 1908 they offered £ 1 @,@ 000 for the first flight across the English channel ( won on 25 July 1909 by the French aviator Louis Blériot ) , and £ 1 @,@ 000 for the first circular one @-@ mile flight made by a British aviator in a British aeroplane ( won on 30 October 1909 by the English aviator John Moore @-@ Brabazon ) . In 1910 , two men accepted the newspaper 's 1906 challenge ; an Englishman , Claude Grahame @-@ White , and a Frenchman , Louis Paulhan .
Claude Grahame @-@ White was born in 1879 in Hampshire , England . He was educated at Crondall House School in Farnham , and later at Bedford Grammar School between 1892 and 1896 . Apprenticed to a local engineering firm , he later worked for his uncle Francis Willey , 1st Baron Barnby . He started his own motor vehicle business in Bradford , before travelling to South Africa to hunt big game . In 1909 , inspired by Blériot 's historic cross @-@ channel flight , he went to France to learn how to fly , and by the following January he became one of the first Englishmen to obtain an aviator 's certificate . He also started a flying school at Pau , which he moved to England later that year .
Isidore Auguste Marie Louis Paulhan , better known as Louis Paulhan , was born in 1883 in Pézenas , in the south of France . After doing military service at the balloon school at Chalais @-@ Meudon he had worked as an assistant for Ferdinand Ferber before winning a Voisin biplane in an aircraft design competition . Paulhan taught himself to fly using this aircraft , and was awarded Aéro Club de France licence No. 10 on 17 July . Paulhan was no stranger to British audiences ; he competed in an early flight meeting in October 1909 at Blackpool , and shortly afterwards flew in an exhibition at the Brooklands motor racing circuit . Paulhan took part in many airshows , including several in the United States of America , and in Douai , where in July 1909 he set new records for altitude and flight duration .
= = = Grahame @-@ White 's first attempt = = =
Grahame @-@ White was the first to attempt the journey . He planned to take off at 5 : 00 am on 23 April 1910 , near the Plumes Hotel in the London suburb of Park Royal . A crowd of journalists and interested spectators assembled there from about 4 : 00 am , with more arriving by car , until about 200 – 300 were present . The Times described the sky as " clear and starlit " , and the weather as " very cold , as there was a slight frost . " Grahame @-@ White arrived at about 4 : 30 am and began to prepare his Farman III biplane . The aeroplane was brought into the field from the yard it was stored in , and its seven @-@ cylinder 50 hp rotary engine was started . Once the engine warmed up , Grahame @-@ White took his seat . Several people wished him well , including his sister , mother and Henry Farman . He guided the biplane for about 30 – 60 yards across the frosted grass , and took off at about 5 : 12 am , before altering his direction to head for the start of the course — a gasometer at Wormwood Scrubs , within the required five @-@ mile radius of the Daily Mail office in London .
Cheered loudly by the thousands of spectators who anticipated his arrival , Grahame @-@ White flew across the starting point and turned north @-@ west toward Wembley . Standing on top of the gasometer , Harold Perrin , secretary of the Royal Aero Club , waved a flag to indicate the start of Grahame @-@ White 's attempt . By 5 : 35 am the aviator was over Watford , and at 6 : 15 am he flew over Leighton Buzzard . Crowds of cheering spectators were there to greet him as he flew above the line of the London and North Western Railway , at an altitude of about 400 feet ( 120 m ) . Meanwhile , Perrin and two mechanics from Gnome et Rhône ( who supplied the engine used on the Farman III ) boarded one of two cars , and were headed for Rugby . Along the way , one car took a short cut across a field and crashed into a ridge ; one occupant was seriously injured .
Grahame @-@ White made his first stop in Rugby just after 7 : 15 am . One of the cars that left London arrived about 10 minutes before he landed , and his mechanics attended to his aeroplane . News of his take @-@ off in London reached the area , and a large crowd gathered ; they were kept from the aeroplane by a group of boy scouts . Grahame @-@ White was taken to nearby Gellings Farm , where he drank coffee and ate biscuits , and told those present about his journey . " It was wretchedly cold all the way ... and I was cold at the start . My eyes suffered towards the end , and my fingers were quite numbed . " Grahame @-@ White 's average speed was estimated at more than 40 miles per hour ( 64 km / h ) ; a few of the vehicles following him from London did not arrive until some time after his descent .
He took off again at about 8 : 25 am , but was unable to reach his next scheduled stop at Crewe . About 30 miles outside Rugby a problem with the engine 's inlet valves forced him to land in a field at Hademore , four miles outside of Lichfield — about 115 miles into the 185 @-@ mile journey . On landing , he damaged a skid , and his mechanics were telegraphed for . While the necessary repairs were being made , Grahame @-@ White ate lunch and then slept for a few hours , looked after by his mother , who had arrived by car . Meanwhile , a large crowd of interested spectators gathered , and the farmer who owned the field charged them for admission . Soldiers from a nearby barracks kept the public from getting too close to the biplane .
As the sun fell the wind grew in strength , and at 7 : 00 pm Grahame @-@ White conceded that the high winds made any further progress impossible . He decided to try again at 3 : 00 am , hoping to reach Manchester by the 5 : 15 am deadline , but at 3 : 30 am he abandoned the attempt , and said that he would travel to Manchester and try again from there . He ordered the soldiers to peg the aeroplane down , but his instructions were ignored ; the next night it was blown over by strong winds and severely damaged .
= = = Paulhan 's attempt = = =
Grahame @-@ White 's biplane was returned to London , and on 25 April was being repaired at Wormwood Scrubs , in the Daily Mail 's hangar . Paulhan arrived at Dover from California , where he performed exhibition flights . Another competitor , Emile Dubonnet , also formally entered the contest , and was due to try a few days later . On 27 April 1910 Paulhan 's biplane ( a newer model than Grahame @-@ White 's ) was brought to Hendon , on the site of what is now the London branch of the Royal Air Force Museum . It was assembled in less than 11 hours , and at 5 : 21 pm that day Paulhan took off for Hampstead Cemetery , his official starting line . He arrived there ten minutes later , flew on to Harrow , and began to follow the route of the London and North Western Railway . The railway company prepared for the event by whitewashing the sleepers of the correct line for the competitors to follow . Paulhan was followed by a special train , on board which were Mme. Paulhan and Henry Farman . Other members of his party followed by car .
Grahame @-@ White attempted to make a test flight earlier that day , but the huge crowds hampered his efforts , and he was unable to take off . Having spent two days supervising the reconstruction of his aeroplane , he retired to a nearby hotel . At about 6 : 10 pm he was awakened with the news that Paulhan had begun his attempt , and he decided to set off in pursuit . This time he had no trouble clearing a space in the crowd . His biplane 's engine was started , and by 6 : 29 pm he passed the starting line . Almost an hour later he flew over Leighton Buzzard , just as Paulhan was passing over Rugby . As night approached , Grahame @-@ White landed his aeroplane in a field near the railway line at Roade , in Northamptonshire . Fifteen minutes later , Paulhan reached Lichfield , where about 117 miles ( 188 km ) into his journey he ran out of fuel . He managed to land the biplane in a field near Trent Valley railway station . The aeroplane was pegged down , and Paulhan left with his colleagues to stay overnight at a nearby hotel . Grahame @-@ White meanwhile stayed at the house of a Dr. Ryan . Both aviators intended to restart at 3 : 00 am the following day .
Still about 60 miles ( 100 km ) behind the Frenchman , Grahame @-@ White made a historic decision ; he would make an unprecedented night flight . Guided by the headlamps of his party 's cars , he took off at 2 : 50 am . Within minutes of becoming airborne however , he almost crashed ; while he was leaning forward to make himself comfortable , his jacket brushed the engine ignition switch and he accidentally turned the engine off , but he quickly corrected his error and was able to continue . Using the lights of railway stations to guide his course through the pitch black night , within 40 minutes he reached Rugby , and at 3 : 50 am he passed Nuneaton . Despite making good progress , Grahame @-@ White was carrying a large load of fuel and oil , and his engine was not powerful enough to raise the aeroplane over the high ground before him . Disappointed , he landed at Polesworth , about 107 miles ( 172 km ) from London , and only 10 miles behind Paulhan . A few minutes later the Frenchman , unaware of Grahame @-@ White 's progress , resumed his journey . He passed Stafford at 4 : 45 am , Crewe at 5 : 20 am , and at 5 : 32 am he landed at Barcicroft Fields near Didsbury , within five miles of the Manchester office of the Daily Mail , thereby winning the contest . His party was taken by train to a civic reception , held by the Lord Mayor of Manchester . Grahame @-@ White was notified of Paulhan 's success , and reportedly shouted " Ladies and gentlemen , the £ 10 @,@ 000 prize has been won by Louis Paulhan , the finest aviator that the world has ever seen . Compared with him I am only a novice . Three cheers for Paulhan ! " He retired to bed , leaving his mechanics to repair his aeroplane , and later sent Paulhan a telegram , congratulating his rival on his achievement . Grahame @-@ White attempted to resume his journey to Manchester , and reached Tamworth , but he later abandoned the flight .
= = = Presentation = = =
Paulhan was presented with his prize — a golden casket containing a cheque for £ 10 @,@ 000 — on 30 April 1910 , during a luncheon at the Savoy Hotel in London . The event was presided over by the editor of the Daily Mail , Thomas Marlowe ( in lieu of Lord Northcliffe ) and attended by , among others , French ambassador Paul Cambon . Grahame @-@ White was given a consolation prize of an inscribed white @-@ silver bowl , filled with red and white roses .
I am in England for the second time , and I must say in no country that I have visited have I ever received a more cordial welcome . I believe sincerely that the victory I have won belongs of right to your brilliant and courageous compatriot Mr. Grahame @-@ White . [ Cheers . ] I am proud to have had him as my rival in this battle of the air . In the name of the aviators both of France and of all the other countries I offer my congratulations to the great English journal , the Daily Mail , which , by its magnificent prizes , has given an inestimable stimulus to the science of aviation , and has thus contributed more than any other agency to the conquest of the air .
= = Legacy = =
The events of 27 – 28 April constituted the world 's first long @-@ distance air race , and also marked the first night @-@ time take @-@ off of a heavier @-@ than @-@ air machine ; Grahame @-@ White 's decision proved that night @-@ time take @-@ off , flight and navigation were possible , provided that the pilot was able to relate his position to the ground . Grahame @-@ White did this with the help of friends , one of whom shone his car 's headlamps onto the wall of a public house . Paulhan 's arrival in Didsbury was notable for being the first powered flight into Manchester from any point outside the city . His achievement is commemorated by a blue plaque , fixed to the front wall of 25 – 27 Paulhan Road , a pair of 1930s semi @-@ detached houses near the site of his landing .
Within weeks of Paulhan 's victory , the Daily Mail offered a new prize ; £ 10 @,@ 000 to the first aviator to cover a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 609 @-@ km ) circuit of Britain in a single day , with 11 compulsory stops at fixed intervals . The challenge was completed by M Beaumont on 26 July 1911 , in about 22 ½ hours . Paulhan and Grahame @-@ White competed again later in 1910 , for the newspaper 's prize of £ 1 @,@ 000 for the greatest aggregate cross @-@ country flight , which Paulhan won .
The flight 's 25th anniversary was celebrated at the Aero Club of France , in Paris , on 16 January 1936 . Present at the banquet were Paulhan and Grahame @-@ White , along with the French Air Minister Victor Denain , Prince George Valentin Bibescu ( President of the FAI ) , Harold Perrin , and a number of other notable dignitaries as well as early aviators and constructors such as Farman , Voisin , Breguet , Caudron , Bleriot and Anzani .
Although by then retired from flying , on 28 April 1950 — the fortieth anniversary of the 1910 flight — Paulhan repeated the journey from London to Manchester , this time as a passenger on board a Gloster Meteor T7 , the two @-@ seater training variant of the first British jet fighter . After travelling at 400 mph ( 644 km / h ) , the 67 @-@ year @-@ old Frenchman said " C 'était magnifique ... It was all I ever dreamed of in aviation — no propellers , no vibration . " The Daily Mail entertained him at the Royal Aero Club in London , where he was accompanied by his former rival , Claude Grahame @-@ White .
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= Flag of Ohio =
The Ohio Burgee is the official flag of the U.S. state of Ohio . Ohio 's swallowtail flag is the only non @-@ rectangular U.S. state flag . Its red , white , and blue elements symbolize the state 's natural features and order of admission into the Union . A prominent disc in the flag 's triangular canton is suggestive of the state 's name .
The flag was designed in 1901 by John Eisenmann for the Pan @-@ American Exposition and adopted in 1902 . Before that , for nearly a century after statehood , Ohio had no legally authorized state flag . One unsuccessful proposal called for a design based on the state seal .
Ohio has adopted an official salute to the flag and a 17 @-@ step procedure for folding it . The Ohio flag has influenced a number of logos and municipal flags within the state . A scarlet @-@ colored gubernatorial flag is based on the state seal .
= = Design = =
The Ohio state flag 's design is defined in the Ohio Revised Code , section 5 @.@ 01 :
The flag of the state shall be burgee @-@ shaped . It shall have three red and two white horizontal stripes that represent the roads and waterways of the state . The union of the flag shall be seventeen five @-@ pointed stars , white in a blue triangular field that represents the state 's hills and valleys , the base of which shall be the staff end or vertical edge of the flag , and the apex of which shall be the center of the middle red stripe . The stars shall be grouped around a red disc superimposed upon a white circular " O. " The thirteen stars grouped around the " O " represent the original states of the United States and the four stars added to the peak of the triangle symbolize that Ohio was the seventeenth state admitted to the union . The " O " represents the " O " in " Ohio " and suggests the state 's nickname , the buckeye state . The proportional dimensions of the flag and of its various parts shall be according to the official design on file in the office of the secretary of state . ...
In addition to resembling the letter O and a buckeye nut , the flag 's annulus also represents " the original territory of Ohio " in the Northwest Territory .
Ohio 's flag is the only non @-@ rectangular U.S. state flag . It is a rare example of a non @-@ quadrilateral civil flag , another well @-@ known example being the flag of Nepal . According to vexillologist Whitney Smith , it may be loosely based upon cavalry flags of the Civil War and Spanish – American War . The flag has been officially defined as a " burgee " since 2002 , even though burgees are typically used as maritime flags . Its shape , lack of text , and mirror symmetry allow it to be flown or hung in various orientations without affecting legibility . On account of the flag 's uncommon shape , foreign manufacturers have occasionally set the entire design against a white , rectangular field .
= = History = =
For nearly a century after statehood , Ohio had no legally authorized state flag . The state militia carried regimental colors based on the Stars and Stripes , with the addition of " a large eagle , with the number of the regiment and the prescribed number of stars above " .
= = = Arsenal flag = = =
By the early 1850s , Ohioans expressed interest in adopting a state flag , as several other states had already done . In late 1860 , Qtr . Mr. Gen. David L. Wood and Adj. Gen. Henry B. Carrington devised a flag consisting of the state seal upon a white field . They had it flown above the Ohio State Arsenal in Columbus , in hopes that it might someday become the state flag . On January 17 , 1861 , at a banquet organized by the Columbus Typographical Union Local # 5 , future U.S. President James A. Garfield gave a speech defending the national flag as the only flag Ohio 's soldiers would march to battle under . The generals , in attendance , were moved to set aside their proposal and hoist the Stars and Stripes in its place . Later that year , Wood and Carrington joined fellow Ohioans in battle under the 34 @-@ star Union flag , which would serve as the inspiration for a state banner decades later .
= = = Eisenmann 's guidon = = =
In 1901 , Cleveland architect John Eisenmann was commissioned to design an exhibition hall for his state at the Pan @-@ American Exposition in Buffalo , New York . He developed a distinctive flag to fly over each corner of the Ohio Building . The wool flags officially represented the Ohio Pan @-@ American Exposition Commission rather than the state . On July 18 , Governor George K. Nash visited the exposition , where he was presented with one of the flags , which is now held in the Ohio History Connection collections . Eisenmann secured a U.S. design patent for his design , which he described as " a triangular forked or swallow @-@ tailed flag corresponding to the shape generally known as a ' cavalry @-@ guidon ' or ' broad pennant . ' "
In 1902 , State Representative William S. McKinnon , a member of the Ohio Pan @-@ American Exposition Commission , introduced House Bill 213 designating Eisenmann 's design as the official flag . It became law on May 9 , making it the 20th U.S. state flag or banner . ( Eisenmann had assigned his patent , which had a term of three and a half years , to the State of Ohio on April 24 . )
Because Eisenmann 's design deviated from the " seal on a bedsheet " design then nearly universal among state flags , the press looked overseas for precedents : the layout was likened to either the flag of Cuba or of the Philippines , while the red and white annulus was derided for its similarity to the sun on the Japanese flag .
Initially , Ohio 's flag was seldom used , in part due to the prevailing opinion that the Stars and Stripes should hold a monopoly on patriotic displays . Similar sentiment hindered the adoption of municipal flags in Cleveland and Cincinnati , to the extent that both were downplaced as mere " banners " for promotional purposes . In 1903 , it was reported that , among state politicians , only Governor Nash displayed the guidon .
In the century following its adoption , the guidon gained significant popularity , being flown not only by the state but frequently also by its residents and businesses . In 2001 , the North American Vexillological Association surveyed its members on the best design among the 72 official flags of the U.S. states and territories and Canadian provinces . Ohio 's ranked 15th .
= = Usage = =
= = = Salute = = =
In 2002 , the Ohio General Assembly commemorated the 100th anniversary of the state flag 's adoption by adopting a salute to the flag , to be recited after the Pledge of Allegiance :
I salute the flag of the state of Ohio and pledge to the Buckeye State respect and loyalty .
= = = Folding the flag = = =
A method of folding the flag of Ohio was created by Alex Weinstock , an Ohio Boy Scout , for his Eagle Scout service project . It requires two people . The procedure was passed by the 125th Ohio General Assembly as House Bill 552 and signed into law by Governor Bob Taft on February 15 , 2005 :
The general assembly hereby establishes a recommended procedure for the folding of the state flag by two people . The procedure is as follows :
With the flag unfolded , fold the flag in half lengthwise so that the points of the flag are aligned . Fold the flag in half lengthwise a second time to form a long strip with the red disc facing the ground . Next , fold the pointed end back onto itself to form a rectangle . These steps entail three folds .
Starting on the end formed by the fold of the pointed end back onto itself , fold two inches of the flag onto itself for a flag with a three @-@ foot hoist and a five @-@ foot fly , or another appropriate width of fold for a flag of a different size . Repeat the folds a total of fourteen times , alternating the folds in a fan @-@ like manner .
The result is a total of seventeen folds symbolizing that Ohio was the seventeenth state admitted to the Union . Finally , neatly and snugly wrap the remaining length of flag around the fan @-@ folds to form a compact rectangle .
Ohio is not the only state that has designated a folding procedure for its flag ; however , Ohio 's procedure takes on special importance due to the flag 's irregular shape . A flag vendor in Arkansas has described the procedure as " quite a challenge " .
= = = Derivations = = =
Ohio 's flag is regularly flown during football games by The Ohio State University Marching Band 's " JI @-@ Row " as the percussion section 's row mascot . The Columbus Blue Jackets logo and Cincinnati Bengals fan flag are both based on the state flag .
A number of municipalities and counties in Ohio have adopted pennants and swallowtails based on the state burgee . The city of Mentor and Adams County have flags that essentially replace the annulus with a seal and modify the pattern of stars in the triangular union .
= = Flag of the Governor = =
The flag of the Governor of Ohio consists of the Great Seal of Ohio encircled with 13 white stars on a scarlet field , with a five @-@ point star in each corner . Like the state flag , it has 17 stars in total .
The Adjutant General 's office adopted this design in 1905 to represent the Governor on official occasions . One such flag hangs in the Rutherford B. Hayes Center Library , a memorial to the 32nd Ohio Governor and 19th U.S. President . The design was officially recognized by the 96th General Assembly effective October 3 , 1945 :
It shall have a white star in each of the four corners on an oblong scarlet background with the official seal of the state of Ohio in the center surrounded by thirteen white stars . The proportional dimensions of the flag and of its various parts shall be according to a design approved by the adjutant general and in accordance with the governor 's flag used by the adjutant general 's office for over thirty years .
Since September 30 , 1963 , the flag has been defined in greater detail :
The flag of the governor of this state will be of scarlet wool bunting , six feet eight inches hoist by ten feet six inches fly . In each of the four corners will be a white five @-@ pointed star with one point upward . The centers of these stars will be twelve inches from the long edges and seventeen inches from the short edges of the flag . In the center of the flag will be a reproduction of the great seal of Ohio in proper colors , three feet in diameter , surrounded by thirteen white stars equally spaced with their centers on an imaginary circle four feet three inches in diameter . All stars shall be of such size that their points would lie on the circumference of an imaginary circle ten inches in diameter .
The Ohio Revised Code also specifies smaller versions of this design to be used as the governor 's naval flag and automobile flag .
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= Four Freedoms ( Norman Rockwell ) =
The Four Freedoms is a series of four 1943 oil paintings by the American artist Norman Rockwell . The paintings — Freedom of Speech , Freedom of Worship , Freedom from Want , and Freedom from Fear — are each approximately 45 @.@ 75 inches ( 116 @.@ 2 cm ) × 35 @.@ 5 inches ( 90 cm ) , and are now in the Norman Rockwell Museum in Stockbridge , Massachusetts . The four freedoms refer to President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's January 1941 Four Freedoms State of the Union address in which he identified essential human rights that should be universally protected . The theme was incorporated into the Atlantic Charter , and became part of the charter of the United Nations . The paintings were reproduced in The Saturday Evening Post over four consecutive weeks in 1943 , alongside essays by prominent thinkers of the day . They became the highlight of a touring exhibition sponsored by The Post and the U.S. Department of the Treasury . The exhibition and accompanying sales drives of war bonds raised over $ 132 million .
This series has been the cornerstone of retrospective art exhibits presenting the career of Rockwell , who was the most widely known and popular commercial artist of the mid @-@ 20th century , but did not achieve critical acclaim . These are his best @-@ known works , and by some accounts became the most widely distributed paintings . At one time they were commonly displayed in post offices , schools , clubs , railroad stations , and a variety of public and semi @-@ public buildings .
Critical review of these images , like most of Rockwell 's work , has not been entirely positive . Rockwell 's idyllic and nostalgic approach to regionalism made him a popular illustrator but a lightly regarded fine artist during his lifetime , a view still prevalent today . However , he has created an enduring niche in the social fabric with Freedom from Want , emblematic of what is now known as the " Norman Rockwell Thanksgiving " .
= = Franklin Delano Roosevelt 's speech = =
Throughout his political career Roosevelt championed the cause of human rights . In his annual State of the Union address to Congress of January 6 , 1941 , which was delivered at a time when Nazi Germany occupied much of Western Europe , he asked the American citizens to support war efforts in various ways . He stated his vision of a better future , founded upon four freedoms : " In the future days which we seek to make secure , we look forward to a world founded upon four essential human freedoms , " some traditional and some new ones : freedom of speech , freedom of worship , freedom from want , and freedom from fear .
Roosevelt 's January 6 State of the Union address became known as his " Four Freedoms Speech " , due to its conclusion that described the President 's vision of a worldwide extension of the American ideals of individual liberties summarized by these four freedoms . To put it another way , FDR 's speech was known for " identifying the objectives of the war and revealing his hopeful view of the postwar world . " The speech helped to awaken Congress and the nation to the dire war calling , articulate ideological aims of the necessary armed conflict and appeal to the universal American belief of freedom . Domestically , the Four Freedoms were not something that Roosevelt was able to achieve through simple legislation , although they provided a theme for American military participation in the war . Of the Four Freedoms , the only two described in the United States Constitution were freedom of speech and freedom of worship .
= = Rockwell and World War II = =
Between 1916 and his December 16 , 1963 Kennedy Memorial cover , Rockwell created 322 magazine covers for The Saturday Evening Post , which was once the most widely read American magazine . In a preelectronic era where mass production magazine color illustration was the most popular form of media , Rockwell became a national name , and by the 1950s was rivaled only by Walt Disney for his familiarity to the public among visual artists . During World War I , Rockwell had taken a bit of a back seat to more established illustrators under The Post editorship of George Horace Lorimer , who had died in 1937 . Unfettered by Lorimer 's restrictions , Rockwell saw the opportunity to illustrate the Four Freedoms as the chance of a lifetime .
Rockwell 's covers highlighted the human aspect of the American war effort . The illustrations supported the effort by promoting war bonds , and encouraging women to work and men to enlist . They employed themes of patriotism , longing , shifting gender roles , reunion , love , work , community , and family . In his role as a magazine illustrator during times of war , Rockwell draws comparisons to Winslow Homer , an American Civil War illustrator for Harper 's Weekly . The four Rockwell paintings are thought to have influenced the adoption of Roosevelt 's Four Freedoms as a goal .
The Four Freedoms had become an important theme for Artists for Victory . The consortium was one of several artists ' organizations that provided the government with promotional artwork for the war . It also sponsored exhibits about global peace .
Rockwell was perceived as apolitical , but advocated " tolerance for differences , courtesy , kindness , and the freedoms that FDR articulated " . He believed FDR 's freedoms were worth fighting for , and he made numerous artistic contributions to the war efforts apart from the Four Freedoms . He is widely known for his idealized fictional wartime character Willie Gillis and his depiction of Rosie the Riveter . Some of his other war art is known by name , such as War News and Homecoming Soldier . He was responsible for encouraging individual monetary support of the war through posters like the 1943 Hasten the Homecoming .
= = Composition = =
Rockwell 's Four Freedoms — Freedom of Speech , Freedom of Worship , Freedom from Want , and Freedom from Fear — were first published on February 20 , February 27 , March 6 , and March 13 , 1943 along with commissioned essays from leading American writers and historians ( Booth Tarkington , Will Durant , Carlos Bulosan , and Stephen Vincent Benét , respectively ) . They measure 45 @.@ 75 inches ( 116 @.@ 2 cm ) × 35 @.@ 5 inches ( 90 cm ) except Freedom of Worship which measures 46 @.@ 0 inches ( 116 @.@ 8 cm ) × 35 @.@ 5 inches ( 90 cm ) . For all of his paintings , Rockwell used live models . In 1935 , Rockwell began using black @-@ and @-@ white photography of these live models extensively , although he did not publicly reveal he did so until 1940 . The use of photography expanded the possibilities for Rockwell who could ask models to pose in positions that they could only hold for brief periods of time . He could also produce works from new perspectives and the Four Freedoms represented " low vantage point of Freedom of Speech , to close @-@ up in Freedom of Worship , midrange in Freedom from Fear , and wide angle in Freedom from Want . "
In 1939 , Rockwell moved to Arlington , Vermont , which was an artist @-@ friendly community that had hosted Robert Frost , Rockwell Kent , and Dorothy Canfield Fisher . Of the move from New Rochelle , New York , Rockwell said " I was restless ... The town [ of New Rochelle ] seemed tinged with everything that happened to me " . In New Rochelle , he had both endured a divorce and run with a fast crowd . Artists John Atherton , Mead Schaeffer and George Hughes established residences in Arlington soon after Rockwell . The resident artists , Rockwell included , were mutually supportive and hired local citizens as their amateur models . Using photography and Arlington residents as models , Rockwell was able to capture what he referred to as " human @-@ looking humans " , who were generally working @-@ class people , in an hour or so rather than hire professional models for the entire day . Rockwell paid his models modestly . Rose Hoyt , who was engaged for a total of three photographic sessions for Freedom of Speech and Freedom of Worship , earned $ 15 ( $ 217 @.@ 24 in 2016 dollars ) for her sittings .
When the US entered the war in 1941 , it had three agencies responsible for war propaganda : The Office of Facts and Figures ( OFF ) , The Division of Information of the Office of Emergency Management ( OEM ) , and Office of Government Reports ( OGR ) . The OFF was responsible for commissioned artwork and for assembling a corps of writers , led by Librarian of Congress Archibald MacLeish . By mid @-@ 1942 , the Office of War Information determined that despite the efforts of OFF in distributing pamphlets , posters , displays , and other media , only a third of the general public was familiar with Roosevelt 's Four Freedoms and at most one in fifty could enumerate them . The Four Freedoms had been a " campaign to educate Americans about participation in World War II " .
By 1942 , Rockwell had been illustrating professionally for thirty years and was having a successful career . Additionally , by mid @-@ 1942 Rockwell 's Gillis was becoming famous . Lorimer had been the editor of The Post from 1898 to 1936 . He was followed by Wesley W. Stout for five years . In early 1942 , Stout ran an article entitled " The Case Against the Jew " , which led to advertising and subscription cancellations . The Post was rumored to be in financial trouble in 1942 . Soon Stout was replaced by Hibbs who revamped the magazine .
On May 24 , 1942 , Rockwell was seeking approval for a poster design at The Pentagon because the Artists Guild had designated that he advocate for the U.S. Army Ordnance Department . Robert Patterson , who was then United States Undersecretary of War , suggested revisions . On the same day , he visited with Thomas Mabry of the Graphic Division of the War Department 's Office of Facts and Figures , which coordinated war @-@ themed posters and billboards . Mabry relayed the need for Four Freedoms artwork . Rockwell returned home pondering the Atlantic Charter , which had incorporated the Four Freedoms .
Rockwell remembered a scene of a local town meeting in which one person spoke out in lone dissent , but was given the floor , and was listened to respectfully , despite his solitary opposition . He was inspired to use this scene to illustrate Freedom of Speech , and Rockwell decided to use his Vermont neighbors as models for an inspirational set of posters depicting the themes laid out by Roosevelt the previous year in a Four Freedoms series . He spent three days making charcoal sketches of the series , which some sources describe as color sketches . Rockwell 's patriotic gesture was to travel to Washington , D.C. and volunteer his free services to the government for this cause . In mid @-@ June , accompanied by Schaeffer , he took four charcoal sketches to Washington , where they stayed at the Mayflower Hotel , as the two sought commissions to design war art . During the trip , Rockwell was asked by the Boy Scouts of America to continue his annual creation of a new painting for their annual calendar by publishing representative Orion Winford . He was unable to hold Patterson 's attention during their meeting , so he met with the new Office of War Information ( OWI ) , where he was told " The last war you illustrators did the posters . This war we 're going to use fine artists men , real artists . "
On his return trip to Vermont with Schaeffer on June 16 , they stopped in Philadelphia to meet with new Saturday Evening Post editor Ben Hibbs . Many accounts portray this visit as unplanned , but whether it was is unclear . Hibbs liked Rockwell 's Four Freedoms sketches , and he gave Rockwell two months to complete the works . A June 24 correspondence from The Post clarified that both Rockwell 's and Schaeffer 's series would be published . By June 26 , The Post 's art editor James Yates notified Rockwell of plans for a layout of paintings with an accompanying essay or accompanying essays by President Roosevelt .
Rockwell 's summer was full of distractions . At one point a Manhattan gastroenterologist prescribed a surgery of uncertain nature , though it was not performed . He had commissions for other magazines , and business complications regarding second reproduction rights . He also had his Boy Scout commitment . Under time constraints , Rockwell made every excuse to avoid all other distracting assignments . In October , The Post sent its art editor to Arlington to check on Rockwell 's progress . At about the same time , despite its Graphics Division chief 's , Francis Brennan 's outrage , the OWI began showing signs of renewed interest . In fact , after Rockwell was chosen the entire OWI Writers ' Division resigned . The press release associated with the resignation asserted that the OWI was dominated by " high @-@ pressure promoters who prefer slick salesmanship to honest information . These promoters would treat as stupid and reluctant customers the men and women of the United States . " There was further turmoil in the OWI from a faction supporting work by Ben Shahn ; Shahn 's work was not used in propaganda because it lacked general appeal . There were several artists who were commissioned to promote the war , including Jean Carlu , Gerard Hordyke , Hugo Ballin , and Walter Russell . Russell created a Four Freedoms Monument that was eventually dedicated at Madison Square Garden in New York City .
The series took seven months to complete , and was finished by year end . Supposedly , Rockwell lost 10 pounds ( 4 @.@ 54 kg ) from the assignment . As Rockwell was completing the series , he was motivated by news of Allied setbacks , a fact that gives the work a sense of urgency . Models included a Mrs. Harrington who became the devout old woman in Freedom of Worship and a man named Jim Martin who appears in each painting in the series ( most prominently in Freedom from Fear ) . The intention was to remind America what they were fighting for : freedom of speech and worship , freedom from want and fear . All of the paintings used a muted palette and are devoid of the use of vermilion that Rockwell is known for .
Some sources published after Rockwell 's death question whether the government was truly as discouraging as Rockwell claimed . They cite an encouraging April 23 , 1943 correspondence with Thomas D. Mabry of the OWI ( a former Executive Director of the Museum of Modern Art ) . At the time , the three government propaganda agencies were disjointed until they were unified under the OWI on June 13 , 1942 by a Presidential Executive Order . Furthermore , the writers ' division , led by MacLeish , was under pressure for failing to deliver a message intelligible to people of varying intelligence .
Upon completion , Rockwell 's works were briefly exhibited at the West Arlington Grange before being delivered to The Post in Philadelphia . The series arrived in Philadelphia in January 1943 . Roosevelt was shown the paintings in early February , and The Post sought Roosevelt 's approval for the series of paintings and essays . Roosevelt responded with both a personal letter to Rockwell and an " official " letter of commendation to The Post dated February 10 . Roosevelt instructed The Post to have the OWI have the essays translated into foreign languages so that they could be presented to leaders at the United Nations .
The Freedoms were published in a series of four full @-@ color , full @-@ page editions , each accompanied by an essay of the same title . The panels were published in successive weeks in the order corresponding to Roosevelt 's speech : Freedom of Speech ( February 20 ) , Freedom of Worship ( February 27 ) , Freedom from Want ( March 6 ) , and Freedom from Fear ( March 13 ) . For the authors of the accompanying essays , Hibbs had numerous options given the number of regular contributors to The Post .
= = Aftermath = =
When the series was published , The Saturday Evening Post received millions of reprint requests . They produced 25 @,@ 000 sets , including both the essays and full @-@ color reproductions of the paintings , sold at cost for $ 0 @.@ 25 ( $ 3 @.@ 42 in 2016 dollars ) . According to Rockwell , the OWI got involved and produced 2 @.@ 5 million sets of Four Freedoms posters only after the public demanded reprints . By the end of the war , 4 million posters had been printed . Both the Freedom from Fear and Freedom from Want posters had the leading caption " ours . . .to fight for " and the Freedom of Speech and Freedom of Worship had the leading caption " Buy War Bonds " and the word " Save " before the respective freedom . A 1946 lithograph version of the 1943 paintings exists showing all four paintings under the heading " ours . . .to fight for " .
The Four Freedoms were issued as posters by the United States Government Printing Office and as postage stamps by the United States Postal Service . They were used as commemorative covers for war bonds and postage stamps offered during the War Bond show . The stamps are not to be confused with the February 12 , 1943 one @-@ cent Four Freedoms Postage Stamp Issue by another artist . The Rockwell versions were issued in a set of four fifty @-@ cent stamps in 1994 , the 100th anniversary of Rockwell 's birth . Freedom from Want was included as the cover image of the 1946 book Norman Rockwell , Illustrator that was written when Rockwell was " at the height of his fame as America 's most popular illustrator " . By 1972 , this 1946 publication was in its seventh printing . Although the paintings were originally intimately connected to Roosevelt and the American cause in World War II , the paintings have now developed an independent iconic identity in textbooks and on ties as well as in the cultural and social fabric . By the end of the 20th century , 25 million people bought Rockwell 's Four Freedoms prints .
Rockwell noted that the series took an emotional toll on him , saying that the works were " serious paintings which sucked the energy right out of me like dredges , leaving me dazed and thoroughly weary . " His subsequent assignment was to produce the 1943 April Fools ' Day cover for The Post , which was much more relaxing .
Rockwell was solicited for a variety of works following the publication of the Four Freedoms . Massachusetts Representative Edith Nourse Rogers put forth a congressional resolution to declare a fifth freedom : " Freedom of Private Enterprise " . Bronx Inter @-@ Racial Conference chairman Roderick Stephens , requested Rockwell 's services to highlight the need for improved interracial relations in a series that would complement the original Four Freedoms . Rockwell and Stephens communicated , and , over the course of his career , Rockwell did contemplate and depict race relations in several works , but not as a series .
= = War Bond Drive = =
Between 1941 and 1946 , the United States Department of the Treasury conducted eight War Loan Drives to promote the sale of war bonds to finance America 's World War II efforts . The government used several forms of solicitation , advertising , and marketing , such as aircraft carrier exhibits . For the Seventh War Loan Drive , they used direct appeals from all five @-@ star generals and admirals ( George Marshall , Dwight Eisenhower , Douglas MacArthur , Jackson D. Arnold , Ernest King , Chester W. Nimitz , and William D. Leahy ) , and used a commemorative bond image of Franklin Delano Roosevelt in the Eighth War Loan Drive . The marketing attempts were quite varied even within a single War Loan Drive .
The War Bond Drives were viewed as key in boosting national morale by giving citizens the opportunity to support the war effort . They boosted patriotism and were a good marketing device for drumming up support . In fact , not only did celebrities help promote the bonds for free , but also , most air time and advertising space for the bonds was donated . The first War Loan Drive , known as " The Victory Loan Drive " , began in early 1942 . It was initiated by Roosevelt and United States Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau and raised $ 13 billion . Despite its success , only 35 % of Americans understood the objectives of the war .
Between January and April 1943 , The Post and the United States Department of the Treasury collaborated to plan the Second War Bond Drive tour featuring the Four Freedoms beginning at Hecht 's in Washington , D.C. Thousands of people volunteered to be part of the War Bond Drive and The Post used its resources to promote the tour . In 1943 , the Saturday Evening Post donated the Four Freedoms to the Second War Loan Drive . The OWI assumed the lead in marketing the Bond Drive . Using an all @-@ star celebrity roster and the Hollywood Writers Mobilization , they created a March 1943 radio dramatization via their " Free World Theater " . The OWI produced and distributed posters of the Four Freedoms to 400 @,@ 000 retailers via the Boy Scouts and began receiving 2 @,@ 000 daily poster requests .
The tour began on April 26 , 1943 at Hecht 's . Rockwell was present at the debut to make obligatory appearances in front of ambassadors and dignitaries and to sign autographs . In the subsequent days , he sketched people in the White House waiting room using charcoal . Due to strained relations with The Post , Morganthau did not attend the debut . The show ran for eleven days in Washington , D.C. with a wide variety of celebratory festivities , such as hourly featured guests and entertainers , chorus performances , and military unit exhibitions . The second stop of the tour coincided with the 75th anniversary of Strawbridge and Clothier in Philadelphia . Bob Hope , Bing Crosby , and Durant were among the celebrities on hand . The tour arrived at New York City 's Rockefeller Center on June 4 with festivities that featured Kate Smith . The tour arrived in Boston on June 19 at Filene 's . Subsequent stops included Buffalo ( July 12 ) , Rochester , New York ( August 2 ) , and Pittsburgh ( September 8 ) . In the Midwest , the show stopped in Detroit ( September 27 ) , Cleveland ( October 25 ) and Chicago ( November 11 ) . Other stops in the Midwest and West included St. Louis ( December 16 ) , New Orleans ( January 16 , 1944 ) , Dallas ( January 27 ) , Los Angeles ( February 12 ) , Portland , Oregon ( March 27 ) , and Denver ( May 1 ) .
Bond purchasers received full @-@ color reproduction sets . During the 16 @-@ city tour , which included various celebrities , public officials , and entertainers , approximately 1 @.@ 2 million people throughout the United States viewed the paintings , which helped to raise $ 132 million ( $ 18 @.@ 533 million for the Second Loan Drive alone ) for the war effort though the sale of war bonds . According to The New Yorker in 1945 , the Four Freedoms " were received by the public with more enthusiasm , perhaps , than any other paintings in the history of American art " . Rockwell is widely credited with contributing to the success of the war effort . However , Rockwell only took part in the war bond tour when it was convenient for his other interests . He did not travel with the tour which lasted a year .
= = Critical reception = =
Rockwell is considered the " quintessential middlebrow American artist " . As an artist he is an illustrator rather than a fine arts painter . Although his style is painterly , his work is produced for the purpose of mass reproduction , and it is produced with the intent of delivering a common message to its viewers via a detailed narrative style . Furthermore , the vast majority of Rockwell 's work was viewed in reproduced format and almost none of his contemporaneous audience ever saw his original work . Also , Rockwell 's style of backwoods New England small @-@ town realism , known as regionalism , was sometimes viewed as out of step with the oncoming wave of abstract modern art . Some say his realism is so direct that he abstains from using artistic license . John Canaday , a New York Times art critic once referred to Rockwell as the " Rembrandt of Punkin ' Crick " for his aversion to the vices of big city life . Dave Hickey derided Rockwell for painting without inflection . Some critics also view his sentimental and nostalgic vision out of step with the harsh realities of American life , such as the Great Depression . Deborah Solomon views the works as being " based on lofty civic principles " , but rather than dealing with the warring patriots , they present themes with " civic and familial rituals " for " emblematic scenes " .
Post editor Hibbs said that the Four Freedoms were an " inspiration ... in the same way that the clock tower of old Independence Hall , which I can see from my office window , inspires me . " Roosevelt wrote to Rockwell " I think you have done a superb job in bringing home to the plain , everyday citizen the plain , everyday truths behind the Four Freedoms ... I congratulate you not alone on the execution but also for the spirit which impelled you to make this contribution to the common cause of a freer , happier world " . Roosevelt wrote to The Post , " This is the first pictorial representation I have seen of the staunchly American values contained in the rights of free speech and free worship and our goals of freedom from fear and want . " Roosevelt also wrote of the corresponding essays , " Their words should inspire all who read them with a deeper appreciation of the way of life we are striving to preserve . "
The Four Freedoms are perhaps Rockwell 's most famous work . Some have said that Rockwell 's Four Freedoms lack artistic maturity . Others have pointed to the universality of the Freedom of Religion as disconcerting to practitioners of particular faiths . Others complained that he idealized American life because by depicting wholesome , healthy , and happy sentiments Rockwell depicted the good that was remembered or wished for , but by avoiding misery , poverty , and social unrest , he failed to demonstrate command of the bad and the ugly parts of American life . Rockwell 's response to this criticism was , " I paint life as I would like it to be . " Rockwell made it known that he hoped these would be his masterpieces , but was disappointed . Nonetheless , he was satisfied with the public acceptance of the series and that the series was able to serve such a patriotic purpose . Laura Claridge feels he might have achieved his ambition if he had pursued the " quiet small scenes " he later became known for .
Although all four images were intended to promote patriotism in a time of war , Freedom from Want , which depicts an elderly couple serving a fat turkey to what looks like a table of happy and eager children and grandchildren has given the idyllic Norman Rockwell Thanksgiving work as important a place in the enduring marketplace of promoting family togetherness , peace and plenty as Hallmark at Christmas . Some say that the Four Freedoms were unable to live up to the role of " illustrating grandiose concepts with humble correlatives " because they are too loud .
The commercial success of the series was in part because each painting is considered to be a model of understandable art by the general public . The success of Rockwell 's depictions was due to his use of long @-@ standing American cultural values about unity and respect of certain institutions while using symbols that enabled a broad audience to identify with his images . This understandability made it one extreme on the scale of artistic complexity when comparing the series to contemporaneous art . It was diametrically opposed to abstract art and far removed from the intrigue of surrealism .
In 1999 , the High Museum of Art and the Norman Rockwell Museum produced the first comprehensive exhibition of Rockwell 's career that started at the High Museum on November 6 , 1999 , stopped at the Chicago Historical Society , Corcoran Gallery of Art , San Diego Museum of Art , Phoenix Art Museum , and Norman Rockwell Museum before concluding at the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum on February 11 , 2002 . Although there has been a long history of Rockwell detractors , during this Norman Rockwell : Pictures for the American People touring exhibition attendance was record @-@ setting and critical reviews were quite favorable . The nostalgia seemed to cause a bit of revisionism in the art world , according to The New York Times which said , " What 's odd is the show 's enthusiastic reception by the art world , which in a lather of revisionism is falling all over itself to embrace what it once reviled : the comfy , folksy narrative visions of a self @-@ deprecating illustrator ... "
Some found Rockwell 's presentation somewhat patronizing , but most were satisfied . The New Yorker remarked two years later : " They were received by the public with more enthusiasm , perhaps , than any other paintings in the history of American Art " . Claridge notes that the series is an example in which the sum is greater than its parts . She notes the inspiration comes in part from their cumulative " heft " .
= = Provenance = =
Following the 1943 – 44 War Bond Show , the Four Freedoms toured the country further by train in a specially @-@ designed car . Through the 1950s the Four Freedoms hung in Hibbs ' offices at The Post . Hibb retired in 1961 and by the time The Post was discontinued in 1969 , Rockwell regained possession of the original paintings . Norman Rockwell bequeathed his personal collection in trust to the Norman Rockwell Museum in 1973 for the " advancement of art appreciation and art education " . This collection included the Four Freedoms paintings . The works remained on exhibit at " The Norman Rockwell Museum at The Old Corner House " for nearly 25 years . In 1993 , when the Rockwell Museum moved from its original location , the Four Freedoms were displayed in the new museum 's central gallery . As of 2014 , the Four Freedoms remain in the collection of the Museum . In 2011 , the Williamstown Art Conservation Center did some work on the Four Freedoms , including reducing exposure to various elements and preventing further wear .
= = Exhibitions = =
The Four Freedoms were widely exhibited as part of the sixteen @-@ city Second War Loan Drive in 1943 and have subsequently been part of other tours and exhibitions . They were a highlight of the first comprehensive Rockwell touring exhibition , entitled Norman Rockwell : Pictures for the American People , which was a seven @-@ city tour that ran from November 1999 until February 2002 . They returned to the Corcoran Gallery of Art , which had been part of the Pictures for the American People tour , for an exhibition in association with the National World War II Memorial grand opening in 2004 . In addition to being included in various tours , the Four Freedoms were the subject of a 144 @-@ page book in 1993 , the fiftieth anniversary of their production .
In addition to exhibitions of the Four Freedoms by Rockwell , there have been tribute exhibitions of works by other artists depicting these themes . For example , in 2008 at the Wolfsonian museum at Florida International University , 60 artists exhibited 80 works that represented their takes on the Four Freedoms . Other artists , such as Thomas Kinkade , have found individual inspiration in Rockwell 's patriotic works , resulting in their own works using different symbols to present similar themes .
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= William Howard Taft =
William Howard Taft ( September 15 , 1857 – March 8 , 1930 ) served as the 27th President of the United States ( 1909 – 1913 ) and as the 10th Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court ( 1921 – 1930 ) , the only person to have held both offices . Taft was elected president in 1908 , the chosen successor of Theodore Roosevelt , but was defeated for re @-@ election by Woodrow Wilson in 1912 after Roosevelt split the Republican vote by running as a third @-@ party candidate . In 1921 , President Warren G. Harding appointed Taft chief justice , a position in which he served until a few weeks before his death .
Taft was born in Cincinnati in 1857 . His father Alphonso Taft was a U.S. Attorney General and Secretary of War . William Taft attended Yale and was a member of Skull and Bones secret society like his father , and after becoming a lawyer was appointed a judge while still in his twenties . He continued a rapid rise , being named Solicitor General and as a judge of the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals . President William McKinley appointed Taft civilian governor of the Philippines . In 1904 , Roosevelt made him Secretary of War and he became Roosevelt 's hand @-@ picked successor . Taft declined repeated offers of appointment to the Supreme Court , believing his political work more important .
With Roosevelt 's help , Taft had little opposition for the Republican nomination for president in 1908 , and easily defeated William Jennings Bryan for the presidency that November . In the White House , he focused on the Far East more than European affairs , and repeatedly intervened to prop up or remove Latin American governments . Taft sought reductions to the tariff , then a major source of governmental income , but the resulting bill was heavily influenced by special interests . His administration was filled with conflict between the conservative wing of the Republican Party , with which Taft often sympathized , and the progressive wing , toward which Roosevelt moved more and more . Controversies over conservation and over antitrust cases filed by the Taft administration served to further separate the two men . Roosevelt challenged Taft for renomination in 1912 . Taft used his control of the party machinery to gain a bare majority of delegates , and Roosevelt bolted the party . The split left Taft with little chance of re @-@ election , and in Wilson 's victory won only Utah and Vermont .
After leaving office , Taft returned to Yale as a professor , continuing his political activity and working against war through the League to Enforce Peace . In 1921 , President Harding appointed Taft chief justice , an office he had long sought . Chief Justice Taft was a conservative on business issues , but under him , there were advances in individual rights . In poor health , he resigned in February 1930 . After his death the next month , he was buried at Arlington National Cemetery , the first president and first Supreme Court justice to be interred there . Taft is generally listed near the middle in historians ' rankings of U.S. presidents .
= = Early life and education = =
William Howard Taft was born September 15 , 1857 , in Cincinnati , Ohio , to Alphonso Taft and Louise Torrey . The Taft family was not wealthy , living in a modest home in the suburb of Mount Auburn . Alphonso served as a judge , ambassador and in the cabinet , as War Secretary and Attorney General under Ulysses S. Grant .
William Taft was not seen as brilliant as a child , but was a hard worker ; the demanding parents pushed their five boys toward success , tolerating nothing less . He attended Woodward High School in Cincinnati . At Yale College , which he entered in 1874 , the heavyset , jovial Taft was popular . One classmate described him succeeding through hard work rather than being the smartest , with sterling integrity . In 1878 , Taft graduated , second in his class out of 121 . He attended Cincinnati Law School , and graduated with a Bachelor of Laws in 1880 . While in law school , he worked on The Cincinnati Commercial newspaper , edited by Murat Halstead . Taft was assigned to cover the local courts , and also spent time reading law in his father 's office ; both activities gave him practical knowledge of the law that was taught in no class . Shortly before graduating from law school , Taft went to the state capital of Columbus to take the bar examination and easily passed .
= = Rise in government ( 1880 – 1908 ) = =
= = = Ohio lawyer and judge = = =
After admission to the Ohio bar , Taft devoted himself to his job at the Commercial full @-@ time . Halstead was willing to take him on permanently at an increase in salary if he would give up the law , but Taft declined . In October 1880 , Taft was appointed assistant prosecutor for Hamilton County ( where Cincinnati is located ) , and took office the following January . Taft served for a year as assistant prosecutor , trying his share of routine cases . He resigned in January 1882 after President Chester A. Arthur appointed him Collector of Internal Revenue for Ohio 's First District , an area centered on Cincinnati . Taft refused to dismiss competent employees who were politically out of favor , and resigned effective in March 1883 , writing to Arthur that he wished to begin private practice in Cincinnati . In 1884 , Taft campaigned for the Republican candidate for president , Maine Senator James G. Blaine , who lost to New York Governor Grover Cleveland .
In 1887 , Taft , then aged 29 , was appointed to a vacancy on the Superior Court of Cincinnati by Governor Joseph B. Foraker . The appointment was good for just over a year , after which he would have to face the voters , and in April 1888 , he sought election for the first of three times in his lifetime , the other two being for the presidency . He was elected to a full five @-@ year term . Some two dozen of Taft 's opinions as a state judge survive , the most significant being Moores & Co. v. Bricklayers ' Union No. 1 ( 1889 ) if only because it was used against him when he ran for president in 1908 . The case involved bricklayers who refused to work for any firm that dealt with a company called Parker Brothers , with which they were in dispute . Taft ruled that the union 's action amounted to a secondary boycott , which was illegal .
It is not clear when Taft met Helen Herron ( often called Nellie ) , but it was no later than 1880 , when she mentioned in her diary receiving an invitation to a party from him . By 1884 , they were meeting regularly , and in 1885 , after an initial rejection , she agreed to marry him . The wedding took place at the Herron home on June 19 , 1886 . William Taft remained devoted to his wife throughout their almost 44 years of marriage . Nellie Taft pushed her husband much as his parents had , and she could be very frank with her criticisms . The couple had three children , of which the eldest , Robert , became a U.S. senator .
= = = Solicitor General = = =
There was a seat vacant on the U.S. Supreme Court in 1889 , and Governor Foraker suggested President Harrison appoint Taft to fill it . Taft was 32 and his professional goal was always a seat on the high court . He actively sought the appointment , writing to Foraker to urge the governor to press his case , while stating to others it was unlikely he would get it . Instead , in 1890 , Harrison appointed him Solicitor General of the United States . When Taft arrived in Washington in February 1890 , the office had been vacant two months , with the work piling up . He worked to eliminate the backlog , while simultaneously educating himself on federal law and procedure he had not needed as an Ohio state judge .
New York Senator William M. Evarts , a former Secretary of State , had been a classmate of Alphonso Taft at Yale . Evarts called to see his friend 's son as soon as Taft took office , and William and Nellie Taft were launched into Washington society . Nellie Taft was ambitious for herself and her husband , and was annoyed when the people he socialized with most were mainly Supreme Court justices , rather than the arbiters of Washington society such as Theodore Roosevelt , John Hay , Henry Cabot Lodge and their wives .
Although Taft was successful as Solicitor General , winning 15 of the 18 cases he argued before the Supreme Court , he was glad when in March 1891 , Congress created a new judgeship for each of the United States Courts of Appeal and Harrison appointed him to the Sixth Circuit , based in Cincinnati . In March 1892 , Taft resigned as Solicitor General to resume his judicial career .
= = = Federal judge = = =
Taft 's federal judgeship was a lifetime appointment , and one from which promotion to the Supreme Court might come . Taft 's older half @-@ brother Charles , successful in business , supplemented Taft 's government salary , allowing William and Nellie Taft and their family to live in comfort . Taft 's duties involved hearing trials in the circuit , which included Ohio , Michigan , Kentucky , and Tennessee , and participating with Supreme Court Justice John Marshall Harlan , the circuit justice , and judges of the Sixth Circuit in hearing appeals . Taft spent eight years of his life , from 1892 to 1900 , in personal and professional contentment .
According to historian Louis L. Gould , " while Taft shared the fears about social unrest that dominated the middle classes during the 1890s , he was not as conservative as his critics believed . He supported the right of labor to organize and strike , and he ruled against employers in several negligence cases . " Among these was Voight v. Baltimore & Ohio Southwestern Railway Co . Taft 's decision for a worker injured in a railway accident violated the contemporary doctrine of liberty of contract , and he was reversed by the Supreme Court . On the other hand , Taft 's opinion in United States v. Addyston Pipe and Steel Co. was upheld unanimously by the high court . Taft 's opinion , in which he held that a pipe manufacturers ' association had violated the Sherman Antitrust Act , was described by Henry Pringle , his biographer , as having " definitely and specifically revived " that legislation .
In 1896 , Taft became dean and Professor of Property at his alma mater , the Cincinnati Law School , a post that required him to prepare and give two hour @-@ long lectures each week . He was devoted to his law school , and was deeply committed to legal education , introducing the case system to the curriculum . As a federal judge , Taft could not involve himself with politics , but followed it closely , remaining a Republican supporter . He watched with some disbelief as the campaign of Ohio Governor William McKinley developed in 1894 and 1895 , writing " I cannot find anybody in Washington who wants him " . By March 1896 , Taft realized that McKinley would likely be nominated , and was lukewarm in his support . He landed solidly in McKinley 's camp after former Nebraska representative William Jennings Bryan in July stampeded the 1896 Democratic National Convention with his Cross of Gold speech . Bryan , both in that address and in his campaign , strongly advocated free silver , a policy that Taft saw as economic radicalism . Taft feared that people would hoard gold in anticipation of a Bryan victory , but he could do nothing but worry . McKinley was elected ; when a place on the Supreme Court opened in 1898 , the only one under McKinley , the president named Joseph McKenna .
= = = Philippine years = = =
In January 1900 , Taft was called to Washington to meet with McKinley . Taft hoped a Supreme Court appointment was in the works , but instead McKinley wanted to place Taft on the commission to organize a civilian government in the Philippines . The appointment would require Taft 's resignation from the bench ; the president assured him that if he fulfilled this task , McKinley would appoint him to the next vacancy on the high court . Taft accepted on condition he was made head of the commission , with responsibility for success or failure ; McKinley agreed , and Taft sailed for the islands in April 1900 .
Many Filipinos had responded to the American takeover with a fierce resistance , seeking independence for the islands , but U.S. forces , led by military governor General Arthur MacArthur , Jr. had the upper hand by 1900 . MacArthur felt the commission was a nuisance , and their mission a quixotic attempt to impose self @-@ government on a people unready for it . The general was forced to co @-@ operate with Taft , as McKinley had given the commission control over the islands ' military budget . The commission took executive power in the Philippines on September 1 , 1900 ; on July 4 , 1901 , Taft became civilian governor . MacArthur , until then the military governor , was relieved by General Adna Chaffee , who was designated only as commander of American forces .
Taft sought to make the Filipinos partners in a venture that would lead to their self @-@ government ; he saw independence as something far off . Many Americans in the Philippines viewed the locals as racial inferiors , but Taft wrote soon before his arrival , " we propose to banish this idea from their minds " . Taft did not impose segregation at official events , and treated the Filipinos as social equals . Nellie Taft recalled that " neither politics nor race should influence our hospitality in any way " .
McKinley was assassinated in September 1901 , and was succeeded by Theodore Roosevelt . Taft and Roosevelt had first become friends around 1890 while Taft was Solicitor General and Roosevelt a member of the Civil Service Commission . Taft had , after McKinley 's election , urged the appointment of Roosevelt as Assistant Secretary of the Navy , and watched as Roosevelt became a war hero , Governor of New York , and Vice President of the United States . They met again when Taft went to Washington in January 1902 to recuperate after two operations caused by an infection . There , Taft testified before the Senate Committee on the Philippines . Taft wanted to have Filipino farmers to have a stake in the new government through land ownership , but much of the arable land was held by Catholic religious orders , priests who were mostly Spanish , and were often resented by the Filipinos . Roosevelt had Taft go to Rome to negotiate with Pope Leo XIII , to purchase the lands and to arrange the withdrawal of the Spanish priests , with Americans replacing them and training locals as clergy . Taft did not succeed in resolving these issues on his visit to Rome , but an agreement on both points was made in 1903 .
In late 1902 , Taft had heard from Roosevelt that a seat on the Supreme Court would soon fall vacant on the resignation of Justice George Shiras , and Roosevelt desired that Taft fill it . Although this was Taft 's professional goal , he refused as he felt his work as governor was not yet done . One reason for Roosevelt 's action was his desire to neutralize a potential rival for the presidency : Taft 's success in the Philippines had not gone unnoticed in the American press . The following year , Roosevelt asked Taft to become Secretary of War . As the War Department was responsible for the Philippines , Taft would remain responsible for the islands , and Root was willing to postpone his departure until 1904 , allowing Taft time to wrap up his work in Manila . After consulting with his family , Taft agreed , and sailed for the United States in December 1903 .
= = = Secretary of War = = =
When Taft took office as Secretary of War in January 1904 , he was not called upon to spend much time administering the army , which the president was content to do himself — Roosevelt wanted him as a troubleshooter in difficult situations , as a legal adviser , and to be able to give campaign speeches as he sought election in his own right . Taft strongly defended Roosevelt 's record in his addresses , and wrote of the president 's successful but strenuous efforts to gain election , " I would not run for president if you guaranteed the office . It is awful to be afraid of one 's shadow . "
Between 1905 and 1907 , Taft came to terms with the likelihood he would be the next Republican nominee for president , though he did not plan to actively campaign for it . When Justice Henry B. Brown resigned in 1905 , Taft would not accept the seat although Roosevelt offered it , a position Taft held to when another seat opened in 1906 . Edith Roosevelt , the First Lady , disliked the growing closeness between the two men , feeling they were too much alike , and that the president did not gain much from the advice of someone who rarely contradicted him .
Alternatively , Taft wanted to be chief justice , and kept a close eye on the health of the aging incumbent , Melville Fuller , who turned 75 in 1908 . Taft believed Fuller likely to live many years . Roosevelt had indicated he was likely to appoint Taft if the opportunity came to fill the court 's center seat , but some considered Attorney General Philander Knox a better candidate . In any event , Fuller remained chief justice throughout Roosevelt 's presidency .
Through the 1903 Panamanian Revolution and the Hay @-@ Bunau @-@ Varilla Treaty , the United States had secured rights to build a canal in the Isthmus of Panama . Legislation authorizing construction did not specify which government department would be responsible , and Roosevelt designated the Department of War . Taft journeyed to Panama in 1904 , viewing the canal site and meeting with Panamanian officials . The Isthmian Canal Commission had trouble keeping a chief engineer , and when in February 1907 John D. Stevens submitted his resignation , Taft recommended an army engineer , George W. Goethals . Under Goethals , the project moved ahead smoothly .
Another colony lost by Spain in 1898 was Cuba , but as freedom for Cuba had been a major purpose of the war , it was not annexed by the U.S. , but was , after a period of occupation , given independence in 1902 . Election fraud and corruption followed , as did factional conflict . In September 1906 , President Tomás Estrada Palma asked for U.S. intervention . Taft traveled to Cuba with a small American force , and on September 29 , 1906 , under the terms of the Cuban – American Treaty of Relations of 1903 , declared himself Provisional Governor of Cuba , a post he held for two weeks before being succeeded by Charles Edward Magoon . In his time in Cuba , Taft worked to persuade Cubans that the U.S. intended stability , not occupation .
Taft remained involved in Philippine affairs . During Roosevelt 's election campaign in 1904 , he urged that Philippine agricultural products be admitted to the U.S. without duty . This caused growers of U.S. sugar and tobacco to complain to Roosevelt , who remonstrated with his Secretary of War . Taft expressed unwillingness to change his position , and threatened to resign ; Roosevelt hastily dropped the matter . Taft returned to the islands in 1905 , leading a delegation of congressmen , and again in 1907 , to open the first Philippine Assembly .
On both of his Philippine trips as Secretary of War , Taft went to Japan , and met with officials there . The meeting in July 1905 came a month before the conference which would end the Russo @-@ Japanese War with the Treaty of Portsmouth . Taft met with Japanese Prime Minister Katsura Tarō . After that meeting , the two signed a memorandum , with Japan indicating it had no desire to invade the Philippines , and the U.S. that it did not object to Japanese control of Korea . There were U.S. concerns about the number of Japanese laborers coming to the West Coast , and during Taft 's second visit , in September 1907 , Tadasu Hayashi , the foreign minister , informally agreed to issue fewer passports to them .
= = Presidential election of 1908 = =
= = = Gaining the nomination = = =
Roosevelt had served almost three and a half years of McKinley 's term . On the night of his own election in 1904 , Roosevelt publicly declared he would not run for re @-@ election in 1908 , a pledge he quickly regretted . But he felt bound by his word . Roosevelt believed Taft was his logical successor , although the War Secretary was initially reluctant to run . Roosevelt used his control of the party machinery to aid his heir apparent . On pain of loss of their jobs , political appointees were required to support Taft or remain silent .
A number of Republican politicians , such as Treasury Secretary George Cortelyou tested the waters for a run , but chose to stay out . New York Governor Charles Evans Hughes ran , but when he made a major policy speech , Roosevelt the same day sent a special message to Congress warning in strong terms against corporate corruption . The resulting coverage of the presidential message relegated Hughes to the back pages . Roosevelt reluctantly deterred repeated attempts to draft him for another term .
Assistant Postmaster General Frank H. Hitchcock resigned from his office in February 1908 to lead the Taft effort . In April , Taft made a speaking tour , traveling as far west as Omaha before being recalled to go to Panama and straighten out another contested election . At the 1908 Republican National Convention in Chicago in June , there was no serious opposition to him , and he gained a first @-@ ballot victory . Yet , Taft did not have things his own way : he had hoped his running mate would be a midwestern progressive like Iowa Senator Jonathan Dolliver , but instead the convention named Congressman James S. Sherman of New York , a conservative . Taft resigned as Secretary of War on June 30 to devote his full @-@ time to the campaign .
= = = General election campaign = = =
Taft 's opponent in the general election was Bryan , the Democratic nominee for the third time in four presidential elections . As many of Roosevelt 's reforms stemmed from proposals by Bryan , the Democrat argued that he was the heir to Roosevelt 's mantle and that Taft was not . Corporate contributions to federal political campaigns had been outlawed by the 1907 Tillman Act , and Bryan proposed that contributions by officers and directors of corporations be similarly banned , or at least disclosed when made . Taft was only willing to see the contributions disclosed after the election , and tried to ensure that officers and directors of corporations litigating with the government were not among his contributors .
Taft began the campaign on the wrong foot , fueling the arguments of those who said he was not his own man by traveling to Roosevelt 's home at Sagamore Hill for advice on his acceptance speech , saying that he needed " the President 's judgment and criticism " . He for the most part supported Roosevelt 's policies . The candidate argued that labor had a right to organize , but not to boycott . Moneyed interests , that is , capital , must also obey the law . Bryan wanted the railroads to be owned by the government , but Taft preferred that they remain in the private sector , with their maximum rates set by the Interstate Commerce Commission , subject to judicial review . Taft attributed blame for the recent recession , the Panic of 1907 , to stock speculation and other abuses , and felt some reform of the currency ( the U.S. was on the gold standard ) was needed to allow flexibility in the government 's response to poor economic times . Specific legislation on trusts was needed to supplement the Sherman Antitrust Act . The constitution should be amended to allow for an income tax , thus overruling decisions of the Supreme Court striking such a tax down . Roosevelt 's expansive use of executive power had been controversial ; Taft proposed to continue his policies , but place them on more solid legal underpinnings through the passage of legislation .
Taft upset some progressives by choosing Hitchcock as Chairman of the Republican National Committee ( RNC ) , placing him in charge of the presidential campaign . Hitchcock was quick to bring in men closely allied with big business . Taft took an August vacation in Hot Springs , Virginia , where he irritated political advisors by spending more time on golf than strategy . After seeing a newspaper photo of Taft taking a large swing at a golf ball , Roosevelt warned him against candid shots .
Roosevelt , frustrated by his own relative inaction , showered Taft with advice , fearing that the electorate would not appreciate Taft 's qualities , and that Bryan would win . Roosevelt 's supporters spread rumors that the president was in effect running Taft 's campaign . This annoyed Nellie Taft , who never trusted the Roosevelts . Nevertheless , Roosevelt supported the Republican nominee with such enthusiasm that humorists suggested " TAFT " stood for " Take advice from Theodore " .
Bryan urged a system of bank guarantees , so that depositors could be repaid if banks failed , but Taft opposed this , offering a postal savings system instead . The issue of prohibition of alcohol entered the campaign when in mid @-@ September , Carrie Nation called on Taft and demanded to know his views . Taft and Roosevelt had agreed the party platform would take no position on the matter , and Nation left indignant , to allege that Taft was irreligious and against temperance . Taft , at Roosevelt 's advice , ignored the issue .
In the end , Taft won by a comfortable margin . Taft defeated Bryan by 321 electoral votes to 162 ; however , he garnered just 51 @.@ 6 percent of the popular vote . Nellie Taft said regarding the campaign , " There was nothing to criticize , except his not knowing or caring about the way the game of politics is played . " Longtime White House usher Ike Hoover recalled that Taft came often to see Roosevelt during the campaign , but seldom between the election and Inauguration Day , March 4 , 1909 .
= = Presidency ( 1909 – 1913 ) = =
= = = Inauguration and appointments = = =
William Howard Taft was sworn in as president on March 4 , 1909 . Due to a winter storm that coated Washington with ice , Taft was inaugurated within the Senate Chamber rather than outside the Capitol as is customary . The new president stated in his inaugural address that he had been honored to have been " one of the advisers of my distinguished predecessor " and to have had a part " in the reforms he has initiated . I should be untrue to myself , to my promises , and to the declarations of the party platform on which I was elected if I did not make the maintenance and enforcement of those reforms a most important feature of my administration " . He pledged to make those reforms long @-@ lasting , ensuring that honest businessmen did not suffer uncertainty through change of policy . He spoke of the need for reduction of the 1897 Dingley Tariff , for antitrust reform , and for continued advancement of the Philippines toward full self @-@ government . Roosevelt left office with regret that his tenure in the position he enjoyed so much was over and , to keep out of Taft 's way , arranged for a year @-@ long hunting trip to Africa .
Soon after the Republican convention , Taft and Roosevelt had discussed which cabinet officers would stay on . Taft kept only Agriculture Secretary James Wilson and Postmaster General George von Lengerke Meyer ( who was shifted to the Navy Department ) . Others appointed to the Taft cabinet included Philander Knox , the new Secretary of State , and Franklin MacVeagh as Treasury Secretary .
Taft did not enjoy the easy relationship with the press that Roosevelt had , choosing not to offer himself for interviews or photo opportunities as often as his predecessor had . His administration marked a change in style from the charismatic leadership of Roosevelt to Taft 's quieter passion for the rule of law .
= = = Foreign policy = = =
= = = = Organization and principles = = = =
Taft made it a priority to restructure the State Department , noting , " it is organized on the basis of the needs of the government in 1800 instead of 1900 . " The Department was for the first time organized into geographical divisions , including desks for the Far East , Latin America and Western Europe . The department 's first in @-@ service training program was established , and appointees spent a month in Washington before going to their posts . Taft and Secretary of State Knox had a strong relationship , and the president listened to his counsel on matters foreign and domestic . According to Coletta , however , Knox was not a good diplomat , and had poor relations with the Senate , press , and many foreign leaders , especially those from Latin America .
There was broad agreement between Taft and Knox on major foreign policy goals . The U.S. would not interfere in European affairs . The U.S. would use force if necessary to enforce the Monroe Doctrine in the Americas . The defense of the Panama Canal , which was under construction throughout Taft 's term ( it opened in 1914 ) , guided U.S. policy in the Caribbean and in Central America . Previous administration had tried to defend American business interests overseas , but Taft went a step further and used the web of American diplomats and consuls abroad to promote trade . Such ties , Taft hoped , would promote world peace . Taft promoted arbitration treaties with Great Britain and France , but the Senate was not willing to yield to arbitrators its constitutional prerogative to approve treaties .
= = = = Tariffs and reciprocity = = = =
At the time of Taft 's presidency , protectionism through the use of tariffs was a fundamental position of the Republican Party . The Dingley Tariff had been enacted to protect American industry from foreign competition . The 1908 party platform had supported unspecified revisions to the Dingley Act , and Taft interpreted this to mean reductions . Taft called a special session of Congress to convene on March 15 , 1909 to deal with the tariff question .
Sereno E. Payne , chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee , had held hearings in late 1908 , and sponsored the resulting draft legislation . On balance , the bill reduced tariffs slightly , but when it passed the House in April 1909 and reached the Senate , the chairman of the Senate Finance Committee , Rhode Island Senator Nelson W. Aldrich , attached many amendments raising rates . This outraged progressives such as Wisconsin 's Robert M. La Follette , who urged Taft to say that the bill was not in accord with the party platform . Taft refused , angering them . Taft insisted that most imports from the Philippines be free of duty , and according to Anderson , showed effective leadership on a subject he was knowledgeable on and really cared about .
When opponents sought to modify the tariff bill to allow for an income tax , Taft opposed it on the ground that the Supreme Court would likely strike it down as unconstitutional , as it had before . Instead , they proposed a constitutional amendment , which passed both houses in early July , was sent to the states , and by 1913 was ratified as the Sixteenth Amendment . In the conference committee , Taft won some victories , such as limiting the tax on lumber . The conference report passed both houses , and Taft signed it on August 6 , 1909 . The Payne @-@ Aldrich tariff was immediately controversial . According to Coletta , " Taft had lost the initiative , and the wounds inflicted in the acrid tariff debate never healed " .
In Taft 's annual message sent to Congress in December 1910 , he urged a free trade accord for Canada . Britain at that time still handled Canada 's foreign relations , and Taft found the British and Canadian governments willing . Many in Canada opposed an accord , fearing the U.S. would dump it when convenient as it had the 1854 Elgin @-@ Marcy Treaty in 1866 , and American farm and fisheries interests were also opposed . After January 1911 talks with Canadian officials , Taft had the agreement , which was not a treaty , introduced into Congress and it passed in late July . The Canadian Parliament , led by Prime Minister Sir Wilfrid Laurier , had deadlocked over the issue . Canadians turned Laurier out of office in the September 1911 election . No cross @-@ border agreement was concluded , and the debate deepened divisions in the Republican Party .
= = = = Latin America = = = =
Taft and his Secretary of State , Philander Knox , instituted a policy of Dollar Diplomacy towards Latin America , believing U.S. investment would benefit all involved , while keeping European influence away from areas subject to the Monroe Doctrine . Although exports rose sharply during Taft 's administration , the policy was unpopular among Latin American states that did not wish to become financial protectorates of the United States , as well as in the U.S. Senate , many of whose members believed the U.S. should not interfere abroad . No foreign affairs controversy tested Taft 's statesmanship and commitment to peace more than the collapse of the Mexican regime and subsequent turmoil of the Mexican Revolution .
When Taft entered office , Mexico was increasingly restless under the grip of longtime dictator Porfirio Díaz and many Mexicans backed his opponent , Francisco Madero . There were a number of incidents in which Mexican rebels crossed the U.S. border to obtain horses and weapons ; Taft sought to prevent this by ordering the army to the border areas for maneuvers . Taft told his military aide , Archibald Butt , that " I am going to sit on the lid and it will take a great deal to pry me off " . He showed his support for Díaz by meeting with him at El Paso , Texas , and Ciudad Juárez , Mexico , the first meeting between a U.S. and a Mexican president and also the first time an American president visited Mexico . The day of the summit , Frederick Russell Burnham and a Texas Ranger captured and disarmed an assassin holding a palm pistol only a few feet of the two presidents . Before the election in Mexico , Díaz jailed opposition candidate Madero , whose supporters took up arms resulting in both the ousting of Díaz and a revolution that would continue for another ten years . In the U.S. ' s Arizona Territory , two citizens were killed and almost a dozen injured , some as a result of gunfire across the border . Taft would not be goaded into fighting and so instructed the territorial governor .
Nicaragua 's president , José Santos Zelaya , wanted to revoke commercial concessions granted to American companies , and American diplomats quietly favored rebel forces under Juan Estrada . Nicaragua was in debt to foreign powers , and the U.S. was unwilling that an alternate canal route fall into the hands of Europeans . Zelaya 's elected successor , José Madriz , could not put down the rebellion as U.S. forces interfered , and in August 1910 , the Estrada forces took Managua , the capital . The U.S. had Nicaragua accept a loan , and sent officials to ensure it was repaid from government revenues . The country remained unstable , and after another coup in 1911 and more disturbances in 1912 , Taft sent troops ; though most were soon withdrawn , some remained as late as 1933 .
Treaties among Panama , Colombia , and the United States to resolve disputes arising from the Panamanian Revolution of 1903 had been signed by the lame @-@ duck Roosevelt administration in early 1909 , and were approved by the Senate and also ratified by Panama . Colombia , however , declined to ratify the treaties , and after the 1912 elections , Knox offered $ 10 million to the Colombians ( later raised to $ 25 million ) . The Colombians felt the amount inadequate , and requested arbitration ; the matter was not settled under the Taft administration .
= = = = Far East = = = =
Due to his years in the Philippines , Taft was keenly interested as president in Far Eastern affairs . Taft considered relations with Europe relatively unimportant , but because of the potential for trade and investment , Taft ranked the post of minister to China as most important in the Foreign Service . Knox did not agree , and declined a suggestion that he go to Peking to view the facts on the ground . Taft replaced Roosevelt 's minister there , William W. Rockhill , as uninterested in the China trade , with William J. Calhoun , whom McKinley and Roosevelt had sent on several foreign missions . Knox did not listen to Calhoun on policy , and there were often conflicts . Taft and Knox tried unsuccessfully to extend John Hay 's Open Door Policy to Manchuria .
In 1898 , an American company had gained a concession for a railroad between Hankow and Szechuan , but the Chinese revoked the agreement in 1904 after the company ( which was indemnified for the revocation ) breached the agreement by selling a majority stake outside the United States . The Chinese imperial government got the money for the indemnity from the British Hong Kong government , on condition British subjects would be favored if foreign capital was needed to build the railroad line , and in 1909 , a British @-@ led consortium began negotiations . This came to Knox 's attention in May of that year , and he demanded that U.S. banks be allowed to participate . Taft appealed personally to the Prince Regent , Zaifeng , Prince Chun , and was successful in gaining U.S. participation , though agreements were not signed until May 1911 . However , the Chinese decree authorizing the agreement also required the nationalization of local railroad companies in the affected provinces . Inadequate compensation was paid to the shareholders , and these grievances were among those which touched off the Chinese Revolution of 1911 .
After the revolution broke out , the revolt 's leaders chose Sun Yat Sen as provisional president of what became the Republic of China , overthrowing the Manchu Dynasty , Taft was reluctant to recognize the new government , although American public opinion was in favor of it . The U.S. House of Representatives in February 1912 passed a resolution supporting a Chinese republic , but Taft and Knox felt recognition should come as a concerted action by Western powers . Taft in his final annual message to Congress in December 1912 indicated that he was moving towards recognition once the republic was fully established , but by then he had been defeated for re @-@ election and he did not follow through .
Taft continued the policy against immigration from China and Japan as under Roosevelt . A revised treaty of friendship and navigation entered into by the U.S. and Japan in 1911 granted broad reciprocal rights to Japanese in America and Americans in Japan , but were premised on the continuation of the Gentlemen 's Agreement . There was objection on the West Coast when the treaty was submitted to the Senate , but Taft informed politicians that there was no change in immigration policy .
= = = = Europe = = = =
Taft was opposed to the traditional practice of rewarding wealthy supporters with key ambassadorial posts , preferring that diplomats not live in a lavish lifestyle and selecting men who , as Taft put it , would recognize an American when they saw one . High on his list for dismissal was the ambassador to France , Henry White , whom Taft knew and disliked from his visits to Europe . White 's ousting caused other career State Department employees to fear that their jobs might be lost to politics . Taft also wanted to replace the Roosevelt @-@ appointed ambassador in London , Whitelaw Reid , but Reid , owner of the New @-@ York Tribune , had backed Taft during the campaign , and both William and Nellie Taft enjoyed his gossipy reports . Reid remained in place until his 1912 death .
Taft was a supporter of settling international disputes by arbitration , and he negotiated treaties with Great Britain and with France providing that differences be arbitrated . These were signed in August 1911 . Neither Taft nor Knox ( a former senator ) consulted with members of the Senate during the negotiating process . By then many Republicans were opposed to Taft and the president felt that lobbying too hard for the treaties might cause their defeat . He made some speeches supporting the treaties in October , but the Senate added amendments Taft could not accept , killing the agreements .
Although no general arbitration treaty was entered into , Taft 's administration settled several disputes with Great Britain by peaceful means , often involving arbitration . These included a settlement of the boundary between Maine and New Brunswick , a long @-@ running dispute over seal hunting in the Bering Sea that also involved Japan , and a similar disagreement regarding fishing off Newfoundland . The sealing convention remained in force until abrogated by Japan in 1940 .
= = = Domestic policies and politics = = =
= = = = Antitrust = = = =
Taft continued and expanded Roosevelt 's efforts to break up business combinations through lawsuits brought under the Sherman Antitrust Act , bringing 70 cases in four years ( Roosevelt had brought 40 in seven years ) . Suits brought against the Standard Oil Company and the American Tobacco Company , initiated under Roosevelt , were decided in favor of the government by the Supreme Court in 1911 . In June 1911 , the Democrat @-@ controlled House of Representatives began hearings into United States Steel ( U.S. Steel ) . That company had been expanded under Roosevelt , who had supported its acquisition of the Tennessee Coal , Iron , and Railroad Company as a means of preventing the deepening of the Panic of 1907 , a decision the former president defended when testifying at the hearings . Taft , as Secretary of War , had praised the acquisitions . Historian Louis L. Gould suggested that Roosevelt was likely deceived into believing that U.S. Steel did not want to purchase the Tennessee company , but it was in fact a bargain . For Roosevelt , questioning the matter went to his personal honesty .
In October 1911 , Taft 's Justice Department brought suit against U.S. Steel , demanding that over a hundred of its subsidiaries be granted corporate independence , and naming as defendants many prominent business executives and financiers . The pleadings in the case had not been reviewed by Taft , and alleged that Roosevelt " had fostered monopoly , and had been duped by clever industrialists " . Roosevelt was offended by the references to him and his administration in the pleadings , and felt that Taft could not evade command responsibility by saying he did not know of them .
Taft sent a special message to Congress on the need for a revamped antitrust statute when it convened its regular session in December 1911 , but it took no action . Another antitrust case that had political repercussions for Taft was that brought against the International Harvester Company , the large manufacturer of farm equipment , in early 1912 . As Roosevelt 's administration had investigated International Harvester , but had taken no action ( a decision Taft had supported ) , the suit became caught up in Roosevelt 's challenge for the Republican presidential nomination . Supporters of Taft alleged that Roosevelt had acted improperly ; the former president blasted Taft for waiting three and a half years , and until he was under challenge , to reverse a decision he had supported .
= = = = Ballinger @-@ Pinchot affair = = = =
Roosevelt was an ardent conservationist , assisted in this by like @-@ minded appointees , including Interior Secretary James R. Garfield and Chief Forester Gifford Pinchot . Taft agreed with the need for conservation , but felt it should be accomplished by legislation rather than executive order . He did not retain Garfield , an Ohioan , as secretary , choosing instead a westerner , former Seattle mayor Richard A. Ballinger . Roosevelt was surprised at the replacement , believing that Taft had promised to keep Garfield , and this change was one of the events that caused Roosevelt to realize that Taft would choose different policies .
Roosevelt had withdrawn much land from the public domain , including some in Alaska thought rich in coal . In 1902 , Clarence Cunningham , an Idaho entrepreneur , had found coal deposits in Alaska , and made mining claims , and the government investigated their legality . This dragged on for the remainder of the Roosevelt administration , including during the year ( 1907 – 1908 ) when Ballinger served as head of the General Land Office . A special agent for the Land Office , Louis Glavis , investigated the Cunningham claims , and when Secretary Ballinger in 1909 approved them , Glavis broke governmental protocol by going outside the Interior Department to seek help from Pinchot .
In September 1909 , Glavis made his allegations public in a magazine article , disclosing that Ballinger had acted as an attorney for Cunningham between his two periods of government service . This violated conflict of interest rules forbidding a former government official from advocacy on a matter he had been responsible for . On September 13 , 1909 Taft dismissed Glavis from government service , relying on a report from Attorney General George W. Wickersham dated two days previously . Pinchot was determined to dramatize the issue by forcing his own dismissal , which Taft tried to avoid , fearing that it might cause a break with Roosevelt ( still overseas ) . Taft asked Elihu Root ( by then a senator ) to look into the matter , and Root urged the firing of Pinchot .
Taft had ordered government officials not to comment on the fracas . In January 1910 , Pinchot forced the issue by sending a letter to Iowa Senator Dolliver alleging that but for the actions of the Forestry Service , Taft would have approved a fraudulent claim on public lands . According to Pringle , this " was an utterly improper appeal from an executive subordinate to the legislative branch of the government and an unhappy president prepared to separate Pinchot from public office " . Pinchot was dismissed , much to his delight , and he sailed for Europe to lay his case before Roosevelt . A congressional investigation followed , which cleared Ballinger by majority vote , but the administration was embarrassed when Glavis ' attorney , Louis D. Brandeis , proved that the Wickersham report had been backdated , which Taft belatedly admitted . The Ballinger @-@ Pinchot affair caused progressives and Roosevelt loyalists to feel that Taft had turned his back on Roosevelt 's agenda .
= = = = Civil rights = = = =
Taft announced in his inaugural address that he would not appoint African Americans to federal jobs , such as postmaster , where this would cause racial friction . This differed from Roosevelt , who would not remove or replace black officeholders with whom local whites would not deal . Termed Taft 's " Southern Policy " , this stance effectively invited white protests against black appointees . Taft followed through , removing most black office holders in the South , and made few appointments from that race in the North .
At the time Taft was inaugurated , the way forward for African Americans was debated by their leaders . Booker T. Washington felt that most blacks should be trained for industrial work , with only a few seeking higher education ; W.E.B. DuBois took a more militant stand for equality . Taft tended towards Washington 's approach . According to Coletta , Taft let the African @-@ American " be ' kept in his place ' ... He thus failed to see or follow the humanitarian mission historically associated with the Republican party , with the result that Negroes both North and South began to drift toward the Democratic party . "
A supporter of free immigration , Taft vetoed a bill passed by Congress and supported by labor unions that would have restricted unskilled laborers by imposing a literacy test .
= = = Judicial appointments = = =
Taft made six appointments to the Supreme Court , the most of any president except George Washington and Franklin D. Roosevelt . The death of Justice Rufus Peckham in October 1909 gave Taft his first opportunity . He chose an old friend and colleague from the Sixth Circuit , Horace H. Lurton of Georgia ; he had in vain urged Theodore Roosevelt to appoint Lurton to the high court . Attorney General Wickersham objected that Lurton , a former Confederate soldier and a Democrat , was aged 65 . Taft named Lurton anyway on December 13 , 1909 , and the Senate confirmed him by voice vote a week later . Lurton is still the oldest man to be made an associate justice . Lurie suggested that Taft , already beset by the tariff and conservation controversies , desired to perform an official act which gave him pleasure , especially since he thought Lurton deserved it .
Justice David Josiah Brewer 's death on March 28 , 1910 gave Taft a second opportunity to fill a seat on the high court ; he chose New York Governor Charles Evans Hughes . Taft told Hughes that should the chief justiceship fall vacant during his term , Hughes would be his likely choice for the center seat . The Senate quickly confirmed Hughes , but then Chief Justice Fuller died on July 4 , 1910 . Taft took five months to replace Fuller , and when he did , it was with Justice Edward Douglass White , who became the first associate justice to be promoted to chief justice . According to Lurie , Taft , who still had hopes of being chief justice , may have been more willing to appoint an older man than he ( White ) than a younger one ( Hughes ) , who might outlive him , as indeed Hughes did . To fill White 's seat as associate justice , Taft appointed Willis Van Devanter of Wyoming , a federal appeals judge . By the time Taft nominated White and Van Devanter in December 1910 , he had another seat to fill due to William Henry Moody 's retirement because of illness ; he named a Louisiana Democrat , Joseph R. Lamar , whom he had met while playing golf , and had subsequently learned had a good reputation as a judge .
With the death of Justice Harlan in October 1911 , Taft got to fill a sixth seat on the Supreme Court . After Secretary Knox declined appointment , Taft named Chancellor of New Jersey Mahlon Pitney , the last person appointed to the Supreme Court who did not attend law school . Pitney had a stronger anti @-@ labor record than Taft 's other appointments , and was the only one to meet opposition , winning confirmation by a Senate vote of 50 — 26 .
Taft appointed 13 judges to the federal courts of appeal and 38 to the United States district courts . Taft also appointed judges to various specialized courts , including the first five appointees each to the United States Commerce Court and the United States Court of Customs Appeals . The Commerce Court , created in 1910 , stemmed from a Taft proposal for a specialized court to hear appeals from the Interstate Commerce Commission . There was considerable opposition to its establishment , which only grew when one of its judges , Robert W. Archbald , was in 1912 impeached for corruption and removed by the Senate the following January . Taft vetoed a bill to abolish the court , but the respite was short @-@ lived as Wilson signed similar legislation in October 1913 .
= = = 1912 presidential campaign and election = = =
= = = = Moving apart from Roosevelt = = = =
During Roosevelt 's fifteen months beyond the Atlantic , from March 1909 to June 1910 , neither man wrote much to the other . Taft biographer Lurie suggested that each expected the other to make the first move to re @-@ establish their relationship on a new footing . Upon Roosevelt 's triumphant return , Taft invited him to stay at the White House . The former president declined , and in private letters to friends expressed dissatisfaction at Taft 's performance . Nevertheless , he wrote that he expected Taft to be renominated by the Republicans in 1912 , and did not speak of himself as a candidate .
Taft and Roosevelt met twice in 1910 ; the meetings , though outwardly cordial , did not display their former closeness . Roosevelt gave a series of speeches in the West in the late summer and early fall of 1910 . Roosevelt not only attacked the Supreme Court 's 1905 decision in Lochner v. New York , he accused the federal courts of undermining democracy , and called for them to be deprived of the power to rule legislation unconstitutional . This attack horrified Taft , who privately agreed that Lochner had been wrongly decided . Roosevelt called for " elimination of corporate expenditures for political purposes , physical valuation of railroad properties , regulation of industrial combinations , establishment of an export tariff commission , a graduated income tax " as well as " workmen 's compensation laws , state and national legislation to regulate the [ labor ] of women and children , and complete publicity of campaign expenditure " . According to John Murphy in his journal article on the breach between the two presidents , " As Roosevelt began to move to the left , Taft veered to the right . "
During the 1910 midterm election campaign , Roosevelt involved himself in New York politics , while Taft with donations and influence tried to secure the election of the Republican gubernatorial candidate in Ohio , former lieutenant governor Warren G. Harding . The Republicans suffered losses in the 1910 elections as the Democrats took control of the House and slashed the Republican majority in the Senate . In New Jersey , Democrat Woodrow Wilson was elected governor , and Harding lost his race in Ohio .
After the election , Roosevelt continued to promote progressive ideals , a New Nationalism , much to Taft 's dismay . Roosevelt attacked his successor 's administration , arguing that its guiding principles were not that of the party of Lincoln , but those of the Gilded Age . The feud continued on and off through 1911 , a year in which there were few elections of significance . Wisconsin Senator La Follette announced a presidential run as a Republican , and was backed by a convention of progressives . Roosevelt began to move into a position for a run in late 1911 , writing that the tradition that presidents not run for a third term only applied to consecutive terms .
Roosevelt was receiving many letters from supporters urging him to run , and Republican office @-@ holders were organizing on his behalf . Balked on many policies by an unwilling Congress and courts in his full term in the White House , he saw manifestations of public support he believed would sweep him to the White House with a mandate for progressive policies that would brook no opposition . In February , Roosevelt announced he would accept the Republican nomination if it was offered to him . Taft felt that if he lost in November , it would be a repudiation of the party , but if he lost renomination , it would be a rejection of himself . He was reluctant to oppose Roosevelt , who helped make him president , but having become president , he was determined to be president , and that meant not standing aside to allow Roosevelt to gain another term .
= = = = Primaries and convention = = = =
As Roosevelt became more radical in his progressivism , Taft was hardened in his resolve to achieve re @-@ nomination , as he was convinced that the progressives threatened the very foundation of the government . One blow to Taft was the loss of Archibald Butt , one of the last links between the previous and present presidents , as Butt had formerly served Roosevelt . Ambivalent between his loyalties , Butt went to Europe on vacation in early 1912 . He sailed for home in April on the Titanic and died in its sinking , a death Taft found hard to accept as his body was not recovered .
Roosevelt dominated the primaries , winning 278 of the 362 delegates to the Republican National Convention in Chicago decided in that manner . Taft had control of the party machinery , and it came as no surprise that he gained the bulk of the delegates decided at district or state conventions . Taft did not have a majority , but was likely to have one once southern delegations committed to him . Roosevelt challenged the election of these delegates , but the RNC overruled most objections . Roosevelt 's sole remaining chance was with a friendly convention chairman , who might make rulings on the seating of delegates that favored his side . Taft followed custom and remained in Washington , but Roosevelt went to Chicago to run his campaign and told his supporters in a speech , " we stand at Armageddon , and we battle for the Lord " .
Taft had won over Root , who agreed to run for temporary chairman of the convention , and the delegates elected Root over Roosevelt 's candidate . The Roosevelt forces moved to substitute the delegates they supported for the ones they argued should not be seated . Root made a crucial ruling , that although the contested delegates could not vote on their own seating , they could vote on the other contested delegates , a ruling that assured Taft 's nomination , as the motion offered by the Roosevelt forces failed , 567 — 507 . As it became clear Roosevelt would bolt the party if not nominated , some Republicans sought a compromise candidate to avert the electoral disaster to come ; they were unsuccessful . Taft 's name was placed in nomination by Warren Harding , whose attempts to praise Taft and unify the party were met with angry interruptions from progressives . Taft was nominated on the first ballot , though most Roosevelt delegates refused to vote .
= = = = Campaign and defeat = = = =
Alleging Taft had stolen the nomination , Roosevelt and his followers formed the Progressive Party . Taft knew he would almost certainly be defeated , but concluded that through Roosevelt 's loss at Chicago the party had been preserved as " the defender of conservative government and conservative institutions . " He made his doomed run to preserve the Republican Party . Governor Woodrow Wilson was the Democratic nominee . Seeing Roosevelt as the greater electoral threat , Wilson spent little time attacking Taft , arguing that Roosevelt had been lukewarm in opposing the trusts during his presidency , and that Wilson was the true reformer .
Reverting to the pre @-@ Roosevelt custom that presidents seeking re @-@ election did not campaign , Taft spoke publicly only once , making his nomination acceptance speech on August 1 . He had difficulty in financing the campaign , as many industrialists had concluded he could not win , and would support Wilson to block Roosevelt . The president issued a confident statement in September after the Republicans narrowly won Vermont 's state elections in a three @-@ way fight , but had no illusions he would win his race . He had hoped to send his cabinet officers out on the campaign trail , but found them reluctant to go . Senator Root agreed to give a single speech for him .
Vice President Sherman had been renominated at Chicago ; seriously ill during the campaign , he died six days before the election , and was replaced on the ticket by the president of Columbia University , Nicholas Murray Butler . But few electors chose Taft and Butler , who won only Utah and Vermont , for a total of eight electoral votes . Roosevelt won 88 , and Wilson 435 . Wilson won though he had only a plurality of the popular vote and less of it than Taft and Roosevelt combined . Taft had hoped to better Roosevelt in the popular vote , but finished with just under 3 @.@ 5 million , over 600 @,@ 000 less than the former president . Taft was not on the ballot in California , due to the actions of local Progressives , nor in South Dakota .
= = Return to Yale ( 1913 – 1921 ) = =
With no pension or other compensation to expect from the government after leaving the White House , Taft contemplated a return to the practice of law , from which he had long been absent . Given that Taft had appointed many federal judges , including a majority of the Supreme Court , this would raise questions of conflict of interest at every federal court appearance and he was saved from this by an offer for him to become Kent Professor of Law and Legal History at Yale Law School . He accepted , and after a month 's vacation in Georgia , arrived in New Haven on April 1 , 1913 to a rapturous reception . As it was too late in the semester for him to give an academic course , he instead prepared eight lectures on " Questions of Modern Government " , which he delivered in May . He earned money with paid speeches and with articles for magazines , and would end his eight years out of office having increased his savings . While at Yale , he wrote the treatise , Our Chief Magistrate and His Powers ( 1916 ) .
Taft had been made president of the Lincoln Memorial Commission while still in office ; when Democrats proposed removing him for one of their party , he quipped that unlike losing the presidency , such a removal would hurt . The architect , Henry Bacon , wanted to use Colorado @-@ Yule marble , while southern Democrats urged using Georgia marble . Taft lobbied for the western stone , and the matter was submitted to the Commission of Fine Arts , which supported Taft and Bacon . The project went forward ; Taft would dedicate the Lincoln Memorial as chief justice in 1922 . In 1913 , Taft was elected to a one @-@ year term as president of the American Bar Association ( ABA ) , a trade group of lawyers . He removed opponents , such as Louis Brandeis and University of Pennsylvania Law School dean William Draper Lewis ( a supporter of the Progressive Party ) from committees .
Taft maintained a cordial relationship with Wilson . The former president privately criticized his successor on a number of issues , but made his views known publicly only on Philippine policy . Taft was appalled when , after Justice Lamar 's death in January 1916 , Wilson nominated Brandeis , whom the former president had never forgiven for his role in the Ballinger @-@ Pinchot affair . When hearings led to nothing discreditable about Brandeis , Taft intervened with a letter signed by himself and other former ABA presidents , stating that Brandeis was not fit to serve on the Supreme Court . Nevertheless , the Democratic @-@ controlled Senate confirmed Brandeis . Taft and Roosevelt remained embittered ; they met only once in the first three years of the Wilson presidency , at a funeral at Yale . They spoke only for a moment , politely but formally .
As president of the League to Enforce Peace , Taft hoped to prevent war through an international association of nations . With World War I raging in Europe , Taft sent Wilson a note of support for his foreign policy in 1915 . President Wilson accepted Taft 's invitation to address the league , and spoke in May 1916 of a postwar international organization that could prevent a repetition . Taft supported the effort to get Justice Hughes to resign from the bench and accept the Republican presidential nomination . Once this was done , Hughes tried to get Roosevelt and Taft to reconcile , as a united effort was needed to defeat Wilson . This occurred on October 3 in New York , but Roosevelt allowed only a handshake , and no words were exchanged . This was one of many difficulties for the Republicans in the campaign , and Wilson narrowly won re @-@ election .
When Wilson asked Congress to declare war on Germany in April 1917 , Taft was an enthusiastic supporter . Taft was chairman of the American Red Cross ' executive committee , occupying much of the former president 's time . He took leave from Yale to be co @-@ chairman of the National War Labor Board , tasked with assuring industrial peace . In February 1918 , the new RNC chairman , Will H. Hays , approached Taft seeking his reconciliation with Roosevelt . In May , Taft was in Chicago at the Blackstone Hotel , and when he heard that Roosevelt and his party were dining there , walked in on them . The two men embraced to the applause of the room , but the renewed relationship did not progress past outward friendliness before Roosevelt 's death in January 1919 . Taft later wrote , " Had he died in a hostile state of mind toward me , I would have mourned the fact all my life . I loved him always and cherish his memory . "
When Wilson proposed establishment of a League of Nations , with the League 's charter part of the Treaty of Versailles , Taft expressed public support . He was out of step with his party , whose senators were not inclined to confirm the treaty . Taft 's subsequent flip @-@ flop on the issue of whether reservations to the treaty were necessary angered both sides , destroying any remaining influence he had with the Wilson administration , and causing some Republicans to call him a Wilson supporter and a traitor to his party . The Senate refused to ratify the Versailles pact .
= = Chief Justice ( 1921 – 1930 ) = =
= = = Appointment = = =
During the 1920 election campaign , Taft supported the Republican ticket , Harding ( by then a senator ) and Massachusetts Governor Calvin Coolidge ; they were elected . Taft was among those asked to come to the president @-@ elect 's home in Marion , Ohio to advise him on appointments , and the two men conferred there on December 24 , 1920 . By Taft 's later account , after some conversation , Harding casually asked if Taft would accept appointment to the Supreme Court , for if Taft would , Harding would put him there . Taft had a condition for Harding : that having been president , and having appointed two of the present associate justices and opposed Brandeis , he could only accept the chief justiceship . Harding made no response , and Taft in a thank @-@ you note reiterated the condition and stated that Chief Justice White had often told him he was keeping the position for Taft until a Republican held the White House . In January 1921 , Taft heard through intermediaries that Harding planned to appoint him , if given the chance .
White by then was in failing health , but made no move to resign when Harding was sworn in on March 4 , 1921 . Taft called on the chief justice on March 26 , and found White ill , but still carrying on his work and not talking of retiring . White did not retire , dying in office on May 19 , 1921 . Taft issued a tribute to the man he had appointed to the center seat , and waited and worried if he would be White 's successor . Despite widespread speculation Taft would be the pick , Harding made no quick announcement . Taft was lobbying for himself behind the scenes , especially with the Ohio politicians who formed Harding 's inner circle .
It later emerged that Harding had also promised former Utah senator George Sutherland a seat on the Supreme Court , and was waiting in the expectation that another place would become vacant . Harding was also considering a proposal by Justice William R. Day to crown his career by being chief justice for six months before retiring . Taft felt , when he learned of this plan , that a short @-@ term appointment would not serve the office well , and that once confirmed by the Senate , the memory of Day would grow dim . After Harding rejected Day 's plan , Attorney General Harry Daugherty , who supported Taft 's candidacy , urged him to fill the vacancy , and he named Taft on June 30 , 1921 . The Senate confirmed Taft the same day , 61 – 4 , without any committee hearings and after a brief debate in executive session . Taft drew the objections of three progressive Republicans and one southern Democrat . When he was sworn in on July 11 , he became the first and to date only person to serve both as president and chief justice .
= = = Taft Court membership timeline = = =
McKinley appointment Theodore Roosevelt appointment Taft appointment Wilson appointment Harding appointment Coolidge appointment
= = = Jurisprudence = = =
= = = = Commerce Clause = = = =
The Supreme Court , under Taft , posted a conservative record in Commerce Clause jurisprudence . This had the practical effect of making it difficult for the federal government to regulate industry , and the Taft Court also scuttled many state laws . The few liberals on the court — Brandeis , Holmes , and ( from 1925 ) Harlan Fiske Stone — sometimes protested , believing orderly progress essential , but often joined in the majority opinion .
The White Court had , in 1918 , struck down an attempt by Congress to regulate child labor in Hammer v. Dagenhart . Congress thereafter attempted to end child labor by imposing a tax on certain corporations making use of it . That law was overturned by the Supreme Court in 1922 in Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Co . , with Taft writing the court 's opinion for an 8 — 1 majority . He held that the tax was not intended to raise revenue , but rather was an attempt to regulate matters reserved to the states under the Tenth Amendment , and that allowing such taxation would eliminate the power of the states . One case in which Taft and his court upheld federal regulation was Stafford v. Wallace . Taft ruled for a 7 – 1 majority that the processing of animals in stockyards was so closely tied to interstate commerce as to bring it within the ambit of Congress 's power to regulate .
A case in which the Taft Court struck down regulation that generated a dissent from the chief justice was Adkins v. Children 's Hospital . Congress had decreed a minimum wage for women in the District of Columbia . A 5 – 3 majority of the Supreme Court struck it down . Justice Sutherland wrote for the majority that the recently ratified Nineteenth Amendment , guaranteeing women the vote , meant that the sexes were equal when it came to bargaining power over working conditions ; Taft , in dissent , deemed this unrealistic . Taft 's dissent in Adkins was rare both because he authored few dissents , and because it was one of the few times he took an expansive view of the police power of the government .
= = = = Powers of government = = = =
Taft in 1922 ruled for a unanimous court in Balzac v. Porto Rico . One of the Insular Cases , Balzac involved a Puerto Rico newspaper publisher who was prosecuted for libel but denied a jury trial , a Sixth Amendment protection under the constitution . Taft held that as Puerto Rico was not a territory designated for statehood , only such constitutional protections as Congress decreed would apply to its residents .
In 1926 , Taft wrote for a 6 – 3 majority in Myers v. United States that Congress could not require the president to get Senate approval before removing an appointee . Taft noted that there is no restriction of the president 's power to remove officials in the constitution . Although Myers involved the removal of a postmaster , Taft in his opinion found invalid the repealed Tenure of Office Act , for violation of which his presidential predecessor , Andrew Johnson , had been impeached , though acquitted by the Senate . Taft valued Myers as his most important opinion .
The following year , the court decided McGrain v. Daugherty . A congressional committee investigating possible complicity of former Attorney General Daugherty in the Teapot Dome scandal subpoenaed records from his brother , Mally , who refused to provide them , alleging Congress had no power to obtain documents from him . Van Devanter ruled for a unanimous court against him , finding that Congress had the authority to conduct investigations as an auxiliary to its legislative function .
= = = = Individual rights = = = =
In 1925 , the Taft Court laid the groundwork for the incorporation of many of the guarantees of the Bill of Rights to be applied against the states through the Fourteenth Amendment . In Gitlow v. New York , the court by a 6 – 2 vote with Taft in the majority , upheld Gitlow 's conviction on criminal anarchy charges for advocating the overthrow of the government ; his defense was freedom of speech . Justice Edward T. Sanford wrote the court 's opinion , and both majority and minority ( Holmes , joined by Brandeis ) assumed that the First Amendment 's Free Speech and Free Press clauses were protected against infringement by the states .
Pierce v. Society of Sisters was a 1925 decision by the Taft Court striking down an Oregon law banning private schools . In a decision written by Justice James C. McReynolds , a unanimous court held that Oregon could regulate private schools , but could not eliminate them . The outcome supported the right of parents to control the education of their children , but also , since the lead plaintiff ( the society ) ran Catholic schools , struck a blow for religious freedom .
United States v. Lanza was one of a series of cases involving Prohibition . Lanza committed acts allegedly in violation of both state and federal law , and was first convicted in Washington state court , then prosecuted in federal district court . He alleged the second prosecution in violation of the Double Jeopardy Clause of the Fifth Amendment . Taft , for a unanimous court , allowed the second prosecution , holding that the state and federal governments were dual sovereigns , each empowered to prosecute the conduct in question .
= = = Administration and political influence = = =
Taft exercised the power of his position to influence the decisions of his colleagues , urging unanimity and discouraging dissents . Alpheus Mason , in his article on Chief Justice Taft for the American Bar Association Journal , contrasted Taft 's expansive view of the role of the chief justice with the narrow view of presidential power he took while in that office . Taft saw nothing wrong with making his views on possible appointments to the court known to the White House , and was annoyed to be criticized in the press . He was initially a firm supporter of President Coolidge after Harding 's death in 1923 , but became disillusioned with Coolidge 's appointments to office and to the bench ; he had similar misgivings about Coolidge 's successor , Herbert Hoover . Taft advised the Republican presidents in office while he was chief justice to avoid " offside " appointments like Brandeis and Holmes . Nevertheless , by 1923 , Taft was writing of his liking for Brandeis , whom he deemed a hard worker , and Holmes walked to work with him until age and infirmity required an automobile .
Believing that the chief justice should be responsible for the federal courts , Taft felt that he should have an administrative staff to assist him , and the chief justice should be empowered to temporarily reassign judges . He also believed the federal courts had been ill @-@ run . Many of the lower courts had lengthy backlogs , as did the Supreme Court . Immediately on taking office , Taft made it a priority to confer with Attorney General Daugherty as to new legislation , and made his case before congressional hearings , in legal periodicals and in speeches across the country . When Congress convened in December 1921 , a bill was introduced for 24 new judges , to empower the chief justice to move judges temporarily to eliminate the delays , and to have him chair a body consisting of the senior appellate judge of each circuit . Congress objected to some aspects , requiring Taft to get the agreement of the senior judge of each involved circuit before assigning a judge , but it in September 1922 passed the bill , and the Judicial Conference of Senior Circuit Judges held its first meeting that December .
The Supreme Court 's docket was congested , swelled by war litigation and laws that allowed a party defeated in the circuit court of appeals to have the case decided by the Supreme Court if a constitutional question was involved . Taft believed an appeal should be usually be settled by the circuit court , with only cases of major import decided by the justices . He and other Supreme Court members proposed legislation to make most of the court 's docket discretionary , with a case getting full consideration by the justices only if they granted a writ of certiorari . To Taft 's frustration , Congress took three years to consider the matter . Taft and other members of the court lobbied for the bill in Congress , and the Judges ' Bill became law in February 1925 . By late the following year , Taft was able to show that the backlog was shrinking .
When Taft became chief justice , the court did not have its own building and met in the Capitol . Its offices were cluttered and overcrowded , but Fuller and White had been opposed to proposals to move the court to its own building . In 1925 , Taft began a fight to get the court a building , and two years later Congress appropriated money to purchase the land , on the south side of the Capitol . Cass Gilbert had prepared plans for the building , and was hired by the government as architect . Taft had hoped to live to see the court move into the new building , but it did not do so until 1935 , after Taft 's death .
= = Declining health and death = =
Taft is remembered as the heaviest president ; he was 5 feet 11 inches ( 1 @.@ 80 m ) tall and his weight peaked at 335 – 340 pounds ( 152 – 154 kg ) toward the end of his presidency , though this later decreased , and he weighed by 1929 just 244 pounds ( 111 kg ) . By the time Taft became chief justice , his health was starting to decline , and he carefully planned a fitness regimen , walking 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) from his home to the Capitol each day . When he walked after work as well , he would usually go by way of Connecticut Avenue ; the crossing over Rock Creek he would often take was after his death named the Taft Bridge .
At Hoover 's inauguration on March 4 , 1929 , Taft recited part of the oath incorrectly , later writing , " my memory is not always accurate and one sometimes becomes a little uncertain " , misquoting again in that letter , differently . His health gradually declined over the near @-@ decade of his chief justiceship , and he wrote in 1929 , " I am older and slower and less acute and more confused . However , as long as things continue as they are , and I am able to answer to my place , I must stay on the court in order to prevent the Bolsheviki from getting control " .
Taft insisted on going to Cincinnati to attend the funeral of his brother Charles , who died on December 31 , 1929 ; the strain did not improve his own health . When the court reconvened on January 6 , 1930 , Taft had not returned to Washington , and two opinions were delivered by Van Devanter that Taft had drafted but had been unable to complete because of his illness . Taft went to Asheville , North Carolina for a rest , but by the end of January , he could barely speak and was suffering from hallucinations . Taft was afraid that Stone would be made chief justice ; he did not resign until he had secured assurances from Hoover that Hughes would be the choice . Returning to Washington after his resignation on February 3 , Taft had barely enough strength to sign a reply to a letter of tribute from the eight associate justices . He died at his home in Washington on March 8 , 1930 .
Three days following his death , on March 11 , he became the first president and first member of the Supreme Court to be buried at Arlington National Cemetery . James Earle Fraser sculpted his grave marker out of Stony Creek granite .
= = Legacy and historical view = =
Lurie argued that Taft did not receive the public credit for his policies that he should have . Few trusts had been broken up under Roosevelt ( although the lawsuits received much publicity ) . Taft , more quietly than his predecessor , filed many more cases than did Roosevelt , and rejected his predecessor 's contention that there was such a thing as a " good " trust . This lack of flair marred Taft 's presidency ; according to Lurie , Taft " was boring — honest , likable , but boring " . Scott Bomboy for the National Constitution Center wrote that despite being " one of the most interesting , intellectual , and versatile presidents ... a chief justice of the United States , a wrestler at Yale , a reformer , a peace activist , and a baseball fan ... today , Taft is best remembered at the president who was so large that he got stuck in the White House bathtub , " a story that is not true .
Mason called Taft 's years in the White House " undistinguished " . Coletta deemed Taft to have had a solid record of bills passed by Congress , but felt he could have accomplished more with political skill . Anderson noted that Taft 's prepresidential federal service was entirely in appointed posts , and that he had never run for an important executive or legislative position , which would have allowed him to develop the skills to manipulate public opinion , " the presidency is no place for on @-@ the @-@ job training " . According to Coletta , " in troubled times in which the people demanded progressive change , he saw the existing order as good . "
Inevitably linked with Roosevelt , Taft generally falls in the shadow of the flamboyant Rough Rider , who chose him to be president , and who took it away . Yet , a portrait of Taft as a victim of betrayal by his best friend is incomplete : as Coletta put it , " Was he a poor politician because he was victimized or because he lacked the foresight and imagination to notice the storm brewing in the political sky until it broke and swamped him ? " Adept at using the levers of power in a way his successor could not , Roosevelt generally got what was politically possible out of a situation . Taft was generally slow to act , and when he did , his actions often generated enemies , as in the Ballinger @-@ Pinchot affair . Roosevelt was able to secure positive coverage in the newspapers ; Taft had a judge 's reticence in talking to reporters , and , with no comment from the White House , hostile journalists would supply the want with a quote from a Taft opponent . And it was Roosevelt who engraved in public memory the image of Taft as a Buchanan @-@ like figure , with a narrow view of the presidency which made him unwilling to act for the public good . Anderson pointed out that Roosevelt 's Autobiography ( which placed this view in enduring form ) was published after both men had left the presidency ( in 1913 ) , was intended in part to justify Roosevelt 's splitting of the Republican Party , and contains not a single positive reference to the man Roosevelt had admired and hand @-@ picked as his successor . While Roosevelt was biased , he was not alone : every major newspaper reporter of that time who left reminiscences of Taft 's presidency was critical of him . Taft replied to his predecessor 's criticism with his constitutional treatise on the powers of the presidency .
Taft was convinced he would be vindicated by history . After he left office , he was estimated to be about in the middle of U.S. presidents by greatness , and subsequent rankings by historians have by and large sustained that verdict . Coletta noted that this places Taft in good company , with James Madison , John Quincy Adams and McKinley . Lurie catalogued progressive innovations that took place under Taft , and argued that historians have overlooked them because Taft was not an effective political writer or speaker . According to Gould , " the clichés about Taft 's weight , his maladroitness in the White House , and his conservatism of thought and doctrine have an element of truth , but they fail to do justice to a shrewd commentator on the political scene , a man of consummate ambition , and a resourceful practitioner of the internal politics of his party . " Anderson deemed Taft 's success in becoming both president and chief justice " an astounding feat of inside judicial and Republican party politics , played out over years , the likes of which we are not likely to see again in American history " .
Taft has been rated among the greatest of the chief justices ; later Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia noted that this was " not so much on the basis of his opinions , perhaps because many of them ran counter to the ultimate sweep of history " . A successor as chief justice , Earl Warren , concurred : " In Taft 's case , the symbol , the tag , the label usually attached to him is ' conservative . ' It is certainly not of itself a term of opprobrium even when bandied by the critics , but its use is too often confused with ' reactionary . ' " Most commentators agree that as chief justice , Taft 's most significant contribution was his advocacy for reform of the high court , urging and ultimately gaining improvement in the court 's procedures and facilities . Mason cited enactment of the Judges ' Bill of 1925 as Taft 's major achievement on the court . According to Anderson , Taft as chief justice " was as aggressive in the pursuit of his agenda in the judicial realm as Theodore Roosevelt was in the presidential " .
The house in Cincinnati where Taft was born and lived as a boy is now the William Howard Taft National Historic Site . Taft 's son Robert was a significant political figure , becoming Senate Majority Leader and three times a major contender for the Republican nomination for president . A conservative , each time he was defeated by a candidate backed by the more liberal Eastern Establishment wing of the party .
Lurie concluded his account of William Taft 's career ,
While the fabled cherry trees in Washington represent a suitable monument for Nellie Taft , there is no memorial to her husband , except perhaps the magnificent home for his Court — one for which he eagerly planned . But he died even before ground was broken for the structure . As he reacted to his overwhelming defeat for reelection in 1912 , Taft had written that " I must wait for years if I would be vindicated by the people ... I am content to wait . " Perhaps he has waited long enough .
= = Media = =
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= Kung Fu Hustle =
Kung Fu Hustle is a 2004 Hong Kong @-@ Chinese martial arts action comedy film , directed , co @-@ produced and co @-@ written by Stephen Chow , who also stars in the lead role . The other producers were Chui Po @-@ chu and Jeffrey Lau , and the screenplay was co @-@ written with Huo Xin , Chan Man @-@ keung , and Tsang Kan @-@ cheung . Yuen Wah , Yuen Qiu , Danny Chan Kwok @-@ kwan , and Bruce Leung Siu @-@ lung co @-@ starred in prominent roles .
After the commercial success of Shaolin Soccer , its production company , Star Overseas , began to develop Kung Fu Hustle with Columbia Pictures Asia in 2002 . The film features a number of retired actors famous for 1970s Hong Kong action cinema , yet has been compared to contemporary and influential martial arts films such as Crouching Tiger , Hidden Dragon and Hero . The cartoon style of the film , accompanied by traditional Chinese music , is often cited as its most striking feature .
The film was released on 23 December 2004 in China and on 25 January 2005 in the United States . It received a 90 % approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes and 78 out of 100 at Metacritic . The film grossed US $ 17 million in North America and US $ 84 million in other regions . Kung Fu Hustle was the highest @-@ grossing film in the history of Hong Kong until it was surpassed by You Are the Apple of My Eye in 2011 .
The film was the all @-@ time tenth highest @-@ grossing foreign language film in the United States as well as the highest @-@ grossing foreign language film in the country in 2005 . Kung Fu Hustle won numerous awards , including six Hong Kong Film Awards and five Golden Horse Awards .
The film was re @-@ released in 3D in October 2014 across Asia and America , marking the tenth anniversary of the film .
= = Plot = =
In Shanghai during the 1930s , Sing and his friend Bone attempt to join the Deadly Axe Gang , which ruthlessly controls the city under the leadership of Brother Sum . Sing seeks to restore his confidence after being humiliated as a young boy while trying to protect a mute girl from bullies , due to the failure of the Buddhist Palm method he had learned from a pamphlet he bought from a beggar . Sing and Bone attempt to intimidate the residents of Pig Sty Alley but are chased off by its Landlady . Hearing of this , Sum orders Sing and Bone captured , while sending the Gang to reassert its authority in the wake of the humiliation . Three of the tenants , Coolie , Tailor , and Donut , reveal themselves to be martial arts masters , defeating more than fifty of the Gang . Fearing retribution , the Landlady evicts the three , but they encounter a pair of hired assassins who fight using a magical guqin that launches invisible blades . Coolie is beheaded , and Tailor and Donut are mortally wounded before the Landlady and her husband the Landlord reveal that they too are martial arts masters , having gone into self @-@ exile after the death of their son . The two defeat the assassins but Tailor and Donut die from their injuries . The Landlords temporarily evacuate the other tenants for their safety .
Meanwhile , Sing engineers their escape from their confinement , and Sum is impressed , offering them membership in the Gang if they can kill a person . Sing and Bone attempt to kill the Landlady , but their plan backfires , and Sing barely escapes from the Landlady 's wrath . Seeking safety in a traffic pulpit , Sing is surprised as his body rapidly heals from the injuries sustained in the escape , the pain causing him to strike the sides of the pulpit with kung @-@ fu @-@ like force . Later , he attempts to mug an ice cream vendor , who turns out to be the mute girl ; she offers him a lollipop but he knocks it away , humiliated at himself . After sending Bone away , blaming his failure on Bone , Sing accidentally meets the Axe Gang again , and he was told to see Sum . Sum wants Sing to use his escape skills to free the legendary fighter , the Beast , from a mental asylum to use against Pig Sty Alley , offering Sing membership in the Gang for doing so . The Beast turns out to be a middle @-@ aged , slovenly , and flippant man , but is quickly shown to be cold and ruthless .
When the Landlords arrive at the Axe Gang casino to settle the score , Sum sends the Beast to fight them . During the fight , he stabs both with hidden blades , weakening but not defeating them . Sum orders Sing to strike the Landlord to break the stalemate , but Sing has a change of heart and strikes the Beast instead . The Beast turns and pummels Sing until he is rescued by the Landlords and taken back to Pig Sty Alley . The Beast kills Sum for disrupting his fight , and then orders an all @-@ out assault on Pig Sty Alley .
Back at the Alley , Sing undergoes a transformation brought on by the Beast 's attack , fully healing himself and making him a kung @-@ fu master himself . He sees to the well @-@ being of the Landlords as the Gang arrives . Sing easily defeats the Gang and faces the Beast alone . The Beast uses his Toad style maneuvers to launch Sing high into the air . While aloft , Sing comes to peace with Buddha , and is able to use the Buddhist Palm method to subdue the Beast . The Beast accepts his defeat and asks Sing to be his master .
Sometime later , Sing and Bone have opened a candy store ; when Sing sees the ice cream vendor outside , he invites her in to share their childhood memories . Others like the Landlords enjoy the city without fear of the Axe Gang . The same beggar that had sold the pamphlet to Sing as a child is then shown attempting to sell another one to a young boy .
= = Cast = =
Stephen Chow as Sing , a loser in life who aspires to join the Axe Gang .
Danny Chan Kwok @-@ kwan as Brother Sum , leader of the Axe Gang .
Yuen Wah as the Landlord of Pig Sty Alley . He is also a master of Taijiquan .
Yuen Qiu as the Landlady of Pig Sty Alley . She is a master of the Lama Pai Lion 's Roar technique .
Bruce Leung Siu @-@ lung as the Beast , an old but incredibly strong kung fu master . He is rumoured to be the most dangerous person alive , though his skill is disguised by his unkempt appearance .
Xing Yu as the Coolie , a kung fu specialist specialising in Tán Tuǐ Twelve Kicks technique of the Tam School .
Chiu Chi @-@ ling as Tailor , the tailor of Pig Sty Alley . He specialises in the art of Hung Ga Iron Fist technique , and he fights with iron rings on his arms .
Dong Zhihua as Donut , a baker in Pig Sty Alley . He specialises in the Eight Trigram Staff .
Lam Chi @-@ chung as Bone , Sing 's sidekick .
Eva Huang as Fong , Sing 's mute love interest and childhood acquaintance .
Tin Kai @-@ Man as Brother Sum 's adviser .
Gar Hong @-@ hay and Fung Hak @-@ on as the Harpists , two killers hired by the Axe Gang . Their instrument is the guqin , or " Chinese harp " .
Lam Suet and Liang Hsiao as high @-@ ranking members of the Axe Gang .
Yuen Cheung @-@ yan as the Beggar , the man who sold Sing the Buddhist Palm manual .
Feng Xiaogang as the leader of the Crocodile Gang . He is killed by the Axe Gang at the start of the film .
Fung Min @-@ hun as 4 eyed clerk
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Kung Fu Hustle is a co @-@ production of the Beijing Film Studio and Hong Kong 's Star Overseas . After the success of his 2001 film , Shaolin Soccer , Chow was approached in 2002 by Columbia Pictures Film Production Asia , offering to collaborate with him on a project . Chow accepted the offer , and the project eventually became Kung Fu Hustle . Kung Fu Hustle was produced with a budget of US $ 20 million .
Chow was inspired to create the film by the martial arts films he watched as a child and by his childhood ambition to become a martial artist . A senior Hollywood executive said Chow was " forced to grind through four successive scripts " and " found it very laborious " .
Chow 's first priority was to design the main location of the film , " Pig Sty Alley " . Later in an interview Chow remarked that he had created the location from his childhood , basing the design on the crowded apartment complexes of Hong Kong where he had lived . The 1973 Shaw Brothers Studio film , The House of 72 Tenants , was another inspiration for Pig Sty Alley . Designing the Alley began in January 2003 and took four months to complete . Many of the props and furniture in the apartments were antiques from all over China .
= = = Casting = = =
Kung Fu Hustle features several prolific Hong Kong action cinema actors from the 1970s . Yuen Wah , a former student of the China Drama Academy Peking Opera School who appeared in over a hundred Hong Kong films and was a stunt double for Bruce Lee , played the Landlord of Pig Sty Alley . Wah considered starring in Kung Fu Hustle to be the peak of his career . In spite of the film 's success , he worried that nowadays fewer people practice martial arts .
Auditions for the role of the Landlady began in March 2003 . Yuen Qiu , who did not audition , was spotted during her friend 's screen test smoking a cigarette with a sarcastic expression on her face , which won her the part . Qiu , a student of Yu Jim @-@ yuen , sifu of the China Drama Academy , had appeared in the 1974 James Bond film The Man with the Golden Gun at the age of 18 . After a number of other small roles , she retired from films in the 1980s . Kung Fu Hustle was her first role in nineteen years . Qiu , in order to fulfill Chow 's vision for the role , gained weight for the role by eating midnight snacks everyday .
Bruce Leung , who played the Beast , was Stephen Chow 's childhood martial arts hero . Leung Siu Lung was a famous action film director and actor in the 1970s and 1980s , known as the " Third Dragon " after Bruce Lee and Jackie Chan . After becoming unpopular in the Taiwanese film market in the late 1980s following a visit to China , he switched to a career in business . Kung Fu Hustle was his return to the film industry after a fifteen @-@ year hiatus . He regarded Chow as a flexible director with high standards , and was particularly impressed by the first scene involving the Beast , which had to be reshot 28 times .
In addition to famous martial artists , Kung Fu Hustle features legends of Chinese cinema . Two famous Chinese directors appear in the film : Zhang Yibai , who plays Inspector Chan at the beginning of the film , and Feng Xiaogang , who plays the boss of the Crocodile Gang .
In casting Sing 's love interest Fong , Chow stated that he wanted an innocent looking girl for the role . Television actress Eva Huang , in her film debut , was chosen from over 8 @,@ 000 girls . When asked about his decision in casting her Chow said that he " just had a feeling about her " and said that he enjoyed working with new actors . She chose to have no dialogue in the film so that she could stand out only with her body gestures .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming took place in Shanghai from June 2003 to November 2003 . Two @-@ thirds of the time was spent shooting the fight sequences . Those scenes were initially choreographed by Sammo Hung , who quit after two months due to illness , tough outdoor conditions , interest in another project and arguments with the production crew . Hung was replaced by Yuen Woo @-@ ping , an action choreographer with experience ranging from 1960s Hong Kong action cinema to more recent films like Crouching Tiger , Hidden Dragon and The Matrix . Yuen promptly accepted the offer . Yuen drew on seemingly outdated wuxia fighting styles like the Deadly Melody and Buddhist Palm . He remarked that despite the comedic nature of the film , the shooting process was a serious matter due to the tight schedule .
Most of the special effects in the film , created by Hong Kong computer graphics company Centro Digital Pictures Limited , which had previously worked on films such as Shaolin Soccer and Kill Bill , included a combination of computer @-@ generated imagery and wire work . Centro Digital performed extensive tests on CGI scenes before filming started , and treatment of the preliminary shots began immediately afterwards . The CGI crew edited out wire effects and applied special effects in high resolution . Legendary martial arts mentioned in wuxia novels were depicted and exaggerated through CGI , but actual people were used for the final fight between Chow 's character and hundreds of axe @-@ wielding gangsters . After a final calibration of colour , data of the processed scenes was sent to the US for the production of the final version . A group of six people followed the production crew throughout the shooting .
= = = Music = = =
The majority of the film 's original score was composed by Raymond Wong and performed by the Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra . The score imitates traditional Chinese music used in 1940s swordplay films . One of Wong 's works , Nothing Ventured , Nothing Gained , provides a stark contrast between the villainous Axe Gang and the peaceful neighbourhood of Pig Sty Alley , depicted by a Chinese folk song , Fisherman 's Song of the East China Sea . Along with Wong 's compositions and various traditional Chinese songs , classical compositions are featured in the score , including excerpts from Zigeunerweisen by Pablo de Sarasate and Sabre Dance by Aram Khachaturian . The song , Zhiyao Weini Huo Yitian ( 只要為你活一天 ; Only Want to Live One Day for You ) , is sung in the background by Eva Huang at the end of the film . Written by Liu Chia @-@ chang ( 劉家昌 ) in the 1970s , it tells of a girl 's memories of a loved one , and her desire to live for him again . Kung Fu Hustle was nominated for Best Original Film Score at the 24th Hong Kong Film Awards .
Asian and American versions of the soundtrack were released . The Asian version of the soundtrack was released on 17 December 2004 by Sony Music Entertainment and has 33 tracks . The American version of the soundtrack was released on 29 March 2005 by Varèse Sarabande and has 19 tracks but has 14 tracks missing from the Asian release .
The soundtrack for the trailer was mastered at Epiphany Music and Recording , Inc. in Santa Rosa , California .
= = Releases = =
Kung Fu Hustle premiered at the 2004 Toronto International Film Festival . It was later released across East Asia including China , Hong Kong and Malaysia in December 2004 . The film was first shown in the US at the Sundance Film Festival in January 2005 , and then opened in a general release on 22 April 2005 after being shown in Los Angeles and New York for two weeks .
The North American DVD release was on 8 August 2005 . A Blu @-@ ray version of the DVD was released on 12 December 2006 by Sony Pictures . A UMD version of the film was released for the PlayStation Portable . The United States DVD releases was censored and cut in a number of scenes that featured a lot of blood or human excrement , a later release saw these edits removed .
In the United Kingdom the standard DVD was released 24 October 2005 , the same day a special edition was released with collect item which included playing cards , keyring , sweat band and an inflatable axe . On 8 April 2007 Sony Pictures Home Entertainment release a Blu @-@ ray version .
The Portuguese title of the film is Kungfusão , which sounds like Kung Fu and Confusão ( confusion ) . In the same way as Kungfusão , the Italian and Spanish titles were Kung @-@ fusion and Kung @-@ fusión , puns of " confusion " . In France , the film is known as Crazy Kung Fu , and the Hungarian title is A Pofonok Földje , meaning The Land of Punches .
In Korea a Limited Collector 's Edition DVD was released which included a leather wallet , Stephen Chow 's Palm Figure with his signature , a photo album and Special Kung Fu 's Booklet with a Certificate of authenticity .
= = Reception = =
On Rotten Tomatoes , the film received a 90 % approval rating based on 182 reviews and an average rating of 7 @.@ 7 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads : " Kung Fu Hustle blends special effects , martial arts , and the Looney Toons to hilarious effect . " On Metacritic , the film received a score of 78 out of 100 based on 38 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews . "
Hong Kong director and film critic Gabriel Wong praised the film for its black comedy , special effects and nostalgia , citing the return of many retired kung fu actors from the 1970s . Film critic Roger Ebert 's description of the film ( " like Jackie Chan and Buster Keaton meet Quentin Tarantino and Bugs Bunny " ) was printed on the promotion posters for the film in the US . Other critics described it as a comedic version of Crouching Tiger , Hidden Dragon . Positive reviews generally gave credit to the elements of mo lei tau comedy present in the film . A number of reviewers viewed it as a computer @-@ enhanced Looney Tunes punch @-@ up . In a 2010 GQ interview , actor Bill Murray called Kung Fu Hustle " the supreme achievement of the modern age in terms of comedy " .
Much of the criticism for the film was directed at its lack of character development and a coherent plot . Las Vegas Weekly , for instance , criticized the film for not having enough of a central protagonist and character depth . Criticism was also directed towards the film 's cartoonish and childish humor . Richard Roeper gave it a negative review , saying he had " never been a fan of that over the top slapstick stuff " .
= = = Box office = = =
Kung Fu Hustle opened in Hong Kong on 23 December 2004 , and earned HK $ 4 @,@ 990 @,@ 000 on its opening day . It stayed at the top of the box office for the rest of 2004 and for much of early 2005 , eventually grossing HK $ 61 @.@ 27 million . Its box office tally made it the highest @-@ grossing film in Hong Kong history , until it was beaten by You Are the Apple of My Eye in 2011 .
Kung Fu Hustle began a limited two @-@ week theatrical run in New York City and Los Angeles on 8 April 2005 before being widely released across North America on 22 April . In its first week of limited release in seven cinemas , it grossed US $ 269 @,@ 225 ( US $ 38 @,@ 461 per screen ) . When it was expanded to a wide release in 2 @,@ 503 cinemas , the largest number of cinemas ever for a foreign language film , it made a modest US $ 6 @,@ 749 @,@ 572 ( US $ 2 @,@ 696 per screen ) , eventually grossing a total of US $ 17 @,@ 108 @,@ 591 in 129 days . In total , Kung Fu Hustle had a worldwide gross of US $ 101 @,@ 104 @,@ 669 . While not a blockbuster , Kung Fu Hustle managed to become the highest @-@ grossing foreign language film in North America in 2005 and went on to gain a cult following on DVD .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
The film was nominated for sixteen Hong Kong Film Awards , out of which winning : Best Picture , Best Action Choreography , Best Film Editing , Best Sound Effects , Best Supporting Actor and Best Visual Effects . Five more awards were later picked up at the Golden Horse Awards including an award for Best Director for Stephen Chow . In the United States Kung Fu Hustle was well received by various film critic associations winning awards for Best Foreign Language Film from Boston , Chicago , Las Vagas and Phoenix based critics. it was later nominated for six Satellite Awards and one MTV Movie Award for best fight scene . In the United Kingdom at 59th British Academy Film Awards the film was nominated for a BAFTA .
In 2011 , the Taipei Golden Horse Film Festival listed Kung Fu Hustle at number 48 in their list of " 100 Greatest Chinese @-@ Language Films " . The majority of the voters originated from Taiwan , and included film scholars , festival programmers , film directors , actors and producers . In 2014 , Time Out polled several film critics , directors , actors and stunt actors to list their top action films . Kung Fu Hustle was listed at 50th place on this list .
= = Sequel = =
In 2005 , Chow announced that there would be a sequel to Kung Fu Hustle , although he had not settled on a female lead . " There will be a lot of new characters in the movie . We 'll need a lot of new actors . It 's possible that we 'll look for people abroad besides casting locals " . In January 2013 during an interview Chow admitted that plans for making Kung Fu Hustle 2 have been put on hold . " I was indeed in the midst of making the movie , but it is currently put on hold in view of other incoming projects " . Production of Kung Fu Hustle 2 was delayed while Chow filmed the science fiction adventure film CJ7 . As a result , Kung Fu Hustle 2 was slated for a 2014 release . As of 2016 , there has yet to be any confirmed news of the sequel and Stephen is slated to complete another movie , Mermaid , before completing this one .
= = Games = =
= = = Online and mobile games = = =
In 2004 a promotional flash games was released by Sony Pictures Entertainment on their Japanese website . The game were created by Japanese game developer Point Zero and plays as a point and click beat ' em up . A side scrolling game designed for mobile phones was later released in 2006 by developer Tracebit .
= = = MMO = = =
In 2007 Sony Online Entertainment announced that a massively multiplayer online 2D side @-@ scrolling fighter game based on the film was under development for the Chinese market . Two years later a preview of the game was featured at E3 where it received mixed reviews from critics with many comparing it to similar MMO games such as Guild Wars and Phantasy Star Online .
A North American release for PC and PS3 was planned for late 2009 however as of 2016 the game had not been released and is only available in Asia .
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= Fight Club ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Fight Club " is the twentieth episode of the seventh season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network in the United States on May 7 , 2000 . It was written by series creator Chris Carter , directed by Paul Shapiro , and featured a guest appearance by Kathy Griffin . The episode plot serves as a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , which is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Fight Club " earned a Nielsen household rating of 6 @.@ 9 , being watched by 11 @.@ 70 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mostly negative reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Mulder and Scully cross paths with a pair of doppelgangers whose close proximity yields unlimited mayhem . Splitting up , the agent tries to find out " why " and " what " they are doing .
" Fight Club " was inspired by a " long @-@ lost nugget " of a story that series creator Chris Carter had thought up a while back about " mis @-@ matched twins that had an almost nuclear reaction when they were around each other . " Steve Kiziak and Arlene Pileggi — David Duchovny 's stunt double and Mitch Pileggi 's wife , respectively — were chosen to play the Mulder and Scully look @-@ alikes at the start of the episode . " Fight Club " contained several scenes of intense action that necessitated the use of various stunt doubles and extras .
= = Plot = =
In Kansas City , Kansas , two religious missionaries visit two women at two different homes in the same neighborhood who look exactly alike . The second woman yells at them to go away and the two men , inexplicably , get into a fight in the second woman 's front yard . Later , two FBI agents who look and sound remarkably similar to Mulder and Scully visit the first woman , Betty Templeton ( Kathy Griffin ) . Betty claims to have never seen the other woman before . The other woman then passes her by in a car and the two agents begin fighting each other , much like the missionaries . They are severely injured after the gruesome mauling . Both agents , who had worked together for seven years , said that they were possessed . Meanwhile , the other woman , Lulu Pfeiffer ( also Kathy Griffin ) , applies for a job at Koko 's Copies , but does not get it because she has had 17 jobs in 17 states in the past three years and moves around too much . She becomes aggravated and suddenly , all the copies become black . The other woman , Betty , goes to another job with the same name and same resume .
Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) begin to investigate the case . Later , in a bar , a man by the name of Bert Zupanic ( Randall " Tex " Cobb ) comes across Betty . Moments later , Lulu walks into the bar and an earthquake occurs that breaks all the glass in the bar . Lulu then runs out . Mulder finds out through a man named Argyle Saperstein ( Art Evans ) that Zupanic and one of the women are in a relationship and that Zupanic is a professional wrestler . Scully finds that for the past 12 years the women have followed each other across 17 states and left mayhem in their wake . Saperstein calls Zupanic and it is revealed that Zupanic owes Saperstein money . In addition , Betty and Bert have been in a relationship , but he has been having an affair with Lulu . A second earthquake occurs as Lulu prepares to walk in on Zupanic and Saperstein exchanging money . After Betty emerges from the bathroom , the two see each other and the glass in the building begins breaking . Zupanic is knocked unconscious and Saperstein takes the money and leaves .
Mulder and Scully decide to split up and interrogate the doppelgangers . Betty tells Mulder that Lulu is causing all of the problems and forcing her to leave , while Lulu tells Scully the same thing . Later , the two look @-@ alikes pass each other and a sewer grate blows open , sucking Mulder into the storm drain and sealing him in . Scully finds that the girls share the same father , a man by the name of Bob Damphouse , who is in prison . Damphouse is revealed to be mentally insane , and is always in a fit of rage . Eventually , Mulder finds his way out of the storm drain . At the prison , Scully meets a man that looks exactly like Bert Zupanic . Lulu and Betty meet at a stadium and everyone in the audience breaks into a fight . The other Bert Zupanic shows up and everyone stops fighting . The two Zupanics see each other and a fight breaks out again . The episode ends with Mulder and Scully shown bruised and beaten .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The inspiration for " Fight Club " was a " long @-@ lost nugget " that series creator Chris Carter had thought up a while back . He explained , " I had this idea for a long time to do a story about mis @-@ matched twins that had an almost nuclear reaction when they were around each other . " Carter began to write the episode at the same time as the pilot for the X @-@ Files spin @-@ off , The Lone Gunmen . Because of the " insanity " in juggling two scripts at once , many more " crazy " elements made it into " Fight Club " . When executive producer Frank Spotnitz first looked at the script , he noted that " [ the episode ] had an odd tone . It felt like a wild show . "
= = = Casting = = =
The casting for the episode was reportedly hectic . Rick Millikan , the show 's casting director , cast noted boxer @-@ turned @-@ actor Randall " Tex " Cobb as Bert Zupanic and comedian Kathy Griffin — who had previously starred in the NBC comedy Suddenly Susan — as the doppelgangers . Two real wrestlers , Gene LeBell and Rob Van Dam , were hired to play the parts of the bartender and Zupanic 's opponent , respectively . Near the beginning of the episode , two FBI agents who bear a striking resemblance , in both physical appearance and voice , to Mulder and Scully appear . These characters were played by Steve Kiziak and Arlene Pileggi . Kiziak had previously served as David Duchovny 's stunt double since the third season episode " 2Shy " . Pileggi is the wife of Mitch Pileggi , who portrayed Walter Skinner on the show . Duchovny and Anderson later dubbed their voices for the lines that the two look @-@ alike FBI agents say .
Jack McGee was cast as Bob Damfuse — referred to colloquially as " Angry Bob " — the father of the half @-@ sisters with a severe anger issue . During rehearsals for his scene , McGee purposely kept his voice down to prevent a severe headache . He recalled , " I remember the director [ Paul Shapiro ] , he wanted me to scream during rehearsal , and I was , like , ' Look , you don ’ t understand : If I do this , I ’ m gonna have a headache in 30 fucking seconds . ' " The scenes were rehearsed about five or six times before the actual tape was filmed .
= = = Filming and effects = = =
First @-@ time X @-@ Files director Paul Shapiro was tasked with directing the episode . Many of the physical effects in the episode were coordinated by Danny Weselis , who noted that the episode contained several scenes featuring extensive stunt work . He explained , " during the bar explosions we had a room full of stunt people showered with broken glass . And we used stunt people for much of the missionary and special agent fights . " The final scene , featuring a stadium full of people attacking each other after the Templetons make an appearance , was filmed at the Grand Olympic Auditorium in Los Angeles . Several hundred extras were contacted via ads on the internet and in select publications . The scene took two days to completely film . The crowd supplemented sixteen stuntmen and over 200 cardboard cutouts to give the stadium a filled @-@ out feel . In order to create a mock fight , staff members gave the several hundred extras soft props to hit each other with . Producer Harry Bring later noted , " a few of [ the audience ] members got carried away and we had to tell them to settle down . " During the finished episode , a split screen was inserted as a way to enhance the scene and allow the viewer to " focus on various angles of action " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Fight Club " first aired in the United States on May 7 , 2000 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 6 @.@ 9 , with an 11 share , meaning that roughly 6 @.@ 9 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 11 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 11 @.@ 70 million viewers . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on July 30 , 2000 and received 0 @.@ 67 million viewers , making it the third most watched episode that week . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " They say everyone has a double out there somewhere . "
Critical reception to " Fight Club " was largely negative . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club gave the episode a " D – " ; he called it " dire stuff " and wrote that " there ’ s something rancid about forced quirk ; it ’ s rotten and smug " . Handlen both criticized Griffin 's inability to portray two separate characters , as well as Carter 's failure at writing a comedic script . He also felt that the " relentless self @-@ awareness isn ’ t amusing anymore " . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , gave the episode a scathing review . He wrote " If it is indeed true that somewhere out in this vast world we all have an identical twin , I have but one wish for mine . I sincerely hope he was spared the hour of torture that ' Fight Club ' imposed upon me . " Christina Brzustoski from 11th Hour Magazine opined that " Just when you thought The X @-@ Files couldn 't get a more grating guest star than Victoria Jackson , Chris Carter manages to top himself yet again with not one , but two , for the love of God , two Kathy Griffins in the Carter @-@ penned episode ' Fight Club . ' It 's a safe bet this disjointed , lame episode will probably not be easily confused with the far superior David Fincher movie of the same name . But then the current state of The X @-@ Files makes Elmo in Grouchland look like an Oscar contender . "
Kenneth Silber from Space.com was very negative towards the episode , saying , " This episode conveys a strong sense of a writer , director and actors merely going through the motions , collecting their sizable paychecks while running out the clock on the season and series . The plot is not compelling , the agents themselves seem not to take it seriously , and the doppelgangers around whom the action revolves are little more than ciphers . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode one star out of five . The two wrote , " ' Fight Club ' is a marker for a series that seems to want to die now , please . [ … ] it 's tonally one of the most atypical episodes the series ever made , conceived in spite and self @-@ loathing and sheer exhaustion . " Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a largely negative review and awarded it one star out of four . Vitaris criticized the use of Kathy Griffin and asserted , " the guest cast is one of the worst ever . [ … ] Griffin [ … ] simply is not up to the task ; she can not differentiate Betty and Lulu at all [ … ] and she reads every line as if she were still on her cancelled sitcom . " i09 reviewer Cyriaque Lama named " The Kathy Griffin Twins " the tenth " Most Ridiculous X @-@ Files Monsters of the Week " , and derided her performance as the Templeton twins . In 2016 , in a ranking of all episodes of the series from best to worst , Vulture.com named " Fight Club " the worst episode of the series .
Not all reviews were so negative . Rich Rosell from DigitallyObsessed.com awarded the episode 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and noted that " There are some great visual moments in Fight Club , and Chris Carter reveals an almost Vince Gilligan @-@ side to him with his comic writing here . "
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= Gone with the Wind ( film ) =
Gone with the Wind is a 1939 American epic @-@ historical romance film adapted from Margaret Mitchell 's 1936 novel Gone with the Wind . It was produced by David O. Selznick of Selznick International Pictures and directed by Victor Fleming . Set in the American South against the backdrop of the American Civil War and Reconstruction era , the film tells the story of Scarlett O 'Hara , the strong @-@ willed daughter of a Georgia plantation owner , from her romantic pursuit of Ashley Wilkes , who is married to his cousin , Melanie Hamilton , to her marriage to Rhett Butler . The leading roles are portrayed by Vivien Leigh ( Scarlett ) , Clark Gable ( Rhett ) , Leslie Howard ( Ashley ) , and Olivia de Havilland ( Melanie ) .
The production of the film was difficult from the start . Filming was delayed for two years due to Selznick 's determination to secure Gable for the role of Rhett Butler , and the " search for Scarlett " led to 1 @,@ 400 women being interviewed for the part . The original screenplay was written by Sidney Howard , but underwent many revisions by several writers in an attempt to get it down to a suitable length . The original director , George Cukor , was fired shortly after filming had begun and was replaced by Fleming , who in turn was briefly replaced by Sam Wood while Fleming took some time off due to exhaustion .
The film received positive reviews upon its release in December 1939 , although some reviewers found it dramatically lacking and bloated . The casting was widely praised and many reviewers found Leigh especially suited to her role as Scarlett . At the 12th Academy Awards , it received ten Academy Awards ( eight competitive , two honorary ) from thirteen nominations , including wins for Best Picture , Best Director ( Fleming ) , Best Adapted Screenplay ( posthumously awarded to Sidney Howard ) , Best Actress ( Leigh ) and Best Supporting Actress ( Hattie McDaniel , becoming the first African @-@ American to win an Academy Award ) . It set records for the total number of wins and nominations at the time . The film was immensely popular , becoming the highest @-@ earning film made up to that point , and retained the record for over a quarter of a century . When adjusted for monetary inflation , it is still the most successful film in box @-@ office history .
The film has been criticized as historical revisionism glorifying slavery , but nevertheless , it has been credited for triggering changes to the way African @-@ Americans are depicted on film . It was re @-@ released periodically throughout the 20th century and became ingrained in popular culture . The film is regarded as one of the greatest films of all time ; it has placed in the top ten of the American Film Institute 's list of top 100 American films since the list 's inception in 1998 , and in 1989 , the United States Library of Congress selected it for preservation in the National Film Registry .
= = Plot = =
Part 1
On the eve of the American Civil War in 1861 , Scarlett O 'Hara lives at Tara , her family 's cotton plantation in Georgia , with her parents and two sisters . Scarlett learns that Ashley Wilkes — whom she secretly loves — is to be married to his cousin , Melanie Hamilton , and the engagement is to be announced the next day at a barbecue at Ashley 's home , the nearby plantation Twelve Oaks .
At the Twelve Oaks party , Scarlett secretly declares her feelings to Ashley , but he rebuffs her by responding that he and Melanie are more compatible . Scarlett is incensed when she discovers another guest , Rhett Butler , has overheard their conversation ; a smitten Rhett promises Scarlett he will keep her secret . The barbecue is disrupted by the declaration of war and the men rush to enlist . As Scarlett watches Ashley kiss Melanie goodbye , Melanie 's younger brother Charles proposes to her . Although she does not love him , Scarlett consents and they are married before he leaves to fight .
Scarlett is widowed when Charles dies from a bout of pneumonia and measles while serving in the Confederate Army . Scarlett 's mother sends her to the Hamilton home in Atlanta to cheer her up , although the O 'Haras ' outspoken housemaid Mammy tells Scarlett she knows she is going there only to wait for Ashley 's return . Scarlett , who should not attend a party while in mourning , attends a charity bazaar in Atlanta with Melanie where she runs into Rhett again , now a blockade runner for the Confederacy . Celebrating a Confederate victory and to raise money for the Confederate war effort , gentlemen are invited to bid for ladies to dance with them . Rhett makes an inordinately large bid for Scarlett and , to the disapproval of the guests , she agrees to dance with him .
The tide of war turns against the Confederacy after the Battle of Gettysburg in which many of the men of Scarlett 's town are killed . Scarlett makes another unsuccessful appeal to Ashley while he is visiting on Christmas furlough , although they do share a private and passionate kiss in the parlor on Christmas Day , just before he returns to war .
Eight months later , as the city is besieged by the Union Army in the Atlanta Campaign , Scarlett and her young house servant Prissy must deliver Melanie 's baby without medical assistance after she goes into premature labor . Afterwards , Scarlett calls upon Rhett to take her home to Tara with Melanie , her baby , and Prissy ; he collects them in a horse and wagon , but once out of the city chooses to go off to fight , leaving Scarlett and the group to make their own way back to Tara . Upon her return home , Scarlett finds Tara deserted , except for her father , her sisters , and two servants : Mammy and Pork . Scarlett learns that her mother has just died of typhoid fever and her father has become incompetent . With Tara pillaged by Union troops and the fields untended , Scarlett vows she will do anything for the survival of her family and herself .
Part 2
As the O 'Haras and their servants work in the cotton fields , Scarlett 's father is killed after he is thrown from his horse in an attempt to chase away a scalawag from his land . With the defeat of the Confederacy Ashley also returns , but finds he is of little help at Tara . When Scarlett begs him to run away with her , he confesses his desire for her and kisses her passionately , but says he cannot leave Melanie . Unable to pay the taxes on Tara implemented by Reconstructionists , Scarlett dupes her younger sister Suellen 's fiancé , the middle @-@ aged and wealthy mill owner Frank Kennedy , into marrying her , by saying Suellen got tired of waiting and married another beau .
Frank , Ashley , Rhett and several other accomplices make a night raid on a shanty town after Scarlett is attacked while driving through it alone , resulting in Frank 's death . With Frank 's funeral barely over , Rhett proposes to Scarlett and she accepts . They have a daughter whom Rhett names Bonnie Blue , but Scarlett , still pining for Ashley and chagrined at the perceived ruin of her figure , lets Rhett know that she wants no more children and that they will no longer share a bed .
One day at Frank 's mill , Scarlett and Ashley are seen embracing by Ashley 's sister , India , and harboring an intense dislike of Scarlett she eagerly spreads rumors . Later that evening , Rhett , having heard the rumors , forces Scarlett to attend a birthday party for Ashley ; incapable of believing anything bad of her beloved sister @-@ in @-@ law , Melanie stands by Scarlett 's side so that all know that she believes the gossip to be false . After returning home from the party , Scarlett finds Rhett downstairs drunk , and they argue about Ashley . Rhett kisses Scarlett against her will , stating his intent to have sex with her that night , and carries the struggling Scarlett to the bedroom . The next day , Rhett apologizes for his behavior and offers Scarlett a divorce , which she rejects , saying that it would be a disgrace . When Rhett returns from an extended trip to London Scarlett informs him that she is pregnant , but an argument ensues which results in her falling down a flight of stairs and suffering a miscarriage . As she is recovering , tragedy strikes when Bonnie dies while attempting to jump a fence with her pony .
Scarlett and Rhett visit Melanie , who has suffered complications arising from a new pregnancy , on her deathbed . As Scarlett consoles Ashley , Rhett returns to Tara ; realizing that Ashley only ever truly loved Melanie , Scarlett dashes after Rhett to find him preparing to leave for good . She pleads with him , telling him she realizes now that she has loved him all along and that she never really loved Ashley , but Rhett says that with Bonnie 's death went any chance of reconciliation . Scarlett begs him to stay but Rhett rebuffs her and walks out the door and into the early morning fog , leaving her weeping on the staircase and vowing to one day win back his love .
= = Cast = =
Despite receiving top @-@ billing in the opening credits , Gable — along with Leigh , Howard , and de Havilland who receive second , third and fourth billing respectively — has a relatively low placing in the cast list , due to its unusual structure . Rather than ordered by conventional billing , the cast is broken down into three sections : the Tara plantation , Twelve Oaks , and Atlanta . The cast 's names are ordered according to the social rank of the characters ; therefore Thomas Mitchell , who plays Gerald O 'Hara , leads the cast list as the head of the O 'Hara family , while Barbara O 'Neil as his wife receives the second credit and Vivien Leigh as the eldest daughter the third credit , despite having the most screen time . Similarly , Howard C. Hickman as John Wilkes is credited over Leslie Howard who plays his son , and Clark Gable , who plays only a visitor at Twelve Oaks , receives a relatively low credit in the cast list , despite being presented as the " star " of the film in all the promotional literature . Following the death of Mary Anderson — who played Maybelle Merriwether — in April 2014 , there are only two surviving credited cast members from the film : Olivia de Havilland who played Melanie Wilkes and Mickey Kuhn , who played her son Beau Wilkes .
= = Production = =
Before publication of the novel , several Hollywood executives and studios declined to create a film based on it , including Louis B. Mayer and Irving Thalberg at Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( MGM ) , Pandro Berman at RKO Pictures , and David O. Selznick of Selznick International Pictures . Jack L. Warner liked the story , but Warner Bros. ' s biggest star Bette Davis was uninterested , and Darryl Zanuck of 20th Century @-@ Fox did not offer enough money . Selznick changed his mind after his story editor Kay Brown and business partner John Hay Whitney urged him to buy the film rights . In July 1936 — a month after it was published — Selznick bought the rights for $ 50 @,@ 000 .
= = = Casting = = =
The casting of the two lead roles became a complex , two @-@ year endeavor . For the role of Rhett Butler , Selznick wanted Clark Gable from the start , but Gable was under contract to MGM , who never loaned him to other studios . Gary Cooper was considered , but Samuel Goldwyn — to whom Cooper was under contract — refused to loan him out . Warner offered a package of Bette Davis , Errol Flynn , and Olivia de Havilland for lead roles in return for the distribution rights . By this time , Selznick was determined to get Gable and eventually struck a deal with MGM . Selznick 's father @-@ in @-@ law , MGM chief Louis B. Mayer , offered in August 1938 to provide Gable and $ 1 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 for half of the film 's budget but for a high price : Selznick would have to pay Gable 's weekly salary , and half the profits would go to MGM while Loew 's , Inc — MGM 's parent company — would release the film .
The arrangement to release through MGM meant delaying the start of production until the end of 1938 , when Selznick 's distribution deal with United Artists concluded . Selznick used the delay to continue to revise the script and , more importantly , build publicity for the film by searching for the role of Scarlett . Selznick began a nationwide casting call that interviewed 1 @,@ 400 unknowns . The effort cost $ 100 @,@ 000 and was useless for the film , but created " priceless " publicity . Early frontrunners included Miriam Hopkins and Tallulah Bankhead , who were regarded as possibilities by Selznick prior to the purchase of the film rights ; Joan Crawford , who was signed to MGM , was also considered as a potential pairing with Gable . After a deal was struck with MGM , Selznick held discussions with Norma Shearer — who was MGM 's top female star at the time — but she withdrew herself from consideration . Katharine Hepburn lobbied hard for the role with the support of her friend , George Cukor , who had been hired to direct , but she was vetoed by Selznick who felt she was not right for the part .
Many famous — or soon @-@ to @-@ be @-@ famous — actresses were considered , but only thirty @-@ one women were actually screen @-@ tested for Scarlett including Ardis Ankerson , Jean Arthur , Tallulah Bankhead , Diana Barrymore , Joan Bennett , Nancy Coleman , Frances Dee , Ellen Drew ( as Terry Ray ) , Paulette Goddard , Susan Hayward ( under her real name of Edythe Marrenner ) , Vivien Leigh , Anita Louise , Haila Stoddard , Margaret Tallichet , Lana Turner and Linda Watkins . Although Margaret Mitchell refused to publicly name her choice , the actress who came closest to winning her approval was Miriam Hopkins , who Mitchell felt was just the right type of actress to play Scarlett as written in the book . However , Hopkins was in her mid @-@ thirties at the time and was considered too old for the part . Four actresses , including Jean Arthur and Joan Bennett , were still under consideration by December 1938 ; however , only two finalists , Paulette Goddard and Vivien Leigh , were tested in Technicolor , both on December 20 . Goddard almost won the role , but controversy over her marriage with Charlie Chaplin caused Selznick to change his mind .
Selznick had been quietly considering Vivien Leigh , a young English actress who was still little known in America , for the role of Scarlett since February 1938 when Selznick saw her in Fire Over England and A Yank at Oxford . Leigh 's American agent was the London representative of the Myron Selznick talent agency ( headed by David Selznick 's brother , one of the owners of Selznick International ) , and she had requested in February that her name be submitted for consideration as Scarlett . By the summer of 1938 the Selznicks were negotiating with Alexander Korda , to whom Leigh was under contract , for her services later that year . Selznick 's brother arranged for them to meet for the first time on the night of December 10 , 1938 , when the burning of Atlanta was filmed . In a letter to his wife two days later , Selznick admitted that Leigh was " the Scarlett dark horse " , and after a series of screen tests , her casting was announced on January 13 , 1939 . Just before the shooting of the film , Selznick informed newspaper columnist Ed Sullivan : " Scarlett O 'Hara 's parents were French and Irish . Identically , Miss Leigh 's parents are French and Irish . "
= = = Screenplay = = =
Of original screenplay writer Sidney Howard , film historian Joanne Yeck writes , " reducing the intricacies of Gone with the Wind 's epic dimensions was a herculean task ... and Howard 's first submission was far too long , and would have required at least six hours of film ; ... [ producer ] Selznick wanted Howard to remain on the set to make revisions ... but Howard refused to leave New England [ and ] as a result , revisions were handled by a host of local writers " . Selznick dismissed director George Cukor three weeks into filming and sought out Victor Fleming , who was directing The Wizard of Oz at the time . Fleming was dissatisfied with the script , so Selznick brought in famed writer Ben Hecht to rewrite the entire screenplay within five days . Hecht returned to Howard 's original draft and by the end of the week had succeeded in revising the entire first half of the script . Selznick undertook rewriting the second half himself but fell behind schedule , so Howard returned to work on the script for one week , reworking several key scenes in part two .
" By the time of the film 's release in 1939 , there was some question as to who should receive screen credit , " writes Yeck . " But despite the number of writers and changes , the final script was remarkably close to Howard 's version . The fact that Howard 's name alone appears on the credits may have been as much a gesture to his memory as to his writing , for in 1939 Sidney Howard died at age 48 in a farm @-@ tractor accident , and before the movie 's premiere . " Selznick , in a memo written in October 1939 , discussed the film 's writing credits : " [ Y ] ou can say frankly that of the comparatively small amount of material in the picture which is not from the book , most is my own personally , and the only original lines of dialog which are not my own are a few from Sidney Howard and a few from Ben Hecht and a couple more from John Van Druten . Offhand I doubt that there are ten original words of [ Oliver ] Garrett 's in the whole script . As to construction , this is about eighty per cent my own , and the rest divided between Jo Swerling and Sidney Howard , with Hecht having contributed materially to the construction of one sequence . "
According to Hecht biographer , William MacAdams , " At dawn on Sunday , February 20 , 1939 , David Selznick ... and director Victor Fleming shook Hecht awake to inform him he was on loan from MGM and must come with them immediately and go to work on Gone with the Wind , which Selznick had begun shooting five weeks before . It was costing Selznick $ 50 @,@ 000 each day the film was on hold waiting for a final screenplay rewrite and time was of the essence . Hecht was in the middle of working on the film At the Circus for the Marx Brothers . Recalling the episode in a letter to screenwriter friend Gene Fowler , he said he hadn 't read the novel but Selznick and director Fleming could not wait for him to read it . They would act out scenes based on Sidney Howard 's original script which needed to be rewritten in a hurry . Hecht wrote , " After each scene had been performed and discussed , I sat down at the typewriter and wrote it out . Selznick and Fleming , eager to continue with their acting , kept hurrying me . We worked in this fashion for seven days , putting in eighteen to twenty hours a day . Selznick refused to let us eat lunch , arguing that food would slow us up . He provided bananas and salted peanuts ... thus on the seventh day I had completed , unscathed , the first nine reels of the Civil War epic . "
MacAdams writes , " It is impossible to determine exactly how much Hecht scripted ... In the official credits filed with the Screen Writers Guild , Sidney Howard was of course awarded the sole screen credit , but four other writers were appended ... Jo Swerling for contributing to the treatment , Oliver H. P. Garrett and Barbara Keon to screenplay construction , and Hecht , to dialogue ... "
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began January 26 , 1939 , and ended on July 1 , with post @-@ production work continuing until November 11 , 1939 . Director George Cukor , with whom Selznick had a long working relationship , and who had spent almost two years in pre @-@ production on Gone with the Wind , was replaced after less than three weeks of shooting . Selznick and Cukor had already disagreed over the pace of filming and the script , but other explanations put Cukor 's departure down to Gable 's discomfort at working with him . Emanuel Levy , Cukor 's biographer , claimed that Clark Gable had worked Hollywood 's gay circuit as a hustler and that Cukor knew of his past , so Gable used his influence to have him discharged . Vivien Leigh and Olivia de Havilland learned of Cukor 's firing on the day the Atlanta bazaar scene was filmed , and the pair went to Selznick 's office in full costume and implored him to change his mind . Victor Fleming , who was directing The Wizard of Oz , was called in from MGM to complete the picture , although Cukor continued privately to coach Leigh and De Havilland . Another MGM director , Sam Wood , worked for two weeks in May when Fleming temporarily left the production due to exhaustion . Although some of Cukor 's scenes were later reshot , Selznick estimated that " three solid reels " of his work remained in the picture . As of the end of principal photography , Cukor had undertaken eighteen days of filming , Fleming ninety @-@ three , and Wood twenty @-@ four .
Cinematographer Lee Garmes began the production , but on March 11 , 1939 — after a month of shooting footage that Selznick and his associates regarded as " too dark " — was replaced with Ernest Haller , working with Technicolor cinematographer Ray Rennahan . Garmes completed the first third of the film — mostly everything prior to Melanie having the baby — but did not receive a credit . Most of the filming was done on " the back forty " of Selznick International with all the location scenes being photographed in California , mostly in Los Angeles County or neighboring Ventura County . Tara , the fictional Southern plantation house , existed only as a plywood and papier @-@ mâché facade built on the Selznick studio lot . For the burning of Atlanta , new false facades were built in front of the Selznick backlot 's many old abandoned sets , and Selznick himself operated the controls for the explosives that burned them down . Sources at the time put the estimated production costs at $ 3 @.@ 85 million , making it the second most expensive film made up to that point , with only Ben @-@ Hur ( 1925 ) having cost more .
Although legend persists that the Hays Office fined Selznick $ 5 @,@ 000 for using the word " damn " in Butler 's exit line , in fact the Motion Picture Association board passed an amendment to the Production Code on November 1 , 1939 , that forbade use of the words " hell " or " damn " except when their use " shall be essential and required for portrayal , in proper historical context , of any scene or dialogue based upon historical fact or folklore ... or a quotation from a literary work , provided that no such use shall be permitted which is intrinsically objectionable or offends good taste . " With that amendment , the Production Code Administration had no further objection to Rhett 's closing line .
= = = Music = = =
To compose the score , Selznick chose Max Steiner , with whom he had worked at RKO Pictures in the early 1930s . Warner Bros. — who had contracted Steiner in 1936 — agreed to lend him to Selznick . Steiner spent twelve weeks working on the score , the longest period that he had ever spent writing one , and at two hours and thirty @-@ six minutes long it was also the longest that he had ever written . Five orchestrators were hired , including Hugo Friedhofer , Maurice de Packh , Bernard Kaun , Adolph Deutsch and Reginald Bassett . The score is characterized by two love themes , one for Ashley 's and Melanie 's sweet love and another that evokes Scarlett 's passion for Ashley , though notably there is no Scarlett and Rhett love theme . Steiner drew considerably on folk and patriotic music , which included Stephen Foster tunes such as " Louisiana Belle , " " Dolly Day , " " Ringo De Banjo , " " Beautiful Dreamer , " " Old Folks at Home , " and " Katie Belle , " which formed the basis of Scarlett 's theme ; other tunes that feature prominently are : " Marching through Georgia " by Henry Clay Work , " Dixie , " " Garryowen " and " The Bonnie Blue Flag . " The theme that is most associated with the film today is the melody that accompanies Tara , the O 'Hara plantation ; in the early 1940s , " Tara 's Theme " formed the musical basis of the song " My Own True Love " by Mack David . In all , there are ninety @-@ nine separate pieces of music featured in the score . Due to the pressure of completing on time , Steiner received some assistance in composing from Friedhofer , Deutsch and Heinz Roemheld , and in addition , two short cues — by Franz Waxman and William Axt — were taken from scores in the MGM library .
= = Release = =
= = = Preview , premiere and initial release = = =
On September 9 , 1939 , Selznick , his wife , Irene , investor John " Jock " Whitney and film editor Hal Kern drove out to Riverside , California to preview it at the Fox Theatre . The film was still a rough cut at this stage , missing completed titles and lacking special optical effects . It ran for four hours and twenty @-@ five minutes , but would later be cut down to under four hours for its proper release . A double bill of Hawaiian Nights and Beau Geste was playing , and after the first feature it was announced that the theater would be screening a preview ; the audience were informed they could leave but would not be readmitted once the film had begun , nor would phone calls be allowed once the theater had been sealed . When the title appeared on the screen the audience cheered , and after it had finished it received a standing ovation . In his biography of Selznick , David Thomson wrote that the audience 's response before the film had even started " was the greatest moment of [ Selznick 's ] life , the greatest victory and redemption of all his failings " , with Selznick describing the preview cards as " probably the most amazing any picture has ever had . " When Selznick was asked by the press in early September how he felt about the film , he said : " At noon I think it 's divine , at midnight I think it 's lousy . Sometimes I think it 's the greatest picture ever made . But if it 's only a great picture , I 'll still be satisfied . "
About 300 @,@ 000 people came out in Atlanta for the film 's premiere at the Loew 's Grand Theatre on December 15 , 1939 . It was the climax of three days of festivities hosted by Mayor William B. Hartsfield , which included a parade of limousines featuring stars from the film , receptions , thousands of Confederate flags and a costume ball . Eurith D. Rivers , the governor of Georgia , declared December 15 a state holiday . An estimated three hundred thousand residents and visitors to Atlanta lined the streets for up to seven miles to watch a procession of limousines bring the stars from the airport . Only Leslie Howard and Victor Fleming chose not to attend : Howard had returned to England due to the outbreak of World War II , and Fleming had fallen out with Selznick and declined to attend any of the premieres . Hattie McDaniel was also absent , as she and the other black cast members were prevented from attending the premiere due to Georgia 's Jim Crow laws , which would have kept them from sitting with their white colleagues . Upon learning that McDaniel had been barred from the premiere , Clark Gable threatened to boycott the event , but McDaniel convinced him to attend . President Jimmy Carter would later recall it as " the biggest event to happen in the South in my lifetime . " Premieres in New York and Los Angeles followed , the latter attended by some of the actresses that had been considered for the part of Scarlett , among them Paulette Goddard , Norma Shearer and Joan Crawford .
From December 1939 to July 1940 , the film played only advance @-@ ticket road show engagements at a limited number of theaters at prices upwards of $ 1 — more than double the price of a regular first @-@ run feature — with MGM collecting an unprecedented 70 percent of the box office receipts ( as opposed to the typical 30 – 35 percent of the period ) . After reaching saturation as a roadshow , MGM revised its terms to a 50 percent cut and halved the prices , before it finally entered general release in 1941 at " popular " prices . Along with its distribution and advertising costs , total expenditure on the film was as high as $ 7 million .
= = = Later releases = = =
In 1942 , Selznick liquidated his company for tax reasons , and sold his share in Gone with the Wind to his business partner , John Whitney , for $ 500 @,@ 000 . In turn , Whitney sold it on to MGM for $ 2 @.@ 8 million , so that the studio owned the film outright . MGM immediately re @-@ released the film in spring 1942 , and again in 1947 and 1954 ; the 1954 reissue was the first time the film was shown in widescreen , compromising the original Academy ratio and cropping the top and bottom to an aspect ratio of 1 @.@ 75 : 1 . In doing so , a number of shots were optically re @-@ framed and cut into the three @-@ strip camera negatives , forever altering five shots in the film . A 1961 release commemorated the centennial anniversary of the start of the Civil War , and included a gala " premiere " at the Loew 's Grand Theater . It was attended by Selznick and many other stars of the film , including Vivien Leigh and Olivia de Havilland ; Clark Gable had died the previous year . For its 1967 re @-@ release , it was blown up to 70mm , and issued with updated poster artwork featuring Gable — with his white shirt ripped open — holding Leigh against a backdrop of orange flames . There were further re @-@ releases in 1971 , 1974 and 1989 ; for the fiftieth anniversary reissue in 1989 , it was given a complete audio and video restoration . It was released theatrically one more time in the United States , in 1998 . In 2013 , a 4K digital restoration was released in the United Kingdom to coincide with Vivien Leigh 's centenary . In 2014 , special screenings were scheduled over a two @-@ day period at theaters across the United States to coincide with the film 's 75th anniversary .
= = = Television and home video = = =
The film received its world television premiere on the HBO cable network on June 11 , 1976 , and played on the channel for a total of fourteen times throughout the rest of the month . It made its network television debut in November later that year : NBC paid $ 5 million for a one @-@ off airing , and it was broadcast in two parts on successive evenings . It became at that time the highest @-@ rated television program ever presented on a single network , watched by 47 @.@ 5 percent of the households sampled in America , and 65 percent of television viewers , still the record for the highest rated film to ever air on television . In 1978 , CBS signed a deal worth $ 35 million to broadcast the film twenty times over as many years . Turner Entertainment acquired the MGM film library in 1986 , but the deal did not include the television rights to Gone with the Wind , which were still held by CBS . A deal was struck in which the rights were returned to Turner Entertainment and CBS 's broadcast rights to The Wizard of Oz were extended . It was used to launch two cable channels owned by Turner Broadcasting System : Turner Network Television ( 1988 ) and Turner Classic Movies ( 1994 ) . It debuted on videocassette in March 1985 , where it placed second in the sales charts , and has since been released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc formats .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Gone with the Wind was well received upon its release , with most consumer magazines and newspapers generally giving it excellent reviews . However , while its production values , technical achievements , and scale of ambition were universally recognized , some of the more notable reviewers of the time found the film to be dramatically lacking . Frank S. Nugent for The New York Times best summed up the general sentiment by acknowledging that while it was the most ambitious film production made up to that point , it probably was not the greatest film ever made , but he nevertheless found it to be an " interesting story beautifully told " . Franz Hoellering of The Nation was of the same opinion : " The result is a film which is a major event in the history of the industry but only a minor achievement in motion @-@ picture art . There are moments when the two categories meet on good terms , but the long stretches between are filled with mere spectacular efficiency . "
While the film was praised for its fidelity to the novel , this aspect was also singled out as the main factor in contributing to the bloated running time , which many critics felt was to the detriment of the overall dramatic impact . John C. Flinn wrote for Variety that Selznick had " left too much in " , and that as entertainment , the film would have benefited if repetitious scenes and dialog from the latter part of the story had been trimmed . The Manchester Guardian felt that the film 's one serious drawback was that the story lacked the epic quality to justify the outlay of time and found the second half , which focuses on Scarlett 's " irrelevant marriages " and " domestic squabbles , " mostly superfluous , and the sole reason for their inclusion had been " simply because Margaret Mitchell wrote it that way " . The Guardian believed that if " the story had been cut short and tidied up at the point marked by the interval , and if the personal drama had been made subservient to a cinematic treatment of the central theme — the collapse and devastation of the Old South — then Gone With the Wind might have been a really great film . " Likewise , Hoellering also found the second half of the film to be weaker than the first half : identifying the Civil War to be the driving force of the first part while the characters dominate in the second part , he concluded this is where the main fault of the picture lay , commenting that " the characters alone do not suffice " . Despite many excellent scenes , he considered the drama to be unconvincing and that the " psychological development " had been neglected .
Much of the praise was reserved for the casting , with Vivien Leigh in particular being singled out for her performance as Scarlett . Nugent described her as the " pivot of the picture " and believed her to be " so perfectly designed for the part by art and nature that any other actress in the role would be inconceivable " . Similarly , Hoellering found her " perfect " in " appearance and movements " ; he felt her acting best when she was allowed to " accentuate the split personality she portrays " and thought she was particularly effective in such moments of characterization like the morning after the marital rape scene . Flinn also found Leigh suited to the role physically and felt she was best in the scenes where she displays courage and determination , such as the escape from Atlanta and when Scarlett kills a Yankee deserter . Leigh won in the Best Actress category for her performance at the 1939 New York Film Critics Circle Awards . Of Clark Gable 's performance as Rhett Butler , Flinn felt the characterization was " as close to Miss Mitchell 's conception — and the audience 's — as might be imagined " , a view which Nugent concurred with , although Hoellering felt that Gable didn 't quite convince in the closing scenes , as Rhett walks out on Scarlett in disgust . Of the other principal cast members , both Hoellering and Flinn found Leslie Howard to be " convincing " as the weak @-@ willed Ashley , with Flinn identifying Olivia de Havilland as a " standout " as Melanie ; Nugent was also especially taken with de Havilland 's performance , describing it as a " gracious , dignified , tender gem of characterization " . Hattie McDaniel 's performance as Mammy was singled out for praise by many critics : Nugent believed she gave the best performance in the film after Vivien Leigh , with Flinn placing it third after Leigh 's and Gable 's performances .
= = = Academy Awards = = =
At the 12th Academy Awards , Gone with the Wind set a record for Academy Award wins and nominations , winning in eight of the competitive categories it was nominated in , from a total of thirteen nominations . It won for Best Picture , Best Actress , Best Supporting Actress , Best Director , Best Screenplay , Best Cinematography , Best Interior Decoration , and Best Editing , and received two further honorary awards for its use of equipment and color ( it also became the first color film to win Best Picture ) . Its record of eight competitive wins stood until Gigi ( 1958 ) won nine , and its overall record of ten was broken by Ben @-@ Hur ( 1959 ) which won eleven . Gone with the Wind also held the record for most nominations until All About Eve ( 1950 ) secured fourteen . It was the longest American sound film made up to that point , and may still hold the record of the longest Best Picture winner depending on how it is interpreted . The running time for Gone with the Wind is just under 221 minutes , while Lawrence of Arabia ( 1962 ) runs for just over 222 minutes ; however , including the overture , intermission , entr 'acte , and exit music , Gone with the Wind lasts for 234 minutes ( although some sources put its full length at 238 minutes ) while Lawrence of Arabia comes in slightly shorter at 232 minutes with its additional components .
Hattie McDaniel became the first African @-@ American to win an Academy Award — beating out her co @-@ star Olivia de Havilland who was also nominated in the same category — but was racially segregated from her co @-@ stars at the awards ceremony at the Coconut Grove ; she and her escort were made to sit at a separate table at the back of the room . Meanwhile , screenwriter Sidney Howard became the first posthumous Oscar winner and Selznick personally received the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award for his career achievements .
= = = African @-@ American reaction = = =
Black commentators criticised the film for its depiction of black people and as a glorification of slavery . Carlton Moss , a black dramatist , complained in an open letter that whereas The Birth of a Nation was a " frontal attack on American history and the Negro people " , Gone with the Wind was a " rear attack on the same " . He went on to dismiss it as a " nostalgic plea for sympathy for a still living cause of Southern reaction " . Moss further criticized the stereotypical black characterizations , such as the " shiftless and dull @-@ witted Pork " , the " indolent and thoroughly irresponsible Prissy " , Big Sam 's " radiant acceptance of slavery " , and Mammy with her " constant haranguing and doting on every wish of Scarlett " . Following Hattie McDaniel 's Oscar win , Walter Francis White , leader of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People , accused her of being an Uncle Tom . McDaniel responded that she would " rather make seven hundred dollars a week playing a maid than seven dollars being one " ; she further questioned White 's qualification to speak on behalf of blacks , since he was light @-@ skinned and only one @-@ eighth black .
Opinion in the black community was generally divided upon release , with the film being called by some a " weapon of terror against black America " and an insult to black audiences , and demonstrations were held in various cities . Even so , some sections of the black community recognized McDaniel 's achievements to be representative of progression : some African @-@ Americans crossed picket lines and praised McDaniel 's warm and witty characterization , while others hoped that the industry 's recognition of her work would lead to increased visibility on screen for other black actors . In its editorial congratulation to McDaniel on winning her Academy Award , Opportunity : A Journal of Negro Life used the film as reminder of the " limit " put on black aspiration by old prejudices . Malcolm X would later recall that " when Butterfly McQueen went into her act , I felt like crawling under the rug " .
= = = Audience response = = =
Upon its release , Gone with the Wind broke attendance records everywhere . At the Capitol Theatre in New York alone , it was averaging eleven thousand admissions per day in late December , and within four years of its release had sold an estimated sixty million tickets across the United States — sales equivalent to just under half the population at the time . It repeated its success overseas , and was a sensational hit during the Blitz in London , opening in April 1940 and playing for four years . By the time MGM withdrew it from circulation at the end of 1943 its worldwide distribution had returned a gross rental ( the studio 's share of the box office gross ) of $ 32 million , making it the most profitable film ever made up to that point .
Even though it earned its investors roughly twice as much as the previous record @-@ holder , The Birth of a Nation , the box @-@ office performances of the two films were likely much closer . The bulk of the earnings from Gone with the Wind came from its roadshow and first @-@ run engagements , which represented 70 percent and 50 percent of the box @-@ office gross respectively , before entering general release ( which at the time typically saw the distributor 's share set at 30 – 35 percent of the gross ) . In the case of The Birth of a Nation , its distributor , Epoch , sold off many of its distribution territories on a " states rights " basis — which typically amounted to 10 percent of the box @-@ office gross — and Epoch 's accounts are only indicative of its own profits from the film , and not the local distributors . Carl E. Milliken , secretary of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors Association , estimated that The Birth of a Nation had been seen by fifty million people by 1930 .
When it was re @-@ released in 1947 , it earned an impressive $ 5 million rental in the United States and Canada , and was one of the top ten releases of the year . Successful re @-@ releases in 1954 and 1961 enabled it to retain its position as the industry 's top earner , despite strong challenges from more recent films such as Ben @-@ Hur , but it was finally overtaken by The Sound of Music in 1966 . The 1967 reissue was unusual in that MGM opted to roadshow it , a decision that turned it into the most successful re @-@ release in the history of the industry . It generated a box @-@ office gross of $ 68 million , making it MGM 's most lucrative picture after Doctor Zhivago from the latter half of the decade . MGM earned a rental of $ 41 million from the release , with the U.S. and Canadian share amounting to over $ 30 million , placing it second only to The Graduate for that year . Including its $ 6 @.@ 7 million rental from the 1961 reissue , it was the fourth highest @-@ earner of the decade in the North American market , with only The Sound of Music , The Graduate and Doctor Zhivago making more for their distributors . A further re @-@ release in 1971 allowed it to briefly recapture the record from The Sound of Music , bringing its total worldwide gross rental to about $ 116 million by the end of 1971 — more than trebling its earnings from its initial release — before losing the record again the following year to The Godfather .
Across all releases , it is estimated that Gone with the Wind has sold over 200 million tickets in the United States and Canada , and 35 million tickets in the United Kingdom , generating more theater admissions in those territories than any other film . In total , Gone with the Wind has grossed over $ 390 million globally at the box office ; in 2007 Turner Entertainment estimated the gross to be equivalent to approximately $ 3 @.@ 3 billion when adjusted for inflation to current prices , while Guinness World Records arrived at a figure of $ 3 @.@ 44 billion in 2014 , making it the most successful film in cinema history .
The film remains immensely popular with audiences into the 21st century , having been voted the most popular film in two nationwide polls of Americans undertaken by Harris Interactive in 2008 , and again in 2014 . The market research firm surveyed over two thousand U.S. adults , with the results weighted by age , sex , race / ethnicity , education , region and household income so their proportions matched the composition of the adult population .
= = = Critical re @-@ evaluation = = =
In revisiting the film in the 1970s , Arthur Schlesinger noted that Hollywood films generally age well , revealing an unexpected depth or integrity , but in the case of Gone with the Wind time has not treated it kindly . Richard Schickel posits that one measure of a film 's quality is to ask what you can remember of it , and the film falls down in this regard : unforgettable imagery and dialogue are simply not present . Stanley Kauffmann , likewise , also found the film to be a largely forgettable experience , claiming he could only remember two scenes vividly . Both Schickel and Schlesinger put this down to it being " badly written " , in turn describing the dialogue as " flowery " and possessing a " picture postcard " sensibility . Schickel also believes the film fails as popular art , in that it has limited rewatch value — a sentiment that Kauffmann also concurs with , stating that having watched it twice he hopes " never to see it again : twice is twice as much as any lifetime needs " . Both Schickel and Andrew Sarris identify the film 's main failing is in possessing a producer 's sensibility rather than an artistic one : having gone through so many directors and writers the film does not carry a sense of being " created " or " directed " , but rather having emerged " steaming from the crowded kitchen " , where the main creative force was a producer 's obsession in making the film as literally faithful to the novel as possible .
Sarris concedes that despite its artistic failings , the film does hold a mandate around the world as the " single most beloved entertainment ever produced " . Judith Crist observes that , kitsch aside , the film is " undoubtedly still the best and most durable piece of popular entertainment to have come off the Hollywood assembly lines " , the product of a showman with " taste and intelligence " . Schlesinger notes that the first half of the film does have a " sweep and vigor " that aspire to its epic theme , but — finding agreement with the film 's contemporary criticisms — the personal lives take over in the second half , and it ends up losing its theme in unconvincing sentimentality . Kauffmann also finds interesting parallels with The Godfather , which had just replaced Gone with the Wind as the highest @-@ grosser at the time : both were produced from " ultra @-@ American " best @-@ selling novels , both live within codes of honor that are romanticized , and both in essence offer cultural fabrication or revisionism .
The critical perception of the film has shifted in the intervening years , which resulted in it being ranked 235th in Sight & Sound 's prestigious decennial critics poll in 2012 , and in 2015 sixty @-@ two international film critics polled by the BBC voted it the 97th best American film .
= = = Industry recognition = = =
The film has featured in several high @-@ profile industry polls : in 1977 it was voted the most popular film by the American Film Institute ( AFI ) , in a poll of the organization 's membership ; the AFI also ranked the film fourth on its " 100 Greatest Movies " list in 1998 , with it slipping down to sixth place in the tenth anniversary edition in 2007 . Film directors ranked it 322nd in the 2012 edition of the decennial Sight & Sound poll , and in 2016 it was selected as the ninth best " directorial achievement " in a Directors Guild of America members poll . In 2014 , it placed fifteenth in an extensive poll undertaken by The Hollywood Reporter , which ballotted every studio , agency , publicity firm and production house in the Hollywood region . Gone with the Wind was selected for preservation in the U.S. National Film Registry in 1989 .
= = Analysis = =
= = = Racial criticism = = =
Gone with the Wind has been criticized as having perpetuated Civil War myths and black stereotypes . David Reynolds writes that " The white women are elegant , their menfolk noble or at least dashing . And , in the background , the black slaves are mostly dutiful and content , clearly incapable of an independent existence . " Reynolds likened Gone with the Wind to The Birth of a Nation and other re @-@ imaginings of the South during the era of segregation , in which white Southerners are portrayed as defending traditional values and the issue of slavery is largely ignored . The film has been described as a " regression " that promotes the myth of the black rapist and the honourable and defensive role of the Ku Klux Klan during Reconstruction , and as a " social propaganda " film offering a " white supremacist " view of the past . From 1972 to 1996 , the Atlanta Historical Society held a number of Gone with the Wind exhibits , among them a 1994 exhibit titled , " Disputed Territories : Gone with the Wind and Southern Myths " . One of the questions explored by the exhibit was " How True to Life Were the Slaves in GWTW ? " This section showed slave experiences were diverse and concluded that the " happy darky " was a myth , as was the belief that all slaves experienced violence and brutality .
Despite factual inaccuracies in its depiction of the Reconstruction period , it nevertheless reflects contemporary interpretations common throughout the early 20th century . One pervasive viewpoint argued by academics is reflected in a brief scene in which Mammy fends off a leering freedman : a government official can be heard offering bribes to the emancipated slaves for their votes . The clear inference is that freedmen are ignorant about politics and unprepared for freedom , unwittingly becoming the tools of corrupt Reconstruction officials . While perpetuating some Lost Cause myths , the film makes concessions in regards to others . After the attack on Scarlett in the shanty town , a group of men including Scarlett 's husband Frank , Rhett Butler and Ashley raid the town ; in the novel they belong to the Ku Klux Klan , representing the common trope of protecting the white woman 's virtue , but the filmmakers consciously neutralize the presence of the Klan in the film by referring to it only as a " political meeting " .
Thomas Cripps has argued that the film in some respects undercuts racial stereotypes ; in particular , the film created greater engagement between Hollywood and black audiences , with dozens of movies making small gestures in recognition of the emerging trend . Only a few weeks after its initial run , a story editor at Warner wrote a memo to Walter Wanger about Mississippi Belle , a script that contained the worst excesses of plantation films , suggesting that Gone with the Wind had made the film " unproducible " . More than any film since The Birth of a Nation , it unleashed a variety of social forces that foreshadowed an alliance of white liberals and blacks who encouraged the expectation that blacks would one day achieve equality . According to Cripps , the film eventually became a template for measuring social change .
= = = Depiction of marital rape = = =
One of the most notorious and widely condemned scenes in Gone with the Wind depicts what is now legally defined as " marital rape " . The scene begins with Scarlett and Rhett at the bottom of the staircase , where he begins to kiss her , refusing to be told ' no ' by the struggling and frightened Scarlett ; Rhett overcomes her resistance and carries her up the stairs to the bedroom , where the audience is left in no doubt that she will " get what 's coming to her " . The next scene , the following morning , shows Scarlett glowing with barely suppressed sexual satisfaction ; Rhett apologizes for his behavior , blaming it on his drinking . The scene has been accused of combining romance and rape by making them indistinguishable from each other , and of reinforcing a notion about forced sex : that women secretly enjoy it , and it is an acceptable way for a man to treat his wife .
Molly Haskell has argued that nevertheless , women are mostly uncritical of the scene , and that by and large it is consistent with what women have in mind when they fantasize about being raped . Their fantasies revolve around love and romance rather than forced sex ; they assume that Scarlett was not an unwilling sexual partner and wanted Rhett to take the initiative and insist on having sexual intercourse .
= = Legacy = =
= = = In popular culture = = =
Gone with the Wind and its production have been explicitly referenced , satirized , dramatized and analyzed on numerous occasions across a range of media , from contemporaneous works such as Second Fiddle — a 1939 film spoofing the " search for Scarlett " — to current television shows , such as The Simpsons . The Scarlett O 'Hara War ( a 1980 television dramatization of the casting of Scarlett ) , Moonlight and Magnolias ( a 2007 play by Ron Hutchinson that dramatizes Ben Hecht 's five @-@ day re @-@ write of the script ) , and " Went with the Wind ! " ( a sketch on The Carol Burnett Show that parodied the film in the aftermath of its television debut in 1976 ) are among the more noteworthy examples of its enduring presence in popular culture . It was also the subject of a 1988 documentary , The Making of a Legend : Gone with the Wind , detailing the film 's difficult production history . In 1990 , the United States Postal Service issued a stamp depicting Clark Gable and Vivien Leigh embracing in a scene from the film .
= = = Sequel = = =
Following publication of her novel , Margaret Mitchell was inundated with requests for a sequel but claimed to not have a notion of what happened to Scarlett and Rhett , and that she had " left them to their ultimate fate " . Mitchell continued to resist pressure from Selznick and MGM to write a sequel until her death in 1949 . In 1975 , her brother , Stephens Mitchell ( who assumed control of her estate ) , authorized a sequel to be jointly produced by MGM and Universal Studios on a budget of $ 12 million . Anne Edwards was commissioned to write the sequel as a novel which would then be adapted into a screenplay , and published in conjunction with the film 's release . Edwards submitted a 775 @-@ page manuscript entitled Tara , The Continuation of Gone with the Wind , set between 1872 and 1882 focusing on Scarlett 's divorce from Rhett ; MGM was not satisfied with the story and the deal collapsed .
The idea was revived in the 1990s , when a sequel was finally produced in 1994 , in the form of a television miniseries . Scarlett was based upon the novel by Alexandra Ripley , itself a sequel to Mitchell 's book . British actors Joanne Whalley and Timothy Dalton were cast as Scarlett and Rhett , and the series follows Scarlett 's relocation to Ireland after again becoming pregnant by Rhett .
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= Richard Tomlinson =
Richard John Charles Tomlinson ( born 13 January 1963 ) is a former officer of the British Secret Intelligence Service ( MI6 ) . He believes he was subject to unfair dismissal from MI6 in 1995 , and attempted to take his former employer to a tribunal . MI6 refused , arguing that to do so would breach state security , although Tomlinson disputed this reasoning .
In 1997 , Tomlinson was imprisoned under the Official Secrets Act 1989 after he gave a synopsis of a proposed book detailing his career with MI6 to an Australian publisher . He served six months of a twelve @-@ month sentence before being given parole , whereupon he left the country . The book , named The Big Breach , was published in Moscow in 2001 ( and later in Edinburgh ) , and was subsequently serialised by The Sunday Times . The book detailed various aspects of MI6 operations , alleging that it employed a mole in the German Bundesbank and that it had a " licence to kill " , the latter later confirmed by the head of MI6 at a public hearing .
Tomlinson then attempted to assist Mohamed al @-@ Fayed in his privately funded investigation into the death of Diana , Princess of Wales and al @-@ Fayed 's son Dodi . Tomlinson claimed that MI6 had considered assassinating Slobodan Milošević , the president of Serbia , by staging a car crash using a powerful strobe light to blind the driver . He suggested that Diana and Dodi may have been killed by MI6 in the same way , although that claim was dismissed at their inquest in 2007 . MI6 admitted that plans of that nature had been drafted regarding a different Eastern European official , but that the proposal had been swiftly rejected by management .
In 2009 , MI6 agreed to allow Tomlinson to return to Britain , unfreeze royalties from his book and drop the threat of charges . MI6 also apologised for his mistreatment . Since 2000 , staff at MI6 have been allowed employment tribunals , and have been able to unionise since 2008 .
= = Early life = =
Richard John Charles Tomlinson was born in Hamilton , New Zealand , and raised in the nearby town of Ngaruawahia . He was the middle child in a family of three brothers . His father came from a Lancashire farming family and he worked for the Ministry of Agriculture , and had met his wife whilst studying agriculture at Newcastle University . The family moved to Cumbria , England in 1968 . The young Tomlinson won a scholarship for the independent Barnard Castle School in County Durham , where he was a contemporary of Rory Underwood and Rob Andrew , who went on to become England rugby internationals . He excelled at mathematics and physics , and won a scholarship to Gonville and Caius College , Cambridge , in 1981 .
His fellow student , historian Andrew Roberts , remembers Tomlinson as " a bright and charming undergraduate , popular with the boys for his drinking and sporting prowess , and with the girls for his dark good looks . " His friends included Gideon Rachman , who wrote him a reference after his tutor refused to do so . Tomlinson completed flying training with Cambridge University Air Squadron and won a Half Blue for Modern Pentathlon . He graduated from the University of Cambridge with a starred First Class honours degree in aeronautical engineering in 1984 , and was approached by MI6 shortly afterwards , whose offer he turned down . Following his graduation he took examinations to join the Royal Navy as a Fleet Air Arm Officer , but he failed the medical examination due to childhood asthma . Instead he applied for and was awarded a Kennedy Scholarship , which allowed him to study technology policy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology with full funding during 1986 @-@ 7 . Following this , he was awarded a prize from the Rotary Foundation , allowing him to study in the country of his choice for a year . Consequently , he enrolled in a political science course at the University of Buenos Aires , where he became a fluent Spanish speaker . He continued to pursue his aeronautical interests and qualified as a glider pilot with the Fuerza Aérea Argentina . From 1988 @-@ 9 Tomlinson worked in Mayfair , London , for management consultancy company Booz Allen Hamilton .
= = Military and MI6 service = =
Finding his desk job unsatisfying , Tomlinson joined the Territorial Army in September 1989 , and after passing selection , served as a reservist with the SAS in the Artists Rifles , and then 23 SAS , qualifying as a military parachutist and radio operator . He represented Britain in the 1990 Camel Trophy , competing in Siberia , and crossed the Sahara desert solo on a motorcycle . He enjoyed the experience , and subsequently applied to join MI6 , and officially joined the Service on 23 September 1991 . He completed his training with MI6 and claims he was the best recruit on his course , being awarded the rarely given " Box 1 " attribute by his instructing officers including Nicholas Langman .
Tomlinson worked in the " SOV / OPS " department , operating during the ending phases of the Cold War against the Soviet Union . He was posted to a diplomatic role in Moscow , and was one of the agents responsible for the retrieval of the valuable Mitrokhin Archive in 1992 . From March 1992 until September 1993 he worked in the Eastern European Controllerate . Whilst working there , it was discovered that the Conservative Party had been receiving donations from Serbian supporters . In November 1993 he joined the Balkans Controllerate , and was posted to Sarajevo for six months as the MI6 representative in Bosnia during the breakup of the former Yugoslavia . There he was a " targeting officer " , with a mission to identify potential informants and gather intelligence . A soldier who escorted Tomlinson to Bosnia described him as a " liability " , a " sulk " and " totally unprofessional " , although Tomlinson has disputed this .
From 1994 to 1995 Tomlinson worked in the operational counter @-@ proliferation department . His first posting in this capacity was to work as an undercover agent against Iran , where he succeeded in penetrating the Iranian Intelligence Service . He posed as a British businessman , and infiltrated a network of arms dealers that included Nahum Manbar . The British government supplied the Iranians with materials for chemical weapons in order to gain intelligence on Iran 's military programme . Tomlinson 's description of his Iranian activities are generally considered to be true , due to his personal involvement and knowledge of details that only an insider would know .
MI6 dismissed him on 22 May 1995 as he came to the end of his extended probationary period . Tomlinson 's probationary period had been extended over the standard six @-@ month duration due to his senior line manager 's doubts about his personality . Tomlinson claimed that he had become suicidally depressed following the death of his long @-@ term girlfriend from cancer and that he had been suffering from post @-@ traumatic stress after witnessing violence against a civilian during the Siege of Sarajevo , and that MI6 had been ill @-@ equipped to handle his condition . MI6 argued that he was dismissed for " not being a team player , lacking motivation and having a short @-@ term interest in the service " , but later conceded that he had experienced a " personality clash " with his senior line manager . Another reason given for his dismissal was for " going on frolics on his own " . Tomlinson claims that no formal reason for his dismissal was ever given , and that he was mid @-@ assignment when he suddenly found himself barred from entering MI6 headquarters . Friends suggested that he was sacked after he complained about MI6 's " unethical " tactics . Tomlinson argued that his supervisors had unfairly disregarded his personal circumstances . Tomlinson disputed the reasons for and legality of his dismissal and attempted to take MI6 before an employment tribunal . However , MI6 obtained a public @-@ interest immunity certificate from the Foreign Secretary , Malcolm Rifkind . Having no further legal recourse to appeal against his dismissal , Tomlinson left the United Kingdom , and pursued his arguments against MI6 by publishing articles in the international press protesting his treatment , whilst working on a book detailing his career in the Service .
In 1998 , the Parliamentary Intelligence and Security Committee recommended that MI6 should be subject to UK employment law . Since 2000 , employees of MI6 have had the same employment rights as other British citizens , including written contracts and access to employment tribunals . However , MI6 refused to allow these procedures to be applied retroactively to Tomlinson 's case . MI6 have not succeeded in obtaining another PII certificate since the Tomlinson case .
= = The Big Breach = =
Tomlinson moved to the Costa del Sol in Spain for 18 months from early 1996 . Realising that a disgruntled former spy could be problematic for the agency , the aide @-@ de @-@ camp to the head of MI6 was enlisted to attempt to appease Tomlinson in February 1997 . He offered him a £ 15 @,@ 000 loan and a marketing job with Jackie Stewart 's Formula One racing team , in return for a promise of silence . Tomlinson accepted the offer ( he claims under duress ) but retained the job for only a few months before he emigrated to Australia , where his younger brother lived .
Tomlinson returned to Britain , and in October 1997 was arrested and accused of breaking the Official Secrets Act 1989 , after delivering a seven @-@ page synopsis of The Big Breach to the Australian office of Transworld , a British publisher . On 18 December 1997 he was sentenced to 12 months in prison after pleading guilty .
In August 1998 , after serving six months in prison and four months on probation , Tomlinson left the UK to live in exile . He set about completing The Big Breach , which was published in 2001 in Russia . The book alleged that MI6 had infiltrated the German Bundesbank with a mole , and that the Service had a special means of writing in invisible ink . Other revelations were already public knowledge , such as that MI6 recruits are trained at Fort Monckton in Hampshire , and that agents in the field often use the cover of being a journalist .
After the Court of Appeal of England and Wales ruled in his favour , the book was made available in the UK . However following the publication , the British Government obtained a High Court order to confiscate all proceeds from the book , on the grounds that the government owned the copyright to anything written by Tomlinson . In September 2008 , MI6 ended all legal objection to the publication of The Big Breach , released the proceeds from the publication to Tomlinson , and admitted that the organisation 's previous legal actions against him were disproportionate . However , it still refused to reinstate him or compensate him for the loss of his career and pension . Since 2009 , Tomlinson can now travel freely to the UK .
= = = Reception = = =
The Economist criticised the " mess " that MI6 had made in failing to handle the Tomlinson case properly : " Recruiting Mr Tomlinson looks like a bad mistake , and his sacking seems to have been clumsily handled . " The newspaper 's reviewer complained : " there is little useful information in this breathless , whingeing and ill @-@ written volume that a diligent reader of books about spying would not know already . "
Jimmy Burns , reviewing the book for the Financial Times , speculated that it was plausible that " MI6 's senior management realised they had made a terrible mistake in recruiting someone who thought that espionage was just one big adventure . " He concluded , however , that the book " left me with the feeling that the spooks in Whitehall could have avoided a great deal of adverse publicity by agreeing to Tomlinson 's original proposal : an employment tribunal held in camera . "
Former President of South Africa Nelson Mandela reacted angrily to Tomlinson 's accusation in the book that he had a long @-@ standing relationship with MI6 , describing it as a " disgraceful fabrication " . Tomlinson removed the references to Mandela in the British edition of the book , conceding that Mandela was probably unaware that the officials with whom he spoke were affiliated with MI6 .
= = Other alleged breaches and assertions = =
= = = List of MI6 agents = = =
In May 1999 , a list of 116 alleged MI6 agents was sent to the LaRouche movement 's publication Executive Intelligence Review , a weekly magazine which published it online . Its names included Andrew Fulton , who had recently retired , as well as David Spedding and Richard Dearlove . MI6 biographer Stephen Dorril explained that most of the names were " light @-@ cover " sources who worked out of embassies or missions posing as diplomats . Dorril argued , " it is well known that rival intelligence networks know who these people are and accept them . " MI6 claimed that Tomlinson had originated the list , which was something he had previously threatened to do , although he denied responsibility for it , and MI6 were unable to substantiate their accusation .
Tomlinson wrote , " If MI6 had set out to produce a list that caused me the maximum incrimination , but caused them the minimum damage , they could not have done a better job . " He also said , " It mystifies me why MI6 gave the list credibility . If they were really worried about the safety of their agents they could have denied it . " After The Sun newspaper called Tomlinson a " traitor " and published his email address , he received death threats , and fearing for his life , went into hiding for a time . Government officials later conceded that the list did not originate from Tomlinson .
= = = Diana , Princess of Wales = = =
During 2008 , Tomlinson was a witness for the inquest into the deaths of the Princess of Wales and Dodi al Fayed . He had suggested that MI6 was monitoring Diana before her death and that her driver on the night she died , Henri Paul , may have been an MI6 informant , and that her death resembled plans he saw during 1992 for the assassination of Yugoslav President Slobodan Milošević , using a bright light to cause a traffic accident .
At the Coroner 's Inquest into the death of the Princess , on 13 February 2008 , speaking by video @-@ link from France , Tomlinson conceded that , after the interval of 16 or 17 years , he " could not remember specifically " whether the document he had seen during 1992 had in fact proposed the use of a strobe light to cause a traffic accident as a means of assassinating Milošević , although use of lights for this purpose had been covered in his MI6 training . On being told that no MI6 file on Henri Paul had been found , Tomlinson said that it " would be absurd after 17 years to say I can positively disagree with it , but ... I do not think the fact that they did not manage to find a file rules out anything either " . He said he believed MI6 had an informant at the Paris Ritz but he could not be certain that this person was necessarily Henri Paul .
= = Post @-@ MI6 = =
In August 1998 , Tomlinson left the United Kingdom for France , and shortly afterwards moved to New Zealand . Later that month he was deported from the United States , and in October 1998 he moved to Switzerland , before being expelled in June 1999 after the Swiss authorities described his presence there as " undesirable " . He moved to Germany until he was hounded out by officials , whereupon he moved to Italy . In 2001 he left Rimini in Italy , where he had been working as a waiter and a snowboarding instructor , for the south of France near Cannes where he worked as a yacht broker for BCR Yachts . From 2006 @-@ 7 , Tomlinson maintained a series of blogs detailing his treatment . His Riviera home was raided by police in 2006 .
In 2007 government lawyers decided not to prosecute him for publishing The Big Breach . The Crown Prosecution Service said there was no real prospect of conviction in a jury trial , which would reveal " sensitive matters " . In 2009 MI6 agreed to allow Tomlinson to return to Britain , unfreeze royalties from his book and drop the threat of charges if he agreed to stop disclosing information about MI6 and speaking to the media . According to The Sunday Times , MI6 also apologised for its " unfair treatment " of him .
He now lives permanently in France and has retrained as a professional pilot . He has worked as a flying instructor with the Ghana Air Force , and in Nigeria , Kenya and Mexico as a surveillance pilot .
= = Personal life = =
In 1998 , Tomlinson was described as possessing " the air of slight arrogance that goes with good looks , a hard @-@ trained body and a sharp intellect " . The Geneva press reported that he had a " perfect command of [ the ] French [ language ] " .
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= Mysore =
Mysore ( / maɪˈsʊər / ) , officially renamed as Mysuru , is the third most populous city in the state of Karnataka , India . Located at the base of the Chamundi Hills about 146 km ( 91 mi ) southwest of the state capital Bangalore , it is spread across an area of 128 @.@ 42 km2 ( 50 sq mi ) . According to the provisional results of the 2011 national census of India , the population is 887 @,@ 446 . Mysore City Corporation is responsible for the civic administration of the city , which is also the headquarters of the Mysore district and the Mysore division .
Mysore served as the capital city of Kingdom of Mysore for nearly six centuries , from 1399 until 1947 . The Kingdom was ruled by the Wodeyar dynasty , except for a brief period in the late 18th century when Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan were in power . Patrons of art and culture , the Wodeyars contributed significantly to the cultural growth of the city . The cultural ambience and achievements of Mysore earned it the sobriquet Cultural capital of Karnataka .
Mysore is noted for its palaces , including the Mysore Palace , and for the festivities that take place during the Dasara festival when the city receives a large number of tourists . It lends its name to the Mysore style of painting , the sweet dish Mysore Pak , the Mysore Peta ( a traditional silk turban ) and the garment known as the Mysore silk saree . Tourism is the major industry , while information technology has emerged as a major employer alongside the traditional industries . Mysore depends on rail and bus transport for inter @-@ city connections . The city was the location of the first private radio station in India . Mysore houses Mysore University , which has produced several notable authors , particularly in the field of Kannada literature . Cricket is the most popular sport in the city .
= = Etymology = =
The name Mysore is an anglicised version of Mahishūru , which means the abode of Mahisha in the local Kannada language . Though in Sanskrit Mahisha means buffalo , here Mahisha refers to Mahishasura , a mythological demon who could assume the form of both human and buffalo . According to Hindu mythology , the area was ruled by the demon Mahishasura . The demon was killed by the Goddess Chamundeshwari , whose temple is situated atop the Chamundi Hills . Mahishūru later became Mahisūru ( a name which , even now , the royal family uses ) and finally came to be called Maisūru , its present name in the Kannada language .
In December 2005 , the Government of Karnataka announced its intention to change the English name of the city to Mysuru . This was approved by the Government of India , but as of 2011 the formalities necessary to incorporate the name change were yet to be completed . The central government approved this request in October 2014 and Mysore was renamed ( along with other 12 cities ) to " Mysuru " on November 1 , 2014 .
= = History = =
The site where Mysore Palace now stands was occupied by a village named Puragere at the beginning of the 16th century . The Mahishūru Fort was constructed in 1524 by Chamaraja Wodeyar III ( 1513 – 1553 ) , who passed on the dominion of Puragere to his son Chamaraja Wodeyar IV ( 1572 – 1576 ) . Since the 16th century , the name of Mahishūru has commonly been used to denote the city . The Mysore Kingdom , governed by the Wodeyar family , initially served as a vassal state of the Vijayanagara Empire . With the decline of the Vijayanagara Empire after the Battle of Talikota in 1565 , the Mysore Kingdom gradually achieved independence , and by the time of King Narasaraja Wodeyar ( 1637 ) it had become a sovereign state . Seringapatam ( modern @-@ day Srirangapatna ) , near Mysore , was the capital of the kingdom from 1610 . The 17th century saw a steady expansion of its territory and , under Narasaraja Wodeyar I and Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar , the kingdom annexed large expanses of what is now southern Karnataka and parts of Tamil Nadu , to become a powerful state in the southern Deccan .
The kingdom reached the height of its military power and dominion in the latter half of the 18th century under the de facto rulers Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan . The latter demolished parts of Mysore to remove legacies of the Wodeyar dynasty . During this time , Mysore kingdom came into conflict with the Marathas , the British and the Nizam of Golconda , leading to the four Anglo @-@ Mysore wars , success in the first two of which was followed by defeat in the third and fourth . After Tipu Sultan 's death in the Fourth Anglo @-@ Mysore War in 1799 , the capital of the kingdom was moved back to Mysore from Seringapatam , and the kingdom was distributed by the British to their allies of the Fourth Mysore war . The landlocked interior of the previous Mysore Kingdom was turned into a princely state under the suzerainty of the British Crown . The former Wodeyar rulers were reinstated as puppet monarchs , now styled Maharajas . The British administration was assisted locally by Diwan ( chief minister ) Purnaiah . Purnaiah is credited with improving Mysore 's public works . Mysore lost its status as the administrative centre of the kingdom in 1831 , when the British commissioner moved the capital to Bangalore . It regained that status in 1881 and remained the capital of the Princely State of Mysore within the British Indian Empire until India became independent in 1947 .
The Mysore municipality was established in 1888 and the city was divided into eight wards . In 1897 an outbreak of bubonic plague killed nearly half of the population of the city . With the establishment of the City Improvement Trust Board ( CITB ) in 1903 , Mysore became one of the first cities in Asia to undertake planned development of the city . Public demonstrations and meetings were held there during the Quit India movement and other phases of the Indian independence movement .
After Indian independence , Mysore city remained as part of the Mysore State , now known as Karnataka . Jayachamarajendra Wodeyar , then king of Mysore , was allowed to retain his titles and was nominated as the Rajapramukh ( appointed governor ) of the state . He died in September 1974 and was cremated in Mysore city . Over the years , Mysore became well known as a centre for tourism ; the city remained largely peaceful , except for occasional riots related to the Kaveri river water dispute . Among the events that took place in Mysore and made national headlines were a fire at a television studio that claimed 62 lives in 1989 , and the sudden deaths of many animals at the Mysore Zoo .
= = Geography = =
Mysore is located at 12 @.@ 30 ° N 74 @.@ 65 ° E / 12 @.@ 30 ; 74 @.@ 65 and has an average altitude of 770 metres ( 2 @,@ 526 ft ) . It is spread across an area of 128 @.@ 42 km2 ( 50 sq mi ) at the base of the Chamundi Hills in the southern region of Karnataka . Mysore is the southern @-@ most city of Karnataka , and is a neighbouring city of the states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu in the south , flanked by the state cities Mercara , Chamarajanagara , and Mandya . People in and around Mysore extensively use Kannada as medium of language . Mysore has several lakes , such as the Kukkarahalli , the Karanji , and the Lingambudhi lakes . In 2001 , total land area usage in Mysore city was 39 @.@ 9 % residential , 16 @.@ 1 % roads , 13 @.@ 74 % parks and open spaces , 13 @.@ 48 % industrial , 8 @.@ 96 % public property , 3 @.@ 02 % commercial , 2 @.@ 27 % agriculture and 2 @.@ 02 water . The city is located between two rivers : the Kaveri River that flows through the north of the city and the Kabini River , a tributary of the Kaveri , that lies to the south .
= = Climate = =
Mysore has a tropical savanna climate designated Aw under the Köppen climate classification . The main seasons are summer from March to June , the monsoon season from July to November and winter from December to February . The highest temperature recorded in Mysore was 39 @.@ 4 ° C ( 103 ° F ) on 4 April 1914 , and the lowest was 7 @.@ 7 ° C ( 46 ° F ) on 16 January 2012 . The city 's average annual rainfall is 804 @.@ 2 mm ( 31 @.@ 7 in ) .
= = Administration and utilities = =
The civic administration of the city is managed by the Mysore City Corporation , which was established as a municipality in 1888 and converted into a corporation in 1977 . Overseeing engineering works , health , sanitation , water supply , administration and taxation , the corporation is headed by a mayor , who is assisted by commissioners and council members . The city is divided into 65 wards and the council members ( also known as corporators ) are elected by the citizens of Mysore every five years . The council members in turn elect the mayor . The annual budget of the Corporation for the year 2011 – 2012 was ₹ 426 @.@ 96 crore ( US $ 63 @.@ 45 million ) . Among 63 cities covered under the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission , Mysore City Corporation was adjudged the second best city municipal corporation and was given the " Nagara Ratna " award in 2011 .
Urban growth and expansion is managed by the Mysore Urban Development Authority ( MUDA ) , which is headed by a commissioner . Its activities include developing new layouts and roads , town planning and land acquisition . One of the major projects undertaken by MUDA is the creation of an Outer Ring Road to ease traffic congestion . Citizens of Mysore have criticised MUDA for its inability to prevent land mafias and ensure lawful distribution of housing lands among city residents . The Chamundeshwari Electricity Supply Corporation is responsible for electric supply to the city .
Drinking water for Mysore is sourced from the Kaveri and Kabini rivers . The city got its first piped water supply when the Belagola project was commissioned in 1896 . As of 2011 , Mysore gets 42 @.@ 5 million gallons water per day . Mysore sometimes faces water crises , mainly during the summer months ( March – June ) and in years of low rainfall . The city has had an underground drainage system since 1904 . The entire sewage from the city drains into four valleys : Kesare , Malalavadi , Dalavai and Belavatha . In an exercise carried out by the Urban Development Ministry under the national urban sanitation policy , Mysore was rated the second cleanest city in India in 2010 and the cleanest in Karnataka .
The citizens of Mysore elect four representatives to the Legislative assembly of Karnataka through the constituencies of Chamaraja , Krishnaraja , Narasimharaja and Chamundeshwari . Mysore city , being part of the larger Mysore Lok Sabha constituency , also elects one member to the Lok Sabha , the lower house of the Indian Parliament . The politics in the city is dominated by three political parties : the Indian National Congress ( INC ) , the Bharatiya Janata Party ( BJP ) , and the Janata Dal ( Secular ) ( JDS ) .
= = Demographics = =
According to the provisional results of the 2011 census of India , Mysore had a population of 887 @,@ 446 , consisting of 443 @,@ 813 males and 443 @,@ 633 females , making it the third most populous city in Karnataka . The gender ratio of the city is 1000 females to every 1000 males and the population density is 6 @,@ 910 @.@ 5 per square kilometre ( 17 @,@ 898 / sq mi ) . According to the census of 2001 , 76 @.@ 8 % of thepopulatiion are Hindus , 19 % are Muslims , 2 @.@ 8 % are Christians , and the remainder belong to other religions . The population exceeded 100 @,@ 000 in the census of 1931 and grew by 20 @.@ 5 per cent in the decade 1991 – 2001 . As of 2011 , the literacy rate of the city is 86 @.@ 84 per cent , which is higher than the state 's average of 75 @.@ 6 per cent . Kannada is the most widely spoken language in the city . Approximately 19 % of the population live below the poverty line , and 9 % live in slums . According to the 2001 census , 35 @.@ 75 % of the population in the urban areas of Karnataka are workers , but only 33 @.@ 3 % of the population of Mysore are . Members of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled tribes constitute 15 @.@ 1 % of the population . According to the National Crime Records Bureau of India , the number of cognisable crime incidents reported in Mysore during 2010 was 3 @,@ 407 ( second in the state , after Bangalore 's 32 @,@ 188 ) , increasing from 3 @,@ 183 incidents reported in 2009 .
The residents of the city are known as Mysoreans in English and Mysoorinavaru in Kannada . The dispute between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu over the sharing of Kaveri river water often leads to minor altercations and demonstrations in the city . Growth in the information technology industry in Mysore has led to a change in the city 's demographic profile ; likely strains on the infrastructure and haphazard growth of the city resulting from the demographic change have been a cause of concern for some of its citizens .
= = Economy = =
Tourism is the major industry in Mysore . The city attracted about 3 @.@ 15 million tourists in 2010 . Mysore has traditionally been home to industries such as weaving , sandalwood carving , bronze work and the production of lime and salt . The planned industrial growth of the city and the state was first envisaged at the Mysore economic conference in 1911 . This led to the establishment of industries such as the Mysore Sandalwood Oil Factory in 1917 and the Sri Krishnarajendra Mills in 1920 .
For the industrial development of the city , the Karnataka Industrial Areas Development Board ( KIADB ) has established four industrial areas in and around Mysore , in the Belagola , Belawadi , Hebbal and Hootagalli areas . One of the major industrial in the proximity of Mysore is Nanjangud which will be Satellite town to Mysore . Nanjangud industrial area hosts a number of Big industries like Reid and Taylor , Jubiliant , TVS , Asian Paints . Nanjangud Industrial area also boasts being 2nd highest VAT / Sales Tax payer which is about 400 + crores after Peenya which is in state capital Bangalore .
Mysore also hosts many central government organisations like CFTRI , DFRL , CIPET , RPM ( Rare Material Project ) , RBI Note printing Press and RBI Paper Printing Press .
The growth of the information technology industry in the first decade of the 21st century has resulted in the city emerging as the second largest software exporter in Karnataka , next to Bangalore . The city contributed Rs . 1363 crore ( US $ 275 million ) to Karnataka 's IT exports .
Mysore is slowly becoming a consumer city with a very big outside population working with the industries and IT hubs . New housing layouts are appearing every month and the number of supermarkets and other shopping facilities is increasing very fast . Mysore is the cleanest city in India .
= = Education = =
Before the advent of the European system of education in Mysore , agraharas ( Brahmin quarters ) provided Vedic education to Hindus , and madrassas provided schooling for Muslims . Modern education began in Mysore when a free English school was established in 1833 . Maharaja College was founded in 1864 . A high school exclusively for girls was established in 1881 and later converted into the Maharani 's Women 's College . The Industrial School , the first institute for technical education in the city , was established in 1892 ; this was followed by the Chamarajendra Technical Institute in 1913 . While the modern system of education was making inroads , colleges such as the Mysore Sanskrit college , established in 1876 , continued to provide Vedic education . Vivekananda Institute , Mysore is an international organisation giving training to Indians and foreigners in development management .
The education system was enhanced by the establishment of the University of Mysore in 1916 , making it the first outside the British administration in India . Other important institutes are CFTRI , MYRA School of Business ( founded in 2011 ) and Mysore Medical College .
= = Culture = =
Referred to as the cultural capital of South Karnataka , Mysore is well known for the festivities that take place during the period of Dasara , the state festival of Karnataka . The Dasara festivities , which are celebrated over a ten @-@ day period , were first introduced by King Raja Wodeyar I in 1610 . On the ninth day of Dasara , called Mahanavami , the royal sword is worshipped and is taken on a procession of decorated elephants , camels and horses . On the tenth day , called Vijayadashami , the traditional Dasara procession ( locally known as Jumboo Savari ) is held on the streets of Mysore which usually falls in the month of September or October .. the Idol of the Goddess Chamundeshwari is placed on a golden mantapa on the back of a decorated elephant and taken on a procession , accompanied by tabla , dance groups , music bands , decorated elephants , horses and camels . The procession starts from the Mysore Palace and culminates at a place called Bannimantapa , where the banni tree ( Prosopis spicigera ) is worshipped . The Dasara festivities culminate on the night of Vijayadashami with a torchlight parade , known locally as Panjina Kavayatthu .
Mysore is called the City of Palaces because of several ornate examples in the city . Among the most notable are Amba Vilas , popularly known as Mysore Palace ; Jaganmohana Palace , which also serves as an art gallery ; Rajendra Vilas , also known as the summer palace ; Lalitha Mahal , which has been converted into a hotel ; and Jayalakshmi Vilas . The main palace of Mysore was burned down in 1897 , and the present @-@ day structure was built on the same site . Amba Vilas palace exhibits an Indo @-@ Saracenic style of architecture on the outside , but a distinctly Hoysala style in the interior . Even though the Government of Karnataka maintains the Mysore palace , a small portion has been allocated for the erstwhile Royal family to live in . The Jayalakshmi Vilas Mansion was constructed by Sri Chamaraja Wodeyar for his daughter Jayalakshammanni . It is now a museum dedicated to folk culture and artefacts of the royal family .
The Mysore painting style is an offshoot of the Vijayanagar school of painting , and King Raja Wodeyar ( 1578 – 1617 CE ) is credited with having been its patron . The distinctive feature of these paintings is the gesso work , to which gold foil is applied . Mysore is known for rosewood inlay work ; around 4 @,@ 000 craftsmen were estimated to be involved in this art in 2002 . The city lends its name to the Mysore silk saree , a women 's garment made with pure silk and gold zari ( thread ) . Mysore Peta , the traditional indigenous turban worn by the erstwhile rulers of Mysore , is worn by men in some traditional ceremonies . A notable local dessert that traces its history to the kitchen in the Mysore palace is Mysore pak .
Mysore is the location of the International Ganjifa Research Centre , which researches the ancient card game Ganjifa and the art associated with it . The Chamarajendra Academy of Visual Arts ( CAVA ) offers education in visual art forms such as painting , graphics , sculpture , applied art , photography , photojournalism and art history . The Rangayana repertory company performs plays and offers certificate courses in subjects related to theatre . Kannada writers Kuvempu , Gopalakrishna Adiga and U. R. Ananthamurthy were educated in Mysore and served as professors at the Mysore University . R. K. Narayan , a popular English @-@ language novelist and creator of the fictional town of Malgudi , and his cartoonist brother R. K. Laxman spent much of their life in Mysore .
= = Transport = =
= = = Road = = =
Mysore is connected by National Highway NH @-@ 212 to the state border town of Gundlupet , where the road forks into the states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu . State Highway 17 , which connects Mysore to Bangalore , was upgraded to a four @-@ lane highway in 2006 , reducing travel time between the two cities . A project was planned in 1994 to construct a new expressway to connect Bangalore and Mysore . After numerous legal hurdles , it remains unfinished as of 2012 . State Highways 33 and 88 which connect Mysore to H D Kote and Madikeri respectively . The Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation ( KSRTC ) and other private agencies operate buses both within the city and between cities . A new division of KSRTC called Mysore City Transport Corporation ( MCTC ) has been proposed . Within the city , buses are cheap and popular means of transport , auto @-@ rickshaws are also available and tongas ( horse @-@ drawn carriages ) are popular with tourists . Mysore also has a 42 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 26 @.@ 4 mi ) long ring road that is being upgraded to six lanes by the MUDA .
= = = Rail = = =
Mysore railway station has three lines , connecting it to Bangalore , Hassan and Chamarajanagar . The first railway line established in the city was the Bangalore – Mysore Junction metre gauge line , which was commissioned in 1882 . All railway lines that serve the city are single track at some points and the rest of the stretch is double track , impeding faster connections to the city . All trains that connect to Mysore are operated by South Western Railway Zone , Hubli of Indian Railways . The fastest train to serve the city is the Shatabdi Express .
= = = Air = = =
Following three decades of dormancy , Mysore Airport was modernised in the mid @-@ 2000s , reopening to scheduled passenger service in October 2010 . However , airlines have had difficulty maintaining service to the airport . As of July 2016 , the airport is without commercial service .
= = Media = =
Newspaper publishing in Mysore started in 1859 when Bhashyam Bhashyacharya began publishing a weekly newspaper in Kannada called the Mysooru Vrittanta Bodhini , the first of a number of weekly newspapers published in the following three decades . A well @-@ known Mysore publisher during Wodeyar rule was M. Venkatakrishnaiah , known as the father of Kannada journalism , who started several news magazines . Many local newspapers are published in Mysore and carry news mostly related to the city and its surroundings , and national and regional dailies in English and Kannada are available , as in the other parts of the state . Sudharma , the only Indian daily newspaper in Sanskrit , is published in Mysore .
Mysore was the location of the first private radio broadcasting station in India when Akashavani ( voice from the sky ) was established in the city on 10 September 1935 by M.V. Gopalaswamy , a professor of psychology , at his house in the Vontikoppal area of Mysore , using a 50 @-@ watt transmitter . The station was taken over by the princely state of Mysore in 1941 and was moved to Bangalore in 1955 . In 1957 , Akashvani was chosen as the official name of All India Radio ( AIR ) , the radio broadcaster of the Government of India . The AIR station at Mysore broadcasts an FM radio channel at 100 @.@ 6 MHz , and Gyan Vani broadcasts on 105 @.@ 2 . BIG FM and Red FM are the two private FM channels operating in the city .
Mysore started receiving television broadcasts in the early 1980s , when Doordarshan ( public service broadcaster of the Indian government ) started broadcasting its national channel all over India . This was the only channel available to Mysoreans until Star TV started satellite channels in 1991 . Direct @-@ to @-@ home channels are now available in Mysore .
= = Sports = =
The Wodeyar kings of Mysore were patrons of games and sports . King Krishnaraja Wodeyar III had a passion for indoor games . He invented new board games and popularised the ganjifa card game . Malla @-@ yuddha ( traditional wrestling ) has a history in Mysore dating back to the 16th century . The wrestling competition held in Mysore during the Dasara celebrations attracts wrestlers from all over India . An annual sports meeting is organised there during the Dasara season too .
In 1997 Mysore and Bangalore co @-@ hosted the city 's biggest sports event ever , the National Games of India . Mysore was the venue for six sports : archery , gymnastics , equestrianism , handball , table tennis and wrestling . Cricket is by far the most popular sport in Mysore . The city has four established cricket grounds , but is yet to host an international cricket match . Javagal Srinath , who represented India for several years as its frontline fast bowler , comes from Mysore . Other prominent sportsmen from the city are Prahlad Srinath , who has represented India in Davis Cup tennis tournaments ; Reeth Abraham , a national champion in the heptathlon and a long jump record holder ; Sagar Kashyap , the youngest Indian to officiate at the Wimbledon Championships ; and Rahul Ganapathy , a national amateur golf champion . The Mysore race course hosts a racing season each year from August through October . India 's first youth hostel was formed in the Maharaja 's College Hostel in 1949 .
= = Tourism = =
Mysore is a major tourist destination in its own right and serves as a base for other tourist attractions in the vicinity . The city receives large number of tourists during the 10 @-@ day Dasara festival . One of the most visited monuments in India , the Amba Vilas Palace , or Mysore Palace , is the centre of the Dasara festivities . The Jaganmohana Palace , The Sand Sculpture Museum the Jayalakshmi Vilas and the Lalitha Mahal are other palaces in the city . Chamundeshwari Temple , atop the Chamundi Hills , and St. Philomena 's Church , Wesley 's Cathedral are notable religious places in Mysore .
The Mysore Zoo , established in 1892 , the Karanji and Kukkarahalli lakes are popular recreational destinations . Mysore has the Regional Museum of Natural History , the Folk Lore Museum , the Railway Museum and the Oriental Research Institute . The city is a centre for yoga @-@ related health tourism that attracts domestic and foreign visitors , particularly those who , for years , came to study with the late ashtanga yoga guru K. Pattabhi Jois .
A short distance from Mysore city is the Krishnarajasagar Dam and the adjoining Brindavan Gardens , where a musical fountain show is held every evening . Places of historic importance close to Mysore are Srirangapatna , Somanathapura and Talakad . B R Hills , Himavad Gopalaswamy Betta hill and the hill stations of Ooty , Sultan Bathery and Madikeri are close to Mysore . Popular destinations for wildlife enthusiasts near Mysore include the Nagarhole National Park , the wildlife sanctuaries at Melkote and B R Hills and the bird sanctuaries at Ranganathittu and Kokrebellur . Bandipur National Park and Mudumalai National Park , which are sanctuaries for gaur , chital , elephants , tigers , Indian leopards and other threatened species , lie between 40 and 60 mi ( 64 and 97 km ) to the south . Other tourist spots near Mysore include the religious locations of Nanjanagud and Bylakuppe and the waterfalls at Shivanasamudra .
= = Sister cities = =
Mysore is currently twinned with Cincinnati .
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= The Number of the Beast ( album ) =
The Number of the Beast is the third studio album by the English heavy metal band Iron Maiden , released in March 1982 . It was their first release to feature vocalist Bruce Dickinson and their last with the late drummer Clive Burr .
The Number of the Beast met with considerable critical and commercial success and was a landmark release for the band — becoming their first album to reach No. 1 in the UK Albums Chart , and be certified platinum in the US . The album also produced the singles " Run to the Hills " and " The Number of the Beast " , the former of which was the band 's first top @-@ ten UK single . The album was also controversial , particularly in the US , due to the religious nature of its lyrics and its artwork .
Since the release of The Number of the Beast and its subsequent tour , The Beast on the Road , " The Beast " has become an alternate name for Iron Maiden and was later used in the titles of some of their compilations and live releases , including Best of the Beast and Visions of the Beast .
= = Writing and recording = =
The Number of the Beast is Iron Maiden 's only album to include songwriting credits from Clive Burr and was the band 's first album to feature writing by guitarist Adrian Smith . In addition , the release saw Steve Harris adopt a different approach to writing , which would cater more for new vocalist Bruce Dickinson . The album 's producer Martin Birch remarked , " I simply didn 't think [ former vocalist Paul Di 'Anno ] was capable of handling lead vocals on some of the quite complicated directions I knew Steve wanted to explore ... When Bruce joined , it opened up the possibilities for the new album tremendously . "
According to several interviews , Dickinson was heavily involved in writing several of the album 's songs , and in particular the tracks " Children of the Damned " , " The Prisoner " and " Run to the Hills " . Due to his previous band Samson 's ongoing contractual issues , Dickinson could not legally take part in any songwriting for the record , and had to make what he called a " moral contribution " , which meant he was able to influence particular tracks , but not provide enough creative input so as to earn a writing credit . The recording and mixing of the album had to be completed in only five weeks , after the band had spent too long constructing the new songs . This was because the group were for the first time creating a new album from scratch , with very little material written prior to the record 's pre @-@ production stage .
Music press reports told stories of unexplained phenomena occurring during the sessions at Battery Studios , such as lights turning on and off of their own accord and the recording gear mysteriously breaking down . This all climaxed when Birch was involved in a car accident with a mini @-@ bus transporting a group of nuns , after which he was presented with a repair bill for £ 666 .
= = Songs = =
" Run to the Hills " was released as a single on 12 February 1982 , two weeks before Iron Maiden 's UK tour , acting as a preview for the forthcoming album , which would not be released until two days after the British dates ended . Released alongside a music video , made using live footage and clips from Buster Keaton films , the single performed remarkably well , earning the band their first top ten in the UK Singles Chart . As they were rushing to complete the album in time , as well as record and mix the single for an even earlier release , the band hastily selected " Total Eclipse " as the B @-@ side .
As they had written too much material , they had to choose between " Total Eclipse " and " Gangland " for the " Run to the Hills " single release , with the understanding that the other song would make it onto the album . Several band @-@ members have since expressed regret over the decision , with Steve Harris commenting , " We just chose the wrong track as the B @-@ side . I think if ' Total Eclipse ' had been on the album instead of ' Gangland ' it would have been far better . " On top of this , Harris has stated that the record 's opening track , " Invaders " , was not good enough , commenting that it " could have been replaced with something a bit better , only we didn 't have anything else to replace it with at the time . We had just enough time to do what we did , and that was it . "
While the title track was considered by many religious groups in the United States as evidence that Iron Maiden were a Satanic band , the song was in fact inspired by a nightmare bassist Steve Harris had , triggered by watching the film Damien : Omen II late at night . In addition , Harris has stated that the lyrics were also influenced by Robert Burns ' Tam o ' Shanter . The track opens with a spoken introduction from the Book of Revelation , read by actor Barry Clayton . According to Dickinson , the band originally approached actor Vincent Price to record the passage , but asked Clayton after Price insisted on a fee of £ 25 @,@ 000 . Although the liner notes state that the passage is from Revelations 13 : 18 , the first line comes from 12 : 12 .
The closing song " Hallowed Be Thy Name " has remained in all but one of the band 's setlists since the album 's recording ( the only exception being the Maiden England World Tour 2012 – 14 ) . AllMusic describes the track as " perhaps the most celebrated of the band 's extended epics ; it 's the tale of a prisoner about to be hanged , featuring some of Harris ' most philosophical lyrics . " Several band @-@ members have since stated that it is one of their favourite tracks , with Dickinson describing it as " fantastic " and that performing it live is like " narrating a movie to the audience . " A live version of the song was released in 1993 , gaining the band another top ten placement in the UK Singles Chart .
" Children of the Damned " is based on the films Village of the Damned and Children of the Damned , which in turn were adapted from the novel The Midwich Cuckoos by John Wyndham . On his last radio show for BBC Radio 6 , during a segment in tribute to the late Ronnie James Dio , Dickinson mentioned that Children of the Damned was inspired by Black Sabbath 's " Children of the Sea " .
" The Prisoner " was inspired by the British TV show of the same name , and features dialogue from its title sequence . The band 's manager , Rod Smallwood , had to telephone Patrick McGoohan to ask permission to use the audio clips for the song and was extremely hesitant during his conversation with whom Smallwood himself describes as " a real bona fide superstar actor " . McGoohan was reported to have said " What did you say the name was ? A rock band , you say ? Do it . " Iron Maiden later made another song based on the series , " Back in the Village " from 1984 's Powerslave .
" 22 Acacia Avenue " is the second song in the " Charlotte the Harlot " saga , which was originally written by Adrian Smith several years earlier , while playing in his old band , Urchin . According to Smith , Steve Harris remembered hearing the song at an Urchin concert in a local park , and modified it for The Number of the Beast album .
= = Reception and controversy = =
The album was strongly opposed by social conservatives – especially in the United States , where Iron Maiden were accused of being Satanists . Public burnings of the band 's catalogue were organised , although some religious groups smashed the records with hammers , for fear of inhaling fumes from burning vinyl . The Beast on the Road tour was subject to numerous boycotts and demonstrations : venues were sometimes surrounded by activists who handed out leaflets and , in one case , a 25 @-@ foot cross was carried in protest . Harris has stated , " It was mad . They completely got the wrong end of the stick . They obviously hadn 't read the lyrics . They just wanted to believe all that rubbish about us being Satanists . "
Since its release , the album has received consistent critical acclaim , with AllMusic describing it as " among the top five most essential heavy metal albums ever recorded . A cornerstone of the genre . " Sputnikmusic calls it " a classic in the world of metal " , while BBC Music praised the record 's complex arrangements , stating " Whereas even some of the venerable HM institutions ( think Black Sabbath ) would struggle to make material that was something more than a collection of minor @-@ key riffs , Iron Maiden pull this feat off with considerable élan . " Q magazine placed the album at No. 100 in its list of the " 100 Greatest British Albums Ever " in 2000 ; in 2001 named it one of the " 50 Heaviest Albums of All Time " ; and in 2006 placed it at No. 40 in its " 40 Best Albums of the ' 80s " list . IGN and Metal Rules placed it third and second , respectively , in their lists of the Top Heavy Metal Albums , and Guitar World ranked it at No. 17 on their list of " 100 Greatest Guitar Albums of All Time " . Classic Rock placed it at No. 15 in their list of the " 100 Greatest British Rock Albums " , describing it as " the most important metal album of the decade " , and it was voted No. 1 in HMV 's list of " The Best British Albums of the Past 60 Years " in 2012 . The Number of the Beast is one of two Iron Maiden records listed in Robert Dimery 's book , 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die ( 1980 's Iron Maiden being the other ) .
In 2001 , the BBC made a documentary about The Number of the Beast as part of the Classic Albums series , which was released on DVD in the same year .
= = Album artwork = =
Like all of Iron Maiden 's album artwork during the 1980s and early 90s , it was painted by Derek Riggs . The cover was originally created for the song " Purgatory " , but Rod Smallwood deemed it of too high a calibre for a single release and decided to save it for The Number of the Beast album instead . The original 1982 artwork includes a blue sky in the background ; this was a mistake by the printers of the album cover , and was later rectified and became black when the album was remastered for compact disc in 1998 .
The album was also the centre of controversy , particularly in the United States , due to the lyrics of the title track and the cover art depicting Eddie controlling Satan like a puppet , while Satan is also controlling a smaller Eddie . Smallwood explains that the concept was to ask " who 's the really evil one here ? Who 's manipulating who ? " According to Riggs this was inspired by a Doctor Strange comic book " which had some big villain with Doctor Strange dangling on some strings like a puppet , it was something I read as a child back in the 1960s I think " , while the images of hell were " taken from my knowledge of medieval European Christian art which was full of such scenes . "
The album 's cover art has been parodied several times – by crossover thrash band Stormtroopers of Death for the cover art of their 1999 album Bigger than the Devil , and on a T @-@ shirt by Streetwear brand Diamond Supply Co .
= = Versions and performances by other artists = =
On 24 October 2002 , progressive metal outfit Dream Theater played the original album in its entirety at La Mutualite in Paris , France . The performance was recorded and has been released through the band 's YtseJam Records label .
" Run to the Hills " was covered on the tribute album Numbers From The Beast , featuring vocalist Robin McAuley , guitarists Michael Schenker and Pete Fletcher , bassist Tony Franklin and drummer Brian Tichy . A Tribute to the Beast , Vol . 2 features covers of " Children of the Damned " , by Sebastian Bach of Skid Row fame , and " Hallowed Be Thy Name " , by Iced Earth , who have also covered " Hallowed Be Thy Name " and " The Number of the Beast " on their own album , Tribute to the Gods . " Hallowed Be Thy Name " has also been covered by Machine Head on Maiden Heaven : A Tribute To Iron Maiden , which was released by Kerrang ! magazine in 2008 , and by Cradle of Filth , while the title track has also been covered by Djali Zwan on the soundtrack of the film Spun . Acoustic reinterpretations of " Children of the Damned " and " 22 Acacia Avenue " were included on the album Across The Seventh Sea ( 2012 ) by the tribute project Maiden uniteD .
= = Appearances in other media = =
Several of the record 's songs have been used in video games : " Run to the Hills " is featured in SSX On Tour as the opening theme , Grand Theft Auto : Episodes from Liberty City , and a cover version is included in Rock Band , the only song in the game listed as ' Impossible ' for all instruments . In addition , " The Number of the Beast " ( as the original master recording ) , " Run to the Hills " and " Hallowed Be Thy Name " ( the latter being a live recording found on Flight 666 ) were made downloadable to Rock Band on 8 June 2009 . " The Number of the Beast " was also featured in Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock ( master recording ) , and on Tony Hawk 's Pro Skater 4 .
= = Release details and reissues = =
The Number of the Beast was released on 22 March 1982 through EMI and its sister label Capitol in the United States . The album was reissued in 1995 with a bonus CD containing two songs ( " Total Eclipse " , and a live version of " Remember Tomorrow " ) that had been the b @-@ sides of the album 's two singles . The US version of the 1995 reissue incorrectly gives Paul Di 'Anno a song @-@ writing credit for " Total Eclipse " ; the song had actually been written by Harris , Murray , and Burr .
The album was also reissued in 1998 by EMI and Sanctuary / Columbia in the US as an enhanced CD version , which included photos , band history and the music videos for the songs " The Number of the Beast " and " Run to the Hills " , in addition to " Total Eclipse " , which was restored to the album 's track listing ( having been excluded from the original edition due to space constraints ) . This version mistakenly lists the track lengths for " 22 Acacia Avenue " and " The Number of the Beast " as 4 : 49 and 3 : 50 ; they are in fact 6 : 38 and 4 : 51 , respectively .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Steve Harris , except where noted .
= = = Original track listing = = =
= = = 1998 remastered release = = =
= = = 1995 reissue bonus disc = = =
= = Personnel = =
Production and performance credits are adapted from the album liner notes and AllMusic .
Iron Maiden
Bruce Dickinson – lead vocals
Dave Murray – guitar
Adrian Smith – guitar , backing vocals
Steve Harris – bass , backing vocals
Clive Burr – drums
Production
Martin " Farmer " Birch – producer , engineer
Nigel Hewitt @-@ Green – second engineer
Derek Riggs – illustration
Simon Fowler – photography
Ross Halfin – photography
Toshi Yajima – photography
Andre Csillag – photography
Bob Ellis – photography
P.G. Brunelli – photography
Rod Smallwood – management , photography
Simon Heyworth – remastering ( 1998 edition )
Denis O 'Regan – photography ( 1998 edition )
George Chin – photography ( 1998 edition )
= = Chart performance = =
The Number of the Beast was a commercial success , with The New York Times reporting in 2010 that 14 million copies have been sold worldwide . It was the band 's first record to top the UK charts , entering the Top 40 directly at No. 1 on 10 April , maintaining the top position for a further week , and then remaining in the Top 75 for a total of 31 weeks . It entered the Billboard 200 at No. 150 and went on to peak at No. 33 . In addition , the album reached the Top ten in Austria and Sweden , and No. 11 and No. 13 in Canada and Norway , respectively .
It was awarded platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , and received a gold certification by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on 4 October 1983 ( eventually going platinum in 1986 ) . The album reached No. 11 in Germany and was certified gold ten years later , and it received a 3x platinum award in Canada for sales exceeding 300 @,@ 000 units .
The two singles , " Run to the Hills " and the title track , debuted in the UK single charts at No. 7 and No. 18 , respectively . Both songs entered the Irish Singles Chart in the same order , and reached No. 16 and No. 19 .
Singles
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= A History of British Birds ( 1843 ) =
William Yarrell 's A History of British Birds was first published as a whole in three volumes in 1843 , having been serialized , three sheets every two months , over the previous six years . It is not a history of ornithology but a natural history , a handbook or field guide systematically describing every species of bird known to occur in Britain . A separate article of about six pages , containing an image , a description , and an account of worldwide distribution , together with reports of behaviour , is provided for each species .
It quickly became the standard reference work for a generation of British ornithologists , replacing Thomas Bewick 's book of the same name through its increased scientific accuracy , but following Bewick in its mixture of scientific data , accurate illustrations , detailed descriptions and varied anecdotes , as well as in the use of small ' tail @-@ piece ' engravings at the ends of articles . This made the book attractive to the public as well as to specialists . Yarrell , a newsagent without university education , corresponded widely with eminent naturalists including Carl Linnaeus , Coenraad Jacob Temminck and Thomas Pennant to collect accurate information on the hundreds of species illustrated in the work .
The book is illustrated with over 500 drawings directly onto wood blocks , mostly by Alexander Fussell . These were then engraved by John Thompson . Publication was initially in 37 parts of three large folded sheets each ; these were then collected and bound into volumes . Most of the copies were on octavo paper ; some " large paper " format copies were printed in the larger royal octavo with just 50 copies in the very large imperial octavo format . Four editions were produced between 1843 and 1885 .
= = Approach = =
Yarrell was aware of earlier bird handbooks , especially Bewick 's . A History of British Birds used the same title as Bewick 's popular book ( 1797 – 1804 ) . Its approach , however , was significantly different in the extensiveness of Yarrell 's correspondence and in the increased emphasis on scientific accuracy made possible by the rapid advance in ornithological knowledge in the nineteenth century .
= = = Correspondence and specimens = = =
Yarrell corresponded widely , consulted existing handbooks of birds , and made use of his membership of the Zoological Society of London and the Linnean Society to find out about recent discoveries . He referenced the work of , amongst others , the ornithologists William Macgillivray , John James Audubon , George Montagu , Prideaux John Selby , Leonard Jenyns , John Gould , Temminck , Nicholas Aylward Vigors and Heinrich von Kittlitz . During the six years of writing , with the regular publication of three @-@ sheet instalments of his Birds , many people across Britain and Europe sent him descriptions , observations and specimens for him to include , and the book is full of references to such contributions . Yarrell explicitly states in his Preface that
During these six years many occurrences of rare birds , and of some that were even new to Britain , became known to me , either by the communications of private friends and correspondents , or from the examination of the various periodical works which give publicity to such events .
In some cases , Yarrell 's correspondents and reference books enable him to add an account of a bird 's distribution around the world . For the ringed plover , for example , Sven Nilsson speaks for Sweden and the Baltic coast ; Mr Hewitson for Norway ; Carl Linnaeus for Lapland ; a Mr Scoresby for Iceland and Greenland ; the zoologist Thomas Pennant for Russia and Siberia ; the archaeologist Charles Fellows for Asia Minor [ Turkey ] , and Coenraad Jacob Temminck for Japan . In the case of the wood sandpiper , Dr. Calvert sent a specimen from Malta ; Selby and Dr. Andrew Smith , specimens from South Africa ; others from India ; Gould " mentions having seen skins " from " Chili and the Islands of the Pacific " . Yarrell also describes his own observations , in this case with the words " It [ the wood sandpiper ] is far from being numerous in the localities where I met with it ... Although I met with the young in a downy state , and partially feathered , I only obtained one nest with eggs . "
= = = Structure = = =
Yarrell broadly follows the lead of Bewick in describing each species in a separate section , with essentially no introduction . The first bird , the Egyptian vulture , is preceded by nothing more than the Index ( there is no table of contents ) and the heading " British Birds " , though there is an introductory paragraph on page 2 , inside the Egyptian vulture article . Like Bewick , Yarrell 's sections begin with a large wood engraving , depicting the species against a more or less realistic background : that of the Egyptian vulture shows a pyramid and a pair of laden camels . An immediate difference from Bewick is the list of Latin names that follows , with Vultur percnopterus ( Bewick ) , Neophron percnopterus ( Selby , Jenyns , Eyton , and Gould ) , and Cathartes percnopterus ( Temminck ) . This care reflects both the rapidly advancing state of ornithology in the early nineteenth century , and Yarrell 's more scientific approach .
The account of the first species of each genus , such as the Neophron genus of vultures , includes a paragraph on " Generic Characters " , describing the beak , legs , wings and any distinguishing features useful for identification . These features are often small , requiring examination or measurement of specimens in the hand , reflecting the fact , repeated many times in the book , that those interested in birds shot them to collect unusual specimens . The Egyptian vulture was recorded from a specimen in Somerset , England , " now in the possession of the Rev. A. Mathew , of Kilve in Somersetshire , [ which ] was shot near that place in October 1825 . " The bird was one of a pair , but the other was too wary to be captured . Yarrell then proceeds to describe where the bird can be found , its behaviour and diet , and its detailed appearance . The Egyptian vulture takes up six pages , which is typical ; the golden eagle gets eight pages , the hobby only four .
Also like Bewick , many articles end with a tail @-@ piece , a small engraving , but here again Yarrell shows himself to be both more serious and less merely decorative than Bewick , with more information to impart . The Egyptian vulture article ends with a large and accurate engraving of another specimen , so the article shows both a young and an old bird , with clearly different plumage which is also described in the text .
= = = Descriptions = = =
As well as straightforward details of each bird , Yarrell adds many stories , chosen from his own experience , from his correspondents , or from often recently published accounts , to enliven the description of each species according to his taste .
For example , the " Fulmar Petrel " quotes John Macgillivray 's article " in a recent number of the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal " , describing a visit to St Kilda in June 1840 , for a page and a half . It begins :
This bird exists here in almost incredible numbers , and to the natives is by far the most important of the productions of the island ... [ They ] daily risk their lives in its pursuit . The Fulmar breeds on the face of the highest precipices , and only on such as are furnished with small grassy shelves , every spot on which , above a few inches in extent , is occupied with one or more of its nests ... The young birds were very clamorous on being handled , and vomited a quantity of clear oil ... which imparts to the whole bird , its nest and young , and even to the rock which it frequents , a peculiar and very disagreeable odour . Fulmar oil is among the most valuable productions of St Kilda . The best is obtained from the old bird . The Fulmar flies with great buoyancy and considerable rapidity , and when at sea is generally seen skimming along the surface of the waves at a slight elevation ...
Macgillivray is similarly relied upon for accounts of the pink @-@ footed goose and the goosander as far as the Hebrides are concerned .
As with Bewick , Yarrell is unsentimental about hunting . Landrails or corncrakes " are considered most delicate as articles of food , and in such high estimation , that two Landrails are said to be a present for a queen . " But he constantly provides accurate stories that inform and entertain the reader :
Mr Jesse .. says : — A gentleman had a Corn Crake brought to him by his dog , to all appearance quite dead . As it lay on the ground , he turned it over with his foot , and was convinced it was dead . Standing by , however , in silence , he suddenly saw it open an eye . He then took it up ; its head fell ; its legs hung loose , and it appeared again quite dead . He then put it in his pocket , and before long he felt it all alive , and struggling to escape . He then took it out ; it was as lifeless as before . Having laid it again upon the ground and retired to some distance , the bird in about five minutes warily raised its head , looked round , and decamped at full speed .
= = Observations = =
In addition to the work of collating descriptions and commissioning drawings and engravings , Yarrell also made his own scientific observations of certain topics , including the description of the trachea of several species , and a detailed account , occupying seven pages , of the skull , jaw , musculature , and feeding behaviour of the common crossbill , Loxia curvirostra . The article for the crossbill is one of the longest in the book , at 20 pages . Yarrell introduces his special interest in this bird 's head as follows :
The peculiar formation and direction of the parts of the beak in the Crossbill , its anomalous appearance , as well as the particular and powerful manner in which it is exercised , had long excited in me a desire to examine the structure of an organ so curious , and the kindness of a friend supplied me with the means .
Yarrell at once goes on to explain that the crossbills are unique in making use of " any lateral motion of the mandibles , and it is my object here to describe the bony structure and muscles by which this peculiar and powerful action is obtained . " He explains the anatomy and how the jaws are closed , and then how their unique side @-@ to @-@ side motion is achieved :
When the lateral motion is required , the great pyramidal muscle on the right side pulls the extremity of the lower jaw , to which it is attached backwards ; the pterygoid muscle of the left side at the same time powerfully assisting by carrying that side of the lower jaw inwards .
He then quotes a Mr. Townson 's account of how crossbills feed on pine cones , inserting their beaks between the scales and then forcing them sideways , opening the cone . Yarrell then immediately returns to anatomy , describing in detail ( nearly a page ) how the tongue is used to extract the seed from between the cone scales . Only then does he return to Mr. Townson , quoting him as saying " The degree of the lateral power is surprising , and they are fond of exercising it for amusement ; they are , therefore , not a little mischievous . My pets would often come to my table whilst I was writing , and carry off my pencils ... and tear them to pieces in a minute . " Yarrell then adds an observation of his own , and contradicts an opinion of a famous scientist : " Notwithstanding Buffon 's assertion to the contrary , they can pick up and eat the smallest seeds ... so perfect and useful is this singular instrument . " He goes on to criticise Buffon 's description of the crossbill 's beak as " an error and defect of Nature , and a useless deformity " as " an erroneous and hasty conclusion " . Yarrell concludes by writing " I have never met with a more interesting , or more beautiful example , of the adaptation of means to an end , than is to be found in the beak , the tongue , and their muscles , in the Crossbill " .
= = Illustrations = =
Alexander Fussell created most of the drawings for the book . Yarrell thanks Fussell in his Preface for " nearly five hundred of the drawings on wood here employed " , and John Thompson ( 1785 – 1866 ) and his sons for the " very long series of engravings " of the drawings . He also thanks his printers , Messrs. Bentley , Wilson and Fley for their care and skill . The pen for the remaining drawings , if any ( the title page asserts there are 520 in the book ) , is not stated . As well as the figures of birds , there are 59 tail @-@ pieces ( following Bewick , small woodcuts to fill in the spaces at ends of articles ) , of which some are whimsical , like Bewick 's , but many illustrate anatomical details , especially breastbones and windpipes , and others , although decorative , realistically depict aspects of bird behaviour or human interaction with birds . For example , the tail @-@ piece for the " Jack Snipe " shows a bittern among reeds , swallowing a frog , while that for the " Common Bittern " shows " a mode of shooting an Eagle from a pit " .
Fussell 's work began in 1837 and continued for six years . Many of the drawings were from skins or stuffed specimens , though every bird species is illustrated with a lifelike drawing of the bird standing ( or rarely , flying or swimming ) in a natural setting . Additional drawings depict nests , feathers , and details of bird anatomy including feet , breastbones , and windpipes . Simon Holloway suggests that Fussell and the engravers Charles Thompson and sons probably made all the illustrations for the first three editions of Yarrell 's Birds . Only in the fourth , rewritten edition of 1871 – 85 were illustrations by other artists ( Charles Whymper , J. G. Keulemans , Edward Neale ) added . Some of the bird figures , such as " The Snowy Owl " and " Richard 's Pipit " in Volume 1 , are signed " A. FUSSEL DEL . " ( A. Fussel drew this ) , but most are entirely unsigned . Some few , such as " The Black Redstart " and " The Common Cuckoo " , are signed " THOMPSON DEL ET SC . " ( Thompson drew and cut this ) , so in these cases Fussell was not involved .
= = Contents = =
The first edition was organized as follows into four " Orders " of birds . These do not correspond exactly with later taxonomy of the class .
= = = Volume 1 = = =
Preface ( pages v @-@ xii )
Index ( pages xiii @-@ xxxii )
Raptores [ Raptors ] ( Egyptian Vulture - Tengmalm 's Owl )
Insessores [ Perchers ] ( Great Grey Shrike - Mountain Linnet , or Twite )
= = = Volume 2 = = =
Insessores ( continued , Bullfinch - Nightjar )
Rasores ( The Ring Dove , or Wood Pigeon - Little Bustard )
Grallatores [ Waders ] ( Cream @-@ coloured Courser - Purple Sandpiper )
= = = Volume 3 = = =
Grallatores ( continued , Collared Pratincole - Red @-@ necked Phalarope )
Natatores [ Swimmers ] ( Grey @-@ legged Goose - Storm Petrel )
= = Reception = =
Contemporaries enjoyed Yarrell 's Birds , which sold well through various editions . In The Birds of Shakespeare ( 1871 ) , James Edmund Harting notes that " an excellent dissertation on the organ of voice in the raven will be found in the second volume of Yarrell 's ' British Birds ' " , and Harting refers to Yarrell when he needs ornithological facts .
Thomas R Forbes , in his biographical paper on Yarrell , writes that " All [ editions of Birds ] are outstanding because of the author 's clear , narrative style , accuracy , careful scholarship , and unassuming charm . "
Simon Holloway , in his Historical Atlas of Breeding Birds in Britain and Ireland 1875 – 1900 , writes that Yarrell 's Birds was " far more thoroughly dealt with than in Bewick 's work and , once again , was liberally illustrated with wood @-@ engravings " . He adds that the book was " also hugely influential in its day " , being " reasonably cheap " , and that it was the book that the future authors of " the county avifaunas were bought as children and remained their standard textbook " , i.e. that Yarrell influenced a whole generation of ornithological authors in Britain . Holloway used Yarrell 's figures to accompany the account of each species of bird in his Historical Atlas .
The Soffer Ornithology Collection at Amherst College observes that " Yarrell 's History was the standard illustrated British bird book of the 19th century and one of the historically great ornithological works . In well chosen prose , Yarrell provides synonymy , generic characters , a description with measurements , local and general distribution and a life history including nidification and eggs and arrival and departure times for each species . The wood engraved text figures have never been surpassed using this technique in terms of accuracy and artistic merit . " Soffer suggests that the " fourth edition is perhaps the best , embellished as it is by contributions from Alfred Newton and Howard Saunders " .
In Ornithology in Scotland , Yarrell 's Birds is described as " written by an Englishman and illustrated in a manner calculated to attract the non @-@ scientific ornithologist right at the opening of the era of the great Victorian naturalists " . It eclipsed the unfortunate MacGillivray , whose British Birds in contrast " never achieved real popularity " , partly because it was illustrated strictly technically , and partly because it appeared at the same time as the first part of Yarrell 's work .
The bookseller Isabelline Books argues that " Yarrell ’ s History [ of British Birds ] probably contains the richest collection of colour descriptions in any bird book in the English language " , with " various parts of the Bee @-@ Eater described as verditer blue , saffron @-@ yellow , chestnut , duck @-@ green , verdigris @-@ green , buff , greyish @-@ brown and fawn colour . The Roller as berlin @-@ blue , brownish @-@ yellow , coppery @-@ purple and light cinnamon . The Spotted Eagle as chocolate @-@ brown , pale wood @-@ brown and reddish liver @-@ brown . The Golden Oriole had lead @-@ colour toes , other parts oil @-@ green , brocoli @-@ brown and wine @-@ yellow . The Cuneate @-@ Tailed Gull was smoke @-@ brown and pearl @-@ grey , the Turnstone had ferruginus portions , the Little Auk was livid @-@ brown and sooty @-@ brown , while the American Bittern was leaden @-@ brown . The variations in these terms seems to be inexhaustable . They can now be considered a curiousity [ sic ] , somewhat romantic or just pure pedantry on the author ’ s part . But it was a serious attempt to try to define quite subtle colourings . "
= = In culture = =
Yarrell 's Birds was mentioned in a well @-@ known letter to The Times in 1913 , when a Fellow of the Royal Society , the naturalist and paleontologist Richard Lydekker , wrote on 6 February that he had heard a cuckoo , explaining that though contrary to Yarrell 's statement that records of the bird calling as early as March " must be treated with suspicion , if not with incredulity " , it was a definite fact . Six days later on 12 February 1913 , Lydekker wrote again , confessing that " the note was uttered by a bricklayer 's labourer " . Letters about the first cuckoo became a tradition in the newspaper .
= = Editions = =
Birds was first published " in thirty @-@ seven parts of three sheets each , at intervals of two months ; the first Part was issued in July 1837 , and the last in May 1843 . " The sheets were then collected into three volumes , with the addition of " many occurrences of rare birds , and of some that were even new to Britain " . The additional birds were listed and briefly described in the Preface , and " the new subjects have been engraved on single leaves , so paged , that the bookbinder may insert these separate leaves among the birds of the genus to which each respectively belongs . "
The book came out in three different formats . The smallest is " octavo " ; the two " large paper " formats are " royal octavo " and " imperial octavo " . A supplement appeared in 1845 ; it was bound into the third volume of the rare " imperial octavo " edition of 1845 , of which only 50 copies were printed .
The fourth edition was revised and extended by the ornithologists Alfred Newton and Howard Saunders , with some additional illustrations bringing the total number of engravings up to 564 .
First edition , 1843 . 3 volumes . John Van Voorst , London .
--- Supplement to first edition , 1845 .
Second edition , 1845 .
Third edition , 1856 . Edited by Howard Saunders .
Fourth edition , 4 volumes . I , 1871 – 1874 . II , 1876 – 1882 . III , 1882 – 1884 . IV , 1884 – 1885 . Edited by Howard Saunders .
= = Tail @-@ pieces = =
Yarrell 's tail @-@ pieces , small engravings fitted into spaces at the ends of articles , follow the tradition established by Bewick , but differ in rarely being whimsical . Many are secondary illustrations showing details of bird anatomy or features useful in identification .
= = = Primary = = =
This list identifies the places in Yarrell 's book where the quotations come from .
= = = Secondary = = =
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= Interstate 476 =
Interstate 476 ( I @-@ 476 ) is a 132 @.@ 1 @-@ mile ( 212 @.@ 59 km ) auxiliary Interstate Highway in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania designated between Interstate 95 near Chester and Interstate 81 near Scranton , serving as the primary north – south Interstate corridor through eastern Pennsylvania . It consists of both the 20 @-@ mile ( 32 @.@ 19 km ) Mid @-@ County Expressway , locally referred to as the " Blue Route " ( although no signs exist with that designation ) , through the suburban Philadelphia @-@ area counties of Delaware and Montgomery , and the 110 @.@ 6 @-@ mile ( 177 @.@ 99 km ) Northeast Extension of the Pennsylvania Turnpike connecting the Philadelphia metropolitan area with the Lehigh Valley , the Poconos , and the Wyoming Valley . The Blue Route passes through suburban areas , while the Northeast Extension predominantly runs through rural areas of mountains and farmland , with development closer to Philadelphia and in the Lehigh Valley and the Wyoming Valley . I @-@ 476 intersects many major roads including Interstate 76 ( the Schuylkill Expressway ) in West Conshohocken , Interstate 276 ( the Pennsylvania Turnpike ) in Plymouth Meeting , U.S. Route 22 near Allentown , and Interstate 80 near Hickory Run State Park .
While proposed as early as 1929 , the construction of the Mid @-@ County Expressway through did not begin until 1967 and was not completed until 1991 due to massive community and environmental opposition during the freeway revolts of the 1960s and 1970s , leading The Philadelphia Inquirer to dub it " the most costly , most bitterly opposed highway in Pennsylvania history . " In order to get the route through Delaware County , it was built with many environmental compromises such as a parkway design and four lanes south of the Pennsylvania Route 3 interchange . The Mid @-@ County Expressway received its " Blue Route " nickname from the chosen route through Delaware County on planning maps on which it was differentiated from the other proposed routes by its color .
Following the completion of the Mid @-@ County Expressway , in 1996 the Interstate 476 designation was extended to include the entire length of the existing Northeast Extension , replacing PA 9 . The Northeast Extension was built between 1955 and 1957 and was originally projected to continue past Clarks Summit to the New York border ; however , I @-@ 81 was built between these two points instead . Since the extension , I @-@ 476 has been the longest auxiliary Interstate Highway in the United States . In fact , it is longer than some mainline interstates such as Interstate 83 in Maryland and Pennsylvania , Interstate 99 in Pennsylvania , Interstate 12 in Louisiana , Interstate 19 in Arizona , Interstate 97 in Maryland , and Interstate 2 in Texas . Additionally , its numbering is unusual since auxiliary interstates beginning in even numbers are typically bypasses or loops rather than spurs . I @-@ 476 may be surpassed by Interstate 369 in Texas if I @-@ 369 is extended to the Gulf of Mexico .
= = Route description = =
= = = Blue Route = = =
The portion of Interstate 476 between Interstate 95 and Interstate 276 runs north – south through Delaware and Montgomery Counties and is officially known as the Mid @-@ County Expressway and the Veterans Memorial Highway , as well as by the nickname the " Blue Route " . The road 's southern terminus is at a junction with Interstate 95 near Chester , a city southwest of Philadelphia , near Philadelphia International Airport . Heading north , the road immediately narrows to a four @-@ lane parkway north of Exit 1 , MacDade Boulevard . It winds through the western Philadelphia suburbs of Wallingford and Swarthmore , where I @-@ 476 comes to an interchange with Baltimore Pike . From here , the freeway continues north to Springfield , where it meets U.S. Route 1 at a three @-@ level diamond interchange .
Past US 1 , I @-@ 476 continues through wooded suburban areas and interchanges with Pennsylvania Route 3 in Broomall , where it widens to six lanes . The route continues to Radnor Township , on the Main Line , where it interchanges with U.S. Route 30 . Stone monuments , including a large stone cairn atop a hill and a large crushed @-@ stone image of a mythological griffin on a hillside , were constructed at the Route 30 interchange to commemorate Radnor 's history as part of the Welsh Tract . Proceeding northward , the route enters Montgomery County and comes to an interchange with Interstate 76 ( Schuylkill Expressway ) at West Conshohocken . After crossing the Schuylkill River on the Pearl Harbor Memorial Bridge , the freeway heads into Plymouth Township , where it interchanges with Ridge Pike and Germantown Pike before coming to the Mid @-@ County Interchange with the Pennsylvania Turnpike in Plymouth Meeting . The entire length of the Blue Route is designated the Blue Route Scenic Byway , a Pennsylvania Scenic Byway .
= = = Northeast Extension = = =
Beyond the Mid @-@ County Interchange , Interstate 476 enters the Pennsylvania Turnpike system , interchanging with Interstate 276 and continuing north as the Northeast Extension of the Pennsylvania Turnpike . The route continues through the Philadelphia suburbs interchanging with Pennsylvania Route 63 near Lansdale . Past this interchange , the route enters a more rural setting of woods and farms , crossing into Bucks County and coming to an interchange with Pennsylvania Route 663 near Quakertown . The Northeast Extension continues into Lehigh County , part of the Lehigh Valley metropolitan area , past the PA 663 interchange . Here , it interchanges with U.S. 22 ( Lehigh Valley Thruway ) near Allentown , which offers an indirect connection to Pennsylvania Route 309 and Interstate 78 .
North of Allentown , the route runs through more farmland before passing under the Blue Mountain in the Lehigh Tunnel and entering Carbon County in the Poconos . Here , I @-@ 476 crosses over the Lehigh River and interchanges with U.S. 209 near Lehighton . Continuing through mountainous areas , it has an E @-@ ZPass @-@ only exit for Pennsylvania Route 903 and cuts through Hickory Run State Park before interchanging with Interstate 80 and Pennsylvania Route 940 just to the north of the state park . The route continues through mountainous terrain , heading into Luzerne County and coming to an interchange with Pennsylvania Route 115 in Bear Creek that provides access to nearby Wilkes @-@ Barre . The route comes to a toll barrier near Pittston that marks the northern end of the toll ticket system in the Northeast Extension . A short distance later , an interchange with Pennsylvania Route 315 provides indirect access to Interstate 81 and Scranton . Past this interchange , I @-@ 476 enters Lackawanna County and crosses built @-@ up areas of the Wyoming Valley as it skirts around Scranton , with a mainline toll plaza and an exit to Keyser Avenue . North of Scranton in Clarks Summit , the route comes to a hairpin curve and ends at an interchange with connections to Interstate 81 , U.S. Route 6 and U.S. Route 11 . US 6 joins the turnpike for less than a quarter mile to connect between I @-@ 81 and US 11 . As this is north of the Clarks Summit toll plaza , no toll is collected on this short segment .
= = Tolls = =
The Northeast Extension of the Pennsylvania Turnpike uses the ticket system method of tolling between the Mid @-@ County and Wyoming Valley toll plazas along with the mainline Pennsylvania Turnpike . With the ticket system , a motorist receives a ticket upon entering the turnpike at an interchange and pays the fare and surrenders the ticket upon exiting . If a motorist loses the ticket , the turnpike charges the highest fare to the exit where the motorist leaves . Mainline toll plazas are also located at Keyser Avenue and Clarks Summit , charging a flat rate . There are no tolls on exit ramps between Wyoming Valley and Clarks Summit . E @-@ ZPass is accepted at all toll plazas . As of 2016 , it costs a passenger vehicle $ 11 @.@ 40 to travel the length of the Northeast Extension between Mid @-@ County and Wyoming Valley using cash and $ 8 @.@ 06 using E @-@ ZPass . The Keyser Avenue and Clarks Summit toll plazas cost $ 1 @.@ 35 using cash and $ 0 @.@ 76 using E @-@ ZPass for passenger vehicles .
The tickets along the Northeast Extension of the Pennsylvania Turnpike were originally handed out by person . In 1987 , machines started to replace humans in distributing tickets . In 1990 , an electronic toll collection system was proposed for the Pennsylvania Turnpike , where a motorist would create an account and use an electronic device that would be read from an electronic tollbooth . The motorist would be billed later . The multi @-@ state electronic tolling system , which was to be called E @-@ ZPass , was planned to be implemented by 1998 . The planned installation date was later pushed back to 2000 . On December 2 , 2000 , E @-@ ZPass debuted along the Northeast Extension of the Pennsylvania Turnpike between Mid @-@ County and Lehigh Valley . On December 15 , 2001 , E @-@ ZPass was extended to include the entire length of the Northeast Extension of the Pennsylvania Turnpike . Commercial vehicles were allowed to start using E @-@ ZPass on December 14 , 2002 .
On November 24 , 2004 , the day before Thanksgiving , 2 @,@ 000 Teamsters Union employees went on strike , after contract negotiations failed . This was the first strike in the history of the roadway . As this is usually one of the busiest traffic days in the United States , to avoid traffic jams , tolls were waived for the rest of the day . Starting on November 25 , turnpike management personnel collected flat @-@ rate passenger tolls of $ 2 and commercial tolls of $ 15 from cash customers on the ticketed system , while E @-@ ZPass customers were charged the lesser of the actual toll or the same flat rates . The strike ended after seven days when both sides reached an agreement on November 30 . Normal toll collection resumed December 1 .
The turnpike commission announced plans to consider eliminating manned toll booths in favor of all @-@ electronic tolls . With this , tolls will be paid using either E @-@ ZPass or credit cards . Drivers unable to pay by either of these methods will be billed in the mail using license plate recognition ; an additional surcharge will be applied . In addition to E @-@ ZPass , the turnpike commission offered other automated options to pay for tolls such as using a prepaid account that utilizes license plate recognition . McCormick Taylor and Wilbur Smith Associates have been hired to conduct a feasibility study on converting the road to all @-@ electronic tolls .
On March 6 , 2012 , the turnpike commission announced that it was going forward with an all @-@ electronic tolling plan . Such a plan will take at least five years to implement to allow time for equipment to be installed and the reconfiguration of ramps . It will save the turnpike commission $ 65 million a year on labor costs by eliminating toll collectors . The plans call for a 76 % surcharge for motorists who do not have E @-@ ZPass that are billed by mail . This surcharge could raise the toll for someone without E @-@ ZPass to $ 53 @.@ 10 to travel the entire turnpike .
= = Services = =
= = = Emergency assistance and information = = =
The Northeast Extension has a callbox every mile for its entire length . Motorists may also dial * 11 on their mobile phones . First responder services are available to all turnpike customers via the State Farm Safety Patrol program . The safety patrol program , which is free , looks for disabled motorists , debris , and accidents along the roadway and provides assistance . The patrol service is available 24 hours every day of the year . Each patrol vehicle covers a 20 @-@ to @-@ 25 @-@ mile ( 32 to 40 km ) stretch of the turnpike . Towing services are available from authorized service garages located near the highway . Pennsylvania State Police Troop T patrols the Pennsylvania Turnpike Northeast Extension . It has headquarters in Highspire and a substation at Pocono .
The Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission broadcasts current roadway , traffic , and weather conditions via " Highway Advisory Radio " transmitters at each exit . Broadcasts are available on AM 1640 and can be received approximately two miles away from each exit . Motorists can also receive alerts and information via the internet , mobile phone , a hotline , and message boards at service plazas through the Turnpike Roadway Information Program ( TRIP ) .
= = = Service plazas = = =
The Northeast Extension of the Pennsylvania Turnpike has 2 service plazas . The service plazas offer various fast food restaurants such as Burger King , Roy Rogers , Famous Famiglia Pizzeria , Auntie Anne 's , Hershey 's Ice Cream , and Starbucks , and a gift shop . Each service plaza also has a Sunoco gas station and an A @-@ Plus convenience store . Other amenities are available such as an ATM , pay phone , picnic areas , restrooms , tourist information , and Wi @-@ Fi . The Allentown plaza contains a seasonal farmers market .
In 2006 , HMSHost was awarded a contract to reconstruct the service plazas along the turnpike . The reconstruction of the service plazas , which is to cost $ 150 million , will include a food court layout and modernized restrooms . Sunoco will continue to operate the gas stations at the renovated service plazas . The Allentown service plaza was rebuilt between September 2007 and May 2008 while the Hickory Run service plaza was rebuilt between January 2009 and November 2010 .
= = History = =
= = = Mid @-@ County Expressway = = =
Originally planned as far back as 1929 , the Mid @-@ County Expressway was later proposed by the Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission as the " Chester Extension " of the Pennsylvania Turnpike in 1954 . After the advent of the Interstate Highway System , the project was transferred to the Pennsylvania Department of Highways to be built as part of the system , designating it first as Interstate 495 , and later as Interstate 480 , as I @-@ 76 was designated as I @-@ 80S at the time . The present @-@ day I @-@ 476 designation was assigned on February 6 , 1964 when I @-@ 80S was renumbered as I @-@ 76 .
The road received its nickname from a 1958 location report indicating various proposed geographic configurations of an expressway through Delaware County with lines of various colors on a map . The " blue route " through the Crum Creek valley won out over other contenders , which included a more easterly " red route " and " yellow route " and a more westerly " green route " .
As one of the most controversial Interstate Highways in Pennsylvania , construction of I @-@ 476 began in 1967 , but was not completed until 1991 between MacDade Boulevard ( Exit 1 ) and Interstate 76 ( Exit 16 ) , and until 1992 between Germantown Pike east / Chemical Road ( Exit 19 ) and Interstate 276 / Pennsylvania Turnpike ( Exit 20 ) , due to litigation between the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation and several communities in the road 's path over environmental concerns . However , the section of Interstate 476 ( south end of I @-@ 476 ) between I @-@ 95 and MacDade Blvd . ( Exit 1 ) was opened in 1987 , but signage labeled it as a route " To MacDade Blvd " until 1991 when I @-@ 476 / The Blue Route was opened between Exits 1 and 16 , and connected with the short existing section of roadway dating back to 1979 from Exit 16 @-@ Exit 19 .
An agreement in 1985 led to many environmental compromises in the road 's design , including a downsized four @-@ lane design south of Pennsylvania Route 3 , ramp meters , and federal scenic route status , prohibiting the erection of advertisement billboards along the entire freeway portion . While the redesigned highway was largely well @-@ received , the constriction to four lanes has led to bottleneck conditions in the area , and many communities that originally opposed the road have now called for its widening . The Philadelphia Inquirer dubbed I @-@ 476 " the most costly , most bitterly opposed highway in Pennsylvania history " due to the decades of opposition it garnered .
The road is currently undergoing a complete rehabilitation project , including paving , bridge repair , and ramp maintenance of the entire length of the freeway between Interstate 95 and the Pennsylvania Turnpike .
The section between I @-@ 95 and I @-@ 76 was completed in 2007 and the section between I @-@ 76 and I @-@ 276 was completed in the end of 2011 .
= = = Northeast Extension history = = =
In 1953 , an extension of the Pennsylvania Turnpike from the mainline near Philadelphia north through Northeastern Pennsylvania to the New York border near Binghamton was proposed . Groundbreaking for the Northeastern Extension occurred on March 25 , 1954 in White Haven , with Governor John S. Fine and commission chairman Thomas J. Evans present . The Northeast Extension was planned to run from the mainline Pennsylvania Turnpike in Plymouth Meeting north to a temporary terminus at Scranton . In April 1954 , $ 233 million in bonds were issued to build the Northeastern Extension along with the Delaware River Bridge on the mainline Pennsylvania Turnpike . The Northeast Extension was built with a 4 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) median in order to save money . Due to the mountainous terrain it passed through , a large amount of earthwork was necessary to build the road along with the construction of large bridges . Among the bridges built was the 1 @,@ 632 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 497 m ) Clark 's Summit Bridge over US 6 / US 11 , which was the tallest bridge on the Pennsylvania Turnpike system at 135 feet ( 41 m ) . The Northeast Extension also included the two @-@ lane Lehigh Tunnel through Blue Mountain . The tunnel was originally going to be named for commission chairman Evans , but was changed when he was convicted of conspiracy to defraud the commission of $ 19 million ( equal to $ 134 @,@ 839 @,@ 321 today ) .
The roadway opened between Plymouth Meeting and the Lehigh Valley interchange near Allentown on November 23 , 1955 . The highway was extended north to Emerald on December 28 , 1955 . The Northeast Extension was opened between Emerald and Wyoming Valley on April 1 , 1957 . The entire length of the Northeast Extension was finished on November 7 , 1957 with the completion of the northernmost part between Wyoming Valley and Scranton . The part of the Northeast Extension between Scranton and the New York border would not be built as part of the Pennsylvania Turnpike system but rather the Interstate Highway System as I @-@ 81 . At the northern terminus , the Northeast Extension narrowed to two lanes along the northbound off @-@ ramp at Scranton to come to its northern terminus , with an abandoned short spur of the mainline heading north . A pair of trumpet interchanges were built to connect the Northeast Extension and I @-@ 81 . In 1980 , the roadway would be designated PA 9 .
When it first opened , traffic on the Northeast Extension of the Pennsylvania Turnpike was light . By the 1970s , traffic along the roadway would increase with the completion of the connecting I @-@ 80 and the rising popularity of the Poconos as a vacation destination . As a result , the two @-@ lane Lehigh Tunnel faced serious congestion . Plans were made to either bypass the tunnel or add a second tube . The turnpike commission decided it would build a second tunnel as the cost was lower than building a bypass . In 1988 , a $ 37 million contract was awarded to build the second tube . Groundbreaking for the tunnel took place on February 14 , 1989 , with Governor Robert P. Casey in attendance . Excavation of the new tunnel began in July of that year . Construction of the second tube utilized the New Austrian Tunnelling method , which reduced the cost of the tunnel by $ 5 to $ 6 million . It was the first tunnel in the United States to use this construction method . The second tube at Lehigh Tunnel opened on November 22 , 1991 , with Governor Casey in attendance leading a line of antique cars . Construction of the tunnel cost $ 45 million . The new tube is used for southbound traffic while the original tube carries northbound traffic . The newer tunnel is wider , higher , and brighter than the original .
On February 1 , 1995 , the Keyser Avenue interchange near Scranton was slated to open at a cost of $ 22 @.@ 4 million . Construction of this interchange also involved constructing a new mainline flat @-@ rate toll barrier near the new interchange .
On November 1 , 1996 , the Northeast Extension was added to the Interstate Highway System as an extension of I @-@ 476 , replacing the PA 9 designation along the road . The addition of the second tube at the Lehigh Tunnel along with new guardrails and line striping was necessary for the toll road to become an Interstate . It was hoped that the Interstate designation would bring economic development and tourism to the areas served by the roadway . This extension resulted in I @-@ 476 surpassing the 120 @-@ mile ( 190 km ) I @-@ 495 in Massachusetts as the longest auxiliary Interstate Highway .
In 2007 , the turnpike commission announced plans to widen the Northeast Extension to six lanes between Mid @-@ County and Lansdale . In January 2008 , work began on the replacement of two bridges over the Northeast Extension to accommodate the widened highway . The widening was originally expected to be complete in 2013 ; however , construction fell a year behind schedule . Construction on the southern section of the widening project between Mid @-@ County and Lansdale began in January 2011 was finished in October 2014 while work on the northern portion started in May 2014 and will be finished by the end of 2016 . Following the completion of widening this section , the portion of the roadway from Lansdale to Quakertown will be widened to six lanes . In spring 2013 , replacement of bridges began between mileposts 31 and 38 , with work on the actual widening to begin in fall 2016 .
In 1990 , plans were made to build an interchange at PA 903 in Carbon County . A bill authorizing construction of this interchange was signed into law by Governor Casey in July of that year . Plans for this interchange were cancelled by the turnpike commission in 1995 . In 2006 , plans for an interchange at PA 903 were resurrected , with the proposed interchange to be all @-@ electronic , in that it will only accept E @-@ ZPass . Construction on the $ 23 million interchange began in the middle of 2008 . The interchange opened to traffic on June 30 , 2015 .
On April 28 , 2016 , plans were announced for a " Scranton Beltway " to use I @-@ 476 as a bypass for I @-@ 81 around the heavily congested segment through Scranton and its suburbs . The turnpike between the two I @-@ 81 interchanges carries an average of 10 @,@ 000 vehicles per day vs. 70 @,@ 000 on the parallel segment of I @-@ 81 . This project will build two high @-@ speed connections between I @-@ 476 and I @-@ 81 : one south of Scranton in Dupont and one north of Scranton in South Abington Township . Tolls on the connections will be paid with E @-@ ZPass or toll @-@ by @-@ plate . Construction on this project , which is expected to cost $ 160 million , could begin as soon as 2021 .
= = Exit list = =
The old exit numbers ( 31 and upward ) on the turnpike Northeast Extension were a continuation of old exit numbers 1 through 30 on the east @-@ west turnpike . On the east @-@ west turnpike , the interchange with I @-@ 476 was old exit 25A because it was between old exits 25 and 26 on the east – west turnpike .
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= Aspirin =
Aspirin , also known as acetylsalicylic acid ( ASA ) , is a medication , often used to treat pain , fever , and inflammation . Aspirin is also used long @-@ term , at low doses , to help prevent heart attacks , strokes , and blood clot formation in people at high risk of developing blood clots . Low doses of aspirin may be given immediately after a heart attack to prevent clotting and reduce the risk of another heart attack or the death of heart tissue . Aspirin may be effective at preventing certain types of cancer , particularly colorectal cancer .
The main side effects of aspirin are gastric ulcers , stomach bleeding , and ringing in the ears , especially with higher doses . While daily aspirin can help prevent a clot @-@ related stroke , it may increase risk of a bleeding stroke ( hemorrhagic stroke ) . In children and adolescents , aspirin is not recommended for flu @-@ like symptoms or viral illnesses , because of the risk of Reye 's syndrome .
Aspirin is part of a group of medications called nonsteroidal anti @-@ inflammatory drugs ( NSAIDs ) , but differs from most other NSAIDs in the mechanism of action . The salicylates have similar effects ( antipyretic , anti @-@ inflammatory , analgesic ) to the other NSAIDs and inhibit the same enzyme cyclooxygenase ( COX ) , but aspirin does so in an irreversible manner and , unlike others , affects the COX @-@ 1 variant more than the COX @-@ 2 variant of the enzyme . Aspirin also has an antiplatelet effect by stopping the binding together of platelets .
The therapeutic properties of willow tree bark have been known for at least 2 @,@ 400 years , with Hippocrates prescribing it for headaches . Salicylic acid , the active ingredient of aspirin , was first isolated from the bark of the willow tree in 1763 by Edward Stone of Wadham College , University of Oxford . Felix Hoffmann , a chemist at Bayer , is credited with the synthesis of aspirin in 1897 , though whether this was of his own initiative or under the direction of Arthur Eichengrün is controversial . Aspirin is one of the most widely used medications in the world with an estimated 40 @,@ 000 tonnes of it being consumed each year . In countries where " Aspirin " is a registered trademark owned by Bayer , the generic term is acetylsalicylic acid ( ASA ) . It is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines , the most important medications needed in a basic health system . As of 2015 the cost for a typical month of medication in the United States is less than US $ 25 .
= = Medical use = =
Aspirin is used in the treatment of a number of conditions , including fever , pain , rheumatic fever , and inflammatory diseases , such as rheumatoid arthritis , pericarditis , and Kawasaki disease . Lower doses of aspirin have also shown to reduce the risk of death from a heart attack , or the risk of stroke in some circumstances . There is some evidence that aspirin is effective at preventing colorectal cancer , though the mechanisms of this effect are unclear .
= = = Pain = = =
Aspirin is an effective analgesic for acute pain , but is generally considered inferior to ibuprofen for the alleviation of pain because aspirin is more likely to cause gastrointestinal bleeding . Aspirin is generally ineffective for those pains caused by muscle cramps , bloating , gastric distension , or acute skin irritation . As with other NSAIDs , combinations of aspirin and caffeine provide slightly greater pain relief than aspirin alone . Effervescent formulations of aspirin , such as Alka @-@ Seltzer or Blowfish , relieve pain faster than aspirin in tablets , which makes them useful for the treatment of migraines . Topical aspirin may be effective for treating some types of neuropathic pain .
= = = = Headache = = = =
Aspirin , either by itself or in a combined formulation , effectively treats certain types of a headache , but its efficacy may be questionable for others . Secondary headaches , meaning those caused by another disorder or trauma , should be promptly treated by a medical provider .
Among primary headaches , the International Classification of Headache Disorders distinguishes between tension headache ( the most common ) , migraine , and cluster headache . Aspirin or other over @-@ the @-@ counter analgesics are widely recognized as effective for the treatment of tension headache .
Aspirin , especially as a component of an acetaminophen / aspirin / caffeine , is considered a first @-@ line therapy in the treatment of migraine , and comparable to lower doses of sumatriptan . It is most effective at stopping migraines when they are first beginning .
= = = Fever = = =
Like its ability to control pain , aspirin 's ability to control fever is due to its action on the prostaglandin system through its irreversible inhibition of COX . Although aspirin 's use as an antipyretic in adults is well @-@ established , many medical societies and regulatory agencies ( including the American Academy of Family Physicians , the American Academy of Pediatrics , and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) ) strongly advise against using aspirin for treatment of fever in children because of the risk of Reye 's syndrome , a rare but often fatal illness associated with the use of aspirin or other salicylates in children during episodes of viral or bacterial infection . Because of the risk of Reye 's syndrome in children , in 1986 , the FDA required labeling on all aspirin @-@ containing medications advising against its use in children and teenagers .
= = = Inflammation = = =
Aspirin is used as an anti @-@ inflammatory agent for both acute and long @-@ term inflammation , as well as for treatment of inflammatory diseases , such as rheumatoid arthritis .
= = = Heart attacks and strokes = = =
Aspirin is an important part of the treatment of those who have had a myocardial infarction ( heart attack ) . One trial found that among those likely having a ST @-@ segment elevation MI , aspirin saves the life of 1 in 42 by reducing the 30 @-@ day death rate from 11 @.@ 8 % to 9 @.@ 4 % . There was no difference in major bleeding , but there was a small increase in minor bleeding amounting to roughly 1 in every 167 people given aspirin .
= = = = High risk = = = =
For people who have already had a heart attack or stroke , taking aspirin daily for two years prevented 1 in 50 from having a cardiovascular problem ( heart attack , stroke , or death ) , but also caused non @-@ fatal bleeding problems to occur in 1 of 400 people .
= = = = Lower risk = = = =
Studies have not found an overall benefit in the general population of healthy people , although it is possible that there are small benefits for those at especially high risk , despite never having had a heart attack or stroke in the past . One study found that among those who have never had a heart attack or stroke , taking aspirin daily for 1 year prevents 1 in 1 @,@ 667 from having a non @-@ fatal heart attack or stroke , but caused 1 in 3 @,@ 333 to have a non @-@ fatal bleeding event . However , the people looked at were at relatively higher risk than most people who have never had a heart attack or stroke .
Aspirin appears to offer little benefit to those at lower risk of heart attack or stroke — for instance , those without a history of these events or with pre @-@ existing disease . Some studies recommend aspirin on a case @-@ by @-@ case basis , while others have suggested the risks of other events , such as gastrointestinal bleeding , were enough to outweigh any potential benefit , and recommended against using aspirin for primary prevention entirely . Aspirin has also been suggested as a component of a polypill for prevention of cardiovascular disease .
Complicating the use of aspirin for prevention is the phenomenon of aspirin resistance . For people who are resistant , aspirin 's efficacy is reduced . Some authors have suggested testing regimens to identify people who are resistant to aspirin .
= = = = After surgery = = = =
After percutaneous coronary interventions ( PCIs ) , such as the placement of a coronary artery stent , a U.S. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality guideline recommends that aspirin be taken indefinitely . Frequently , aspirin is combined with an ADP receptor inhibitor , such as clopidogrel , prasugrel , or ticagrelor to prevent blood clots . This is called dual antiplatelet therapy ( DAPT ) . United States and European Union guidelines disagree somewhat about how long , and for what indications this combined therapy should be continued after surgery . U.S. guidelines recommend DAPT for at least 12 months , while EU guidelines recommend DAPT for 6 – 12 months after a drug @-@ eluting stent placement . However , they agree that aspirin be continued indefinitely after DAPT is complete .
= = = Cancer prevention = = =
Aspirin is thought to reduce the overall risk of both getting cancer and dying from cancer . This effect is particularly beneficial for colorectal cancer ( CRC ) . It may also slightly reduce the risk of endometrial cancer , breast cancer , and prostate cancer .
Some conclude the benefits are greater than the risks due to bleeding in those at average risk . Other are unclear if the benefits are greater than the risk . Given this uncertainty , the 2007 United States Preventive Services Task Force guidelines on this topic recommended against the use of aspirin for prevention of CRC in people with average risk .
= = = Other uses = = =
Aspirin is a first @-@ line treatment for the fever and joint @-@ pain symptoms of acute rheumatic fever . The therapy often lasts for one to two weeks , and is rarely indicated for longer periods . After fever and pain have subsided , the aspirin is no longer necessary , since it does not decrease the incidence of heart complications and residual rheumatic heart disease . Naproxen has been shown to be as effective as aspirin and less toxic , but due to the limited clinical experience , naproxen is recommended only as a second @-@ line treatment .
Along with rheumatic fever , Kawasaki disease remains one of the few indications for aspirin use in children in spite of a lack of high quality evidence for its effectiveness .
Low @-@ dose aspirin supplementation has moderate benefits when used for prevention of pre @-@ eclampsia .
= = = Resistance = = =
For some people , aspirin does not have as strong an effect on platelets as for others , an effect known as aspirin resistance or insensitivity . One study has suggested women are more likely to be resistant than men , and a different , aggregate study of 2 @,@ 930 patients found 28 % were resistant . A study in 100 Italian patients , though , found , of the apparent 31 % aspirin @-@ resistant subjects , only 5 % were truly resistant , and the others were noncompliant . Another study of 400 healthy volunteers found no subjects who were truly resistant , but some had " pseudoresistance , reflecting delayed and reduced drug absorption " .
= = = Dosage = = =
Adult aspirin tablets are produced in standardised sizes , which vary slightly from country to country , for example 300 mg in Britain and 325 mg ( or 5 grains ) in the United States . Smaller doses are based on these standards , e.g. , 75 mg and 81 mg tablets . The 81 mg ( 11 ⁄ 4 @-@ grain ) tablets are commonly called " baby aspirin " or " baby @-@ strength " , because they were originally — but no longer — intended to be administered to infants and children . No medical significance occurs due to the slight difference in dosage between the 75 mg and the 81 mg tablets .
In general , for adults , doses are taken four times a day for fever or arthritis , with doses near the maximal daily dose used historically for the treatment of rheumatic fever . For the prevention of myocardial infarction ( MI ) in someone with documented or suspected coronary artery disease , much lower doses are taken once daily .
Recommendations from the USPSTF on the use of aspirin for the primary prevention of coronary heart disease encourage men aged 45 – 79 and women aged 55 – 79 to use aspirin when the potential benefit of a reduction in MI for men or stroke for women outweighs the potential harm of an increase in gastrointestinal hemorrhage . The WHI study said regular low dose ( 75 or 81 mg ) aspirin female users had a 25 % lower risk of death from cardiovascular disease and a 14 % lower risk of death from any cause . Low @-@ dose aspirin use was also associated with a trend toward lower risk of cardiovascular events , and lower aspirin doses ( 75 or 81 mg / day ) may optimize efficacy and safety for patients requiring aspirin for long @-@ term prevention .
In children with Kawasaki disease , aspirin is taken at dosages based on body weight , initially four times a day for up to two weeks and then at a lower dose once daily for a further six to eight weeks .
= = Adverse effects = =
= = = Contraindications = = =
Aspirin should not be taken by people who are allergic to ibuprofen or naproxen , or who have salicylate intolerance or a more generalized drug intolerance to NSAIDs , and caution should be exercised in those with asthma or NSAID @-@ precipitated bronchospasm . Owing to its effect on the stomach lining , manufacturers recommend people with peptic ulcers , mild diabetes , or gastritis seek medical advice before using aspirin . Even if none of these conditions is present , the risk of stomach bleeding is still increased when aspirin is taken with alcohol or warfarin . Patients with hemophilia or other bleeding tendencies should not take aspirin or other salicylates . Aspirin is known to cause hemolytic anemia in people who have the genetic disease glucose @-@ 6 @-@ phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency , particularly in large doses and depending on the severity of the disease . Use of aspirin during dengue fever is not recommended owing to increased bleeding tendency . People with kidney disease , hyperuricemia , or gout should not take aspirin because it inhibits the kidneys ' ability to excrete uric acid , thus may exacerbate these conditions . Aspirin should not be given to children or adolescents to control cold or influenza symptoms , as this has been linked with Reye 's syndrome .
= = = Gastrointestinal = = =
Aspirin use has been shown to increase the risk of gastrointestinal bleeding . Although some enteric @-@ coated formulations of aspirin are advertised as being " gentle to the stomach " , in one study , enteric coating did not seem to reduce this risk . Combining aspirin with other NSAIDs has also been shown to further increase this risk . Using aspirin in combination with clopidogrel or warfarin also increases the risk of upper gastrointestinal bleeding .
Blockade of COX @-@ 1 by aspirin apparently results in the upregulation of COX @-@ 2 as part of a gastric defense and that taking COX @-@ 2 inhibitors concurrently with aspirin increases the gastric mucosal erosion . Therefore , caution should be exercised if combining aspirin with any " natural " supplements with COX @-@ 2 @-@ inhibiting properties , such as garlic extracts , curcumin , bilberry , pine bark , ginkgo , fish oil , resveratrol , genistein , quercetin , resorcinol , and others .
In addition to enteric coating , " buffering " is the other main method companies have used to try to mitigate the problem of gastrointestinal bleeding . Buffering agents are intended to work by preventing the aspirin from concentrating in the walls of the stomach , although the benefits of buffered aspirin are disputed . Almost any buffering agent used in antacids can be used ; Bufferin , for example , uses magnesium oxide . Other preparations use calcium carbonate .
Taking it with vitamin C is a more recently investigated method of protecting the stomach lining . Taking equal doses of vitamin C and aspirin may decrease the amount of stomach damage that occurs compared to taking aspirin alone .
= = = Central effects = = =
Large doses of salicylate , a metabolite of aspirin , cause temporary tinnitus ( ringing in the ears ) based on experiments in rats , via the action on arachidonic acid and NMDA receptors cascade .
= = = Reye 's syndrome = = =
Reye 's syndrome , a rare but severe illness characterized by acute encephalopathy and fatty liver , can occur when children or adolescents are given aspirin for a fever or other illnesses or infections . From 1981 through 1997 , 1207 cases of Reye 's syndrome in under @-@ 18 patients were reported to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . Of these , 93 % reported being ill in the three weeks preceding the onset of Reye 's syndrome , most commonly with a respiratory infection , chickenpox , or diarrhea . Salicylates were detectable in 81 @.@ 9 % of children for whom test results were reported . After the association between Reye 's syndrome and aspirin was reported , and safety measures to prevent it ( including a Surgeon General 's warning , and changes to the labeling of aspirin @-@ containing drugs ) were implemented , aspirin taken by children declined considerably in the United States , as did the number of reported cases of Reye 's syndrome ; a similar decline was found in the United Kingdom after warnings against pediatric aspirin use were issued . The U.S. Food and Drug Administration now recommends aspirin ( or aspirin @-@ containing products ) should not be given to anyone under the age of 12 who has a fever , and the British Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency recommends children who are under 16 years of age should not take aspirin , unless it is on the advice of a doctor .
= = = Skin = = =
For a small number of people , taking aspirin can result in symptoms resembling an allergic reaction , including hives , swelling , and headache . The reaction is caused by salicylate intolerance and is not a true allergy , but rather an inability to metabolize even small amounts of aspirin , resulting in an overdose .
Aspirin and other NSAIDs , such as ibuprofen , may delay the healing of skin wounds . Aspirin may however help heal venous leg ulcers that have not healed following usual treatment .
= = = Other adverse effects = = =
Aspirin can induce swelling of skin tissues in some people . In one study , angioedema appeared one to six hours after ingesting aspirin in some of the patients . However , when the aspirin was taken alone , it did not cause angioedema in these patients ; the aspirin had been taken in combination with another NSAID @-@ induced drug when angioedema appeared .
Aspirin causes an increased risk of cerebral microbleeds having the appearance on MRI scans of 5 to 10 mm or smaller , hypointense ( dark holes ) patches . Such cerebral microbleeds are important , since they often occur prior to ischemic stroke or intracerebral hemorrhage , Binswanger disease , and Alzheimer 's disease .
A study of a group with a mean dosage of aspirin of 270 mg per day estimated an average absolute risk increase in intracerebral hemorrhage ( ICH ) of 12 events per 10 @,@ 000 persons . In comparison , the estimated absolute risk reduction in myocardial infarction was 137 events per 10 @,@ 000 persons , and a reduction of 39 events per 10 @,@ 000 persons in ischemic stroke . In cases where ICH already has occurred , aspirin use results in higher mortality , with a dose of about 250 mg per day resulting in a relative risk of death within three months after the ICH around 2 @.@ 5 ( 95 % confidence interval 1 @.@ 3 to 4 @.@ 6 ) .
Aspirin and other NSAIDs can cause abnormally high blood levels of potassium by inducing a hyporeninemic hypoaldosteronic state via inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis ; however , these agents do not typically cause hyperkalemia by themselves in the setting of normal renal function and euvolemic state .
Aspirin can cause prolonged bleeding after operations for up to 10 days . In one study , 30 of 6499 elective surgical patients required reoperations to control bleeding . Twenty had diffuse bleeding and 10 had bleeding from a site . Diffuse , but not discrete , bleeding was associated with the preoperative use of aspirin alone or in combination with other NSAIDS in 19 of the 20 diffuse bleeding patients .
On 9 July 2015 , the FDA toughened warnings of increased heart attack and stroke risk associated with nonsteroidal anti @-@ inflammatory drugs ( NSAID ) . Aspirin is an NSAID but is not affected by the new warnings .
= = = Overdose = = =
Aspirin overdose can be acute or chronic . In acute poisoning , a single large dose is taken ; in chronic poisoning , higher than normal doses are taken over a period of time . Acute overdose has a mortality rate of 2 % . Chronic overdose is more commonly lethal , with a mortality rate of 25 % ; chronic overdose may be especially severe in children . Toxicity is managed with a number of potential treatments , including activated charcoal , intravenous dextrose and normal saline , sodium bicarbonate , and dialysis . The diagnosis of poisoning usually involves measurement of plasma salicylate , the active metabolite of aspirin , by automated spectrophotometric methods . Plasma salicylate levels in general range from 30 – 100 mg / l after usual therapeutic doses , 50 – 300 mg / l in patients taking high doses and 700 – 1400 mg / l following acute overdose . Salicylate is also produced as a result of exposure to bismuth subsalicylate , methyl salicylate , and sodium salicylate .
= = = Interactions = = =
Aspirin is known to interact with other drugs . For example , acetazolamide and ammonium chloride are known to enhance the intoxicating effect of salicylates , and alcohol , and also increases the gastrointestinal bleeding associated with these types of drugs . Aspirin is known to displace a number of drugs from protein @-@ binding sites in the blood , including the antidiabetic drugs tolbutamide and chlorpropamide , warfarin , methotrexate , phenytoin , probenecid , valproic acid ( as well as interfering with beta oxidation , an important part of valproate metabolism ) , and other NSAIDs . Corticosteroids may also reduce the concentration of aspirin . Ibuprofen can negate the antiplatelet effect of aspirin used for cardioprotection and stroke prevention . The pharmacological activity of spironolactone may be reduced by taking aspirin , and it is known to compete with penicillin G for renal tubular secretion . Aspirin may also inhibit the absorption of vitamin C.
= = Chemical properties = =
Aspirin decomposes rapidly in solutions of ammonium acetate or of the acetates , carbonates , citrates , or hydroxides of the alkali metals . It is stable in dry air , but gradually hydrolyses in contact with moisture to acetic and salicylic acids . In solution with alkalis , the hydrolysis proceeds rapidly and the clear solutions formed may consist entirely of acetate and salicylate .
Like flour mills , factories that make aspirin tablets must pay attention to how much of the powder gets into the air inside the building , because the powder @-@ air mixture can be explosive . The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health ( NIOSH ) has set a recommended exposure limit in the United States of 5 mg / m3 ( time @-@ weighted average ) . In 1989 , OSHA set a legal permissible exposure limit for aspirin of 5 mg / m3 , but this was vacated by the AFL @-@ CIO v. OSHA decision in 1993 .
= = Physical properties = =
Aspirin , an acetyl derivative of salicylic acid , is a white , crystalline , weakly acidic substance , with a melting point of 136 ° C ( 277 ° F ) , and a boiling point of 140 ° C ( 284 ° F ) . Its acid dissociation constant ( pKa ) is 3 @.@ 5 at 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) .
= = = Synthesis = = =
The synthesis of aspirin is classified as an esterification reaction . Salicylic acid is treated with acetic anhydride , an acid derivative , causing a chemical reaction that turns salicylic acid 's hydroxyl group into an ester group ( R @-@ OH → R @-@ OCOCH3 ) . This process yields aspirin and acetic acid , which is considered a byproduct of this reaction . Small amounts of sulfuric acid ( and occasionally phosphoric acid ) are almost always used as a catalyst . This method is commonly employed in undergraduate teaching labs .
Reaction mechanism
Formulations containing high concentrations of aspirin often smell like vinegar because aspirin can decompose through hydrolysis in moist conditions , yielding salicylic and acetic acids .
= = = Polymorphism = = =
Polymorphism , or the ability of a substance to form more than one crystal structure , is important in the development of pharmaceutical ingredients . Many drugs are receiving regulatory approval for only a single crystal form or polymorph . For a long time , only one crystal structure for aspirin was known . That aspirin might have a second crystalline form was suspected since the 1960s . The elusive second polymorph was first discovered by Vishweshwar and coworkers in 2005 , and fine structural details were given by Bond et al . A new crystal type was found after attempted cocrystallization of aspirin and levetiracetam from hot acetonitrile . The form II is only stable at 100 K and reverts to form I at ambient temperature . In the ( unambiguous ) form I , two salicylic molecules form centrosymmetric dimers through the acetyl groups with the ( acidic ) methyl proton to carbonyl hydrogen bonds , and in the newly claimed form II , each salicylic molecule forms the same hydrogen bonds with two neighboring molecules instead of one . With respect to the hydrogen bonds formed by the carboxylic acid groups , both polymorphs form identical dimer structures .
= = Mechanism of action = =
= = = Discovery of the mechanism = = =
In 1971 , British pharmacologist John Robert Vane , then employed by the Royal College of Surgeons in London , showed aspirin suppressed the production of prostaglandins and thromboxanes . For this discovery he was awarded the 1982 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine , jointly with Sune K. Bergström and Bengt I. Samuelsson . In 1984 , he was made a Knight Bachelor .
= = = Suppression of prostaglandins and thromboxanes = = =
Aspirin 's ability to suppress the production of prostaglandins and thromboxanes is due to its irreversible inactivation of the cyclooxygenase ( COX ; officially known as prostaglandin @-@ endoperoxide synthase , PTGS ) enzyme required for prostaglandin and thromboxane synthesis . Aspirin acts as an acetylating agent where an acetyl group is covalently attached to a serine residue in the active site of the PTGS enzyme . This makes aspirin different from other NSAIDs ( such as diclofenac and ibuprofen ) , which are reversible inhibitors .
Low @-@ dose aspirin use irreversibly blocks the formation of thromboxane A2 in platelets , producing an inhibitory effect on platelet aggregation during the lifetime of the affected platelet ( 8 – 9 days ) . This antithrombotic property makes aspirin useful for reducing the incidence of heart attacks . 40 mg of aspirin a day is able to inhibit a large proportion of maximum thromboxane A2 release provoked acutely , with the prostaglandin I2 synthesis being little affected ; however , higher doses of aspirin are required to attain further inhibition .
Prostaglandins , local hormones produced in the body , have diverse effects , including the transmission of pain information to the brain , modulation of the hypothalamic thermostat , and inflammation . Thromboxanes are responsible for the aggregation of platelets that form blood clots . Heart attacks are caused primarily by blood clots , and low doses of aspirin are seen as an effective medical intervention for acute myocardial infarction .
= = = COX @-@ 1 and COX @-@ 2 inhibition = = =
At least two different types of cyclooxygenase occur COX @-@ 1 and COX @-@ 2 . Aspirin irreversibly inhibits COX @-@ 1 and modifies the enzymatic activity of COX @-@ 2 . COX @-@ 2 normally produces prostanoids , most of which are proinflammatory . Aspirin @-@ modified PTGS2 produces lipoxins , most of which are anti @-@ inflammatory . Newer NSAID drugs , COX @-@ 2 inhibitors ( coxibs ) , have been developed to inhibit only PTGS2 , with the intent to reduce the incidence of gastrointestinal side effects .
However , several of the new COX @-@ 2 inhibitors , such as rofecoxib ( Vioxx ) , have been withdrawn in the last decade , after evidence emerged that PTGS2 inhibitors increase the risk of heart attack and stroke . Endothelial cells lining the microvasculature in the body are proposed to express PTGS2 , and , by selectively inhibiting PTGS2 , prostaglandin production ( specifically , PGI2 ; prostacyclin ) is downregulated with respect to thromboxane levels , as PTGS1 in platelets is unaffected . Thus , the protective anticoagulative effect of PGI2 is removed , increasing the risk of thrombus and associated heart attacks and other circulatory problems . Since platelets have no DNA , they are unable to synthesize new PTGS once aspirin has irreversibly inhibited the enzyme , an important difference with reversible inhibitors .
Furthermore , aspirin , while inhibiting the ability of COX @-@ 2 to form pro @-@ inflammatory products such as the prostaglandins , converts this enzyme 's activity from a prostaglandin @-@ forming cyclooxygenase to a lipoxygenase @-@ like enzyme : aspirin @-@ treated COX @-@ 2 metabolizes a variety polyunsaturated fatty acids to hydroperoxy products which are then further metabolized to specialized proresolving mediators such as the aspirin @-@ triggered lipoxins , aspirin @-@ triggered resolvins , and aspirin @-@ triggered maresins . These mediators possess potent anti @-@ inflammatory activity . It is proposed that this aspirin @-@ triggered transition of COX @-@ 2 from cyclooxygenase to lipoxygenase activity and the consequential formation of specialized proresolving mediators contributes to the anti @-@ inflammatory effects of aspirin .
= = = Additional mechanisms = = =
Aspirin has been shown to have at least three additional modes of action . It uncouples oxidative phosphorylation in cartilaginous ( and hepatic ) mitochondria , by diffusing from the inner membrane space as a proton carrier back into the mitochondrial matrix , where it ionizes once again to release protons . In short , aspirin buffers and transports the protons . When high doses of aspirin are given , it may actually cause fever , owing to the heat released from the electron transport chain , as opposed to the antipyretic action of aspirin seen with lower doses . In addition , aspirin induces the formation of NO @-@ radicals in the body , which have been shown in mice to have an independent mechanism of reducing inflammation . This reduced leukocyte adhesion , which is an important step in immune response to infection ; however , evidence is insufficient to show aspirin helps to fight infection . More recent data also suggest salicylic acid and its derivatives modulate signaling through NF @-@ κB . NF @-@ κB , a transcription factor complex , plays a central role in many biological processes , including inflammation .
Aspirin is readily broken down in the body to salicylic acid , which itself has anti @-@ inflammatory , antipyretic , and analgesic effects . In 2012 , salicylic acid was found to activate AMP @-@ activated protein kinase , which has been suggested as a possible explanation for some of the effects of both salicylic acid and aspirin . The acetyl portion of the aspirin molecule has its own targets . Acetylation of cellular proteins is a well @-@ established phenomenon in the regulation of protein function at the post @-@ translational level . Aspirin is able to acetylate several other targets in addition to COX isoenzymes . These acetylation reactions may explain many hitherto unexplained effects of aspirin .
= = Pharmacokinetics = =
Acetylsalicylic acid is a weak acid , and very little of it is ionized in the stomach after oral administration . Acetylsalicylic acid is quickly absorbed through cell membrane in the acidic conditions of the stomach . The increased pH and larger surface area of the small intestine causes aspirin to be absorbed more slowly there , as more of it is ionised . Owing to the formation of concretions , aspirin is absorbed much more slowly during overdose , and plasma concentrations can continue to rise for up to 24 hours after ingestion .
About 50 – 80 % of salicylate in the blood is bound to albumin protein , while the rest remains in the active , ionized state ; protein binding is concentration @-@ dependent . Saturation of binding sites leads to more free salicylate and increased toxicity . The volume of distribution is 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 2 l / kg . Acidosis increases the volume of distribution because of enhancement of tissue penetration of salicylates .
As much as 80 % of therapeutic doses of salicylic acid is metabolized in the liver . Conjugation with glycine forms salicyluric acid , and with glucuronic acid to form two different glucuronide esters . The conjugate with the acetyl group intact is referred to as the acyl glucuronide ; the deacetylated conjugate is the phenolic glucuronide . These metabolic pathways have only a limited capacity . Small amounts of salicylic acid are also hydroxylated to gentisic acid . With large salicylate doses , the kinetics switch from first @-@ order to zero @-@ order , as metabolic pathways become saturated and renal excretion becomes increasingly important .
Salicylates are excreted mainly by the kidneys as salicyluric acid ( 75 % ) , free salicylic acid ( 10 % ) , salicylic phenol ( 10 % ) , and acyl glucuronides ( 5 % ) , gentisic acid ( < 1 % ) , and 2 @,@ 3 @-@ dihydroxybenzoic acid . When small doses ( less than 250 mg in an adult ) are ingested , all pathways proceed by first @-@ order kinetics , with an elimination half @-@ life of about 2 @.@ 0 to 4 @.@ 5 hours . When higher doses of salicylate are ingested ( more than 4 g ) , the half @-@ life becomes much longer ( 15 – 30 hours ) , because the biotransformation pathways concerned with the formation of salicyluric acid and salicyl phenolic glucuronide become saturated . Renal excretion of salicylic acid becomes increasingly important as the metabolic pathways become saturated , because it is extremely sensitive to changes in urinary pH . A 10- to 20 @-@ fold increase in renal clearance occurs when urine pH is increased from 5 to 8 . The use of urinary alkalinization exploits this particular aspect of salicylate elimination .
= = History = =
Plant extracts , including willow bark and spiraea , of which salicylic acid was the active constituent , had been known to help alleviate headaches , pains , and fevers since antiquity . The father of modern medicine , Hippocrates ( circa 460 – 377 BC ) , left historical records describing the use of powder made from the bark and leaves of the willow tree to help these symptoms .
In 1763 , Edward Stone , at Oxford , isolated the active ingredient of aspirin in his discovery of salicylic acid . A French chemist , Charles Frederic Gerhardt , was the first to prepare acetylsalicylic acid in 1853 . In the course of his work on the synthesis and properties of various acid anhydrides , he mixed acetyl chloride with a sodium salt of salicylic acid ( sodium salicylate ) . A vigorous reaction ensued , and the resulting melt soon solidified . Since no structural theory existed at that time , Gerhardt called the compound he obtained " salicylic @-@ acetic anhydride " ( wasserfreie Salicylsäure @-@ Essigsäure ) . This preparation of aspirin ( " salicylic @-@ acetic anhydride " ) was one of the many reactions Gerhardt conducted for his paper on anhydrides and he did not pursue it further .
Six years later , in 1859 , an Austrian chemist , Hugo von Gilm , obtained analytically pure acetylsalicylic acid ( which he called acetylierte Salicylsäure , acetylated salicylic acid ) by a reaction of salicylic acid and acetyl chloride . In 1869 , Schröder , Prinzhorn , and Kraut repeated both Gerhardt 's ( from sodium salicylate ) and von Gilm 's ( from salicylic acid ) syntheses and concluded both reactions gave the same compound — acetylsalicylic acid . They were first to assign to it the correct structure with the acetyl group connected to the phenolic oxygen .
In 1897 chemists working at Bayer AG produced a synthetically altered version of salicin , derived from the species Filipendula ulmaria ( meadowsweet ) , which caused less digestive upset than pure salicylic acid . The identity of the lead chemist on this project is a matter of controversy . Bayer states the work was done by chemists Heinrich Dreser and Felix Hoffmann , but Jewish chemist Arthur Eichengrün later claimed he was the lead investigator and records of his contribution were expunged under the anti @-@ Semitic Nazi regime . The new drug , formally acetylsalicylic acid , was named Aspirin by Bayer AG after the original botanical name for meadowsweet , Spiraea ulmaria , derived from " acetyl " and Spirsäure , an old German name for salicylic acid derived from the Latin Spiraea ulmaria . By 1899 , Bayer was selling it around the world . The popularity of aspirin grew over the first half of the 20th century , spurred by its supposed effectiveness in the wake of the Spanish flu pandemic of 1918 . However , recent research suggests that the high death toll of the 1918 flu may have been partly due to aspirin , though this is controversial and not universally accepted . This theory gained support when a recent repetition of the 1918 flu outbreak , with the same virus , had a low fatality rate . Aspirin 's profitability led to fierce competition and the proliferation of aspirin brands and products , especially after the American patent held by Bayer expired in 1917 .
The popularity of aspirin declined after the market releases of paracetamol ( acetaminophen ) in 1956 and ibuprofen in 1969 . In the 1960s and 1970s , John Vane and others discovered the basic mechanism of aspirin 's effects , while clinical trials and other studies from the 1960s to the 1980s established aspirin 's efficacy as an anticlotting agent that reduces the risk of clotting diseases . Aspirin sales revived considerably in the last decades of the 20th century , and remain strong in the 21st century , because of its widespread use as a preventive treatment for heart attacks and strokes .
The first studies of the effect of aspirin on cardiac function and stroke prevention were carried out by Professor Peter Sleight , Emeritus Professor of Cardiovascular Medicine at Oxford University , in the early 1970s . Sleight and his research team at Oxford led the way and formed the foundation for the research into the use of aspirin in the prevention of other medical conditions .
= = = Trademark = = =
Due to allowing the use of " Aspirin " for years by other manufacturing chemists , despite the patent @-@ infringing nature of the use , and its own failure to use the name for its own product when it began selling direct , Bayer lost its trademark in 1918 , affirmed by court appeal in 1921 . Today , aspirin is a generic word in Australia , France , India , Ireland , New Zealand , Pakistan , Jamaica , Colombia , the Philippines , South Africa , Ghana , the United Kingdom and the United States . Aspirin , with a capital " A " , remains a registered trademark of Bayer in Germany , Canada , Mexico , and in over 80 other countries , where the trademark is owned by Bayer , using acetylsalicylic acid in all markets , but using different packaging and physical aspects for each .
Aspirin is the British Approved Name ( BAN ) and United States Adopted Name ( USAN ) .
= = Compendial status = =
United States Pharmacopeia
British Pharmacopoeia
= = Veterinary use = =
Aspirin is sometimes used for pain relief or as an anticoagulant in veterinary medicine , primarily in dogs and sometimes horses , although newer medications with fewer side effects are generally used instead .
Both dogs and horses are susceptible to the gastrointestinal side effects associated with salicylates , but it is a convenient treatment for arthritis in older dogs , and has shown some promise in cases of laminitis in horses . It is no longer commonly used for cases of laminitis , as it could be counterproductive for treatment . Aspirin should be used in animals only under the direct supervision of a veterinarian ; in particular , cats lack the glucuronide conjugates that aid in the excretion of aspirin , making it potentially toxic . No clinical signs of toxicosis occurred when cats were given 25 mg / kg of aspirin every 48 hours for 4 weeks . The dose recommended in cats for relief of pain and fever is 10 mg / kg every 48 hours .
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= Cluj @-@ Napoca =
Cluj @-@ Napoca ( Romanian pronunciation : [ ˈkluʒ naˈpoka ] ) , commonly known as Cluj , is the second most populous city in Romania , after the national capital Bucharest , and the seat of Cluj County in the northwestern part of the country . Geographically , it is roughly equidistant from Bucharest ( 324 kilometres ( 201 miles ) ) , Budapest ( 351 km ( 218 mi ) ) and Belgrade ( 322 km ( 200 mi ) ) . Located in the Someșul Mic River valley , the city is considered the unofficial capital to the historical province of Transylvania . From 1790 to 1848 and from 1861 to 1867 , it was the official capital of the Grand Principality of Transylvania . Other names for the city include : German : Klausenburg ; Hungarian : Kolozsvár , Hungarian pronunciation : [ ˈkoloʒvaːr ] ; Medieval Latin : Castrum Clus , Claudiopolis ; and Yiddish : קלויזנבורג , Kloiznburg .
As of 2011 , 324 @,@ 576 inhabitants live within the city limits , marking a slight increase from the figure recorded at the 2002 census . The Cluj @-@ Napoca metropolitan area has a population of 411 @,@ 379 people , while the population of the peri @-@ urban area ( Romanian : zona periurbană ) exceeds 420 @,@ 000 residents . The new metropolitan government of Cluj @-@ Napoca became operational in December 2008 . According to a 2007 estimate provided by the County Population Register Service , the city hosts a visible population of students and other non @-@ residents — an average of over 20 @,@ 000 people each year during 2004 – 2007 . The city spreads out from St. Michael 's Church in Unirii Square , built in the 14th century and named after the Archangel Michael , the patron saint of Cluj @-@ Napoca . The boundaries of the municipality contain an area of 179 @.@ 52 square kilometres ( 69 @.@ 31 sq mi ) .
Cluj @-@ Napoca experienced a decade of decline during the 1990s , its international reputation suffering from the policies of its mayor at the time , Gheorghe Funar . Today , the city is one of the most important academic , cultural , industrial and business centres in Romania . Among other institutions , it hosts the country 's largest university , Babeș @-@ Bolyai University , with its famous botanical garden ; nationally renowned cultural institutions ; as well as the largest Romanian @-@ owned commercial bank . In 2015 , Cluj @-@ Napoca was European Youth Capital .
= = Etymology = =
On the site of the city was a pre @-@ Roman settlement named Napoca . After the AD 106 Roman conquest of the area , the place was known as Municipium Aelium Hadrianum Napoca . Possible etymologies for Napoca or Napuca include the names of some Dacian tribes such as the Naparis or Napaei , the Greek term napos ( νάπος ) , meaning " timbered valley " or the Indo @-@ European root * snā @-@ p- ( Pokorny 971 @-@ 2 ) , " to flow , to swim , damp " .
The first written mention of the city 's current name – as a Royal Borough – was in 1213 under the Medieval Latin name Castrum Clus . Despite the fact that Clus as a county name was recorded in the 1173 document Thomas comes Clusiensis , it is believed that the county 's designation derives from the name of the castrum , which might have existed prior to its first mention in 1213 , and not vice versa . With respect to the name of this camp , it is widely accepted as a derivation from the Latin term clausa – clusa , meaning " closed place " , " strait " , " ravine " . Similar senses are attributed to the Slavic term kluč , meaning " a key " and the German Klause – Kluse ( meaning " mountain pass " or " weir " ) . The Latin and Slavic names have been attributed to the valley that narrows or closes between hills just to the west of Cluj @-@ Mănăștur . An alternative hypothesis relates the name of the city to its first magistrate , Miklus – Miklós / Kolos .
The Hungarian form Kolozsvár , first recorded in 1246 as Kulusuar , underwent various phonetic changes over the years ( uar / vár means " castle " in Hungarian ) ; the variant Koloswar first appears in a document from 1332 . Its Saxon name Clusenburg / Clusenbvrg appeared in 1348 , but from 1408 the form Clausenburg was used . The Romanian name of the city used to be spelled alternately as Cluj or Cluș , the latter being the case in Mihai Eminescu 's Poesis . In 1974 , the communist authorities added " -Napoca " to the city 's name as a nationalist gesture , emphasising its pre @-@ Roman roots . The full name is rarely used outside of official contexts . In Yiddish it is known as קלאזין ( Klazin ) or קלויזענבורג ( Kloyznburg ) . The nickname " treasure city " was acquired in the late 16th century , and refers to the wealth amassed by residents , including in the precious metals trade . The phrase is kincses város in Hungarian , given in Romanian as orașul comoară .
= = History = =
= = = Roman Empire = = =
The Roman Empire conquered Dacia in AD 101 and 106 , during the rule of Trajan , and the Roman settlement Napoca , established thereafter , is first recorded on a milestone discovered in 1758 in the vicinity of the city . Trajan 's successor Hadrian granted Napoca the status of municipium as municipium Aelium Hadrianum Napocenses . Later , in the 2nd century AD , the city gained the status of a colonia as Colonia Aurelia Napoca . Napoca became a provincial capital of Dacia Porolissensis and thus the seat of a procurator . The colonia was evacuated in 274 by the Romans . There are no references to urban settlement on the site for the better part of a millennium thereafter .
= = = Middle Ages = = =
At the beginning of the Middle Ages , two groups of buildings existed on the current site of the city : the wooden fortress at Cluj @-@ Mănăștur ( Kolozsmonostor ) and the civilian settlement developed around the current Piața Muzeului ( Museum Place ) in the city centre . Although the precise date of the conquest of Transylvania by the Hungarians is not known , the earliest Hungarian artifacts found in the region are dated to the first half of the 10th century . In any case , after that time , the city became part of the Kingdom of Hungary . King Stephen I made the city the seat of the castle county of Kolozs , and King Saint Ladislaus I of Hungary founded the abbey of Cluj @-@ Mănăștur ( Kolozsmonostor ) , destroyed during the Tatar invasions in 1241 and 1285 . As for the civilian colony , a castle and a village were built to the northwest of the ancient Napoca no later than the late 12th century . This new village was settled by large groups of Transylvanian Saxons , encouraged during the reign of Crown Prince Stephen , Duke of Transylvania . The first reliable mention of the settlement dates from 1275 , in a document of King Ladislaus IV of Hungary , when the village ( Villa Kulusvar ) was granted to the Bishop of Transylvania . On 19 August 1316 , during the rule of the new king , Charles I of Hungary , Cluj was granted the status of a city ( Latin : civitas ) , as a reward for the Saxons ' contribution to the defeat of the rebellious Transylvanian voivode , Ladislaus Kán .
Many craft guilds were established in the second half of the 13th century , and a patrician stratum based in commerce and craft production displaced the older landed elite in the town 's leadership . Through the privilege granted by Sigismund of Luxembourg in 1405 , the city opted out from the jurisdiction of voivodes , vice @-@ voivodes and royal judges , and obtained the right to elect a twelve @-@ member jury every year . In 1488 , King Matthias Corvinus ( born in Kolozsvár in 1440 ) ordered that the centumvirate — the city council , consisting of one hundred men — be half composed from the homines bone conditiones ( the wealthy people ) , with craftsmen supplying the other half ; together they would elect the chief judge and the jury . Meanwhile , an agreement was reached providing that half of the representatives on this city council were to be drawn from the Hungarian , half from the Saxon population , and that judicial offices were to be held on a rotating basis . In 1541 , Kolozsvár became part of the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom ( that transformed to Principality of Transylvania in 1570 ) after the Ottoman Turks occupied the central part of the Kingdom of Hungary ; a period of economic and cultural prosperity followed . Although Alba Iulia ( Gyulafehérvár ) served as a political capital for the princes of Transylvania , Cluj ( Kolozsvár ) enjoyed the support of the princes to a greater extent , thus establishing connections with the most important centres of Eastern Europe at that time , along with Košice ( Kassa ) , Kraków , Prague and Vienna .
= = = 16th – 18th centuries = = =
In terms of religion , Protestant ideas first appeared in the middle of the 16th century . During Gáspár Heltai 's service as preacher , Lutheranism grew in importance , as did the Swiss doctrine of Calvinism . By 1571 , the Turda ( Torda ) Diet had adopted a more radical religion , Ferenc Dávid 's Unitarianism , characterised by the free interpretation of the Bible and denial of the dogma of the Trinity . Stephen Báthory founded a Catholic Jesuit academy in the city in order to promote an anti @-@ Reform movement ; however , it did not have much success . For a year , in 1600 – 1601 , Cluj became part of the personal union of Michael the Brave . Under the Treaty of Carlowitz in 1699 , it became part of the Habsburg Monarchy .
In the 17th century , Cluj suffered from great calamities , suffering from epidemics of the plague and devastating fires . The end of this century brought the end of Turkish sovereignty , but found the city bereft of much of its wealth , municipal freedom , cultural centrality , political significance and even population . It gradually regained its important position within Transylvania as the headquarters of the Gubernium and the Diets between 1719 and 1732 , and again from 1790 until the revolution of 1848 , when the Gubernium moved to Nagyszeben ( Hermannstadt ) , present @-@ day Sibiu ) . In 1791 , a group of Romanian intellectuals drew up a petition , known as Supplex Libellus Valachorum , which was sent to the Emperor in Vienna . The petition demanded the equality of the Romanian nation in Transylvania in respect to the other nations ( Saxon , Szekler and Hungarian ) governed by the Unio Trium Nationum , but it was rejected by the Diet of Cluj .
= = = 19th century = = =
Beginning in 1830 , the city became the centre of the Hungarian national movement within the principality . This erupted with the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 . At one point , the Austrians were gaining control of Transylvania , trapping the Hungarians between two flanks . But , the Hungarian army , headed by the Polish general Józef Bem , launched an offensive in Transylvania , recapturing Klausenburg by Christmas 1848 . After the 1848 revolution , an absolutist regime was established , followed by a liberal regime that came to power in 1860 . In this latter period , the government granted equal rights to the ethnic Romanians , but only briefly . In 1865 , the Diet in Cluj abolished the laws voted in Sibiu ( Nagyszeben / Hermannstadt , and proclaimed the 1848 Law concerning the Union of Transylvania with Hungary . A modern university was founded in 1872 , with the intention of promoting the integration of Transylvania into Hungary . Before 1918 , the city 's only Romanian @-@ language schools were two church @-@ run elementary schools , and the first printed Romanian periodical did not appear until 1903 .
After the Austro @-@ Hungarian Compromise of 1867 , Klausenburg and all of Transylvania were again integrated into the Kingdom of Hungary . During this time , Kolozsvár was among the largest and most important cities of the kingdom and was the seat of Kolozs County . Ethnic Romanians in Transylvania suffered oppression and persecution . Their grievances found expression in the Transylvanian Memorandum , a petition sent in 1892 by the political leaders of Transylvania 's Romanians to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Emperor @-@ King Franz Joseph . It asked for equal rights with the Hungarians and demanded an end to persecutions and attempts at Magyarisation . The Emperor forwarded the memorandum to Budapest — the Hungarian capital . The authors , among them Ioan Rațiu and Iuliu Coroianu , were arrested , tried and sentenced to prison for " high treason " in Kolozsvár / Cluj in May 1894 . During the trial , approximately 20 @,@ 000 people who had come to Cluj demonstrated on the streets of the city in support of the defendants . A year later , the King gave them pardon upon the advice of his Hungarian prime minister , Dezső Bánffy . In 1897 , the Hungarian government decided that only Hungarian place names should be used and prohibited the use of the German or Romanian versions of the city 's name on official government documents .
= = = 20th century = = =
In the autumn of 1918 , as World War I drew to a close , Cluj became a centre of revolutionary activity , headed by Amos Frâncu . On 28 October 1918 , Frâncu made an appeal for the organisation of the " union of all Romanians " . Thirty @-@ nine delegates were elected from Cluj to attend the proclamation of the union of Transylvania with the Kingdom of Romania in Alba @-@ Iulia on 1 December 1918 , later acknowledged internationally by the Treaty of Trianon . The interwar years saw the new authorities embark on a " Romanianisation " campaign : a Capitoline Wolf statue donated by Rome was set up in 1921 ; in 1932 a plaque written by historian Nicolae Iorga was placed on Matthias Corvinus 's statue , emphasising his Romanian paternal ancestry ; and construction of an imposing Orthodox cathedral began , in a city where only about a tenth of the inhabitants belonged to the Orthodox state church . This endeavour had only mixed results : by 1939 , Hungarians still dominated local economic ( and to a certain extent ) cultural life : for instance , Cluj had five Hungarian daily newspapers and just one in Romanian .
In 1940 , Cluj , along with the rest of Northern Transylvania , became part of Miklós Horthy 's Hungary through the Second Vienna Award arbitrated by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy . After the Germans occupied Hungary in March 1944 and installed a puppet government under Döme Sztójay , they forced large @-@ scale antisemitic measures in the city . The headquarters of the local Gestapo were located in the New York Hotel . That May , the authorities began the relocation of the Jews to the Iris ghetto . Liquidation of the 16 @,@ 148 captured Jews occurred through six deportations to Auschwitz in May – June 1944 . Despite facing severe sanctions from the Hungarian administration , some Jews escaped across the border to Romania , with the assistance of intellectuals such as Emil Hațieganu , Raoul Șorban , Aurel Socol and Dezső Miskolczy , as well as various peasants from Mănăștur .
On 11 October 1944 the city was captured by Romanian and Soviet troops . It was formally restored to the Kingdom of Romania by the Treaty of Paris in 1947 . On 24 January 6 March and 10 May 1946 , the Romanian students , who had come back to Cluj after the restoration of northern Transylvania , rose against the claims of autonomy made by nostalgic Hungarians and the new way of life imposed by the Soviets , resulting in clashes and street fights .
The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 produced a powerful echo within the city ; there was a real possibility that demonstrations by students sympathizing with their peers across the border could escalate into an uprising . The protests provided the Romanian authorities with a pretext to speed up the process of " unification " of the local Babeș ( Romanian ) and Bolyai ( Hungarian ) universities , allegedly contemplated before the 1956 events . Hungarians remained the majority of the city 's population until the 1960s . Then Romanians began to outnumber Hungarians , due to the population increase as a result of the government 's forced industrialisation of the city and new jobs . During the Communist period , the city recorded a high industrial development , as well as enforced construction expansion . On 16 October 1974 , when the city celebrated 1850 years since its first mention as Napoca , the Communist government changed the name of the city by adding " Napoca " to it .
= = = Late 20th and early 21st century = = =
During the Romanian Revolution of 1989 , Cluj @-@ Napoca was one of the scenes of the rebellion : 26 were killed and approximately 170 injured . After the end of totalitarian rule , the nationalist politician Gheorghe Funar became mayor and governed for the next 12 years . His tenure was marked by strong Romanian nationalism and acts of ethnic provocation against the Hungarian @-@ speaking minority . This deterred foreign investment ; however , in June 2004 , Gheorghe Funar was voted out of office , and the city entered a period of rapid economic growth . From 2004 to 2009 , the mayor was Emil Boc , concurrently president of the Democratic Liberal Party . He went on to be elected as prime minister , returning as mayor in 2012 .
= = Geography = =
Cluj @-@ Napoca , located in the central part of Transylvania , has a surface area of 179 @.@ 5 square kilometres ( 69 @.@ 3 sq mi ) . The city lies at the confluence of the Apuseni Mountains , the Someș plateau and the Transylvanian plain . It sprawls over the valleys of Someșul Mic and Nadăș , and , to some extent over the secondary valleys of the Popești , Chintău , Borhanci and Popii rivers . The southern part of the city occupies the upper terrace of the northern slope of Feleac Hill , and is surrounded on three sides by hills or mountains with heights between 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) and 700 metres ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) . The Someș plateau is situated to the east , while the northern part of town includes Dealurile Clujului ( " the Hills of Cluj " ) , with the peaks , Lombului ( 684 m ) , Dealul Melcului ( 617 m ) , Techintău ( 633 m ) , Hoia ( 506 m ) and Gârbău ( 570 m ) . Other hills are located in the western districts , and the hills of Calvaria and Cetățuia ( Belvedere ) are located near the centre of city .
Built on the banks of Someșul Mic River , the city is also crossed over by brooks or streams such as Pârâul Țiganilor , Pârâul Popești , Pârâul Nădășel , Pârâul Chintenilor , Pârâul Becaș , Pârâul Murătorii ; Canalul Morilor runs through the centre of town .
A wide variety of flora grow in the Cluj @-@ Napoca Botanical Garden ; some animals have also found refuge there . The city has a number of other parks , of which the largest is the Central Park . This park was founded during the 19th century and includes an artificial lake with an island , as well as the largest casino in the city , Chios . Other notable parks in the city are the Iuliu Hațieganu Park of the Babeș @-@ Bolyai University , which features some sport facilities , the Hașdeu Park , within the eponymous student housing district , the high @-@ elevation Cetățuia , and the Opera Park , behind the building of the Cluj @-@ Napoca Romanian Opera .
= = = Surroundings = = =
The city is surrounded by forests and grasslands . Rare species of plants , such as Venus 's slipper and iris , are found in the two botanical reservations of Cluj @-@ Napoca , Fânațele Clujului and Rezervația Valea Morii ( " Mill Valley Reservation " ) . Animals such as boars , badgers , foxes , rabbits and squirrels live in nearby forest areas such as Făget and Hoia . The latter forest hosts the Romulus Vuia ethnographical park , with exhibits dating back to 1678 . Various people report alien encounters in the Hoia @-@ Baciu forest , large networks of catacombs that connect the old churches of the city , or the presence of a monster in the nearby lake of Tarnița .
A modern , 750 @-@ metre ( 820 yd ) -long ski resort sits on Feleac Hill , with an altitude difference of 98 metres ( 107 yd ) between its highest and lowest points . This ski resort offers outdoor lighting , artificial snow and a ski tow . Băișoara winter resort is located approximately 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) from the city of Cluj @-@ Napoca , and includes two ski trails , for beginner and advanced skiers , respectively : Zidul Mic and Zidul Mare . Two other summer resorts / spas are included in the metropolitan area , namely Cojocna and Someșeni Baths .
There are a large number of castles in the countryside surroundings , constructed by wealthy medieval families living in the city . The most notable of them is the Bonțida Bánffy Castle — once known as " the Versailles of Transylvania " — in the nearby village of Bonțida , 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) from the city centre . In 1963 , the castle was used as a set for Liviu Ciulei 's film Forest of the Hanged , which won an award at Cannes . There are other castles located in the vicinity of the city ; indeed , the castle at Bonțida is not even the only one constructed by the Bánffy family . The commune of Gilău features the Wass @-@ Bánffy Castle , while another Bánffy Castle is located in the Răscruci area . In addition , Nicula Monastery , erected during the 18th century , is an important pilgrimage site in northern Transylvania . This monastery houses the renowned wonder @-@ working Madonna of Nicula . The icon is said to have wept between 15 February and 12 March 1669 . During this time , nobles , officers , laity and clergy came to see it . At first they were sceptical , looking at it on both sides , but then humbly crossed themselves and returned home petrified by the wonder they had seen . During the feast of the Dormition of the Theotokos ( commemorating the death of the Virgin Mary ) on 15 August , more than 150 @,@ 000 people from all over the country come to visit the monastery .
= = = Climate = = =
Cluj @-@ Napoca has a continental climate , characterised by warm dry summers and cold winters . The climate is influenced by the city 's proximity to the Apuseni Mountains , as well as by urbanisation . Some West @-@ Atlantic influences are present during winter and autumn . Winter temperatures are often below 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) , even though they rarely drop below − 10 ° C ( 14 ° F ) . On average , snow covers the ground for 65 days each winter . In summer , the average temperature is approximately 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) ( the average for July and August ) , despite the fact that temperatures sometimes reach 35 ° C ( 95 ° F ) to 40 ° C ( 104 ° F ) in mid @-@ summer in the city centre . Although average precipitation and humidity during summer is low , there are infrequent yet heavy and often violent storms . During spring and autumn , temperatures vary between 13 ° C ( 55 ° F ) to 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) , and precipitation during this time tends to be higher than in summer , with more frequent yet milder periods of rain .
The city has the best air quality in the European Union , according to research published in 2014 by a French magazine and air @-@ quality organization that studied the EU 's hundred largest cities .
= = Law and government = =
= = = Administration = = =
The city government is headed by a mayor . Since 2012 , the office is held by Emil Boc , who was returned at that year 's local election for a third term , having resigned in 2008 to become Prime Minister . Decisions are approved and discussed by the local government ( consiliu local ) made up of 27 elected councillors . The city is divided into 15 districts ( cartiere ) laid out radially . City hall intends to develop local administrative branches for most of the districts .
Because of the last years ' massive urban development , in 2005 some areas of Cluj were named as districts ( Sopor , Borhanci , Becaș , Făget , Zorilor South ) , but most of them are still construction sites . Beside these , there are some other building areas like Tineretului , Lombului or Oser , which are likely to become districts in the following years .
Additionally , as Cluj @-@ Napoca is the capital of Cluj County , the city hosts the palace of the prefecture , the headquarters of the county council ( consiliu județean ) and the prefect , who is appointed by Romania 's central government . The prefect is not allowed to be a member of a political party , and his role is to represent the national government at the local level , acting as a liaison and facilitating the implementation of National Development Plans and governing programmes at the local level . Like all other local councils in Romania , the Cluj @-@ Napoca local council , the county council and the city 's mayor are elected every four years by the population .
Cluj @-@ Napoca is also the capital of the historical region of Transylvania , a status that resonates to this day . Currently , the city is the largest in the Nord @-@ Vest development region , which is equivalent to NUTS @-@ II regions in the European Union and is used by the European Union and the Romanian Government for statistical analysis and regional development . The Nord @-@ Vest development region is not , however , an administrative entity . The Cluj @-@ Napoca metropolitan area became operational in December 2008 , and comprises a population of 411 @,@ 379 . Besides Cluj @-@ Napoca , it includes seventeen communes : Aiton , Apahida , Baciu , Bonțida , Borșa , Căianu , Chinteni , Ciurila , Cojocna , Feleacu , Florești , Gârbău , Gilău , Jucu , Petreștii de Jos , Tureni and Vultureni .
The executive presidium of the Democratic Union of Hungarians in Romania ( UDMR ) and all its departments are headquartered in Cluj , as are local and regional organisations of most Romanian political parties . In order to counterbalance the political influence of Transylvania 's Hungarian minority , nationalist Romanians in Transylvania founded the Party of Romanian National Unity ( PUNR ) at the beginnings of the 1990s ; the party was present in the Romanian Parliament during the 1992 – 1996 legislature . The party eventually moved its main offices to Bucharest and fell into decline as its leadership joined the ideologically similar PRM . In 2008 , the Institute for Research on National Minorities , subordinated to the Romanian Government , opened its official headquarters in Cluj @-@ Napoca .
Eleven hospitals function in the city , nine of which are run by the county and two ( for oncology and cardiology ) by the health ministry . Additionally , there are well over a hundred private medical cabinets and dentists ' offices each .
= = = Justice system = = =
Cluj @-@ Napoca has a complex judicial organisation , as a consequence of its status of county capital . The Cluj @-@ Napoca Court of Justice is the local judicial institution and is under the purview of the Cluj County Tribunal , which also exerts its jurisdiction over the courts of Dej , Gherla , Turda and Huedin . Appeals from these tribunals ' verdicts , and more serious cases , are directed to the Cluj Court of Appeals . The city also hosts the county 's commercial and military tribunals .
Cluj @-@ Napoca has its own municipal police force , Poliția Municipiului Cluj @-@ Napoca , which is responsible for policing of crime within the whole city , and operates a number of special divisions . The Cluj @-@ Napoca Police are headquartered on Decebal Street in the city centre ( with a number of precincts throughout the city ) and it is subordinated to the County 's Police Inspectorate on Traian Street . City Hall has its own community police force , Poliția Primăriei , dealing with local community issues . Cluj @-@ Napoca also houses the County 's Gendarmerie Inspectorate .
= = = Crime = = =
Cluj @-@ Napoca and the surrounding area ( Cluj County ) had a rate of 268 criminal convictions per 100 @,@ 000 inhabitants during 2006 , just above the national average . After the revolution in 1989 , the criminal conviction rate in the county entered a phase of sustained growth , reaching a historic high of 429 in 1998 , when it began to fall . Although the overall crime rate is reassuringly low , petty crime can be an irritant for foreigners , as in other large cities of Romania . During the 1990s , two large financial institutions , Banca Dacia Felix and Caritas , went bankrupt due to large @-@ scale fraud and embezzlement .
Also notorious was the case of serial killer Romulus Vereș , " the man with the hammer " ; during the 1970s , he was charged with five murders and several attempted murders , but never imprisoned on grounds of insanity : he suffered from schizophrenia , blaming the Devil for his actions . Instead , he was institutionalised in the Ștei psychiatric facility in 1976 , following a three @-@ year forensic investigation during which four thousand people were questioned . Urban myths brought the number of victims up to two hundred women , though the actual number was much smaller . This confusion is probably explained by the lack of attention this case received , despite its magnitude , in the Communist press of the time .
A 2006 poll shows a high degree of satisfaction with the work of the local police department . More than half the people surveyed during a 2005 – 2006 poll declared themselves satisfied ( 62 @.@ 3 % ) or very satisfied ( 3 @.@ 3 % ) with the activity of the county police department . The study found the highest satisfaction with car traffic supervision , the presence of officers in the street , and road education ; on the negative side , corruption and public transport safety remain concerns .
Efforts made by local authorities in the Cluj @-@ Napoca district at the end of the 1990s to reform the protection of children 's rights and assistance for street children proved insufficient due to lack of funding , incoherent policies and the absence of any real collaboration between the actors involved ( Child Rights Protection Directorate , Social Assistance Service within the District Directorate for Labour and Social Protection , Minors Receiving Centre , Guardian Authority within the City Hall , Police ) . There are numerous street children , whose poverty and lack of documented identity brings them into constant conflict with local law enforcement .
Following cooperation between the local governmental council and the Prison Fellowship Romania Foundation , homeless people , street children and beggars are taken , identified and accommodated within the Christian Centers for Street Children and Homeless People , respectively , and the Ruhama centre . The latter features a marshaling center for beggars and street children , as well as a flophouse . As a consequence , the fluctuating movement of children , beggars and homeless people in and out of the centre has been considerably reduced , with most of the initial beneficiaries successfully integrated into the programme rather than returning to the streets .
From 2000 onwards , Cluj @-@ Napoca has seen an increase in illegal road races , which occur mainly at night on the city 's outskirts or on industrial sites and occasionally produce victims . There have been attempts to organize legal races as a solution to this problem .
= = Demographics = =
The city 's population , at the 2011 census , was 324 @,@ 576 inhabitants , or 1 @.@ 6 % of the total population of Romania . The population of the Cluj @-@ Napoca metropolitan area is estimated at 411 @,@ 379 . Finally , the population of the peri @-@ urban area numbers over 420 @,@ 000 residents . The new metropolitan government of Cluj @-@ Napoca became operational in December 2008 . According to the 2007 data provided by the County Population Register Service , the total population of the city is as high as 392 @,@ 276 people . The variation between this number and the census data is partially explained by the real growth of the population residing in Cluj @-@ Napoca , as well as by different counting methods : " In reality , more people live in Cluj than those who are officially registered " , Traian Rotariu , director of the Center for Population Studies , told Foaia Transilvană . Moreover , this number does not include the floating population — an average of over 20 thousand people each year during 2004 – 2007 , according to the same source .
In the modern era , Cluj 's population experienced two phases of rapid growth , the first in the late 19th century , when the city grew in importance and size , and the second during the Communist period , when a massive urbanisation campaign was launched and many people migrated from rural areas and from beyond the Carpathians to the county 's capital . About two @-@ thirds of the population growth during this era was based on net migration inflows ; after 1966 , the date of Ceaușescu 's ban on abortion and contraception , natural increase was also significant , being responsible for the remaining third .
From the Middle Ages onwards , the city of Cluj has been a multicultural city with a diverse cultural and religious life . According to the 2011 Romanian census , of those for whom data are available , 81 @.@ 5 % of the population of the city are ethnic Romanians , with the second largest ethnic group being the Hungarians , who make up 16 @.@ 4 % of the population . The remainder is composed of Romani ( 1 @.@ 1 % ) , Germans ( 0 @.@ 18 % ) , Jews ( 0 @.@ 05 % ) and others ( 0 @.@ 7 % ) . ( Those for whom data were unavailable accounted for 7 @.@ 1 % . ) Today , the city receives a large influx of migrants : 25 @,@ 000 people requested residence in the city during 2007 .
In terms of religion , among those for whom there were data , 71 @.@ 3 % of the population in 2011 were Romanian Orthodox and 10 @.@ 6 % were Reformed . The Roman Catholic and the Romanian Greek @-@ Catholic communities claimed 5 @.@ 0 % and 4 @.@ 7 % of the population respectively , while other religious groups like Pentecostals ( 2 @.@ 7 % ) , Baptists ( 1 @.@ 2 % ) , or Unitarians ( 1 @.@ 0 % ) rounded out most of the rest . ( Data were unavailable for 7 @.@ 9 % of inhabitants . ) By contrast , in 1930 , the city was 26 @.@ 7 % Reformed , 22 @.@ 6 % Greek Catholic , 20 @.@ 1 % Roman Catholic , 13 @.@ 4 % Jewish , 11 @.@ 8 % Orthodox , 2 @.@ 4 % Lutheran and 2 @.@ 1 % Unitarian . Contributing factors for these shifts were the extermination and emigration of the city 's Jews , the outlawing of the Greek @-@ Catholic Church ( 1948 – 89 ) and the gradual decline in the Hungarian population .
On a more historical note , the Jewish community has figured centrally in the history of Transylvania , and in that of the wider region . They were a substantial and increasingly vibrant presence in Cluj in the modern era , contributing significantly to the town 's economic dynamism and cultural flourishing in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . Although the community comprised a significant share of the town 's population during the interwar era — between 13 and 15 percent — this figure plummeted as a consequence of the Holocaust and emigration ; by the 1990s only a few hundred Jews remained in Cluj @-@ Napoca .
In the 14th century , most of the town 's inhabitants and the local elite were Saxons , largely descended from settlers brought in by the Kings of Hungary in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries to develop and defend the southern borders of the province . By the middle of the next century roughly half the population had Hungarian names . In Transylvania as a whole , the Reformation sharpened ethnic divisions : Saxons became Lutheran while Hungarians either remained Catholic or became Calvinist or Unitarian . In Kolozsvár , however , the religious lines were blurred . Isolated both geographically from the main areas of German settlement in southern Transylvania and institutionally because of their distinctive religious trajectory , many Saxons eventually assimilated to the Hungarian majority over several generations . New settlers to the town largely spoke Hungarian , a language that many Saxons gradually adopted . ( In the seventeenth century , out of more than thirty royal free towns , only seven had a Hungarian majority , with Kolozsvár / Klausenburg being one of them ; the rest were largely German @-@ dominated . ) In this manner Kolozsvár became largely Hungarian speaking and would remain so through the mid @-@ 20th century , though 4 @.@ 8 % of its residents identified as German as late as 1880 .
The Roma form a sizable minority in contemporary Romania , and a small but visible presence in Cluj @-@ Napoca : self @-@ identifying Roma in the city comprise only 1 percent of the population ; yet they are a familiar presence in and around the central market , selling flowers , used clothes and tinware . They are an important object of public discourse and media representation at the national level ; however , Cluj @-@ Napoca , with its small Roma population , has not been a major focus of Roma ethno @-@ political activity .
= = = Hungarian community = = =
Almost 50 @,@ 000 Hungarians live in Cluj @-@ Napoca . The city is home to the second @-@ largest urban Hungarian community in Romania , after Târgu Mureș , with an active cultural and academic life : the city features a Hungarian state theatre and opera , as well as Hungarian research institutions , like Erdélyi Múzeumi Egyesület ( EME ) , Erdélyi Magyar Műszaki Tudományos Társaság and Bolyai Társaság . With respect to religious affairs , the city houses central offices for the Reformed Diocese of Transylvania , the Unitarian Diocese and an Evangelical Lutheran Church Diocese ( all of which train their clergy at the Protestant Theological Institute of Cluj ) . Several newspapers and magazines are published in the Hungarian language , yet the community also receives public and private television and radio broadcasts ( see Media ) . As of 2007 , 7 @,@ 000 students attended courses in the 55 Hungarian @-@ language specialisations at the Babeș @-@ Bolyai University . Gheorghe Funar , mayor of Cluj @-@ Napoca from 1992 to 2004 , was notorious for acts of ethnic provocation , bedecking the city 's streets in the colours of the Romanian flag and arranging pickets outside the city 's Hungarian consulate ; however , tensions have subsided since .
= = Economy = =
Cluj @-@ Napoca is an important economic centre in Romania . Famous local brands that have become well @-@ known at a national , and to some extent even international level , include : Banca Transilvania , Terapia Ranbaxy , Farmec , Jolidon , and Ursus breweries .
The American online magazine InformationWeek reports that much of the software / IT activity in Romania is taking place in Cluj @-@ Napoca , which is quickly becoming Romania 's technopolis . Nokia invested 200 million euros in a mobile telephone factory near Cluj @-@ Napoca ; this began production in February 2008 and closed in December 2011 . It also opened a research centre in the city that was shut down in April 2011 . The former Nokia factory was purchased by Italian appliance manufacturer De 'Longhi . The city houses regional or national headquarters of MOL , Aegon , Emerson , De 'Longhi , Bechtel , FrieslandCampina , Office Depot , Genpact and New Yorker . Bosch has also built a factory near Cluj @-@ Napoca , in the same industrial park as De 'Longhi .
Cluj @-@ Napoca is also an important regional commercial centre , with many street malls and hypermarkets . Eroilor Avenue and Napoca and Memorandumului streets are the most expensive venues , with a yearly rent price of 720 euro / m ² , but Regele Ferdinand and 21 Decembrie 1989 avenues also feature high rental costs . There are two large malls : Polus ( including a Carrefour hypermarket ) and Iulius Mall ( including an Auchan hypermarket ) . Other large stores include branches of various international hypermarket chains , like Cora , Metro , Selgros and do @-@ it @-@ yourself stores such as Baumax and Praktiker .
Among the retailers found in the city 's shopping centers are H & M , Zara , Guess , Camaïeu , Bigotti , Orsay , Jolidon , Kenvelo , Triumph , Tommy Hilfiger , Sephora , Yves Rocher , Swarovski , Ecco , Bata , Adidas , Converse and Nike .
In 2008 , the city 's general budget amounted to 990 million lei , the equivalent of over 266 million Euros ( 207 million pounds sterling ) . Over the previous year , the budget increased 19 % in 2006 , 56 % in 2007 and 35 % in 2008 . In lei , the budgets for 2005 , 2006 , 2007 and 2008 are 396 @,@ 303 @,@ 743 , 472 @,@ 364 @,@ 500 739 @,@ 214 @,@ 224 , and 990 @,@ 812 @,@ 338 respectively .
= = = Tourism = = =
In 2007 , the hotel industry in the county of Cluj offered total accommodations of 6 @,@ 472 beds , of which 3 @,@ 677 were in hotels , 1 @,@ 294 in guesthouses and the rest in chalets , campgrounds , or hostels . A total of 700 @,@ 000 visitors , 140 @,@ 000 of whom were foreigners , stayed overnight . However , a considerable share of visits is made by those who visit Cluj @-@ Napoca for a single day , and their exact number is not known . The largest numbers of foreign visitors come from Hungary , Italy , Germany , the United States , France , and Austria . Moreover , the city 's 140 or so travel agencies help organise domestic and foreign trips ; car rentals are also available .
= = Arts and culture = =
Cluj @-@ Napoca has a diverse and growing cultural scene , with cultural life exhibited in a number of fields , including the visual arts , performing arts and nightlife . The city 's cultural scene spans its history , dating back to Roman times : the city started to be built in that period , which has left its mark on the urban layout ( centered on today 's Piața Muzeului ) as well as surviving ruins . However , the medieval town saw a shift in its centre towards new civil and religious structures , notably St. Michael 's Church .
During the 16th century the city became the chief cultural and religious centre of Transylvania ; in the 1820s and the first half of the 1830s , Kolozsvár was the most important centre for Hungarian theatre and opera , while at the beginning of the 20th century , still a Hungarian city , it became the chief alternative to the cinematography of Budapest . After its incorporation into the Kingdom of Romania at the end of World War I , the renamed Cluj saw a resurgence of its Romanian culture , most conspicuous in the completion of the monumental Orthodox cathedral in 1933 across from the ( newly nationalised ) Romanian National Theatre . This marked an unambiguously " Romanian " centre , a few blocks to the east of the old Hungarian centre ; however , the Romanian @-@ ness of the town — like the Romanian hold on Transylvania — was by no means securely established even by the end of the interwar period . The late 1960s brought a revival of nationalist discourse , concomitant with the urbanisation and industrialisation of the city that gradually advanced the Romanianisation of the city . Nowadays , the city is home to people of different cultures , with corresponding cultural institutions such as the Hungarian State Theatre , as well as the British Council and various other centres for the promotion of foreign cultures . These institutions hold eclectic manifestations in honour of their cultures , including Bessarabian , Hungarian , Tunisian , and Japanese . Nevertheless , contemporary cultural manifestations cross ethnic boundaries , being aimed at students , cinephiles , and arts and science lovers , among others .
= = = Landmarks = = =
Cluj @-@ Napoca has a number of landmark buildings and monuments . One of those is the Saint Michael 's Church in Unirii Square , built at the end of the 14th century in the Gothic style of that period . It was only in the 19th century that the Neo @-@ Gothic tower of the church was erected ; it remains the tallest church tower in Romania to this day .
In front of the church is the equestrian statue of Matthias Corvinus , erected in honour of the locally born King of Hungary . The Orthodox Church 's equivalent to St. Michael 's Church is the Orthodox Cathedral on Avram Iancu Square , built in the interwar era . The Romanian Greek @-@ Catholic Church also has a cathedral in Cluj @-@ Napoca , Transfiguration Cathedral .
Another landmark of Cluj @-@ Napoca is the Palace of Justice , built between 1898 and 1902 , and designed by architect Gyula Wagner in an eclectic style . This building is part of an ensemble erected in Avram Iancu Square that also includes the National Theatre , the Palace of Căile Ferate Române , the Palace of the Prefecture , the Palace of Finance and the Palace of the Orthodox Metropolis . An important eclectic ensemble is Iuliu Maniu Street , featuring symmetrical buildings on either side , after the Haussmann urbanistic trend . A highlight of the city is the botanical garden , situated in the vicinity of the centre . Beside this garden , Cluj @-@ Napoca is also home to some large parks , the most notable being the Central Park with the Chios Casino and a large statuary ensemble . Many of the city 's notable figures are buried in Hajongard Cemetery , which covers 14 hectares ( 35 acres ) .
As an important cultural centre , Cluj @-@ Napoca has many theatres and museums . The latter include the National Museum of Transylvanian History , the Ethnographic Museum , the Cluj @-@ Napoca Art Museum , the Pharmacy Museum , the Water Museum and the museums of Babeș @-@ Bolyai University — the University Museum , the Museum of Mineralogy , the Museum of Paleontology and Stratigraphy , the Museum of Speleology , the Botanical Museum and the Zoological Museum .
= = = Visual arts = = =
In terms of visual arts , the city contains a number of galleries featuring both classical and contemporary Romanian art , as well as selected international works .
The National Museum of Art is located in the former palace of the count György Bánffy , the most representative secular construction built in the Baroque style in Transylvania . The museum features extensive collections of Romanian art , including works of artists like Nicolae Grigorescu , Ștefan Luchian and Dimitrie Paciurea , as well as some works of foreign artists like Károly Lotz , Luca Giordano , Jean @-@ Hippolyte Flandrin , Herri met de Bles and Claude Michel , and was nominated to be European Museum of the Year in 1996 .
The most notable of the city 's other galleries is the Gallery of the Union of Plastic Artists . Situated in the city centre , this gallery presents collections drawn from the contemporary arts scene . The Gallery of Folk Art includes traditional Romanian interior decoration artworks .
Historically , the city was one of the most important cultural and artistic centres in 16th @-@ century Transylvania . The Renaissance workshop , formed in 1530 and strongly supported by the Transylvanian princes , served local and wider requirements : from the middle of the century onwards , when the Ottomans had conquered central Hungary , it extended its activity throughout the new principality . Its style , the " Flower Renaissance " , used a variety of plant ornament enriched with coats of arms , figures and inscriptions . It continued to be of great importance into the 18th century , and traces of it are still apparent in 20th @-@ century vernacular art ; Klausenburg was central to the long , anachronistic survival of the style , particularly among Hungarians .
= = = Performing arts = = =
The city has a number of renowned facilities and institutions involving performing arts . The most prominent is the Neo @-@ baroque theatre at the Avram Iancu Square . Built at the beginning of the 20th century by the Viennese company Helmer and Fellner , this structure is inscribed in UNESCO 's list of specially protected monuments . Since 1919 , shortly after the union of Transylvania with Romania , the building has hosted the Lucian Blaga National Theatre and the Romanian National Opera . The Transylvania Philarmonic , founded in 1955 , gives classical music concerts . The multiculturalism in the city is once again attested by the Hungarian Theatre and Opera , home for four professional groups of performers . There is also a number of smaller independent theatres , including the Puck Theatre , where puppet shows are performed .
= = = Music and nightlife = = =
Cluj @-@ Napoca is the residence of some well @-@ known Romanian musicians . Examples of homegrown bands include the popular Romanian rock band Compact , the modern pop band Sistem — which finished third in the Eurovision Song Contest 2005 , the rhythm and blues band Nightlosers , the alternative band Luna Amară , Grimus — the winners of the 2007 National Finals of Global Battle of the Bands , as well as a large assortment of electronic music producers , notably Horace Dan D. The Cheeky Girls also grew up in the city , where they studied at the High School of Choreography and Dramatic Art . While many discos play commercial house music , the city has an increasing minimal techno scene , and , to an extent jazz / blues and heavy metal / punk . The city 's nightlife , particularly its club scene , grew significantly in the 1990s , and continues to increase . Most entertainment venues are dispersed throughout the city centre , spreading from the oldest one of all , Diesel Club , on Unirii Square . The list of large and fancy clubs continues with Obsession The Club and Midi , the latter being a venue for the new minimal techno music genre . These three clubs are classified as the top three clubs in the Transylvania @-@ Banat region in a chart published by the national daily România Liberă . The Unirii area also features the Fashion Bar , with an exclusive terrace sponsored by Fashion TV . Some other clubs in the centre are Aftereight , Avenue , Bamboo , Decadence , Kharma and Molotov Pub . Numerous restaurants , pizzerias and coffee shops provide regional as well as international cuisine ; many of these offer cultural activities like music and fashion shows or art exhibitions .
The city also includes Strada Piezișă ( slanted street ) , a central nightlife strip located in the Hașdeu student area , where a large number of bars and terraces are situated . Cluj @-@ Napoca is not limited to these international music genres , as there are also a number of discos where local " Lăutari " play manele , a Turkish @-@ influenced type of music .
= = = Traditional culture = = =
In spite of the influences of modern culture , traditional Romanian culture continues to influence various domains of art .
Cluj @-@ Napoca hosts an ethnographic museum , the Ethnographic Museum of Transylvania , which features a large indoor collection of traditional cultural objects , as well as an open @-@ air park , the oldest of this kind in Romania , dating back to 1929 .
The National Museum of Transylvanian History is another important museum in Cluj @-@ Napoca , containing a collection of artefacts detailing Romanian history and culture from prehistoric times , the Dacian era , medieval times and the modern era . Moreover , the city also preserves a Historic Collection of the Pharmacy , in the building of the its first pharmacy ( 16th century ) , the Hintz House .
= = = Cultural events and festivals = = =
Cluj @-@ Napoca hosts a number of cultural festivals of various types . These occur throughout the year , though are more frequent in the summer months . " Sărbătoarea Muzicii " ( Fête de la Musique ) is a music festival taking place yearly on 21 June in a number of Romanian cities , Cluj @-@ Napoca included , organised under the aegis of the French Cultural Centre . Additionally , Splaiul Independenței , on the banks of Someșul Mic River , hosts a number of beer festivals throughout the summer , among them the " Septemberfest " , modelled after the German Oktoberfest . In 2015 , the city will be the European Youth Capital , an event with a budget of 5 @.@ 7 million euros that is projected to boost tourism by about a fifth .
The city has seen a number of important music events , including the MTV România Music Award ceremony which was held at the Sala Sporturilor Horia Demian in 2006 with the Sugababes , Pachanga and Uniting Nations as special international guests . In 2007 , Beyoncé Knowles also performed in Cluj @-@ Napoca , at the Ion Moina Stadium . In 2010 , Iron Maiden included the city in their Final Frontier World Tour . The Cluj Arena was inaugurated in 2011 with concerts by Scorpions and Smokie , the main event drawing over 40 @,@ 000 people ; other events followed , for instance Roxette in 2012 and Deep Purple in 2013 . Smaller events occur regularly at the Polyvalent Hall , the Opera and the Students ' House of Culture . Moreover , the local clubs regularly organise events featuring international artists , usually foreign disc jockeys , like André Tanneberger , Sasha , Timo Maas , Tania Vulcano , Satoshi Tomiie , Yves Larock , Dave Seaman , Plump DJs , Stephane K or Andy Fletcher .
The Transilvania International Film Festival ( TIFF ) , held in the city since 2001 and organised by the Association for the Promotion of the Romanian Film , is the first Romanian film festival for international features . The festival jury awards the Transilvania Trophy for the best film in competition , as well as prizes for best director , best performance and best photography . With the support of Home Box Office , TIFF also organises a national script contest . Comedy Cluj , which debuted in 2009 , is the newest annual film festival organised in Cluj @-@ Napoca .
Toamna Muzicală Clujeană , Romania 's most important classical music event after the George Enescu Festival , has taken place annually since 1965 , and is run by the Transylvania State Philharmonic Orchestra . A Mozart Festival has taken place annually since 1991 . Another annual event , taking place at the Romanian National Opera , is the Opera Ball , established in 1992 . Additionally , in 2012 , a Festival of National Operas was introduced , which aside from the hometown troupe , also features opera companies from Bucharest , Iași and Timișoara . The Interferences International Theatre Festival , started in 2007 , takes place at the Hungarian Theatre .
Also held in the city is Delahoya , Romania 's oldest electronic music festival , established in 1997 . Electric Castle Festival had an audience of over 30 @,@ 000 people for its first edition in 2013 and was nominated by European Festivals Awards for the Best New Festival and Best Medium Size Festival awards .
= = Architecture = =
Cluj @-@ Napoca 's salient architecture is primarily Renaissance , Baroque and Gothic . The modern era has also produced a remarkable set of buildings from the mid @-@ century style . The mostly utilitarian Communist @-@ era architecture is also present , although only to a certain extent , as Cluj @-@ Napoca never faced a large systematisation programme . Of late , the city has seen significant growth in contemporary structures such as skyscrapers and office buildings , mainly constructed after 2000 .
= = = Historical architecture = = =
The nucleus of the old city , an important cultural and commercial centre , used to be a military camp , attested in documents with the name " castrum Clus " .
The oldest residence in Cluj @-@ Napoca is the Matthias Corvinus House , originally a Gothic structure that bears Transylvanian Renaissance characteristics due to a later renovation . Such changes feature on other Hungarian townspeople 's residences , built from the mid @-@ 15th century mostly of stone and wood with a cellar , ground floor and upper storey , in the Late Gothic and Renaissance styles ; although the late medieval houses have often been considerably altered , the street façades of the old town are mostly preserved . St. Michael 's Church , the oldest and most representative Gothic @-@ style building in the country , dates back to the 14th century . The oldest of its sections is the altar , dedicated in 1390 , while the newest part is the clock tower , which was built in Gothic Revival style ( 1860 ) .
As Renaissance styles survived late in the city , the appearance of Baroque art was also delayed , but from the mid @-@ 18th century Klausenburg was once again at the centre of the development and spread of art in Transylvania , as it had been two centuries earlier . The first enthusiasts for Baroque were the Catholic Church and the landed aristocracy . Artists came initially from south Germany and Austria , but by the end of the century most of the work was by local craftsmen . The earliest signs of the new style appear in the furnishings of St. Michael 's church : the altarpieces and pulpit , which date to the 1740s , are carved , painted and richly decorated with figures . An altarpiece depicting the Adoration of the Magi ( 1748 – 50 ) is the work of Franz Anton Maulbertsch . The earliest two @-@ towered Baroque church was built by the Jesuits from 1718 to 1724 on the pattern of Košice and was later handed over to the Piarists . During the century more simply designed Baroque churches were built for the mendicant orders , Lutherans , Unitarians and the Orthodox Church . The noble families built houses and even palaces in the old town . The Baroque Bánffy Palace ( 1774 – 1785 ) , constructed around a rectangular yard , is the masterpiece of Eberhardt Blaumann . Its peculiarity lies in the appearance of the principal façade .
Both Avram Iancu and Unrii Squares feature ensembles of eclectic and baroque – rococo architecture , including the Palace of Justice , the Theatre , the Iuliu Maniu symmetrical street , and the New York Palace , among others . In the 19th century many houses were built in the Neo @-@ classical , Romantic and Eclectic styles . Also dating to that period are the two @-@ towered Neo @-@ classical Calvinist church ( 1829 – 50 ) , its new college building of 1801 , and the City Hall ( 1843 – 46 ) in the marketplace , by Antal Kagerbauer .
The banks of the Someșul Mic also feature a wide variety of such old buildings . The end of the 19th century brought a building ensemble that fastens the corners of the oldest bridge over the river , at the north end of the Regele Ferdinand Avenue . The Berde , Babos , Elian , Urania , and Széki palaces consist of a mixture of Baroque , Renaissance and Gothic styles , following the Art Nouveau / Secession and Revival specifics .
In the 2000s , the old city centre underwent extensive restoration works , meant to convert much of it into a pedestrian area , including Bulevardul Eroilor , Unirii Square and other smaller streets . In some residential areas of the city , particularly the high @-@ income southern areas , like Andrei Mureșanu or Strada Republicii , there are many turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ century villas .
= = = Modern and Communist architecture = = =
Part of Cluj @-@ Napoca 's architecture is made up of buildings constructed during the Communist era , when historical architecture was replaced with " more efficient " high @-@ density apartment blocks . Nicolae Ceaușescu 's project of systematisation did not really affect the heart of the city , instead reaching the marginal , shoddily built districts surrounding it .
Still , the centre hosts some examples of modern architecture dating back to the Communist era . The Hungarian Theatre building was erected at the beginning of the 20th century , but underwent an avant @-@ garde renovation in 1961 , when it acquired a modernist style of architecture . Another example of modernist architectural art is Palatul Telefoanelor , situated in the vicinity of Mihai Viteazul Square , an area that also features a complex of large apartment buildings .
Some outer districts , especially Mănăștur , and to a certain extent Gheorgheni and Grigorescu , consist mainly of such large apartment ensembles .
= = = Contemporary architecture = = =
Since 1989 , modern skyscrapers and glass @-@ fronted buildings have altered the skyline of Cluj @-@ Napoca . Buildings from this time are mostly made out of glass and steel , and are usually high @-@ rise . Examples include shopping malls ( particularly the Iulius Mall ) , office buildings and bank headquarters . Of this last , regional headquarters of the Banca Română pentru Dezvoltare is the tallest office building in Cluj @-@ Napoca , with 50 metres ( 160 ft ) . Its twelve storeys were completed in 1997 after 4 years of work and house offices for the bank and for divisions of several other companies , including insurance and oil companies .
Another architecturally interesting building is the so @-@ called " Clădirea biscuite " ( the biscuit building ) . This building was supposed to house the local headquarters of the Banca Agricolă ( Agricultural Bank ) , but entered in the custody of the city due to the failure of that bank in the 1990s and its subsequent purchase by the Raiffeisen Bank , to be eventually converted in an office building .
The headquarters of Banca Transilvania , at the intersection of Regele Ferdinand Avenue and Barițiu Street , is also a large contemporary building and was originally constructed to host the regional offices of Romtelecom , the public phone company , but was later sold to the bank .
Cluj @-@ Napoca is undergoing a period of architectural revitalisation that is set to bring the manner of expansion to the vertical . A financial centre , containing a tower of 15 storeys , is slated for completion in 2010 on Ploiești Street . Two 35 @-@ storey twin towers are projected to be constructed in the Sigma area in Zorilor , while the Florești area will host a complex of three towers with 32 levels each .
= = Transport = =
Cluj @-@ Napoca has a complex system of regional transportation , providing road , air and rail connections to major cities in Romania and Europe . It also features a public transportation system consisting of bus , trolleybus and tram lines .
Cluj @-@ Napoca is an important node in the European road network , being on three different European routes ( E60 , E81 and E576 ) . At a national level , Cluj @-@ Napoca is located on three different main national roads : DN1 , DN1C and DN1F . The Romanian Motorway A3 , also known as Transylvania Motorway ( Autostrada Transilvania ) , currently under construction , will link the city with Bucharest and Romania 's western border . The 2B section between Câmpia Turzii and Cluj Vest ( Gilău ) opened in late 2010 . The Cluj @-@ Napoca Coach Station ( Autogara ) is used by several private transport companies to provide coach connections from Cluj @-@ Napoca to a large number of locations from all over the country .
The number of automobiles licensed in Cluj @-@ Napoca is estimated at 175 @,@ 000 . As of 2007 , Cluj County ranks sixth nationwide according to the cars sold during that year , with 12 @,@ 679 units , corresponding to a four percent share . One tenth of these cars were limousines or SUVs . Some 3 @,@ 300 taxis are also licensed to operate in Cluj @-@ Napoca .
CTP , the local public transport company , runs an extensive 321 kilometres ( 199 mi ) public transport network within the city using 3 tram lines , 6 trolleybus lines and 21 bus routes . Transport in the Cluj @-@ Napoca metropolitan area is also covered by a number of private bus companies , such as Fany and MV Trans 2007 , providing connections to neighboring towns and villages .
The Cluj @-@ Napoca International Airport ( CLJ ) , located 9 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) to the east of the city centre , is the second busiest airport in Romania , after Bucharest 's OTP , handling over 1 @.@ 4 million passengers in 2015 . Situated on the European route E576 ( Cluj @-@ Napoca – Dej ) , the airport is connected to the city centre by the local public transport company , CTP , bus number 8 . The airport serves various direct international destinations across Europe . In 2016 , a 42 m @-@ high control tower will be inaugurated on the site of the old tower , built in 1960s . The new control tower will be one of the most modern in the country .
Cluj @-@ Napoca Rail Station , located about 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) north of the city centre , is situated on the CFR @-@ Romanian Railways Main Line 300 ( Bucharest – Oradea – Romanian Western Border ) and on Line 401 ( Cluj @-@ Napoca – Dej ) . CFR provides direct rail connections to all the major Romanian cities and to Budapest . The rail station is very well connected to all parts of the city by the trams , trolleybuses and buses of the local public transport company , CTP .
The city is also served by two other secondary rail stations , the Little Station ( Gara Micǎ ) , which is technically part of and situated immediately near the main station , and Cluj @-@ Napoca East ( Est ) . There is also a cargo station , Halta " Clujana " .
The local transportation company , CTP , manages a tram line that runs through the city . Planned modernisation will involve the installation of new rail tracks and the separation of the tram route from road traffic . This will bring a number of advantages , including vibration and shock reduction , a substantial noise decrease , long use expectancy and higher transit speed – 60 kilometres per hour ( 37 mph ) -80 kilometres per hour ( 50 mph ) . The route will undergo major alteration on Horea Street , between the Chamber of Commerce and the central rail station , a rather problematic area . This dilemma should be solved either with the relocation of the track next to the sidewalk , or through the construction of a suspended tunnel . Another area that will benefit from large @-@ scale changes is " Splaiul Independenței " , where the tracks will be pulled back to the Central Park , so that the roadway can host two lanes . In the Mănăștur area , under the bridge , the tracks will be brought closer , while other major works will executed on the traffic circle on Primăverii Street . Given the development of the metropolitan area , further plans feature the creation of a light rail track between Gilău and Jucu that will use these modernised tracks in the city .
= = Culture and media = =
Cluj @-@ Napoca is an important centre for Transylvanian mass media , since it is the headquarters of all regional television networks , newspapers and radio stations . The largest daily newspapers published in Bucharest are usually reissued from Cluj @-@ Napoca in a regional version , covering Transylvanian issues . Such newspapers include România Liberă , Gardianul , Ziarul Financiar , ProSport and Gazeta Sporturilor . Ringier edited a regional version of Evenimentul Zilei in Cluj @-@ Napoca until 2008 , when it decided to close this enterprise .
Apart from the regional editions , which are distributed throughout Transylvania , the national newspaper Ziua also runs a local franchise , Ziua de Cluj , that acts as a local daily , available only within city limits . Cluj @-@ Napoca also boasts other newspapers of local interest , like Făclia and Monitorul de Cluj , as well as two free dailies , Informația Cluj and Cluj Expres . Clujeanul , the first of a series of local weeklies edited by the media trust CME , is one of the largest newspapers in Transylvania , with an audience of 53 @,@ 000 readers per edition . This weekly has a daily online version , entitled Clujeanul , ediție online , updated on a real @-@ time basis . Cluj @-@ Napoca is also the centre of the Romanian Hungarian language press . The city hosts the editorial offices of the two largest newspapers of this kind , Krónika and Szabadság , as well as those of the magazines Erdélyi Napló and Korunk . Săptămâna Clujeană is an economic weekly published in the city , that also issues two magazines on successful local people and companies ( Oameni de Succes and Companii de Succes ) every year , while Piața A @-@ Z is a newspaper for announcements and advertisements distributed throughout Transylvania . Cluj had an active press in the interwar period as well : publications included the Zionist newspaper Új Kelet , the official party organs Keleti Újság ( for the Magyar Party ) and Patria ( for the National Peasants ' Party ) ; and the nationalist Conștiința Românească and Țara Noastră , the latter a magazine directed by Octavian Goga . Under Communism , publications included the socio @-@ political and literary magazines Tribuna , Steaua , Utunk , Korunk , Napsugár and Előre as well as the regional Communist party daily organs Făclia and Igazság and the trilingual student magazine Echinox .
Among the local television stations in the city , TVR Cluj ( public ) and One TV ( private ) broadcast regionally , while the others are restricted to the metropolitan area . Napoca Cable Network is available through cable , and broadcasts local content throughout the day . Other stations work as affiliates of national TV stations , only providing the audience with local reports in addition to the national programming . This situation is mirrored in the radio broadcasting companies : except for Radio Cluj , Radio Impuls and the Hungarian @-@ language Paprika Rádió , all other stations are local affiliates of the national broadcasters . Casa Radio , situated on Donath Street , is one of the modern landmarks of the media and communications industry ; it is , however , not the only one : Palatul Telefoanelor ( " the telephone palace " ) is also a major modernist symbol of communications in the city centre .
Magazines published in Cluj @-@ Napoca include HR Journal , a publication discussing human resources issues , J 'Adore , a local shopping magazine that is also franchised in Bucharest , Maximum Rock Magazine , dealing with the rock music industry , RDV , a national hunting publication and Cluj @-@ Napoca WWW , an English @-@ language magazine designed for tourists . Cultural and social events as well as all other entertainment sources are the leading subjects of such magazines as Șapte Seri and CJ24FUN .
In the early 20th century , film production in Kolozsvár , led by Jenő Janovics , was the chief alternative to Budapest . The first film made in the city , in association with the Parisian producer Pathé , was Sárga csikó ( " Yellow Foal " , 1912 ) , based on a popular " peasant drama " . Yellow Foal became the first worldwide Hungarian success , distributed abroad under the title The Secret of the Blind Man : 137 prints were sold internationally and the movie was even screened in Japan .
The first artistically prestigious film in the annals of Hungarian cinematography was also produced on this site , based on a national classic , Bánk bán ( 1914 ) , a tragedy written by József Katona .
Later , the city was the production site of the 1991 Romanian drama Undeva în Est ( " Somewhere in the East " ) , and the 1995 Hungarian language film A Részleg ( " Outpost " ) . Moreover , the Romanian @-@ language film Cartier ( " Neighbourhood " , 2001 ) and its sequel Înapoi în cartier ( " Back to the Neighbourhood " , 2006 ) both feature a story replete with violence and rude language , behind the blocks in the city 's Mănăștur district . This district is also mentioned in the lyrics to the song Înapoi în cartier by La Familia member Puya , featured on the soundtrack of the motion picture .
Documentary and mockumentary productions set in the city include Irshad Ashraf 's St. Richard of Austin , a tribute to the American film director Richard Linklater , and Cluj @-@ Napocolonia , a mockumentary imagining a fabulous city of the future .
= = Education = =
Higher education has a long tradition in Cluj @-@ Napoca . The Babeș @-@ Bolyai University ( UBB ) is the largest in the country , with approximately 50 @,@ 000 students attending various specialisations in Romanian , Hungarian , German and English . Its name commemorates two important Transylvanian figures , the Romanian physician Victor Babeș and the Hungarian mathematician János Bolyai . The university claims roots as far back as 1581 , when a Jesuit college opened in Cluj , but it was in 1872 that emperor Franz Joseph founded the University of Cluj , later renamed the Franz Joseph University ( József Ferenc Tudományegyetem ) . During 1919 , immediately after the end of World War I , the university was moved to Budapest , where it stayed until 1921 , after which it was moved to the Hungarian city of Szeged . Briefly , it returned to Cluj in the first half of the 1940s , when the city came back under Hungarian administration , but it was again relocated in Szeged , following the reincorporation of Cluj into Romanian territory . The Romanian branch acquired the name Babeș ; a Hungarian university , Bolyai , was established in 1945 , and the two were merged in 1959 . The city also hosts nine other universities , among them the Technical University , the Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy , the USAMV , the University of Arts and Design , the Gheorghe Dima Music Academy and other private universities and educational institutes .
The first mention of public education provided in the city dates back to 1409 , namely the caption " Caspar notarius et rector scholarum " ( " Caspar secretary and director of schools " ) . Concomitantly , a Catholic school founded during the 14th century also functioned in the city . Today close to 150 pre @-@ university educational institutions operate in Cluj @-@ Napoca , including 62 kindergartens , 30 primary schools and 45 high schools . Their activity is supervised by the County Board for Education . Most schools are taught in Romanian ; nonetheless , there are some Hungarian @-@ language schools ( Báthory István , Apáczai Csere János and Brassai Sámuel high schools ) , as well as mixed schools — e. g . George Coșbuc and Onisifor Ghibu high schools with Romanian / German classes and Romanian / Hungarian classes , respectively . Statistics show that 18 @,@ 208 students were enrolled in the city 's secondary school system during the 1993 – 94 school year , while a further 7 @,@ 660 attended one of the 18 professional schools . In the same year , another 37 @,@ 111 pupils and 9 @,@ 711 children were registered for primary and pre @-@ school , respectively .
= = Sports = =
Football in the city features four clubs playing in the leagues organised by the Romanian Football Federation , including two teams participating in Liga 1 — formerly Divizia A — the top division in the Romanian football association . CFR 1907 Cluj @-@ Napoca ( founded in 1907 ) is the oldest established team in the Romanian Championship . During the 2007 – 2008 season , it won the Romanian Championship and the Romanian Cup for the first time in its history . The 2009 – 2010 season was the second season in which CFR Cluj won both the Liga I and the Romanian Cup . The " U " Cluj football team — also playing in the Liga I — was founded in 1919 , and its greatest success ever was the 1965 Romanian Cup . The city is also represented in the third league , through CS Sănătatea Cluj @-@ Napoca , founded in 1986 . This team , which has the Victoria Someșeni Stadium as its home ground , reached the quarter @-@ finals of the Romanian Cup during the 2007 – 2008 season , its best performance . Clujana Cluj @-@ Napoca is the local women 's soccer team , established in 2001 by Babeș @-@ Bolyai University .
The new Cluj Arena Stadium , home ground for " U " Cluj , is the largest in Cluj @-@ Napoca ( capacity 30 @,@ 201 ) ; and is ranked as an UEFA Elite stadium . The next largest stadium ( 23 @,@ 500 seats ) is the Dr. Constantin Rădulescu Stadium , home field of the CFR Cluj football team , located in Gruia . This stadium has undergone major refurbishment , featuring up @-@ to @-@ date lighting for night games and automated lawn irrigation , and is due to undergo still further modernisation with the construction of new seating .
" Universitatea " club also incorporates teams in sports such as rugby union , basketball ( with the successful men 's basketball team , U Mobitelco ) , handball and volleyball . The city also features three water polo teams , as recognised by the Romanian Water Polo Federation : CSS Viitorul , CS Voința and Poli CSM . Facilities for such sports are located in the vicinity of the stadium , including the Sala Sporturilor Horia Demian , a multi @-@ functional hall designed for sports like handball , basketball or volleyball , the Politehnica Swimming Complex , which includes indoor and open @-@ air swimming pools , as well as the Iuliu Hațieganu Park – with tennis and track facilities and a new swimming pool under construction . Cluj @-@ Napoca regularly organises national championships in different sports because of this large concentration of facilities .
In the automotive field , Cluj @-@ Napoca hosts two stages in the National Rally Championship . Raliul Clujului is held in June ; the Avram Iancu Rally , held in September , has been officially organised since 1975 , though there were several years when it was not held . The latter rally begins in Cipariu Square and runs across the surroundings of the city .
Amateur athletes are also active in Cluj @-@ Napoca , with swimming pools , miniature golf courses , tennis courts , paintball arenas and bikeways available , as well as skiing , bobsledding , skating , caving , hiking , hunting , fishing and extreme sports in the vicinity . April 2011 saw the first annual edition of the Cluj International Marathon , a competition that takes place in the city center 's streets .
= = International relations = =
= = = Twin towns – Sister cities = = =
Cluj @-@ Napoca is twinned with :
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= Cyclone Japhet =
Cyclone Japhet was a damaging tropical cyclone that affected southeast Africa in March 2003 . It developed on February 25 near the southwest coast of Madagascar , and initially moved to the northwest before turning to the southwest . With favorable conditions for development , Japhet quickly intensified in the Mozambique Channel , reaching maximum winds of 175 km / h ( 109 mph ) , sustained over 10 minutes . After stalling briefly , the cyclone turned to the northwest , weakening slightly before striking Mozambique just south of Vilankulo on March 2 . Japhet slowly weakened while progressing inland , dissipating over Zambia on March 6 .
Along its path , Japhet dropped heavy rainfall that caused widespread river flooding . The rains occurred after an extended drought , although excessive precipitation caused heavy crop damage , notably around where the storm moved ashore . In two provinces in Mozambique , the cyclone damaged or destroyed 25 @,@ 000 houses , leaving at least 23 @,@ 000 people homeless . Flooding in Zambia caused rivers to rise in Mozambique several days after the storm 's passage . There were 17 deaths in Mozambique . Further inland , remnant rainfall destroyed a bridge and several houses in Zimbabwe , killing eight people .
= = Meteorological history = =
On February 23 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began monitoring an area of convection in the Mozambique Channel . On February 25 , Météo France ( MF ) initiated advisories on Tropical Disturbance 13 when the system was located along the southwest coast of Madagascar . Later that day , the JTWC issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert , noting that environmental conditions favored development , including weak wind shear . The system developed organized convection in a circular pattern , and on February 26 , the MF and JTWC upgraded the system to Tropical Depression 13 and Tropical Cyclone 19S , respectively . With a mid @-@ level ridge to the south , the depression moved generally westward , and after intensifying further , it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Japhet by the Direction de la Météorologie et de l 'Hydrologie of Madagascar late on February 26 .
After attaining tropical storm status , Japhet quickly intensified while it began moving to the southwest , due to a break in the ridge . At 0000 UTC on February 28 , the MF assessed that the storm strengthened into a tropical cyclone – a storm with 10 minute sustained winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . This was about 12 hours after the JTWC upgraded Japhet to the same intensity but with 1 minute sustained winds . About 18 hours after designating Japhet as a tropical cyclone , MF estimated the storm attained 10 minute sustained winds of 165 km / h ( 103 mph ) and upgraded the storm to an intense tropical cyclone ; this made Japhet only the sixth such cyclone in the Mozambique Channel in 24 years . After further intensification , the cyclone peaked in intensity on March 1 . The JTWC estimated 1 minute sustained winds of 215 km / h ( 134 mph ) with gusts to 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) , while MF estimated 10 minute sustained winds of 175 km / h ( 109 mph ) .
Cyclone Japhet maintained its peak winds for about 24 hours , during which it remained nearly stationary . Subsequently , the storm began a northwest track toward the Mozambique coast , gradually weakening due to decreased outflow and dry air . At about 1700 UTC on March 2 , Japhet made landfall just south of Vilankulo , Mozambique , with winds of 160 km / h ( 99 mph ) as estimated by the JTWC . The cyclone gradually weakened over land , decreasing below tropical cyclone status by early on March 3 . Japhet crossed into southern Zimbabwe , and both JTWC and MF discontinued warnings before Japhet dissipated on March 5 .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
While Japhet was developing , the pressure gradient between it and a ridge produced winds of 93 km / h ( 58 mph ) on Europa Island in the Mozambique Channel . Heavy rains affected southwestern Madagascar , but there was no major damage .
Before Japhet struck Mozambique , the local Red Cross office mobilized volunteers , including 100 people in Inhambane Province who assisted local officials in preparations . The cyclone affected the same region that Cyclone Delfina struck two months prior . Japhet produced high winds and heavy rainfall in southern and central Mozambique into southern Zimbabwe . The rains were beneficial in alleviating drought conditions , and dry grounds absorbed much of the excess rainfall . After entering Zimbabwe , Japhet 's rainfall caused the Save River to rise , causing flooding in southern Mozambique several days after the storm passed the area . The resulting floods affected 50 @,@ 000 people in several villages . The Limpopo River also rose to above @-@ normal level . High rains also caused some crop damage , destroying 237 @,@ 000 hectares ( 585 @,@ 600 acres ) of crop fields . This included 12 @,@ 325 downed cashew trees , 6 @,@ 955 wrecked banana plants , and 2 @,@ 495 killed livestock , all in Vilankulo ; however , the rains allowed farming conditions to improve due to wetter conditions in drought areas .
Before Japhet moved ashore , Vilankulo reported sustained winds of 74 km / h ( 46 mph ) , with gusts to 105 km / h ( 65 mph ) . There , the winds destroyed the roofs or damaged the doors and windows of 95 % of brick houses . In Inhambane Province in southern Mozambique , the cyclone destroyed several boats , cut power lines , and disrupted roads with flooding or downed trees , which prevented communication with the province . The storm destroyed 500 classrooms , 35 government buildings , and 7 health facilities . The cyclone damaged or destroyed 25 @,@ 000 houses in Inhambane and Sofala provinces , leaving about 23 @,@ 000 people homeless in Inhambane alone , which was the worst @-@ affected province . Three people were injured in Morrumbene by a fallen tree . There were 17 deaths in the country , which was less than from previous cyclones due to advance warning and coordinated government action .
The Zambia Meteorological Department warned of the potential of intense precipitation before Japhet moved into the region . In neighboring Zimbabwe , ten hours of high rainfall nearly overtopped the Manyuchi Dam and destroyed a bridge . The storm also damaged crops and destroyed houses in the country , killing eight people .
After the storm struck Mozambique , the World Food Programme distributed more than 4 @,@ 300 tons of food to affected citizens . The agency had to transport goods via helicopter due to damaged or flooded roads . The country 's primary north @-@ south highway , which was damaged by the storm , had emergency repairs and was reopened within three days . Mozambique 's National Disaster Management Institute distributed 70 tonnes ( 69 long tons ; 77 short tons ) of maize , 8 tonnes ( 7 @.@ 9 long tons ; 8 @.@ 8 short tons ) of beans , and 80 tents to storm victims . Lingering floods in Zimbabwe contributed to an increase in malaria cases . The Delta Corporation donated $ 6 million worth of blankets and food to residents in the country .
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= Raiden ( Metal Gear ) =
Raiden ( Japanese : 雷電 ) , real name Jack ( ジャック , Jakku ) , is a fictional character and protagonist from Konami 's Metal Gear series . Created by Hideo Kojima and designed by Yoji Shinkawa , Raiden was introduced in the series as the main player character of Metal Gear Solid 2 : Sons of Liberty . In Metal Gear Solid 2 , he appears to be a member of the U.S. special operations unit FOXHOUND , participating in his first mission . Despite coming across as rookie , he is a young soldier who is later revealed to have been a Liberian child soldier . Raiden reappears as a supporting character in Metal Gear Solid 4 : Guns of the Patriots and returns as the main character of Metal Gear Rising : Revengeance dealing both with his past and his present life as a combatant .
The idea of creating Raiden originated from Hideo Kojima 's desire to view the Metal Gear series protagonist Solid Snake from a different point of view , inspired by the Sherlock Holmes stories . Raiden 's inclusion remained a secret to gamers before his debut ; despite some players ' reactions , the staff liked his character . Raiden 's debut role as the protagonist of Metal Gear Solid 2 became controversial for a reason : the unexpected substitution of the established hero Solid Snake . Some critics have defended the character , stating that fans were merely angered by the former 's removal and that the latter was appealing . Despite this mixed reception , Raiden has been highly praised for his role and Metal Gear Solid 4 redesign and even more for his role and design in Revengeance .
= = Character design = =
= = = Creation and appearance = = =
According to series creator Hideo Kojima , the decision to make a new character replace Solid Snake for most of Metal Gear Solid 2 stemmed from the developer 's desire to develop Snake from a third @-@ person perspective instead . Kojima also stated that Raiden 's character and its perception by the audience were important to the overall feel of the story . The idea of having a second main character was inspired by the Sherlock Holmes short stories and novels in which the narrator was not the title character , but his friend Dr. Watson . Kojima affirmed that Snake was the game 's protagonist instead of Raiden . Yoshikazu Matsuhana , assistant director for the project , was uncertain about this decision ; he considered Raiden a " weak @-@ looking character " , but decided to follow Kojima . The codename " Raiden " was based on a historical combat aircraft of the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service , the Mitsubishi J2M Raiden . It was initially planned to be written in katakana as " ライデン " , but was changed to the kanji form " 雷電 " because of the original resemblance to Bin Laden 's " Laden " in katakana , " ラーディン " . The relationship between Raiden and Rosemary was inspired by Kojima 's own experiences ; their names , Jack and Rose , are a reference to characters in the film Titanic . Raiden in Metal Gear Solid 2 is considered to be a representation of the player through the experiences between the player and the character during the game .
Kojima received much fan mail ; one letter was from a girl who stated she did not want to play a game with an old man . He took this into consideration ; he and his team designed a character more appealing to women , resulting in Raiden 's appearance . Designer Yoji Shinkawa noted that he and the other character designers took a great deal of inspiration for Raiden 's appearance from the bishōnen archetype . Because Raiden was a new character the staff designed him carefully , giving him white hair to symbolize his introduction . Shinkawa further noted that Raiden ended up with an overall feminine appearance . His outfit ( the Skull Suit ) was difficult to design until the staff decided on a " bonelike " concept . Shinkawa wanted to make Raiden sexually appealing , emphasizing the tightness of his clothing .
Konami kept Raiden 's starring role in Metal Gear Solid 2 secret until the game 's North American release , going so far as to replace Raiden with Snake in teaser trailers and other preview materials . Although Raiden appeared in several preview trailers in his scuba gear , his presence was not emphasized . Raiden 's appearance in the game was announced to the Japanese press on the day of the game 's release in North America .
Kojima noted that fan response to Raiden 's character was both positive and negative . While accepting considerable negative feedback , Kojima and his team liked the character . In response to the positive reaction from Japan , the Raikov character was created for Metal Gear Solid 3 : Snake Eater as a parody of Raiden . While noting that Raiden would not be a playable character in Metal Gear Solid 4 Kojima confirmed his appearance in the game to website 1UP.com , stating that fans would like him by the end . For this title , Raiden 's new design was a response to the criticism that only his face remained in his cybernetic body . Shinkawa , himself , was surprised by the way he came to illustrate Raiden . The staff noted that Raiden 's debut in the Metal Gear Solid 4 trailer received notably positive responses ; several video @-@ game magazines promoted the game with Raiden 's screenshots . Kojima echoed similar comments , indicating that he wanted to expand the character with another game . Raiden 's first fight against Vamp in the game caused difficulty to motion and voice actors because of carefully planned movements performed by the two fighters . The staff was nevertheless satisfied with the outcome , considering it one of the best battles in the game .
When Metal Gear Rising : Revengeance was known as Metal Gear Solid : Rising , former producer Shigenobu Matsuyama hinted that Raiden 's past as a child soldier would be elaborated and his weaknesses as a human would be explored . Matsuyama wanted Raiden to have as strong a role in the game as in Metal Gear Solid 2 , leading him to become the game 's main character . Director Mineshi Kimura noted that he wanted Raiden to be able to move like he did in the Metal Gear Solid 4 trailers , wanting to show " the stealth of the sword , and the strength of not even losing to the gun , and the fear and power you have with this blade . " Matsuyama stated that they would focus on Raiden 's strong will and physical strength , so he would be enjoyable to control . Raiden 's design was changed during the game 's development , leading to different promotional images of him . Following the game 's reboot into a spin @-@ off , Developers stated that while Raiden " has grown up " in comparison to previous Metal Gear games , he is still conflicted with his life as a child soldier in a past civil war , leading him to be a " dark hero " . Shinkawa designed Raiden 's new body as a way to emphasize him being a dark hero contrasting his Metal Gear Solid 4 persona and later discussed with Platinum Games ' Kenji Saito about including his quasi @-@ human look . Raiden losing an eye also serves to represent his transformation across the story . In response to complaints regarding how Rising appeared to contradict Raiden 's ending in Guns of the Patriots , the Kojima Productions staff explained the game would explain what happened with Raiden 's life .
Raiden is first depicted as a white @-@ haired adult who uses a protective black @-@ and @-@ blue suit for his missions known as a " Skull Suit " ( スカルスーツ , Sukaru Sūtsu ) . In Metal Gear Solid 4 : Guns of the Patriots Raiden has had his entire body below the upper jaw replaced with a prototype cybernetic body ; he has also had his blood replaced with a military substitute called " White Blood " ( 白血 , Shiro Chi ) , which requires regular maintenance . His original cybernetic body is replaced with a black one for Metal Gear Rising : Revengeance that also covers his left eye . Although proficient at all types of weaponry , Raiden specializes in wielding swords which resonate at high frequencies for the last fights in Sons of Liberty and during Guns of the Patriots and Revengeance .
= = = Personality and portrayal = = =
In his first appearances Raiden is a rookie agent who , as a result of training only in virtual reality , is inexperienced . However , he later reveals that he was feared as a child soldier — known as " Jack the Ripper " ( ジャック ・ ザ ・ リッパー , Jakku Za Rippā ) — who killed several enemies in a civil war and is ashamed of his past . This affects Raiden 's personality ; he begins to believe he is only useful in the battlefield and his relationship with his girlfriend , Rosemary , would not work . Manipulation by the Patriots causes him to believe he does not have free will . Raiden is encouraged by Solid Snake not to be concerned with what people tell him but to rely on himself to face his problems .
In the Japanese versions of the games Raiden has been voiced by Kenyu Horiuchi , who felt he could understand the character 's pain ; despite becoming a cyborg , Raiden still acted like a human . Quinton Flynn was selected to voice Raiden in the series ' English adaptation by casting director Kris Zimmerman , who had previously worked with him . Flynn remembers having a long time to develop the character , being instructed by Zimmerman to use an older voice from a character he previously voiced . Flynn stated that Raiden was one of his favorite video @-@ game voice characters , and explained a notable difference between his roles in Metal Gear Solid 2 and Metal Gear Solid 4 .
Kojima Productions have compared Raiden and Solid Snake as to their experiences and ways of thinking . During the game 's climax , Raiden stays handcuffed until his final fight against Solidus Snake ; Snake escapes from his handcuffs to follow Revolver Ocelot , emphasizing Raiden 's lack of freedom . Hideo Kojima compared Raiden and Snake with movie monsters King Kong and Godzilla , respectively ; the former was taken from his home and his nature changed upon meeting Rosemary , whereas the latter will continue fighting against mankind 's menaces . Defeating Solidus , Raiden is encouraged by Snake to trust himself and believe in his own choices . This is further addressed by the staff 's motivation to make a new sequel to Metal Gear without Kojima . Kojima has also likened him with John Rambo from the Rambo series as both characters always find themselves taking part in battles despite their desire for a peaceful resolution .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Main games = = =
Metal Gear Solid 2 : Sons of Liberty introduces the player to Raiden in the Plant chapter ; he is introduced as a newly recruited , virtual reality @-@ trained member of FOXHOUND with no live combat experience before his current mission . Assisted via Codec by the Colonel ( his commanding officer ) and Rosemary ( his girlfriend ) , Raiden 's initial objective is to rescue several hostages from a terrorist group known as the Sons of Liberty . Raiden is helped by mercenary Solid Snake and spy Olga Gurlukovich across his mission . As the story progresses , Jack is revealed as a former child soldier for the Sons of Liberty leader Solidus Snake during the Liberian Civil War . After the war 's end , Raiden was given a normal life and tried to forget his past . A clandestine organization known as The Patriots is revealed to be controlling his actions , however , with his commanding officer revealed as their computer @-@ generated AI , and one of their spies becomes Raiden 's girlfriend , and the two fall in love . Raiden defeats Solidus after being told by the Patriots ' AIs that his death would also trigger the deaths of Olga 's child and Rosemary , the latter of whom was revealed to have been pregnant with Raiden 's child during the mission . He later reunites with Rosemary , and both decide to stay together to raise their unborn child .
Metal Gear Solid 4 : Guns of the Patriots ( set five years after Metal Gear Solid 2 ) features Raiden after rescuing Sunny ( the late Olga 's daughter ) from the Patriots , and searching for Big Boss 's corpse for Big Mama . The trauma of his breakup with Rosemary , coupled with the apparent miscarriage of his child , have made Raiden believe his only place is on the battlefield . Outfitted with a cybernetic exoskeleton as a result of the Patriots ' machinations , Raiden assists Solid Snake in the fight against Liquid Ocelot wanting to obtain the Patriots ' powers . After several encounters with Liquid 's men , Raiden stays in the ship Outer Haven to protect Snake as he shuts down the Patriots ' AIs . In an epilogue , Rosemary reveals to Raiden that their child was not miscarried ; her marriage to Roy Campbell was a hoax to protect her and their son from the Patriots . Upon hearing this news , Raiden reconciles with Rosemary .
Metal Gear Rising : Revengeance ( set four years after Metal Gear Solid 4 ) shows Raiden 's return as the main character . Raiden appears as a member of the private military company ( PMC ) Maverick Security in multiple tasks while raising money for his family . However , they are attacked by a group of terrorists called Desperado Enforcement LLC that kill his protectee and leave Raiden near dead . Saved by Doktor , Raiden starts working with them to fight Desperado . His already vengeful obsession with Desperado becomes even more personal when he discovered , during a mission into Mexico , that Desperado and World Marshal Inc had been kidnapping several children , surgically removing their brains to place them into cybernetic bodies , and were planning to subject them to VR training modelled after his own training under Solidus during the Liberian Civil War . This results in Raiden abruptly resigning from Maverick to pursue and retrieving the children 's brain casings from World Marshal , having to battle his " Jack the Ripper " persona in the process . Although Raiden is successful in defeating Desperado he learns that Steven Armstrong was using such PMCs to distract Raiden as he attempts to create a new " War on Terror " . Raiden manages to stop Armstrong 's actions and decides not to return to Maverick , having his " own war to fight . "
= = = Other appearances = = =
Although Raiden does not appear in Metal Gear Solid 3 : Snake Eater , his character is the subject of parody throughout the game by debuting character Raikov . Raiden also appears in an early promotional trailer for Metal Gear Solid 4 : Guns of the Patriots , fighting for control of the franchise with Solid Snake in a series of comic scenes . A sequel to the trailer was produced entitled " Metal Gear Raiden : Snake Eraser " in which Raiden travels to the past to assassinate Big Boss but fails comically . In the trailer 's English version , Raiden was voiced by Charlie Schlatter ( the voice actor for Raikov ) instead of Quinton Flynn . Raiden 's Metal Gear Solid 2 version appears in the Metal Gear Solid : Portable Ops Plus expansion pack , where he is an unlockable character . His Metal Gear Solid 4 incarnation appears as a playable character in Metal Gear Online .
In Metal Gear Solid V : Ground Zeroes , Raiden stars in a non @-@ canon mission titled " Jamais Vu " . Having time @-@ travelled to the past , he infiltrates Camp Omega under orders from MSF . His mission objective is to incapacitate a group of soldiers known as the " body snatchers " ( a reference to the android replicators in Kojima 's other work Snatcher ) . His appearance in this game is modeled after his Metal Gear Rising design .
The Metal Gear Solid 2 : Sons of Liberty 2007 comic book adaptation by Alex Garner retells Raiden 's role in the series , with few changes made to the story . His relationship with Solidus is explored when he remembers his past ; when about to be killed by Solidus , Raiden is saved by Snake . The game 's novelization by Raymond Benson provides minor modifications to Raiden 's history , except for the moment he receives Olga 's sword , resulting in a change to his battle psyche . When Raiden kills Solidus he cuts the rope on Federal Hall 's flagpole , causing an American flag to fall over his enemy 's body . This scene was deleted from the original game due to the September 11 attacks .
Outside the Metal Gear series , Raiden appears in the game LittleBigPlanet as a sticker and a playable sack @-@ boy character . He may be accessed by buying the Metal Gear Solid 4 downloadable content . In Evolution Skateboarding , Raiden is one of the unlockable characters . He also appears in Super Smash Bros. Brawl as a collectible sticker and in Assassin 's Creed : Brotherhood as an alternate skin for Ezio Auditore da Firenze . Raiden is playable in the video game PlayStation All @-@ Stars Battle Royale using his Metal Gear Rising design .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reaction = = =
Raiden 's replacement of fan favorite Solid Snake in Metal Gear Solid 2 proved controversial , and GamesRadar considered the event a reason to dislike the series overall . The same site criticized his role in Metal Gear Solid 2 several times , and called his inclusion one of the worst aspects of the game . In 2004 , GameAxis Unwired published a fake interview in which Hideo Kojima expressed regret for creating the character . While calling Metal Gear Solid 2 one of the biggest disappointments in video @-@ game history , UGO Networks ' Marissa Meli cited Raiden 's debut as a key problem with the game . Meli also commented on Raiden 's design , placing him 12th in a list of the most androgynous video game characters . The book Playing with Videogames states that Raiden 's inclusion was to surprise Metal Gear fans who , instead of playing as Snake , played as his opposite . Writer James Newman commented that fans ' reactions were highly negative , as though their expectations had been " betray [ ed ] " by Kojima . He compared Raiden to the controversial Star Wars character Jar Jar Binks . Trailers for Metal Gear Solid 3 : Snake Eater ( in which Raiden is mocked ) were considered by Newman to be Konami 's comic response to fans ' disapproval . Raiden proved to be more popular in Japan , with Yoji Shinkawa commenting it was because he matched the stereotype of manga hero . In 2012 , manga artist Hiro Mashima drew an illustration of Raiden in anticipation of the series ' following games . He mentioned having had difficulties illustrating the character .
Nevertheless , Eurogamer 's Tom Bramwell enjoyed Raiden 's role , commenting that his interactions with the other characters also helped expand Solid Snake 's character . His introduction was given an award for " Biggest Surprise " by GameSpot in 2001 , while Dave Meikleham from GamesRadar listed his appearance as one of the biggest plot twists in a video game since the trailers did not show him . Meikleham also called Raiden a " surprisingly likeable character " and found his dynamic with Solid Snake appealing . Before joining Kojima Productions Ryan Payton stated that he was not disappointed by Raiden 's introduction , and liked the fact that the Metal Gear Solid 2 team kept his identity a secret . Raiden 's English voice actor Quinton Flynn was surprised by fans ' response to the character , but commented that it also attracted new fans to the series . Regarding response about Raiden replacing Snake as the main character , Flynn thought that fans were angry at the idea that Raiden would replace Snake for all subsequent games . Raiden 's relationship with Rosemary was also listed as the most awkward part of the Metal Gear series by 1UP.com , with writer Scott Sharkey speculating about Hideo Kojima 's life since the director claimed the relationship was autobiographical . PLAY editor Nick Jones listed the scene in which Raiden is nude as his fourth most favorite moment of the franchise , calling it the " one of the funniest moments in gaming history . " Lisa Foiles of The Escapist included him on her 2014 list of top five katana wielders , noting " this is not a popularity contest and Raiden qualifies " even in MGS2 where " he was whiny , an emo , and kind of a bitch . "
Response to the character was mainly positive in subsequent games . His new design for Metal Gear Solid 4 was analyzed by GamePro 's Pattrick Shaw , who commented that Raiden " was in one hell of a fight " . Raiden 's redesign has been praised for reducing his androgynous appearance , thus making him more appealing . UGO placed Raiden 's design in that game at 18th spot on its 2011 list of " the most stylin ' alternate costumes " , but Gavin Mackenzie from PLAY listed it seventh on his top list of inappropriate outfits , stating that the costume was " cool " but had unnecessary accessories . It has also been compared with Gray Fox 's cybernetic @-@ ninja design in Metal Gear Solid . Similarly , the GameSpot staff stated that Raiden " is definitely the inheritor of the quasi @-@ unkillable Cyborg Ninja inheritance " when he made his first appearance in a Metal Gear Solid 4 trailer . GameSpot applauded his actions in the trailer , calling it " wordlessly awesome " and comparing his stunts with those in the film Casshan : Robot Hunter . Writers from Cheat Code Central referred to his fight against Vamp in another trailer as the " undeniable highlight " that would make player wish to use Raiden in the game . Game Informer placed him on " The Snubbed List " of the best characters of the 2000s in response to his new design since it made fans like the idea of a new Metal Gear game solely focused on his character . Raiden 's encounter with Vamp in this game was also labelled one of the " most memorable cinematics " of the series by GamePro because of Raiden 's change of fighting style from his debut as he " redeems his girlish image " , while IGN listed it as the 80th best moment in video @-@ game history for similar reasons .
IGN 's Jesse Schedeen listed Raiden as one of the " gaming icons " and most valuable players of 2009 , in response to his role in an upcoming Metal Gear title . Dave Meikleham of GamesRadar wrote an article entitled " Why Metal Gear Solid : Rising [ Metal Gear Rising : Revengeance ] will make you love Raiden " , explaining why fans who disliked the character would find his character and role appealing in the game . In a 2010 Famitsu readers ' poll , Raiden was voted the 42nd most popular video game character . In 2013 , Complex ranked Raiden as the 12th greatest soldier in video games , " even as he 's not as cool as Solid Snake , " while GamesRadar called Revengeance " perhaps the greatest cyborg ninja game of all time " and PLAY ranked Raiden as the second top ninja in games .
= = = Analysis = = =
Raiden 's role in Metal Gear Solid 2 has been analyzed by several writers , who emphasized how he is intended to represent the actual player . Early in the game , when Raiden 's virtual reality training is mentioned , the game shows scenes from the previous game Metal Gear Solid where the players took control of Solid Snake . Raiden 's interaction with veteran Solid Snake identify the former as " a Metal Gear fan " . As the game progresses it is stated that Raiden " has become Snake " , having developed skills similar to his from taking part in the Big Shell 's fights which resembled the Metal Gear Solid 's Shadow Moses Island . Later in the game , Raiden is told by a character to " Turn off the console " which confuses both the player and him . While this was first interpreted as a fourth wall @-@ breaking joke , the game 's climax goes deeper into Raiden 's connection with the player . When being forced by his superiors to kill the game 's antagonist , Solidus Snake , the player is told by the designers to finish the game . Both player and Raiden take different paths at the game 's end . The former is told not to waste time playing games ; the latter 's character is expanded with his decision to move on with his life , rejecting his previous identity by discarding the dog tags the player wore in the beginning .
Upon the revelation of the character 's new design as a cyborg ninja , writers noted how Raiden distanced himself from his previous appearance that imitated Solid Snake . They also emphasized how Raiden becomes a different type of game hero with a new , direct fighting style . Since Raiden has become more powerful than Solid Snake in physical strength and weaponry to the point of exaggeration , writers have compared him favorably to other popular game heroes and find his actions still in @-@ character considering the fight scenes throughout the series .
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